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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 3, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 5
+       "Bedlam" to "Benson, George"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 1, 2010 [EBook #34533]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BENGALI: "The sound of such a final a is in all three
+      languages the same as that of the second o in 'promote'; thus, the
+      Bg. bara is pronounced boro." 'second' amended from 'seccond'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME III, SLICE V
+
+          Bedlam to Benson, George
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BEDLAM                           BELLENDEN, JOHN
+  BEDLINGTON                       BELLENDEN, WILLIAM
+  BEDLOE, WILLIAM                  BELLEROPHON
+  BEDMAR, ALPHONSO BELLA CUEVA     BELLES-LETTRES
+  BED-MOULD                        BELLEVILLE (Ontario, Canada)
+  BEDOUINS                         BELLEVILLE (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  BEDSORE                          BELLEY
+  BEDWORTH                         BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO
+  BEE                              BELLIGERENCY
+  BEECH                            BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD
+  BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON         BELLINGHAM
+  BEECHER, HENRY WARD              BELLINI
+  BEECHER, LYMAN                   BELLINI, LORENZO
+  BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM       BELLINI, VINCENZO
+  BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM             BELLINZONA
+  BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES          BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL
+  BEECHWORTH                       BELLO, ANDRÉS
+  BEEF                             BELLO-HORIZONTE
+  BEEFSTEAK CLUB                   BELLONA
+  BEELZEBUB                        BELLOT, JOSEPH RENÉ
+  BEER                             BELLOWS, ALBERT F.
+  BEERSHEBA                        BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY
+  BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER           BELLOWS and BLOWING MACHINES
+  BEET                             BELLOY, DORMONT DE
+  BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN            BELL or INCHCAPE ROCK
+  BEETLE                           BELLUNO
+  BEETS, NIKOLAAS                  BELMONT, AUGUST
+  BEFANA                           BELOIT
+  BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL    BELOMANCY
+  BEGAS, KARL                      BELON, PIERRE
+  BEGAS, REINHOLD                  BELPER
+  BEGGAR                           BELSHAM, THOMAS
+  BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR              BELSHAZZAR
+  BEGONIA                          BELT, THOMAS
+  BEGUINES                         BELT
+  BEHAIM, MARTIN                   BELTANE
+  BEHAR                            BELUGA
+  BEHA UD-DIN                      BELVEDERE (architectural structure)
+  BEHA UD-DIN ZUHAIR               BELVIDERE (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  BEHBAHAN                         BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
+  BEHEADING                        BEM, JOSEF
+  BEHEMOTH                         BEMA
+  BEHISTUN                         BEMBERG, HERMAN
+  BEHN, APHRA                      BEMBO, PIETRO
+  BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH             BEMBRIDGE BEDS
+  BEIRA (seaport of East Africa)   BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER
+  BEIRA (province of Portugal)     BÉMONT, CHARLES
+  BEIRUT                           BEN
+  BEIT, ALFRED                     BENARES
+  BEJA (tribe)                     BENBOW, JOHN
+  BEJA (city)                      BENCE-JONES, HENRY
+  BEJAN                            BENCH
+  BÉJART                           BENCH-MARK
+  BEK, ANTONY                      BENCH TABLE
+  BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE           BEND
+  BÉSKÉSCSABA                      BENDA
+  BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL          BENDER
+  BEKKER, BALTHASAR                BENDIGO
+  BEKKER, ELIZABETH                BENDL, KAREL
+  BEL                              BENEDEK, LUDWIG
+  BELA III.                        BENEDETTI, VINCENT
+  BELA IV.                         BENEDICT
+  BELA (capital of Las Bela)       BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN
+  BELA (town of India)             BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT
+  BELAY                            BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS
+  BELCHER, SIR EDWARD              BENEDICT BISCOP
+  BELDAM                           BENEDICTINE
+  BELESME, ROBERT OF               BENEDICTINES
+  BELFAST (Ireland)                BENEDICTION
+  BELFAST (Maine, U.S.A.)          BENEDICTUS
+  BELFORT (division of France)     BENEDICTUS ABBAS
+  BELFORT (town of France)         BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICH
+  BELFRY                           BENEFICE
+  BELGAE                           BENEFICIARY
+  BELGARD                          BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD
+  BELGAUM                          BENETT, ETHELDRED
+  BELGIAN CONGO                    BENEVENTO
+  BELGIUM                          BENEVOLENCE
+  BELGRADE                         BENFEY, THEODOR
+  BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN       BENGAL
+  BELISARIUS                       BENGAL, BAY OF
+  BELIT                            BENGALI
+  BELIZE                           BENGAZI
+  BELJAME, ALEXANDRE               BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT
+  BELKNAP, JEREMY                  BENGUELLA
+  BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH           BENÍ (river of Bolivia)
+  BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM           BENÍ (department of Bolivia)
+  BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE         BENI-AMER
+  BELL, ANDREW                     BENI-ISRAEL
+  BELL, SIR CHARLES                BENIN
+  BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH              BENITOITE
+  BELL, HENRY                      BENJAMIN
+  BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD            BENJAMIN OF TUDELA
+  BELL, JACOB                      BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP
+  BELL, JOHN (Scottish traveller)  BEN LEDI
+  BELL, JOHN (Scottish anatomist)  BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSÉ
+  BELL, JOHN (American politician) BEN LOMOND
+  BELL, ROBERT                     BENLOWES, EDWARD
+  BELL                             BEN MACDHUI
+  BELLABELLA                       BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN
+  BELLACOOLA                       BENNETT, JAMES GORDON
+  BELLADONNA                       BENNETT, JOHN
+  BELLAGIO                         BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES
+  BELLAIRE                         BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE
+  BELLAMY, EDWARD                  BEN NEVIS
+  BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE             BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST
+  BELLAMY, JOSEPH                  BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON
+  BELLARMINE, ROBERTO ROMOLO       BENNINGTON
+  BELLARY                          BENNO
+  BELL-COT                         BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD
+  BELLEAU, REMY                    BENOÎT DE SAINTE-MORE
+  BELLECOUR                        BENSERADE, ISAAC DE
+  BELLEFONTAINE                    BENSLEY, ROBERT
+  BELLEGARDE                       BENSON, EDWARD WHITE
+  BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOHANNES    BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT
+  BELLE-ÎLE-EN-MER                 BENSON, FRANK WESTON
+  BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES FOUQUET      BENSON, GEORGE
+  BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF
+
+
+
+
+BEDLAM, or BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL, the first English lunatic asylum,
+originally founded by Simon FitzMary, sheriff of London, in 1247, as a
+priory for the sisters and brethren of the order of the Star of
+Bethlehem. It had as one of its special objects the housing and
+entertainment of the bishop and canons of St Mary of Bethlehem, the
+mother-church, on their visits to England. Its first site was in
+Bishopsgate Street. It is not certain when lunatics were first received
+in Bedlam, but it is mentioned as a hospital in 1330 and some were there
+in 1403. In 1547 it was handed over by Henry VIII. with all its revenues
+to the city of London as a hospital for lunatics. With the exception of
+one such asylum in Granada, Spain, the Bethlehem Hospital was the first
+in Europe. It became famous and afterwards infamous for the brutal
+ill-treatment meted out to the insane (see INSANITY: _Hospital
+Treatment_). In 1675 it was removed to new buildings in Moorfields and
+finally to its present site in St George's Fields, Lambeth. The word
+"Bedlam" has long been used generically for all lunatic asylums.
+
+
+
+
+BEDLINGTON, an urban district of Northumberland, England, within the
+parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 5 m. S.E. of that town on a branch of
+the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 18,766. It lies on high ground
+above the river Blyth, 2½ m. above its mouth. The church of St Cuthbert
+shows good transitional Norman details. Its dedication recalls the
+transportation of the body of the saintly bishop of Lindisfarne from its
+shrine at Durham by the monks of that foundation to Lindisfarne, when in
+fear of attack from William the Conqueror. They rested here with the
+coffin. The modern growth of the town is attributable to the valuable
+collieries of the neighbourhood, and to manufactures of nails and
+chains. It is one of the most populous mining centres in the county. On
+the south bank of the river is the township and urban district of Cowpen
+(pop. 17,879), with collieries and glass works; coal is shipped from
+this point by river.
+
+Bedlington (Betlingtun) and the hamlets belonging to it were bought by
+Cutheard, bishop of Durham, between 900 and 915, and although locally
+situated in the county of Northumberland became part of the county
+palatine of Durham over which Bishop Walcher was granted royal rights by
+William the Conqueror. When these rights were taken from Cuthbert
+Tunstall, bishop of Durham, in 1536, Bedlington among his other property
+lost its special privileges, but was confirmed to him in 1541 with the
+other property of his predecessors. Together with the other lands of the
+see of Durham, Bedlington was made over to the ecclesiastical
+commissioners in 1866. Bedlingtonshire was made part of Northumberland
+for civil purposes by acts of parliament in 1832 and 1844.
+
+
+
+
+BEDLOE, WILLIAM (1650-1680), English informer, was born at Chepstow on
+the 20th of April 1650. He appears to have been well educated; he was
+certainly clever, and after coming to London in 1670 he became
+acquainted with some Jesuits and was occasionally employed by them.
+Calling himself now Captain Williams, now Lord Gerard or Lord Newport or
+Lord Cornwallis, he travelled from one part of Europe to another; he
+underwent imprisonments for crime, and became an expert in all kinds of
+duplicity. Then in 1678, following the lead of Titus Gates, he gave an
+account of a supposed popish plot to the English government, and his
+version of the details of the murder of Sir E.B. Godfrey was rewarded
+with £500. Emboldened by his success he denounced various Roman
+Catholics, married an Irish lady, and having become very popular lived
+in luxurious fashion. Afterwards his fortunes waned, and he died at
+Bristol on the 20th of August 1680. His dying depositions, which were
+taken by Sir Francis North, chief justice of the common pleas, revealed
+nothing of importance. Bedloe wrote a _Narrative and impartial discovery
+of the horrid Popish Plot_ (1679), but all his statements are extremely
+untrustworthy.
+
+  See J. Pollock, _The Popish Plot_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+BEDMAR, ALPHONSO BELLA CUEVA, MARQUIS OF (1572-1655), Spanish
+diplomatist, became ambassador to the republic of Venice in 1667. This
+was a very important position owing to the amount of information
+concerning European affairs which passed through the hands of the
+representative of Spain. When Bedmar took up this appointment, Venice
+had just concluded an alliance with France, Switzerland and the
+Netherlands, to counterbalance the power of Spain, and the ambassador
+was instructed to destroy this league. Assisted by the duke of Ossuna,
+viceroy of Naples, he formed a plan to bring the city into the power of
+Spain, and the scheme was to be carried out on Ascension Day 1618. The
+plot was, however, discovered; and Bedmar, protected by his position
+from arrest, left Venice and went to Flanders as president of the
+council. In 1622 he was made a cardinal, and soon afterwards became
+bishop of Oviedo, a position which he retained until his death, which
+occurred at Oviedo on the 2nd of August 1655. The authorship of an
+anonymous work, _Squitinio della liberta Veneta_, published at Mirandola
+in 1612, has been attributed to him.
+
+Some controversy has arisen over the Spanish plot of 1618, and some
+historians have suggested that it only existed in the minds of the
+Venetian senators, and was a ruse for forcing Bedmar to leave Venice.
+From what is known, however, of the policy of Spain at this time, it is
+by no means unlikely that such a scheme was planned.
+
+  See C.V. de Saint-Réal, _OEuvres_, tome iv. (Paris, 1745); P.J.
+  Grosley, _Discussion historique et critique sur la conjuration de
+  Venise_ (Paris, 1756); P.A.N.B. Daru, _Histoire de la république de
+  Venise_ (Paris, 1853); A. Baschet, _Histoire de la chancellerie
+  secrète à Venise_ (Paris, 1870).
+
+
+
+
+BED-MOULD, in architecture, the congeries of mouldings which is under
+the projecting part of almost every cornice, of which, indeed, it is a
+part.
+
+
+
+
+BEDOUINS (_Ahl Bedu_, "dwellers in the open land," or _Ahl el beit_,
+"people of the tent," as they call themselves), the name given to the
+most important, as it is the best known, division of the Arab race. The
+Bedouins are the descendants of the Arabs of North Arabia whose
+traditions claim Ishmael as their ancestor (see ARABS). The deserts of
+North Arabia seem to have been their earliest home, but even in ancient
+times they had migrated to the lowlands of Egypt and Syria. The Arab
+conquest of northern Africa in the 7th century A.D. caused a wide
+dispersion, so that to-day the Arab element is strongly represented in
+the Nile Valley, Saharan, and Nubian peoples. Among the Hamitic-Negroid
+races the Bedouins have largely lost their nomadic character; but in the
+deserts of the Nile lands they remain much what their ancestors were.
+Thus the name has suffered much ethnic confusion, and is often
+incorrectly reserved to describe such pastoral peoples as the Bisharin,
+the Hadendoa and the Ababda. This article treats solely of the Arabian
+Bedouin, as affording the purest type of the people. They are shepherds
+and herdsmen, reduced to an open-air, roving life, partly by the nature
+of their occupations, partly by the special characteristics of the
+countries in which they dwell. For, while land, unsuited to all purposes
+except pasture, forms an unusually large proportion of the surface in
+the Arabian territory, the prolonged droughts of summer render
+considerable portions of it unfit even for that, and thus continually
+oblige the herdsmen to migrate from one spot to another in search of
+sufficient herbage and water for their beasts. The same causes also
+involve the Bedouins in frequent quarrels with each other regarding the
+use of some particular well or pasture-ground, besides reducing them not
+unfrequently to extreme want, and thus making them plunderers of others
+in self-support. Professionally, the Bedouins are shepherds and
+herdsmen; their raids on each other or their robbery of travellers and
+caravans are but occasional exceptions to the common routine. Their
+intertribal wars (they very rarely venture on a conflict with the
+better-armed and better-organized sedentary population) are rarely
+bloody; cattle-lifting being the usual object. Private feuds exist, but
+are usually limited to two or three individuals at most, one of whom has
+perhaps been ridiculed in satirical verse, to which they are very
+sensitive, or had a relation killed in some previous fray. But bloodshed
+is expensive, as it must be paid for either by more bloodshed or by
+blood-money--the _diya_, which varies, according to the importance of
+the person killed, from ten to fifty camels, or even more. Previous to
+Mahomet's time it was optional for the injured tribe either to accept
+this compensation or to insist on blood for blood; but the Prophet,
+though by his own account despairing of ever reducing the nomad portion
+of his countrymen to law and order, succeeded in establishing among them
+the rule, that a fair _diya_ if offered must be accepted. Instances are,
+however, not wanting in Arab history of fiercer and more general Bedouin
+conflicts, in which the destruction, or at least the complete
+subjugation, of one tribe has been aimed at by another, and when great
+slaughter has taken place. Such were the wars of Pekr and Thagleb in the
+6th century, of Kelb and Howazin in the 8th, of Harb and Ateba in the
+18th.
+
+The Bedouins regard the plundering of caravans or travellers as in lieu
+of the custom dues exacted elsewhere. The land is theirs, they argue,
+and trespassers on it must pay the forfeit. Hence whoever can show
+anything equivalent to a permission of entrance into their territory
+has, in the regular course of things, nothing to fear. This permission
+is obtained by securing the protection of the nearest Bedouin sheik,
+who, for a politely-worded request and a small sum of money, will
+readily grant the pass, in the shape of one or two or more men of his
+tribe, who accompany the wayfarers as far as the next encampment on
+their road, where they hand their charge over to fresh guides, equally
+bound to afford the desired safeguard. In the interior of Arabia the
+passport is given in writing by one of the town governors, and is
+respected by the Bedouins of the district; for, however impudent and
+unamenable to law these nomads may be on the frontiers of the impotent
+Ottoman government in Syria or the Hejaz, they are submissive enough in
+other and Arab-governed regions. But the traveller who ventures on the
+desert strip without such precautions will be robbed and perhaps killed.
+
+Ignorant of writing and unacquainted with books, the Bedouins trust to
+their memory for everything; where memory fails, they readily eke it out
+with imagination. Hence their own assertions regarding the antiquity,
+numbers, strength, &c., of their clans are of little worth; even their
+genealogies, in which they pretend to be eminently versed, are not to be
+much depended on; the more so that their own family names hardly ever
+exceed the limits of a patronymic, whilst the constantly renewed
+subdivisions of a tribe, and the temporary increase of one branch and
+decrease of another, tend to efface the original name of the clan. Few
+tribes now preserve their ancient, or at least their historical titles;
+and the mass of the Bedouin multitude resembles in this respect a
+troubled sea, of which the substance is indeed always the same, but the
+surface is continually shifting and changing. As, however, no social
+basis or ties are acknowledged among them except those of blood and
+race, certain broad divisions are tolerably accurately kept up, the
+wider and more important of which may here be noted. First, the Aneza
+clan, who extend from Syria southward to the limits of Jebel Shammar. It
+is numerous, and, for a Bedouin tribe, well armed. Two-thirds of the
+Arab horse trade, besides a large traffic in sheep, camels, wool, and
+similar articles, are in their hands. Their principal subdivisions are
+the Sebaá on the north, the Walid Ali on the west, and the Ruála on the
+south; these are generally on bad terms with each other. If united, they
+could muster, it is supposed, about 30,000 lances. They claim descent
+from Rabi'a. Second, the Shammar Bedouins, whose pasturages lie
+conterminous to those of the Aneza on the east. Their numbers are about
+the same. Thirdly, in the northern desert, the Huwetat and Sherarat,
+comparatively small and savage tribes. There is also the Solibi clan,
+which, however, is disowned by the Arabs, and seems to be of gipsy
+origin. Next follow, in the western desert, the Beni-Harb, a powerful
+tribe, supposed to muster about 20,000 fighting men. They are often
+troublesome to the Meccan pilgrims. In the eastern desert are the Muter,
+the Beni-Khalid, and the Ajmans, all numerous clans, often at war with
+each other. To the south, in Nejd itself or on its frontiers, are the
+Hodeil, Ateba, and others. These all belong to the "Mustareb," or
+northern Arabs.
+
+The Bedouins of southern or "pure Arab" origin are comparatively few in
+number, and are, with few exceptions, even poorer and more savage than
+their northern brethren. Al-Morrah, on the confines of Oman, Al-Yam and
+Kahtan, near Yemen, and Beni-Yas, between Harik and the Persian Gulf,
+are the best known. The total number of the Bedouin or pastoral
+population throughout Arabia, including men, women, and children,
+appears not to exceed a million and a half, or about one fifth of the
+total population. The only tribal authority is the "elder," or "sheik,"
+a title not necessarily implying advanced age, but given to any one who,
+on account of birth, courage, wealth, liberality or some other quality,
+has been chosen to the leadership. Descent has something to do with
+rank, but not much, as every individual of the tribe considers himself
+equal to the others; nor are the distinctions of relative riches and
+poverty greatly taken into account. To the "sheik" all disputes are
+referred; he is consulted, though not necessarily obeyed, on every
+question which regards the general affairs of the tribe, whether in
+peace or war; there is no other magistrate, and no law except what he
+and the other chief men may consider proper. But in fact, for most
+personal and private affairs, every man does pretty much what is right
+in his own eyes.
+
+All the Bedouins, with the exception of certain tribes in Syria, are
+nominally Mahommedans, but most pay but slight attention to the
+ceremonial precepts of the Koran; the five daily prayers and the annual
+fast of Ramadan are not much in favour among them; and however near a
+tribe may be to Mecca, few of them visit it as pilgrims. The militant
+Wahhabi have, however, from time to time enforced some degree of
+Islamitic observance among the Bedouins of Nejd and the adjoining
+districts: elsewhere Mahommedanism is practically confined to the
+profession of the Divine Unity; among the remoter and wilder tribes
+sun-worship, tree-worship, and no worship at all, are not uncommon. Some
+clans even omit the rite of circumcision altogether; others, like the
+tribe of Hodeil, south of Mecca, perform it after a fashion peculiar to
+themselves.
+
+Though polygamy is not common among Bedouins, marriages are contracted
+without any legal intervention or guarantee; the consent of the parties,
+and the oral testimony of a couple of witnesses, should such be at hand,
+are all that are required; and divorce is equally easy. Nor is mutual
+constancy much expected or observed either by men or women; and the
+husband is rarely strict in exacting from the wife a fidelity that he
+himself has no idea of observing. Jealousy may indeed occasionally bring
+about tragic results, but this rarely occurs except where publicity, to
+which the Bedouins, like all other Arabs, are very sensitive, is
+involved. Burckhardt writes: "The Bedouins are jealous of their women,
+but do not prevent them from laughing and talking with strangers. It
+seldom happens that a Bedouin strikes his wife; if he does so she calls
+loudly on her _wasy_ or protector, who pacifies the husband and makes
+him listen to reason .... The wife and daughters perform all domestic
+business. They grind the wheat in the handmill or pound it in the
+mortar; they prepare the breakfast and dinner; knead and bake the bread;
+make butter, fetch water, work at the loom, mend the tent-covering ...
+while the husband or brother sits before the tent smoking his pipe." A
+maiden's honour is, on the other hand, severely guarded; and even too
+openly avowed a courtship, though with the most honourable intentions,
+is ill looked on. But marriage, if indeed so slight and temporary a
+connexion as it is among Bedouins deserves the name, is often merely a
+passport for mutual licence. In other respects Bedouin morality, like
+that of most half-savage races, depends on custom and public feeling
+rather than on any fixed code or trained conscience, and hence admits of
+the strangest contradictions. Not only are lying and exaggeration no
+reproach in ordinary discourse, but even deliberate perjury and
+violation of the most solemn engagements are frequent occurrences. Not
+less frequent, however, are instances of prolonged fidelity and
+observance of promise carried to the limits of romance. "The wind," "the
+wood," and "the honour of the Arabs" are the most ordinary oaths in
+serious matters; but even these do not give absolute security, while a
+simple verbal engagement will at other times prove an inviolable
+guarantee. Thus, too, the extreme abstemiousness of a Bedouin alternates
+with excessive gorgings; and, while the name and deeds of "robber" are
+hardly a reproach, those of "thief" are marked by abhorrence and
+contempt. In patience, or rather endurance, both physical and moral, few
+Bedouins are deficient; wariness is another quality universally
+developed by their mode of life. And in spite of an excessive coarseness
+of language, and often of action, gross vice, at least of the more
+debasing sorts that dishonour the East, is rare.
+
+Most Bedouins, men and women, are rather undersized; their complexion,
+especially in the south, is dark; their hair coarse, thick and black;
+their eyes dark and oval; the nose is generally aquiline, and the
+features well formed; the beard and moustache are usually scanty. The
+men are active, but not strong; the women are generally plain. The dress
+of the men consists of a long cotton shirt, open at the breast, often
+girt with a leathern girdle; a black or striped cloak of hair is
+sometimes thrown over the shoulders; a handkerchief, folded once, black,
+or striped yellow and red, covers the head, round which it is kept in
+its place by a piece of twine or a twisted hairband. To this costume a
+pair of open sandals is sometimes added. Under the shirt, round the
+naked waist, a thin strip of leather plait is wound several times, not
+for any special object, but merely out of custom. In his hand a Bedouin
+almost always carries a slight crooked wand, commonly of almond-wood.
+Among the Bedouins of the south a light wrapper takes the place of the
+handkerchief on the head, and a loin-cloth that of the shirt. The women
+usually wear wide loose drawers, a long shirt, and over it a wide piece
+of dark blue cloth enveloping the whole figure and head, and trailing on
+the ground behind. Very rarely does a Bedouin woman wear a veil, or even
+cover her face with her overcloak, contenting herself with narrowing the
+folds of the latter over her head on the approach of a stranger. Her
+wrists and ankles are generally adorned with bracelets and rings of blue
+glass or copper or iron, very rarely of silver; her neck with glass
+beads; ear-rings are rare, and nose-rings rarer. Boys, till near
+puberty, usually go stark naked; girls also wear no clothes up to the
+age of six or seven.
+
+On a journey a Bedouin invariably carries with him a light,
+sharp-pointed lance, the stem of which is made of Persian or African
+cane; the manner in which this is carried or trailed often indicates the
+tribe of the owner. The lance is the favourite and characteristic weapon
+of the Arab nomad, and the one in the use of which he shows the greatest
+skill. An antiquated sword, an out-of-date musket, an ornamented dagger
+or knife, a coat of mail, the manufacture of Yemen or Bagdad, and a
+helmet, a mere iron head-piece, without visor or crest, complete his
+military outfit.
+
+A Bedouin's tent consists of a few coverings of the coarsest goat-hair,
+dyed black, and spread over two or more small poles, in height from 8 to
+9 ft., gipsy fashion. If it be the tent of a sheik, its total length may
+be from 30 to 40 ft.; if of an ordinary person, less than 20 ft.
+Sometimes a partition separates the quarters of the women and children;
+sometimes they are housed under a lower and narrower covering. A rough
+carpet or mat is spread on the ground; while camel-saddles, ropes,
+halters, two or three cooking pots, one or two platters, a wooden
+drinking bowl, the master's arms at one side of the tent, and his spear
+stuck in the ground at the door, complete the list of household
+valuables. On striking camp all these are fastened on the backs of
+camels; the men mount their saddles, the women their litters; and in an
+hour the blackened stones that served for a cooking hearth are the only
+sign of the encampment. For food the Bedouin relies on his herds, but
+rice, vegetables, honey, locusts and even lizards are at times eaten.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, _Notes on the Bedouins and
+  Wahabis_ (1831); Karstens Niebuhr, _Travels through Arabia_ (orig.
+  Germ. edit. 1772), translated into English by Robert Heron (2 vols.,
+  Edinburgh, 1792); H.H. Tessup, _Women of the Arabs_ (New York, 1874);
+  W.S. Blunt, _Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates_ (1879); Lady Anne Blunt,
+  _Pilgrimage to Neid_ (1881); Desmoulins, _Les Français d'aujourd'hui_
+  (Paris, 1898); C.M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ (2 vols., 1888); E.
+  Reclus, _Les Arabes_ (Brussels, 1898); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, _Arabia, the
+  Cradle of Islam_ (1900); W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in
+  Early Arabia_ (Cambridge, 1885); H.C. Trumbull, _The Blood Covenant_
+  (Philadelphia, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+BEDSORE, a form of ulceration or sloughing, occasioned in people who,
+through sickness or old age, are confined to bed, resulting from
+pressure or the irritation of sweat and dirt. Bedsores usually occur
+when there is a low condition of nutrition of the tissues. The more
+helpless the patient the more liable he is to bedsores, and especially
+when he is paralysed, delirious or insane, or when suffering from one of
+the acute specific fevers. They may occur wherever there is a pressure,
+more especially when any moisture is allowed to remain on the bedding;
+and thus lack of cleanliness is an important factor in the production of
+this condition. In large hospitals a bedsore is now a great rarity, and
+this, considering the helplessness of many of the patients treated,
+shows what good nursing can do. The bed must be made with a firm smooth
+mattress; the undersheet and blanket must be changed whenever they
+become soiled; the drawsheet is spread without creases, and changed the
+moment it becomes soiled. Preventive treatment must be followed from the
+first day of the illness. This consists in the most minute attention to
+cleanliness, and constant variation in the position of the patient. All
+parts subjected to pressure or friction must be frequently washed with
+soap and hot water, then thoroughly dried with a warm soft towel. The
+part should next be bathed in a solution of corrosive sublimate in
+spirits of wine, and finally dusted with an oxide of zinc and starch
+powder. This routine should be gone through not less than four times in
+the twenty-four hours in any case of prolonged illness. The pressure may
+be relieved over bony prominences by a water-pillow or by a piece of
+thick felt cut into a ring. Signs of impending bedsores must constantly
+be watched for. Where one threatens, the skin loses its proper colour,
+becoming either a deadly white or a dusky red, and the redness does not
+disappear on pressure. The surrounding tissues become oedematous, and
+pain is often severe, except in a case of paralysis. As the condition
+progresses further the pain ceases. The epidermis now becomes raised as
+in a blister, and finally becomes detached, forming an excoriation and
+exposing the papillae. Even at this late stage an actual ulceration can
+still be prevented if proper care is taken; but failing this, the skin
+sloughs and an ulcer forms. In treating this, the position of the
+patient must be such that no pressure is ever allowed on the sloughing
+tissue. A hot boracic pad under oil-silk should be applied, the affected
+part being first dusted with iodoform. If, however, the slough is very
+large, it is safer to avoid wet applications, and the parts should be
+dusted with animal charcoal and iodoform, and protected with a dry
+dressing. When the slough has separated and the sore is clean, friar's
+balsam will hasten the healing process. In any serious illness the
+formation of a bedsore makes the prognosis far more grave, and may even
+bring about a fatal issue, either directly or indirectly.
+
+
+
+
+BEDWORTH, a manufacturing town in the Nuneaton parliamentary division of
+Warwickshire, England; on the Nuneaton-Coventry branch of the London &
+North Western railway, 100 m. north-west from London. Pop. (1900) 7169.
+A tramway connects with Coventry, and the Coventry canal passes through.
+Coal and ironstone are mined; there are iron-works, and bricks, hats,
+ribbons and tape and silk are made. Similar industries are pursued in
+the populous district (including the villages of Exhall and Foleshill)
+which extends southward towards Coventry.
+
+
+
+
+BEE (Sanskrit _bha_, A S. _beó_, Lat. _apis_), a large and natural
+family of the zoological order _Hymenoptera_, characterized by the
+plumose form of many of their hairs, by the large size of the basal
+segment of the foot, which is always elongate and in the hindmost limb
+sometimes as broad as the shin, and by the development of a "tongue" for
+sucking liquid food; this organ has been variously interpreted as the
+true insectan tongue (hypo-pharynx) or as a ligula formed by fused
+portions of the second maxillae (probably the latter).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Honeybee (_Apis mellifica_). a, male (drone); b,
+queen, c, worker.
+
+(After Benton, _Bull._ 1 (n.s.) _Div. Ent._, U.S. Dept. Agr.).]
+
+Bees are specialized in correspondence with the flowers from which they
+draw the bulk of their food supply, the flexible tongue being used for
+sucking nectar, the plumed hairs and the modified legs (fig. 7) for
+gathering pollen. These floral products which form the food of bees and
+of their larvae, are in most cases collected and stored by the
+industrious insects; but some genera of bees act as inquilines or
+"cuckoo-parasites," laying their eggs in the nests of other bees, so
+that their larvae may feed at the expense of the rightful owners of the
+nest. In a few cases, the parasitic bee-grub devours not only the
+food-supply, but also the larva of its host.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head and Appendages of Honey-bee (Apis),
+
+  a,   Antenna or feeler.
+  g,   Epipharynx.
+  mxp, Maxillary palp.
+  pg,  Opposite to galeae of 2nd maxillae (labium).
+  mx,  1st maxilla.
+  lp,  Labial palp.
+  l,   Ligula or "tongue."
+  b,   Bouton or spoon of the ligula.
+
+(From Frank R. Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.) ]
+
+_Solitary and Social Bees._--Many genera of bees are represented, like
+most other insects, by ordinary males and females, each female
+constructing a nest formed of several chambers ("cells") and storing in
+each chamber a supply of food for the grub to be hatched from the egg
+that she lays therein. Such bees, although a number of individuals often
+make their nests close together, are termed "solitary," their
+communities differing in nature from those of the "social" bees, among
+which there are two kinds of females--the normal fertile females or
+"queens," and those specially modified females with undeveloped ovaries
+(see fig. 6) that are called "workers" (fig. 1). The workers are the
+earliest developed offspring of the queen, and it is their associated
+work which renders possible the rise of an insect state--a state which
+evidently has its origin in the family. It is interesting to trace
+various stages in the elaboration of the bee-society. Among the
+humble-bees (_Bombus_) the workers help the queen, who takes her share
+in the duties of the nest; the distinction between queen and workers is
+therefore less absolute than in the hive-bees (_Apis_), whose queen,
+relieved of all nursing and building cares by the workers, devotes her
+whole energies to egg-laying. The division of labour among the two
+castes of female becomes therefore most complete in the most highly
+organized society.
+
+_Structure._--Details of the structure of bees are given in the article
+HYMENOPTERA. The feelers (fig. 2, a) are divided into "scape" and
+"flagellum" as in the ants, and the mandibles vary greatly in size and
+sharpness in different genera. The proboscis or "tongue" (fig. 2, l)
+is a hollow organ enclosing an outgrowth of the body-cavity which is
+filled with fluid, and with its flexible under-surface capable of
+invagination or protrusion. Along this surface stretches a groove which
+is surrounded by thickened cuticle and practically formed into a tube by
+numerous fine hairs. Along this channel the nectar is drawn into the
+pharynx and passes, mixed with saliva, into the crop or "honey-bag"; the
+action of the saliva changes the saccharose into dextrose and levulose,
+and the nectar becomes honey, which the bee regurgitates for storage in
+the cells or for the feeding of the grubs. The sting (fig. 6, pg, st.)
+of female bees is usually highly specialized, but in a few genera it is
+reduced and useless.
+
+Many modifications in details of structure may be observed within the
+family. The tongue is bifid at the tip in a few genera; usually it is
+pointed and varies greatly in length, being comparatively short in
+_Andrena_, long in the humble-bees (_Bombus_), and longest in
+_Euglossa_, a tropical American genus of solitary bees. The legs, which
+are so highly modified as pollen-carriers in the higher bees, are
+comparatively simple in certain primitive genera. The hairy covering, so
+notable in the hive-bee and especially in humble-bees, is greatly
+reduced among bees that follow a parasitic mode of life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Larva and Pupa of Apis.
+
+  SL,  Spinning larva.
+  N,   Pupa.
+  FL,  Feeding larva.
+  co,  Cocoon.
+  sp,  Spiracles.
+  t,   "Tongue."
+  m,   Mandible.
+  an,  Antenna
+  w,   Wing.
+  ce,  Compound Eye.
+  e,   Excrement.
+  ex,  Exuvium.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.)]
+
+_Early stages._--As is usual where an abundant food supply is provided
+for the young insects, the larvae of bees (fig. 3, SL.) are degraded
+maggots; they have no legs, but possess fairly well-developed heads. The
+successive cuticles that are cast as growth proceeds are delicate in
+texture and sometimes separate from the underlying cuticle without being
+stripped off. The maggots may pass no excrement from the intestine until
+they have eaten all their store of food. When fully grown the final
+larval cuticle is shed, and the "free" pupa (fig. 3, N) revealed. The
+larvae of some bees spin cocoons (fig. 3, _co_) before pupation.
+
+_Nests of Solitary Bees._--Bees of different genera vary considerably in
+the site and arrangement of their nests. Many--like the common
+"solitary" bees _Halictus_ and _Andrena_--burrow in the ground; the
+holes of species of _Andrena_ are commonly seen in springtime opening on
+sandy banks, grassy lawns or gravel paths. Our knowledge of such bees is
+due to the observations of F. Smith, H. Friese, C. Verhoeff and others.
+The nest may be simple, or, more frequently, a complex excavation, cells
+opening off from the entrance or from a main passage. Sometimes the
+passage is the conjoint work of many bees whose cells are grouped along
+it at convenient distances apart. Other bees, the species of _Osmia_ for
+example, choose the hollow stem of a bramble or other shrub, the female
+forming a linear series of cells in each of which an egg is laid and a
+supply of food stored up. J.H. Fabre has found that in the nests of some
+species of _Osmia_ the young bee developed in the first-formed cell, if
+(as often happens) she emerges from her cocoon before the inmates of the
+later cells, will try to work her way round these or to bite a lateral
+hole through the bramble shoot; should she fail to do this, she will
+wait for the emergence of her sisters and not make her escape at the
+price of injury to them. But when Fabre substituted dead individuals of
+her own species or live larvae of another genus, the _Osmia_ had no
+scruple in destroying them, so as to bite her way out to air and
+liberty.
+
+The leaf-cutter bees (_Megachile_)--which differ from _Andrena_ and
+_Halictus_ and agree with _Osmia_, _Apis_ and _Bombus_ in having
+elongate tongues--cut neat circular disks from leaves, using them for
+lining the cells of their underground nests. The carpenter-bees
+(_Xylocopa_ and allied genera), unrepresented in the British Islands,
+though widely distributed in warmer countries, make their nests in dry
+wood. The habits of _X. violacea_, the commonest European species, were
+minutely described in the 18th century in one of R.A.F. de Réaumur's
+memoirs. This bee excavates several parallel galleries to which access
+is gained by a cylindrical hole. In the galleries are situated the
+cells, separated from one another by transverse partitions, which are
+formed of chips of wood, cemented by the saliva of the bee.
+
+Among the solitary bees none has more remarkable nesting habits than the
+mason bee (_Chalicodoma_) represented in the south of France and
+described at length by Fabre. The female constructs on a stone a series
+of cells, built of cement, which she compounds of particles of earth,
+minute stones and her own saliva. Each cell is provided with a store of
+honey and pollen beside which an egg is laid; and after eight or nine
+cells have been successively built and stored, the whole is covered by a
+dome-like mass of cement. Fabre found that a _Chalicodoma_ removed to a
+distance of 4 kilometres from the nest that she was building, found her
+way back without difficulty to the exact spot. But if the nest were
+removed but a few yards from its former position, the bee seemed no
+longer able to recognize it, sometimes passing over it, or even into the
+unfinished cell, and then leaving it to visit again uselessly the place
+whence it had been moved. She would accept willingly, however, another
+nest placed in the exact spot where her own had been. If the unfinished
+cell in the old nest had been only just begun, while that in the
+substituted nest were nearly completed, the bee would add so much
+material as to make the cell much larger than the normal size, her
+instinct evidently being to do a certain amount of building work before
+filling the cell with food. The food, too, is always placed in the cell
+after a fixed routine--first honey disgorged from the mouth, then pollen
+brushed off the hairs beneath the body (fig. 7, c) after which the two
+substances are mixed into a paste.
+
+_Inquilines and Parasites._--The working bees, such as have been
+mentioned, are victimized by bees of other genera, which throw upon the
+industrious the task of providing for the young of the idle. The nests
+of _Andrena_, for example, are haunted by the black and yellow species
+of _Nomada_, whose females lay their eggs in the food provided for the
+larva of the _Andrena_. According to H. Friese, the relations between
+the host and the inquiline are quite friendly, and the insects if they
+meet in the nest-galleries courteously get out of each other's way. D.
+Sharp, in commenting on this strange behaviour, points out that the host
+can have no idea why the inquiline haunts her nest. "Why then should the
+_Andrena_ feel alarm? If the species of _Nomada_ attack the species of
+_Andrena_ too much, it brings about the destruction of its own species
+more certainly than that of the _Andrena_."
+
+More violent in its methods is the larva of a _Stelis_, whose operations
+in the nest of _Osmia leucomelana_ have been studied by Verhoeff. The
+female _Stelis_ lays her eggs earlier than the _Osmia_, and towards the
+bottom of the food-mass; the egg of the _Osmia_ is laid later, and on
+the surface of the food. Hence the two eggs are at opposite ends of the
+food, and both larvae feed for a time without conflict, but the
+_Stelis_, being the older, is the larger of the two. Finally the
+parasitic larva attacks the _Osmia_, and digging its mandibles into its
+victim's head kills and eats it, taking from one to two days for the
+completion of the repast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Under Side of Worker, carrying Wax Scales.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.)]
+
+_Social Bees._--The bees hitherto described are "solitary," all the
+individuals being either males or unmodified females. The most highly
+developed of the long-tongued bees are "social" species, in which the
+females are differentiated into egg-laying queens and (usually)
+infertile "workers" (fig. 6). Verhoeff has discussed the rise of the
+"social" from the "solitary" condition, and points out that for the
+formation of an insect community three conditions are necessary--a nest
+large enough for a number of individuals, a close grouping of the cells,
+and an association between mother and daughters in the winged state. For
+the fulfilment of this last condition, the older insects of the new
+generation must emerge from the cells while the mother is still occupied
+with the younger eggs or larvae. One species of _Halictus_ nearly
+reaches the desired stage; but the first young bees to appear in the
+perfect state are males, and when the females emerge the mother dies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.-Abdominal Plate (worker of _Apis_), under side,
+third segment. W, wax-yielding surface, covering true gland; s, septem,
+or carina; wh, webbed hairs.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.)]
+
+Among the social bees the mother and daughter-insects co-operate, and
+they differ from the "solitary" groups in the nature of their nest, the
+cells (fig. 25) of which are formed of wax secreted by special glands
+(fig. 5) in the bee's abdomen, the wax being pressed out between the
+segmental sclerites in the form of plates (fig. 4), which are worked by
+the legs (fig. 7) and jaws into the requisite shape. In our well-known
+hive-bee (_Apis_) and humble-bees (_Bombus_) the wax glands are ventral
+in position, but in the "stingless" bees of the tropics (_Trigona_ and
+_Melipona_) they are dorsal. A colony of humble-bees is started in
+spring by a female "queen" which has survived the winter. She starts her
+nest underground or in a surface depression, forming a number of waxen
+cells, roughly globular in shape and arranged irregularly. The young
+females ("workers") that develop from the eggs laid in these early cells
+assist the queen by building fresh cells and gathering food for storage
+therein. The queen may be altogether relieved of the work of the nest as
+the season advances, so that she can devote all her energies to
+egg-laying, and the colony grows rapidly. The distinction between queen
+and worker is not always clear among humble-bees, the female insects
+varying in size and in the development of their ovaries. If any mishap
+befall the queen, the workers can sometimes keep the community from
+dying out. In autumn males are produced, as well as young queens. The
+community is broken up on the approach of winter, the males and workers
+perish, and the young queens after hibernation start fresh nests in the
+succeeding year.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Ovaries of Queen and Workers (_Apis_).
+
+  A, Abdomen of queen, under side.
+    P, Petiole.
+    o, o, Ovaries.
+    hs, Position filled by honey-sack.
+    ds, Position through which digestive system passes.
+    od, Oviduct.
+    co.d, Vagina.
+    E, Egg-passing oviduct.
+    s, Spermatheca.
+    i. Intestine.
+    pb, Poison bag.
+    pg, Poison gland.
+    st, Sting.
+    p, "Palps" or "feelers" of sting.
+  B, Rudimentary ovaries of ordinary worker.
+    sp, Rudimentary spermatheca.
+  C, Partially developed ovaries of fertile worker.
+    sp, Rudimentary spermatheca.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.)]
+
+The appearance of the heavy-bodied hairy _Bombi_ is well known. They are
+closely "mimicked" by bees of the genus _Psithyrus_, which often share
+their nests. These _Psithyri_ have no pollen-carrying structures on the
+legs and their grubs are dependent for their food-supply on the labours
+of the _Bombi_, though, according to E. Hoffer's observations, it seems
+that the female _Psithyrus_ builds her own cells. The colonies of
+_Bombus_ illustrate the rise of the inquiline habit. Many of the species
+are very variable and have been differentiated into races or varieties.
+F.W.L. Sladen states that a queen belonging to the _virginalis_ form of
+_Bombus terrestris_ often invades a nest belonging to the _lucorum_
+form, kills the rightful queen, and takes possession of the nest,
+getting the _lucorum_ workers to rear her young. In the nests of _Bombi_
+are found various beetle larvae that live as inquilines or parasites,
+and also maggots of drone-flies (_Volucella_), which act as scavengers;
+the Volucella-fly is usually a "mimic" of the _Bombus_, whose nest she
+invades.
+
+The "stingless" bees (_Trigona_) of the tropics have the parts of the
+sting reduced and useless for piercing. As though to compensate for the
+loss of this means of defence, the mandibles are very powerful, and some
+of the bees construct tubular entrances to the nest with a series of
+constrictions easy to hold against an enemy. The habits of the Brazilian
+species of these bees have been described in detail by H. von Jhering,
+who points out that their wax glands are dorsal in position, not ventral
+as in _Bombus_ and _Apis_.
+
+With _Apis_, the genus of the hive-bee, we come to the most
+highly-specialized members of the family--better known, perhaps than any
+other insects, on account of the long domestication of many of the
+species or races. In _Apis_ the workers differ structurally from the
+queen, who neither builds cells, gathers food, nor tends brood, and is
+therefore without the special organs adapted for those functions which
+are possessed in perfection by the workers. The differentiation of queen
+and workers is correlated with the habit of storing food supplies, and
+the consequent permanence of the community, which finds relief for its
+surplus population by sending off a swarm, consisting of a queen and a
+number of workers, so that the new community is already specialized both
+for reproduction and for labour.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Modifications in the Legs of Bees.
+
+  A. a-d, Hive-bee (_Apis_).
+  B. f-g, Stingless bee (_Melipona_).
+  C. h-i, Humble-bee (_Bombus_).
+  a, f, h, Outer view of hind-leg.
+  b, g, i, Inner view.
+  d, Fore-leg of _Apis_ showing notch in tarsal segment for cleaning
+       feeler.
+  e, Tip of intermediate shin with spur.
+  c, Feathered hairs with pollen grains, magnified.
+
+(After Riley, _Insect Life_ (U.S. Dept. Agr.), vol. 6.)]
+
+The workers of _Apis_ may be capable (fig. 6, C) of laying
+eggs--necessarily unfertilized--which always give rise to males
+("drones"), and, since the researches of J. Dzierzon (1811-1906) in
+1848, it has been believed that the queen bee lays fertilized eggs in
+cells appropriate for the rearing of queens or workers, and unfertilized
+eggs in "drone-cells," virgin reproduction or parthenogenesis being
+therefore a normal factor in the life of these insects. F. Dickel and
+others have lately claimed that fertilized eggs can give rise to either
+queens, workers or males, according to the food supplied to the larvae
+and the influence of supposed "sex-producing glands" possessed by the
+nurse-workers. Dickel states that a German male bee mated with a female
+of the Italian race transmits distinct paternal characters to hybrid
+male offspring. A. Weismann, however, doubts these conclusions, and
+having found a spermaster in every one of the eggs that he examined from
+worker-cells, and in only one out of 272 eggs taken from drone-cells, he
+supports Dzierzon's view, explaining the single exception mentioned
+above as a mistake of the queen, she having laid inadvertently this
+single fertilized egg in a drone instead of in a worker cell.
+
+The cells of the honeycomb of _Apis_ are usually hexagonal in form, and
+arranged in two series back to back (figs. 3, 25). Some of these cells
+are used for storage, others for the rearing of brood. The cells in
+which workers are reared are smaller than those appropriate for the
+rearing of drones, while the "royal cells," in which the young queens
+are developed, are large in size and of an irregular oval in form (fig.
+25). It is believed that from the nature of the cell in which she is
+ovipositing, the queen derives a reflex impulse to lay the appropriate
+egg--fertilized in the queen or worker cell, unfertilized in the drone
+cell, as previously mentioned. Whether the fertilized egg shall develop
+into a queen or a worker depends upon the nature of the food. All young
+grubs are at first fed with a specially nutritious food, discharged from
+the worker's stomach, to which is added a digestive secretion derived
+from special salivary glands in the worker's head. If this "royal jelly"
+continue to be given to the grub throughout its life, it will grow into
+a queen; if the ordinary mixture of honey and digested pollen be
+substituted, as is usually the case from the fourth day, the grub will
+become a worker. The workers, who control the polity of the hive (the
+"queen" being exceedingly "limited" in her monarchy), arrange if
+possible that young queens shall develop only when the population of the
+hive has become so congested that it is desirable to send off a swarm.
+When a young queen has emerged, she stings her royal sisters (still in
+the pupal stage) to death. Previous to the emergence of the young queen,
+the old queen, prevented by the workers from attacking her daughters,
+has led off a swarm to find a new home elsewhere. The young queen, left
+in the old home, mounts high into the air for her nuptial flight, and
+then returns to the hive and her duties of egg-laying. The number of
+workers increases largely during the summer, and so hard do the insects
+work that the life of an individual may last only a few weeks. On the
+approach of winter the males, having no further function to perform for
+the community, are refused food-supplies by the workers, and are either
+excluded or banished from the hive to perish. Such ruthless habits of
+the bee-commonwealth, no less than the altruistic labours of the
+workers, are adapted for the survival and dominance of the species. The
+struggle for life may deal hardly with the individual, but it
+results--to quote Darwin's well-known title--in "the preservation of
+favoured races."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--More has been written on bees, and especially on the
+  genus _Apis_, than on any other group of insects. The classical
+  observations of Réaumur _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des
+  insectes_, vols. v., vi. (Paris, 1740-1742) and F. Huber's _Nouvelles
+  observations sur les abeilles_ (Genéve, 1792) will never be forgotten;
+  they have been matched in recent times by J.H. Fabre's _Souvenirs
+  entomologiques_ (Paris, 1879-1891); and M. Maeterlinck's poetic yet
+  scientific _La vie des abeilles_ (Paris, 1901). Among writers on the
+  solitary and parasitic species may be specially mentioned F. Smith,
+  _Hymenoptera in the British Museum_ (London, 1853-1859); H. Friese,
+  _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._, iv. (1891) J. Pérez, _Actes Soc. Bordeaux_,
+  xlviii. (1895); and C. Verhoeff, _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._, vi. (1892). For
+  the social species we have valuable papers by E. Hoffer, _Mitt.
+  Naturwissen. Ver. Steiermark_, xxxi. (1881); H. von Jhering, _Zool.
+  Jahrb. Syst._, xix. (1903); and others. For recent controversy on
+  parthenogenesis in the hive bee, see J. Pérez, _Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._
+  (6), vii. (1878); F. Dickel, _Zool. Anz._, xxv. (1901), and _Anatom.
+  Anzeiger_, xix. (1902); A. Petrunkevich, _Zoolog. Jahrb. Anat._, xiv.
+  (1901); and A. Weismann, _Anatom. Anzeiger_, xviii. (1901). F.R.
+  Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_ (London, 1885-1888), and T.W.
+  Cowan's _Honey Bee_ (2nd ed., 1904), are invaluable to the naturalist,
+  and contain extensive bibliographies of _Apis_. D. Sharp's summary in
+  the _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vi., should be consulted for
+  further information on bees generally. British bees are described in
+  the catalogues of Smith, mentioned above, and by E. Saunders, _The
+  Hymenoptera of the British Islands_ (London, 1896).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+BEE-KEEPING
+
+Bee-keeping, or the cultivation of the honey-bee as a source of income
+to those who practise it, is known to have existed from the most ancient
+times. Poets, philosophers, historians and naturalists (among whom may
+be mentioned Virgil, Aristotle, Cicero and Pliny) have eulogized the bee
+as unique among insects, endowed by nature with wondrous gifts
+beneficial to mankind in a greater degree than any other creature of
+the insect world. We are told that some of these ancient scientists
+passed years of their lives studying the wonders of bee-life, and left
+accurate records of their observations, which on many points agree with
+the investigations of later observers. As a forcible illustration of the
+manner in which a colony of bees was recognized as the embodiment of
+government by a chief or ruler, in the earliest times of which there is
+any existing record, it may be mentioned that on the sarcophagus
+containing the mummified remains of Mykerinos (now in the British Museum
+and dating back 3633 years B.C.) will be found a hieroglyphic bee,(fig.
+8) representing the king of Lower Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Sign of the king of Lower Egypt; from the coffin
+of Mykerinos, 3633 B.C. (British Museum).]
+
+
+  Queen-rearing.
+
+In dealing with the practical side of bee-keeping as now understood, it
+may be said that, compared with the methods in vogue during the first
+decade of the 19th century, or even within the memory of men still
+living at the beginning of the 20th, it is as the modern locomotive to
+the stagecoach of a previous generation. Almost everything connected
+with bee-craft has been revolutionized, and apiculture, instead of being
+classed with such homely rural occupations as that of the country
+housewife who carries a few eggs weekly to the market-town in her
+basket, is to-day regarded in many countries as a pursuit of
+considerable importance. Remarkable progress has also been made in the
+art of queen-rearing, and in improving the common or native bee by
+judicious crossing with the best foreign races, selected mainly for
+hardiness, working qualities and the prolific capacity of their queens.
+American bee-breeders are conspicuous in this respect, extensive
+apiaries being exclusively devoted to the business of rearing queens by
+the thousand for sale and export.
+
+On the European continent queen-rearing apiaries are plentiful, but less
+attention is paid there to hybridizing than to keeping the respective
+races pure. In England also, some bee-keepers include queen-rearing as
+part of their business, while one large apiary on the south coast is
+exclusively devoted to the rearing of queen bees on the latest
+scientific system, and to breeding by selection from such races as are
+most suited to the exceptional climatic conditions of the country.
+
+
+  Honey as food.
+
+Extensive apiaries have been established on the American continent, some
+containing from 2000 to 3500 colonies of bees, and in these honey is
+harvested in hundreds of tons yearly. The magnitude of the bee industry
+in the United States may be judged from the fact of a single bee-farmer
+located in California having harvested from 150,000 lb. of honey in one
+year from 2000 stocks of bees, and, as an instance of the enormous
+weight of honey obtainable from good hives in that favoured region, the
+same farmer secured 60,000 lb. of comb-honey in one season from his best
+300 colonies. This is probably the maximum, and the hives were
+necessarily located in separate apiaries some few miles apart in order
+to avoid the evils of overstocking, but all in the midst of thousands of
+acres of honey-yielding flowers. Results like the above compared with
+those of the skeppist bee-keeper of former days, who was well pleased
+with an average of 20 to 25 lb. per hive, may be regarded as wonderful,
+but they are matters of fact. The consumption of honey as an article of
+food has also largely increased of late years; a recent computation
+shows that from 100 to 125 million lb. of honey, representing a money
+value of from eight to ten million dollars, is consumed annually in the
+United States alone. Many of the larger bee-farmers of the United States
+of America and Canada harvest from 50,000 to 60,000 lb. of honey in a
+single season, and some of them sell the whole crop direct to consumers.
+
+
+  State aid for bee-keeping.
+
+It is a notable fact that in the United States, Canada, Australia, New
+Zealand, and indeed all English-speaking countries outside the United
+Kingdom, honey is far more extensively used than it is there as an
+article of daily food. The natural result of this is that the trade in
+honey is conducted, in those countries, on entirely different lines from
+those followed in the British Isles, where honey production as an
+occupation has, until quite recent years, been regarded as too
+insignificant for official notice in any form. The value of the bee
+industry is now recognized, however, by the British government as worthy
+of state aid, in the promotion of technical instruction connected with
+agriculture. On the American continent apiculture is officially
+recognized by the respective states' governments; and by the federal
+government at Washington it is taken into account as a section of the
+Agricultural Department, with fully equipped experimental apiaries and
+qualified professors engaged therein for educational work. In several
+Canadian provinces also, the public funds are used in promoting the bee
+industry in various ways, mainly in combating the bee-disease known as
+"foul brood." In New Zealand the government of the colony has displayed
+the most praiseworthy earnestness and vigour in promoting apiculture.
+State-aided apiaries have been established under the supervision of a
+skilled bee-keeper, who travels over the colony giving instruction in
+practical bee-work at the public schools, and forming classes at various
+centres where pupils are taught bee-keeping in all its branches.
+
+
+  Value of bees as fertilizers.
+
+In Europe similar progress is observable; technical schools, with
+well-equipped apiaries attached, are supported by the state, and in them
+the science and practice of modern bee-keeping is taught free by
+scientists and practical experts. Institutions of this kind have been
+established in Germany, Russia, Switzerland and elsewhere, all tending
+in the same direction, viz. the cultivation of the honey-bee as an
+appreciable source of income to the farmer, the peasant cultivator, and
+dwellers in districts where bee-forage is abundant and, if unvisited by
+the bee, lies wasting its sweetness on the desert air. It may be safely
+said that the value of the bee to the fruit-grower and the
+market-gardener has been proved beyond dispute; and the technical
+instruction now afforded by county councils in the rural districts of
+England has an appreciable effect. In proof thereof, we may quote the
+case of an extensive grower in the midland counties--sending fruit to
+the London market in tons--whose crop of gooseberries increased nearly
+fourfold after establishing a number of stocks of bees in close
+proximity to the gooseberry bushes. The fruit orchards and raspberry
+fields of Kent are also known to be greatly benefited by the numerous
+colonies of bees owned by more than 3000 bee-keepers in the county. The
+important part played by the bee in the economy of nature as a
+fertilizer is shown in fig. 9.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, Raspberry (_Rubus idaeus_, order _Rosaceae_),
+being fertilized. B, Cross section.
+
+  A, Flower.
+    p, p, Petals.
+    a, a, Anthers.
+    s, Stigma.
+    no, Nectary openings.
+    nc, Nectar cells.
+    D, Drupels.
+  B, Section through core, or torus (C) and drupels (D).
+    ud, Unfertilized drupel.
+    ws, Withered stigma.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+
+  Bee-keepers' associations.
+
+  Bee and honey shows.
+
+  Honey labels.
+
+In the United Kingdom the prevailing conditions, climatic and otherwise,
+with regard to apiculture--as well as the lack of sufficient natural
+bee-forage for large apiaries--are such as to preclude the possibility
+of establishing apiaries on a scale comparable with those located in
+less confined lands. On the other hand, even in England the value of
+bee-keeping is worthy of recognition as a minor industry connected with
+such items of agriculture as fruit-growing, market-gardening or
+poultry-raising. The fact that British honey is second to none for
+quality, and that the British market is eagerly sought by the
+bee-keepers of other nationalities, has of late impressed itself on the
+minds of thinking men. Moreover, their views are confirmed by the
+constant references to bees and the profits obtainable from bee-keeping
+in the leading papers on all sides. This newly-aroused interest in the
+subject is no doubt to a large extent fostered by the grants in aid of
+technical instruction afforded by county councils in rural districts.
+The British Bee-keepers' Association (instituted in 1874) has been
+untiring in its efforts to raise the standard of efficiency among those
+who are desirous of qualifying as experts and teachers of bee-keeping on
+modern methods. This body had for its first president the distinguished
+naturalist Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury). Subsequently the baroness
+Burdett-Coutts accepted the office in the year 1878, and was re-elected
+annually until her death in 1906. During this time she presided at its
+meetings and took an active part in its work, until advancing years
+prevented her attendance, but her interest in the welfare of the
+association was maintained to the last. Branch societies of bee-keepers
+were established throughout the English counties, mainly by the efforts
+of the parent body in London, with the object of securing co-operation
+in promoting the sale of honey, and showing the most modern methods of
+producing it in its most attractive form at exhibitions held for the
+purpose. Nearly the whole of these county societies affiliated with the
+central association, paying an affiliation fee yearly, and receiving in
+return the silver medal, bronze medal and certificate of the
+association, to be offered as prizes for competition at the annual
+county shows. Other advantages are given in connexion with the
+qualifying of experts, &c., while nearly all the county associations in
+the United Kingdom employ qualified men who visit members in spring and
+autumn for the purpose of examining hives and giving advice on bee
+management to those needing it. Another advantage of membership is the
+use of a "county label" for affixing to each section of honey in comb,
+or jar of extracted honey, offered for sale by members. These labels are
+numbered consecutively, and thus afford a guarantee of the genuineness
+and quality of the honey, the label enabling purchasers to trace the
+producer if needed. The British Bee-keepers' Association is an entirely
+philanthropic body, the only object of its members being to promote all
+that is good in British bee-keeping, and to "teach humanity to that
+industrious little labourer, the honey-bee." Bee-appliance manufacturers
+are not eligible for membership of its council, nor are those who make
+bee-keeping their main business; thus no professional jealousies can
+possibly arise. In this respect the association appears to stand alone
+among the bee-keepers' societies of the world. There are many equally
+beneficial societies, framed on different lines, existing in Germany,
+France, Russia and Switzerland, but they are mainly co-operative bodies
+instituted for the general benefit of members, who are without exception
+either bee-keepers on a more or less extensive scale, or scientists
+interested in the study of insect life.
+
+The bee-keepers' associations of the United States, Canada and most of
+the British colonies, are--like those last mentioned above--formed for
+the sole and laudable purpose of promoting the business interests of
+their members, the latter being either bee-farmers or bee-appliance
+manufacturers. Thus they make no pretension of any but business
+discussions at their conferences, and much benefit to all concerned
+follows as a matter of course. In fact, we find enthusiastic bee-men and
+women travelling several hundreds of miles and devoting time, money and
+labour in attending conferences of bee-keepers in America, while the
+proceedings usually last for several days and are largely attended. The
+extent of the industry compared with that of Great Britain is so great
+that it fully accounts for the difference in procedure of the respective
+associations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 10.--"1-lb. section" wooden box for holding
+Comb-honey.
+
+(Redrawn from the _A B C of Bee Culture_, published by the A. I. Root
+Co. Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.) ]
+
+
+  The bee-appliance trade.
+
+As a natural consequence of this activity, the trade in bee-appliance
+making has assumed enormous proportions in the United States, where
+extensive factories have been established; one firm--employing over 500
+hands, and using electric-power machinery of the most modern type--being
+devoted entirely to the manufacture of bee-goods and apiarian
+requisites. From this establishment alone the yearly output is about
+25,000 bee-hives, and upwards of 100 millions of the small wooden boxes
+used for holding comb-honey. The most generally approved form of this
+box is known as the "1-lb. section," made from a strip of wood ½ in.
+thick, 2 in. wide, and of such length that when folded by joining the
+morticed and tenoned ends A B (fig. 10) it forms the section of box C,
+measuring 4¼" × 4½" × 2" when complete, and holds about 1 lb. of
+comb-honey when filled by the bees and ready for table use. The V-shaped
+groove D (cut across and partly through the wood) shows the joint when
+in the flat, and E the same joint when closed for use. All the section
+boxes used in the United Kingdom are made in the U.S.A or in Canada from
+the timber known as basswood, no native wood being suitable for the
+purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.-Straw skep in section, showing arrangement of
+Combs
+
+  A, Vertical section.
+    fb,      Floor board.
+    e,       Entrance.
+    br,      Brood
+    p,       Pollen.
+    h,       Honey.
+    fh,      Feeding hole.
+    bs, bs,  Bee spaces.
+  B, Horizontal section.
+    sk,      Skep-side.
+    c, c,    Combs.
+    sc, sc,  Store combs.
+    bs, bs,  Bee spaces.
+
+(from Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+
+  The straw skep.
+
+  The movable-frame hive.
+
+  Huber's observatory hive.
+
+_Development of the Movable-frame Hive_--The dome-shaped straw skep of
+our forefathers may be regarded as the typical bee-hive of all time and
+of all civilized countries; indeed, it may with truth be said that as a
+healthy and convenient home for the honey-bee it has no equal. A swarm
+of bees hived in a straw skep, the picturesque little domicile known the
+world over as the personification of industry, will furnish their home
+with waxen combs in form and shape so admirably adapted to their
+requirements as to need no improvement by man. Why the circular form was
+chosen for the skep need not be inquired into, beyond saying that its
+shape conforms to that of a swarm, as the bees usually hang clustered on
+the branch of a neighbouring tree or bush after issuing from the parent
+hive. Fig 11 shows a straw skep in section, and explains itself as
+illustrating the admirable way in which the bees furnish their dwelling.
+The vertical section (A) shows the lower portion of the combs devoted to
+brood-rearing, the higher and thicker combs being reserved for honey,
+and midway between the brood and food is stored the pollen required for
+mixing with honey in feeding the larvae. It will be seen how well the
+upper part of the combs are fitted for bearing the weight of stores they
+contain, and how the lower portion allows the bees to cluster around
+the tender larvae and thus maintain the warmth necessary during its
+metamorphosis from the egg to the perfect insect. The horizontal section
+(B) with equal clearness demonstrates the bee's ingenuity in economizing
+space, showing how the outer combs are used exclusively for stores, and,
+as such, may be built of varying thickness as more or less storage room
+is required. The straw skep has, however, the irredeemable fault of
+fixed combs, and the gradual development of the movable-frame hive of
+today may be said to have first appeared in 1789 with the leaf-hive of
+Huber, so called from its opening like the leaves of a book. Prior to
+that date wooden box-hives of various shapes had been adopted by
+advanced bee-masters anxious to increase their output of honey, and by
+enthusiastic naturalists desirous of studying and investigating the
+wonders of bee-life apart from the utilitarian standpoint. Foremost
+among the latter was the distinguished Swiss naturalist and bee-keeper,
+François Huber, who was led to construct the leaf-hive bearing his name
+after experimenting with a single comb observatory hive recommended by
+Réaumur. Huber found that although he could induce swarms to occupy the
+glass-sided single frame advised by Réaumur, if the frame was fitted
+with ready-built pieces of comb patched together before hiving the
+swarm, the experiment was successful, while if left to themselves the
+bees built small combs across the space between the sheets of glass, and
+the desired inspection from the outside was thus rendered impossible. He
+also gathered that the abnormal conditions forced upon the bees by a
+ready-built single comb might so turn aside their natural instincts as
+to render his investigations less trustworthy than if conducted under
+perfectly natural conditions; so, in order to remove all doubt, he
+decided to have a series of wooden frames made, measuring 12 in. sq.,
+each of rather more than the ordinary width allowed for brood-combs.
+These frames were numbered consecutively 1 to 12, and hinged together as
+shown in fig. 12 (h, A). In this way the frames of comb could be opened
+for inspection like a book, while when closed the bees clustered
+together as in an ordinary hive. Ten of these frames had a small piece
+of comb fixed to the top-bar in each, supported (temporarily) by a thin
+lath wedged up with pegs at side, the latter being removed when the comb
+had been made secure by the bees. When closed, the ten frames, together
+with the two outside ones (fitted with squares of glass for inspection),
+which represent the covers of the book, were tied together with a couple
+of stout strings. In a subsequent form of the same hive Huber was
+enabled--with the help of very long thumb-screws at each side (fig.
+13)--to raise up any frame between two sheets of glass which confined
+the bees and allowed him to study the process of comb-building better
+than any hive we know of today. By means of the leaf-hive and using the
+entrances (fig. 12, e, e, A) Huber made artificial swarms by dividing
+and the use of division-boards, though not in quite the same fashion as
+is practised at the present day. On the other hand, it must be admitted
+that Huber's hive was defective in many respects; the parting of each
+frame, thus letting loose the whole colony, caused much trouble at
+times, but it remained the only movable-comb hive till 1838, when Dr
+Dzierzon--whose theory of parthenogenesis has made his name
+famous--devised a box-hive with a loose top-bar on which the bees built
+their combs and a movable side or door, by means of which the frames
+could be lifted out for inspection. This improvement was at once
+appreciated, and in the year 1852 Baron Berlepsch added side-bars and a
+bottom-bar, thus completing the movable frame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Huber's book or leaf hive.
+
+  A, Book hive.
+    e, e, Entrances.
+    s, s, Side leaves.
+    h,    Hinges.
+  B, Side view of frame or leaf.
+    tb,   Top-bar
+    c,    Comb.
+    p, p, Pegs.
+  C, Part of bin, cross section, lettering as before.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.-Huber's bar-hive, showing how comb is built, cb,
+Comb bar; g, g, glass sheets; s, s, screws; e, entrance
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.) ]
+
+
+  Laagstroth's hive.
+
+About the same time the Rev. L.L. Langstroth was experimenting on the
+same lines in America, and in 1852 his important invention was made
+known, giving to the world of bee-keepers a movable frame which in its
+most important details will never be excelled. We refer to the respective
+distances left between the side-bars and hive walls on each side, and
+between the lower edge of the bottom-bars and the floor-board.
+Langstroth, in his measurements, hit upon the happy mean which keeps bees
+from propolizing or fastening the frames to the hive body, as they
+assuredly would do if sufficient space had not been allowed for free
+passage round the side-bars; it is equally certain that if too much space
+had been provided, they would fill it with comb and thus render the frame
+immovable. In addition to these benefits, Langstroth's frame and hive
+possessed the enormous advantage over Dzierzon's of being manipulated
+from above, so that any single frame could be raised for inspection
+without disturbing the others. Langstroth's space-measurements have
+remained practically unaltered notwithstanding the many improvements in
+hive-making, and in the various sizes of movable frames, since introduced
+and used in different parts of the world.
+
+
+  Size of frames in the U.S.A.
+
+In the United States of America Langstroth's frame and hive are the
+acknowledged "standards" among the great body of bee-keepers, although
+about a dozen different frames, varying more or less in size, have their
+adherents. Among these may be named the American, Adair, Danzenbaker,
+Gallup, Heddon, Langstroth and Quinby. Three of these, the American,
+Adair and Gallup, may be termed square frames, the others being oblong,
+but the latter shape appears to possess the most all-round advantages to
+the modern bee-keeper. Amid the different climatic conditions of so vast
+a continent as America, variation in size, and in the capacity of frames
+used, is in some measure accounted for.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Standard Frame.]
+
+
+  British "Standard" frame.
+
+In the British Isles, though the conditions are variable enough, they
+are less extreme, and, fortunately for those engaged in the pursuit,
+only one size of frame is acknowledged by the great majority of
+bee-keepers, viz. the British Bee-keepers' Association "Standard" (fig.
+14). This frame, the outside measurement of which is 14 by 8½ in., was
+the outcome of deliberations extending over a considerable time on the
+part of a committee of well-known bee-keepers, specially appointed in
+1882 to consider the matter. In this way, whatever type or form of hive
+is used, the frames are interchangeable. Differences in view may, and
+do, exist regarding the thickness of the wood used in frame-making, but
+the _outside_ measurement never varies. Notwithstanding this fact, the
+advancement of apiculture and the continuous development of the modern
+frame-hive and methods of working have proceeded with such rapidity,
+both in England and in America, that hives and appliances used prior to
+1885 are now obsolete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Langstroth Hive.
+
+(Redrawn from the _A B C of Bee-Culture_, published by the A. I. Root
+Co., Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)]
+
+
+  Winter cellars for bees.
+
+It may, therefore, be useful to compare the progress made in the United
+States of America and in Great Britain in order to show that, while the
+industry is incomparably larger and of more importance in America and
+Canada than in Great Britain, British bee-keepers have been abreast of
+the times in all things apicultural. The original Langstroth hive was
+single-walled, held ten frames (size 17¾ by 9 in.), and had a deep roof,
+made to cover a case of small honey boxes like the sections now in use;
+but the cumbersome projecting porch and sides, made to support the roof,
+are now dispensed with, and the number of frames reduced to eight.
+Although various modifications have since been made in minor
+details--all tending to improvement--its main features are unaltered.
+The typical hive of America is the _improved_ Langstroth (fig. 15),
+which has no other covering for the frame tops but a flat roof-board
+allowing ¼ in. space between the roof and top-bars for bees to pass from
+frame to frame. Consequently, on the roof being raised the bees can take
+wing if not prevented from doing so. This feature finds no favour with
+British bee-keepers, nevertheless the "improved Langstroth" is a useful
+and simple hive, moderate in price, and no doubt efficient, but not
+suitable for bees wintered on their summer stands, as nearly all hives
+are in Great Britain. American bee-keepers, therefore, find it necessary
+to provide underground cellars, into which the bees are carried in the
+fall of each year, remaining there till work begins in the following
+spring. Those among them who cannot, for various reasons, adopt the
+cellar-wintering plan are obliged to provide what are termed
+"chaff-covers" for protecting their bees in winter. Of late years they
+have also introduced, as an improvement, the plan long followed in
+England of using double-walled chaff-packed hives. The difference here
+is that packing is now dispensed with, it being found that bees winter
+equally well with an outer case giving 1½ in. of free space on all sides
+of the hive proper, but with no packing in between. Thus no change is
+needed in winter or summer, the air-space protecting the bees from cold
+in winter and heat in summer. Another point of difference between the
+English and American hive is the roof, which being gable-shaped in the
+former allows warm packing to be placed directly on the frame tops, so
+that the bees are covered in when the roof is removed and may be
+examined or fed with very little disturbance. Again, the American hive
+is, as a general rule, set close down on the ground, while stands or
+short legs are invariably used in Great Britain. One of the best-known
+hives in England is that known as the W.B.C. hive, devised in 1890 by W.
+Broughton Carr.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Exterior, W.B.C. Hive.]
+
+Figs. 16 and 17 explain its construction and, as will be seen, it is
+equally suitable when working for comb or for extracted honey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Interior, W.B.C. Hive.]
+
+
+  Honey extractors.
+
+Various causes have contributed to the development of the modern hive,
+the most important of which are the improvements in methods of
+extracting honey from combs, and in the manufacture of comb-foundation.
+Regarding the first of these, it cannot be said that the honey
+extractor, even in its latest form, differs very much from the original
+machine (fig. 18) invented by Major Hruschka, an officer in the Italian
+army, who in later life became an enthusiastic apiculturist. Hruschka's
+extractor, first brought to public notice in 1865, may be said to have
+revolutionized the bee-industry as a business. It enabled the honey
+producer to increase his output considerably by extracting honey from
+the cells in most cleanly fashion without damaging the combs, and in a
+fraction of the time previously occupied in the draining, heating and
+squeezing process. At the same time the combs were preserved for
+refilling by the bees, in lieu of melting them down for wax. The
+principle of the honey extractor (throwing the liquid honey out of the
+cells by centrifugal force) was discovered quite by accident. Major
+Hruschka's little son chanced to have in his hand a bit of unsealed
+comb-honey in a basket to which was attached a piece of string, and, as
+the boy playfully whirled the basket round in the air, his father
+noticed a few drops of honey, thrown out of the comb by the centrifugal
+force employed to keep the basket suspended. The value of the idea at
+once struck him, he set to work on utilizing the principle involved, and
+ere long had constructed a machine admirably adapted to serve its
+purpose. Since that time changes, of more or less value, have been
+introduced to meet present-day requirements. One of the first to take
+advantage of Hruschka's invention was Mr A. I. Root, who in 1869
+perfected a machine on similar lines to the Hruschka one but embodying
+various improvements. This appliance, known as the "Novice Honey
+Extractor," became very popular in the United States of America, but it
+had the fault of wasting time in removing the combs for reversing after
+one side had been emptied of its contents. A simple form of machine for
+extracting honey by centrifugal force was brought to notice in England
+in 1875, and was soon improved upon, as will be seen in fig. 19, which
+shows a section of one of the best English machines at that time.
+Various plans were tried in America to improve on the "Novice" machine,
+and Mr T.W. Cowan, who was experimenting in the same direction in
+England, invented in the year 1875 a machine called the "Rapid," in
+which, the combs were reversed without removal of the cages (fig. 20).
+The frame-cases--wired on both sides--are hung at the angles of a
+revolving ring of iron, and the reversing process is so simple and
+effective that the "Cowan" reversible frame has been adopted in all the
+best machines both in Great Britain and in America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Hruschka Extractor. (Redrawn from _The A B C of
+Bee Culture_, published by the A. I. Root Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Diagram of the Raynor Extractor.
+
+  A, Section of extractor.
+    fr, Fixing rail
+    ffr, Frame for cage.
+    wb, Metal webbing.
+    wn, Wire netting.
+    co, Comb
+    w, Wire bottom.
+    p, Pivot.
+    c, Stiffening cone.
+    cb, Coned bottom.
+    gt, Gutter.
+    st, Syrup tap.
+  C, Perpendicular section of side of cage enlarged.
+    oc, Outer casing
+    wb, Metal webbing
+    wn, Wire netting
+
+  (From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical._)
+
+The latest form of honey extractor used in America is that known as the
+"Four-frame Cowan." Fig. 21 shows the working part or inside of the
+appliance. In this, and indeed in all extractors used in large apiaries,
+the "Cowan" or reversible frame principle is used. Each of the four
+cages in which the combs are placed is swung on a pivot attached to the
+side, and when the outer faces of the combs are emptied the cages are
+reversed without removal from the machine for emptying the opposite
+sides of combs. The further development of the honey extractor has of
+late been limited to an increase in the size of machine used, in order
+to save time and manual labour, and thus meet the requirements of the
+largest honey producers, who extract honey by the car load. Some of the
+largest machines--propelled by motor power--are capable of taking eight
+or more frames at one time. It may also be claimed for the honey
+extractor that it does away with the objection entertained by many
+persons to the use of honey, by enabling the apiarist to remove his
+produce from the honey-combs in its purest form untainted by crushed
+brood and untouched by hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Cowan's rapid Extractor.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Cowan's four-frame Extractor; interior.
+
+(Redrawn from _The A B C of Bee Culture_, published by the A. I. Root
+Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)]
+
+
+  Comb foundation.
+
+Next in importance, to bee-keepers, is the enormous advance made in late
+years through the invention of a machine for manufacturing the impressed
+wax sheets known as "comb foundation," aptly so named, because upon it
+the bees build the cells wherein they store their food. We need not
+dwell upon the evolution from the crude idea, which first took form in
+the endeavour to compel bees to build straight combs in a given
+direction by offering them a guiding line of wax along the under side of
+each top-bar of the frame in which the combs were built; but we may
+glance at the more important improvements which gradually developed as
+time went on. In 1843 a German bee-keeper, Krechner by name, conceived
+the idea of first dipping fine linen into molten wax, then pressing the
+sheets so made between rollers, and thus forming a waxen midrib on which
+the bees would build their combs. This experiment was partially
+successful, but the instinctive dislike of bees to anything of a fibrous
+nature caused them completely to spoil their work of comb-building in
+the endeavour to tear or gnaw away the linen threads whenever they got
+in touch with them. In 1857 Mehring (also a German) made a further
+advance by the use of wooden moulds for casting sheets of wax impressed
+with the hexagonal form of the bee-cell. These sheets were readily
+accepted by the bees, and afterwards plates cast from metal were
+employed, with so good a result as to give to the bees as perfect a
+midrib as that of natural comb with the deep cell walls cut away. Fig.
+22 shows a portion of one of these metal plates with worker-cells of
+natural size, i.e. five cells to the inch. Thus Mehring is justly
+claimed as the originator of comb-foundation, though the value of his
+invention was less eagerly taken advantage of even in Germany than its
+merits deserved. Probably it was ahead of the times, for not until
+nearly twenty years later was any prominence given to it, when Samuel
+Wagner, founder and editor of the _American Bee Journal_, became
+impressed with Mehring's invention and warmly advocated it in his paper.
+Mr Wagner first conceived the idea of adding slightly raised side walls
+to the hexagonal outlines of the cells, by means of which the bees are
+supplied with the material for building out one-half or more of the
+complete cell walls or sides. The manifest advantage of this was at once
+realized by practical American apiarists as saving labour to the bees
+and money to the bee-keeper. One of the first to recognize its value was
+Mr A I. Root, of Medina, Ohio, who suggested the substitution of
+embossed rollers in lieu of flat plates, in order to increase the output
+of foundation and lessen its cost to the bee-keeper. He lost no time in
+giving practical shape to his views, and mainly through the inventive
+genius of a skilled machinist (Mr A. Washburn) the A. I. Root Co.
+constructed a roller press (fig 23) for producing foundation in sheets.
+This form of machine came into extensive use in the United States of
+America and afterwards in Great Britain. The first roller press was made
+by the A.I. Root Co. and imported by Mr William Raitt, a Scottish
+bee-keeper of repute in Perthshire, N.B. In all roller machines used at
+that time the plain sheets of wax were first made by the "dipping"
+process, i.e. by repeated dippings of damped boards in molten wax (kept
+in liquid condition in tanks immersed in hot water) until the sheet was
+of suitable thickness for the purpose. The prepared sheets were then
+passed through the rollers, and after being cut out and trimmed were
+ready for use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Portion of a type-metal plate--i.e. form of
+Comb Midrib (five cells to the inch). (From Cheshire's _Bees and
+Bee-keeping Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+Owing to the enormous demand for comb-foundation at that time various
+devices were tried with the view of securing (1) more rapid production,
+and (2) a foundation thin enough to be used in surplus chambers when
+working for comb-honey intended for table use. Foremost among the able
+men who experimented in this latter direction was Mr F.B. Weed, a
+skilful American machinist, who, after some years of strenuous effort,
+succeeded in devising and perfecting special rollers and dies, by the
+use of which foundation was produced with a midrib so thin as to compare
+favourably with natural comb built by the bees. "Dipping," however,
+proved not only a stumbling-block to speed but to the production of
+continuous sheets of wax; and in the end Mr Weed, acting in concert with
+Mr A.I. Root (who placed the resources of his enormous factory at his
+disposal), devised and perfected machinery--driven by motor power--for
+manufacturing foundation by what is known as the "Weed" process. By this
+process "dipping" is abolished, and in its latest form sheets of wax of
+any length are produced, passed between engraved rollers 6 in in
+diameter, cut to given lengths, trimmed, counted and paper-tissued ready
+for packing, at a rate of speed previously undreamt of.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Foundation Machine.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+_Practical Management of Bees._--Among the world of insects the
+honey-bee stands pre-eminent as the most serviceable to mankind; from
+the day on which the little labourer leaves its home for the first time
+in search of food, its mission is undoubtedly useful. Launched upon an
+unknown world, and guided by unerring instinct to the very flowers it
+seeks, the bee fertilizes fruit and flowers while winging its happy
+flight among the blossoms, gathering pollen for the nurslings of its own
+home and honey for the use of man. Nothing seems to be lost, nor can any
+part of the bee's work be accounted labour in vain; the very wax from
+which the insect builds the store-combs for its food and the cells in
+which its young are hatched and reared is valuable to mankind in many
+ways, and is regarded today no less than in the past ages as an
+important commercial product. The hive bee is, moreover, the only insect
+known to be capable of domestication, so far as labouring under the
+direct control of the bee-master is concerned, its habits being
+admirably adapted for embodying human methods of working for profit in
+our present-day life.
+
+In dealing with the practical side of apiculture it will not be
+necessary to do more than mention the salient points to be considered by
+those desirous of acquiring more complete knowledge of the subject.
+Authoritative text-books specially written for the guidance of
+bee-keepers are numerous and cheap, and on no account should any one
+engage in an attempt to manage bees on modern lines without a careful
+perusal of one or more of these. Bearing this in mind the reader will
+understand that so much of the natural history of the honey-bee as is
+necessary for elucidating the practical part of our subject may be
+comprised in (1) the life of the insect, (2) its mission in life, and
+(3) utilizing to the utmost the brief period during which it can labour
+before being worn out with toil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.-Hive bee (_Apis mellafica_). a, Worker; b,
+queen; c, drone.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+
+  Sex of bees.
+
+  Loss of queens.
+
+A prosperous bee-colony managed on modern lines will in the height of
+summer consist of three kinds of bees: a queen or mother-bee, a certain
+number of drones, and from 80,000 to 100,000 workers. With regard to
+sex, the queen is a fully-developed female, the drones are males and the
+workers may be termed neuters or partially developed females. These last
+possess ovaries like the queen, but shrunken and aborted so as to render
+the insect normally incapable of egg-production. The relative importance
+of the three kinds of bees, differs greatly in a degree and in somewhat
+curious fashion. For instance, the queen (or "king" of the hives as it
+was termed by our forefathers) is of paramount importance at certain
+seasons, her death or disablement during the period when the male
+element is absent meaning extinction of the whole colony. Fecundation
+would under such conditions be impossible, and without this the eggs of
+a resultant queen will produce nothing but drones. During the summer
+season, however (from May to July), when drones are abundant, the loss
+of a queen is of comparatively little moment, as the workers can
+transform eggs (or young larvae not more than three days old), which
+would in the ordinary course produce worker bees, into fully-developed
+queens, capable of fulfilling all the maternal duties of a mother-bee.
+The value of this wonderful provision of nature to the bee-keeper of
+today may be estimated from the fact that bees managed according to
+modern methods are necessarily subject to so much manipulating or
+handling, that fatal accidents are as likely to happen in bee life as
+among human beings.
+
+Authorities differ with regard to the age during which the queen bee is
+useful to the bee-keeper who works for profit. Under normal conditions
+the insect will live for three, four or sometimes five years, but the
+stimulation given together with the high-pressure system followed in
+modern bee-management, exhausts the period of her greatest fecundity in
+two years, so that queens are usually superseded after their second
+season has expired and egg-production gradually decreases. This can
+hardly cause wonder if it is borne in mind that for many weeks during
+the height of the season a prolific queen will deposit eggs at the rate
+of from two to three thousand every twenty-four hours.
+
+
+  The drone.
+
+Drones (or male bees) are more or less numerous in hives according to
+the skill of the bee-keeper in limiting their production. It is admitted
+by those best able to judge that the proportion of about a hundred
+drones in each hive is conducive to the prosperity of the colony, but
+beyond that number they are worse than useless, being non-producers and
+heavy consumers. Thus in times of scarcity, which are not infrequent
+during the early part of the season, they become a heavy tax upon the
+food-supply of the colony at the critical period when brood-rearing is
+accelerated by an abundance of stores, while shortness of food means a
+falling-off in egg-production. The modern bee-keeper, therefore, allows
+just so much drone comb in the hive as will produce a sufficient number
+of drones to ensure queen-mating, while affording to the bees the
+satisfaction of dwelling in a home equipped according to natural
+conditions, and containing all the elements necessary to bee-life. The
+action of the bees themselves makes this point clear, for when the
+season of mating is past the drone is no longer needed, the providing of
+winter stores taking first place in the economy of the hive. So long as
+honey is being gathered in plenty drones are tolerated, but no sooner
+does the honey harvest show signs of being over than they are
+mercilessly killed and cast out of the hive by the workers, after a
+brief idle life of about four months' duration. Thus the "lazy yawning
+drone," as Shakespeare puts it, has a short shrift when his usefulness
+to the community is ended.
+
+
+  The worker-bee.
+
+  Longevity in bees.
+
+Finally we have the aptly named worker-bee, on whom devolves the entire
+labour of the colony. The worker-bee is incapable of egg-production and
+can therefore take no part in the perpetuation of its species, so that
+individually its value to the community is infinitesimal. Yet it forms
+an item in a commonwealth, the members of which are in all respects
+equally well endowed. They are in turn skilled scientists, architects,
+builders, artisans, labourers and even scavengers; but collectively they
+are the rulers on whom the colony depends for the wonderful condition of
+law and order which has made the bee-community a model of good
+government for all mankind. Then so far as regards longevity, the period
+of a worker-bee's existence is not measured by numbering its days but
+simply by wear and tear, the marvellous intricacy and wonderful
+perfection of its framework being so delicate in construction that after
+six or seven weeks of strenuous toil, such as the bee undergoes in
+summer time, the little creature's labour is ended by a natural death.
+On the other hand, worker-bees hatched in the autumn will seven months
+later be strong with the vigour of lusty youth, able to take their full
+share in the labour of the hive for six weeks or more in the early
+spring, which is the most critical period in the colony's existence;
+hence the value to the apiarist of bees hatched in the autumn.
+
+The mission of the worker-bee is _work_; not so much for itself as for
+the younger members of the community to which it belongs. We cannot
+claim for it the virtue of strict honesty with regard to the stranger,
+but for its own "kith and kin" it is a model of socialism in an ideal
+form, possessing nothing of its own yet toiling unceasingly for the good
+of all. The increasing warmth of each recurring spring finds the bee
+awake, and full of eagerness to be up and doing; its sole mission being
+apparently to accomplish as much work as possible while life lasts. The
+earliest pollen is sought out from far and near, and has its immediate
+effect upon the mother bee of the colony. If healthy and young she
+begins egg-laying at once, and brood-rearing proceeds at an
+ever-increasing rate as each week passes, until the hive is brimming
+over with bees in time for the first honey flow. Then comes the almost
+human foresight with which the bee prevents the inevitable chaos created
+by an overcrowded home. There is no cell-room either for storing the
+abundant supply of food constantly being brought in, or for the
+thousands of eggs which a prolific queen will produce daily as a
+consequence of general prosperity; therefore unless help comes from
+without an exodus is prepared for, and what is known as "swarming" takes
+place.
+
+
+  Swarming.
+
+  Hiving swarms.
+
+It would be difficult to imagine anything more exhilarating to a
+beginner in bee-keeping than the sight of his first hive in the act of
+swarming. The little creatures are seen rushing in frantic haste from
+the hive like a living stream, filling the air with ever-increasing
+thousands of bees on the wing. The incoming workers returning
+pollen-laden from the fields, carried away by the prevailing excitement,
+do not stop to unload their burdens in the old home, but join the
+enthusiastic emigrants, tumbling over each other pell-mell in the
+outrush; among them the queen of the colony will in due course have
+taken her place, bound like her children for a new home. It soon becomes
+apparent to the onlooker when the queen has joined the flying multitude
+of bees in the air, for they are seen to be closing up their ranks, and
+in a few moments begin to form a solid cluster, usually on the branch of
+a small tree or bush close to the ground. When this stage of swarming is
+reached the bee-keeper has but to take his hiving skep, hold it under
+the swarm, and shake the bees into it, preparatory to transferring them
+into a frame-hive already prepared for their reception. The process of
+hiving a swarm is very simple and need not occupy many moments of time
+under ordinary conditions, but so many unlooked-for contingencies may
+arise that the apiarist would do well to prepare himself beforehand by
+carefully reading the directions in his text-book.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Honeycomb, Metamorphoses of the Honey Bee.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+The illustration given in fig. 25 will serve more readily than words to
+enlighten the would-be bee-keeper. It shows a portion of honeycomb
+(natural size) not precisely as it appears when the frame containing it
+is lifted out of the hive, but as would be seen on two or more combs in
+the same hive, namely, the various cells built for--and occupied
+by--queens, drones and workers; also the larvae or grubs in the various
+stages of transformation from egg to perfect insect, with the latter
+biting their way out of sealed cells. It also shows sealed honey and
+pollen in cells, &c. To familiarize himself with the various objects
+depicted, all of which are drawn from nature, will not only help the
+reader to understand the different phases of bee-life during the
+swarming season, but tend to increase the interest of beginners in the
+pursuit. "Early drones, early swarms" was the ancient bee-man's
+favourite adage, and the skilled apiarist of to-day experiences the
+same pleasurable thrill as did the skeppist of old at the sight of the
+first drone of the year, which betokens an early swarm. As the drones
+increase in number queen-cells are formed, unless steps be taken to turn
+aside the swarming impulse by affording additional room beforehand in
+the hive. The above brief outline of the guiding principles of natural
+swarming is merely intended as introductory to the fuller information
+given in a good text-book.
+
+
+  Bee-forage in U.S.A.
+
+_Management of an Apiary._--The main consideration in establishing an
+apiary is to secure a favourable location, which means a place where
+honey of good marketable quality may be gathered from the bee-forage
+growing around without any planting on the part of the bee-keeper
+himself. It is impossible to deal here with the varying conditions under
+which apiculture is carried on in all parts of the world, but, as a
+rule, the same principle applies everywhere. The bee industry prospers
+greatly in America, where amid the vast stretches of mountain and canyon
+in California the bee-forage extends for miles without a break, and the
+climatic conditions are so generally favourable as to reduce to a
+minimum the chances of the honey crop failing through adverse weather.
+
+The bee-keeper's object is to utilize to the utmost the brief space of a
+worker-bee's life in summer, by adopting the best methods in vogue for
+building up stocks to full strength before the honey-gathering time
+begins, and preparing for it by the exercise of skill and intelligence
+in carrying out this work.
+
+
+  Value of pollen.
+
+  The queen of bee-plants.
+
+In the United Kingdom there is a difference of several weeks in the
+honey season between north and south. Swarming usually begins in May in
+the south of England, and in mid-July in the north of Scotland, the
+issue of swarms coinciding with the early part of the main honey flow.
+The weather is naturally more precarious in autumn than earlier in the
+year, and chances of success proportionately smaller for northern
+bee-men, but the disadvantage to the latter is more than compensated for
+by the heather season, which extends well into September. With regard to
+the British bee-keeper located in the south, the early fruit crop is
+what concerns him most, and where pollen (the fertilizing dust of
+flowers) is plentiful his bees will make steady progress. If pollen is
+scarce, a substitute in the form of either pea-meal or wheaten flour
+must be supplied to the bees, as brood-rearing cannot make headway
+without the nitrogenous element indispensable in the food on which the
+young are reared. But the main honey-crop of both north and south is
+gathered from the various trifoliums, among which the white Dutch or
+common clover (_Trifolium repens_) is acknowledged to be the most
+important honey-producing plant wherever it grows. In the United States,
+Canada, Australia, New Zealand and in many other parts of the world
+honey of the finest quality is obtained from this "queen of bee-plants,"
+and in lesser degree from other clovers such as sainfoin, alsike (a
+hybrid clover), trefoil, &c.
+
+
+  British and American methods.
+
+Before undertaking the management of a modern apiary, the bee-keeper
+should possess a certain amount of aptitude for the pursuit, without
+which it is hardly possible to succeed. He must also acquire the ability
+to handle bees judiciously and well under all imaginable conditions. In
+doing this it is needful to remember that bees resent outside
+interference with either their work or their hives, and will resolutely
+defend themselves when aroused even at the cost of life itself.
+Experience has also proved that, when alarmed, bees instinctively begin
+to fill their honey-sacs with food from the nearest store-cells as a
+safeguard against contingencies, and when so provided they are more
+amenable to interference. The bee-keeper, therefore, by the judicious
+application of a little smoke from smouldering fuel, blown into the hive
+by means of an appliance known as a bee-smoker, alarms the bees and is
+thus able to manipulate the frames of comb with ease and almost no
+disturbance. The smoker (fig. 26) devised by T.F. Bingham of Farwell,
+Michigan, U.S.A., is the one most used in America and in the United
+Kingdom. No other protection is needed beyond a bee-veil of fine black
+net, which slipped over a wide-brimmed straw hat protects the face from
+stings when working among bees; as experience is gained the veil is not
+always used. The man who is hasty and nervous in temperament, who fears
+an occasional sting, and resents the same by viciously killing the bee
+that inflicts it will rarely make a good apiarist. The methods of
+handling bees vary in different countries, this being in a great measure
+accounted for by the number of hives kept. Very few apiaries in the
+United Kingdom contain more than a hundred hives; consequently the
+British bee-keeper has no need for employing the forceful or "hustling"
+methods found necessary in America, where the honey-crop is gathered in
+car-loads and the hives numbered by thousands. It naturally follows that
+bee-life is there regarded very slightly by comparison, and the
+bee-garden in England becomes the "bee-yard" in America, where the
+apiarist when at work must thoroughly protect himself from being stung,
+and, safe in his immunity from damage, cares little for bee-life in
+getting through his task, the loss of a few hundred bees being
+considered of no account. There are, however, other reasons, apart from
+humanity, to account for the difference in handling bees as advocated in
+the United Kingdom. The great majority of apiaries owned by British
+bee-keepers are located in close proximity to neighbours; consequently a
+serious upset among the bees would in many cases involve an amount of
+trouble which should if possible be avoided; therefore quietness and the
+exercise of care when manipulating are always recommended by teachers,
+and practised by those who wisely take their lessons to heart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Bee-Smoker.
+
+(Redrawn from the _A B C of Bee-Culture_, published by the A.I. Root Co,
+Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)
+
+
+  Chosing a location.
+
+  Bee-keeping for profit.
+
+Having made himself proficient in practical bee-work and chosen a
+suitable location for his apiary, the bee-keeper should carefully select
+the particular type of hive most suited to his means and requirements.
+This point settled, uniformity is secured, and all loose parts of the
+hives being interchangeable time will be saved during the busy season
+when time means money. Beginning with not too many stocks he can test
+the capabilities of his location before investing much capital in the
+undertaking, so that by utilizing the information already given and
+adopting the wise adage "make haste slowly" he will realize in good time
+whether it will pay best to work for honey in comb or extracted honey in
+bulk; not only so, but the knowledge gained will enable him to select
+such appliances as are suited to his needs. As a rule, it may be said
+that the man content to start with an apiary of moderate size--say fifty
+stocks--may realize a fair profit from comb-honey only; but so limited a
+venture would need to be supplemented by some other means before an
+adequate income could be secured. On the other hand, the owner of one or
+two hundred colonies would find it more lucrative to work for extracted
+honey and send it out to wholesale buyers in that form. By so doing a
+far greater weight of surplus per hive may be secured, and extracted
+honey will keep in good condition for years, while comb-honey must be
+sold before granulation sets in. At the same time it is but fair to say
+that bee-culture in the United Kingdom, if limited to honey-production
+alone, is not sufficiently safe for entire reliance to be placed on it
+for obtaining a livelihood. The uncertain climate renders it necessary
+to include either other branches of the craft less dependent on warmth
+and sunshine, or to combine it with fruit-growing, poultry-rearing, &c.
+Under such conditions the bees will usually occupy a good position in
+the balance-sheet.
+
+
+  Need of forethought.
+
+Another indispensable feature of good bee-management is "forethought,"
+coupled with order and neatness; the rule of "a place for everything
+and everything in its place" prepares the bee-keeper for any emergency;
+constant watchfulness is also necessary, not only to guard against
+disease in his hives, but to overlook nothing that tends to be of
+advantage to the bees at all seasons. Among the many ways of saving time
+nothing is more useful than a carefully-kept note-book, wherein are
+recorded brief memoranda regarding such items as condition of each stock
+when packed for winter, amount of stores, age and prolific capacity of
+queen, strength of colony, healthiness or otherwise, &c., all of which
+particulars should be noted and the hives to which they refer plainly
+numbered. It also enables the bee-keeper to arrange his day's work
+indoors while avoiding disturbance to such colonies as do not need
+interference. In the early spring stores must be seen to and replenished
+where required; breeding stimulated when pollen begins to be gathered,
+and appliances cleaned and prepared for use during the busy season.
+
+
+  Length of bee season.
+
+  Swarm prevention.
+
+The main honey-gathering time (lasting about six or seven weeks) is so
+brief that in no pursuit is it more important to "make hay while the sun
+shines," and if the bee-keeper needs a reminder of this truism he surely
+has it in the example set by his bees. As the season advances and the
+flowers yield nectar more freely, visible signs of comb-building will be
+observed in the whitened edges of empty cells in the brood-chambers; the
+thoughtful workers are lengthening out the cells for honey-storing, and
+the bee-master takes the hint by giving room in advance, thus lessening
+the chance of undesired swarms. In other words, order and method,
+combined with the habit of taking time by the forelock, are absolutely
+necessary to the bee-keeper, seeing that the enormous army of workers
+under his control is multiplying daily by scores of thousands. As spring
+merges into summer, sunny days become more frequent; the ever-increasing
+breadth of bee-forage yields still more abundantly, and the excitement
+among the labourers crowding the hives increases, rendering room in
+advance, shade and ventilation, a _sine qua non_. It requires a level
+head to keep cool amongst a couple of hundred strong stocks of bees on a
+hot summer's day in a good honey season. Moreover, it will be too late
+to think of giving ventilation at noontide, when the temperature has
+risen to 80° F. in the shade; the necessary precautions for swarm
+prevention must therefore be taken in advance, for when what is known as
+the "swarming fever" once starts it is most difficult to overcome.
+
+The well-read and intelligent bee-keeper, content to work on orthodox
+lines, will be able to manage an apiary--large or small--by guiding and
+controlling the countless army he commands in a way that will yield him
+both pleasure and profit. All he needs is good bee weather and an apiary
+free from disease to make him appreciate bee-craft as one of the most
+remunerative of rural industries; affording a wholesome open-air life
+conducive to good health and yielding an abundance of contentment.
+
+_Diseases of Bees._--It is quite natural that bees living in colonies
+should be subject to diseases, and only since the introduction of
+movable-comb hives has it been possible to learn something about these
+ailments. The most serious disease with which the bee-keeper has to
+contend is that commonly known as "bee-pest" or "foul brood," so called
+because of the young brood dying and rotting in the cells. This disease
+has been known from the earliest ages, and is probably the same as that
+designated by Pliny as _blapsigonia (Natural History_, bk. xi. ch. xx.).
+Coming to later times, Della Rocca minutely describes a disease to which
+bees were subject in the island of Syra, between the years 1777 and
+1780, and through which nearly every colony in the island perished. From
+the description given it was undoubtedly foul brood, and the bee-keepers
+of the island became convinced, after bitter experience, that it was
+extremely contagious. Schirach also mentioned and described the disease
+in 1769, and was the first to give it the name of "foul brood." Still
+later, in 1874, Dr Cohn, after the most exhaustive experiments and
+bacteriological research, realized that the disease was caused by a
+bacillus, and--nine years later--the name _Bacillus alvei_ was given to
+it by Cheyne and Cheshire, whose views were in agreement with those of
+Dr Cohn.
+
+The illustration (fig. 27) shows a portion of comb affected with foul
+brood in its worst form. The sealed cells are dark-coloured and sunken,
+pierced with irregular holes, and the larvae in all stages from the
+crescent-shaped healthy condition to that in which the dead larvae are
+seen lying at the bottom of the cells, flaccid and shapeless. The
+remains then change to buff colour, afterwards turning brown, when
+decomposition sets in, and as the bacilli present in the dead larvae
+increase and the nutrient matter is consumed, the mass in some cases
+becomes sticky and ropy in character, making its removal impossible by
+the bees. In course of time it dries up, leaving nothing but a brown
+scale adhering to the bottom or side of the cell. In the worst cases the
+larvae even die after the cells are sealed over; a strong characteristic
+and offensive odour being developed in some phases of the disease,
+noticeable at times some distance away from the hive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Foul Brood (_Bacillus alvei_).
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical._)]
+
+Two forms of foul brood have been long known, one foul smelling, the
+other odourless; and investigations made during 1906 and 1907 showed that
+the etiology of the disease is not by any means simple, but that it is
+produced by different microbes, two others in addition to _Bacillus
+alvei_ playing an important part. These are _Bacillus brandenburgiensis_,
+Maassen (syn. _B. burri_, Burri: _B. larvae_, white), and _Streptococcus
+apis_, Maassen (syn. _B. Guntheri_, Burri). The first two are found in
+both forms of foul brood, whereas the last is only present with _B.
+alvei_ in the strong-smelling form of the disease, in which the larvae
+are attacked prior to the cells being sealed over.
+
+The brood of bees, when healthy, lies in the combs in compact masses,
+the larvae being plump and of a pearly whiteness, and when quite young
+curled up on their sides at the base of the cells. When attacked by the
+disease, the larva moves uneasily, stretches itself out lengthwise in
+the cell, and finally becomes loose and flabby, an appearance which
+plainly indicates death.
+
+When the disease attacks the larvae before they are sealed over
+_Bacillus alvei_ is present, usually associated with _Streptococcus
+apis_, which latter imparts a sour smell to the dead brood. In cases
+where the disease is odourless the larvae are attacked after the cells
+are sealed over, and just before they change to pupae, when they become
+slimy, sputum-like masses, difficult to remove from the cells. Under
+these conditions _Bacillus brandenburgiensis_ is found, although
+_Bacillus alvei_ may also be present. The two bacilli are antagonistic,
+each striving for supremacy, first one then the other predominating.
+Various other microbes are also present in large numbers, but are not
+believed to be pathogenic or disease-producing in character.
+
+It is, therefore, seen that at least three different microbes play an
+important part in the same disease. The danger of contagion lies in the
+wonderful vitality of the spores, and their great resistance to heat and
+cold. Dr Maassen records a case where he had no difficulty in obtaining
+cultures from spores removed from combs after being kept dry for twenty
+years. It should be borne in mind that the disease is much easier to
+cure in the earlier stages while the bacilli are still rod-shaped than
+when the rods have turned to spores.
+
+Since the bacterial origin of foul brood has been established, the
+efforts of some bacteriologists have been employed in finding a simple
+remedy by means of which the disease may be checked in its earliest
+stages, and in this an appreciable amount of success has been attained.
+Nor has foul brood in its more advanced forms been neglected, all
+directions for treatment being found in text-books written by
+distinguished writers on apiculture in the United Kingdom, America and
+throughout the European continent.
+
+The only other disease to which reference need be made here is
+dysentery, which sometimes breaks out after the long confinement bees
+are compelled to undergo during severe winters. This trouble may be
+guarded against by feeding the bees in the early autumn with good food
+made from cane sugar, and housing them in well-ventilated hives kept
+warm and dry by suitable coverings. When bees are wintered on thin,
+watery food not sealed over, and are unable for months to take cleansing
+flights, they become weak and involuntarily discharge their excrement
+over the combs and hive, a state of things never seen in a healthy
+colony under normal conditions. The stocks of bee-keepers who attend to
+the instructions given in text-books are rarely visited by this disease.
+
+The above embraces all that is necessary to be said in relation to
+diseases, though bees have been subject to other ailments such as
+paralysis, constipation, &c.
+
+In the Isle of Wight a serious epidemic broke out in 1906 which caused
+great destruction to bee-life in the following year. The malady was of
+an obscure character, but its cause has been under investigation by the
+British Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, and by European
+bacteriologists in 1908.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Though in modern times a great deal has appeared in the
+  daily newspapers on the subject, it is a notable fact that not a tithe
+  of the wonderful things published in such articles about bees and
+  bee-keeping is worthy of credence or possesses any real value. Indeed,
+  a pressman possessing any technical knowledge of the subject--beyond
+  that obtainable from books--would be a _rara avis_. The account given
+  above is the result of forty years' practical experience with bees in
+  England, the writer having for a great portion of the time been
+  connected editorially with the only two papers in that country
+  entirely devoted to bees and bee-keeping, _The British Bee Journal_
+  (weekly, founded 1873), and _Bee-keepers' Record_ (monthly, founded
+  1882), the former being the only weekly journal in the world. The
+  following books on the subject may be consulted for further
+  details:--François Huber, _New Observations on the Natural History of
+  Bees_; T.W. Cowan, _British Bee-keepers' Guide-Book, The Honey Bee,
+  its Natural History, Anatomy and Physiology; Langstroth on the Honey
+  Bee_, revised by C. Dadant & Son; A.I. Root, _A B C and X Y Z of
+  Bee-culture_; F.R. Cheshire, _Bees and Bee-keeping_; Dr Dzierzon,
+  _Rational Bee-keeping_; E. Bertrand, _Conduite du rucher_; A.J. Cook,
+  _Manual of the Apiary_; Dr C.C. Miller, _Forty Years among the Bees_;
+  F.W.L. Sladen, _Queen-rearing in England_; S. Simmins, _A Modern Bee
+  Farm_.     (W. B. Ca.)
+
+
+
+
+BEECH, a well-known tree, _Fagus sylvatica_, a member of the order
+Fagaceae to which belong the sweet-chestnut (_Castanea_) and oak. The
+name beech is from the Anglo-Saxon _boc, bece_ or _beoce_ (Ger. _Buche_,
+Swedish, _bok_), words meaning at once a book and a beech-tree. The
+connexion of the beech with the graphic arts is supposed to have
+originated in the fact that the ancient Runic tablets were formed of
+thin boards of beech-wood. "The origin of the word," says Prior
+(_Popular Names of British Plants_), "is identical with that of the
+Sanskrit _boko_, letter, _bokos_, writings; and this correspondence of
+the Indian and our own is interesting as evidence of two things, viz.
+that the Brahmins had the art of writing before they detached themselves
+from the common stock of the Indo-European race in Upper Asia, and that
+we and other Germans have received alphabetic signs from the East by a
+northern route and not by the Mediterranean." Beech-mast, the fruit of
+the beech-tree, was formerly known in England as buck; and the county of
+Buckingham is so named from its fame as a beech-growing country.
+Buckwheat (_Bucheweizen_) derives its name from the similarity of its
+angular seeds to beech-mast. The generic name Fagus is derived from
+[Greek: phagein] to eat; but the [Greek: phaegos] of Theophrastus was
+probably the sweet chestnut (_Aesculus_) of the Romans. Beech-mast has
+been used as food in times of distress and famine; and in autumn it
+yields an abundant supply of food to park-deer and other game, and to
+pigs, which are turned into beech-woods in order to utilize the fallen
+mast. In France it is used for feeding pheasants and domestic poultry.
+Well-ripened beech-mast yields from 17 to 20% of non-drying oil,
+suitable for illumination, and said to be used in some parts of France
+and other European countries in cooking, and as a substitute for butter.
+
+The beech is one of the largest British trees, particularly on chalky or
+sandy soils, native in England from Yorkshire southwards, and planted in
+Scotland and Ireland. It is one of the common forest trees of temperate
+Europe, spreading from southern Norway and Sweden to the Mediterranean.
+It is found on the Swiss Alps to about 5000 ft. above sea-level, and in
+southern Europe is usually confined to high mountain slopes; it is
+plentiful in southern Russia, and is widely distributed in Asia Minor
+and the northern provinces of Persia.
+
+It is characterized by its sturdy pillar-like stem, often from 15 to 20
+ft. in girth, and smooth olive-grey bark. The main branches rise
+vertically, while the subsidiary branches spread outwards and give the
+whole tree a rounded outline. The slender brown pointed buds give place
+in April to clear green leaves fringed with delicate silky hairs. The
+flowers which appear in May are inconspicuous and, as usual with our
+forest trees, of two kinds; the male, in long-stalked globular clusters,
+hang from the axils of the lower leaves of a shoot, while the female,
+each of two or three flowers in a tiny cup (cupule of bracts), stand
+erect nearer the top of the shoot. In the ripe fruit or mast the
+four-sided cupule, which has become much enlarged, brown and tough,
+encloses two or three three-sided rich chestnut-brown fruits, each
+containing a single seed. It is readily propagated by its seeds. It is a
+handsome tree in every stage of its growth, but is more injurious to
+plants under its drip than other trees, so that shade-bearing trees, as
+holly, yew and thuja, suffer. Its leaves, however, enrich the soil. The
+beech has a remarkable power of holding the ground where the soil is
+congenial, and the deep shade prevents the growth of other trees. It is
+often and most usefully mixed with oak and Scotch fir. The timber is not
+remarkable for either strength or durability. It was formerly much used
+in mill-work and turnery; but its principal use at present is in the
+manufacture of chairs, bedsteads and a variety of minor articles. It
+makes excellent fuel and charcoal. The copper-beech is a variety with
+copper-coloured leaves, due to the presence of a red colouring-matter in
+the sap. There is also a weeping or pendulous-branched variety; and
+several varieties with more or less cut leaves, are known in
+cultivation.
+
+The genus _Fagus_ is widely spread in temperate regions, and contains in
+addition to our native beech, about 15 other species. A variety (_F.
+sylvatica_ var. _Sieboldi_) is a native of Japan, where it is one of the
+finest and most abundant of the deciduous-leaved forest trees. _Fagus
+americana_ is one of the most beautiful and widely-distributed trees of
+the forests of eastern North America. It was confounded by early
+European travellers with _F. sylvatica_, from which it is distinguished
+by its paler bark and lighter green, more sharply-toothed leaves.
+Several species are found in Australia and New Zealand, and in the
+forests of southern Chile and Patagonia. The dense forests which cover
+the shore of the Straits of Magellan and the mountain-slopes of Tierra
+del Fuego consist largely of two beeches--one evergreen, _Fagus
+betuloides_, and one with deciduous leaves, _F. antarctica_.
+
+
+
+
+BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON (1856-1904), American palaeontologist, was born
+at Dunkirk, New York, on the 9th of October 1856. He graduated at the
+university of Michigan in 1878, and then became assistant to James Hall
+in the state museum at Albany. Ten years later he was appointed to the
+charge of the invertebrate fossils in the Peabody Museum, New Haven,
+under O.C. Marsh, whom he succeeded in 1899 as curator. Meanwhile in
+1889 he received the degree of Ph.D. from Yale University for his memoir
+on the _Brachiospongidae_, a remarkable group of Silurian sponges;
+later on he did good work among the fossil corals, and other groups,
+being ultimately regarded as a leading authority on fossil crustacea and
+brachiopoda; his researches on the development of the brachiopoda, and
+on the Trilobites _Triarthrus_ and _Trinudeus_, were especially
+noteworthy. In 1892 he was appointed professor of palaeontology in Yale
+University. He died on the 14th of February 1904.
+
+  Memoir by C. Schuchert in _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xvii., June
+  1904 (with portrait and bibliography).
+
+
+
+
+BEECHER, HENRY WARD (1813-1887), American preacher and reformer, was
+born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 24th of June 1813. He was the
+eighth child of Lyman and Roxana Foote Beecher, and brother of Harriet
+Beecher Stowe. Entering Amherst College in 1830, and graduating four
+years later, he gave more attention to his own courses of reading than
+to college studies, and was more popular with his fellows than with the
+faculty. With a patience foreign to his impulsive nature, he submitted
+to minute drill in elocution, and became a fluent extemporaneous
+speaker. Reared in a Puritan atmosphere, he has graphically described
+the mystical experience which, coming to him in his early youth, changed
+his whole conception of theology and determined his choice of the
+ministry. "I think," he says, "that when I stand in Zion and before God,
+the highest thing that I shall look back upon will be that blessed
+morning of May when it pleased God to reveal to my wondering soul the
+idea that it was His nature to love a man in his sins for the sake of
+helping him out of them." In 1837 he graduated from Lane Theological
+Seminary in Ohio, of which his father was president, and entered upon
+his work as pastor of a missionary Presbyterian church at Lawrenceburg,
+Indiana, a village on the Ohio, about 20 m. below Cincinnati. The
+membership numbered nineteen women and one man. Beecher was sexton as
+well as preacher. Two years later he accepted a call to Indianapolis.
+His unconventional preaching shocked the more staid members of the
+flock, but filled the church to overflowing with people unaccustomed to
+churchgoing. He studied men rather than books; became acquainted with
+the vices in what was then a pioneer town; and in his _Seven Lectures to
+Young Men_ (1844) treated these with genuine power of realistic
+description and with youthful and exuberant rhetoric. Eight years later
+(1847) he accepted a call to the pastorate of Plymouth Church
+(Congregational), then newly organized in Brooklyn, New York. The
+situation of the church, within five minutes' walk of the chief ferry to
+New York, the stalwart character of the man who had organized it, and
+the peculiar eloquence of Beecher, combined to make the pulpit a
+national platform. The audience-room of the church, capable of seating
+2000 or 2500 people, frequently contained 500 or 1000 more.
+
+Beecher at once became a recognized leader. On the all-absorbing
+question of slavery he took a middle ground between the pro-slavery or
+peace party, and abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell
+Phillips, believing, with such statesmen as W.H. Seward, Salmon P.
+Chase, and Abraham Lincoln, that slavery was to be overthrown under the
+constitution and in the Union, by forbidding its growth and trusting to
+an awakened conscience, enforced by an enlightened self-interest. He was
+always an anti-slavery man, but never technically an abolitionist, and
+he joined the Republican party soon after its organization. In the
+earlier days of the agitation, he challenged the hostility which often
+mobbed the anti-slavery gatherings; in the later days he consulted with
+the political leaders, inspiring the patriotism of the North, and
+sedulously setting himself to create a public opinion which should
+confirm and ratify the emancipation proclamation whenever the president
+should issue it. When danger of foreign intervention cast its
+threatening shadow across the national path, he went to England, and by
+his famous addresses did what probably no other American could have done
+to strengthen the spirit in England favourable to the United States, and
+to convert that which was doubtful and hostile. In 1861-1863 he was the
+editor-in-chief of the _Independent_, then a Congregational journal; and
+in his editorials, copied far and wide, produced a profound impression
+on the public mind by clarifying and defining the issue. Later (in
+1870), he founded and became editor-in-chief of the _Christian Union_,
+afterwards the _Outlook_, a religious undenominational weekly. His
+lectures and addresses had the spirit if not the form of his sermons,
+just as his sermons were singularly free from the homiletical tone. Yet
+his work as a reformer was subsidiary to his work as a preacher. He was
+not indeed a parish pastor; he inspired church activities which grew to
+large proportions, but trusted the organization of them to laymen of
+organizing abilities in the church; and for acquaintance with his people
+he depended on such social occasions as were furnished in the free
+atmosphere of this essentially New England church at the close of every
+service. But during his pastorate the church grew to be probably the
+largest in membership in the United States.
+
+It was in the pulpit that Beecher was seen at his best. His mastery of
+the English tongue, his dramatic power, his instinctive art of
+impersonation, which had become a second nature, his vivid imagination,
+his breadth of intellectual view, the catholicity of his sympathies, his
+passionate enthusiasm, which made for the moment his immediate theme
+seem to him the one theme of transcendent importance, his quaint humour
+alternating with genuine pathos, and above all his simple and singularly
+unaffected devotional nature, made him as a preacher without a peer in
+his own time and country. His favourite theme was love: love to man was
+to him the fulfilment of all law; love of God was the essence of all
+Christianity. Retaining to the day of his death the forms and phrases of
+the New England theology in which he had been reared, he poured into
+them a new meaning and gave to them a new significance. He probably did
+more than any other man in America to lead the Puritan churches from a
+faith which regarded God as a moral governor, the Bible as a book of
+laws, and religion as obedience to a conscience to a faith which regards
+God as a father, the Bible as a book of counsels, and religion as a life
+of liberty in love. The later years of his life were darkened by a
+scandal which Beecher's personal, political and theological enemies used
+for a time effectively to shadow a reputation previously above reproach,
+he being charged by Theodore Tilton, whom he had befriended, with having
+had improper relations with his (Tilton's) wife. But in the midst of
+these accusations (February 1876), the largest and most representative
+Congregational council ever held in the United States gave expression to
+a vote of confidence in him, which time has absolutely justified. Not a
+student of books nor a technical scholar in any department, Beecher's
+knowledge was as wide as his interests were varied. He was early
+familiar with the works of Matthew Arnold, Charles Darwin and Herbert
+Spencer; he preached his _Bible Studies_ sermons in 1878, when the
+higher criticism was wholly unknown to most evangelical ministers or
+known only to be dreaded; and his sermons on _Evolution and Religion_ in
+1885, when many of the ministry were denouncing evolution as atheistic.
+He was stricken with apoplexy while still active in the ministry, and
+died at Brooklyn on the 8th of March 1887, in the seventy-fourth year of
+his age.
+
+  The principal books by Beecher, besides his published sermons, are:
+  _Seven Lectures to Young Men_ (1844); _Plymouth Collection of Hymns
+  and Tunes_ (1855); _Star Papers, Experiences of Art and Nature_
+  (1855); _Life Thoughts_ (1858); _New Star Papers; or Views and
+  Experiences of Religious Subjects_ (1859); _Plain and Pleasant Talks
+  about Fruits, Flowers, and Farming_ (1859); _American Rebellion,
+  Report of Speeches delivered in England at Public Meetings in
+  Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and London_ (1864);
+  _Prayers from Plymouth Pulpit_ (1867); _Norwood: A Tale of Village
+  Life in New England_ (1867); _The Life of Jesus the Christ_ (1871),
+  completed in 2 vols. by his sons (1891); and _Yale Lectures on
+  Preaching_ (3 vols., 1872-1874).
+
+  The prinipal lives are: Noyes L. Thompson, _The History of Plymouth
+  Church_ (1847-1872); Thomas W. Knox, _The Life and Work of Henry Ward
+  Beecher_ (Hartford, Conn., 1887); Frank S. Child, _The Boyhood of
+  Henry Ward Beecher_ (Pamphlet, New Creston, Conn., 1887); Joseph
+  Howard, Jr., _Life of Henry Ward Beecher_ (Philadelphia, 1887); T.W.
+  Hanford, _Beecher: Christian Philosopher, Pulpit Orator, Patriot and
+  Philanthropist_ (Chicago, 1887); Lyman Abbott and S.B. Halliday,
+  _Henry Ward Beecher: A Sketch of his Career_ (New York, 1887); William
+  C. Beecher, Rev. Samuel Scoville and Mrs. H.W. Beecher, _A Biography
+  of Henry Ward Beecher_ (New York, 1888); John R. Howard, _Henry Ward
+  Beecher: A Study_ (1891); John Henry Barrows, _Henry Ward Beecher_
+  (New York, 1893); and Lyman Abbott, _Henry Ward Beecher_ (Boston,
+  1903).     (L. A.)
+
+
+
+
+BEECHER, LYMAN (1775-1863), American clergyman, was born at New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 12th of October 1775. He was a descendant of one of
+the founders of the New Haven colony, worked as a boy in an uncle's
+blacksmith shop and on his farm, and in 1797 graduated from Yale, having
+studied theology under Timothy Dwight. He preached in the Presbyterian
+church at East Hampton, Long Island (1798-1810, being ordained in 1799);
+in the Congregational church at Litchfield, Connecticut (1810-1826), in
+the Hanover Street church of Boston (1826-1832), and in the Second
+Presbyterian church of Cincinnati, Ohio (1833-1843); was president of
+the newly established Lane Theological Seminary at Walnut Hills,
+Cincinnati, and was professor of didactic and polemic theology there
+(1832-1850), being professor emeritus until his death. At Litchfield and
+in Boston he was a prominent opponent of the growing "heresy" of
+Unitarianism, though as early as 1836 he was accused of being a
+"moderate Calvinist" and was tried for heresy, but was acquitted. Upon
+his resignation from Lane Theological Seminary he lived in Boston for a
+short time, devoting himself to literature; but he broke down, and the
+last ten years of his life were spent at the home of his son, Henry Ward
+Beecher, in Brooklyn, New York, where he died on the both of January
+1863. Magnetic in personality, incisive and powerful in manner of
+expression, he was in his prime one of the most eloquent of American
+pulpit orators. In 1806 he preached a widely circulated sermon on
+duelling, and about 1814 a series of six sermons on intemperance, which
+were reprinted frequently and greatly aided temperance reform. Thrice
+married, he had a large family, his seven sons becoming Congregational
+clergymen, and his daughters, Harriet Beecher Stowe (q.v.) and Catherine
+Esther Beecher, attaining literary distinction.
+
+  Lyman Beecher's published works include: _A Plea for the West_ (1835),
+  _Views in Theology_ (1836), and various sermons; his _Collected Works_
+  were published at Boston in 1852 in 3 vols. Consult his _Autobiography
+  and Correspondence_ (2 vols., New York, 1863-1864), edited by his son
+  Charles; D.H. Alien, _Life and Services of Lyman Beecher_ (Cincinnati,
+  1863); and James C. White, _Personal Reminiscences of Lyman Beecher_
+  (New York, 1882).
+
+His daughter, CATHERINE ESTHER (1800-1878), was born at East Hampton,
+Long Island, on the 6th of September 1800. She was educated at
+Litchfield Seminary, and from 1822 to 1832 conducted a school for girls
+at Hartford, Connecticut, with her sister Harriet's assistance, and from
+1832 to 1834 conducted a similar school in Cincinnati. She wrote and
+lectured on women's education and in behalf of better primary schools,
+and radically opposed woman suffrage and college education for women,
+holding woman's sphere to be domestic. The National Board of Popular
+Education, a charitable society which she founded, sent hundreds of
+women as teachers into the South and West. She died on the 12th of May
+1878 in Elmira, New York. She published _An Essay on Slavery and
+Abolition with Reference to the Duty of American Females_ (1837), _A
+Treatise on Domestic Economy_ (1842), _The True Remedy for the Wrongs of
+Women_ (1851), _Letters to the People on Health and Happiness_ (1855),
+_The Religious Training of Children_ (1864), and _Woman's Profession as
+Mother and Educator_ (1871).
+
+His son, EDWARD BEECHER (1803-1895), was born at East Hampton, Long
+Island, on the 27th of August 1803, graduated at Yale in 1822, studied
+theology at Andover, and in 1826 became pastor of the Park Street church
+in Boston. From 1830 to 1844 he was president of Illinois College,
+Jacksonville, Illinois, and subsequently filled pastorates at the Salem
+Street church, Boston (1844-1855), and the Congregational church at
+Galesburg, Illinois (1855-1871). He was senior editor of the
+_Congregationalist_ (1849-1855), and an associate editor of the
+_Christian Union_ from 1870. In 1872 he settled in Brooklyn, New York,
+where in 1885-1889 he was pastor of the Parkville church and where he
+died on the 28th of July 1895. He wrote _Addresses on the Kingdom of
+God_ (1827), _History of the Alton Riots_ (1837), _Statement of
+Anti-Slavery Principles_ (1837), _Baptism, its Import and Modes_ (1850),
+_The Conflict of Ages_ (1853), _The Papal Conspiracy Exposed_ (1855),
+_The Concord of Ages_ (1860), and _History of Opinions on the Scriptural
+Doctrine of Future Retribution_ (1878).
+
+CHARLES BEECHER (1815-1900), another of Lyman's sons, was born at
+Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 7th of October 1815. He graduated at
+Bowdoin College in 1834, and subsequently held pastorates at Newark, New
+Jersey (1851-1857), and Georgetown, Massachusetts; and from 1870 to 1877
+lived in Florida, where he was state superintendent of public
+instruction in 1871-1873. He died at Georgetown, Massachusetts, on the
+21st of April 1900. He was an accomplished musician, and assisted in the
+selection and arrangement of music in the _Plymouth Collection of Hymns
+and Tunes_. He wrote _David and His Throne_ (1855), _Pen Pictures of the
+Bible_ (1855), _Redeemer and Redeemed_ (1864), and _Spiritual
+Manifestations_ (1879).
+
+THOMAS KINNICUTT BEECHER (1824-1900), another son, born at Litchfield,
+Connecticut, on the 10th of February 1824, was pastor of the Independent
+Congregational church (now the Park church), at Elmira, New York, one of
+the first institutional churches in the country, from 1854 until his
+death at Elmira on the 14th of March 1900. He wrote Our _Seven Churches_
+(1870).
+
+
+
+
+BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1796-1856), English naval officer and
+geographer, son of Sir William Beechey, R.A., was born in London on the
+17th of February 1796. In 1806 he entered the navy, and saw active
+service during the wars with France and America. In 1818 he served under
+Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) John Franklin in Buchan's Arctic expedition,
+of which at a later period he published a narrative; and in the
+following year he accompanied Lieutenant W.E. Parry in the "Hecla." In
+1821 he took part in the survey of the Mediterranean coast of Africa
+under the direction of Captain, afterwards Admiral, William Henry Smyth.
+He and his brother Henry William Beechey, made an overland survey of
+this coast, and published a full account of their work in 1828 under the
+title of _Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of
+Africa from Tripoly Eastward in 1821-1822_. In 1825 Beechey was
+appointed to command the "Blossom," which was intended to explore Bering
+Strait, in concert with Franklin and Parry operating from the east. He
+passed the strait and penetrated as far as 71° 23' 31" N., and 156° 21'
+30" W., reaching a point only 146 m. west of that reached by Franklin's
+expedition from the Mackenzie river. The whole voyage lasted more than
+three years; and in the course of it Beechey discovered several islands
+in the Pacific, and an excellent harbour near Cape Prince of Wales. In
+1831 there appeared his _Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and
+Bering's Strait to Co-operate with the Polar Expeditions, 1825-1828_. In
+1835 and the following year Captain Beechey was employed on the coast
+survey of South America, and from 1837 to 1847 carried on the same work
+along the Irish coasts. He was appointed in 1850 to preside over the
+Marine Department of the Board of Trade. In 1854 he was made
+rear-admiral, and in the following year was elected president of the
+Royal Geographical Society. He died on the 29th of November 1856.
+
+
+
+
+BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM (1753-1839), English portrait-painter, was born at
+Burford. He was originally meant for a conveyancer, but a strong love
+for painting induced him to become a pupil at the Royal Academy in 1772.
+Some of his smaller portraits gained him considerable reputation; he
+began to be employed by the nobility, and in 1793 became associate of
+the Academy. In the same year he was made portrait-painter to Queen
+Charlotte. He painted the portraits of the members of the royal family,
+and of nearly all the most famous or fashionable persons of the time.
+What is considered his finest production is a review of cavalry, a large
+composition, in the foreground of which he introduced portraits of
+George III., the prince of Wales and the duke of York, surrounded by a
+brilliant staff on horseback. It was painted in 1798, and obtained for
+the artist the honour of knighthood, and his election as R.A.
+
+
+
+
+BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES (1859-   ), English clergyman and author, was
+born on the 15th of May 1859, and educated at the City of London school
+and at Balliol College, Oxford. He took holy orders in 1882, and after
+three years in a Liverpool curacy he was for fifteen years rector of
+Yattendon, Berkshire. From 1900 to 1903 he lectured on pastoral and
+liturgical theology at King's College, London, and was chaplain of
+Lincoln's Inn, where he became preacher in 1903. He became a canon of
+Westminster in 1902, and examining chaplain to the bishop of Carlisle in
+1905. As a poet he is best known by his share in two volumes--_Love in
+Idleness_ (1883) and _Love's Looking Glass_ (1891)--which contained also
+poems by J.W. Mackail and J. Bowyer Nichols. He was a sympathetic editor
+and critic of the works of many 16th and 17th century poets, of Richard
+Crashaw (1905), of Herrick (1907), of John Milton (1900), of Henry
+Vaughan (1896). Under the pseudonym of "Urbanus Sylvan" he published two
+successful volumes of essays, _Pages from a Private Diary_ (1898) and
+_Provincial Letters and other Papers_ (1906). His works also include
+numerous volumes of sermons and essays on theological subjects.
+
+
+
+
+BEECHWORTH, a town of Bogong county, Victoria, Australia, 172 m. by rail
+N.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 7359. The town is the centre of the Ovens
+goldfields, and the district is mainly devoted to mining with both
+alluvial and reef working, but much of the land is under cultivation,
+yielding grain and fruit. The water supply is derived from Lake Kerferd
+in the vicinity, which is a favourite resort of visitors; the scenery
+near the town, which lies at an elevation of 1805 ft. among the May Day
+Hills, being singularly beautiful. The industries of Beechworth include
+tanning, ironfounding and coach-building.
+
+
+
+
+BEEF (through O. Fr. _boef_, mod. _boeuf_, from Lat. _bos, bovis_, ox,
+Gr. [Greek: bous], which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit
+_go, gaus_, ox, and thus with "cow"), the flesh of the ox, cow or bull,
+as used for food. The use of the French word for the meat, while the
+Saxon name was retained for the animal, has been often noticed, and
+paralleled with the use of veal, mutton and pork. "Beef" is also used,
+especially in the plural "beeves," for the ox itself, but usually in an
+archaic way. "Corned" or "corn" beef is the flesh cured by salting, i.e.
+sprinkling with "corns" or granulated particles of salt. "Collared" beef
+is so called from the roll or collar into which the meat is pressed,
+after extracting the bones. "Jerked" beef, i.e. meat cut into long thin
+slices and dried in the sun, like "biltong" (q.v.), comes through the
+Spanish-American _charque_, from _echarqui_, the Peruvian word for this
+species of preserved meat. For "Beefeater" see YEOMEN OF THE GUARD.
+
+
+
+
+BEEFSTEAK CLUB, the name of several clubs formed in London during the
+18th and 19th centuries. The first seems to have been that founded in
+1709 with Richard Estcourt, the actor, as steward. Of this the chief
+wits and great men of the nation were members and its badge was a
+gridiron. Its fame was, however, entirely eclipsed in 1735 when "The
+Sublime Society of Steaks" was established by John Rich at Covent Garden
+theatre, of which he was then manager. It is said that Lord Peterborough
+supping one night with Rich in his private room, was so delighted with
+the steak the latter grilled him that he suggested a repetition of the
+meal the next week. From this started the Club, the members of which
+delighted to call themselves "The Steaks." Among them were Hogarth,
+Garrick, Wilkes, Bubb Doddington and many other celebrities. The
+rendezvous was the theatre till the fire in 1808, when the club moved
+first to the Bedford Coffee House, and the next year to the Old Lyceum.
+In 1785 the prince of Wales joined, and later his brothers the dukes of
+Clarence and Sussex became members. On the burning of the Lyceum, "The
+Steaks" met again in the Bedford Coffee House till 1838, when the New
+Lyceum was opened, and a large room there was allotted the club. These
+meetings were held till the club ceased to exist in 1867. Thomas
+Sheridan founded a Beefsteak Club in Dublin at the Theatre Royal in
+1749, and of this Peg Woffington was president. The modern Beefsteak
+Club was founded by J.L. Toole, the actor, in 1876.
+
+  See J. Timbs, _Clubs and Club Life in London_ (1873); Walter Arnold,
+  _Life and Death of the Sublime Society of Steaks_ (1871).
+
+
+
+
+BEELZEBUB, BEELZEBUL, BAALZEBUB. In 2 Kings i. we read that Ahaziah ben
+Ahab, king of Israel, fell sick, and sent to inquire of Baalzebub, the
+god of the Philistine city Ekron, whether he should recover. There is no
+other mention of this god in the Old Testament. _Baal_, "lord," is the
+ordinary title or word for a deity, especially a local deity, cf. such
+place names as Baal Hazor (2 Sam. xiii. 23), Baal Hermon (Judges iii.
+3), which are probably contractions of fuller forms, like Beth Baal Meon
+(Josh. xiii. 17), the House or Temple of the Baal of Meon. According to
+these analogies we should expect _Zebub_ to be a place. No place
+_Zebub_, however, is known; and it has been objected that the Baal of
+some other place would hardly be the god of Ekron. These objections are
+hardly conclusive.
+
+Usually _Zebub_ is identified with a Hebrew common noun _zebub_ =
+flies,[1] occurring twice in the Old Testament,[2] so that Baalzebub "is
+the Baal to whom flies belong or are holy. As children of the summer
+they are symbols of the warmth of the sun, to which ... Baal stands in
+close relation. Divination by means of flies was known at Babylon."[3]
+There are other cases of names compounded of Baal and an element
+equivalent to a descriptive epithet, e.g. Baalgad, the Baal of
+Fortune.[4] For the "Fly-god," sometimes interpreted as the "averter of
+insects," cf [Greek: Zeus apomouios, muiagros], and the Hercules [Greek:
+muiagros]. Clemens Alexander speaks of a Hercules [Greek: apomuios] as
+worshipped at Rome. It has been suggested that Baalzebub was the
+dung-beetle, _Scarabaeus pillularius_, worshipped in Egypt.
+
+A name of a deity on an Assyrian inscription of the 12th century B.C.
+has been read as _Baal-zabubi_, but this reading has now been abandoned
+in favour of _Baal-sapunu_ (Baal-Zephon).[5] Cheyne considers that
+Baalzebub is a "contemptuous uneuphonic Jewish modification of the true
+name Baalzebul."[6]
+
+In the New Testament we meet with Beelzebul,[7] which some of the
+versions, especially the Vulgate and Syriac, followed by the Authorized
+Version, have changed to Beelzebub, under the influence of 2 Kings. In
+Matt. x. 25, Christ speaks of men calling the master of the house, i.e.
+Himself, Beelzebul.[8] In Mark iii 22-27,[9] the scribes explain that
+Jesus is possessed by Beelzebul[10] and is thus enabled to cast out
+devils. The passage speaks of Beelzebul as Satan and as the prince of
+the demons.
+
+The origin of the name Beelzebul is variously explained. (a) It is "a
+phonetic corruption, perhaps a softening of the original word"; as
+Bab-el-mandel is a corruption of Bab-el-mandeb. (b) _Zebul_ is from
+_zebel_, a word found in the Targums in the sense of "dung," so that
+Beelzebul would mean "Lord of Dung," a term of contempt. The further
+suggestion has been made that _zebul_ itself in the sense of "dung" is a
+term for a heathen deity, cf. the Old Testament use of "abomination" &c.
+for heathen deities, so that Beelzebul would mean "Chief of false gods,"
+and so arch-fiend. (c) _Zebul_ is found in 1 Kings viii. 13 in the sense
+of "height," _beth-sebul_--lofty house, and in Rabbinical writings in
+the sense of "house" or "temple," or "the fourth heaven";[11] and
+Beelzebul may equal "Lord of the High House" or "Lord of Heaven." This
+view is perhaps favoured by Matt. x. 25, "if they have called the lord
+of the house Beelzebul." It appears, however, that Rabbinical writings
+use _yom_ (day-of) _zebul_ for the festival of a heathen deity; and
+Jastrow connects this usage with the meaning "house" or "temple," so
+that the meaning "Lord of the False Gods" might be arrived at in a
+different way.
+
+The names _Zebulun, 'Izebel_ (Jezebel), suggest that _Zebul_ may be an
+ancient name of a deity; cf. the names [Hebrew: baal ezebel] (B'L 'ZBL),
+[Hebrew: shemzebel] (ShMZBL) in Punic and Phoenician inscriptions.[12]
+The substitution of Beelzebub for Beelzebul by the Syriac, Vulgate and
+other versions implies the identification of the New Testament
+arch-fiend with the god of Ekron; this substitution, however, may be due
+to the influence of the Aramaic _B'el-debaba_, "adversary," sometimes
+held to be the original of these names.
+
+There is no trace of Beelzebul or Beelzebub outside of the Biblical
+passages mentioned, and the literature dependent on them. If we assume a
+connexion between the two names, there is nothing to show how the god
+became in later times the devil.
+
+In _Paradise Lost_, Book ii., Beelzebub appears as second only to Satan
+himself.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lightfoot, _Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae_, Works, vol.
+  ii. pp. 188 f., 429, ed. Strype (1684); Baethgen, _Beitrage zur
+  semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, pp. 25, 65, 261. Commentaries on the
+  Biblical passages especially Burney and Skinner on _Kings_, Meyer and
+  A.B. Bruce on the _Synoptic Gospels_, and Swete on _Mark_. Articles on
+  "Baal," "Baalzebub," "Beelzebub," "Beelzebul," in Hastings' _Bible
+  Dict._, Black and Cheyne's _Encycl. Bibl._, and Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopädie_; on [Hebrew: baal zebub] in Clarendon Press _Hebr.
+  Lex._; and on [Hebrew: zebel] and [Hebrew: zebul] in Jastrow's _Dict.
+  of the Targumim, &c._     (W. H. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] So Clarendon Press, _Hebrew Lexicon_, p. 127, with LXX.
+
+  [2] Eccl. x. 1; Isaiah vii. 18.
+
+  [3] Baethgen, _Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, p. 25,
+    cf. pp. 65, 261.
+
+  [4] Josh, xii. 7.
+
+  [5] Art. "Baalzebub," Black and Cheyne's _Ency. Bibl._
+
+  [6] With various spellings (e.g. Belzebul, and in XB, Beezebul), all
+    variants of Beelzebul. Cf. Deissmann, _Bible Studies_, 332.
+
+  [7] There is a variation of reading, which has been held to support
+    the view that the passage means that men reproached Jesus with His
+    supposed connexion with Beelzebul; cf. A.B. Bruce, _in loco_.
+
+  [8] And in the parallel passages, Matt. xii. 22-29; Luke xi. 14-22.
+
+  [9] Cf. John vii. 20, viii. 48, 52, x. 20.
+
+  [10] Swete, _in loco_.
+
+  [11] Jastrow, _Dict. of the Targumim._ &c., sub voce.
+
+  [12] Lidzbarski, _Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik_, i. pp.
+    240, 377.
+
+
+
+
+BEER, a beverage obtained by a process of alcoholic fermentation mainly
+from cereals (chiefly malted barley), hops and water. The history of
+beer extends over several thousand years. According to Dr Bush, a beer
+made from malt or red barley is mentioned in Egyptian writings as early
+as the fourth dynasty. It was called [Hieroglyph] or _heqa_. Papyri of
+the time of Seti I. (1300 B.C.) allude to a person inebriated from
+over-indulgence in beer. In the second book (c. 77) of Herodotus (450
+B.C.) we are told that the Egyptians, being without vines, made wine
+from barley (cf. Aesch. _Suppl._ 954); but as the grape is mentioned so
+frequently in Scripture and elsewhere as being most abundant there, and
+no record exists of the vine being destroyed, we must conclude that the
+historian was only partially acquainted with the productions of that
+most fertile country. Pliny (_Natural History_, xxii. 82) informs us
+that the Egyptians made wine from corn, and gives it the name of
+_sythum_, which, in the Greek, means drink from barley. The Greeks
+obtained their knowledge of the art of preparing beer from the
+Egyptians. The writings of Archilochus, the Parian poet and satirist who
+flourished about 650 B.C., contain evidence that the Greeks of his day
+were acquainted with the process of brewing. There is, in fact, little
+doubt that the discovery of beer and its use as an exhilarating beverage
+were nearly as early as those of the grape itself, though both the
+Greeks and the Romans despised it as a barbarian drink. Dioscorides
+mentions two kinds of beer, namely [Greek: zythos] and [Greek: kourmi],
+but he does not describe them sufficiently to enable us to distinguish
+them. Sophocles and other Greek writers, again, styled it [Greek:
+bryton]. In the time of Tacitus (1st century after Christ), according to
+him, beer was the usual drink of the Germans, and there can be little
+doubt that the method of malting barley was then known to them. Pliny
+(_Nat. Hist._ xxii. 82) mentions the use of beer in Spain under the name
+of _celia_ and _ceria_ and in Gaul under that of _cerevisia_; and
+elsewhere (xiv. 29) he says:--"The natives who inhabit the west of
+Europe have a liquid with which they intoxicate themselves, made from
+corn and water. The manner of making this liquid is somewhat different
+in Gaul, Spain and other countries, and it is called by different names,
+but its nature and properties are everywhere the same. The people in
+Spain in particular brew this liquid so well that it will keep good a
+long time. So exquisite is the cunning of mankind in gratifying their
+vicious appetites that they have thus invented a method to make water
+itself produce intoxication."
+
+The knowledge of the preparation of a fermented beverage from cereals in
+early times was not confined to Europe. Thus, according to Dr H.H. Mann,
+the Kaffir races of South Africa have made for ages--and still make--a
+kind of beer from millet, and similarly the natives of Nubia, Abyssinia
+and other parts of Africa prepare an intoxicating beverage, generally
+called _bousa_, from a variety of cereal grains. The Russian _quass_,
+made from barley and rye, the Chinese _samshu_, made from rice, and the
+Japanese _saké_ (q.v.) are all of ancient origin. Roman historians
+mention the fact that the Britons in the south of England at the time of
+the Roman invasion brewed a species of ale from barley and wheat. The
+Romans much improved the methods of brewing in vogue among the Britons,
+and the Saxons--among whom ale had long been a common beverage--in their
+turn profited much by the instruction given to the original inhabitants
+of Great Britain by the Romans. We are informed by William of Malmesbury
+that in the reign of Henry II. the English were greatly addicted to
+drinking, and by that time the monasteries were already famous, both in
+England and on the continent, for the excellence of their ales. The
+waters of Burton-on-Trent began to be famous in the 13th century. The
+secret of their being so especially adapted for brewing was first
+discovered by some monks, who held land in the adjacent neighbourhood of
+Wetmore. There is a document dated 1295 in which it is stated that
+Matilda, daughter of Nicholas de Shoben, had re-leased to the abbot and
+convent of Burton-on-Trent certain tenements within and without the
+town; for which re-lease they granted her, daily for life, two white
+loaves from the monastery, two gallons of conventual beer, and one
+penny, besides seven gallons of beer for the men. The abbots of Burton
+apparently made their own malt, for it was a common covenant in leases
+of mills belonging to the abbey that the malt of the lords of the manor,
+both spiritual and temporal, should be ground free of charge. Robert
+Plot, in his _Natural History of Staffordshire_ (1686), refers to the
+peculiar properties of the Burton waters, from which, he says, "by an
+art well known in this country good ale is made, in the management of
+which they have a knack of fining it in three days to that degree that
+it shall not only be potable, but is clear and palatable as we could
+desire any drink of this kind to be." In 1630 Burton beer began to be
+known in London, being sold at "Ye Peacocke" in Gray's Inn Lane, and
+according to the _Spectator_ was in great demand amongst the visitors in
+Vauxhall. Until tea and coffee were introduced, beer and ale (see ALE)
+were, practically speaking, the only popular beverages accessible to the
+general body of consumers. Since the advent of tea, coffee, cocoa and
+mineral waters, the character of British beers has undergone a gradual
+modification, the strongly alcoholic, heavily hopped liquids consumed by
+the previous generation slowly giving place to the lighter beverages in
+vogue at the present time. The old "stock bitter" has given way to the
+"light dinner ale," and "porter" (so called from the fact that it was
+the popular drink amongst the market porters of the 18th century) has
+been largely replaced by "mild ale." A certain quantity of strong
+beer--such as heavy stouts and "stock" and "Scotch" ales--is still
+brewed nowadays, but it is not an increasing one. The demand is almost
+entirely for medium beers such as mild ale, light stout, and the better
+class of "bitter" beers, and light beers such as the light "family
+ales," "dinner ales" and lager.
+
+The general run of beers contain from 3 to 6% of alcohol and 4 to 7% of
+solids, the remainder being water and certain flavouring and
+preservative matters derived from the malt, hops and other materials
+employed in their manufacture. The solid, i.e. non-volatile, matter
+contained in solution in beer consists mainly of maltose or malt sugar,
+of several varieties of dextrin (see BREWING), of substances which stand
+in an intermediate position between the sugars and the dextrins proper,
+and of a number of bodies containing nitrogen, such as the
+non-coagulable proteids, peptones, &c. In addition there is an
+appreciable quantity of mineral matter, chiefly phosphates and potash.
+Dietetically regarded, therefore, beer possesses considerable food
+value, and, moreover, the nutritious matter in beer is present in a
+readily assimilable form.
+
+It is probable that the average adult member of the British working
+classes consumes not less than two pints of beer daily. A reasonable
+calculation places the total proteids and carbohydrates consumed by the
+average worker at 140 and 400 grammes respectively. Taking the proteid
+content of the average beer at 0.4% and the carbohydrate content at 4%,
+a simple calculation shows that about 3% of the total proteid and 11% of
+the total carbohydrate food of the average worker will be consumed in
+the shape of beer.
+
+The chemical composition of beers of different types will be gathered
+from the following tables.
+
+
+A. ENGLISH BEERS.
+
+  (Analyses by J.L. Baker, Hulton & P. Schidrowitz.)
+
+    I. _Mild Ales._
+
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  Number.| Original Gravity.| Alcohol %.| Extractives (Solids) %.|
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  1.[1]  |     1055.13      |   4.17    |          6.1           |
+  |  2.[1]  |     1055.64      |   4.47    |          5.7           |
+  |  3.[2]  |     1071.78      |   5.57    |          7.3           |
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+
+    II. _Light Bitters and Ales._
+
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  Number.| Original Gravity.| Alcohol %.| Extractives (Solids) %.|
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |    1.   |     1046.81      |    4.15   |          4.0           |
+  |    2.   |     1047.69      |    4.23   |          4.1           |
+  |    3.   |     1047.79      |    4.61   |          3.2           |
+  |    4.   |     1050.30      |    4.53   |          4.2           |
+  |    5.   |     1038.31      |    3.81   |          3.5           |
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+
+    III. _Pale and Stock Ales._
+
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  Number.| Original Gravity.| Alcohol %.| Extractives (Solids) %.|
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  1.[3]  |      1059.01     |    4.77   |          5.8           |
+  |  2.[4]  |      1068.58     |    5.48   |          7.1           |
+  |  3.[4]  |      1076.80     |    6.68   |          5.9           |
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+
+    IV. _Stouts and Porter._
+
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  Number.| Original Gravity.| Alcohol %.| Extractives (Solids) %.|
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  1.[5]  |      1072.92     |    6.14   |          6.3           |
+  |  2.[6]  |      1054.26     |    4.73   |          4.5           |
+  |  3.[6]  |      1081.62     |    6.02   |          8.8           |
+  |  4.[7]  |      1054.11     |    3.90   |          6.5           |
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+
+The figures in the above tables are very fairly representative of
+different classes of British and Irish beers. It will be noticed that
+the _Mild Ales_ are of medium original gravity[8] and alcoholic
+strength, but contain a relatively large proportion of solid matter. The
+_Light Bitters and Ales_ are of a low original gravity, but compared
+with the Mild Ales the proportion of alcohol to solids is higher. The
+_Pale and Stock Ales_, which represent the more expensive bottle beers,
+are analytically of much the same character as the Light Bitters, except
+that the figures all round are much higher. The _Stouts_, as a rule, are
+characterized by a high gravity, and contain relatively more solids (as
+compared with alcohol) than do the heavy beers of light colour. With
+regard to the proportions of the various matters constituting the
+extractives (solids) in English beers, roughly 20-30% consists of
+maltose and 20-50% of dextrinous matter. In mild ales the proportion of
+maltose to dextrin is high (roughly 1:1), thus accounting for the full
+sweet taste of these beers. Pale and stock ales, on the other hand,
+which are of a "dry" character, contain relatively more dextrin, the
+general ratio being about 1:1½ or 1:2. The mineral matter ("ash") of
+beers is generally in the neighbourhood of 0.2 to 0.3%, of which about
+one-fourth is phosphoric acid. The proteid ("nitrogenous matters")
+content of beers varies very widely according to character and strength,
+the usual limits being 0.3 to 0.8%, with an average of roughly 0.4%.
+
+
+B. CONTINENTAL BEERS.
+
+  (Analyses by A. Doemens.)
+
+  +----------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  |                      | Original |            | Extractives |
+  |     Description.     | Gravity. | Alcohol %. | (Solids) %. |
+  +----------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  | Munich Draught Dark  |  1056.4  |    3.76    |    6.58     |
+  |    "      "     "    |  1052.6  |    3.38    |    6.45     |
+  |    "      "    Light |  1048.0  |    3.18    |    5.55     |
+  |    "      "     "    |  1048.1  |    4.05    |    3.92     |
+  |    "   Export        |  1054.3  |    3.68    |    6.32     |
+  |    "      "          |  1059.5  |    4.15    |    7.48     |
+  |    "   Bock Beer[9]  |  1076.6  |    4.53    |   10.05     |
+  | Pilsener Bottle      |  1047.7  |    3.47    |    4.90     |
+  |     "    Draught     |  1044.3  |    3.25    |    4.58     |
+  | Berlin Dark          |  1055.2  |    3.82    |    6.17     |
+  |    "   Light         |  1056.5  |    4.36    |    5.46     |
+  |    "   Weissbier     |  1033.1  |    2.644   |    3.01     |
+  +----------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+
+It will be seen that, broadly speaking, the original gravity of German
+and Austrian beers is lower than that of English beers, and this also
+applies to the alcohol. On the other hand, the foreign beers are
+relatively very rich in solids, and the extractives: alcohol ratio is
+high. (See BREWING.)
+
+
+C. AMERICAN BEERS AND ALES.
+
+  (Analyses by M. Wallerstein.)
+
+  +------------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  |                        | Original |            | Extractives |
+  |      Description.      | Gravity. | Alcohol %. | (Solids) %. |
+  +------------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  |    Bottom        \  1. |  1046.7  |    3.48    |    5.08     |
+  | Fermentation      | 2. |  1055.6  |    3.56    |    6.50     |
+  |    Beers          | 3. |  1063.4  |    4.12    |    7.43     |
+  | (Lager Type).    /  4. |  1046.0  |    2.68    |    5.96     |
+  |                     5. |  1051.7  |    3.42    |    5.86     |
+  +------------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  | Top Fermentation \  1. |  1084.2  |    5.89    |    8.60     |
+  |       Ales        | 2. |  1073.5  |    6.46    |    5.69     |
+  |  (British Type)  /  3. |  1068.0  |    5.50    |    5.53     |
+  +------------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+
+It will be noted that the American _beers_ (i.e. bottom fermentation
+products of the lager type) are very similar in composition to the
+German beers, but that the ales are very much heavier than the general
+run of the corresponding British products.
+
+_Production and Consumption._--(For manufacture of beer, see BREWING.)
+Germany is the greatest beer-producing nation, if liquid bulk be taken
+as a criterion; the United States comes next, and the United Kingdom
+occupies the third place in this regard. The consumption per head,
+however, is slightly greater in the United Kingdom than in Germany, and
+very much greater than is the case in the United States. The 1905
+figures with regard to the total production and consumption of the three
+great beer-producing countries, together with those for 1885, are as
+under:--
+
+  +----------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+  |                |                                |   Consumption per   |
+  |    Country.    |   Total Production (Gallons).  | Head of Population  |
+  |                |                                |      (Gallons)      |
+  +----------------+------------------+-------------+----------+----------+
+  |                |       1905.      |    1885.    |   1905.  |   1885   |
+  |                +------------------+-------------+----------+----------+
+  | German Empire  | 1,538,240,000    | 932,228,000 | 23.3     |   19.8   |
+  | United States  | 1,434,114,180    | 494,854,000 | 19.9     |    8.8   |
+  | United Kingdom | 1,227,933,468[10]| 993,759,000 | 27.90[10]|   27.1   |
+  +----------------+------------------+-------------+----------+----------+
+
+The chief point of interest in the preceding table is the enormous
+increase in the United States. In considering the figures, the character
+of the beer produced must be taken into consideration. Thus, although
+Germany produces roughly 25% more beer in liquid measurement than the
+United Kingdom, the latter actually uses about 50% more malt than is the
+case in the German breweries. According to a Viennese technical journal,
+the quantities of malt employed for the production of one hectolitre (22
+gallons) of beer in the respective countries is 0.40 cwt. in the German
+empire, 0.72 cwt. in the United States, and 0.81 cwt. in the United
+Kingdom. In a sense, therefore, England may still claim pre-eminence as
+a beer-producing nation. Large as the _per capita_ consumption in the
+United Kingdom may seem, it is considerably less than is the case in
+Bavaria, which stands at the head of the list with over 50 gallons, and
+in Belgium, which comes second with 47.7 gallons. In the city of Munich
+the consumption is actually over 70 gallons, that is to say, about 1½
+pints a day for every man, woman and child. It is curious to note that
+in Germany, which is usually regarded as a beer-drinking country _par
+excellence_, the consumption per head of this article is slightly less
+than in England, and that inversely the average German consumes more
+alcohol in the shape of spirits than does the inhabitant of the British
+Islands (consumption of spirits per head: Germany, 1.76 gallons; United
+Kingdom, 0.99 gallons). This is accounted for by the fact that the
+peasantry of the northern and eastern portions of the German empire
+consume spirits almost exclusively. In the British colonies beer is
+generally one of the staple drinks, but if we except Western Australia,
+where about 25 gallons per head of population are consumed, the demand
+is much smaller than in the United Kingdom. In Australia generally, the
+_per capita_ consumption amounts to about 12 gallons, in New Zealand to
+10 gallons, and in Canada to 5 gallons.     (P. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] London Ales.
+
+  [2] Strong Burton Mild Ale.
+
+  [3] Fairly representative of "Pale Ales."
+
+  [4] Heavy Stock Ales.
+
+  [5] Irish Stout.
+
+  [6] Nos. 2 and 3 are respectively "single" and "double" London Stouts
+    from the same brewery.
+
+  [7] London Porter or Cooper.
+
+  [8] The specific gravity, or "gravity" as it is always termed in the
+    industry, of the brewer is 1000 times the specific gravity of the
+    physicist. This is purely a matter of convention and convenience.
+    Thus when a brewer speaks of a wort of a "gravity" of 1045
+    (ten-forty-five) he means a wort having a specific gravity of 1.045.
+    Each unit in the brewer's scale of specific gravity is termed a
+    "degree of gravity." The wort referred to above, therefore, possesses
+    forty-five _degrees_ of gravity. The "original gravity," it may here
+    be mentioned, represents the specific gravity of the wort (see
+    BREWING) before fermentation. The solids in the original wort may be
+    ascertained by dividing the excess of the gravity over 1000 by 3.86.
+    Thus in the case of Mild Ale No. 1 the excess of the original gravity
+    over 1000 is 1055.13 - 1000 = 55.13. Dividing this by 3.86 we get
+    14.28, which indicates that the wort from which the beer was
+    manufactured contained 14.28% of solids. In the trade the gravity of
+    a beer (or rather of the wort from which it is derived) is generally
+    expressed in pounds per barrel. This means the excess in weight of a
+    barrel of the wort over the weight of a barrel of water. The weight
+    of a barrel (36 gallons) of water is 360 lb.; in the above example
+    the weight of a barrel of the beer wort is 360 × 1.05513 = 379.8. The
+    gravity of the wort in lb. is therefore 379.8 - 360 = 19.8. The beer
+    which is made from this wort would also be called a 19.8 lb. beer,
+    the reference in all cases being to the original wort.
+
+  [9] A particularly heavy beer, only brewed at certain times in the
+    year.
+
+  [10] The maxima of production and consumption were reached in
+    1899/1900, when the production amounted to 1,337,509,116 gallons (at
+    the standard gravity) and consumption to 32.28 gallons per head.
+
+
+
+
+BEERSHEBA, a place midway between Gaza and Hebron (28 m. from each),
+frequently referred to in the Bible as the southern limit of Palestine
+("Dan to Beersheba," Judg. xx. i, &c.) Its foundation is variously
+ascribed to Abraham and Isaac, and different etymologies for its name
+are suggested, in the fundamental documents of Genesis (xxi. 22, xxvi.
+26). It was an important holy place, where Abraham planted a sacred tree
+(Gen. xxi. 23), and where divine manifestations were vouchsafed to Hagar
+(Gen. xxi. 17), Isaac (xxvi. 24), Jacob (xlvi. 2) and Elijah (1 Kings
+xix. 5). Amos mentions it in connexion with the shrines of Bethel and
+Gilgal (Amos v. 5) and denounces oaths by its _numen_ (viii. 14). The
+most probable meaning of the name is "seven wells," despite the
+non-Semitic construction involved in this interpretation. Seven ancient
+wells still exist here, though two are stopped up. Eusebius and Jerome
+mention the place in the 4th century as a large village and the seat of
+a Roman garrison. Extensive remains of this village exist, though they
+are being rapidly quarried away for building; some inscriptions of great
+importance have been found here. Later it appears to have been the site
+of a bishopric; remains of its churches were still standing in the 14th
+century. Some fine mosaics have been here unearthed and immediately
+destroyed, in sheer wantonness, by the natives quarrying building-stone.
+The Biblical Beersheba probably exists at Bir es-Seba', 2 m. distant.
+
+
+
+
+BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER (1831-   ), English historian and positivist, son
+of the Rev. James Beesly, was born at Feckenham, Worcestershire, on the
+23rd of January 1831. He was educated at Wadham College, Oxford, which
+may be regarded as the original centre of the English positivist
+movement. Richard Congreve (q.v.) was tutor at Wadham from 1849 to 1854,
+and three men of that time, Frederic Harrison (q.v.), Beesly and John
+Henry Bridges (1832-1906), became the leaders of Comtism in England.
+Beesly left Oxford in 1854 to become assistant-master at Marlborough
+College. In 1859 he was appointed professor of history at University
+College, London, and of Latin at Bedford College, London, in 1860. He
+resigned these appointments in 1893 and 1889, and in 1893 became the
+editor of the newly-established _Positivist Review_. He collaborated in
+the translation of Comte's system of _Positive Polity_ (4 vols.,
+1875-1879), translated his _Discourse on the Positive Spirit_ (1903),
+and wrote a biography of Comte for a translation of the first two
+chapters of his _Cours de philosophie positive_, entitled _Fundamental
+Principles of Positive Philosophy_ (1905). Professor Beesly stood
+unsuccessfully as Liberal candidate for Westminster in 1885 and for
+Marylebone in 1886, and is the author of numerous review articles on
+social and political topics, treated from the positivist standpoint,
+especially on the Irish question. His works also include a series of
+lectures on Roman history, entitled _Catiline, Clodius, Tiberius_
+(1878), in which he rehabilitates in some degree the character of each
+of his subjects, and _Queen Elizabeth_ (1892), in the "Twelve English
+Statesmen" series.
+
+
+
+
+BEET, a cultivated form of the plant _Beta vulgaris_ (natural order
+Chenopodiaceae), which grows wild on the coasts of Europe, North Africa
+and Asia as far as India. It is a biennial, producing, like the carrot,
+a thick, fleshy tap-root during the first year and a branched, leafy,
+flowering stem in the following season. The small, green flowers are
+borne in clusters. A considerable number of varieties are cultivated for
+use on account of their large fleshy roots, under the names of
+mangel-wurzel or mangold, field-beet and garden-beet. The cultivation of
+beet in relation to the production of sugar, for which purpose certain
+varieties of beet stand next in importance to the sugar cane, is dealt
+with under SUGAR. The garden-beet has been cultivated from very remote
+times as a salad plant, and for general use as a table vegetable. The
+variety most generally grown has long, tapering, carrot-shaped roots,
+the "flesh" of which is of a uniform deep red colour throughout, and the
+leaves brownish red. It is boiled and cut into slices for being eaten
+cold; and it is also prepared as a pickle, as well as in various other
+forms. Beet is in much more common use on the continent of Europe as a
+culinary vegetable than in Great Britain, where it has, however, been
+cultivated for upwards of two centuries. The white beet, _Beta cicla_,
+is cultivated for the leaves, which are used as spinach. The midribs and
+stalks of the leaves are also stewed and eaten as sea-kale, under the
+name of Swiss chard. _B. cicla_ is also largely used as a decorative
+plant for its large, handsome leaves, blood red or variegated in colour.
+
+The beet prospers in a rich deep soil, well pulverized by the spade. If
+manure is required, it should be deposited at the bottom of the trench
+in preparing the ground. The seeds should be sown in drills 15 ins.
+asunder, in April or early in May, and the plants are afterwards to be
+thinned to about 8 in. apart in the lines, but not more, as
+moderate-sized roots are preferable. The plants should grow on till the
+end of October or later, when a portion should be taken up for use, and
+the rest laid in in a sheltered corner, and covered up from frost. The
+roots must not be bruised and the leaves must be twisted off--not
+closely cut, as they are then liable to bleed. In the north the crop may
+be wholly taken up in autumn, and stored in a pit or cellar, beyond
+reach of frost. If it is desired to have fresh roots early, the seeds
+should be sown at the end of February or beginning of March; and if a
+succession is required, a few more may be sown by the end of March.
+
+
+
+
+BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN (1770-1827), German musical composer, was baptized
+(probably, as was usual, the day after birth) on the 17th of December
+1770 at Bonn. His family is traceable to a village near Louvain, in
+Belgium, in the 17th century. In 1650 a lineal ancestor of the composer
+settled in Antwerp. Beethoven's grandfather, Louis, quarrelled with his
+family, came to Bonn in 1732, and became one of the court musicians of
+the archbishop-elector of Cologne. He was a genial man of estimable
+character, and though Ludwig van Beethoven was only four years old when
+his grandfather died, he never forgot him, but cherished his portrait to
+the end of his life. Beethoven's father, a tenor singer at the
+archbishop-elector's court, was of a rough and violent temper, not
+improved by his passion for drink, nor by the dire poverty under which
+the family laboured. He married Magdelina Leim or Laym, the widow of a
+_vâlet-de-chambre_ of the elector of Trier and daughter of the chief
+cook at Ehrenbreitstein. Beethoven's father wished to profit as early as
+possible by his son's talent, and accordingly began to give him a
+severe musical training, especially on the violin, when he was only five
+years old, at about which time they left the house in which he was born
+(515 Bonngasse, now preserved as a Beethoven museum, with a magnificent
+collection of manuscripts and relics). By the time Beethoven was nine
+his father had no more to teach him, and he entered upon a perhaps
+healthier course of clavier lessons under a singer named Pfeiffer. A
+little general education was also edged in by a certain Zambona. Van den
+Eeden, the court organist, and an old friend of his grandfather, taught
+him the organ and the pianoforte, and so rapid was Beethoven's progress
+that when C.G. Neefe succeeded to Van den Eeden's post in 1781, he was
+soon able to allow the boy to act as his deputy. With his permission
+Beethoven published in 1783 his earliest extant composition, a set of
+variations on a march by Dressler. The title-page states that they were
+written in 1780 _"par un jeune amateur Louis van Beethoven âgé de dix
+ans_." Beethoven's father was very clumsy in his unnecessary attempts to
+make an infant prodigy of his son; for the ante-dating of this
+composition, implying the correct date of birth, contradicts the
+post-dating of the date of birth by which he tried to make out that the
+three sonatas Beethoven wrote in the same year were by a boy of eleven.
+(Beethoven for a long time believed that he was born in 1772, and the
+certificate of his baptism hardly convinced him, because he knew that he
+had an elder brother named Ludwig who died in infancy.) In the same
+year, 1783, Beethoven was given the post of cembalist in the Bonn
+theatre, and in 1784 his position of assistant to Neefe became official.
+In a _catalogue raisonné_ of the new archbishop Max Franz's court
+musicians we find "No. 14, Ludwig Beethoven" described "as of good
+capacity, still young, of good, quiet behaviour and poor," while his
+father (No. 8) "has a completely worn-out voice, has long been in
+service, is very poor, of fairly good behaviour, and married."
+
+In the spring of 1787 Beethoven paid a short visit to Vienna, where he
+astonished Mozart by his extemporizations and had a few lessons from
+him. How he was enabled to afford this visit is not clear. After three
+months the illness of his mother, to whom he was devoted, brought him
+back. She died in July, leaving a baby girl, one year old, who died in
+November. For five more years Beethoven remained at Bonn supporting his
+family, of which he had been since the age of fifteen practically the
+head, as his father's bad habits steadily increased until in 1789 Ludwig
+was officially entrusted with his father's salary. He had already made
+several lifelong friends at Bonn, of whom the chief were Count Waldstein
+and Stephan Breuning; and his prospects brightened as the
+archbishop-elector, in imitation of his brother the emperor Joseph II.,
+enlarged the scale of his artistic munificence. By 1792 the
+archbishop-elector's attention was thoroughly aroused to Beethoven's
+power, and he provided for Beethoven's second visit to Vienna. The
+introductions he and Count Waldstein gave to Beethoven, the prefix "van"
+in Beethoven's name (which looked well though it was not really a title
+of nobility), and above all the unequalled impressiveness of his playing
+and extemporization, quickly secured his footing with the exceptionally
+intelligent and musical aristocracy of Vienna, who to the end of his
+life treated him with genuine affection and respect, bearing with all
+the roughness of his manners and temper, not as with the eccentricities
+of a fashionable genius, but as with signs of the sufferings of a
+passionate and noble nature.
+
+Beethoven's life, though outwardly uneventful, was one of the most
+pathetic of tragedies. His character has had the same fascination for
+his biographers as it had for his friends, and there is probably hardly
+any great man in history of whom more is known and of whom so much of
+what is known is interesting. Yet it is all too much a matter of detail
+and anecdote to admit of chronological summarizing here, and for the
+disentangling of its actual incidents we must refer the reader to Sir
+George Grove's long and graphic article, "Beethoven," in the _Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians_, and to the monumental biography of Thayer, who
+devoted his whole life to collecting materials. These two biographical
+works, read in the spirit in which their authors conceived them, will
+reveal, beneath a mass of distressing, grotesque and sometimes sordid
+detail, a nobility of character and unswerving devotion to the highest
+moral ideas throughout every distress and temptation to which a
+passionate and totally unpractical temper and the growing shadow of a
+terrible misfortune could expose a man.
+
+The man is surpassed only by his works, for in them he had that mastery
+which was denied to him in what he himself calls his attempt to "grapple
+with fate." Such of his difficulties as lay in his own character already
+showed themselves in his studies with Haydn. Haydn, who seems to have
+heard of him on his first visit to Vienna in 1787, passed through Bonn
+in July 1792, and was so much struck by Beethoven that it was very
+likely at his instigation that the archbishop sent Beethoven to Vienna
+to study under him. But Beethoven did not get on well with him, and
+found him perfunctory in correcting his exercises. Haydn appreciated
+neither his manners nor the audacity of his free compositions, and
+abandoned whatever intentions he may have had of taking Beethoven with
+him to England in 1794. Beethoven could do without sympathy, but a
+grounding in strict counterpoint he felt to be a dire necessity, so he
+continued his studies with Albrechtsberger, a mere grammarian who had
+the poorest opinion of him, but who could, at all events, be depended on
+to attend to his work. Almost every comment has been made upon the
+relations between Haydn and Beethoven, except the perfectly obvious one
+that Mozart died at the age of thirty-six, just at the time Beethoven
+came to Vienna, and that Haydn, as is perfectly well known, was
+profoundly shocked by the untimely loss of the greatest musician he had
+ever known. At such a time the undeniable clumsiness of Beethoven's
+efforts at academic exercises would combine with his general
+tactlessness to confirm Haydn in the belief that the sun had set for
+ever in the musical world, and would incline him to view with disfavour
+those bold features of style and form which the whole of his own
+artistic development should naturally have predisposed him to welcome.
+It is at least significant that those early works of Beethoven in which
+Mozart's influence is most evident, such as the Septet, aroused Haydn's
+open admiration, whereas he hardly approved of the compositions like the
+sonatas, _op._ 2 (dedicated to him), in which his own influence is
+stronger. Neither he nor Beethoven was skilful in expressing himself
+except in music, and it is impossible to tell what Haydn meant, or what
+Beethoven thought he meant, in advising him not to publish the last and
+finest of the three trios, _op._ 1. But even if he did not mean that it
+was too daring for the public, it can hardly be expected that he never
+contrasted the meteoric career of Mozart, who after a miraculous boyhood
+had produced at the age of twenty-five some of the greatest music Haydn
+had ever seen, with the slow and painful development of his uncouth
+pupil, who at the same age had hardly a dozen presentable works to his
+credit. It is not clear that Haydn ever came to understand Beethoven,
+and many years passed before Beethoven realized the greatness of the
+master whose teaching had so disappointed him.
+
+From the time Beethoven settled permanently in Vienna, which he was soon
+induced to do by the kindness of his aristocratic friends, the only
+noteworthy external features of his career are the productions of his
+compositions. In spite of the usual hostile criticism for obscurity,
+exaggeration and unpopularity, his reputation became world-wide and by
+degrees actually popular; nor did it ever decline, for as his later
+works became notorious for their extravagance and unintelligibility his
+earlier works became better understood. He was no man of business, but,
+in a thoroughly unpractical way, he was suspicious and exacting in money
+matters, which in his later years frequently turned up in his
+conversation as a grievance, and at times, especially during the
+depreciation of the Austrian currency between 1808 and 1815, were a real
+anxiety to him. Nevertheless, with a little more skill his external
+prosperity would have been great. He was always a personage of
+importance, as is testified by more than one amusing anecdote, like
+those of his walks with Goethe and his half-ironical comments on the
+hats which flew off more for him than for Goethe; and in 1815 it seemed
+as if the summit of his fame was reached when his 7th symphony was
+performed, together with a hastily-written cantata, _Der glorreiche
+Augenblick_ and the blazing piece of descriptive fireworks entitled
+_Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria_, once popular in
+England as the _Battle Symphony_. The occasion for this performance was
+the congress of Vienna; and the government placed the two halls of the
+Redouten-Saal at his disposal for two nights, while he himself was
+allowed to invite all the sovereigns of Europe. In the same year he
+received the freedom of the city, an honour much valued by him. After
+that time his immediate popularity, as far as new works were concerned,
+became less eminent, as that of his more easy-going contemporaries began
+to increase. Yet there was, not only in the emotional power of his
+earlier works, but also in the known cause of his increasing inability
+to appear in public, something that awakened the best popular
+sensibilities; and when his two greatest and most difficult works, the
+9th symphony and parts of the _Missa Solemnis_, were produced at a
+memorable concert in 1824, the storm of applause was overwhelming, and
+the composer, who was on the platform in order to give the time to the
+conductor, had to be turned round by one of the singers in order to
+_see_ it.
+
+Signs of deafness had given him grave anxiety as early as 1708. For a
+long time he successfully concealed it from all but his most intimate
+friends, while he consulted physicians and quacks with eagerness; but
+neither quackery nor the best skill of his time availed him, and it has
+been pointed out that the root of the evil lay deeper than could have
+been supposed during his lifetime. Although his constitution was
+magnificently strong and his health was preserved by his passion for
+outdoor life, a post-mortem examination revealed a very complicated
+state of disorder, evidently dating almost from childhood (if not
+inherited) and aggravated by lack of care and good food. The touching
+document addressed to his brothers in 1802, and known as his "will,"
+should be read in its entirety, as given by Thayer (iv. 4). No verbal
+quotation short of the whole will do justice to the overpowering
+outburst which runs almost in one long unpunctuated sentence through the
+whole tragedy of Beethoven's life, as he knew it then and foresaw it. He
+reproaches men for their injustice in thinking and calling him
+pugnacious, stubborn and misanthropical when they do not know that for
+six years he has suffered from an incurable condition, aggravated by
+incompetent doctors. He dwells upon his delight in human society, from
+which he has had so early to isolate himself, but the thought of which
+now fills him with dread as it makes him realize his loss, not only in
+music but in all finer interchange of ideas, and terrifies him lest the
+cause of his distress should appear. He declares that, when those near
+him had heard a flute or a singing shepherd while he heard nothing, he
+was only prevented from taking his life by the thought of his art, but
+it seemed impossible for him to leave the world until he had brought out
+all that he felt to be in his power. He requests that after his death
+his present doctor, if surviving, shall be asked to describe his illness
+and to append it to this document in order that at least then the world
+may be as far as possible reconciled with him. He leaves his brothers
+his property, such as it is, and in terms not less touching, if more
+conventional than the rest of the document, he declares that his
+experience shows that only virtue has preserved his life and his courage
+through all his misery.
+
+And, indeed, his art and his courage rose far above any level attainable
+by those artists who are slaves to the "personal note," for his chief
+occupation at the time of this document was his 2nd symphony, the most
+brilliant and triumphant piece that had ever been written up to that
+time. On a smaller scale, in which mastery was the more easily
+attainable as experiment was more readily tested, Beethoven was sooner
+able to strike a tragic note, and hence the process of growth in his
+style is more readily traceable in the pianoforte works than in the
+larger compositions which naturally represent a series of crowning
+results. Only in his last period does the pianoforte cease to be
+Beethoven's normal means of expression. Accordingly, if in the
+discussion of Beethoven's works, with which we close this article, we
+dwell rather more on the pianoforte sonatas than on his greater works,
+it is not only because they are more easily referred to by the general
+reader, but because they are actually a key to his intellectual
+development, such as is afforded neither by his life nor by the great
+works which are themselves the crowning mystery and wonder of musical
+art.
+
+Deafness causes inconvenience in conversation long before it is
+noticeable in music, and in 1806 Beethoven could still conduct his opera
+_Fidelio_ and be much annoyed at the inattention to his nuances; and his
+last appearance as a player was not until 1814, when he made a great
+impression with his B flat trio, _op._ 97. At the end of November 1822
+an attempt to conduct proved disastrous. The touching incident in 1824
+has been described, but up to the last Beethoven seems to have found or
+imagined that ear-trumpets (of which a collection is now preserved at
+Bonn) were of use to him in playing to himself, though his friends were
+often pained when the pianoforte was badly out of tune, and were
+overcome when Beethoven in soft passages did not make the notes sound at
+all. The instrument sent him by Broadwood in 1817-1818 gave him great
+pleasure and he answered it with a characteristically cordial and quaint
+letter in the best of bad French. His fame in England was often a source
+of great comfort to him, especially in his last illness, when the London
+Philharmonic Society, for which the 9th symphony was written and a 10th
+symphony projected, sent him £100 in advance of the proceeds of a
+benefit concert which he had begged them to give, being in very
+straitened circumstances, as he would make no use of the money he had
+deposited in the bank for his nephew.
+
+This nephew was the cause of most of his anxiety and distress in the
+last twelve years of his life. His brother, Kaspar Karl, had often given
+him trouble; for example, by obtaining and publishing some of
+Beethoven's early indiscretions, such as the trio-variations, _op._ 44,
+the sonatas, _op._ 49, and other trifles, of which the late _opus_
+number is thus explained. In 1815, after Beethoven had quarrelled with
+his oldest friend, Stephan Breuning, for warning him against trusting
+his brother in money matters, Kaspar died, leaving a widow of whom
+Beethoven strongly disapproved, and a son, nine years old, for the
+guardianship of whom Beethoven fought the widow through all the law
+courts. The boy turned out utterly unworthy of his uncle's persistent
+devotion, and gave him every cause for anxiety. He failed in all his
+examinations, including an attempt to learn some trade in the
+polytechnic school, whereupon he fell into the hands of the police for
+attempting suicide, and, after being expelled from Vienna, joined the
+army. Beethoven's utterly simple nature could neither educate nor
+understand a human being who was not possessed by the wish to do his
+best. His nature was passionately affectionate, and he had suffered all
+his life from the want of a natural outlet for it. He had often been
+deeply in love and made no secret of it; but Robert Browning had not a
+more intense dislike of "the artistic temperament" in morals, and though
+Beethoven's attachments were almost all hopelessly above him in rank,
+there is not one that was not honourable and respected by society as
+showing the truthfulness and self-control of a great man. Beethoven's
+orthodoxy in such matters has provoked the smiles of Philistines,
+especially when it showed itself in his objections to Mozart's _Don
+Giovanni_, and his grounds for selecting the subject of _Fidelio_ for
+his own opera. The last thing that Philistines will ever understand is
+that genius is far too independent of convention to abuse it; and
+Beethoven's life, with all its mistakes, its grotesqueness and its
+pathos, is as far beyond the shafts of Philistine wit as his art.
+
+At the beginning of 1827 Beethoven had projects for a 10th symphony,
+music to Goethe's _Faust_, and (under the stimulus of his newly acquired
+collection of Handel's works) any amount of choral music, compared to
+which all his previous compositions would have seemed but a prelude. But
+he was in bad health; his brother Johann, with whom he had been staying,
+had not allowed him a fire in his bedroom, and had sent him back to
+Vienna in an open chaise in vile weather; and the chill which resulted
+ended in a fatal illness. Within a week of his death Beethoven was
+still full of his projects. Three days before the end he added a codicil
+to his will, and saw Schubert, whose music had aroused his keen
+interest, but was not able to speak to him, though he afterwards spoke
+of the Philharmonic Society and the English, almost his last words being
+"God bless them." On the 26th of March 1827, during a fierce
+thunderstorm, he died.
+
+_Beethoven's Music._--The division of Beethoven's work into three styles
+has become proverbial, and is based on obvious facts. The styles,
+however, are not rigidly separated, either in themselves or in
+chronology. Nor can the popular description of Beethoven's first manner
+as "Mozartesque" be accepted as doing justice to a style which differs
+more radically from Mozart's than Mozart's differs from Haydn's. The
+style of Beethoven's third period is no longer regarded as "showing an
+obscurity traceable to his deafness," but we have, perhaps, only
+recently outgrown the belief that his later treatment of form is
+revolutionary. The peculiar interest and difficulty in tracing
+Beethoven's artistic development is that the changes in the materials
+and range of his art were as great as those in the form, so that he
+appears in the light of a pioneer, while the art with which he started
+was nevertheless already a perfectly mature and highly organized thing.
+And he is perhaps unique among artists in this, that his power of
+constructing perfect works of art never deserted him while he
+revolutionized his means of expression. No doubt this is in a measure
+true of all the greatest artists, but it is seldom obvious. In mature
+art vital differences in works of similar form are generally more likely
+to be overlooked than to force themselves on the critic's attention. And
+when they become so great as to make a new epoch it is generally at the
+cost of a period of experiment too heterogeneous and insecure for works
+of art to attain great permanent value. But in Beethoven's case, as we
+have said, the process of development is so smooth that it is impossible
+to separate the periods clearly, although the ground covered is, as
+regards emotional range, at least as great as that between Bach and
+Mozart. No artist has ever left more authoritative documentary evidence
+as to the steps of his development than Beethoven. In boyhood he seems
+to have acquired the habit of noting down all his musical ideas exactly
+as they first struck him. It is easy to see why in later years he
+referred to this as a "bad habit," for it must often take longer to jot
+down a crude idea than to reject it; and by the time the habit was
+formed Beethoven's powers of self-criticism were unparalleled, and he
+must often have felt hampered by the habit of writing down what he knew
+to be too crude to be even an aid to memory. Such first intuitions, if
+not written down, would no doubt be forgotten; but the poetic mood, the
+_Stimmung_, they attempt to indicate, would remain until a better
+expression was forthcoming. Beethoven had acquired the habit of
+recording them, and thereby he has, perhaps, misled some critics into
+over-emphasizing the contrast between his "tentative" self-critical
+methods and the quasi-extempore outpourings of Mozart. This contrast is
+probably not very radical; indeed, we may doubt whether in every
+thoughtful mind any apparently sudden inspiration is not preceded by
+some anticipatory mood in which the idea was sought and its first faint
+indications tested and rejected so instantaneously as to leave no
+impression on the memory.
+
+The number and triviality of Beethoven's preliminary sketches should
+not, then, be taken as evidence of a timid or vacillating spirit. But if
+we regard his sketches as his diary their significance becomes
+inestimable. They cover every period of Beethoven's career, and
+represent every stage of nearly all his important works, as well as of
+innumerable trifles, including ideas that did not survive to be worked
+out. And the type of self-criticism is the same from beginning to end.
+There is no tendency in the middle or last period, any more than in the
+first, to "subordinate form to expression," nor do the sketches of the
+first period show any lack of attention to elements that seem more
+characteristic of the third. The difference between Beethoven's three
+styles appears first in its full proportions when we realize this
+complete continuity of his method and art. We have ventured to cast
+doubts upon the Mozartesque character of his early style, because that
+is chiefly a question of perspective. While he was handling a range of
+ideas not, in a modern view, glaringly different from Mozart's, he had
+no reason to use a glaringly different language. His contemporaries,
+however, found it more difficult to see the resemblance; and, though
+their criticism was often violently hostile, they saw with prejudice a
+daring originality which we may as well learn to appreciate with study.
+Beethoven himself in later years partly affected and partly felt a lack
+of sympathy with his own early style. But he had other things to do than
+to criticize it. Modern prejudice has not his excuse, and the neglect of
+Beethoven's early works is no less than the neglect of the key to the
+understanding of his later. It is also the neglect of a mass of mature
+art that already places Beethoven on the same plane as Mozart, and
+contains perhaps the only traces in all his work of a real struggle
+between the forces of progress and those of construction. We will
+therefore give special attention to this subject here.
+
+The truth is that there are several styles in Beethoven's first period,
+in the centre of which, "proving all things," is the true and mature
+Beethoven, however wider may be the scope of his later maturity. And he
+did not, as is often alleged, fail to show early promise. The pianoforte
+quartets he wrote at the age of fifteen are, no doubt, clumsy and
+childish in execution to a degree that contrasts remarkably with the
+works of Mozart's, Mendelssohn's or Schubert's boyhood; yet they contain
+material actually used in the sonatas, _op._ 2, No. 1, and _op._ 2, No.
+3. And the passage in _op._ 2, No. 3, is that immediately after the
+first subject, where, as Beethoven then states it, it embodies one of
+his most epoch-making discoveries, namely, the art of organizing a long
+series of apparently free modulations by means of a systematic
+progression in the bass. In the childish quartet the principle is only
+dimly felt, but it is nevertheless there as a subconscious source of
+inspiration; and it afterwards gives inevitable dramatic truth to such
+passages as the climax of the development in the sonata, _op._ 57
+(commonly called _Appassionata_), and throughout the chaos of the
+mysterious introduction to the C major string-quartet, _op._ 59, No. 3,
+prepares us for the world of loveliness that arises from it.
+
+Although with Beethoven the desire to express new thoughts was thus
+invariably both stimulated and satisfied by the discovery of the
+necessary new means of expression, he felt deeply the danger of spoiling
+great ideas by inadequate execution; and his first work in a new form or
+medium is, even if as late as the Mass in C, _op._ 89, almost always
+unambitious. His teachers had found him sceptical of authority, and
+never convinced of the practical convenience of a rule until he had too
+successfully courted disaster. But he appreciated the experience, though
+he may have found it expensive, and traces of crudeness in such early
+works as he did not disown are as rare as plagiarisms. The first three
+pianoforte sonatas, _op._ 2. show the different elements in Beethoven's
+early style as clearly as possible. Sir Hubert Parry has aptly compared
+the opening of the sonata, _op._ 2, No. 1, with that of the finale of
+Mozart's G minor symphony, to show how much closer Beethoven's texture
+is. The slow movement well illustrates the rare cases in which Beethoven
+imitates Mozart to the detriment of his own proper richness of tone and
+thought, while the finale in its central episode brings a misapplied and
+somewhat diffuse structure in Mozart's style into direct conflict with
+themes as "Beethovenish" in their terseness as in their sombre passion.
+The second sonata is flawless in execution, and entirely beyond the
+range of Haydn and Mozart in harmonic and dramatic thought, except in
+the finale. And it is just in the adoption of the luxurious Mozartesque
+rondo form as the crown of this work that Beethoven shows his true
+independence. He adopts the form, not because it is Mozart's, but
+because it is right and because he can master it. The opening of the
+second subject in the first movement is a wonderful application of the
+harmonic principle already mentioned in connexion with the early piano
+quartets. In all music nothing equally dramatic can be found before the
+D minor sonata, _op._ 31, No. 2, which is rightly regarded as marking
+the beginning of Beethoven's second period. The slow movement, like
+those of _op._ 7 and a few other early works, shows a thrilling
+solemnity that immediately proves the identity of the pupil of Haydn
+with the creator of the 9th symphony. The little _scherzo_ no less
+clearly foreshadows the new era in music by the fact that in so small
+and light a movement a modulation from A to G sharp minor can occur too
+naturally to excite surprise. If the later work of Beethoven were
+unknown there would be very little evidence that this sonata was by a
+young man, except, perhaps, in the remarkable abruptness of style in the
+first movement, an abruptness which is characteristic, not of
+immaturity, but of art in which problems are successfully solved for the
+first time. This abruptness is, however, in a few of Beethoven's early
+works carried appreciably too far. In the sonata in C minor, _op._ 10,
+No. 1, for example, the more vigorous parts of the first movement lose
+in breadth from it, while the finalé is almost stunted.
+
+But Beethoven was not content to express his individuality only in an
+abrupt epigrammatic style. From the outset breadth was also his aim, and
+while he occasionally attempted to attain a greater breadth than his
+resources would properly allow (as in the first movement of the sonata,
+_op._ 2, No. 3, and that of the violoncello sonata, _op._ 5, No. 1, in
+both of which cases a kind of extempore outburst in the coda conceals
+the collapse of his peroration), there are many early works in which he
+shows neither abruptness of style nor any tendency to confine himself
+within the limits of previous art. The C minor trio, _op._ 1, No. 3, is
+not more remarkable for the boldness of thought that made Haydn doubtful
+as to the advisability of publishing it, than for the perfect smoothness
+and spaciousness of its style. These qualities Beethoven at first
+naturally found easier to retain with less dramatic material, as in the
+other trios in the same _opus_, but the C minor trio does not stand
+alone. It represents, perhaps, the most numerous, as certainly the
+noblest, class of Beethoven's early works. Certainly the smallest class
+is that in which there is unmistakable imitation of Mozart, and it is
+significant that almost all examples of this class are works for wind
+instruments, where the technical limitations narrowly determine the
+style and discourage the composer from taking things seriously. Such
+works are the beautiful and popular septet, the quintet for pianoforte
+and wind instruments (modelled superficially, yet closely and with a
+kind of modest ambition, on Mozart's wonderful work for the same
+combination) and, on a somewhat higher level, the trio for pianoforte,
+clarinet and violoncello, _op._ 11.
+
+It is futile to discuss the point at which Beethoven's second manner may
+be said to begin, but he has himself given us excellent evidence as to
+when and how his first manner (as far as that is a single thing) became
+impossible to him. Through quite a large number of works, beginning
+perhaps with the great string quintet, _op._ 29, new types of harmonic
+and emotional expression had been assimilated into a style at least
+intelligible from Mozart's point of view. Indeed, Beethoven's favourite
+way of enlarging his range of expression often seems to consist in
+allowing the Titanic force of his new inventions and the formal beauty
+of the old art to indicate by their contrast a new world grander and
+lovelier than either. Sometimes, as in the C major quintet, the new
+elements are too perfectly assimilated for the contrast to appear. The
+range of key and depth of thought is beyond that of Beethoven's first
+manner, but the smoothness is that of Mozart. In the three pianoforte
+sonatas, _op._ 31, the struggle of the transition is as manifest as its
+accomplishment is triumphant. The first movement of the first sonata (in
+G major) deals with widely separated keys on new principles. These are
+embodied in a style which for abruptness and jocular paradox is hardly
+surpassed by Beethoven's most nervous early works. The exceptionally
+ornate and dilatory slow movement reads almost like a protest; while the
+finale begins as if to show that humour should be beautiful, and ends by
+making fun of the beauty. The second sonata (in D minor) is the greatest
+work Beethoven had as yet written. Its first movement, already cited
+above in connexion with the dramatic sequences in _op._ 2, No. 2, is,
+like that of the _Sonata Appassionata_, a _locus classicus_ for such
+powerful means of expression. And it is worth noting that the only
+sketch known of this movement is a sketch in which nothing but its
+sequential plan is indicated. In the third sonata Beethoven enjoys on a
+higher plane an experience he had often indulged in before, the
+attainment of smoothness and breadth by means of a delicately humorous
+calm which gives scope to the finer subtleties of his new thoughts.
+
+Beethoven himself wrote to his publisher that these three sonatas
+represented a new phase in his style; but when we realize his artistic
+conscientiousness it is not surprising that they should be contemporary
+with larger works like the 2nd symphony, which are far more
+characteristic of his first manner. His whole development is entirely
+ruled by his determination to let nothing pass until it has been
+completely mastered, and long before this his sketch-books show that he
+had many ambitious ideas for a 1st symphony, and that it was a
+deliberate process that made his ambitions dwindle into something that
+could be safely realized in the masterly little comedy with which he
+began his orchestral career. The easy breadth and power of the 2nd
+symphony represents an amply sufficient advance, and leaves his forces
+free to develop in less expensive forms those vast energies for which
+afterwards the orchestra and the string-quartet were to become the
+natural field.
+
+In the "Waldstein" sonata, _op._ 53, we see Beethoven's second manner
+literally displacing his first; that is to say, we reach a state of
+things at which the two can no longer form an artistic contrast. The
+work, as we know it, is not only perfect, but has all the qualities of
+art in which the newest elements have long been familiar. The opening is
+on the same harmonic train of thought as that of the sonata, _op._ 31,
+No. 1, but there is no longer the slightest need for a paradoxical or
+jocular manner. On the contrary, the harmonies are held together by an
+orderly sequence in the bass, and the onrush is that of some calm
+diurnal energy of nature. The short introduction to the finale is
+harmonically and emotionally the most profound thing in the sonata,
+while the finale itself uses every new resource in the triumphant
+attainment of a leisure more splendid than any conceivable in the most
+spacious of Mozart's rondos. Yet it is well known that Beethoven
+originally intended the beautiful _andante_ in F, afterwards published
+separately, to be the slow movement of this sonata. That andante is,
+like the finale, a spacious and gorgeous rondo, which probably Beethoven
+himself could not have written at an earlier period. The modulation to D
+flat in its principal theme, and that to G flat near the end, are its
+chief harmonic effects and stand out in beautiful relief within its
+limits. After the first movement of the Waldstein sonata they would be
+flat and colourless. The sketch-books show that Beethoven, when he first
+planned the sonata, was by no means inattentive to the balance of
+harmonic colour in the whole scheme, but that at first he did not
+realize how far that scheme was going to carry him. He originally
+thought of the slow movement as in E major, a remote key to which,
+however, he soon assigned the more intimate position of complementary
+key in the first movement. He then worked at the slow movement in F with
+such zest that he did not discover until the whole sonata was finished
+that he had raised the first and last movements to an altogether higher
+plane of thought, though the redundancy of the two rondos in
+juxtaposition and the unusual length of the sonata were so obvious that
+his friends ventured to point them out. Beethoven's revision of his
+earliest works is now known to have been extensive and drastic; but this
+is the first instance, and _Fidelio_ and the quartet in B flat, _op._
+131, are the only other instances, of any later work needing important
+alteration after it was completely executed. From this point up to _op._
+101 we may study Beethoven's second manner entirely free from any
+survivals of his first, even as a legitimate contrast; though it is as
+impossible to fix a point before which his third manner cannot be traced
+as it is to ignore the premonitions of his second manner in his early
+works. The distinguishing features in Beethoven's second style are the
+result of a condition of art in which enormous new possibilities have
+become so well known that there is no need for stating them abruptly,
+paradoxically or emphatically, but also no need for working them out to
+remote conclusions. Hence these works have become for most people the
+best-known and best-loved type of classical music. In their perfect
+fusion of untranslatable dramatic emotion with every beauty of musical
+design and tone they have never been equalled, nor is it probable that
+any other art can show a wider range of thought embodied in a more
+perfect form. In music itself there is nothing else of so wide a range
+without grave artistic defects from which Beethoven is entirely free.
+Wagnerian opera aims at an ideal as truly artistic, and in so far of
+wider range than Beethoven's that it passes beyond the bounds of pure
+music altogether. Within those bounds Beethoven remained, and even the
+apparent exceptions (such as _Fidelio_ and his two great examples of
+"programme music," the _Pastoral Symphony_ and the sonata, _Les Adieux_)
+only show how universal his conception of pure music is. Extraneous
+ideas had here struck him as magnificent material for instrumental
+music, and he never troubled to argue whether instrumental music is the
+better or worse for expressing extraneous ideas. To describe the works
+of Beethoven's second period here would be to describe a library of
+well-known classics, and we must refer the reader for further details to
+the articles on SONATA FORMS, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS, HARMONY and
+INSTRUMENTATION. It remains for us to attempt to indicate the essential
+features of his third style, and to conclude with a survey of his
+influence on the history of music.
+
+Beethoven's third style arose imperceptibly from his second. His
+deafness had very little to do with it, for all his epoch-making
+discoveries in orchestral effect date from the time when he was already
+far too much inconvenienced to test them in a way which would satisfy
+any one who depended more upon his ear than upon his imagination. It is
+indeed highly probable that there are no important features in
+Beethoven's latest style that may not be paralleled by the tendencies of
+all great artists who have handled their material until it contains
+nothing that has not been long familiar with them. Such tendencies lead
+to an extreme simplicity of form, underlying an elaboration of detail
+which may at first seem bewildering until we realize that it is purely
+the working out to its logical conclusions of some idea as simple and
+natural as the form itself. The form, however, will be not merely
+simple, but individual. Different works will show such striking external
+differences of form that a criticism which applies merely _a priori_ or
+historic standards will be tempted by the fallacy that there is less
+form in a number of such markedly different works than in a number of
+works that have one scheme in common. All this is eminently the case
+with Beethoven's last works. The extreme simplicity of the themes of the
+first two movements of the quartet in B flat, _op._ 131, and the
+tremendous complexity of the texture into which they are woven, at first
+impress us as something mysterious and intangible rather than
+astonishing. The boldness with which the slow introduction is blended in
+broad statement and counter-statement with the _allegro_, is directly
+impressive, as is also the entry of the second subject with its dark
+harmony and tone, but the work needs long familiarity before its vast
+mass of thought reveals itself to us in its true lucidity. Such works
+are "dark with excessive bright." When we enter into them they are
+transparent as far as our vision extends, and their darkness is that of
+a depth that shines as we penetrate it. In all probability only a veil
+of familiarity prevents our finding the same kind of difficulty in
+Beethoven's earlier works. What is undoubtedly newest in the last works
+is the enormous development of those polyphonic elements which are
+always essential to the life of a composition, but which have very
+different functions and degrees of prominence in different forms and
+stages of the art. Polyphony inevitably draws attention to detail, and
+thus Beethoven in his middle period found its more obvious
+manifestations but little conducive to the breadth of designs which were
+not as yet sufficiently familiar to take any but the foremost place.
+Hence, among other interesting features of that second period, his
+marked preference for themes founded on rhythmic figures of one note,
+e.g. the famous "four taps" in the C minor symphony; an identical rhythm
+in a melodious theme of very different character in the G major
+concerto; a similar figure in the _Sonata Appassionata_; the first theme
+of the _scherzo_ of the F major quartet, _op._ 59, No. 1, and the
+drum-beats in the violin concerto. Such rhythms give thematic life to an
+inner part without causing it to assume such melodic interest as might
+distract the attention from the flow of the surface. But in proportion
+as polyphony loses its danger so does the prominence of such rhythmic
+figures decrease, until in Beethoven's last works they are no more
+noticeable than other kinds of simplicity. The impression of crowded
+detail is naturally more prominent the smaller the means with which
+Beethoven works and the less outwardly dramatic his thought. Thus those
+most gigantic of all musical designs, the 9th symphony, and the Mass in
+D, are, but for the mechanical difficulties of the choral writing,
+almost like works of the second period as far as direct impressiveness
+is concerned; and in the same way the enormous pianoforte sonata, _op._
+106, is in its first three movements easier to follow than the extremely
+terse and subtle works on a smaller scale that preceded it (sonata in A
+major, 101, and the two sonatas for violoncello, _op._ 102).
+
+His enormous development of polyphonic interest soon led Beethoven to
+employ the fugue, not only, as in previous works, by way of episodic
+contrast to passages and designs in which the form and not the texture
+is the main object of interest, but as the culminating expression of a
+condition or art in which the unity of form and texture is so perfect
+that the mind is free to concentrate itself on the texture alone. This
+union was not effected without a struggle, the traces of which present a
+close parallel to that abrupt emphasis which we noticed in some of
+Beethoven's early works. In his fugue-writing the notion that the chief
+interest lies in the texture is as yet so difficult to hold together
+with the perception that these fugues are based on a modern firmness and
+range of form, that the texture is forced upon the listener's attention
+by a continual series of ruthlessly logical bold strokes of harmony.
+From this and from the notorious violence of Beethoven's choral writing,
+and also from his well-known technical struggles in his years of
+pupilage, the easy inference has been drawn that Beethoven never was a
+great master of counterpoint, an inference that is absolutely
+irreconcilable with such plain facts as, to take but one early example,
+the brilliant piece of triple counterpoint in the _andante_ of the
+string quartet in C minor, _op._ 18, No. 4, and the complete absence of
+anything like crudeness in his handling of harmonics, basses or inner
+parts at any period of his career. Beethoven may have mastered some
+things with difficulty, but he mastered nothing incompletely; and where
+he is not orthodox it is safest to conclude that orthodoxy is wrong. Had
+he lived for another ten years he would certainly have produced an
+immense amount of choral work, and with it many other great instrumental
+works in which this last remaining element of conflict between texture
+and form would have dwindled away. But while this would doubtless result
+in such work being easier to follow and might even have given us a
+version of the great fugue, _op._ 133 (discarded from the
+string-quartet, _op._ 131), that did not surpass the bounds of practical
+performance, it would yet be no sound criterion by which to stigmatize
+as an immaturity the roughness of the polyphonic works that we know.
+That roughness is, like the abrupt epigrammatic manner of some of his
+early works, the necessary condition in which such material realizes
+mature expression. Without it that material could receive but the
+academic handling of a dead language. And by it was created that
+permanent reconciliation of polyphony and form from which has arisen
+almost all that is true in "Romantic" music, all that is peculiar to the
+thematic technique of Wagnerian opera, and all the perfect smoothness of
+Brahms's polyphony.
+
+The incalculable depth of thought and closeness of texture in
+Beethoven's later works are, of course, the embodiment of a no less
+incalculable emotional power. If we at times feel that the last quartets
+are more introspective than dramatic, that is only because Beethoven's
+dramatic sense is higher than we can realize. The subject is too large
+and too subtle for dogmatism to be profitable; and we cannot in
+Beethoven's case, as we can in Bach's, cite a complete series of
+illustrations of his musical ideas from his treatment in choral music
+of words which themselves interpret the intention of the composer. There
+is so little but the music itself by which one can express Beethoven's
+thought, that the utmost we can do here is to refer the reader, as
+before, to the articles on SONATA FORMS, HARMONY, INSTRUMENTATION, OPERA
+and MUSIC, where he will find further attempts to indicate in what sense
+pure music can be described as dramatic and expressive of emotion.
+
+As our range of investigation widens, and thoroughness of analysis and
+study increases, so we shall surely find in ourselves an ever-deepening
+conviction that Beethoven, whether in range, depth and truth of thought,
+perfect sense of beauty, or absolute conscientiousness of execution, is
+the greatest musician, perhaps the greatest artist, that ever lived.
+There is no means of measuring Beethoven's influence upon subsequent
+music. Every composer of every school claims it. The immense changes he
+brought about in the range of music have their most obvious effect in
+the possibilities of emotional expression; and so any outbreak of
+vulgarity or sentimentality can with impunity claim descent from
+Beethoven, though its ancestry may be no higher than Meyerbeer. Again,
+we have already referred to that confusion of thought which regards a
+series of works markedly different in form as containing less form than
+any number of works cast in one mould. Hence the works of Beethoven's
+third period have been cited in defence of more than one "revolution,"
+attempted in a form which never existed in any true classic, for the
+purpose of setting up something the revolutionist has not yet succeeded
+in inventing. To measure Beethoven's influence is like measuring
+Shakespeare's. It is an influence either too vaguely universal to name
+or too profoundly artistic to analyse. Perhaps the truest account of it
+would be that which ignored its presence in the works of ill-balanced
+artists, or even in the works of those who profited merely by an
+increase of technical and harmonic resource which, though effected by
+Beethoven, would, after the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars,
+almost certainly have to some extent arisen from sheer necessity of
+finding expression for the new experience of humanity, if Beethoven had
+never existed. Setting aside, then, all instances of mere domination,
+and of a permanently established new world of musical thought, and
+omitting Schubert and Weber as contemporaries, the one attracted and the
+other partly repelled, we may, perhaps, take three later composers,
+Schumann, Wagner and Brahms, as the leading examples of the way in which
+Beethoven's influence is definitely traceable as a creative force. The
+depth and solemnity of Beethoven's melody and later polyphonic richness
+is a leading source of Schumann's inspiration, though Schumann's
+artistic schemes exclude any high degree of formal organization on a
+large scale. Beethoven's late polyphony is carried on by Brahms to the
+point at which perfect smoothness of style is once more possible, and
+there is no aspect of his form which Brahms neglects or fails to realize
+with that complete originality which has nothing to fear from its
+ancestry. Wagner does not handle the same art-forms; his task is
+different, but Beethoven was the inspiring source, not only of his
+purely musical sense, but also of his whole sense of dramatic contrast
+and fitness. When he had shaken off the influence of Meyerbeer, which
+has so often been confused with that of Beethoven, there remained to
+him, pre-eminently in his music and more imperfectly realized in his
+drama, a power of combining contrasted emotions such as is the privilege
+of only the very greatest dramatic artists. Bach and Beethoven are the
+sources of the polyphonic means of expression by which he attains this.
+Beethoven alone is the extraneous source of his knowledge that it was
+possible. And it is as certain as anything in the history of art that
+there will never be a time when Beethoven's work does not occupy the
+central place in a sound musical mind.
+
+
+ANNOTATED LIST OF BEETHOVEN'S WORKS
+
+  Up to 1823 we give in most cases the dates of publication, the date of
+  composition being generally from one to three years earlier. Beethoven
+  seldom had less than a dozen projects in hand at once, and their
+  immediate chronology is inextricable; whereas publication generally
+  means final revision. This list is purposely incomplete in order that
+  unimportant works may not distract attention, even when they are late
+  and on a large scale.
+
+  Sonata = Pianoforte sonata.
+  Violin or violoncello sonata = for pianoforte, V. or Vc.
+  Pianoforte trio = Pfte., V., Vc.
+  Pianoforte quartet = Pfte., V., viola and Vc.
+  String trio = V., Va., Vc.
+  String quartet = VV., Va. and Vc.
+  Pianoforte or violin concerto = Concerto with orchestra.
+
+  1785. 3 pfte. quartets, of which the third contains important
+    material for the sonatas, _op._ 2, Nos. 1 and 3. (Thayer's attribution
+    of the masterly bagatelles, _op._ 33, published 1803, to this period
+    can only be rationalized by some similar rough first idea.)
+
+  1790. 24 variations on an air by Righini (published 1801). A very
+    remarkable work, anticipating Schumann's _Papillons_ in its humorous
+    close. It was Beethoven's chief early _tour-de-force_ in pianoforte
+    playing.
+
+  1795. 3 pfte. trios, _op._ 1 (E-flat, G, C minor).
+
+  1796. 3 pfte. sonatas, _op._ 2 (F minor, A and C, dedicated to Haydn).
+
+  1797. String trio, _op._ 3, 2 violoncello sonatas, _op._ 5, F and G
+    mi., sonata, _op._ 7, E-flat.
+
+  1798. 3 string trios, _op._ 9; G, D, C mi., 3 sonatas, _op._ 10 (C mi.,
+    F, D). Trio for pfte., clarinet and violoncello in B-flat, _op._ 11.
+
+  1799. 3 violin sonatas (D, A, E-flat), _op._ 12. Pfte. sonata
+    (_Pathétique_ not Beethoven's title) C mi., _op._ 13, 2 pfte.
+    sonatas, _op._ 14, E, G (the first arranged by the composer as a
+    string quartet in F).
+
+  1801. Pianoforte concertos, _op._ 15 in C, _op._ 19 in B-flat (the
+    latter composed first). Quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments,
+    _op._ 16 (also arranged, with new details, as quartet for pianoforte
+    and strings), composed 1797. 6 string quartets, _op._ 18 (F, G, D, C
+    mi., A, B-flat). 1st symphony (C), _op._ 21. 2 violin sonatas, A mi.,
+    _op._ 23; F ma., _op._ 24 (made into two opus-numbers by an accident
+    in the _format_ of the volumes).
+
+  1802. Pianoforte score of the _Prometheus_ ballet, _op._ 24 (ousted
+    by the F ma. violin sonata, and reissued as _op._ 43). Sonata in
+    B-flat, _op._ 22. Sonata in A-flat, _op._ 26 (with the funeral march).
+    2 sonatas ("quasi fantasia"), _op._ 27, E-flat, C-sharp mi. Sonata in
+    D, _op._ 28 (_Pastorale_ not Beethoven's title). String quintet in C,
+    _op._ 29.
+
+  1803. 3 violin sonatas, _op._ 30 (A, C mi., G). 3 sonatas, _op._ 31,
+    G, D mi., E-flat (the last appearing in 1804). Variations, _op._ 34.
+    15 variations and fugue on theme from _Prometheus_, _op._ 35.
+
+  1804. 2nd symphony (D), _op._ 36 (1802). 3rd pfte. concerto (C mi.),
+    _op._ 37 (1800).
+
+  1805. The "Kreutzer" sonata, _op._ 47, for pfte. and violin (A) (finale
+    at first intended for _op._ 30, No. 1). "Waldstein" sonata for pfte.,
+    _op._ 53 (C). First version of opera _Leonore_ in three acts (with
+    overture "No. 2").
+
+  1806. Sonata in F, _op._ 54. _Eroica Symphony_, No. 3, _op._ 55
+    (E-flat), written in 1804 in honour of Napoleon Bonaparte. It was
+    just finished when news arrived that Napoleon had made himself
+    emperor, and Beethoven was with difficulty restrained from destroying
+    the score. It is still the longest extant perfect design in
+    instrumental music. The finale glorifies the material (and much of
+    the form) of the variations, _op._ 35. The _scherzo_ is the first
+    full-sized example of Beethoven's special type. _Leonore_ reproduced
+    in two acts with overture No. 3. 32 variations in C mi. (no
+    opus-number, but a very important work on the lines of a modernized
+    _chaconne_).
+
+  1807. Triple concerto (pfte., V. and Vc.), _op._ 56, chiefly
+    interesting as a study for the true concerto-form which had given
+    Beethoven difficulty. Sonata, _op._ 57 (F mi., _Appassionata_, not
+    Beethoven's title). New overture, _Leonore_, "No. 1," composed for
+    projected performance of the opera at Prague (posthumously published
+    as _op._ 138).
+
+  1808. 4th pfte. concerto, _op._ 58 (G). 3 string quartets, _op._ 59,
+    F, E mi., C (dedicated to Count Rasoumovsky, in compliment to whom
+    Russian tunes appear in the finale of No. 1 and the _scherzo_ of No.
+    2). Overture to _Coriolanus_, _op._ 62.
+
+  1809. 4th symphony, _op._ 60 (B-flat). Violin concerto (D), _op._ 61
+    (also arranged by the composer for pianoforte). 5th symphony, _op._
+    67 (C mi.) (1806), the first in which trombones appear. 6th symphony
+    (Pastorale), _op._ 68; violoncello sonata, _op._ 69 (A). 2 pianoforte
+    trios, _op._ 70 (D, E-flat).
+
+  1810. Pianoforte score of _Leonore_ (2nd version) published. String
+    quartet, _op._ 74 (E-flat, called "Harp" because of _pizzicato_
+    passages in first movement). Fantasia, _op._ 77, interesting as
+    consisting of a long and capricious series of dramatic beginnings and
+    breakings off of themes, as if in search for a firm idea, which is at
+    last found and developed as a set of variations. This scheme thus
+    foreshadows the choral finale of the 9th symphony even more
+    significantly than the Choral Fantasia.
+
+    Sonata, _op._ 78, F-sharp (extremely terse and subtle, and a great
+    favourite with Beethoven, who preferred it to the C-sharp mi.).
+
+  1811. 5th pfte. concerto, _op._ 73, E-flat (_The Emperor_ not
+    Beethoven's title). Fantasia for pfte., orchestra and chorus, _op._
+    80. Sonata, _op._ 81a (_Les Adieux, l'absence, et le retour_), first
+    movement written when the archduke Rudolph had to leave Vienna (4th
+    May 1809), and the rest on his return on the 30th of January 1810. It
+    was an anxious time both for Beethoven and his excellent royal
+    friend, for whom he had great affection. (Battle of Wagram, 6th July
+    1809.) (We may here note that _op._ 81b is an unimportant and very
+    early sextet.) The overture to _Egmont_, _op._ 84; _Christus am
+    Oelberge_ (the Mount of Olives), _op._ 85, oratorio (probably
+    composed between 1800 and its first performance in 1803).
+
+  1812. The rest of the _Egmont_ music, _op._ 84. 1st mass, _op._ 87 (C)
+    (first performance, 1807).
+
+  1814. Final version of _Leonore_, performed as _Fidelio_ with great
+    alterations, skilful revision of the libretto, very important new
+    material in the music and a new overture.
+
+  1815. Sonata, _op._ 90 (E mi.).
+
+  1816. 7th symphony, _op._ 92 (A); 8th symphony, _op._ 93 (F)
+    (Beethoven was planning a group of three of which the last was to be
+    in D mi., which we shall find significant). String quartet, _op._ 95
+    (F mi.). Violin sonata, _op._ 96 (G). Pianoforte trio, _op._ 97
+    (B-flat); _Liederkreis_, _op._ 98.
+
+  1817. Sonata, _op._ 101 (the first indisputably in Beethoven's "third
+    manner"). 2 violoncello sonatas, _op._ 102 (C, D, the second
+    containing Beethoven's first modern instrumental strict fugue).
+
+  1819. Arrangement for string quintet, _op._ 104, of C mi. trio, _op._
+    1, No. 3 (a wonderful study in translation, comparable only to Bach's
+    arrangements and very unlike Beethoven's former essays of the kind).
+    Sonata, _op._ 106 (B-flat), the largest and most symphonic pianoforte
+    work extant, surpassed in length only by Bach's _Goldberg_ variations
+    and Beethoven's 33 variations on Diabelli's waltz.
+
+  1821. 25 Scotch songs accompanied by pfte., V. and Vc., _op._ 108
+    (the first set of a large and much neglected collection, mostly
+    posthumous, many of great interest and beauty and very Beethovenish,
+    which has shocked persons who expect sympathetic insight into
+    folk-music to prevail over Beethoven's artistic impulse). Sonata,
+    _op._ 109 (E).
+
+  1822. Sonata, _op._ 110 (A-flat). Overture, _Die Weihe des Hauses_,
+    _op._ 124 (C), a magnificent essay in orchestral free fugue,
+    published 1825.
+
+  1823. Sonata, _op._ 111 (C mi., the last pianoforte sonata). 33
+    variations on a waltz by Diabelli, who sent his waltz round to
+    fifty-one musicians in Austria asking each to contribute a variation;
+    the whole to be published for the benefit of the widows and orphans
+    left by the war. Beethoven answered with the greatest set ever
+    written, and it was published in a separate volume. Among the other
+    fifty composers were Schubert and an infant prodigy of eleven, Franz
+    Liszt! The mass in D (_Missa Solemnis_), _op._ 123, begun in 1818 for
+    the installation of the archduke Rudolph as archbishop of Olmutz, was
+    not finished until 1826, two years after the installation. The 9th
+    symphony, _op._ 125 D mi. (see note on 7th and 8th symphonies);
+    sketches begun 1817; project of setting Schiller's _Freude_ already
+    in Beethoven's mind before he left Bonn. 6 bagatelles, _op._ 126,
+    Beethoven's last pianoforte work a very remarkable and unaccountably
+    neglected group of carefully contrasted lyric pieces.
+
+  1824. String quartet, _op._ 127 (E-flat, published 1826).
+
+  1825. String quartet, _op._ 130 (B-flat), with finale, _op._ 133
+    (grand fugue); string quartet, _op._ 132 (A mi., with slow movement
+    in Lydian mode, a _Heiliger Dankgesang_ on recovery from illness.
+    Theme of finale first thought of as for instrumental finale to 9th
+    symphony).
+
+  1826. String quartet, _op._ 131 (C-sharp, mi.). String quartet, op.
+    135 (F). New finale to _op._ 130, Beethoven's last composition.
+         (D. F. T.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A.W. Thayer, _Beethovens Leben_ (1866-1879); L. Nohl,
+  _Life of Beethoven_ (Eng. trans., 1884), and _Letters_ (Eng. trans.,
+  1866); Sir G. Grove, _Beethoven and his Symphonies_ (1896), and in
+  Grove's _Dictionary of Music_.
+
+
+
+
+BEETLE (O. Eng. _bityl_; connected with "bite"), a name commonly applied
+to those insects which possess horny wing-cases; it is used to denote
+the cockroaches (q.v.) (black beetles), as well as the true beetles or
+_Coleoptera_ (q.v.), the two belonging to different orders of _Insecta_.
+
+The adjective "beetle-browed," and similarly "beetling" (of a cliff),
+are derived from the name of the insect. From another word (O. Eng.
+_betel_, connected with "beat") comes "beetle" in the sense of a mallet,
+and the "beetling-machine," which subjects fabrics to a hammering
+process.
+
+
+
+
+BEETS, NIKOLAAS (1814-1903), Dutch poet, was born at Haarlem on the 13th
+of September 1814; constant references in his poems and sketches show
+how deeply the beauty of that town and its neighbourhood impressed his
+imagination. He studied theology in Leiden, but gave himself early to
+the cultivation of poetry. In his youth Beets was entirely carried away
+on the tide of Byronism which was then sweeping over Europe, and his
+early works--_Jose_ (1834), _Kuser_ (1835) and _Guy de Vlaming_
+(1837)--are gloomy romances of the most impassioned type. But at the
+very same time he was beginning in prose the composite work of humour
+and observation which has made him famous, and which certainly had
+nothing that was in the least Byronic about it. This was the celebrated
+_Camera Obscura_ (1839), the most successful imaginative work which any
+Dutchman of the 18th century produced. This work, published under the
+pseudonym of "Hildebrand," goes back in its earliest inception to the
+year 1835, when Beets was only twenty-one. It consists of complete short
+stories, descriptive sketches, studies of peasant life--all instinct
+with humour and pathos, and written in a style of great charm; it has
+been reprinted in countless editions. Beets became a professor at the
+university of Leiden, and the pastor of a congregation in that city. In
+middle life he published further collections of verse--_Cornflowers_
+(1853) and _New Poems_ (1857)--in which the romantic melancholy was
+found to have disappeared, and to have left in its place a gentle
+sentiment and a depth of religious feeling. In 1873-1875 Beets collected
+his works in three volumes. In April 1883 the honorary degree of LL.D.
+Edin. was conferred upon him. He died at Utrecht on the 13th of March
+1903.
+
+
+
+
+BEFANA (Ital., corrupted from _Epifania_, Epiphany), the Italian female
+counterpart of Santa Claus, the Christmas benefactor (St Nicholas). On
+Epiphany, or Twelfth Night, she plays the fairy godmother to the
+children, filling their stockings with presents. Tradition relates that
+she was too busy with house duties to come to the window to see the
+Three Wise Men of the East pass on their journey to pay adoration to the
+Saviour, excusing herself on the ground that she could see them on their
+return. They went back another way, and Befana is alleged to have been
+punished by being obliged to look for them for ever. Her legends seem to
+be rather mixed, for in spite of her Santa Claus character, her name is
+used by Italian mothers as a bogey to frighten the babies. It was the
+custom to carry her effigy through Italian towns on the eve of the
+Epiphany.
+
+
+
+
+BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL (1757-1811), French dramatist and man of
+letters, was born at Laon on the 6th of November 1757. Under the name of
+"Cousin Jacques" he founded a periodical called _Les Lunes_ (1785-1787).
+The _Courrier des planètes ou Correspondance du Cousin Jacques avec le
+firmament_ (1788-1792) followed. _Nicodème dans la lune, ou la
+révolution pacifique_ (1790) a three-act farce, is said to have had more
+than four hundred representations. In spite of his protests against the
+evils of the Revolution he escaped interference through the influence of
+his brother, Louis Étienne Beffroy, who was a member of the Convention.
+Of _La Petite Nanette_ (1795) and several other operas he wrote both the
+words and the music. His _Dictionnaire néologique_ (3 vols., 1795-1800)
+of the chief actors and events in the Revolution was interdicted by the
+police and remained incomplete. Beffroy spent his last years in
+retirement, dying in Paris on the 17th of December 1811.
+
+
+
+
+BEGAS, KARL (1794-1854), German historical painter, was born at
+Heinsberg near Aix-la-Chapelle. His father, a retired judge, destined
+him for the legal profession, but the boy's tastes pointed definitely in
+another direction. Even at school he was remarked for his wonderful
+skill in drawing and painting, and in 1812 he was permitted to visit
+Paris in order to perfect himself in his art. He studied for eighteen
+months in the atelier of Gros and then began to work independently. In
+1814 his copy of the Madonna della Sedia was bought by the king of
+Prussia, who was attracted by the young artist and did much to advance
+him. He was engaged to paint several large Biblical pictures, and in
+1825, after his return from Italy, continued to produce paintings which
+were placed in the churches of Berlin and Potsdam. Some of these were
+historical pieces, but the majority were representations of Scriptural
+incidents. Begas was also celebrated as a portrait-painter, and supplied
+to the royal gallery a long series of portraits of eminent Prussian men
+of letters. At his death he held the post of court painter at Berlin.
+His son OSKAR (1828-1883) was also a painter and professor of painting
+at Berlin. REINHOLD, the sculptor, is noticed below.
+
+
+
+
+BEGAS, REINHOLD (1831-   ), German sculptor, younger son of Karl Begas,
+the painter, was born at Berlin on the 15th of July 1831. He received
+his early education (1846-1851) in the ateliers of C.D. Rauch and L.
+Wichmann. During a period of study in Italy, from 1856 to 1858, he was
+influenced by Böcklin and Lenbach in the direction of a naturalistic
+style in sculpture. This tendency was marked in the group "Borussia,"
+executed for the façade of the exchange in Berlin, which first brought
+him into general notice. In 1861 he was appointed professor at the art
+school at Weimar, but retained the appointment only a few months. That
+he was chosen, after competition, to execute the statue of Schiller for
+the Gendarmen Markt in Berlin, was a high tribute to the fame he had
+already acquired; and the result, one of the finest statues in the
+German metropolis, entirely justified his selection. Since the year
+1870, Begas has entirely dominated the plastic art in Prussia, but
+especially in Berlin. Among his chief works during this period are the
+colossal statue of Borussia for the Hall of Glory; the Neptune fountain
+in bronze on the Schlossplatz; the statue of Alexander von Humboldt, all
+in Berlin; the sarcophagus of the emperor Frederick III. in the
+mausoleum of the Friedenskirche at Potsdam; and, lastly, the national
+monument to the emperor William (see BERLIN), the statue of Bismarck
+before the Reichstag building, and several of the statues in the
+Siegesallee. He was also entrusted with the execution of the sarcophagus
+of the empress Frederick.
+
+  See A.G. Meyer, "Reinhold Begas" in _Künstler-Monographien_, ed. H.
+  Knackfuss, Heft xx. (Bielefeld, 1897; new ed., 1901).
+
+
+
+
+BEGGAR, one who begs, particularly one who gains his living by asking
+the charitable contributions of others. The word, with the verbal form
+"to beg," in Middle English _beggen_, is of obscure history. The words
+appear first in English in the 13th century, and were early connected
+with "bag," with reference to the receptacle for alms carried by the
+beggars. The most probable derivation of the word, and that now
+generally accepted, is that it is a corruption of the name of the lay
+communities known as Beguines and Beghards, which, shortly after their
+establishment, followed the friars in the practice of mendicancy (see
+BEGUINES). It has been suggested, however, that the origin of "beg" and
+"beggars" is to be found in a rare Old English word, _bedecian_, of the
+same meaning, which is apparently connected with the Gothic _bidjan_,
+cf. German _betteln_; but between the occurrence of _bedecian_ at the
+end of the 9th century and the appearance of "beggar" and "beg" in the
+13th, there is a blank, and no explanation can be given of the great
+change in form. For the English law relating to begging and its history,
+see CHARITY, POOR LAW and VAGRANCY.
+
+
+
+
+BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR, a simple card-game. An ordinary pack is divided
+equally between two players, and the cards are held with the backs
+upwards. The first player lays down his top card face up, and the
+opponent plays his top card on it, and this goes on alternately as long
+as no court-card appears; but if either player turns up a court-card,
+his opponent has to play four ordinary cards to an ace, three to a king,
+two to a queen, one to a knave, and when he has done so the other player
+takes all the cards on the table and places them under his pack; if,
+however, in the course of this playing to a court-card, another
+court-card turns up, the adversary has in turn to play to this, and as
+long as neither has played a full number of ordinary cards to any
+court-card the trick continues. The player who gets all the cards into
+his hand is the winner.
+
+
+
+
+BEGONIA (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany), a large genus
+(natural order, Begoniaceae) of succulent herbs or undershrubs, with
+about three hundred and fifty species in tropical moist climates,
+especially South America and India. About one hundred and fifty species
+are known in cultivation, and innumerable varieties and hybrid forms.
+Many are tuberous. The flowers are usually showy and large, white, rose,
+scarlet or yellow in colour; they are unisexual, the male containing
+numerous stamens, the female having a large inferior ovary and two to
+four branched or twisted stigmas. The fruit is a winged capsule
+containing numerous minute seeds. The leaves, which are often large and
+variegated, are unequal-sided.
+
+Cuttings from flowering begonias root freely in sandy soil, if placed in
+heat at any season when moderately firm; as soon as rooted, they should
+be potted singly into 3-in. pots, in sandy loam mixed with leaf-mould
+and sand. They should be stopped to keep them bushy, placed in a light
+situation, and thinly shaded in the middle of very bright days. In a few
+weeks they will require another shift. They should not be overpotted,
+but instead assisted by manure water. The pots should be placed in a
+light pit near the roof glass. The summer-flowering kinds will soon
+begin blooming, but the autumn and winter flowering sorts should be kept
+growing on in a temperature of from 55° to 60° by night, with a few
+degrees more in the day. The tuberous-rooted sorts require to be kept at
+rest in winter, in a medium temperature, almost but not quite dry. In
+February they should be potted in a compost of sandy loam and
+leaf-mould, and placed in a temperate pit until May or June, when they
+may be moved to the greenhouse for flowering. If they afterwards get at
+all pot-bound, weak manure should be applied. After blooming, the supply
+of water must be again slackened; in winter the plants should be stored
+in a dry place secure from frost; they are increased by late summer and
+autumn cuttings, after being partially cut down.
+
+
+
+
+BEGUINES (Fr. _bêguine_, Med. Lat. _beguina, begina, beghina_), at the
+present time the name of the members of certain lay sisterhoods
+established in the Netherlands and Germany, the enclosed district within
+which they live being known as a beguinage (Lat. _beginagium_). The
+equivalent male communities, called also Beguines (Fr. _béguins_, Lat.
+_beguiní_), but more usually Beghards (Lat. _baghardi, beggardi,
+begehardi_, &c., O. Fr. _bégard-i_, Flem. _beggaert_), have long ceased
+to exist. The origin of the names Beguine and Beghard has been the
+subject of much controversy. In the 15th century a legend arose that
+both name and organization were traceable to St Begga, daughter of
+Pippin of Landen, who consequently in 1630 was chosen by the Beguines as
+the patron saint of their association. In 1630 a professor of Louvain,
+Erycius Puteanus (van Putte), published a treatise, _De Begginarum apud
+Belgas instituto et nomine suffragium_, in which he produced three
+documents purporting to date from the 11th and 12th centuries, which
+seemed conclusively to prove that the Beguines existed long before
+Lambert le Bègue. For two centuries these were accepted as genuine and
+are admitted as such even in the monumental work of Mosheim. In 1843,
+however, they were conclusively proved by the German scholar Hallmann,
+from internal evidence, to be forgeries of the 14th and 15th centuries.
+It is now universally admitted that both the institution and the name of
+the Beguines are derived from Lambert le Bègue, who died about the year
+1187. The confusion caused by the spurious documents of Puteanus,
+however, led, even when the legend of St Begga was rejected, to other
+suggestions for the derivation of the name, e.g. from an imaginary old
+Saxon word _beggen_, "to beg" or "pray," an explanation adopted even by
+Mosheim, or from _bègue_, "stammering," a French word of unknown origin,
+which only brings us back to Lambert again, whose name of Le Bègue, as
+the chronicler Aegidius, a monk of Orval (Aureae Vallis), tells us,
+simply means "the stammerer," _quia balbus erat_ (_Gesta pontificum
+Leodiensium, c_. A.D. 1251). Doubtless this coincidence gave a ready
+handle to the scoffing wits of the time, and among the numerous popular
+names given to the Beghards--_bons garçons, boni pueri, boni valeti_ and
+the like--we find also that of Lollards (from Flemish _löllen_, "to
+stammer").
+
+About the year 1170 Lambert le Bègue, a priest of Liége, who had devoted
+his fortune to founding the hospital and church of St Christopher for
+the widows and children of crusaders, conceived the idea of establishing
+an association of women, who, without taking the monastic vows, should
+devote themselves to a life of religion. The effect of his preaching was
+immense, and large numbers of women, many of them left desolate by the
+loss of their husbands on crusade, came under the influence of a
+movement which was attended with all the manifestations of what is now
+called a "revival." About the year 1180 Lambert gathered some of these
+women, who had been ironically styled "Beguines" by his opponents, into
+a semi-conventual community, which he established in a quarter of the
+city belonging to him around his church of St Christopher. The district
+was surrounded by a wall within which the Beguines lived in separate
+small houses, subject to no rule save the obligation of good works, and
+of chastity so long as they remained members of the community. After
+Lambert's death (c. 1187?) the movement rapidly spread, first in the
+Netherlands and afterwards in France--where it was encouraged by the
+saintly Louis IX.--Germany, Switzerland and the countries beyond.
+Everywhere the community was modelled on the type established at Liége.
+It constituted a little city within the city, with separate houses, and
+usually a church, hospital and guest-house, the whole being under the
+government of a mistress (_magistra_). Women of all classes were
+admitted; and, though there was no rule of poverty, many wealthy women
+devoted their riches to the common cause. The Beguines did not beg; and,
+when the endowments of the community were not sufficient, the poorer
+members had to support themselves by manual work, sick-nursing and the
+like.
+
+The Beguine communities were fruitful soil for the missionary enterprise
+of the friars, and in the course of the 13th century the communities in
+France, Germany and upper Italy had fallen under the influence of the
+Dominicans and Franciscans to such an extent that in the Latin-speaking
+countries the tertiaries of these orders were commonly called _beguini_
+and _beguinae_. The very looseness of their organization, indeed, made
+it inevitable that the Beguine associations should follow very diverse
+developments. Some of them retained their original character; others
+fell completely under the dominion of the friars, and were ultimately
+converted into houses of Dominican, Franciscan or Augustinian
+tertiaries; others again fell under the influence of the mystic
+movements of the 13th century, turned in increasing numbers from work to
+mendicancy (as being nearer the Christ-life), practised the most cruel
+self-tortures, and lapsed into extravagant heresies that called down
+upon them the condemnation of popes and councils.[1] All this tended to
+lower the reputation of the Beguines. During the 14th century, indeed,
+numerous new beguinages were established; but ladies of rank and wealth
+ceased to enter them, and they tended to become more and more mere
+almshouses for poor women. By the 15th century in many cases they had
+utterly sunk in reputation, their obligation to nurse the sick was quite
+neglected, and they had, rightly or wrongly, acquired the reputation of
+being mere nests of beggars and women of ill fame. At the Reformation
+the communities were suppressed in Protestant countries, but in some
+Catholic countries they still survive. The beguinages found here and
+there in Germany are now simply almshouses for poor spinsters, those in
+Holland (e.g. at Amsterdam and Breda) and Belgium preserve more
+faithfully the characteristics of earlier days. The beguinage of St
+Elizabeth at Ghent has some thousand sisters, and occupies quite a
+distinct quarter of the city, being surrounded by a wall and moat. The
+Beguines wear the old Flemish head-dress and a dark costume, and are
+conspicuous for their kindness among the poor and their sick nursing.
+
+It is uncertain whether the parallel communities of men originated also
+with Lambert le Bègue. The first records are of communities at Louvain
+in 1220 and at Antwerp in 1228. The history of the male communities is
+to a certain extent parallel with the female, but they were never so
+numerous and their degeneration was far more rapid. The earliest Flemish
+Beghard communities were associations mainly of artisans who earned
+their living by weaving and the like, and appear to have been in
+intimate connexion with the craft-gilds; but under the influence of the
+mendicant movement of the 13th century these tended to break up, and,
+though certain of the male beguinages survived or were incorporated as
+tertiaries in the orders of friars, the name of Beghard became
+associated with groups of wandering mendicants who made religion a cloak
+for living on charity; _béguigner_ becoming in the French language of
+the time synonymous with "to beg," and _beghard_ with "beggar," a word
+which, according to the latest authorities, was probably imported into
+England in the 13th century from this source (see BEGGAR). More serious
+still, from the point of view of the Church, was the association of
+these wandering mendicants with the mystic heresies of the Fraticelli,
+the Apostolici and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit. The
+situation was embittered by the hatred of the secular clergy for the
+friars, with whom the Beguines were associated. Restrictions were placed
+upon them by the synod of Fritzlar (1269), by that of Mainz (1281) and
+Eichstätt (1281). and by the synod of Béziers (1299) they were
+absolutely forbidden. They were again condemned by a synod held at
+Cologne in 1306; and at the synod of Trier in 1310 a decree was passed
+against those "who under a pretext of feigned religion call themselves
+Beghards ... and, hating manual labour, go about begging, holding
+conventicles and posing among simple people as interpreters of the
+Scriptures." Matters came to a climax at the council of Vienne in 1311
+under Pope Clement V., where the "sect of Beguines and Beghards" were
+accused of being the main instruments of the spread of heresy, and
+decrees were passed suppressing their organization and demanding their
+severe punishment. The decrees were put into execution by Pope John
+XXII., and a persecution raged in which, though the pope expressly
+protected the female Beguine communities of the Netherlands, there was
+little discrimination between the orthodox and unorthodox Beguines. This
+led to the utmost confusion, the laity in many cases taking the part of
+the Beguine communities, and the Church being thus brought into conflict
+with the secular authorities. In these circumstances the persecution
+died down; it was, however, again resumed between 1366 and 1378 by Popes
+Urban V. and Gregory XI., and the Beguines were not formally reinstated
+until the pontificate of Eugenius IV. (1431-1447). The male communities
+did not survive the 14th century, even in the Netherlands, where they
+had maintained their original character least impaired.
+
+  See J.L. von Mosheirn, _De beghardis et beguinabus commentarius_
+  (Leipzig, 1790); E. Hallmann, _Die Geschichte des Ursprungs der
+  belgischen Beghinen_ (Berlin, 1843); J.C.L. Giesclcr, _Eccles. Hist._
+  (vol. iii., Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853), with useful excerpts from
+  documents; Du Cange, _Glossarium_; Herzog-Haurk, _Realencyklopädie_
+  (3rd ed., 1897) s. "Beginen," by Herman Haupt, where numerous further
+  authorities are cited.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the year 1287 the council of Liége decreed that "all Beguinae
+    desiring to enjoy the Beguine privileges shall enter a Beguinage, and
+    we order that all who remain outside the Beguinage shall wear a dress
+    to distinguish them from the Beguinae."
+
+
+
+
+BEHAIM (or BEHEM), MARTIN (1436?-1507), a navigator and geographer of
+great pretensions, was born at Nuremberg, according to one tradition,
+about 1436; according to Ghillany, as late as 1459. He was drawn to
+Portugal by participation in Flanders trade, and acquired a scientific
+reputation at the court of John II. As a pupil, real or supposed, of the
+astronomer "Regiomontanus" (i.e. Johann Müller of Königsberg in
+Franconia) he became (c. 1480) a member of a council appointed by King
+John for the furtherance of navigation. His alleged introduction of the
+cross-staff into Portugal (an invention described by the Spanish Jew,
+Levi ben Gerson, in the 14th century) is a matter of controversy; his
+improvements in the astrolabe were perhaps limited to the introduction
+of handy brass instruments in place of cumbrous wooden ones; it seems
+likely that he helped to prepare better navigation tables than had yet
+been known in the Peninsula. In 1484-1485 he claimed to have accompanied
+Diogo Cão in his second expedition to West Africa, really undertaken in
+1485-86, reaching Cabo Negro in 15° 40' S. and Cabo Ledo still farther
+on. It is now disputed whether Behaim's pretensions here deserve any
+belief; and it is suggested that instead of sharing in this great voyage
+of discovery, the Nuremberger only sailed to the nearer coasts of
+Guinea, perhaps as far as the Bight of Benin, and possibly with José
+Visinho the astronomer and with João Affonso d'Aveiro, in 1484-86.
+Martin's later history, as traditionally recorded, was as follows. On
+his return from his West African exploration to Lisbon he was knighted
+by King John, who afterwards employed him in various capacities; but,
+from the time of his marriage in 1486, he usually resided at Fayal in
+the Azores, where his father-in-law, Jobst van Huerter, was governor of
+a Flemish colony. On a visit to his native city in 1492, he constructed
+his famous terrestrial globe, still preserved in Nuremberg, and often
+reproduced, in which the influence of Ptolemy is strongly apparent, but
+wherein some attempt is also made to incorporate the discoveries of the
+later middle ages (Marco Polo, &c.). The antiquity of this globe and the
+year of its execution, on the eve of the discovery of America, are
+noteworthy; but as a scientific work it is unimportant, ranking far
+below the _portolani_ charts of the 14th century. Its West Africa is
+marvellously incorrect; the Cape Verde archipelago lies hundreds of
+miles out of its proper place; and the Atlantic is filled with fabulous
+islands. Blunders of 16° are found in the localization of places the
+author claims to have visited: contemporary maps, at least in regard to
+continental features, seldom went wrong beyond 1°. It is generally
+agreed that Behaim had no share in Transatlantic discovery; and though
+Columbus and he were apparently in Portugal at the same time, no
+connexion between the two has been established. He died at Lisbon in
+1507.
+
+  See C.G. von Murr, _Diplomatische Geschichte des berühmten Ritters
+  Behaim_ (1778); A. von Humboldt, _Kritische Untersuchungen_ (1836);
+  F.W. Ghillany, _Geschichte des Seefahrers Martin Behaim_ (1853); O.
+  Peschel, _Geschichte der Erdkunde_, 214-215, 226, 251, and _Zeitalter
+  der Entdeckungen_, esp. p. 90; Breusing, _Zur Geschichte der
+  Geographie_ (1869); Eugen Gelcich in the _Mittheilungen_ of the Vienna
+  Geographical Society, vol. xxxvi. pp. 100, &c.; E.G. Ravenstein,
+  _Martin de Bohemia_, (Lisbon, 1900), _Martin Behaim, His Life and His
+  Globe_ (London, 1909), and _Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu
+  Dias_, 1482-1488, in _Geographical Journal_, Dec. 1900; see also
+  _Geog. Journal_, Aug. 1893, p. 175, Nov. 1901, p. 509; Jules Mees in
+  _Bull. Soc. Geog._, Antwerp, 1902, pp. 182-204; A. Ferreira de Serpa
+  in _Bull. Soc. Geog._, Lisbon, 1904, pp. 297-307.     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BEHAR, or BIHAR, a town of British India, in the Patna district of
+Bengal, which gives its name to an old province, situated on the right
+bank of the river Panchana. Pop. (1901) 45,063. There are still some
+manufactures of silk and muslin, but trade has deserted Behar in favour
+of Patna and other places more favourably situated on the river Ganges
+and the railway, while the indigo industry has been ruined by the
+synthetic products of the German chemist, and the English colony of
+indigo planters has been scattered abroad.
+
+The old province, stretching widely across the valley of the Ganges from
+the frontier of Nepal to the hills of Chota Nagpur, corresponds to the
+two administrative divisions of Patna and Bhagalpur, with a total area
+of 44,197 sq. m. and a population of 24,241,305. It is the most densely
+populated tract in India, and therefore always liable to famine; but it
+is now well protected almost everywhere by railways. It is a country of
+large landholders and formerly of indigo planters. The vernacular
+language is not Bengali, but a dialect of Hindu; and the people likewise
+resemble those of Upper India. The general aspect of the country is
+flat, except in the district of Monghyr, where detached hills occur, and
+in the south-east of the province, where the Rajmahal and Santal ranges
+abut upon the plains.
+
+Behar abounds in great rivers, such as the Ganges, with its tributaries,
+the Ghagra, Gandak, Kusi, Mahananda and Sone. The Ganges enters the
+province near the town of Buxar, flows eastward and, passing the towns
+of Dinajpur, Patna, Monghyr and Colgong, leaves the province at
+Rajmahal. It divides the province into two almost equal portions; north
+of the river lie the districts of Saran, Champaran, Tirhoot, Purnea, and
+part of Monghyr and Bhagalpur, and south of it are Shahabad, Patna,
+Gaya, the Santal parganas, and the rest of Monghyr and Bhagalpur. The
+Ganges and its northern tributaries are navigable by country boats of
+large burden all the year round. The cultivation of opium is a
+government monopoly, and no person is allowed to grow the poppy except
+on account of government. The Behar Opium Agency has its headquarters at
+the town of Patna. Annual engagements are entered into by the
+cultivators, under a system of pecuniary advances, to sow a certain
+quantity of land with poppy, and the whole produce in the form of opium
+is delivered to government at a fixed rate.
+
+Saltpetre is largely refined in Tirhoot, Saran and Champaran, and is
+exported both by rail and river to Calcutta. The manufactures of less
+importance are tussore-silk, paper, blankets, brass utensils, firearms,
+carpets, coarse cutlery and hardware, leather, ornaments of gold and
+silver, &c. Of minerals--lead, silver and copper exist in the Bhagalpur
+division, but the mines are not worked. One coal-mine is worked in the
+parganas. Before the construction of railways in India, the Ganges and
+the Grand Trunk road afforded the sole means of communication from
+Calcutta to the North-Western Provinces. But now the railroad is the
+great highway which connects Upper India with Lower Bengal. The East
+Indian railway runs throughout the length of the province. The climate
+of Behar is very hot from the middle of March to the end of June, when
+the rains set in, which continue till the end of September. The cold
+season, from October to the first half of March, is the pleasantest time
+of the year.
+
+_History._--The province of Behar corresponds to the ancient kingdom of
+Magadha, which comprised the country now included in the districts of
+Patna, Gaya and Shahabad, south of the Ganges. The origin of this
+kingdom, famous alike in the political and religious history of India,
+is lost in the mists of antiquity; and though the Brahmanical _Puranas_
+give lists of its rulers extending back to remote ages before the
+Christian era, the first authentic dynasty is that of the Saisunaga,
+founded by Sisunaga (c. 600 B.C.), whose capital was at Rajagaha
+(Rajgir) in the hills near Gaya; and the first king of this dynasty of
+whom anything is known was Bimbisara (c. 528 B.C.), who by conquests and
+matrimonial alliances laid the foundations of the greatness of the
+kingdom. It was in the reign of Bimbisara that Vardhamana Mahavira, the
+founder of Jainism, and Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, preached in
+Magadha, and Buddhist missionaries issued thence to the conversion of
+China, Ceylon, Tibet and Tatary. Even to this day Behar, where there are
+extensive remains of Buddhist buildings, remains a sacred spot in the
+eyes of the Chinese and other Buddhist nations.
+
+Bimbisara was murdered by his son Ajatasatru, who succeeded him, and
+whose bloodthirsty policy reduced the whole country between the
+Himalayas and the Ganges under the suzerainty of Magadha. According to
+tradition, it was his grandson, Udaya, who founded the city of
+Pataliputra (Patna) on the Ganges, which under the Maurya dynasty became
+the capital not only of Magadha but of India. The remaining history of
+the dynasty is obscure; according to Mr Vincent Smith, its last
+representative was Mahanandin (417 B.C.), after whose death the throne
+was usurped, under obscure circumstances, by Mahapadma Nanda, a man of
+low caste (_Early Hist. of India_, p. 36). It was a son of this usurper
+who was reigning at the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great; and
+the conqueror, when his advance was arrested at the Hyphasis (326 B.C.),
+meditating an attack on Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), was
+informed that the king of Magadha could oppose him with a force of
+20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2000 chariots, and 3000 or 4000
+elephants. The Nanda dynasty seems to have survived only for two
+generations, when (321 B.C.) Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the
+great Maurya dynasty, seized the throne. This dynasty, of which the
+history belongs to that of India (q.v.), occupied the throne for 137
+years. After the death of the great Buddhist king, Asoka (c. 231), the
+Maurya empire began to break up, and it was finally destroyed about
+fifty years later when Pushyamitra Sunga murdered the Maurya king
+Brihadratha and founded the Sunga dynasty. Descendants of Asoka
+continued, however, to subsist in Magadha as subordinate rajas for many
+centuries; and as late as the 8th century A.D. petty Maurya dynasties
+are mentioned as ruling in Konkan. The reign of Pushyamitra, who held
+his own against Menander and succeeded in establishing his claim to be
+lord paramount of northern India, is mainly remarkable as marking the
+beginning of the Brahmanical reaction and the decline of Buddhism;
+according to certain Buddhist writers the king, besides reviving Hindu
+rites, indulged in a savage persecution of the monks. The Sunga dynasty,
+which lasted 112 years, was succeeded by the Kanva dynasty, which after
+45 years was overthrown (c. 27 B.C.) by the Andhras or Satavahanas. In
+A.D. 236 the Andhras were overthrown, and, after a confused and obscure
+period of about a century, Chandragupta I. established his power at
+Pataliputra (A.D. 320) and founded the famous Gupta empire (see GUPTA),
+which survived till it was overthrown by the Ephthalites (q.v.), or
+White Huns, at the close of the 5th century. In Magadha itself the
+Guptas continued to rule as tributary princes for some centuries longer.
+About the middle of the 8th century Magadha was conquered by Gopala, who
+had made himself master in Bengal, and founded the imperial dynasty
+known as the Palas of Bengal. They were zealous Buddhists, and under
+their rule Magadha became once more an active centre of Buddhist
+influence. Gopala himself built a great monastery at Udandapura, or
+Otantapuri, which has been identified by Sir Alexander Cunningham with
+the city of Behar, where the later Pala kings established their capital.
+Under Mahipala (c. 1026), the ninth of his line, and his successor
+Nayapala, missionaries from Magadha succeeded in firmly re-establishing
+Buddhism in Tibet.
+
+In the 11th century the Pala empire, which, according to the Tibetan
+historian Taranath, extended in the 9th century from the Bay of Bengal
+to Delhi and Jalandhar (Jullundur) in the north and the Vindhyan range
+in the south, was partly dismembered by the rise of the "Sena" dynasty
+in Bengal; and at the close of the 12th century both Palas and Senas
+were swept away by the Mahommedan conquerors, the city of Behar itself
+being captured by the Turki free-lance Mahommed-i-Bakhtyar Khilji in
+1193, by surprise, with a party of 200 horsemen. "It was discovered,"
+says a contemporary Arab historian, "that the whole of that fortress and
+city was a college, and in the Hindi tongue they call a college Bihar."
+Most of the monks were massacred in the first heat of the assault; those
+who survived fled to Tibet, Nepal and the south. Buddhism in Magadha
+never recovered from this blow; it lingered in obscurity for a while and
+then vanished.
+
+Behar now came under the rule of the Mahommedan governors of Bengal.
+About 1330 the southern part was annexed to Delhi, while north Behar
+remained for some time longer subject to Bengal. In 1397 the whole of
+Behar became part of the kingdom of Jaunpur; but a hundred years later
+it was annexed by the Delhi emperors, by whom--save for a short
+period--it continued to be held. The capital of the province was
+established under the Moguls at the city of Behar, which gave its name
+to the province. From the middle of the 14th to the middle of the 16th
+century a large part of Behar was ruled by a line of Brahman tributary
+kings; and in the 15th century another Hindu dynasty ruled in Champaran
+and Gorakhpur. Behar came into the possession of the East India Company
+with the acquisition of the Diwani in 1765, when the province was united
+with Bengal. In 1857 two zemindars, Umar Singh and Kumar Singh, rebelled
+against the British government, and for some months held the ruinous
+fort of Rohtas against the British.
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), _s.v._ "Bihar" and
+  "Bengal"; V.A. Smith, _Early History of India_ (2nd ed., Oxford,
+  1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEHA UD-DIN [ABU-L-MAHASIN YUSUF IBN RAFI' IBN SHADDAD BEHA UD DIN]
+(1145-1234), Arabian writer and statesman, was born in Mosul and early
+became famous for his knowledge of the Koran and of jurisprudence.
+Before the age of thirty he became teacher in the great college at
+Bagdad known as the Nizamiyya, and soon after became professor at Mosul.
+In 1187, after making the pilgrimage to Mecca, he visited Damascus.
+Saladin, who was at the time besieging Kaukab (a few miles south of
+Tiberias), sent for him and became his friend. Beha ud-Din observed that
+the whole soul of the monarch was engrossed by the war which he was then
+engaged in waging against the enemies of the faith, and saw that the
+only mode of acquiring his favour was by urging him to its vigorous
+prosecution. With this view he composed a treatise on _The Laws and
+Discipline of Sacred War_, which he presented to Saladin, who received
+it with peculiar favour. From this time he remained constantly attached
+to the person of the sultan, and was employed on various embassies and
+in departments of the civil government. He was appointed judge of the
+army and judge of Jerusalem. After Saladin's death Beha-ud-Din remained
+the friend of his son Malik uz-Zahir, who appointed him judge of Aleppo.
+Here he employed some of his wealth in the foundation of colleges. When
+Malik uz-Zahir died, his son Malik ul-'Aziz was a minor, and Beha ud-Din
+had the chief power in the regency. This power he used largely for the
+patronage of learning. After the abdication of Malik ul-'Aziz, he fell
+from favour and lived in retirement until his death in 1234. Beha
+ud-Din's chief work is his _Life of Saladin_ (published at Leiden with
+Latin translation by A. Schultens in 1732 and 1755). An English
+translation was published by the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society,
+London, 1897.
+
+  For list of other extant works see C. Brockelmann, _Geschichte der
+  arabischen Litteratur_ (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 316 f.
+       (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+BEHA UD-DIN ZUHAIR (ABU-L FADL ZUHAIR IBN MAHOMMED AL-MUHALLABI)
+(1186-1258), Arabian poet, was born at or near Mecca, and became
+celebrated as the best writer of prose and verse and the best
+calligraphist of his time. He entered the service of Malik us-Salih Najm
+ud-Din in Mesopotamia, and was with him at Damascus until he was
+betrayed and imprisoned. Beha ud-Din then retired to Nablus (Shechem)
+where he remained until Najm ud-Din escaped and obtained possession of
+Egypt, whither he accompanied him in 1240. There he remained as the
+sultan's confidential secretary until his death, due to an epidemic, in
+1258. His poetry consists mostly of panegyric and brilliant occasional
+verse distinguished for its elegance. It has been published with English
+metrical translation by E.H. Palmer (2 vols., Cambridge, 1877).
+
+  His life was written by his contemporary Ibn Khallikan (see M'G. de
+  Slane's trans. of his _Biographical Dictionary_, vol. i. pp. 542-545).
+       (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+BEHBAHAN, a walled town of Persia in the province of Fars, pleasantly
+situated in the midst of a highly cultivated plain, 128 m. W.N.W. of
+Shiraz and 3 m. from the left bank of the river Tab, here called
+Kurdistan river. It is the capital of the Kuhgilu-Behbahan sub-province
+of Fars and has a population of about 10,000. The walls are about 3 m.
+in circumference and a Narinj Kalah (citadel) stands in the south-east
+corner. At a short distance north-west of the city are the ruins of
+Arrajan, the old capital of the province.
+
+
+
+
+BEHEADING, a mode of executing capital punishment (q.v.). It was in use
+among the Greeks and Romans, and the former, as Xenophon says at the end
+of the second book of the _Anabasis_, regarded it as a most honourable
+form of death. So did the Romans, by whom it was known as _decollatio_
+or _capitis amputatio_. The head was laid on a block placed in a pit dug
+for the purpose,--in the case of a military offender, outside the
+intrenchments, in civil cases outside the city walls, near the _porta
+decumana_. Before execution the criminal was tied to a stake and whipped
+with rods. In earlier years an axe was used; afterwards a sword, which
+was considered a more honourable instrument of death, and was used in
+the case of citizens (_Dig._ 48, 19, 28). It was with a sword that
+Cicero's head was struck off by a common soldier. The beheading of John
+the Baptist proves that the tetrarch Herod had adopted from his suzerain
+the Roman mode of execution. Suetonius (_Calig. c_. 32) states that
+Caligula kept a soldier, an artist in beheading, who in his presence
+decapitated prisoners fetched indiscriminately for that purpose from the
+gaols.
+
+Beheading is said to have been introduced into England from Normandy by
+William the Conqueror. The first person to suffer was Waltheof, earl of
+Northumberland, in 1076. An ancient MS. relating to the earls of Chester
+states that the serjeants or bailiffs of the earls had power to behead
+any malefactor or thief, and gives an account of the presenting of
+several heads of felons at the castle of Chester by the earl's
+serjeant. It appears that the custom also attached to the barony of
+Malpas. In a roll of 3 Edward II., beheading is called the "custom of
+Cheshire" (Lysons' _Cheshire_, p. 299, from Harl. MS. 2009 fol. 34b).
+The liberty of Hardwick, in Yorkshire, was granted the privilege of
+beheading thieves. (See GUILLOTINE.)
+
+But with the exceptions above stated beheading was usually reserved as
+the mode of executing offenders of high rank. From the 15th century
+onward the victims of the axe include some of the highest personages in
+the kingdom: Archbishop Scrope (1405); duke of Buckingham (1483);
+Catherine Howard (1542); earl of Surrey (1547); duke of Somerset (1552);
+duke of Northumberland (1553); Lady Jane Grey (1554), Lord Guildford
+Dudley (1554); Mary queen of Scots (1587); earl of Essex (1601); Sir
+Walter Raleigh (1618); earl of Strafford (1641); Charles I. (1649); Lord
+William Russell (1683); duke of Monmouth (1685); earl of Derwentwater
+(1716); earl of Kenmure (1716); earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmerino
+(1746); and the list closes with Simon, Lord Lovat, who (9th of April
+1747) was the last person beheaded in England. The execution of Anne
+Boleyn was carried out not with the axe, but with a sword, and by a
+French headsman specially brought over from Calais. In 1644 Archbishop
+Laud was condemned to be hanged, and the only favour granted him, and
+that reluctantly, was that his sentence should be changed to beheading.
+In the case of the 4th Earl Ferrers (1760) his petition to be beheaded
+was refused and he was hanged.
+
+Executions by beheading usually took place on Tower Hill, London, where
+the scaffold stood permanently during the 15th and 16th centuries. In
+the case of certain state prisoners, e.g. Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane
+Grey, the sentence was carried out within the Tower on the green by St
+Peter's chapel.
+
+Beheading was only a part of the common-law method of punishing male
+traitors, which was ferocious in the extreme. According to Walcot's case
+(1696), 1 _Eng. Rep._ 89, the proper sentence was "quod ... ibidem super
+bigam (herdillum) ponatur et abinde usque ad furcas de [Tyburn]
+trahatur, et ibidem per collum suspendatur et vivus ad terram
+prosternatur et quod secreta membra ejus amputentur, et interiora sua
+intra ventrem suum capiantur et in ignem ponantur et ibidem _ipso
+vivente_ comburantur, et quod caput ejus amputetur, quodque corpus ejus
+in quatuor partes dividatur et illo ponantur ubi dominus rex eas
+assignare voluit." There is a tradition that Harrison the regicide after
+being disembowelled rose and boxed the ears of the executioner.
+
+In Townley's case (18 Howell, _State Trials_, 350, 351) there is a
+ghastly account of the mode of executing the sentence; and in that case
+the executioner cut the traitor's throat. In the case of the Cato Street
+conspiracy (1820, 33 Howell, _State Trials_, 1566), after the traitors
+had been hanged as directed by the act of 1814, their heads were cut off
+by a man in a mask whose dexterity led to the belief that he was a
+surgeon.
+
+Female traitors were until 1790 liable to be drawn to execution and
+burnt alive. In that year hanging was substituted for burning.
+
+In 1814 so much of the sentence as related to disembowelling and burning
+the bowels was abolished and the king was empowered by royal warrant to
+substitute decapitation for hanging, which was made by that act the
+ordinary mode of executing traitors. But it was not till 1870 that the
+portions of the sentence as to drawing and quartering were abolished
+(Forfeiture Act 1870).
+
+The more barbarous features of the execution were remitted in the case
+of traitors of high rank, and the offender was simply decapitated.
+
+The block usually employed is believed to have been a low one such as
+would be used for beheading a corpse. C.H. Firth and S.R. Gardiner
+incline to the view that such a block was the one used at Charles I.'s
+execution. The more general custom, however, seems to have been to have
+a high block over which the victim knelt. Such is the form of that
+preserved in the armoury of the Tower of London. This is undoubtedly the
+block upon which Lord Lovat suffered, but, in spite of several axe-cuts
+on it, probably not one in early use. The axe which stands beside it was
+used to behead him and the other Jacobite lords, but no certainty exists
+as to its having been previously employed. On the ground floor of the
+King's House, at the Tower, is preserved the processional axe which
+figured in the journeys of state prisoners to and from their trials, the
+edge turned from them as they went, but almost invariably turned towards
+them as they returned to the Tower. The axe's head is peculiar in form,
+1 ft. 8 in. high by 10 in. wide, and is fastened into a wooden handle 5
+ft. 4 in. long. The handle is ornamented by four rows of burnished brass
+nails.
+
+In Scotland they did not behead with the axe, nor with the sword, as
+under the Roman law, and formerly in Holland and France, but with the
+maiden (q.v.).
+
+Capital punishment is executed by beheading in France, and in Belgium by
+means of the guillotine.
+
+In Germany the instrument used varies in different states: in the old
+provinces of Prussia the axe, in Saxony and Rhenish Prussia the
+guillotine. Until 1851 executions were public. They now take place
+within a prison in the presence of certain specified officials.
+
+Beheading is also the mode of executing capital punishment in Denmark
+and Sweden. The axe is used. In Sweden the execution takes place on the
+order of the king within a prison in the presence of certain specified
+officials and, if desired, of twelve representatives of the commune
+within which the prison is situate (Code 1864, s. 2, Royal Ordinance
+1877).
+
+In the Chinese empire decapitation is the usual mode of execution. By an
+imperial edict (24th of April 1905) certain attendant barbarities have
+been suppressed: viz. slicing, cutting up the body, and exhibiting the
+head to public view (32 Clunet, 1175).
+
+
+
+
+BEHEMOTH (the intensive plural of the Hebrew _b'hemah_, a beast), the
+animal mentioned in the book of Job (ch. xl. 15), probably the
+hippopotamus, which in ancient times was found in Egypt below the
+cataracts of Syene. The word may be used in Job as typical of the
+primeval king of land animals, as leviathan of the water animals. The
+modern use expresses the idea of a very large and strong animal.
+
+
+
+
+BEHISTUN, or BISITUN, now pronounced _Bisutum_, a little village at the
+foot of a precipitous rock, 1700 ft. high, in the centre of the Zagros
+range in Persia on the right bank of the Samas-Ab, the principal
+tributary of the Kerkha (Choaspes). The original form of the name,
+Bagistana, "place of the gods" or "of God" has been preserved by the
+Greek authors Stephanus of Byzantium, and Diodorus (ii. 13), the latter
+of whom says that the place was sacred to Zeus, i.e. Ahuramazda
+(Ormuzd). At its foot passes the great road which leads from Babylonia
+(Bagdad) to the highlands of Media (Ecbatana, Hamadan). On the steep
+face of the rock, some 500 ft. above the plain, Darius I., king of
+Persia, had engraved a great cuneiform inscription (11 or 12 ft. high),
+which recounts the way in which, after the death of Cambyses, he killed
+the usurper Gaumata (in Justin Gometes, the pseudo-Smerdis), defeated
+the numerous rebels, and restored the kingdom of the Achaemenidae. Above
+the inscription the picture of the king himself is graven, with a bow in
+his hand, putting his left foot on the body of Gaumata. Nine rebel
+chiefs are led before him, their hands bound behind them, and a rope
+round their necks: the ninth is Skunka, the chief of the Scythians
+(Sacae) whom he defeated. Behind the king stand his bow-bearer and his
+lance-bearer; in the air appears the figure of the great god Ahuramazda,
+whose protection led him to victory.[1] The inscriptions are composed in
+the three languages which are written with cuneiform signs, and were
+used in all official inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings: the chief
+place is of course given to the Persian language (in four columns); the
+three Susian (Elamitic) columns lie to the left, and the Babylonian text
+is on a slanting boulder above them; a part of the Babylonian has been
+destroyed by a torrent, which has made its way over it. In former times
+the second language has often been called Scythian, Turanian or Median;
+but we now know from numerous inscriptions of Susa that it is the
+language of Elam which was spoken in Susa, the capital of the Persian
+empire.
+
+In 1835 the difficult and almost inaccessible cliff was first climbed by
+Sir Henry Rawlinson, who copied and deciphered the inscriptions
+(1835-1845), and thus completed the reading of the old cuneiform text
+and laid the foundation of the science of Assyriology. Diodorus ii. 13
+(cf. xvii. 110), probably following a later author who wrote the history
+of Alexander's campaigns, mentions the sculptures and inscriptions, but
+attributes them to Semiramis. At the foot of the rock are the remainders
+of some other sculptures (quite destroyed), the fragments of a Greek
+inscription of the Parthian prince Gotarzes (A.D. 40; text in
+Dittenberger, _Orientis graeci inscr. selectae_, no. 431), and of an
+Arabic inscription.
+
+  See Sir Henry Rawlinson in the _Journ. R. Geog. Soc._ ix., 1839; _J.R.
+  Asiatic Soc._ x. 1866, xiv., 1853, xv., 1855; _Archaeologia_, xxxiv.,
+  1852; Sir R. Ker Porter, _Travels_, ii. 149 ff.; Flandin and Coste,
+  _Voyage en Perse_, i. pl. 16; and the modern editions of the
+  inscriptions, the best of which, up to the end of the 19th century,
+  were: Weissbach and Bang, _Die altpersischen Keilinschriften_ (1893);
+  Weissbach, _Die Achaemenideninschriften zweiter Art_ (1890); Bezold,
+  _Die (babylonischen) Achaemenideninschriften_ (1882). A description of
+  the locality, with comments on the present state of the inscriptions
+  and doubtful passages of the Persian text, was given by Dr A.V.
+  Williams Jackson in the _Journal of the American Oriental Society_,
+  xxiv., 1903, and in his _Persia, Past and Present_ (1906). Dr Jackson
+  in 1903 climbed to the ledge of the rock and was able to collate the
+  lower part of the four large Persian columns; he thus convinced
+  himself that Foy's conjecture of _arstam_ ("righteousness") for
+  Rawlinson's _abistam_ or _abastam_ was correct. A later investigation
+  was carried out in 1904 on the instructions of the British Museum
+  Trustees by Messrs. L.W. King and R.C. Thompson, who published their
+  results in 1907 under the title, _The Inscription of Darius the Great
+  at Behistûn_, including a full illustrated account of the sculptures
+  and the inscription, and a complete collation of the text.
+       (Ed. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A passage in the inscription runs:--"Thus saith Darius the king:
+    That which I have done I have done altogether by the grace of
+    Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda, and the other gods that be, brought aid to
+    me. For this reason did Ahuramazda, and the other gods that be, bring
+    aid to me, because I was not hostile, nor a liar, nor a wrongdoer,
+    neither I nor my family, but according to Rectitude (_arstam_) have I
+    ruled." (A.V. Williams Jackson, _Persia, Past and Present_)
+
+
+
+
+BEHN, APHRA (otherwise AFRA, APHARA or AYFARA) (1640-1689), British
+dramatist and novelist, was baptized at Wye, Kent, in 1640. Her father,
+John Johnson, was a barber. While still a child she was taken out to
+Surinam, then an English possession, from which she returned to England
+in 1658, when it was handed over to the Dutch. In Surinam Aphra learned
+the history, and acquired a personal knowledge of the African prince
+Oroonoko and his beloved Imoinda, whose adventures she has related in
+her novel, _Oroonoko_. On her return she married Mr Behn, a London
+merchant of Dutch extraction. The wit and abilities of Mrs Behn brought
+her into high estimation at court, and--her husband having died by this
+time--Charles II. employed her on secret service in the Netherlands
+during the Dutch war. At Antwerp she successfully accomplished the
+objects of her mission; and in the latter end of 1666 she wormed out of
+one Van der Aalbert the design formed by De Ruyter, in conjunction with
+the DeWitts, of sailing up the Thames and burning the English ships in
+their harbours. This she communicated to the English court, but although
+the event proved her intelligence to have been well founded, it was at
+the time disregarded. Disgusted with political service, she returned to
+England, and from this period she appears to have supported herself by
+her writings. Among her numerous plays are _The Forced Marriage, or the
+Jealous Bridegroom_ (1671); _The Amorous Prince_ (1671); _The Town Fop_
+(1677); and _The Rover, or the Banished Cavalier_ (in two parts, 1677
+and 1681); and _The Roundheads_ (1682). The coarseness that disfigures
+her plays was the fault of her time; she possessed great ingenuity, and
+showed an admirable comprehension of stage business, while her wit and
+vivacity were unfailing. Of her short tales, or novelettes, the best is
+the story of _Oroonoko_, which was made the basis of Thomas Southerne's
+popular tragedy. Mrs Behn died on the 16th of April 1689, and was buried
+in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
+
+  See _Plays written by the Late Ingenious Mrs Behn_ (1702; reprinted,
+  1871); also "Aphra Behn's Gedichte und Prosawerke," by P. Siegel in
+  _Anglia_ (Halle, vol. xxv., 1902, pp. 86-128,329-385); and A.C.
+  Swinburne's essay on "Social Verse" in _Studies in Prose and Poetry_
+  (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1775-1851), German publicist and writer, was born
+at Salzheim on the 26th of August 1775. He studied law at Würzburg and
+Göttingen, became professor of public law in the university of Würzburg
+in 1799, and in 1819 was sent as a deputy to the _Landtag_ of Bavaria.
+Having associated himself with the party of reform, he was regarded with
+suspicion by the Bavarian king Maximilian I. and the court party,
+although favoured for a time by Maximilian's son, the future King Louis
+I. In 1821 he was compelled to give up his professorship, but he
+continued to agitate for reform, and in 1831 the king refused to
+recognize his election to the _Landtag_. A speech delivered by Behr in
+1832 was regarded as seditious, and he was arrested. In spite of his
+assertion of loyalty to the principle of monarchy he was detained in
+custody, and in 1836 was found guilty of seeking to injure the king. He
+then admitted his offence; but he was not released from prison until
+1839, and the next nine years of his life were passed under police
+supervision at Passau and Regensburg. In 1848 he obtained a free pardon
+and a sum of money as compensation, and was sent to the German national
+assembly which met at Frankfort in May of that year. He passed his
+remaining days at Bamberg, where he died on the 1st of August 1851.
+Behr's chief writings are: _Darstellung der Bedürfnisse, Wünsche und
+Hoffnungen deutscher Nation_ (Aschaffenburg, 1816); _Die Verfassung und
+Verwaltung des Staates_ (Nuremberg, 1811-1812); _Von den rechtlichen
+Grenzen der Einwirkung des Deutschen Bundes auf die Verfassung,
+Gesetzgebung, und Rechtspflege seiner Gliederstaaten_ (Stuttgart, 1820).
+
+
+
+
+BEIRA, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa, at the mouth of the Pungwe
+river, in 19° 50' S., 34° 50' E., 488 m. N. of Delagoa Bay, in
+communication by railway with Cape Town via Umtali, Salisbury and
+Bulawayo. Pop. about 4000, of whom a third are Europeans, and some 300
+Indians. The town is built on a tongue of sand extending into the river,
+and is comparatively healthy. The sea front is protected by a masonry
+wall, and there are over 13,000 ft. of wharfage. Vessels drawing 24 ft.
+can enter the port at high tide. Between the customs house and the
+railway terminus is the mouth of a small river, the Chiveve, crossed by
+a steel bridge, the centre span revolving and giving two passages each
+of 40 ft. The town is without any architectural pretensions, but
+possesses fine public gardens. It is the headquarters of the Companhai
+de Moçambique, which administers the Beira district under charter from
+the Portuguese crown. The business community is largely British.
+
+Beira occupies the site of a forgotten Arab settlement. The present port
+sprang into being as the result of a clause in the Anglo-Portuguese
+agreement of 1891 providing for the construction of a railway between
+Rhodesia and the navigable waters of the Pungwe. The railway at first
+began at Fontesvilla, about 50 m. by river above Beira, but was
+subsequently brought down to Beira. The completion in 1902 of the line
+connecting Salisbury with Cape Town adversely affected the port of
+Beira, the long railway route from the Cape being increasingly employed
+by travellers to and from Mashonaland. Moreover, the high freights on
+goods by the Beira route enabled Port Elizabeth to compete successfully
+for the trade of Rhodesia. In October 1905 a considerable reduction was
+made in railway rates and in port dues and customs, with the object of
+re-attracting to the port the transit trade of the interior, and in 1907
+a branch of the Rhodesian customs was opened in the town. In that year
+goods valued at £647,000 passed through the port to Rhodesia. Efforts
+were also made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources of the
+Beira district itself. The principal exports are rubber, sugar,
+ground-nuts and oil seeds, beeswax, chromite (from Rhodesia), and gold
+(from Manica). The imports are chiefly rice (from India) and cotton
+goods for local use, and food stuffs, machinery, hardware and
+manufactured goods for Rhodesia. For the three years, 1905-1907, the
+average annual value of the imports and exports, excluding the transit
+trade with Rhodesia, was, imports £200,000, exports £90,000. Direct
+steamship communication with Europe is maintained by German and British
+lines.
+
+  See PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA; also the reports issued yearly by the
+  British Foreign Office on the trade of Beira.
+
+
+
+
+BEIRA, an ancient principality and province of northern and central
+Portugal; bounded on the N. by Entre Minho e Douro and by Traz os
+Montes, E. by the Spanish provinces of Leon and Estremadura, S. by
+Alemtejo and Portuguese Estremadura, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop.
+(1900) 1,515,834; area, 9208 sq. m. Beira is administratively divided
+into the districts of Aveiro, Coimbra, Vizeu, Guarda and Castello
+Branco, while it is popularly regarded as consisting of the three
+sections--Beira Alta or Upper Beira (Vizeu), north and west of the Serra
+da Estrella; Beira Baixa or Lower Beira (Guarda and Castello Branco),
+south and east of that range; and Beira Mar or Maritime Beira (Aveiro
+and Coimbra), coinciding with the former coastal province of Douro. The
+coast line, about 72 m. long, is uniformly flat, with long stretches of
+sandy pine forest, heath or marshland bordered by a wide and fertile
+plain. Its most conspicuous features are the lagoon of Aveiro (q.v.) and
+the bold headland of Cape Mondego; in the south Aveiro, Murtosa, Ovar
+and Figueira da Foz are small seaports. Except along the coast, the
+surface is for the most part mountainous,--the highest point in the
+Serra da Estrella, which extends from north-east to south-west through
+the centre of the province, being 6532 ft. The northern and
+south-eastern frontiers are respectively marked by the two great rivers
+Douro and Tagus, which rise in Spain and flow to the Atlantic. The
+Agueda and Côa, tributaries of the Douro, drain the eastern plateaus of
+Beira; the Vouga rises in the Serra da Lapa, and forms the lagoon of
+Aveiro at its mouth; the Mondego springs from the Serra da Estrella,
+passes through Coimbra, and enters the sea at Figueira da Foz; and the
+Zezere, a tributary of the Tagus, rises north-north-east of Covilha and
+flows south-west and south.
+
+Beira has a warm and equable climate, except in the mountains, where the
+snowfall is often heavy. The soil, except in the valleys, is dry and
+rocky, and large stretches are covered with heath. The principal
+agricultural products are maize, wheat, garden vegetables and fruit. The
+olive is largely cultivated, the oil forming one of the chief articles
+of export; good wine is also produced. In the flat country between
+Coimbra and Aveiro the marshy land is laid out in rice-fields or in
+pastures for herds of cattle and horses. Sheep farming is an important
+industry in the highlands of Upper Beira; while near Lamego swine are
+reared in considerable numbers, and furnish the well-known Lisbon hams.
+Iron, lead, copper, coal and marble are worked to a small extent, and
+millstones are quarried in some places. Salt is obtained in considerable
+quantities from the lagoons along the coast. There are few manufactures
+except the production of woollen cloth, which occupies a large part of
+the population in the district of Castello Branco. Three important lines
+of railway, the Salamanca-Oporto, Salamanca-Lisbon and Lisbon-Oporto,
+traverse parts of Beira; the two last named are also connected by the
+Guarda-Figueira da Foz railway, which has a short branch line going
+northwards to Vizeu. The chief towns, Aveiro (pop. 1900, 9979), Castello
+Branco (7288), Coimbra (18,144), Covilha (15,469), Figueira da Foz
+(6221), Guarda (6124), Ilhavo (12,617), Lamego (9471), Murtosa (9737),
+Ovar (10,462) and Vizeu (8057), with the frontier fortress of Almeida
+(2330), are described in separate articles. There is a striking
+difference of character between the inhabitants of the highlands, who
+are grave and reserved, hardy and industrious, and those of the
+lowlands, who are more sociable and courteous, but less energetic. The
+heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal has the title of prince of
+Beira.
+
+
+
+
+BEIRUT or BEYROUT. (1) A vilayet of Syria, constituted as recently as
+1888, which stretches along the sea-coast from Jebel el-Akra, south of
+the Orontes, to the Nahr Zerka, south of Mount Carmel, and towards the
+south extends from the Mediterranean to the Jordan. It includes five
+_sanjaks_, Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Buka'a. (2) The chief town
+of the vilayet (anc. _Berytus_), the most important seaport town in
+Syria, situated on the south side of St George's Bay, on rising ground
+at the foot of Lebanon. Pop. 120,000 (Moslems, 36,000; Christians,
+77,000; Jews, 2500; Druses, 400; foreigners, 4100). Berytus, whether it
+is to be identified with Hebrew _Berothai_ or not (2 Sam. viii. 8; Ezek.
+xlvii. 16), was one of the most ancient settlements on the Phoenician
+coast; but nothing more than the name is known of it till B.C. 140, when
+the town was taken and destroyed by Tryphon in his contest with
+Antiochus VII. for the throne of the Seleucids. It duly passed under
+Rome, was much favoured by the Herods and became a _colonia_. It was
+famous for its schools, especially that of law, from the 4th century
+A.D. onwards. Justinian recognized it as one of the three official law
+schools of the empire (A.D. 533), but within a few years, as the result
+of a disastrous earthquake (551), the students were transferred to
+Sidon. In the following century it passed to the Arabs (635), and was
+not again a Christian city till 1111, when Baldwin captured it. Saladin
+retook it in 1187, and thenceforward, for six centuries and a half,
+whoever its nominal lords may have been, Saracen, Crusader, Mameluke or
+(from the 16th century) Turk, the Druse emirs of Lebanon dominated it
+(see DRUSES). One of these, Fakr ed-Din Maan II., fortified it early in
+the 17th century; but the Turks asserted themselves in 1763 and occupied
+the place. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion at Acre under Jezzar
+and Abdullah pashas, Beirut declined to a small town of about 10,000
+souls, in dispute between the Druses, the Turks and the pashas,--a state
+of things which lasted till Ibrahim Pasha captured Acre in 1832. When
+the powers moved against the Egyptians in 1840, Beirut had recently been
+occupied in force by Ibrahim as a menace to the Druses; but he was
+easily driven out after a destructive bombardment by Admiral Sir Robert
+Stopford (1768-1847). Since the pacification of the Lebanon after the
+massacre of the Christians in 1860 (for later history, see LEBANON),
+Beirut has greatly increased in extent, and has become the centre of the
+transit trade for all southern Syria. In 1894 a harbour, constructed by
+a French company, was opened, but the insecurity of the outer roadstead
+militates against its success. Nevertheless trade is on the increase. In
+1895 a French company completed a railway across the Lebanon to
+Damascus, and connected it with Mezerib in the Hauran, whence now starts
+the line to the Hejaz. Since 1907 it has also had railway communication
+with Aleppo; and a narrow-gauge line runs up the coast to Tripoli. The
+steepness of the Lebanon railway, and the break of gauge at Rayak, the
+junction for Aleppo, have prevented the diversion of much of the trade
+of North Syria to Beirut. The town has been supplied with water, since
+1875, by an English company, and with gas, since 1888, by a French
+company. There are many American and European institutions in the city:
+the American Presbyterian mission, with a girls' school and a printing
+office, which published the Arabic translation of the Bible, and now
+issues a weekly paper and standard works in Arabic; the Syrian
+Protestant college with its theological seminary, medical faculty,
+training college and astronomical observatory; the Scottish mission, and
+St George's institute for Moslem and Druse girls; the British Syrian
+mission schools; the German hospital, orphanage and boarding school; the
+French hospital and schools, and the Jesuit "Université de St Joseph"
+with a printing office. In summer most of the richer residents reside on
+the Lebanon, and in winter the governor of the Lebanon and many Lebanon
+notables inhabit houses in Beirut. The town has many fine houses, but
+the streets are unpaved and the bazaars mean. The Moslem inhabitants,
+being in a minority, have often shown themselves fanatical and
+turbulent. There are several fairly good hotels for tourists.
+     (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BEIT, ALFRED (1853-1906), British South African financier, was the son
+of a well-to-do merchant of Hamburg, Germany, and in 1875, after a
+commercial education at home, was sent out to Kimberley, South Africa,
+to investigate the diamond prospects. He had relatives, the Lipperts,
+out there in business, and in conjunction with Mr (afterwards Sir)
+Julius Wernher (b. 1850) he rapidly acquired a leading position on the
+diamond fields, and became closely allied with the ideals of Cecil
+Rhodes (q.v.). In 1889 Rhodes and Beit effected the amalgamation of
+various interests in the De Beers Consolidated Mines Limited. It was
+largely owing to the capital and enterprise of Beit that the deep-level
+mining in the Witwatersrand district of the Transvaal was started, and
+he had a large share in the principal company, the Rand Mines Limited.
+The firm of Wernher, Beit & Co. gradually transferred the centre of
+their financial operations to London, where they became the leading
+house in the dealings in South African mines. The rapid progress made in
+developing the diamond and gold output made Beit a man of enormous
+wealth, and he utilized it lavishly in pursuit of Rhodes's South African
+policy. He was one of the original directors of the British South Africa
+company, and was included with Rhodes in the censure passed by the House
+of Commons Commission of Inquiry on the Jameson Raid (1896). He was
+subsequently one of Rhodes's trustees. Personally of a modest, gentle,
+generous and retiring disposition, and strongly imbued with Rhodes's
+ideas of British imperialism, he was one of the South African
+millionaires of German birth against whom the anti-imperialist section
+in England were never tired of employing their sarcastic invective. But
+though shrinking from ostentation in any form, his purse was continually
+opened for public objects, notably his support of the Imperial Light
+Horse and Imperial Yeomanry in the South African War of 1899-1902, and
+his endowment of the professorship of colonial history at Oxford (1905).
+He gave £100,000 to establish a university in his native city of Hamburg
+and £200,000 for a university in Johannesburg. He built a fine house in
+Park Lane, London, but was never prominent in social life. He died,
+unmarried, on the 16th of July 1906.
+
+
+
+
+BEJA (or BIJA), the name under which is comprised a widespread family of
+tribes, usually classed as Hamitic. They may, however, represent very
+early Semitic immigrants (see HAMITIC RACES). When first recorded the
+Beja occupied the whole region between the Nile and the Red Sea from the
+border of Upper Egypt to the foot of the Abyssinian plateau. They were
+known to the ancient Egyptians, upon whose monuments they are
+represented. They are the Blemmyes of Strabo (xvii. 53), and have also
+been identified with the Macrobii of Herodotus, "tallest and finest of
+men" (iii. 17). It has been suggested, though on insufficient grounds,
+that the Beja, rather than the Abyssinians, are the "Ethiopians" of
+Herodotus, the civilized people who built the city of Meroë and its
+pyramids. During the Roman period the Beja were much what they are
+to-day, nomadic and aggressive, and were constantly at war. In 216 A.H.
+(A.D. 832) the Moslem governor of Assuan made a treaty with the Beja
+chief, by which the latter undertook to guard the road to Aidhab and pay
+an annual tribute of one hundred camels. This is the earliest record of
+a government engagement with the northern section of the Beja, now the
+Ababda. Ibn Batuta, early in the 14th century, mentions a king of Beja,
+El Hadrabi, who received two-thirds of the revenue of Aidhab, the other
+third going to the king of Egypt. The Beja territory contained gold and
+emerald mines. The tribesmen were the usual escort for pilgrims to Mecca
+from Kus to Aidhab. According to Leo Africanus, at the close of the 14th
+or very early in the 15th century their rich town of Zibid (Aidhab?) on
+the Red Sea was destroyed. This seems to have broken up the tribal
+cohesion. Leo Africanus describes the Beja as "most base, miserable and
+living only on milk and camels' flesh." In the middle ages the Beja,
+partially at any rate, were Christians. The kingdom of Meroö was
+succeeded by that of "Aloa," the capital of which, Soba, was on the Blue
+Nile, about 13 m. above Khartum. The country was conquered by the Funj
+(q.v.), a negroid people who subsequently became Mahommedan and
+compelled the Beja to adopt that religion. Until the invasion of the
+Egyptians, under Ismail, son of Mehemet Ali (1820), the Funj remained in
+possession.
+
+All the Beja are now Mahommedans, but generally only so in name, though
+some of the tribes enthusiastically fought for Mahdiism (1883-99). As a
+race the Beja are remarkable for physical beauty, with a colour more red
+than black, and of a distinctly Caucasic type of face. The chiefs are,
+as a rule, of much fairer complexion than the tribesmen. In spite of
+their claim to Arab origin, the tribes have preserved many negro customs
+in the matter of costume and scarring the body. Their hair-dressing is
+very characteristic. The hair, worn thick as a protection against the
+sun, is parted in a circle round the head on a level with the eyes,
+above which the hair, saturated with mutton fat or butter, is trained
+straight up like a mop, with separate tufts at sides and back. Most of
+the tribes are nomadic shepherds, driving their cattle from pasture to
+pasture; some few are occupied in agriculture.
+
+They are polygynous, but, unlike the Arabs, great independence is
+granted their women. Among most of the Beja peoples the wife can return
+to her mother's tent whenever she likes, and after a birth of a child
+she can repudiate the husband, who must make a present to be
+re-accepted. Cases are said to have occurred where the woman has thus
+obtained all her husband's possessions. The whole social position of the
+Beja women points, indeed, to an earlier matriarchal system. Among some
+of the tribes the custom of the "fourth day free" is observed, by which
+the women are only considered married for so many days a week, forming
+what liaisons they please on the odd day. The chief Beja tribes are the
+Ababda, Bisharïn, Hadendoa, Beni-Amer, Amarar, Shukuria, Hallenga and
+Hamran.
+
+
+
+
+BEJA (probably the ancient _Pax Julia_), the capital of an
+administrative district formerly included in the province of Alemtejo,
+Portugal; situated 95 m. S.S.E. of Lisbon by the Lisbon-Faro railway,
+and at the head of a branch line to Pias e Orada (3855), 26 m. E. Pop.
+(1900) 8885. Beja is an episcopal city, built on an isolated hill, and
+partly enclosed by walls of Roman origin; on the south it has a fine
+Roman gateway. Its cathedral is modern, but the citadel, with its
+beautiful Gothic tower of white marble, was founded by King Diniz
+(1279-1325). The city is surrounded by far-reaching plains, known as the
+Campo de Beja, and devoted partly to the cultivation of grain and fruit,
+partly to the breeding of cattle and pigs; copper, iron and manganese
+are also mined to a small extent, and Beja is the central market for all
+these products. Cloth, pottery and olive oil are manufactured in the
+city.
+
+The administrative district of Beja, the largest and most
+thinly-populated district in Portugal, coincides with the southern part
+of Alemtejo (q.v.); pop. (1900) 163,612; area, 3958 sq. m.; 41.3
+inhabitants per sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+BEJAN (Fr. _béjaune_, from _bec jaune_, "yellow beak," in allusion to
+unfledged birds; the equivalent to Ger. _Gelbschnabel_, Fr. _blanc-bec_,
+a greenhorn), a term for freshmen, or undergraduates of the first year,
+in the Scottish universities. The phrase was introduced from the French
+universities, where the levying of _bejaunium_ "footing-money" had been
+prohibited by the statutes of the university of Orleans in 1365 and by
+those of Toulouse in 1401. In 1493 the election of an _Abbas
+Bejanorum_ (Abbot of the Freshmen) was forbidden in the university of
+Paris. In the German and Austrian universities the freshman was called
+_beanus_. In Germany the freshman was anciently called a _Pennal_ (from
+Med. Lat. _pennale_, a box for pens), in allusion to the fact that the
+newly-arrived student had to carry such for the older pupils. Afterwards
+_Fuchs_ (fox) was substituted for _Pennal_, and then _Goldfuchs_ because
+he is supposed still to have a few gold coins from home.
+
+
+
+
+BÉJART, the name of several French actors, children of Marie Hérve and
+Joseph Béjart (d. 1643), the holder of a small government post. The
+family--there were eleven children--was very poor and lived in the
+Marais, then the theatrical quarter of Paris. One of the sons, JOSEPH
+BÉJART (c. 1617-1659), was a strolling player and later a member of
+Molière's first company (l'Illustre Théâtre), accompanied him in his
+theatrical wanderings, and was with him when he returned permanently to
+Paris, dying soon after. He created the parts of Lélie in _L'Étourdie_,
+and Eraste in _Le Dépit amoureux_. His brother Louis BÉJART (c.
+1630-1678) was also in Molière's company during the last years of its
+travels. He created many parts in his brother-in-law's plays--Valère in
+_Le Dépit amoureux_, Dubois in _Le Misanthrope_, Alcantor in _Le Mariage
+forcé_, and Don Luis in _Le Festin de Pierre_--and was an actor of
+varied talents. In consequence of a wound received when interfering in a
+street brawl, he became lame and retired with a pension--the first ever
+granted by the company to a comedian--in 1670.
+
+The more famous members of the family were two sisters.
+
+MADELEINE BÉJART (1618-1672) was at the head of the travelling company
+to which her sister Geneviève (1631-1675)--who played as Mlle Hervé--and
+her brothers belonged, before they joined Molière in forming l'Illustre
+Théâtre (1643). With Molière she remained until her death on the 17th of
+February 1672. She had had an illegitimate daughter (1638) by an Italian
+count, and her conduct on her early travels had not been exemplary, but
+whatever her private relations with Molière may have been, however
+acrimonious and violent her temper, she and her family remained faithful
+to his fortunes. She was a tall, handsome blonde, and an excellent
+actress, particularly in soubrette parts, a number of which Molière
+wrote for her. Among her creations were Marotte in _Les Précieuses
+ridicules_, Lisette in _L'École des maris_, Dorine in _Tartuffe_.
+
+Her sister, ARMANDE GRÉSINDE CLAIRE ELIZABETH BÉJART (1645-1700), seems
+first to have joined the company at Lyons in 1653. Molière directed her
+education and she grew up under his eye. In 1662, he being then forty
+and she seventeen, they were married. Neither was happy; the wife was a
+flirt, the husband jealous. On the strength of a scurrilous anonymous
+pamphlet, _La Fameuse Comédienne, ou histoire de la Guérin_ (1688), her
+character has been held perhaps unduly low. She was certainly guilty of
+indifference and ingratitude, possibly of infidelity; they separated
+after the birth of a daughter in 1665 and met only at the theatre until
+1671. But the charm and grace which fascinated others, Molière too could
+not resist, and they were reconciled. Her portrait is given in a
+well-known scene (Act iii., sc. 9) in _Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_. Mme
+Molière's first appearance on the stage was in 1663, as Élise in the
+_Critique de l'école des femmes_. She was out of the cast for a short
+time in 1664, when she bore Molière a son--Louis XIV. and Henrietta of
+England standing sponsors. But in the spring, beginning with the fêtes
+given at Versailles by the king to Anne of Austria and Maria Theresa,
+she started her long list of important roles. She was at her best as
+Celimène--really her own highly-finished portrait--in _Le Misanthrope_,
+and hardly less admirable as Angélique in _Le Malade imaginaire_. She
+was the Elmire at the first performance of _Tartuffe_, and the Lucile of
+_Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_. All these parts were written by her husband
+to display her talents to the best advantage and she made the most of
+her opportunities. The death of Molière, the secession of Baron and
+several other actors, the rivalry of the Hôtel de Bourgogne and the
+development of the Palais Royal, by royal patent, into the home of
+French opera, brought matters to a crisis with the _comédiens du roi_.
+Well advised by La Grange (Charles Varlet, 1639-1692), Armande leased
+the Théâtre Guénégaud, and by royal ordinance the residue of her company
+were combined with the players from the Théâtre du Marais, the fortunes
+of which were at low ebb. The combination, known as the _troupe du roi_,
+at first was unfortunate, but in 1679 they secured Mlle du Champmeslé,
+later absorbed the company of the Hôtel de Bourgogne, and in 1680 the
+Comédie Française was born. Mme Molière in 1677 had married Eustache
+François Guérin (1636-1728), an actor, and by him she had one son
+(1678-1708). She continued her successes at the theatre until she
+retired in 1694, and she died on the 30th of November 1700.
+
+
+
+
+BEK, ANTONY (d. 1311), bishop of Durham, belonged to a Lincolnshire
+family, and, having entered the church, received several benefices and
+soon attracted the attention of Edward I., who secured his election as
+bishop of Durham in 1283. When, after the death of King Alexander III.
+in 1285, Edward interfered in the affairs of Scotland, he employed Bek
+on this business, and in 1294 he sent him on a diplomatic errand to the
+German king, Adolph of Nassau. Taking part in Edward's campaigns in
+Scotland, the bishop received the surrender of John de Baliol at Brechin
+in 1296, and led one division of the English army at the battle of
+Falkirk in 1298. Soon after his return to England he became involved in
+a quarrel with Richard de Hoton, prior of Durham. Deposed and
+excommunicated by Bek, the prior secured the king's support; but the
+bishop, against whom other complaints were preferred, refused to give
+way, and by his obstinacy incurred the lasting enmity of Edward. In
+1302, in obedience to the command of Pope Boniface VIII., he visited
+Rome on this matter, and during his absence the king seized and
+administered his lands, which, however, he recovered when he returned
+and submitted to Edward. He continued, however, to pursue Richard with
+unrelenting hostility, and was in his turn seriously harassed by the
+king. Having been restored to the royal favour by Edward II. who made
+him lord of the Isle of Man, the bishop died at Eltham on the 3rd of
+March 1311. A man of great courage and energy, chaste and generous, Bek
+was remarkable for his haughtiness and ostentation. Both as a bishop and
+as a private individual he was very wealthy, and his household and
+retinue were among the most magnificent in the land. He was a soldier
+and a hunter rather than a bishop, and built castles at Eltham and
+elsewhere.
+
+Bek's elder brother, THOMAS BEK (d. 1293), bishop of St David's, was a
+trusted servant of Edward I. He obtained many important and wealthy
+ecclesiastical positions, was made treasurer of England in 1279, and
+became bishop of St David's in 1280. He was a benefactor to his diocese
+and died on the 12th of May 1293.
+
+Another THOMAS BEK (1282-1347), who was bishop of Lincoln from 1341
+until his death on the 2nd of February 1347, was a member of the same
+family.
+
+Antony Bek must not be confused with his kinsman and namesake, ANTONY
+BEK (1279-1343), who was chancellor and dean of Lincoln cathedral, and
+became bishop of Norwich after a disputed election in 1337. He was a
+quarrelsome man, and after a stormy episcopate, died on the 19th of
+December 1343.
+
+  See Robert of Graystanes, _Historia de statu ecclesiae Dunelmensis_,
+  edited by J. Raine in his _Historiae Dunelmensis scriptores_ (London,
+  1839); W. Hutchinson, _History of Durham_ (Newcastle, 1785-1794); J.L.
+  Low, _Diocesan History of Durham_ (London, 1881); and M. Creighton in
+  the _Dictionary of National Biography_, vol. iv. (London, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE (1800-1874), English traveller, geographer and
+Biblical critic, was born in Stepney, Middlesex, on the 10th of October
+1800. His father was a merchant in London, and Beke engaged for a few
+years in mercantile pursuits. He afterwards studied law at Lincoln's
+Inn, and for a time practised at the bar, but finally devoted himself to
+the study of historical, geographical and ethnographical subjects. The
+first-fruits of his researches appeared in his work entitled _Origines
+Biblicae, or Researches in Primeval History_, published in 1834. An
+attempt to reconstruct the early history of the human race from
+geological data, it raised a storm of opposition on the part of
+defenders of the traditional readings of the book of Genesis; but in
+recognition of the value of the work the university of Tübingen
+conferred upon him the degree of Ph.D. For about two years (1837-1838)
+Beke held the post of acting British consul in Saxony. From that time
+till his death his attention was largely given to geographical studies,
+chiefly of the Nile valley. Aided by private friends, he visited
+Abyssinia in connexion with the mission to Shoa sent by the Indian
+government under the leadership of Major (afterwards Sir) William
+Cornwallis Harris, and explored Gojam and more southern regions up to
+that time unknown to Europeans. Among other achievements, Beke was the
+first to determine, with any approach to scientific accuracy, the course
+of the Abai (Blue Nile). The valuable results of this journey, which
+occupied him from 1840 to 1843, he gave to the world in a number of
+papers in scientific publications, chiefly in the _Journal_ of the Royal
+Geographical Society. On his return to London, Beke re-engaged in
+commerce, but devoted all his leisure to geographical and kindred
+studies. In 1848 he planned an expedition from the mainland opposite
+Zanzibar to discover the sources of the Nile. A start was made, but the
+expedition accomplished little. Beke's belief that the White Nile was
+the main stream was, however, shown to be accurate by subsequent
+exploration. In 1856 he endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to establish
+commercial relations with Abyssinia through Massawa. In 1861-1862 he and
+his wife travelled in Syria and Palestine, and went to Egypt with the
+object of promoting trade with Central Africa and the growth of cotton
+in the Sudan. In 1865 he again went to Abyssinia, for the purpose of
+obtaining from King Theodore the release of the British captives. On
+learning that the captives had been released, Beke turned back, but
+Theodore afterwards re-arrested the party. To the military expedition
+sent to effect their release Beke furnished much valuable information,
+and his various services to the government and to geographical research
+were acknowledged by the award of £500 in 1868 by the secretary for
+India, and by the grant of a civil list pension of £100 in 1870. In his
+seventy-fourth year he undertook a journey to Egypt for the purpose of
+determining the real position of Mount Sinai. He conceived that it was
+on the eastern side of the Gulf of Akaba, and his journey convinced him
+that his view was right. It has not, however, commended itself to
+general acceptance. Beke died at Bromley, in Kent, on the 31st of July
+1874.
+
+Beke's writings are very numerous. Among the more important, besides
+those already named, are: _An Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries_
+(1847), _The Sources of the Nile_ (1860), and _The British Captives in
+Abyssinia_ (1865). He was a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society,
+and for his contributions to the knowledge of Abyssinia received its
+gold medal, and also that of the Geographical Society of France. As a
+result of a controversy over the statements of another Abyssinian
+explorer, Antoine Abbadie, Beke returned the medal awarded him by the
+French Society.
+
+  See _Summary of the late Dr Beke's published works and ... public
+  services_, by his widow (Tunbridge Wells, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BÉSKÉSCSABA, a market-town of Hungary, 123 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail.
+Pop. (1900) 37,108, mostly Slovaks and Lutherans, who form the largest
+Lutheran community in Hungary. The town is situated near the White
+Körös, with which it is connected by a canal, and is an important
+railway-junction in central Hungary. Békéscsaba possesses several large
+milling establishments, while the weaving of hemp and the production of
+hemp-linen is largely pursued as a home industry. The town carries on an
+active trade in cereals, wines and cattle.
+
+
+
+
+BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL (1785-1871), German philologist and critic, was
+born on the 21st of May 1785. He completed his classical education at
+the university of Halle under F.A. Wolf, who considered him as his most
+promising pupil. In 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the
+university of Berlin. For several years, between 1810 and 1821, he
+travelled in France, Italy, England and parts of Germany, examining
+classical manuscripts and gathering materials for his great editorial
+labours. He died at Berlin on the 7th of June 1871. Some detached fruits
+of his researches were given in the _Anecdota Graeca_, 1814-1821; but
+the full result of his unwearied industry and ability is to be found in
+the enormous array of classical authors edited by him. Anything like a
+complete list of his works would occupy too much space, but it may be
+said that his industry extended to nearly the whole of Greek literature
+with the exception of the tragedians and lyric poets. His best known
+editions are: Plato (1816-1823), Oratores Attici (1823-1824), Aristotle
+(1831-1836), Aristophanes (1829), and twenty-five volumes of the Corpus
+Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. The only Latin authors edited by him
+were Livy (1829-1830) and Tacitus (1831). Bekker confined himself
+entirely to textual recension and criticism, in which he relied solely
+upon the MSS., and contributed little to the extension of general
+scholarship.
+
+  See Sauppe, _Zur Erinnerung an Meineke und Bekker_ (1872); Haupt,
+  "Gedächtnisrede auf Meineke und Bekker," in his _Opuscula_, iii.; E.I.
+  Bekker, "Zur Erinnerung an meinen Vater," in the _Preussisches
+  Jahrbuch_, xxix.
+
+
+
+
+BEKKER, BALTHASAR (1634-1698), Dutch divine, was born in Friesland in
+1634, and educated at Groningen, under Jacob Alting, and at Franeker. He
+was pastor at Franeker, and from 1679, at Amsterdam. An enthusiastic
+disciple of Descartes, he wrote several works in philosophy and
+theology, which by their freedom of thought aroused considerable
+hostility. His best known work _Die Betooverde Wereld_ (1691), or _The
+World Bewitched_ (1695; one volume of an English translation from a
+French copy), in which he examined critically the phenomena generally
+ascribed to spiritual agency, and attacked the belief in sorcery and
+"possession" by the devil, whose very existence he questioned. The book
+is interesting as an early study in comparative religion, but its
+publication in 1692 led to Bekker's deposition from the ministry. He
+died at Amsterdam.
+
+
+
+
+BEKKER (or WOLFF), ELIZABETH (1738-1804), Dutch novelist, was married to
+Adrian Wolff, a Reformed clergyman, but is always known under her maiden
+name. After the death of her husband in 1777, she resided for some time
+in France, with her close friend, Agatha Deken. She was exposed to some
+of the dangers of the French Revolution, and, it is said, escaped the
+guillotine only by her great presence of mind. In 1795 she returned to
+Holland, and resided at the Hague till her death. Her novels were
+written in conjunction with Agatha Deken, and it is somewhat difficult
+to determine the exact qualities contributed by each. The _Historie van
+William Levend_ (1785), _Historie van Sara Burgerhart_ (1790), _Abraham
+Blankaart_ (1787), _Cornelie Wildschut_ (1793-1796), were extremely
+popular.
+
+
+
+
+BEL, the name of a chief deity in Babylonian religion, the counterpart
+of the Phoenician Baal (q.v.) ideographically written as En-lil. Since
+Bel signifies the "lord" or "master" _par excellence_, it is, therefore,
+a title rather than a genuine name, and must have been given to a deity
+who had acquired a position at the head of a pantheon. The real name is
+accordingly to be sought in En-lil, of which the first element again has
+the force of "lord" and the second presumably "might," "power," and the
+like, though this cannot be regarded as certain. En-lil is associated
+with the ancient city of Nippur, and since En-lil with the determinative
+for "land" or "district" is a common method of writing the name of the
+city, it follows, apart from other evidence, that En-lil was originally
+the patron deity of Nippur. At a very early period--prior to 3000
+B.C.--Nippur had become the centre of a political district of
+considerable extent, and it is to this early period that the designation
+of En-lil as Bel or "the lord" reverts. Inscriptions found at Nippur,
+where extensive excavations were carried on during 1888-1900 by Messrs
+Peters and Haynes, under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania,
+show that Bel of Nippur was in fact regarded as the head of an extensive
+pantheon. Among the titles accorded to him are "king of lands," "king of
+heaven and earth" and "father of the gods." His chief temple at Nippur
+was known as E-Kur, signifying "mountain house," and such was the
+sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and Assyrian rulers,
+down to the latest days, vied with one another in embellishing and
+restoring Bel's seat of worship, and the name itself became the
+designation of a temple in general. Grouped around the main sanctuary
+there arose temples and chapels to the gods and goddesses who formed his
+court, so that E-Kur became the name for an entire sacred precinct in
+the city of Nippur. The name "mountain house" suggests a lofty structure
+and was perhaps the designation originally of the staged tower at
+Nippur, built in imitation of a mountain, with the sacred shrine of the
+god on the top. The tower, however, also had its special designation of
+"Im-Khar-sag," the elements of which, signifying "storm" and "mountain,"
+confirm the conclusion drawn from other evidence that En-lil was
+originally a storm-god having his seat on the top of a mountain. Since
+the Euphrates valley has no mountains, En-lil would appear to be a god
+whose worship was carried into Babylonia by a wave of migration from a
+mountainous country--in all probability from Elam to the east.
+
+When, with the political rise of Babylon as the centre of a great
+empire, Nippur yielded its prerogatives to the city over which Marduk
+presided, the attributes and the titles of En-lil were transferred to
+Marduk, who becomes the "lord" or Bel of later days. The older Bel did
+not, however, entirely lose his standing. Nippur continued to be a
+sacred city after it ceased to have any considerable political
+importance, while in addition the rise of the doctrine of a triad of
+gods symbolizing the three divisions--heavens, earth and water--assured
+to Bel, to whom the earth was assigned as his province, his place in the
+religious system. The disassociation from his local origin involved in
+this doctrine of the triad gave to Bel a rank independent of political
+changes, and we, accordingly, find Bel as a factor in the religion of
+Babylonia and Assyria to the latest days. It was no doubt owing to his
+position as the second figure of the triad that enabled him to survive
+the political eclipse of Nippur and made his sanctuary a place of
+pilgrimage to which Assyrian kings down to the days of Assur-baui-pal
+paid their homage equally with Babylonian rulers.
+
+  See also BELIT and BAAL. For the apocryphal book of the Bible, _Bel
+  and the Dragon_, see DANIEL: _Additions to Daniel_.     (M. Ja.)
+
+
+
+
+BELA III. (d. 1196), king of Hungary, was the second son of King Géza
+II. Educated at the Byzantine court, where he had been compelled to seek
+refuge, he was fortunate enough to win the friendship of the brilliant
+emperor Manuel who, before the birth of his own son Alexius, intended to
+make Bela his successor and betrothed him to his daughter. Subsequently,
+however, he married the handsome and promising youth to Agnes of
+Châtilion, duchess of Antioch, and in 1173 placed him, by force of arms,
+on the Hungarian throne, first expelling Bela's younger brother Géza,
+who was supported by the Catholic party. Initiated from childhood in all
+the arts of diplomacy at what was then the focus of civilization, and as
+much a warrior by nature as his imperial kinsman Manuel, Bela showed
+himself from the first fully equal to all the difficulties of his
+peculiar position. He began by adopting Catholicism and boldly seeking
+the assistance of Rome. He then made what had hitherto been an elective
+a hereditary throne by crowning his infant son Emerich his successor. In
+the beginning of his reign he adopted a prudent policy of amity with his
+two most powerful neighbours, the emperors of the East and West, but the
+death of Manuel in 1180 gave Hungary once more a free hand in the
+affairs of the Balkan Peninsula, her natural sphere of influence. The
+attempt to recover Dalmatia, which involved Bela in two bloody wars with
+Venice (1181-88 and 1190-91), was only partially successful. But he
+assisted the Rascians or Serbs (see HUNGARY: _History_) to throw off the
+Greek yoke and establish a native dynasty, and attempted to made Galicia
+an appanage of his younger son Andrew. It was in Bela's reign that the
+emperor Frederick I., in the spring of 1189, traversed Hungary with
+100,000 crusaders, on which occasion the country was so well policed
+that no harm was done to it and the inhabitants profited largely from
+their commerce with the German host. In his last years Bela assisted the
+Greek emperor Isaac II. Angelus against the Bulgarians. His first wife
+bore Bela two sons, Emerich and Andrew. On her death he married Margaret
+of France, sister of King Philip Augustus. Bela was in every sense of
+the word a great statesman, and his court was accounted one of the most
+brilliant in Europe.
+
+  For an account of his internal reforms see HUNGARY. Though the poet
+  Ede Szigligeti has immortalized his memory in the play _Bela III_., we
+  have no historical monograph of him, but in Ignacz Acsády, _History of
+  the Hungarian Realm_ (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest, 1903), there is an
+  excellent account of his reign.     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BELA IV. (1206-1270), king of Hungary, was the son of Andrew II., whom
+he succeeded in 1235. During his father's lifetime he had greatly
+distinguished himself by his administration of Transylvania, then a
+wilderness, which, with incredible patience and energy, he colonized and
+christianized. He repaired as far as possible the ruinous effects of his
+father's wastefulness, but on his accession found everything in the
+utmost confusion, "the great lords," to cite the old chronicler Rogerius
+(c. 1223-1266), "having so greatly enriched themselves that the king was
+brought to naught." The whole land was full of violence, the very
+bishops storming rich monasteries at the head of armed retainers. Bela
+resolutely put down all disorder. He increased the dignity of the crown
+by introducing a stricter court etiquette, and its wealth by recovering
+those of the royal domains which the magnates had appropriated during
+the troubles of the last reign. The pope, naturally on the side of
+order, staunchly supported this regenerator of the realm, and in his own
+brother Coloman, who administered the district of the Drave, Bela also
+found a loyal and intelligent co-operator. He also largely employed Jews
+and Ishmaelites,[1] the financial specialists of the day, whom he
+rewarded with lands and titles. The salient event of Bela's reign was
+the terrible Tatar invasion which reduced three-quarters of Hungary to
+ashes. The terror of their name had long preceded them, and Bela, in
+1235 or 1236, sent the Dominican monk Julian, by way of Constantinople,
+to Russia, to collect information about them from the "ancient Magyars"
+settled there, possibly the Volgan Bulgarians. He returned to Hungary
+with the tidings that the Tatars contemplated the immediate conquest of
+Europe. Bela did his utmost to place his kingdom in a state of defence,
+and appealed betimes to the pope, the duke of Austria and the emperor
+for assistance; but in February and March 1241 the Tatars burst through
+the Carpathian passes; in April Bela himself, after a gallant stand, was
+routed on the banks of the Sajó and fled to the islands of Dalmatia; and
+for the next twelve months the kingdom of Hungary was merely a
+geographical expression. The last twenty-eight years of Bela's reign
+were mainly devoted to the reconstruction of his realm, which he
+accomplished with a single-minded thoroughness which has covered his
+name with glory. (See HUNGARY: _History_.)
+
+Perhaps the most difficult part of his task was the recovery of the
+western portions of the kingdom (which had suffered least) from the
+hands of Frederick of Austria, who had seized them as the price of
+assistance which had been promised but never given. First Bela solicited
+the aid of the pope, but was compelled finally to resort to arms, and
+crossing the Leitha on the 15th of June 1246, routed Frederick, who was
+seriously wounded and trampled to death by his own horsemen. With him
+was extinguished the male line of the house of Babenberg. In the south
+Bela was less successful. In 1243 he was obliged to cede to Venice,
+Zara, a perpetual apple of discord between the two states; but he kept
+his hold upon Spalato and his other Dalmatian possessions, and his wise
+policy of religious tolerance in Bosnia enabled Hungary to rule that
+province peaceably for many years. The new Servian kingdom of the
+Nemanides, on the other hand, gave him much trouble and was the occasion
+of many bloody wars. In 1261 the Tatars under Nogai Khan invaded Hungary
+for the second time, but were defeated by Bela and lost 50,000 men. Bela
+reached the apogee of his political greatness in 1264 when, shortly
+after his crushing defeat of the Servian king, Stephen Urosh, he
+entertained at his court, at Kalocsa, the ambassadors of the newly
+restored Greek emperor, of the kings of France, Bulgaria and Bohemia and
+three Tatar _mirzas_. For a time Bela was equally fortunate in the
+north-west, where the ambitious and enterprising Pøemyslidae had erected
+a new Bohemian empire which absorbed the territories of the old
+Babenbergers and was very menacing to Hungary. With Ottakar II. in
+particular, Bela was almost constantly at war for the possession of
+Styria, which ultimately fell to the Bohemians. The last years of Bela's
+life were embittered by the ingratitude of his son Stephen, who rebelled
+continuously against his father and ultimately compelled him to divide
+the kingdom with him, the younger prince setting up a capital of his own
+at Sárospatak, and following a foreign policy directly contrary to that
+of his father. Bela died on the 3rd of May 1270 in his sixty-fourth
+year. With the people at large he was popular to the last; his services
+to his country had been inestimable. He married, while still
+crown-prince, Maria, daughter of the Nicaean emperor, Theodore Lascaris,
+whom his own father brought home with him from his crusade. She bore
+him, besides his two sons Stephen and Bela, seven daughters, of whom St
+Margaret was the most famous.
+
+  No special monograph for the whole reign exists. For the Tatar
+  invasion see the contemporary Rogerius, _Epistolae super destructione
+  Regni Hungarias per Tartaros facta_ (Budapest, 1885). A vivid but
+  somewhat chauvinistic history of Bela's reign will be found in
+  Acsády's _History of the Hungarian Realm_ (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest,
+  1903).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Mahommedan itinerant chapmen, from the Volga.
+
+
+
+
+BELA, LAS BELA, or LUS BEYLA, situated in 26° 27' 30" N. lat. and 66°
+45' 0" E. long., 350 ft. above sea level, capital of the small
+independent state of Las Bela to the south of Kalat (Baluchistan), ruled
+by the Jam (or Cham), who occupies the position of a protected chief
+under the British Raj. To the east lies Sind, and to the west Makran,
+and from time immemorial the great trading route between Sind and Persia
+has passed through Las Bela. The area of Las Bela is 6357 sq. m., and
+its population in 1901 was 56,109, of which 54,040 were Mussulmans. The
+low-lying, alluvial, hot and malarial plains of Las Bela, occupying
+about 6000 sq. m. on the north-east corner of the Arabian Sea, are
+highly irrigated and fertile--two rivers from the north, the Purali and
+the Kud, uniting to provide a plentiful water supply. The bay of
+Sonmiani once extended over most of these plains, where the Purali delta
+is now growing with measurable strides. The hill ranges to the east,
+parting the plains from Sind (generally known locally as the Mor and the
+Kirthar), between which lies the long narrow line of the Hab valley,
+strike nearly north and south, diminishing in height as they approach
+the sea and allowing of a route skirting the coast between Karachi and
+Bela. To the west they are broken into an infinity of minor ridges
+massing themselves in parallel formation with a strike which curves from
+south to west till they form the coast barrier of Makran. The Persian
+route from India, curving somewhat to the north, traverses this waste of
+barren ridges almost at right angles, but on dropping into the Kolwah
+valley its difficulty ceases. It then becomes an open road to Kej and
+Persia, with an easy gradient. This was undoubtedly one of the greatest
+trade routes of the medieval days of Arab ascendancy in Sind, and it is
+to this route that Bela owes a place in history which its modern
+appearance and dimensions hardly seem to justify. Bela is itself rather
+prettily situated on a rocky site above the banks of the Purali. About
+four miles to the south are the well-kept gardens which surround the
+tomb of Sir Robert Sandeman; which is probably destined to become a
+"ziarat," or place of pilgrimage, of even greater sanctity than that of
+General Jacob at Jacobabad. The population of the town numbers about
+5000. The Jam's retinue consists of about 300 infantry, 50 cavalry, and
+4 guns. Liability to assist on active service is the only acknowledgment
+of the suzerainty which is paid by the Jam to the Khan of Kalat. The
+Jam, Mir Kamal Khan, succeeded his father, Sir Mir Khan, in 1895, and
+was formally invested with powers in 1902.
+
+From very early times this remote corner of Baluchistan has held a
+distinct place in history. There are traces of ancient Arab (possibly
+Himyaritic) occupation to be found in certain stone ruins at Gondakeha
+on the Kud river, 10 m. to the north-west of Bela, whilst the Greek name
+"Arabis" for the Purali is itself indicative of an early prehistoric
+connexion with races of Asiatic Ethiopians referred to by Herodotus. On
+the coast, near the village of Sonmiani (a station of the Indo-Persian
+telegraph line) may be traced the indentation which once formed the bay
+of Morontobara, noted in the voyage of Nearchus; and it was on the
+borders of Makran that the Turanian town of Rhambakia was situated,
+which was once the centre of the trade in "bdellium." In the 7th century
+A.D. Las Bela was governed by a Buddhist priest, at which time all the
+province of Gandava was Buddhist, and Sind was ruled by the Brahman,
+Chach. Buddhist caves are to be found excavated in the conglomerate
+cliffs near Gondakeha, at a place called Gondrani, or Shahr-i-Rogan.
+With the influx of Arabs into Makran, Bela, under the name of Armel (or
+Armabel), rose to importance as a link in the great chain of trading
+towns between Persia and Sind; and then there existed in the delta such
+places as Yusli (near the modern Uthal) and Kambali (which may possibly
+be recognized in the ruins at Khairokot), and many smaller towns, each
+of which possessed its citadel, its caravanserai and bazaar, which are
+not only recorded but actually mapped by one of the medieval Arab
+geographers, Ibn Haukal. It is probable that Karia Pir, 1½ m. to the
+east of the modern city, represents the site of the Armabel which was
+destroyed by Mahommed Kasim in his victorious march to Sind in 710.
+There is another old site 5 m. to the west of the modern town. The ruins
+at Karia Pir, like those of Tijarra Pir and Khairokot, contain Arab
+pottery, seals, and other medieval relics. The Lumris, or Lasis, who
+originate the name Las as a prefix to that of Bela, are the dominant
+tribe in the province. They are comparatively recent arrivals who
+displaced the earlier Tajik and Brahui occupants. It is probable that
+this influx of Rajput population was coincident with the displacement of
+the Arab dynasties in Sind by the Mahommedan Rajputs in the 11th century
+A.D. Some authorities connect the Lumris with the Sumras.
+
+  There are no published accounts of Bela, excepting those of the Indian
+  government reports and gazetteers. This article is compiled from
+  unpublished notes by the author and by Mr Wainwright, of the Indian
+  Survey department.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+BELA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of the
+Partabgarh district of the United Provinces, with a railway station 80
+m. from Benares. Pop. (1901) 8041. It adjoins the village of Partabgarh
+proper, and the civil station sometimes known as Andrewganj. Bela, which
+was founded in 1802 as a cantonment, became a district headquarters
+after the mutiny. It has trade in agricultural produce. There is a
+well-known hospital for women here.
+
+
+
+
+BELAY (from the same O. Eng. origin as "lay"; cf. Dutch _beleggen_), a
+nautical term for making ropes fast round a pin. In earlier days the
+word was synonymous with "waylay" or "surround."
+
+
+
+
+BELCHER, SIR EDWARD (1799-1877), British naval officer, entered the navy
+in 1812. In 1825 he accompanied Frederick William Beechey's expedition
+to the Pacific and Bering Strait, as a surveyor. He subsequently
+commanded a surveying ship on the north and west coasts of Africa and in
+the British seas, and in 1836 took up the work which Beechey left
+unfinished on the Pacific coast of South America. This was on board the
+"Sulphur," which was ordered to return to England in 1839 by the
+Trans-Pacific route. Belcher made various observations at a number of
+islands which he visited, was delayed by being despatched to take part
+in the war in China in 1840-1841, and reached home only in 1842. In 1843
+he was knighted, and was now engaged in the "Samarang," in surveying
+work in the East Indies, the Philippines, &c., until 1847. In 1852 he
+was given command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Sir
+John Franklin. This was unsuccessful; Belcher's inability to render
+himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly unfortunate in an
+Arctic voyage, and he was not wholly suited to command vessels among
+ice. This was his last active service, but he became K.C.B. in 1867 and
+an admiral in 1872. He published a _Treatise on Nautical Surveying_
+(1835), _Narrative of a Voyage round the World performed in H.M.S.
+"Sulphur," 1836-1842_ (1843), _Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S.
+"Samarang" during 1843-1846_ (1848; the _Zoology of the Voyage_ was
+separately dealt with by some of his colleagues, 1850), and _The Last of
+the Arctic Voyages_ (1855); besides minor works, including a novel,
+_Horatio Howard Brenton_ (1856), a story of the navy. He died in London
+on the 18th of March 1877.
+
+
+
+
+BELDAM (like "belsire," grandfather, from the Fr. _bel_, good,
+expressing relationship; cf. the Fr. _belle-mère_, mother-in-law, and
+_dame_, in Eng. form "dam," mother), strictly a grandmother or remote
+ancestress, and so an old woman; generally used contemptuously as
+meaning an old hag.
+
+
+
+
+BELESME, ROBERT OF (fl. 1100), earl of Shrewsbury. From his mother Mabel
+Talvas he inherited the fief of Belesme, and from his father, the
+Conqueror's companion, that of Shrewsbury. Both were march-fiefs, the
+one guarding Normandy from Maine, and the other England from the Welsh;
+consequently their lord was peculiarly powerful and independent. Robert
+is the typical feudal noble of the time, circumspect and politic,
+persuasive and eloquent, impetuous and daring in battle, and an able
+military engineer; in person, tall and strong; greedy for land, an
+oppressor of the weak, a systematic rebel and traitor, and savagely
+cruel. He first appears as a supporter of Robert's rebellion against the
+Conqueror (1077); then as an accomplice in the English conspiracy of
+1088 against Rufus. Later he served Rufus in Normandy, and was allowed
+to succeed his brother Hugh in the earldom of Shrewsbury (1098). But at
+the height of his power, he revolted against Henry I (1102). He was
+banished and deprived of his English estate; for sometime after he
+remained at large in Normandy, defying the authority of Robert and Henry
+alike. He betrayed Robert's cause at Tinchebrai; but in 1112 was
+imprisoned for life by Henry I.
+
+  See E.A. Freeman's _William Rufus_ and his _Norman Conquest_, vol.
+  iv.; and J.M. Lappenberg's _History of England under the Norman
+  Kings_, trans. B. Thorpe (1857).
+
+
+
+
+BELFAST, a city, county and parliamentary borough, the capital of the
+province of Ulster, and county town of county Antrim, Ireland. Pop.
+(1901) 349,180. It is a seaport of the first rank, situated at the
+entrance of the river Lagan into Belfast Lough, 112¾ m. north of Dublin
+by rail, on the north-east coast of the island. It is an important
+railway centre, with terminal stations of the Great Northern, Northern
+Counties (Midland of England), and Belfast & County Down railways, and
+has regular passenger communication by sea with Liverpool, Fleetwood,
+Heysham, Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. It is built on
+alluvial deposit and reclaimed land, mostly not exceeding 6 ft. above
+high water mark, and was thus for a long period subject to inundation
+and epidemics, and only careful drainage rendered the site healthy. The
+appearance of the city plainly demonstrates the modern growth of its
+importance, and evidence is not wanting that for a considerable period
+architectural improvement was unable to keep pace with commercial
+development. Many squalid districts, however, have been improved away to
+make room for new thoroughfares and handsome buildings. One thoroughfare
+thus constructed at the close of the 19th century is the finest in
+Belfast--Royal Avenue. It contains, among several notable buildings, the
+post office, and the free public library, opened in 1888 and comprising
+a collection of over 40,000 volumes, as well as an art gallery and a
+museum of antiquities especially rich in remains of the Neolithic
+period. The architect was Mr W.H. Lynn. The magnificent city hall, from
+designs of Mr (afterwards Sir) Brumwell Thomas, was opened in 1906. The
+principal streets, such as York Street, Donegall Street, North Street,
+High Street, are traversed by tramways. Four bridges cross the Lagan;
+the Queen's Bridge (1844, widened in 1886) is the finest, while the
+Albert Bridge (1889) replaces a former one which collapsed. Other
+principal public buildings, nearly all to be included in modern schemes
+of development, are the city hall, occupying the site of the old Linen
+Hall, in Donegall Square, estimated to cost £300,000; the commercial
+buildings (1820) in Waring Street, the customhouse and inland revenue
+office on Donegall Quay, the architect of which, as of the court house,
+was Sir Charles Lanyon, and some of the numerous banks, especially the
+Ulster Bank. The Campbell College in the suburb of Belmont was founded
+in 1892 in accordance with the will of Mr W.J. Campbell, a Belfast
+merchant, who left £200,000 for the building and endowment of a public
+school. Other educational establishments are Queen's University,
+replacing the old Queen's College (1849) under the Irish Universities
+Act 1908; the Presbyterian and the Methodist Colleges, occupying
+neighbouring sites close to the extensive botanical gardens, the Royal
+Academical Institution, and the Municipal Technical Institute. In 1897
+the sum of £100,000 was subscribed by citizens to found a hospital
+(1903) to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and named
+after her. It took the place of an institution which, under various
+names, had existed since 1797. Public monuments are few, but include a
+statue of Queen Victoria (1903) and a South African War memorial (1905)
+in front of the city hall; the Albert Memorial (1870), in the form of a
+clock-tower, in Queen Street; a monument to the same prince in High
+Street; and a statue in Wellington Place to Dr Henry Cooke, a prominent
+Presbyterian minister who died in 1868. The corporation controls the gas
+and electric and similar undertakings. The water supply, under the
+control of the City and District Water Commissioners (incorporated
+1840), has its sources in the Mourne Mountains, Co. Down, 40 m. distant,
+with a service reservoir at Knockbreckan; also in the hilly district
+near Carrickfergus. There are several public parks, of which the
+principal are the Ormeau Park (1870), the Victoria, Alexandra, and Falls
+Road parks. There is a Theatre Royal in Arthur Square. There are also
+several excellent clubs and societies, social, political, scientific,
+and sporting; including among the last the famous Royal Ulster Yacht
+Club.
+
+In 1899 was laid the foundation stone of the Protestant cathedral in
+Donegall Street, designed by Sir Thomas Drew and Mr W.H. Lynn to seat
+3000 worshippers, occupying the site of the old St Anne's parish church,
+part of the fabric of which the new building incorporates. The diocese
+is that of Down, Connor, and Dromore. The first portion (the nave) was
+consecrated on the 2nd of June 1904. The plan is a Latin cross, the west
+front rising to a height of 105 ft., while the central tower is 175 ft.
+The pulpit was formerly used in the nave of Westminster Abbey, being
+presented to Belfast cathedral by the dean and chapter of that
+foundation.
+
+Most of the older churches are classical in design, and the most notable
+are St George's, in High Street, and the Memorial church of Dr Cooke in
+May Street. For the more modern churches the Gothic style has frequently
+been used. Amongst these are St James, Antrim Road; St Peter's Roman
+Catholic chapel, with its Florentine spire; Presbyterian churches in
+Fitzroy Avenue, and Elmwood Avenue, and the Methodist chapel, Carlisle
+Circus. The Presbyterians and Protestant Episcopalians each outnumber
+the Roman Catholics in Belfast, and these three are the chief religious
+divisions.
+
+_Environs._--The country surrounding Belfast is agreeable and
+picturesque, whether along the shores of the Lough or towards the girdle
+of hills to the west; and is well wooded and studded with country seats
+and villas. In the immediate vicinity of the city are several points of
+historic interest and natural beauty. The Cave Hill, though exceeded in
+height by Mount Divis, Squire's Hill, and other summits, is of greatest
+interest for its caves, in the chalk, from which early weapons and other
+objects have been recovered. The battle in 1408, which was fought along
+the base of the cliffs here between the Savages of the Ards and the
+Irish, is described in Sir Samuel Ferguson's "Hibernian Nights
+Entertainment." Here also are McArt's Fort and other earthworks, and
+from here the importance of the physical position of Belfast may be
+appreciated to the full. At Newtonbreda, overlooking the Lagan, was the
+palace of Con O'Neill, whose sept was exterminated by Deputy Mountjoy in
+the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Belfast Lough is of great though quiet
+beauty; and the city itself is seen at its best from its seaward
+approach, with its girdle of hills in the background. On the shores of
+the lough several villages have grown into residential towns for the
+wealthier classes, whose work lies in the city. Of these Whitehouse and
+White Abbey are the principal on the western shore, and on the eastern,
+Holywood, which ranks practically as a suburb of Belfast, and, at the
+entrance to the lough, Bangor.
+
+_Harbour and Trade._--The harbour and docks of Belfast are managed by a
+board of harbour commissioners, elected by the ratepayers and the
+shipowners. The outer harbour is one of the safest in the kingdom. By
+the Belfast Harbour Acts the commissioners were empowered to borrow more
+than £2,500,000 in order to carry out several new works and improvements
+in the port. Under the powers of these acts a new channel, called the
+Victoria Channel, several miles in length, was cut about 1840 leading in
+a direct line from the quays to the sea. This channel affords 20 ft. of
+water at low tide, and 28 ft. at full tide, the width of the channel
+being 300 ft. The Alexandra Dock, which is 852 ft. long and 31 ft. deep,
+was opened in 1889, and the extensive improvements (including the York
+Dock, where vessels carrying 10,000 tons can discharge in four to six
+days) have been effected from time to time, making the harbour one of
+the most commodious in the United Kingdom. The provision of a new
+graving dock adjoining the Alexandra was delayed in October 1905 by a
+subsidence of the ground during its construction. Parliamentary powers
+were obtained to construct a graving dock capable of accommodating the
+largest class of warships. The growth and development of the
+shipbuilding industry has been immense, the firm of Harland & Wolff
+being amongst the first in the trade, and some of the largest vessels in
+the world come from their yards. The vast increase of the foreign trade
+of Belfast marks its development, like Liverpool, as a great
+distributing port. The chief exports are linen, whisky, aerated waters,
+iron ore and cattle.
+
+Belfast is the centre of the Irish linen industry, machinery for which
+was introduced by T. & A. Mulholland in 1830, a rapid extension of the
+industry at once resulting. It is also the headquarters and business
+centre for the entire flax-spinning and weaving industry of the country.
+Distilling is extensively carried on. Several firms are engaged in the
+manufacture of mineral waters, for which the water of the Cromac Springs
+is peculiarly adapted. Belfast also has some of the largest tobacco
+works and rope works in the world.
+
+_Administration._--In conformity with the passing of the Municipal
+Corporations Act of 1840 the constitution of the corporation was made to
+consist of ten aldermen and thirty councillors, under the style and
+title of "The Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of the Borough of Belfast."
+In 1888 the rank of a city was conferred by royal charter upon Belfast,
+with the incidental rank, liberties, privileges, and immunities. In 1892
+Queen Victoria conferred upon the mayor of the city the title of lord
+mayor, and upon the corporation the name and description of "The Lord
+Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of the city of Belfast." By the passing of
+the Belfast Corporation Act of 1896, the boundary of the city was
+extended, and the corporation made to consist of fifteen aldermen and
+forty-five councillors, and the number of wards was increased from five
+to fifteen. By virtue of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898,
+Belfast became a county borough on the 1st of April 1899. By the Local
+Government (Ireland) Act 1898, Belfast became for assize purposes "the
+county of the city of Belfast," with a high sheriff. It is divided into
+four parliamentary divisions north, south, east and west, each returning
+one member. The total area is 16,594 acres.
+
+_History._--The etymology of the name (for which several derivations
+have been proposed) and the origin of the town are equally uncertain,
+and there is not a single monument of antiquarian interest upon which to
+found a conjecture. About 1177 a castle is said to have been built by
+John de Courcy, to be destroyed by Edward Bruce in 1316. It may be noted
+here that Belfast Castle was finally burnt in 1708; but a modern
+mansion, on Cave Hill, outside the city, bears that name. About the
+beginning of the 16th century, Belfast is described as a town and
+fortress, but it was in reality a mere fishing village in the hands of
+the house of O'Neill. In the course of the wars of Gerald Fitzgerald,
+8th earl of Kildare, Belfast was twice attacked by him, in 1503 and
+1512. The O'Neills, always opposed to the English, had forfeited every
+baronial right; but in 1552 Hugh O'Neill of Clandeboye promised
+allegiance to the reigning monarch, and obtained the castle of
+Carrickfergus, the town and fortress of Belfast, and all the surrounding
+lands. Belfast was then restored from the half ruined state into which
+it had fallen, and the castle was garrisoned. The turbulent successors
+of O'Neill having been routed by the English, the town and fortress were
+obtained by grant dated the 16th of November 1571 by Sir Thomas Smith, a
+favourite of Queen Elizabeth, but were afterwards forfeited by him to
+the lord deputy Sir Arthur Chichester, who, in 1612, was created Baron
+Chichester of Belfast. At this time the town consisted of about 120
+houses, mostly built of mud and covered with thatch, while the castle, a
+two-storeyed building, was roofed with shingles. A charter was now
+granted to the town by James I. (April 27, 1613) constituting it a
+corporation with a chief magistrate and 12 burgesses and commonalty,
+with the right of sending two members to parliament. In 1632 Thomas
+Wentworth, Earl Strafford, was appointed first lord deputy of Ireland,
+and Belfast soon shared largely in the benefits of his enlightened
+policy, receiving, among other favours, certain fiscal rights which his
+lordship had purchased from the corporation of Carrickfergus. Two years
+after the rebellion of 1641 a rampart was raised round the town, pierced
+by four gates on the land side. In 1662, as appears by a map still
+extant, there were 150 houses within the wall, forming five streets and
+as many lanes; and the upland districts around were one dense forest of
+giant oaks and sycamores, yielding an unfailing supply of timber to the
+woodmen of Carrickfergus.
+
+Throughout the succeeding fifty years the progress of Belfast surpassed
+that of most other towns in Ireland. Its merchants in 1686 owned forty
+ships, of a total carrying power of 3300 tons, and the customs collected
+were close upon £20,000. The old charter was annulled by James II. and a
+new one issued in 1688, but the old was restored in 1690 by William III.
+When the king arrived at Belfast in that year there were only two places
+of worship in the town, the old corporation church in the High Street,
+and the Presbyterian meeting-house in Rosemary Lane, the Roman Catholics
+not being permitted to build their chapels within the walls of corporate
+towns.
+
+At the beginning of the 18th century Belfast had become known as a place
+of considerable trade, and was then thought a handsome, thriving and
+well-peopled town, with many new houses and good shops. During the civil
+commotions which so long afflicted the country, it suffered less than
+most other places; and it soon afterwards attained the rank of the
+richest commercial town in the north of Ireland. James Blow and Co.
+introduced letterpress printing in 1696, and in 1704 issued the first
+copy of the Bible produced in the island. In September 1737, Henry and
+Robert Joy started the _Belfast News Letter_. Twenty years afterwards
+the town contained 1800 houses and 8549 inhabitants, 556 of whom were
+members of the Church of Rome. It was not, however, till 1789 that
+Belfast obtained the regular communication, which towns of less
+importance already enjoyed, with Dublin by stage coach, a fact which is
+to be explained by the badness of the roads and the steepness of the
+hills between Newry and Belfast.
+
+The increased freedom of trade with which Ireland was favoured, the
+introduction of the cotton manufacture by Robert Joy and Thomas M'Cabe
+in 1777, the establishment in 1791 of shipbuilding on an extensive scale
+by William Ritchie, an energetic Scotsman, combined with the rope and
+canvas manufacture already existing, supplied the inhabitants with
+employments and increased the demand for skilled labour. The population
+now made rapid strides as well by ordinary extension as by immigration
+from the rural districts. Owing to the close proximity of powerful
+opposed religious sects, the modern history of the city is not without
+its record of riot and bloodshed, as in 1880 and 1886, and in August
+1907 serious rioting followed upon a strike of carters; but the
+prosperity of the city has been happily unaffected.
+
+  See George Benn, _History of Belfast_ (Belfast, 1877); Robert M.
+  Young, _Historical Notices of Old Belfast_ (Belfast, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BELFAST, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Waldo county,
+Maine, U.S.A., on Belfast Bay (an arm of the Penobscot), and about 32 m.
+south-south-west of Bangor. Pop. (1890) 5294; (1910) 4618. It is served
+by the Belfast branch of the Maine Central railway (connecting with the
+main line at Burnham Junction, 33 m. distant), and by the coasting
+steamers (from Boston) of the Eastern Steamship Co. The city, a summer
+resort, lies on an undulating hillside, which rises from the water's
+edge to a height of more than 150 ft., and commands extensive views of
+the picturesque islands, headlands, and mountains of the Maine coast. It
+has a public library. Among the industries of Belfast are trade with the
+surrounding country, the manufacture of shoes, leather boards, axes, and
+sashes, doors and blinds, and the building and repairing of boats. Its
+exports in 1908 were valued at $285,913 and its imports at $10,313.
+Belfast was first settled (by Scottish-Irish) in 1769, and in 1773 was
+incorporated as a town under its present name (from Belfast, Ireland).
+The town was almost completely destroyed by the British in 1779, but its
+rebuilding was begun in the next year. It was held by a British force
+for five days in September 1814. Belfast was chartered as a city in
+1850.
+
+
+
+
+BELFORT, TERRITORY OF, administrative division of eastern France, formed
+from the southern portion of the department of Haut-Rhin, the rest of
+which was ceded to Germany by the treaty of Frankfort (1871). It is
+bounded on the N.E. and E. by German Alsace, on the S.E. and S. by
+Switzerland, on the S.W. by the department of Doubs, on the W. by that
+of Haute-Saône, on the N. by that of Vosges. Pop. (1906), 95,421.
+
+With an area of only 235 sq. m., it is, next to that of Seine, the
+smallest department of France. The northern part is occupied by the
+southern offshoots of the Vosges, the southern part by the northern
+outposts of the Jura. Between these two highlands stretches the Trouée
+(depression) de Belfort, 18½ m. broad, joining the basins of the Rhine
+and the Rhone, traversed by the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine and by
+several railways. A part of the natural highway open from Frankfort to
+the Mediterranean, the Trouée has from earliest times provided the route
+for the migration from north to south, and is still of great commercial
+and strategical value. The northern part, occupied by the Vosges, rises
+to 4126 ft. in the Ballon d'Alsace, the northern termination and the
+culminating point of the department; to 3773 ft. in the Planche des
+Belles-Filles; to 3579 ft. in the Signal des Plaines; to 3534 ft. in the
+Bärenkopf; and to numerous other lesser heights. South of the Trouée de
+Belfort, there rise near Delle limestone hills, in part wooded, on the
+frontiers of France, Alsace, and Switzerland, attaining 1680 ft. in the
+Forêt de Florimont. The territory between Lachapelle-sous-Rougemont (in
+the north-east), Belfort and Delle does not rise above 1300 ft. The line
+of lowest altitude follows the river St Nicolas and the Rhone-Rhine
+canal. The chief rivers are the Savoureuse, 24 m. long, running straight
+south from the Ballon d'Alsace, and emptying into the Allaine; the
+Allaine, from Switzerland, entering the territory a little to the south
+of Delle, and leaving it a little to the west of Morvillars; the St
+Nicolas, 24 m. long, from the Bärenkopf, running southwards and then
+south-west into the Allaine. The climate to the north of the town of
+Belfort is marked by long and rigorous winters, sudden changes of
+temperature, and an annual rainfall of 31 in. to 39 in. retained by an
+impervious subsoil; farther south it is milder and more equable with a
+rainfall of 23 in. to 31 in., quickly absorbed by the soil or evaporated
+by the sun. About one-third of the total area is arable land; wheat,
+oats and rye are the chief cereals; potatoes come next in importance.
+Forest covers another third of the surface; the chief trees are firs,
+pines, oak and beech; cherries are largely grown for the distillation of
+kirsch. Pasture and forage crops cover the remaining third of the
+Territory; only horned cattle are raised to any extent. There is an
+unworked concession of copper, silver and lead at Giromagny; and there
+are also quarries of stone. The Territory is an active industrial
+region. The two main branches of manufacture are the spinning and
+weaving of cotton and wool, and the production of iron and iron-goods
+(wire, railings, nails, files, &c.) and machinery. Belfort has
+important locomotive and engineering works. Hoisery is manufactured at
+Delle, watches, clocks, agricultural machinery, petrol motors, ironware
+and electrical apparatus at the flourishing centre of Beaucourt, and
+there are numerous saw-mills, tile and brick works and breweries.
+Imports consist of raw materials for the industries, dyestuffs, coal,
+wine, &c., and the exports of manufactured goods.
+
+Belfort is the capital of the Territory, which comprises one
+arrondissement, 6 cantons and 106 communes, and falls within the
+circumscriptions of the archbishopric, the court of appeal and the
+académie (educational division) of Besançon. It forms the 7th
+subdivision of the VII. army corps. Both the Eastern and the
+Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railways traverse the Territory, and the canal
+from the Rhone to the Rhine accompanies the river St Nicolas for about 6
+m.
+
+
+
+
+BELFORT, a town of eastern France, capital of the Territory of Belfort,
+275 m. E.S.E. of Paris, on the main line of the Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1906), town, 27,805; commune, 34,649. It is situated among wooded hills
+on the Savoureuse at the intersection of the roads and railway lines
+from Paris to Basel and from Lyons to Mülhausen and Strassburg, by which
+it maintains considerable trade with Germany and Switzerland. The town
+is divided by the Savoureuse into a new quarter, in which is the railway
+station on the right bank, and the old fortified quarter, with the
+castle, the public buildings and monuments, on the left bank. The church
+of St Denis, a building in the classical style, erected from 1727 to
+1750, and the hôtel de ville (1721-1724) both stand in the Place d'Armes
+opposite the castle. The two chief monuments commemorate the defence of
+Belfort in the war of 1870-1871. "The Lion of Belfort," a colossal
+figure 78 ft. long and 52 ft. high, the work of F.A. Bartholdi, stands
+in front of the castle; and in the Place d'Armes is the bronze group
+"Quand Même" by Antonin Mercié, in memory of Thiers and of Colonel
+Pierre Marie Aristide Denfert-Rochereau (1823-1878), commandant of the
+place during the siege. Other objects of interest are the Tour de la
+Miotte, of unknown origin and date, which stands on the hill of La
+Miotte to the N.E. of Belfort, and the Port de Brisach, a gateway built
+by Vauban in 1687. Belfort is the seat of a prefect; its public
+institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
+chamber of commerce, a lycée, a training-college and a branch of the
+Bank of France. The construction of locomotives and machinery, carried
+on by the Société Alsacienne, wire-drawing, and the spinning and weaving
+of cotton are included among its industries, which together with the
+population increased greatly owing to the Alsacian immigration after
+1871. Its trade is in the wines of Alsace, brandy and cereals. The town
+derives its chief importance from its value as a military position.
+
+After the war of 1870-1871, Belfort, which after a diplomatic struggle
+remained in French hands, became a frontier fortress of the greatest
+value, and the old works which underwent the siege of 1870-1871 (see
+below) were promptly increased and re-modelled. In front of the Perches
+redoubts, the Bosmont, whence the Prussian engineers began their attack,
+is now heavily fortified with continuous lines called the _Organisation
+défensive de Bosmont_. The old Bellevue redoubt (now Fort
+Denfert-Rochereau) is covered by a new work situated likewise on the
+ground occupied by the siege trenches in the war. Pérouse, hastily
+entrenched in 1870, now possesses a permanent fort. The old entrenched
+camp enclosed by the castle, Fort La Miotte, and Fort Justice, is still
+maintained, and part even of the enceinte built by Vauban is used for
+defensive purposes. Outside this improved inner line, which includes the
+whole area of the attack and defence of 1870, lies a complete circle of
+detached forts and batteries of modern construction. To the north, Forts
+Salbert and Roppe form the salients of a long defensive line on high
+ground, at the centre of which, where the Savoureuse river divides it, a
+new work was added later. Two works near Giromagny, about 8 m. from
+Belfort itself, connect the fortress with the right of the defensive
+line of the Moselle (Fort Ballon d'Alsace). In the eastern sector of the
+defences (from Roppe to the Savoureuse below Belfort) the forts are
+about 3 m. from the centre, the works near the Belfort-Mülhausen railway
+being somewhat more advanced, and in the western (from Salbert to Fort
+Bois d'Oyé on the lower Savoureuse) they are advanced to about the same
+distance. The fort of Mont Vaudois, the westernmost, overlooks Héricourt
+and the battlefield of the Lisaine: farther to the south Montbéliard is
+also fortified. The perimeter of the Belfort defences is nearly 25 m.
+
+_History._--Gallo-Roman remains have been discovered in the vicinity of
+Belfort, but the place is first heard of in the early part of the 13th
+century, when it was in the possession of the counts of Montbéliard.
+From them it passed by marriage to the counts of Ferrette and afterwards
+to the archdukes of Austria. By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the town
+was ceded to Louis XIV. who gave it to Cardinal Mazarin.
+
+In the Thirty Years' War Belfort was twice besieged, 1633 and 1634, and
+in 1635 there was a battle here between the duke of Lorraine and the
+allied French and Swedes under Marshal de la Force. The fortifications
+of Vauban were begun in 1686. Belfort was besieged in 1814 by the troops
+of the allies and in 1815 by the Austrians.
+
+The most famous episode of the town's history is its gallant and
+successful defence in the war of 1870-1871.
+
+The events which led up to the siege are described under FRANCO-GERMAN
+WAR. Even before the investment Belfort was cut off from the interior of
+France, and the German corps of von Werder was, throughout the siege,
+between the fortress and the forces which might attempt its relief. The
+siege corps was commanded by General von Tresckow and numbered at first
+10,000 men with twenty-four field guns--a force which appeared adequate
+for the reduction of the antiquated works of Vaubau. Colonel
+Denfert-Rochereau was, however, a scientific engineer of advanced ideas
+as well as a veteran soldier of the Crimea and Algeria, and he had been
+stationed at Belfort for six years. He was therefore eminently fitted
+for the command of the fortress. He had as a nucleus but few regular
+troops, but the energy of the military and civil authorities enabled his
+force to be augmented by national guards, &c., to 17,600 men. The
+artillery was very numerous, but skilled gunners were not available in
+any great strength and ammunition was scarce. Perhaps the most
+favourable circumstance from a technical point of view was the
+bomb-proof accommodation of the enceinte.
+
+[Illustration: Siege of BELFORT 1870-71.]
+
+The old fortress consisted of the town enceinte, the castle (situated on
+high ground and fortified by several concentric envelopes), and the
+entrenched camp, a hollow enclosed by continuous lines, the salients of
+which were the castle, Fort La Justice and Fort La Miotte. These were
+planned in the days of short-range guns, and were therefore in 1870 open
+to an overwhelming bombardment by the rifled cannon of the attack.
+Denfert-Rochereau, however, understood better than other engineers of
+the day the power of modern artillery, and his plan was to utilize the
+old works as a keep and an artillery position. The Perches ridge, whence
+the town and suburbs could be bombarded, he fortified with all possible
+speed. On the right bank of the Savoureuse he constructed two new forts,
+Bellevue in the south-west and Des Barres to the west, and, further, he
+prepared the suburb on this side for a hand-to-hand defence. His general
+plan was to maintain as advanced a line as possible, to manoeuvre
+against the investing troops, and to support his own by the long range
+fire of his rifled guns. With this object he fortified the outlying
+villages, and when the Germans (chiefly Landwehr) began the investment
+on the 3rd of November 1870, they encountered everywhere a most
+strenuous resistance. Throughout the month the garrison made repeated
+sorties, and the Germans were on several occasions forced by the long
+range fire of the fortress to evacuate villages which they had taken.
+Under these circumstances, and also because of their numerical weakness
+and the rigour of the weather, the Germans advanced but slowly. On the
+2nd of December, when at last von Tresckow broke ground for the
+construction of his batteries, the French still held Danjoutin, Bosmont,
+Pérouse and the adjacent woods, and, to the northward (on this side the
+siege was not pressed) La Forge. Thus the first attack of the siege
+artillery was confined to the western side of the river between Essert
+and Bavillers. From this position the bombardment opened on the 3rd of
+December. Some damage was done to the houses of Belfort, but the
+garrison was not intimidated, and their artillery replied with such
+spirit that after some days the German commander gave up the
+bombardment. On this occasion the distant forts La Miotte and La Justice
+fired with effect at a range of 4700 yds., affording a conspicuous
+illustration of the changed conditions of siege-craft. The German
+batteries, as more guns arrived, were extended from left to right, and
+on the 13th of December the Bosmont was captured, ground being also
+gained in front of Bellevue. The difficulties under which the siege
+corps laboured were very great, and it was not until the 7th of January
+1871 that the rightmost battery opened fire. The formal siege of the
+Perches redoubts had now been decided upon, and as an essential
+preliminary to further operations, Danjoutin, now isolated, was stormed
+by the Landwehr on the night of the 7th-8th January. In the meanwhile
+typhus and smallpox had broken out amongst the French, many of the
+national guards were impatient of control, and the German trenches, in
+spite of difficulties of ground and weather, made steady progress
+towards the Perches. A week after the fall of Danjoutin the victory of
+von Werder and the XIV. army corps at the Lisaine, in which a part of
+the siege corps bore a share, put an end to the attempt to relieve
+Belfort, and the siege corps was promptly increased to a strength of
+17,600 infantry, 4700 artillery and 1100 engineers, with thirty-four
+field-guns besides the guns and howitzers of the siege train. The
+investment was now more strictly maintained even on the north side. On
+the night of the 20th of January the French lines about Pérouse were
+carried by assault, and, both flanks being now cleared, the formal siege
+of the Perches forts was opened, the first parallel extending from
+Danjoutin to Haut Taillis. In the early morning of the 27th a determined
+but premature attempt was made to storm the Perches redoubts, which cost
+the besiegers nearly 500 men. After this failure Tresckow once more
+resorted to the regular method of siege approaches, and on the 2nd of
+February the second parallel was thrown up. La Justice was now bombarded
+by two new batteries near Pérouse, the Perches were of course subjected
+to an "artillery attack," and henceforward the besiegers fired 1500
+shells a day into the works of the French. But the besiegers were still
+weak in numbers and their labours were very exhausting. Bellevue and Des
+Barres became very active in hindering the advance of the siege works,
+and the German battalions were so far depleted by losses and sickness
+that they could often muster but 300 men for duty. Still, the guns of
+the attack were now steadily gaining the upper hand, and at last on the
+8th of February the Germans entered the two Perches redoubts. This
+success, and the arrival of German reinforcements, decided the siege.
+The Perches ridge was crowned with a parallel and numerous batteries,
+which in the end mounted ninety-seven guns. The attack on the castle now
+opened, but operations were soon afterwards suspended by the news that
+Belfort was now included in the general armistice (February 15th). A
+little later Denfert-Rochereau received a direct order from his own
+government to surrender the fortress, and the garrison, being granted
+free withdrawal, marched out with its arms and trains. "The town had
+suffered terribly ... nearly all the buildings were damaged ... the guns
+in the upper batteries could only be reached by ladders. The garrison,
+of its original strength of 17,700 officers and men, had lost 4750,
+besides 336 citizens. The place was no longer tenable" (Moltke,
+_Franco-German War_). Nevertheless, "the defence was by no means at its
+last stage" at the time of the formal surrender (British _Text-Book of
+Fortification_, 1893). The total loss of the besiegers was about 2000
+men.
+
+  See J. Liblin, _Belfort et son territoire_ (Mülhausen, 1887).
+
+
+
+
+BELFRY (Mid. Eng. _berfrey_, through Med. Lat. _berefredus_, from Teut.
+_bergfrid_ or _bercvrit_, which, according to the _New Eng. Dict._, is a
+combination of _bergen_, to protect, and _frida_, safety or peace; the
+word thus meaning a shelter; the change from r to l,--cf. _almery_ for
+_armarium_,--wrongly associated the origin of the word with "bell," and
+aided the restriction in meaning), a word in medieval siege-craft for a
+movable wooden tower of several stages, protected with raw hides, used
+for purposes of attack; also a watch-tower, particularly one with an
+alarm bell; hence any detached tower or campanile containing bells, as
+at Evesham, but more generally the ringing room or loft of the tower of
+a church (see TOWER).
+
+
+
+
+BELGAE, a Celtic people first mentioned by Caesar, who states that they
+formed the third part of Gaul, and were separated from the Celtae by the
+Sequana (Seine) and Matrona (Marne). On the east and north their
+boundary was the lower Rhine, on the west the ocean. Whether Caesar
+means to include the Leuci, Treviri and Mediomatrici among the Belgian
+tribes is uncertain. According to the statement of the deputation from
+the Remi to Caesar (_Bell. Gall._ ii. 4), the Belgae were a people of
+German origin, who had crossed the Rhine in early times and driven out
+the Galli. But Caesar's own statement (_B.G._ i. 1) that the Belgae
+differed from the Celtae in language, institutions and laws, is too
+sweeping (see Strabo iv. p. 176), at least as regards language, for many
+words and names are common to both. In any case, only the eastern
+districts would have been affected by invaders from over the Rhine, the
+chief seat of the Belgae proper being in the west, the country occupied
+by the Bellovaci, Ambiani and Atrebates, to which it is probable
+(although the reading is uncertain) that Caesar gives the distinctive
+name Belgium (corresponding to the old provinces of Picardy and Artois).
+The question is fully discussed by T.R. Holmes (_Caesar's Conquest of
+Gaul_, 1899), who comes to the conclusion that "when the Reman delegates
+told Caesar that the Belgae were descended from the Germans, they
+probably only meant that the ancestors of the Belgic conquerors had
+formerly dwelt in Germany, and this is equally true of the ancestors of
+the Gauls who gave their name to the Celtae; but, on the other hand, it
+is quite possible that in the veins of some of the Belgae flowed the
+blood of genuine German forefathers." W. Ridgeway (_Early Age of Greece,
+1901_) considers that the Belgic tribes were Cimbri, "who had moved
+directly across the Rhine into north-eastern Gaul." No definite number
+of Belgian tribes is given by Caesar; according to Strabo (iv. p. 196)
+they were fifteen in all. The Belgae had also made their way over to
+Britain in Caesar's time (_B.G._ ii. 4, v. 12), and settled in some of
+the southern counties (Wilts, Hants and Somerset). Among their towns
+were _Magnus Portus_ (Portsmouth) and _Venta Belgarum_ (Winchester).
+
+In 57 B.C., after the defeat of Ariovistus, the Belgae formed a
+coalition against Caesar, and in 52 took part in the general rising
+under Vercingetorix. After their final subjugation, Caesar combined the
+territory of the Belgae, Celtae and Aquitani into a single province
+(Gallia Comata). Augustus, however, finding it too unwieldy, again
+divided it into three provinces, one of which was Belgica, bounded on
+the west by the Seine and the Arar (Saône); on the north by the North
+Sea; on the east by the Rhine from its mouth to the Lacus Brigantinus
+(Lake Constance). Its southernmost district embraced the west of
+Switzerland. The capital and residence of the governor of the province
+was Durocortorum Remorum (Reims). Under Diocletian, Belgica Prima
+(capital, Augusta Trevirorum, Trier) and Secunda (capital, Reims) formed
+part of the "diocese" of Gaul.
+
+  See A.G.B. Schayes, _La Belgique et les Pays-Bas avant et pendant la
+  domination romaine_ (2nd ed., Brussels, 1877); H.G. Moke, _La Belgique
+  ancienne_ (Ghent, 1855); A. Desjardins, _Géographie historique de la
+  Gaule_, ii. (1878); T.R. Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899);
+  M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. pt. 1 (1897); J.
+  Jung, "Geographie von Italien und dem Orbis romanus" (2nd ed., 1897)
+  in I. Müller's _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_.
+
+
+
+
+BELGARD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, at
+the junction of the rivers Leitznitz and Persante, 22 m. S.E. of Kolberg
+by rail. Pop. (1900) 8047. Its industries consist of iron founding and
+cloth weaving, and there are considerable horse and cattle markets.
+
+
+
+
+BELGAUM, a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town is situated nearly 2500 ft. above sea-level; it has
+a station on the Southern Mahratta railway, 245 m. S. of Poona. It has
+an ancient fortress, dating apparently from 1519, covering about 100
+acres, and surrounded by a ditch; within it are two interesting Jain
+temples. Belgaum contains a cantonment which is the headquarters of a
+brigade in the 6th division of the western army corps. It is also a
+considerable centre of trade and of cotton weaving. There are cotton
+mills. Pop. (1901) 36,878.
+
+The district of Belgaum has an area of 4649 sq. m. To the north and east
+the country is open and well cultivated, but to the south it is
+intersected by spurs of the Sahyadri range, thickly covered in some
+places with forest. In 1901 the population was 993,976, showing a
+decrease of 2% compared with an increase of 17% in the preceding decade.
+The principal crops are millet, rice, wheat, other food-grains, pulse,
+oil-seeds, cotton, sugar-cane, spices and tobacco. There are
+considerable manufactures of cotton-cloth. The town of Gokak is known
+for its dyes, its paper and its wooden and earthenware toys. The West
+Deccan line of the Southern Mahratta railway runs through the district
+from north to south. Two high schools at Belgaum town are maintained by
+government and by the London Mission. The Kurirs, a wandering and
+thieving tribe, the Kamais, professional burglars, and the Baruds,
+cattle-stealers and highwaymen, are notorious among the criminal
+classes.
+
+_History._--The ancient name of the town of Belgaum was Venugrama, which
+is said to be derived from the bamboos that are characteristic of its
+neighbourhood. The most ancient place in the district is Halsi; and
+this, according to inscriptions on copper plates discovered in its
+neighbourhood, was once the capital of a dynasty of nine Kadamba kings.
+It appears that from the middle of the 6th century A.D. to about 760 the
+country was held by the Chalukyas, who were succeeded by the
+Rashtrakutas. After the break-up of the Rashtrakuta power a portion of
+it survived in the Rattas (875-1250), who from 1210 onward made
+Venugrama their capital. Inscriptions give evidence of a long struggle
+between the Rattas and the Kadambas of Goa, who succeeded in the latter
+years of the 12th century in acquiring and holding part of the district.
+By 1208, however, the Kadambas had been overthrown by the Rattas, who in
+their turn succumbed to the Yadavas of Devagiri in 1250. After the
+overthrow of the Yadavas by the Delhi emperor (1320), Belgaum was for a
+short time under the rule of the latter; but only a few years later the
+part south of the Ghatprabha was subject to the Hindu rajas of
+Vijayanagar. In 1347 the northern part was conquered by the Bahmani
+dynasty, which in 1473 took the town of Belgaum and conquered the
+southern part also. When Aurungzeb overthrew the Bijapur sultans in
+1686, Belgaum passed to the Moguls. In 1776 the country was overrun by
+Hyder Ali, but was retaken by the Peshwa with British assistance. In
+1818 it was handed over to the East India Company and was made part of
+the district of Dharwar. In 1836 this was divided into two parts, the
+southern district continuing to be known as Dharwar, the northern as
+Belgaum.
+
+  See _Imp. Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, ed. 1908), s.v.
+
+
+
+
+BELGIAN CONGO, a Belgian colony in Equatorial Africa occupying the
+greater part of the basin of the Congo river. Formerly the Independent
+State of the Congo, it was annexed to Belgium in 1908. (See CONGO FREE
+STATE.)
+
+
+
+
+BELGIUM (Fr. _Belgique_; Flem. _Belgie_), an independent, constitutional
+and neutral state occupying an important position in north-west Europe.
+It was formerly part of the Low Countries or Netherlands (q.v.).
+Although the name Belgium only came into general use with the foundation
+of the modern kingdom in 1830, its derivation from ancient times is
+clear and incontrovertible. Beginning with the Belgae and the Gallia
+Belgica of the Romans, the use of the adjective to distinguish the
+inhabitants of the south Netherlands can be traced through all stages of
+subsequent history. During the Crusades, and in the middle ages, the
+term _Belgicae principes_ is of frequent occurrence, and when in 1790
+the Walloons rose against Austria during what was called the Brabant
+revolution, their leaders proposed to give the country the name of
+Belgique. Again in 1814, on the expulsion of the French, when there was
+much talk of founding an independent state, the same name was suggested
+for it. It was not till sixteen years later, on the collapse of the
+united kingdom of the Netherlands, that the occasion presented itself
+for giving effect to this proposal. For the explanation of the English
+form of the name it may be mentioned that Belgium was a canton of what
+had been the Nervian country in the time of the Roman occupation.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Belgium and Luxemburg.]
+
+_Topography, &c._--Belgium lies between 49° 30' and 51° 30' N., and 2°
+32' and 6° 7' E., and on the land side is bounded by Holland on the N.
+and N.E., by Prussia and the grand duchy of Luxemburg on the E. and
+S.E., and by France on the S. Its land frontiers measure 793 m., divided
+as follows:--with Holland 269 m., with Prussia 60 m., with the grand
+duchy 80 m. and with France 384 m. In addition it has a sea-coast of 42
+m. The western portion of Belgium, consisting of the two Flanders,
+Antwerp and parts of Brabant and Hainaut, is flat, being little above
+the level of the sea; and indeed at one point near Furnes it is 7 ft.
+below it. The same description applies more or less to the north-east,
+but in the south of Hainaut and the greater part of Brabant the general
+level of the country is about 300 ft. above the sea, with altitudes
+rising to more than 600 ft. South of the Meuse, and in the district
+distinguished by the appellation "Between Sambre and Meuse," the level
+is still greater, and the whole of the province of Luxemburg is above
+500 ft., with altitudes up to 1650 ft. In the south-eastern part of the
+province of Liége there are several points exceeding 2000 ft. The
+highest of these is the Baraque de Michel close to the Prussian
+frontier, with an altitude of 2190 ft. The Baraque de Fraiture,
+north-east of La Roche, is over 2000 ft. While the greater part of
+western and northern Belgium is devoid of the picturesque, the Ardennes
+and the Fagnes districts of "Between Sambre and Meuse" and Liége contain
+much pleasant and some romantic scenery. The principal charm of this
+region is derived from its fine and extensive woods, of which that
+called St Hubert is the best known. There are no lakes in Belgium, but
+otherwise it is exceedingly well watered, being traversed by the Meuse
+for the greater part of its course, as well as by the Scheldt and the
+Sambre. The numerous affluents of these rivers, such as the Lys, Dyle,
+Dender, Ourthe, Amblève, Vesdre, Lesse and Semois, provide a system of
+waterways almost unique in Europe. The canals of Belgium are scarcely
+less numerous or important than those of Holland, especially in
+Flanders, where they give a distinctive character to the country. But
+the most striking feature in Belgium, where so much is modern,
+utilitarian and ugly, is found in the older cities with their relics of
+medieval greatness, and their record of ancient fame. These, in their
+order of interest, are Bruges, Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Ghent, Ypres,
+Courtrai, Tournai, Furnes, Oudenarde and Liége. It is to them rather
+than to the sylvan scenes of the Ardennes that travellers and tourists
+flock.
+
+The climate may be described as temperate and approximating to that of
+southern England, but it is somewhat hotter in summer and a little
+colder in winter. In the Ardennes, owing to the greater elevation, the
+winters are more severe.
+
+_Geology._--Belgium lies upon the northern side of an ancient mountain
+chain which has long been worn down to a low level and the remnants of
+which rise to the surface in the Ardennes, and extend eastward into
+Germany, forming the Eifel and Westerwald, the Hunsrück and the Taunus.
+Westward the chain lies buried beneath the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of
+Belgium and the north of France, but it reappears in the west of England
+and Ireland. It is the "Hercynian chain" of Marcel Bertrand, and is
+composed entirely of Palaeozoic rocks. Upon its northern margin lie the
+nearly undisturbed Cretaceous and Tertiary beds which cover the greater
+part of Belgium. The latest beds which are involved in the folds of this
+mountain range belong to the Coal Measures, and the final elevation must
+have taken place towards the close of the Carboniferous period. The fact
+that in Belgium Jurassic beds are found upon the southern and not upon
+the northern margin indicates that in this region the chain was still a
+ridge in Jurassic times. In the Ardennes the rocks which constitute the
+ancient mountain chain belong chiefly to the Devonian System, but
+Cambrian beds rise through the Devonian strata, forming the masses of
+Rocroi, Stavelot, &c., which appear to have been islands in the Devonian
+sea. The Ordovician and Silurian are absent here, and the Devonian rests
+unconformably upon the Cambrian; but along the northern margin of the
+Palaeozoic area, Ordovician and Silurian rocks appear, and beds of
+similar age are also exposed farther north where the rivers have cut
+through the overlying Tertiary deposits. Carboniferous beds occur in the
+north of the Palaeozoic area. Near Dinant they are folded amongst the
+Devonian beds, but the most important band runs along the northern
+border of the Ardennes. In this band lie the coalfields of Liége, and of
+Mons and Charleroi. It is a long and narrow trough, which is separated
+from the older rocks of the Ardennes by a great reversed fault, the
+_faille du midi_. In the southern half of the trough the folding of the
+Coal Measures is intense; in the northern half it is much less violent.
+The structure is complicated by a thrust-plane which brings a mass of
+older beds upon the Coal Measures in the middle of the trough. Except
+along the southern border of the Ardennes, and at one or two points in
+the middle of the Palaeozoic massif, Triassic and Jurassic beds are
+unknown in Belgium, and the Palaeozoic rocks are directly and
+unconformably overlaid by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. The
+Cretaceous beds are not extensive, but the Wealden deposits of
+Bernissart, with their numerous remains of Iguanodon, and the chalk of
+the district about the Dutch frontier near Maastricht, with its very
+late Cretaceous fauna, are of special interest.
+
+Exclusive of the Ardennes the greater part of Belgium is covered by
+Tertiary deposits. The Eocene, consisting chiefly of sands and marls,
+occupies the whole of the west of the country. The Oligocene forms a
+band stretching from Antwerp to Maastricht, and this is followed towards
+the north by a discontinuous strip of Miocene and a fairly extensive
+area of Pliocene. The Tertiary deposits are similar in general character
+to those of the north of France and the south of England. Coal and iron
+are by far the most important mineral productions of Belgium. Zinc, lead
+and copper are also extensively worked in the Palaeozoic rocks of the
+Ardennes.
+
+_Area and Population._--The area comprises 2,945,503 hectares, or about
+11,373 English sq. m., and the total population in December 1904 was
+7,074,910, giving an average of 600 per sq. m.
+
+
+  +-------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+  |   The Nine  |    Area in     | Population at | Population per |
+  |  Provinces. | English sq. m. |  end of 1904. |  sq. m. 1904.  |
+  +-------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+  | Antwerp     |      1093      |     888,980   |     813.3      |
+  | Brabant     |      1268      |   1,366,389   |    1077.59     |
+  | Flanders E. |      1158      |   1,078,507   |     931.35     |
+  | Flanders W. |      1249      |     845,732   |     677.8      |
+  | Hainaut     |      1437      |   1,192,967   |     830.18     |
+  | Liége       |      1117      |     863,254   |     772.8      |
+  | Limburg     |       931      |     255,359   |     274.28     |
+  | Luxemburg   |      1706      |     225,963   |     132.45     |
+  | Namur       |      1414      |     357,759   |     253        |
+  +-------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+  |    Total    |    11,373      |   7,074,910   |     622        |
+  +-------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+
+The population was made up of 3,514,491 males and 3,560,419 females. The
+rate at which the population has increased is shown as follows:--From
+1880 to 1890 the increase was at the rate annually of 54,931, from 1890
+to 1900 at the rate of 62,421, and for the five years from 1900 to 1904
+at the rate of 66,200. In 1831 the population of Belgium was 3,785,814,
+so that in 75 years it had not quite doubled. The following table gives
+the total births and deaths in certain years since 1880:--
+
+
+  +-------+---------------+---------------+-------------------+
+  | Year. | Total births. | Total deaths. | Excess of births. |
+  +-------+---------------+---------------+-------------------+
+  | 1880  |    171,864    |    123,323    |       48,541      |
+  | 1895  |    183,015    |    125,148    |       57,867      |
+  | 1900  |    193,789    |    129,046    |       64,743      |
+  | 1904  |    191,721    |    119,506    |       72,215      |
+  +-------+---------------+---------------+-------------------+
+
+These figures show that the births were 23,674 more in 1904 than in
+1880, while the deaths were nearly 4000 fewer, with a population that
+had increased from 5½ to 7 millions. Of 191,721 births in 1904, 12,887
+or 6.7% were illegitimate. Statistics of recent years show a slight
+increase in legitimate and a slight decrease in illegitimate births.
+
+The emigration of Belgians from their country is small and reveals
+little variation. In 1900, 13,492 emigrated, and in 1904 the total rose
+only to 14,752. Of Belgians living abroad it is estimated that 400,000
+reside in France, 15,000 in Holland, 12,000 in Germany and 4600 in Great
+Britain. The number of Belgians in the Congo State in 1904 was 1505. The
+number of foreigners resident in Belgium in 1900 with their
+nationalities were Germans, 42,079; English, 5096; French, 85,735;
+Dutch, 54,491; Luxemburgers, 9762; and all other nationalities, 14,411.
+
+With regard to the languages spoken by the people of Belgium the
+following comparative table gives the return for the three censuses of
+1880, 1890 and 1900:--
+
+
+  +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                     |   1880.   |   1890.   |   1900.   |
+  +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | French only         | 2,230,316 | 2,485,072 | 2,574,805 |
+  | Flemish only        | 2,485,384 | 2,744,271 | 2,822,005 |
+  | German only         |    39,550 |    32,206 |    28,314 |
+  | French and Flemish  |   423,752 |   700,997 |   801,587 |
+  | French and German   |    35,250 |    58,590 |    66,447 |
+  | Flemish and German  |     2,956 |     7,028 |     7,238 |
+  | The three languages |    13,331 |    13,185 |    42,885 |
+  +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+_Constitution and Government._--The Belgian constitution, drafted by the
+national assembly in 1830-1831 after the provisional government had
+announced that "the Belgian provinces detached by force from Holland
+shall form an independent state," was published on the 7th of February
+1831, and the modifications introduced into it subsequently, apart from
+the composition of the electorate, have been few and unimportant. The
+constitution originally contained one hundred and thirty-nine articles,
+and decreed in the first place that the government was to be "a
+constitutional, representative and hereditary monarchy." Having decided
+in favour of a monarchy, the provisional government first offered the
+throne to the due de Nemours, son of Louis-Philippe, but this offer was
+promptly withdrawn on the discovery that Europe would not endorse it. It
+was then offered to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, widower of the
+princess Charlotte of England, and accepted by him. The prince was
+proclaimed on the 4th of June 1831 as Leopold I., king of the Belgians,
+and on the 21st of July 1831 he was solemnly inaugurated in Brussels.
+The succession is vested in the heirs male of Leopold I., and should
+they ever make complete default the throne will be declared vacant, and
+a national assembly composed of the two chambers elected in double
+strength will make a fresh nomination. In 1894 a new article numbered 61
+was inserted in the constitution providing that "in default of male
+heirs the king can nominate his successor with the assent of the two
+chambers, and if no such nomination has been made the throne shall be
+vacant," when the original procedure of the constitution would be
+followed. The Belgian national assembly assumed that its constitution
+would extend over the whole of the Belgic or south Netherlands, but the
+powers decreed otherwise. The limits of Belgium are fixed by the London
+protocol of the 15th of October 1831--also called the twenty-four
+articles--which cut off what is now termed the grand duchy of Luxemburg,
+and also a good portion of the duchy of Limburg. These losses of
+territory held by a brother people are still felt as a grievance by many
+Belgians. The Belgian constitution stipulates for "freedom of
+conscience, of education, of the press and also of the right of
+meeting," but the sovereign must be a member of the Church of Rome. The
+government was to consist of the king, the senate and the chamber of
+representatives. The functions of the king are those that appertain
+everywhere to the sovereign of a constitutional state. He is the head of
+the army and has the exclusive right of dissolving the chambers as
+preliminary to an appeal to the country.
+
+The senate is composed of seventy-six elected members and twenty-six
+members nominated by the provincial councils. A senator sits for eight
+years unless a dissolution is ordered, and no one is eligible until he
+is forty years of age. Half the seventy-six elected senators retire for
+re-election every four years. There is no payment or other privilege,
+except a pass on the state railways, attached to the rank of senator.
+The chamber of representatives contained one hundred and fifty-two
+members until 1899, when the number was increased to one hundred and
+sixty-six. Deputies are elected for four years, but half the house is
+re-elected every two years. A deputy must be twenty-five years of age,
+and the members of both houses must be of Belgian nationality, born or
+naturalized. A deputy receives an annual honorarium of 4000 francs and a
+railway pass. Down to 1893 the electorate was exceedingly small.
+Property and other qualifications kept the voting power in the hands of
+a limited class. This may be judged from the fact that in the year named
+there were only 137,772 voters out of a population of 65 millions. In
+April 1894 the new electoral law altered the whole system. The property
+qualification was removed and every Belgian was given one vote on
+attaining twenty-five years of age and after one year's residence in his
+commune. At the same time the principle of multiple votes for certain
+qualifications was introduced. The Belgian citizen on reaching the age
+of thirty-five, providing he is married or is a widower with legitimate
+offspring and pays five francs of direct taxes, gets a second vote. Two
+extra votes are given for qualifications of property, official status or
+university diplomas. The maximum voting power of any individual is three
+votes. In 1904 there were 1,581,649 voters, possessing 2,467,966 votes.
+This system of plural voting has proved a success. It does not, however,
+satisfy the Socialists, whose formula is one man, one vote. The final
+change in the system of parliamentary elections was made in 1899-1900,
+when proportional representation was introduced. Proportional
+representation aims at the protection of minorities, and its working out
+is a little intricate, or at all events difficult to describe. The
+following has been accepted as a clear definition of what proportional
+representation is:--electoral district has the number of its members
+apportioned in accordance with the total strength of each party or
+political programme in that district. As a rule there are only the three
+chief parties, viz. Catholic, Liberal and Socialist, but the presence of
+Catholic-Democrats or some other new faction may increase the total to
+four or even five. The number of seats to be filled is divided by the
+number of parties or candidates, and then they are distributed in the
+proportion of the total followers or voters of each. The smallest
+minority is thus sure of one seat." An illustration may make this
+clearer. In an electoral district with 32,000 votes which returns eight
+deputies, four parties send up candidates, let us say, eight Catholics,
+eight Liberals, eight Socialists and one Catholic-Democrat. The result
+of the voting is, 16,000 Catholic votes, 9000 Liberal, 4500 Socialist,
+and 2500 Catholic-Democrat. The seats would, therefore, be apportioned
+as follows: four Catholic, two Liberal, one Socialist and one
+Catholic-Democrat.
+
+
+  Administration.
+
+The king has one right which other constitutional rulers do not possess.
+He can initiate proposals for new laws (_projets de loi_). He is also
+charged with the executive power which he delegates to a cabinet
+composed of ministers chosen from the party representing the majority in
+the chamber. Down to 1884 the Liberal party had held power with very few
+intervals since 1840. The Catholic party succeeded to office in 1884.
+The ministers represent departments for finance, foreign affairs,
+colonies, justice, the interior, science and arts, war, railways, posts
+and telegraphs, agriculture, public works, and industry and labour. The
+minister for war is generally a soldier, the others are civilians.
+Ministers may be members of either chamber and enjoy the privilege of
+being allowed to speak in both. Sometimes one minister will hold several
+portfolios at the same time, but such cases are rare.
+
+
+  Provinces and communes.
+
+The kingdom is divided into nine provinces which are subdivided into 342
+cantons and 2623 communes. The provinces are governed by a governor
+nominated by the king, the canton is a judicial division for marking the
+limit of the jurisdiction of each _juge de paix_, and the commune is the
+administrative unit, possessing self-government in all local matters.
+For each commune of 5000 inhabitants or over, a burgomaster is appointed
+by the communal council which is chosen by the electors of the commune.
+As three years' residence is required these electors are fewer in number
+than those for the legislature. In 1902 there were 1,146,482 voters with
+2,007,704 votes, the principles of multiple votes, with, however, a
+maximum of four votes and proportional representation, being in force
+for communal as for legislative elections.
+
+_Religion._--The constitution provides for absolute liberty of
+conscience and there is no state religion, but the people are almost to
+a man Roman Catholics. It is computed that there are 10,000 Protestants
+(half English) and 5000 Jews, and that all the rest are Catholics. The
+government in 1904 voted nearly 7,000,000 francs in aid of the religious
+establishments of, and the benevolent institutions kept up by, the Roman
+Church. The grant to other cults amounted to 118,000 francs, but small
+as this sum may appear it is in due proportion to the relative numbers
+of each creed. The hierarchy of the Church of Rome in Belgium is
+composed of the archbishop of Malines, and the bishops of Liége, Ghent,
+Bruges, Tournai and Namur. The archbishop receives £800, and the bishops
+£600 apiece from the state yearly. The pay of the village _curé_
+averages £80 a year and a house. Besides the regular clergy there are
+the members of the numerous monastic and conventual houses established
+in Belgium. They are engaged principally in educational and eleemosynary
+work, and the development in such institutions is considerable.
+
+_Education._--Education, though not obligatory, is free for those who
+cannot pay for it. In the primary schools instruction in reading,
+writing, arithmetic, history and geography is obligatory. In 1904 there
+were 7092 primary schools with 859,436 pupils of both sexes. Of these
+807,383 did not pay. Primary education is supposed to continue till the
+age of fourteen, but in practice it stops at twelve for all who do not
+intend to pass through the middle schools, which is essential for all
+persons seeking state employment of any kind. The middle schools have
+one privilege. They can give a certificate qualifying scholars for a
+mastership in the primary schools, which are under the full control of
+the communes. These appointments are always bestowed on local
+favourites. The pay of a schoolmaster in a small commune is only £48,
+and in a large town £96, with a maximum ranging from £80 to £152 after
+twenty-four years' service. It is therefore clear that no very high
+qualifications could be expected from such a staff. The control of the
+state comes in to the extent of providing district inspectors who visit
+the schools once a year, and hold a meeting of the teachers in their
+district once a quarter. In each province there is a chief inspector who
+is bound to visit each school once in two years, and reports direct to
+the minister of public instruction. With regard to the middle schools,
+the government has reserved the right to appoint the teaching staff, and
+to prescribe the books that are to be used. The results of the middle
+schools are fairly satisfactory. Still better are the Athénées Royaux,
+twenty in number, which are quite independent of the commune and subject
+to official control under the superior direction of the king.
+Mathematics and classics are taught in them and the masters are allowed
+to take boarders. The expenditure of the state on education amounts to
+about a million sterling. In 1860 the grants were only for little over
+one-eighth of the total in 1903. In 1900 31.94% of the toal population
+was illiterate. Considerable progress in the education of the people is
+made visible by a comparison of the figures of three decennial censuses.
+In 1880 the illiterate were 42.25% and in 1890 37.63, so that there was
+a further marked improvement by 1900. Among the provinces Walloon
+Belgium is better instructed than Flemish, Luxemburg coming first,
+followed by Namur, Liége and Brabant in their order.
+
+Higher instruction is given at the universities and in the schools
+attached thereto. Those at Ghent and Liége are state universities; the
+two others at Brussels and Louvain are free. At Louvain alone is there a
+faculty of theology. The number of students inscribed for the academical
+year 1904-1905 at each university was Ghent 899, Liége 1983, Brussels
+1082, and Louvain 2134, or a grand total of 6098. Liége is specially
+famed for the technical schools attached to it. There are also a large
+number of state-aided schools for special purposes; (1) for military
+instruction, there are the _École Militaire_ at Brussels, the school of
+cadets at Namur, and army schools at different stations, e.g. Bouillon,
+&c. For officers in the army, there are the _École de Guerre_ or staff
+college at Brussels with an average attendance of twenty, a riding
+school at Ypres where a course is obligatory for the cavalry and horse
+artillery, and for soldiers in the army there are regimental schools and
+evening classes for illiterate soldiers. (2) For education in the arts,
+there is the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, and besides this
+famous school of painting there are eighty-four academies for teaching
+drawing throughout the kingdom. In music, there are royal conservatoires
+at Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, and Liége. Besides these there are
+sixty-nine minor conservatoires. (3) For commercial and professional
+education, there are 181 schools. The Commercial Institute of Antwerp
+deserves special notice as an excellent school for clerks. (4) Among
+special schools may be named the three schools of navigation at Antwerp,
+Ostend and Nieuport. Since the wreck of the training-ship "Comte de Smet
+de Naeyer" in 1906, it has been decided that a stationary training-ship
+shall be placed in the Scheldt like the "Worcester" on the Thames. Among
+the numerous learned societies may be mentioned the Belgian Royal
+Academy founded in 1769 and revived in 1818. For the encouragement of
+research and literary style the government awards periodical prizes
+which are very keenly contested.
+
+_Justice._--The administration of justice is very fully organized, and
+in the Code Belge, which was carefully compiled between 1831 and 1836
+from the old laws of the nine provinces leavened by the Code Napoleon
+and modern exigencies, the Belgians claim that they possess an almost
+perfect statute-book. The courts of law in their order are _Cour de
+Cassation_, _Cour d'Appel_, _Cour de Première Instance_, and the _Juge
+de Paix_ courts, one for each of the 342 cantons. The _Cour de
+Cassation_ has a peculiar judicial sphere. It works automatically,
+examining every judgment to see if it is in strict accord with the code,
+and where it is not the decision or verdict is simply annulled. There is
+only one judge in this court, but he has the assistance of a large staff
+of revisers. The _Cour de Cassation_ never tries a case itself except
+when a minister of state is the accused. The president of this tribunal
+is the highest legal functionary in Belgium. There are three courts of
+appeal, viz. at Brussels, Ghent and Liége. At Brussels there are four
+separate chambers or tribunals in the appeal court. Judges of appeal are
+appointed by the king for life from lists of eligible barristers
+prepared by the senate and the courts. Judges can only be removed by the
+unanimous vote of their brother judges. There are twenty-six courts of
+first instance distributed among the principal towns of the kingdom, and
+in Antwerp, Ghent and Liége there are besides special tribunals for the
+settlement of commercial cases. Of course there is the right of appeal
+from the decisions of these tribunals as well as of the regular courts.
+Finally the 342 _Juge de Paix_ courts resemble British county courts.
+Criminal cases are tried by (1) the _Tribunaux de Police_, (2)
+_Tribunaux Correctionnels_, (3) and the _Cours d'Assises_. The last are
+held as the length of the calendar requires. Capital punishment is
+retained on the statute, but is never enforced, the prisoner on whom
+sentence of death is passed in due form in open court being relegated to
+imprisonment for life in solitary confinement and perpetual silence. The
+chief prisons are at Louvain, Ghent and St Gilles (Brussels), and the
+last named serves as a house of detention. At Merxplas, near the Dutch
+frontier, is the agricultural criminal colony at which an average number
+of two thousand prisoners are kept employed in comparative liberty
+within the radius of the convict settlement.
+
+_Pauperism._--For the relief of pauperism there are a limited number of
+houses of mendicity, in which inmates are received, and houses of
+refuge for night shelter. At the _béguinages_ of Ghent and Bruges women
+and girls able to contribute a specified sum towards their support are
+given a home.
+
+_National Finance._--The budget is submitted to the chambers by the
+minister of finance and passed by them. The revenue and expenditure were
+in the years stated as follows:--
+
+
+  +-------+----------------------+---------------------+
+  | Year. |      Revenue.        |    Expenditure.     |
+  +-------+----------------------+---------------------+
+  | 1880  |  394,215,932 francs  |  382,908,429 francs |
+  | 1895  |  395,730,445    "    |  410,383,402    "   |
+  | 1903  |  632,416,810    "    |  627,975,568    "   |
+  +-------+----------------------+---------------------+
+
+The revenue is made up from taxes, including customs, tolls, including
+returns from railway traffic, &c., and the balance comes from various
+revenues, return of capital, loans, &c. The following are the principal
+items of expenditure (1903):--
+
+  Service of debt                     143,065,352 francs
+  Sovereign, senate, chamber, &c.       5,289,087    "
+  Departments, foreign office           3,751,636    "
+       "       agriculture             12,253,957    "
+       "       railways               165,086,019    "
+       "       finance                 34,479,674    "
+       "       industry                19,905,589    "
+       "       war                     63,972,473    "
+       "       public instruction      31,799,105    "
+       "       justice                 27,168,032    "
+  Minor items                           4,179,046    "
+                                      -----------
+                  Total               510,949,970    "
+                                      ===========
+
+The difference is made up of "special expenditure." The total debt in
+English money may be put at 126 millions sterling, which requires for
+interest, sinking fund and service about 5¾ millions sterling annually.
+The rate of interest on all the loans extant is 3%, except on one loan
+of 219,959,632 francs, which pays only 2½%.
+
+_Army and National Defence._--The army is divided into the regular army,
+the gendarmerie, and the _garde civique_. The Belgian regular army is
+thus composed: infantry, one regiment of carabiniers, one of grenadiers,
+three of _chasseurs à pied_, and fourteen of the line, all these
+regiments having 3 or 4 active and 3 or 4 reserve battalions apiece;
+cavalry, two regiments of guides, two of _chasseurs à cheval_, and four
+of lancers, all light cavalry; artillery, four horse, thirty field, and
+seventy siege batteries on active service; engineers, 140 officers and
+2000 men. The train or commissariat has only 30 officers and 600 men on
+the permanent establishment. Belgium retains the older form of
+conscription, and has not adopted the system of "universal service." The
+annual levy is small and substitution is permitted. In 1904 the number
+inscribed for service was 64,042. Of these only 12,525 were enrolled in
+the army, and of that number 1421 were volunteers, who took an
+engagement on receipt of a premium. The effective strength of the army
+in 1904 with the colours was 3406 officers and 40,382 men. To this total
+has to be added the men on the active list, but either absent on leave
+or allowed to return to civil life, numbering 70,043. It is assumed that
+on mobilization these men are immediately available. The reserve
+consists of 181 officers and 58,014 men, so that the total strength of
+the Belgian army is 3587 officers and 168,439 men. The field force in
+war is organized in four infantry and two cavalry divisions, the total
+strength being about 100,000. The peace effective has not varied much
+since 1870, but the total paper strength is 75,000 more than in that
+year. In the years 1900-1904 it increased by 8000 men. The gendarmerie
+is a mounted force composed of men picked for their physique and divided
+into three divisions. It numbers 67 officers and 3079 men, but has no
+reserve. It is in every sense a _corps d'élite_, and may be classed as
+first-rate heavy cavalry. The total strength of the _garde civique_ in
+1905 was 35,102, to which have to be added 8532 volunteers belonging to
+the corps of older formation, service in which counts on a par with the
+_garde civique_. Some of the latter regiments, especially the artillery,
+would rank with British volunteers, but the mass of the _garde civique_
+does not pretend to possess military value. It is a defence against
+sedition and socialism. The defence of Belgium depends on five fortified
+positions. The fortified position and camp of Antwerp represents the
+true base of the national defence. Its detached forts shelter the city
+from bombardment, and so long as sea communication is open with England,
+Antwerp would be practically impregnable. Liége with twelve forts and
+Namur with nine forts are the fortified _têtes de pont_ protecting the
+two most important passages of the Meuse. The forts are constructed in
+concrete with armoured cupolas. Termonde on the Scheldt and Diest on the
+Dender are retained as nominally fortified positions, but neither, could
+resist a regular bombardment for more than a few hours, as their
+casemates are not bomb-proof.
+
+The training camp of the Belgian army is at Beverloo in the province of
+Limburg, and at Braschaet not far from Antwerp are ranges for artillery
+as well as rifle practice. The Belgian officer is technically as well
+trained and educated as any in Europe, but he lacks practical experience
+in military service.
+
+_Mines and Industry._--The principal mineral produced in Belgium is
+coal. This is found in the Borinage district near Mons and in the
+neighbourhood of Liége, but the working of an entirely new coal-field,
+which promises to attain vast dimensions, was commenced in 1906 in the
+Campine district of the province of Limburg. The coal mines of Belgium
+give employment to nearly 150,000 persons, and for some years the
+average output has exceeded 22,000,000 tons. Other minerals are iron,
+manganese, lead and zinc. The iron mines produce much less than
+formerly, and the want of iron is a grave defect in Belgian prosperity,
+as about £5,000,000 sterling worth of iron has to be imported annually,
+chiefly from French Lorraine. The chief metal industry of the country is
+represented by the iron and steel works of Charleroi and Liége. Belgium
+is particularly rich in quarries of marble, granite and slate. Ghent is
+the capital of the textile industry, and all the towns of Flanders are
+actively engaged in producing woollen and cotton materials and in lace
+manufacture. The bulk of the population is, however, engaged in
+agriculture, and the extent of land under cultivation of all kinds is
+about 6½ million acres.
+
+_Commerce._--The trade returns for 1904 were as follows:--
+
+    _Imports--_
+  General Commerce                                 4,426,400,000 francs
+  Special Commerce (included in General Commerce)  2,782,200,000    "
+
+    _Exports--_
+  General Commerce                                 3,849,100,000    "
+  Special Commerce (included in General Commerce)  2,183,300,000    "
+
+The general commerce includes goods in transit across Belgium, the
+special commerce takes into account only the produce and the consumption
+of Belgium itself. The trade of Belgium has more than trebled as regards
+both imports and exports since 1870. The following table shows the
+amount of exports and imports between Belgium and the more important
+foreign states:--
+
+
+  +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |               |      Imports.      |      Exports.      |
+  +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  | France        | 465,684,000 francs | 346,670,000 francs |
+  | Germany       | 351,025,000   "    | 505,473,000   "    |
+  | England       | 335,404,000   "    | 392,324,000   "    |
+  | Holland       | 240,873,000   "    | 268,781,000   "    |
+  | United States | 222,301,000   "    |  86,324,000   "    |
+  | Russia        | 212,119,000   "    |  26,671,000   "    |
+  | Argentina     | 198,913,000   "    |  41,508,000   "    |
+  | British India | 141,669,000   "    |  25,860,000   "    |
+  | Rumania       | 102,174,000   "    |   3,949,000   "    |
+  | Australia     |  58,190,000   "    |  12,087,000   "    |
+  | Congo State   |  53,100,000   "    |  14,049,000   "    |
+  | China         |   8,770,000   "    |  25,546,000   "    |
+  +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+
+In the relative magnitude of the annual value of its commerce, excluding
+that in transit, Belgium stands sixth among the nations of the world,
+following Great Britain, the United States, Germany, France and Holland.
+The principal imports are food supplies and raw material such as cotton,
+wool, silk, flax, hemp and jute. Among minerals, iron ore, sulphur,
+copper, coal, tin, lead and diamonds are the most imported. The exports
+of greatest value are textiles, lace, coal, coke, briquettes, glass,
+machinery, railway material and fire arms.
+
+_Shipping and Navigation._--Belgium has no state navy, although various
+proposals have been made from time to time to establish an armed
+flotilla in connexion with the defence of Antwerp. The state, however,
+possesses a certain number of steamers. In 1904 they numbered sixty-five
+of 99,893 tons. These steamers are chiefly employed on the passenger
+route between Ostend and Dover. The total number of vessels entering the
+only two ports of Belgium which carry on ocean commerce, namely Antwerp
+and Ostend, in 1904 was 7650 of a tonnage of 10,330,127. Among inland
+ports that of Ghent is the most important, 1127 ships of a tonnage of
+786,362 having entered the port in 1904. The corresponding figures for
+ships sailing from the two ports first named were in the same year 7642
+and tonnage 10,298,405. The figures from Ghent were 1128 and 787,173
+tons. Whereas the lines of steamers from Ostend are chiefly with Dover
+and London, those from Antwerp proceed to all parts of the world. A
+steam service was established in 1906 from Hull to Bruges by Zeebrugge
+and the ship canal.
+
+_Internal Communications._--The internal communications of Belgium of
+every kind are excellent. The roads outside the province of Luxemburg
+and Namur are generally paved. In the provinces named, or in other
+words, in the region south of the Meuse, the roads are macadamized. The
+total length of roads is about 6000 m. When Belgium became a separate
+state in 1830 they were less than one-third of this total. There are
+about 2900 m. of railways, of which upwards of 2500 m. are state
+railways. It is of interest to note that the state railways derived a
+revenue of 249,355 francs (or nearly £10,000) from the penny tickets for
+the admission of non-travellers to railway stations. Besides the main
+railways there are numerous light railways (_chemins de fer vicinaux_),
+of a total length approaching 2500 m. There are also electric and steam
+tramways in all the principal cities. The total of navigable waterways
+is given as 1360 m. Posts, telegraphs and telephones are exclusively
+under state management and form a government department.
+
+_Banks and Money._--The principal banking institution is the Banque
+Nationale which issues the bank-notes in current use. In 1904 the
+average value of notes in circulation was 645,989,100 francs. The rate
+of discount was 3% throughout the whole of the year.
+
+The mintage of Belgian money is carried out by a _directeur de la
+fabrication_ who is nominated by and responsible to the government. The
+gold coins are for 10 and 20 francs, silver for half francs, francs, 2
+francs and 5 francs. Nickel money is for 5, 10 and 20 centimes, and the
+copper coinage has been withdrawn from circulation.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Annuaire statistique de la Belgique_ (1905); Beltjens
+  and Godenne, _La Constitution belge_ (Brussels, 1880); _La Belgique
+  illustrée_ (Brussels, 1878-1882); _Les Pandectes belges_ (Brussels,
+  1898); _Annales du parlement belge_ for each year; _Belgian Life in
+  Town and Country_, "Our Neighbours" Series (London, 1904). For geology
+  see C. Dewalque, _Prodrome d'une description géologique de la
+  Belgique_ (Brussels, 1880); M. Mourlon, _Géologie de la Belgique_
+  (Brussels, 1880-1881); F.L. Cornet and A. Briart, "Sur le relief du
+  sol en Belgique après les temps paléozoques," _Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg._
+  vol. iv., 1877, pp. 71-115, pls. v.-xi. (see also other papers by the
+  same authors in the same journal); J. Gosselet, _L'Ardenne_ (Paris,
+  1888); M. Bertrand, "Études sur le bassin houiller du nord et sur le
+  Boulonnais," _Ann. des mines_, ser. ix. vol. vi. (Mém.), pp. 569-635,
+  1894; C. Malaise, "État actuel de nos connaissances sur le silurien de
+  la Belgique," _Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg._ vol. xxv, 1900-1901, pp.
+  179-221; H. Forir, "Bibliographie des étages laekénien, lédien,
+  wemmélien, asschien, tongrien, rupélien et boldérien et des dépêts
+  tertiaires de la haute et moyenne Belgique," _ibid._ pp. 223 seq.
+       (D. C. B.)
+
+
+HISTORY[1]
+
+  Final separation of the northern and southern Netherlands.
+
+  Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, governor-general.
+
+  Successes of Parma.
+
+  Albert and Isabel, sovereigns of the Netherlands.
+
+  The twelve years' truce.
+
+  The rule of the archdukes.
+
+  Reversion of the southern Netherlands to Spain, 1633.
+
+The political severance of the northern and southern Netherlands may be
+conveniently dated from the opening of the year 1579. By the signing of
+the league of Arras (5th of January) the Walloon "Malcontents" declared
+their adherence to the cause of Catholicism and their loyalty to the
+Spanish king, and broke away definitely from the northern provinces, who
+bound themselves by the union of Utrecht (29th of January) to defend
+their rights and liberties, political and religious, against all foreign
+potentates. Brabant and Flanders were still indeed under the control of
+the prince of Orange and through his influence accepted in 1582 the duke
+of Anjou as their sovereign. The French prince was actually inaugurated
+duke of Brabant at Antwerp (February 1582) and count of Flanders at
+Bruges (July), but his misconduct speedily led to his withdrawal from
+the Netherlands, and even before the assassination of Orange (July 1584)
+the authority of Philip had been practically restored throughout the two
+provinces. This had been achieved by the military skill and
+statesmanlike abilities of Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, appointed
+governor-general on the death of Don John of Austria, on the 1st of
+October 1578. Farnese first won by promises and blandishments the
+confidence of the Walloons, always jealous of the predominance of the
+"Flemish" provinces, and then proceeded to make himself master of
+Brabant and Flanders by force of arms. In succession Ypres, Mechlin,
+Ghent, Brussels, and finally Antwerp (17th of August 1585) fell into his
+hands. Philip had in the southern Netherlands attained his object, and
+Belgium was henceforth Catholic and Spanish, but at the expense of its
+progress and prosperity. Thousands of its inhabitants, and those the
+most enterprising and intelligent, fled from the Inquisition, and made
+their homes in the Dutch republic or in England. All commerce and
+industry was at a standstill; grass grew in the streets of Bruges and
+Ghent; and the trade of Antwerp was transferred to Amsterdam. On Parma's
+death (3rd of December 1592) the archduke Ernest of Austria was
+appointed governor-general, but he died after a short tenure of office
+(20th of February 1595) and was at the beginning of 1596 succeeded by
+his younger brother the cardinal archduke Albert. Philip was now nearing
+his end, and in 1598 he gave his eldest daughter Isabel in marriage to
+her cousin the archduke Albert, and erected the Netherlands into a
+sovereign state under their joint rule. The advent of the new
+sovereigns, officially known as "the archdukes," though greeted with
+enthusiasm in the Belgic provinces, was looked upon with suspicion by
+the Dutch, who were as firmly resolved as ever to uphold their
+independence. The chief military event of the early years of their reign
+was the battle of Nieuport (2nd of July 1600), in which Maurice of
+Nassau defeated the archduke Albert, and the siege of Ostend, which
+after a three years' heroic defence was surrendered (20th of September
+1604) to the archduke's general, Spinola. The Dutch, however, being
+masters of the sea, kept the coast closely blockaded, and through sheer
+exhaustion the king of Spain and the archdukes were compelled to agree
+to a truce for twelve years (9th of April 1609) with the United
+Provinces "in the capacity of free states over which Albert and Isabel
+made no pretensions." During the period of the truce the archdukes, who
+were wise and statesmanlike rulers, did their utmost to restore
+prosperity to their country and to improve its internal condition.
+Unfortunately they were childless, and the instrument of cession of 1598
+provided that in case they should die without issue, the Netherlands
+should revert to the crown of Spain. This reversion actually took place.
+Albert died in 1621, just before the renewal of the war with the Dutch,
+and Isabel in 1633. The Belgic provinces therefore passed under the rule
+of Philip IV., and were henceforth known as the Spanish Netherlands.
+
+
+  Peace of Münster.
+
+  Ruinous consequences of the closing of the Scheldt.
+
+  Successive cession of Belgian territory to France.
+
+This connexion with the declining fortunes of Spain was disastrous to
+the well-being of the Belgian people, for during many years a close
+alliance bound together France and the United Provinces, and the
+Southern Netherlands were exposed to attack from both sides, and
+constantly suffered from the ravages of hostile armies. The cardinal
+archduke Ferdinand, governor-general from 1634-1641, was a capable
+ruler, and by his military skill prevented in a succession of campaigns
+the forces of the enemy from overrunning the country. On the 30th of
+January 1648, Spain concluded a separate peace at Münster with the
+Dutch, by which Philip IV. finally renounced all his claims and rights
+over the United Provinces, and made many concessions to them. Among
+these was the closing of the Scheldt to all ships, a clause which was
+ruinous to the commerce of the Belgic provinces, by cutting them off
+from their only access to the ocean. Thus they remained for a long
+course of years without a sea-port, and in the many wars that broke out
+between Spain and France were constantly exposed, as an outlying Spanish
+dependency, to the first attack, and peace when it came was usually
+purchased at the cost of some part of Belgian territory. By the treaty
+of the Pyrenees (1659) Artois (except St Omer and Aire) and a number of
+towns in Flanders, Hainaut, and Luxemburg were ceded to France.
+Subsequent French conquests, confirmed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(1668), took away Lille, Douai, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Coutrai and
+Tournai. These were, indeed, partly restored to Belgium by the peace of
+Nijmwegen (1679); but on the other hand it lost Valenciennes, Nieuport,
+St Omer, Ypres and Charlemont, which were only in part recovered by the
+peace of Ryswick (1697).
+
+
+  Efforts of the elector of Bavaria to promote trade.
+
+  The Spanish succession.
+
+  The Grand Alliance.
+
+The internal history of the Belgic provinces has little to record during
+this long period in which the ambition of Louis XIV. to possess himself
+of the Netherlands, in right of his wife the infanta Maria Theresa (see
+SPANISH SUCCESSION), led to a series of invasions and desolating wars.
+The French king managed to incorporate a large slice of territory upon
+his northern frontier, but his main object was baffled by the steady
+resistance and able statesmanship of William III. of England and
+Holland. Meanwhile from 1692 onwards brighter prospects were opened out
+to the unfortunate Belgians by the nomination by the Spanish king of
+Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, to be governor-general with
+well-nigh sovereign powers. The elector had himself a claim to the
+inheritance as the husband of an Austrian archduchess, whose mother, the
+infanta Margaret, was the younger sister of the French queen. Maximilian
+Emanuel was an able man, who did his utmost to improve the condition of
+the country. He attempted to promote trade and restore prosperity to the
+impoverished land by the introduction of new customs laws and other
+measures, and particularly by the construction of canals to counteract
+the damage done to Belgian commerce by the closing of the Scheldt. The
+position of the elector was greatly strengthened by the partition treaty
+of the 19th of August 1698. Under this instrument the signatory
+powers--England, France and Holland--agreed that on the demise of
+Charles II. the crown prince of Bavaria under his father's guardianship
+should be sovereign of Spain, Belgium and Spanish America. Charles II.
+himself shortly afterwards by will appointed the Bavarian prince heir to
+all his dominions. The death of the infant heir a few months later (6th
+of February 1699) unfortunately destroyed any prospects of a peaceable
+settlement of the Spanish Succession. Charles II. was persuaded to name
+as his sole successor, Philip duke of Anjou, the second son of the
+dauphin, and on his death (on the 1st November 1700) Louis XIV. took
+immediate steps to support his grandson's claims, in spite of his formal
+renunciation of such claims under the treaty of the Pyrenees. England
+and Holland were determined to prevent, however, at all costs the
+acquisition of Belgium by a French prince, and a coalition, known as the
+Grand Alliance, was formed between these two powers and the empire to
+uphold the claims of the archduke Charles, second son of the emperor.
+
+
+  Marlborough's successes.
+
+  Peace of Utrecht.
+
+  The Austrian Netherlands.
+
+  Marquis de Prié in Belgium.
+
+  Execution of Francis Anneesens.
+
+  Chartered Company of Ostend.
+
+One of the first steps of Louis was to take possession of the
+Netherlands. The hereditary feud between the houses of Austria and
+Bavaria induced the elector to take the side of France, and he was
+nominated by Philip V. vicar-general of the Netherlands. The unhappy
+Belgic provinces were again doomed for a number of years to be the
+battle-ground of the contending forces, and it was on Belgic soil that
+Marlborough won the great victories of Ramillies (1706) and of Oudenarde
+(1708), by which he was enabled to drive the French armies out of the
+Netherlands and to carry the war into French territory. At the general
+peace concluded at Utrecht (11th of April 1713) the long connexion
+between Belgium and Spain was severed, and this portion of the
+Burgundian inheritance of Charles V. placed under the sovereignty of the
+Habsburg claimant, who had, by the death of his brother, become the
+emperor Charles VI. The Belgic provinces now came for a full century to
+be known as the Austrian Netherlands. Yet such was the dread of France
+and the enfeebled state of the country that Holland retained the
+privilege, which had been conceded to her during the war, of garrisoning
+the principal fortresses or Barrier towns, on the French frontier, and
+her right to close the navigation on the Scheldt was again ratified by a
+European treaty. The beginnings of Austrian sovereignty were marked by
+many collisions between the representatives of the new rulers and the
+States General, and provincial "states." Despite their troubled history
+and long subjection, the Belgic provinces still retained to an unusual
+degree their local liberties and privileges, and more especially the
+right of not being taxed, except by the express consent of the states.
+The marquis de Prié, who (as deputy for Prince Eugene) was the imperial
+governor from 1719 to 1726, encountered on the part of local authorities
+and town gilds vigorous resistance to his attempt to rule the
+Netherlands as an Austrian dependency, and he was driven to take strong
+measures to assert his authority. He selected as his victim a powerful
+popular leader at Brussels, Francis Anneesens, syndic of the gild of St
+Nicholas, who was beheaded on the 19th of September 1719. His name is
+remembered in Belgian annals as a patriot martyr to the cause of
+liberty. The administration of de Prié was not, however, without its
+redeeming features. He endeavoured to create at Ostend a seaport,
+capable in some measure to take the place of Antwerp, and in 1722 a
+Chartered Company of Ostend was erected for the purpose of trading in
+the East and West Indies (see OSTEND). The determined hostility of the
+Dutch rendered the promising scheme futile, and after a precarious
+struggle for existence, Charles VI., in order to gain the assent of the
+United Provinces and Great Britain to the Pragmatic Sanction (q.v.),
+suppressed the Company in 1731.
+
+
+  Archduchess Mary Elizabeth.
+
+  Charles of Lorraine.
+
+For sixteen years (1725-1741) the archduchess Mary Elizabeth, sister of
+the emperor, filled the post of governor-general. Her rule was marked by
+the restoration of the old form of administration under the three
+councils, and was a period of general tranquillity. She died (1741) in
+the Netherlands, and the empress-queen, Maria Theresa, who had succeeded
+under the Pragmatic Sanction to the Burgundian domains of her father
+about a year before, appointed her brother-in-law, Charles of Lorraine,
+to be governor-general in her aunt's place, and he retained that post,
+to the great advantage of Belgium, for nearly forty years. He was
+deservedly known as the "Good Governor." The first years of his
+administration were stormy. During the Austrian War of Succession the
+country was conquered by the French, and for two years Marshal Saxe bore
+the title of governor-general, but it was restored to Austria by the
+peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Belgium was undisturbed by the Seven
+Years' War (1756-1763), and during the long peace which followed enjoyed
+considerable prosperity. Charles of Lorraine thoroughly identified
+himself with the best interests of the country, and was the champion of
+its liberties, and though he had at times to make a stand against the
+imperialistic tendencies of the chancellor Kaunitz, he was able to rely
+on the steady support of the empress, who appreciated the wise and
+liberal policy of her brother-in-law. Although the Scheldt was still
+closed, Charles endeavoured by a large extension of the canal system to
+facilitate commercial intercourse, he encouraged agriculture, and was
+successful in restoring the prosperity of the country. He also did much
+for the advancement of learning, founding, among other institutions,
+the Academy of Science, and he consistently restrained the undue
+intervention of the church in secular affairs, and placed restrictions
+upon the accumulation of property in the hands of religious bodies.
+
+
+  Reforming zeal of Joseph II.
+
+  The Brabancon revolt.
+
+The death of Charles of Lorraine preceded only by a few months that of
+Maria Theresa, whose son Joseph II. not only appointed his sister, the
+archduchess Maria Christine, governor-general, but visited Belgium in
+person and showed a great and active interest in its affairs. Here as
+elsewhere in his dominions his intentions were excellent, but his
+reforming zeal outran discretion, and his hasty and self-opinionated
+interferences with treaty rights and traditional privileges ended in
+provoking opposition and disaster. Finding the United Provinces hampered
+by a war with England, he seized the opportunity to try to get rid of
+the impediments placed upon Belgian development by the Barrier and other
+treaties with Holland. He was able to compel the Dutch to withdraw their
+garrisons from the Barrier towns, but was wholly unsuccessful in his
+high-handed attempt to free the navigation of the Scheldt. These efforts
+to coerce the Dutch, though marred by partial failure, were, however,
+calculated to win for Joseph II. popularity with his Belgian subjects;
+but it was far otherwise with his policy of internal reform. He offended
+the states by seeking to sweep away many of their inherited privileges
+and to change the time-honoured, if somewhat obsolete, system of civil
+government. He further excited the religious feelings of the people
+against him, by his edict of Tolerance (1780), and his later attempts at
+the reform of clerical abuses, which were pronounced to be an infraction
+of the Joyous Entry (see JOYEUSE ENTRÉE). Fierce opposition was aroused.
+Numbers of malcontents left the country and organized themselves as a
+military force in Holland. As the discontent became more general, the
+insurgents returned, took several forts, defeated the Austrians at
+Turnhout, and overran the country. On the 11th of December 1789, the
+people of Brussels rose against the Austrian garrison, and compelled it
+to capitulate, and, on the 27th, the states of Brabant declared their
+independence. The other provinces followed and, on the 11th of January
+1790, the whole formed themselves into an independent state, under the
+name of the "Belgian United States." A few weeks later, on the 20th of
+February, Joseph II. died, his end hastened by chagrin at the utter
+failure of his well-meant efforts, and was succeeded by Leopold II.
+
+
+  Leopold II. pacifies the country.
+
+  Conquest of Belgium by the French.
+
+  Union of Holland and Belgium under William I.
+
+The new emperor at once took steps to re-assert, if possible, his
+authority in Belgium without having recourse to armed force. He offered
+the states, if the people would return to their allegiance, the
+restoration of their ancient constitution and a general amnesty. This,
+however, did not suit views of the popular party, who, under the
+leadership of an advocate named Van der Noot, had possession of the
+reins of power, and were uplifted by their success. The terms offered in
+an imperial proclamation were rejected, and preparations were made to
+resist coercion by the _levée en masse_ of a national army. When,
+however, in November 1790, a powerful Austrian force entered the
+country, there was practically little opposition to its advance. The
+popular leaders fled, the form of government, as it existed at the end
+of the reign of Maria Theresa, and an amnesty for past offences was
+proclaimed; a superficial pacification of the revolted provinces was
+effected, and Austrian rule re-established. It was destined to be
+short-lived. In 1792 the armies of revolutionary France assailed Austria
+at her weakest point by an invasion of Belgium. The battle of Jemappes
+(7th of November) made the French masters of the southern portion of the
+Austrian Netherlands; the battle of Fleurus (26th of June 1794) put an
+end to the rule of the Habsburgs over the Belgic provinces. The treaty
+of Campo Formio (1797) and the subsequent treaty of Lunéville (1801)
+confirmed the conquerors in the possession of the country, and Belgium
+became an integral part of France, being governed on the same footing,
+receiving the _Code Napoléon_, and sharing in the fortunes of the
+Republic and the Empire. After the fall of Napoleon and the conclusion
+of the first peace of Paris (30th of May 1814) Belgium was indeed for
+some months placed under the administration of an Austrian
+governor-general, but it was shortly afterwards united with Holland to
+form the kingdom of the Netherlands. The sovereignty of the newly formed
+state was given to the prince of Orange, who mounted the throne (23rd of
+March 1815) under the title of William I. The congress of Vienna (31st
+of May 1815) determined the relations and fixed the boundaries of the
+kingdom; and the new constitution was promulgated on the 24th of August
+following, the king taking the oath at Brussels on the 27th of
+September.
+
+
+  1814-1830.
+
+  Causes of disagreement between Holland and Belgium.
+
+  Attitude of the king.
+
+  Language question.
+
+  Belgian prosperity during the union.
+
+From this date until the Belgian revolt of 1830, the history of Holland
+and Belgium is that of two portions of one political entity, but in the
+relations of those two portions were to be found from the very outset
+fundamental causes tending to disagreement and separation. The Dutch and
+Belgian provinces of the Netherlands had for one hundred and thirty
+years passed through totally different experiences, and had drifted
+farther and farther apart from one another in character, in habits, in
+ideas and above all in religion. In the south the policy of Alva and
+Philip II. had been wholly successful, and the Belgian people, Flemings
+and Walloons alike, were perhaps more devoted to the Catholic faith than
+any other in Europe. On the other hand the incorporation of the country
+for two decades in the French republic and empire had left deep traces
+on a considerable section of the population, the French language was
+commonly spoken and was exclusively used in the law courts and in all
+public proceedings, and French political theories had made many
+converts. The Fundamental Law promulgated by William I. aroused strong
+opposition among both the Catholic and Liberal parties in Belgium. The
+large powers granted to the king under the new constitution displeased
+the Liberals, who saw in its provision only a disguised form of personal
+government. The principle of liberty of worship and of the press, which
+it laid down, was so offensive to the Catholics that the bishops
+condemned it publicly, and in the Doctrinal Judgment actually forbade
+their flocks to take the oath. The "close and complete union," which was
+stipulated under the treaty of 1814, began under unfavourable auspices.
+Nevertheless the difficulties might have been smoothed away in the
+course of time, had the Belgians felt that the Dutch were treating them
+in a fair and conciliatory spirit. This, despite the undoubtedly good
+intentions of the king, was far from being the case. Belgium was
+regarded too much in the light of an annexed territory, handed over to
+Holland as compensation for the losses sustained by the Dutch in the
+revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. The idea that Holland was the
+predominant partner in the kingdom of the Netherlands was firmly rooted
+in the north and naturally provoked in the south the feeling that
+Belgium was being exploited for the benefit of the Dutch. The grievances
+of the Belgians were indeed very substantial. The seat of government was
+in Holland, the king was a Dutchman by birth and training, and a
+Calvinistic protestant by religion. Though the population of Belgium was
+3,400,000 and that of Holland only a little more than 2,000,000 the two
+countries had equal representation in the second chamber of the
+states-general. Practically in all important legislative measures
+affecting the interests of the two countries the Dutch government were
+able to command a small but permanent majority. The use of the term "the
+Dutch Government" is strictly accurate, for the great majority of the
+public offices were filled by northerners. In 1830, of the seven members
+of the ministry only one was a Belgian; in the home department out of
+117 officials 11 only were Belgians; in the ministry of war 3 were
+Belgians out of 102; of the officers of the army 288 out of 1967. All
+the public establishments, the Bank, the military schools, were Dutch.
+That such was the case must not be entirely charged to partiality, still
+less to deliberate unfairness on the part of William I. The conduct of
+the king proves that he had a most sincere regard for the welfare of his
+Belgian subjects, and in his choice of measures and men his aim was to
+secure the prosperity of his new kingdom by a policy of unification.
+This was the object he had in view in his attempt to make Dutch, except
+in the Walloon districts, the official language for all public and
+judicial acts, and a knowledge of Dutch a necessary qualification for
+every person entering the public service. That the fierce opposition
+which this attempt aroused in the Flemish-speaking provinces was
+ill-considered and unwise, is shown by the fact that in recent years
+there has been a patriotic movement in these same provinces which has
+been successful in forcing the Belgian government to adopt Flemish (i.e.
+Dutch) as well as French for official usage. This Flemish movement is
+all in favour of establishing close relations with the sister people of
+the north. Moreover it cannot be gainsaid that Belgium during her union
+with Holland enjoyed a degree of prosperity that was quite remarkable.
+The mineral wealth of the country was largely developed, the iron
+manufactures of Liége made rapid advance, the woollen manufactures of
+Verviers received a similar impulse, and many large establishments were
+formed at Ghent and other places, where cotton goods were produced which
+rivalled those of England and surpassed those of France. The extensive
+colonial and foreign trade of the Dutch furnished them with markets,
+while the opening of the navigation of the Scheldt raised Antwerp once
+more to a place of high commercial importance. The government also did
+much in the way of improving the internal communications of the country,
+in repairing the roads and canals, in forming new ones, in deepening and
+widening rivers, and the like. Nor was the social and intellectual
+improvement of the people by any means neglected. A new university was
+formed at Liége, normal schools for the instruction of teachers were
+instituted, and numerous elementary schools and schools for higher
+instruction were established over the country. These measures for the
+furthering of education among the people on the part of a government
+mainly composed of Protestants were received with suspicion and
+disfavour by the priests, and still more the attempts subsequently made
+to regulate the education of the priests themselves. The establishment
+under the auspices of the king in 1825 of the Philosophical College at
+Louvain, and the requirement that every priest before ordination should
+spend two years in study there, gave great offence to the clerical
+party, and some of the bishops were prosecuted for the violence of their
+denunciations at this intrusion of the secular arm into the religious
+domain. With the view of terminating these differences the king in 1827
+entered into a _concordat_ with the pope, and an agreement was reached
+with regard to nominations to bishoprics, clerical education and other
+questions, which should have satisfied all reasonable men. But in 1828
+the two extreme parties, the Catholic Ultramontanes and the
+revolutionary Liberals, in their common hatred to the Dutch régime,
+formed an alliance, the _union_, for the overthrow of the government.
+Petitions were sent in setting forth the Belgian grievances, demanding a
+separate administration for Belgium and a full concession of the
+liberties guaranteed by the constitution.
+
+
+  Brussels outbreak of 1830.
+
+Matters were in this state when the news of the success of the July
+revolution of 1830 at Paris reached Brussels, at this time a city of
+refuge for the intriguing and discontented of almost every country of
+Europe. The first outbreak took place on the 25th of August, the
+anniversary of the king's accession. An opera called _La Muette_, which
+abounds in appeals to liberty, was played, and the audience were so
+excited that they rushed out into the street crying, "Imitons les
+Parisiens!" A mob speedily gathered together, who proceeded to destroy
+or damage a number of public buildings and the private residences of
+unpopular officials. The troops were few in number and offered no
+opposition to the mob, but a burgher guard was enrolled among the
+influential and middle-class citizens for the protection of life and
+property. The intelligence of these events in the capital soon spread
+through the provinces; and in most of the large towns similar scenes
+were enacted, beginning with plunderings and outrages, followed by the
+institution of burgher guards for the maintenance of peace. The leading
+men of Brussels were most anxious not to push matters to extremities.
+They demanded the dismissal of the specially obnoxious minister, Van
+Maanen, and a separate administration for Belgium. The government,
+however, could not make up their minds what course to pursue, and by
+allowing things to drift ended by converting a popular riot into a
+national revolt. The heir apparent, the prince of Orange (see WILLIAM
+II. of the Netherlands), was sent on a peaceful mission to Brussels, but
+furnished with such limited powers, as under the circumstances were
+utterly inadequate. He did his best to get at the real facts, and after
+a number of conferences with the leaders became so convinced that
+nothing but a separate administration of the two countries would restore
+tranquillity that he promised to use his influence with his father to
+bring about that object--on receiving assurances that the personal union
+under the house of Orange would be maintained. The king summoned an
+extraordinary session of the states-general, which met at the Hague on
+the 13th of September and was opened by a speech from the throne, which
+was firm and temperate, but by no means definite. The proceedings were
+dilatory, and the attitude of the Dutch deputies exceedingly
+exasperating. The result was that the moderate party in Belgium quickly
+lost their influence, and those in favour of violent measures prevailed.
+Meanwhile although the states were still sitting at the Hague, an army
+of 14,000 troops under the command of Prince Frederick, second son of
+the king, was gradually approaching Brussels. It was hoped that the
+inhabitants would welcome the prince and that a display of armed force
+would speedily restore order. After much unnecessary delay, at a time
+when prompt action was required, the prince on the 23rd of September
+entered Brussels and, with little opposition, occupied the upper or
+court portion of it, but when they attempted to advance into the lower
+town the troops found the streets barricaded and defended by citizens in
+arms. Desultory fighting between the soldiers and the insurgents
+continued for three days until, finding that he was making no headway,
+the prince ordered a retreat. The news spread like wildfire through the
+country, and the principal towns declared for separation. A provisional
+government was formed at Brussels, which declared Belgium to be an
+independent state, and summoned a national congress to establish a
+system of government. King William now did his utmost to avoid a
+rupture, and sent the prince of Orange to Antwerp to promise that
+Belgium should have a separate administration; but it was too late.
+Antwerp was the only important place that remained in the hands of the
+Dutch, and the army on retreating from Brussels had fallen back on this
+town. At the end of October an insurgent army had arrived before the
+gates, which were opened by the populace to receive them, and the
+troops, under General Chassé, retired within the citadel. The general
+ordered a bombardment of the town for two days, destroying a number of
+houses and large quantities of merchandize. This act served still
+further to inflame the minds of the Belgians against the Dutch.
+
+
+  Meeting of the National Congress.
+
+  The new constitution.
+
+  Leopold I., king of the Belgians.
+
+A convention of the representatives of the five great powers met in
+London in the beginning of November, at the request of the king of the
+Netherlands, and both sides were brought to consent to a cessation of
+hostilities. On the 10th of November the National Congress, consisting
+of 200 deputies, met at Brussels and came to three important decisions:
+(1) the independence of the country--carried unanimously; (2) a
+constitutional hereditary monarchy--174 votes against 13; (3) the
+perpetual exclusion of the Orange-Nassau family--161 votes against 28.
+On the 20th of December the conference of London proclaimed the
+dissolution of the kingdom of the Netherlands, but claimed the right of
+regulating the conditions under which it should take place. On the 28th
+of January 1831, the congress proceeded to the election of a king, and
+out of a number of candidates the choice fell on the duke of Nemours,
+second son of Louis Philippe, but he declined the office. The congress
+then elected Baron Surlet de Chokier to the temporary post of regent,
+and proceeded to draw up a constitution on the British parliamentary
+pattern. The constitution expressly declared that the king has no powers
+except those formally assigned to him. Ministers were to be appointed by
+him, but be responsible to the chambers. The legislature was composed of
+two chambers--the senate and the chamber of deputies. Both chambers were
+elected by the same voters, but senators required a property
+qualification,--the payment of at least 2000 florins in taxes. Senators
+and deputies received salaries. The franchise was for that time a low
+one--every one who paid at least 20 florins in taxes had a vote. The
+choice of a king was more difficult than that of drawing up a
+constitution. It was desirable that the new sovereign should be able to
+count upon the friendly support of the great powers, and yet not be
+actually a member of their reigning dynasties. It was from fear of
+arousing the susceptibilities of neighbouring states, especially Great
+Britain, that Louis Philippe had refused to sanction the election of his
+son. It was for this reason that the name of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the
+widower of Princess Charlotte of England, had not been placed among the
+candidates in January. Overtures were, however, made to him, as soon as
+it was understood that, as the result of private negotiations at the
+London conference, the selection of this prince would be favourably
+received both by Great Britain and France. Leopold signified his
+readiness to accept the crown after having first ascertained that he
+would have the support of the great powers in bringing about a
+satisfactory settlement with Holland on those points which he considered
+essential to the security and welfare of the new kingdom. The election
+took place on the 4th of June, when 152 votes out of 196, four being
+absent, determined that Leopold should be proclaimed king of the
+Belgians, under the express condition that he "would accept the
+constitution and swear to maintain the national independence and
+territorial integrity." Leopold made his public entry into Brussels, on
+the 21st, and subsequently visited other parts of the kingdom, and was
+everywhere received with demonstrations of loyalty and respect.
+
+At this juncture news suddenly arrived that the Dutch were preparing to
+invade the country with a large army. It comprised 45,000 infantry and
+6000 cavalry with 72 pieces of artillery, while Leopold could scarcely
+bring forward 25,000 men to oppose it. On the 2nd of August the whole of
+the Dutch army had crossed the frontier; Leopold collected his forces,
+such as they were, near Louvain in order to cover his capital. The two
+armies met on the 9th of August. The undisciplined Belgians, despite the
+personal efforts of their king, were speedily routed, and Leopold and
+his staff narrowly escaped capture. He, however, made good his retreat
+to the capital, and, on the advance of a French army, the prince of
+Orange did not deem it prudent to push on farther. A convention was
+concluded between him and the French general, in consequence of which he
+returned to Holland and the French likewise recrossed the frontier.
+Leopold now proceeded with vigour to strengthen his position and to
+restore order and confidence. French officers were selected for the
+training and disciplining of the army, the civil list was arranged with
+economy and order, and reforms were introduced into the public service
+and system of administration. He kept on the best of terms, though a
+Protestant, with the Roman Catholic clergy and nobility, and his
+subsequent marriage with the daughter of the French king (9th of August
+1832), and the contract that the children of the marriage should be
+brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, did much to inspire confidence
+in his good intentions.
+
+
+  The treaty of separation.
+
+Meanwhile the conference in London had drawn up the project of a treaty
+for the separation of Holland and Belgium, which was declared "to be
+final and irrevocable." The conditions were far less favourable to
+Belgium than had been hoped, and it was not without much heart-burning
+and considerable opposition, that the senate and chamber of deputies
+gave their assent to them. The treaty, which contained 24 articles, was
+signed on the 15th of November 1831. By these articles the grand-duchy
+of Luxemburg was divided, but the king of Holland retained possession of
+the fortress of Luxemburg, and also received a portion of Limburg to
+compensate him for the part of Luxemburg assigned to Belgium. The
+district of Maestricht was likewise partitioned, but the fortress
+remained Dutch. The Scheldt was declared open to the commerce of both
+countries. The national debt was divided. The powers recognized the
+independence of Belgium, "as a neutral state."
+
+
+  The French besiege Antwerp.
+
+  The Luxemburg question.
+
+  Final settlement between Holland and Belgium.
+
+This agreement was ratified by the Belgian and French sovereigns on the
+20th and 24th of November, by the British on the 6th of December, but
+the Austrian and Prussian and Russian governments, whose sympathies were
+with the "legitimate" King William rather than with a prince who owed
+his crown to a revolution, did not give their ratification till some
+five months later. Even then King William remained obdurate, refused to
+sign and continued to keep possession of Antwerp. After fruitless
+efforts on the part of the great powers to obtain his acquiescence,
+France and Great Britain resolved to have recourse to force. On the 5th
+of November their combined fleets sailed for the coast of Holland, and,
+on the 18th, a French army of 60,000 men, under the command of Marshal
+Gérard, crossed the Belgian frontier to besiege Antwerp. The Dutch
+garrison capitulated on the 23rd of December, and on the 31st the town
+was handed over to the Belgians, and the French troops withdrew across
+the frontier. The Dutch, however, still held two forts, which enabled
+them to command the navigation of the Scheldt, and these they stubbornly
+refused to yield. Belgium therefore kept possession of Limburg and
+Luxemburg, except the fortress of Luxemburg, which as a fortress of the
+German confederation was, under the terms of the treaty of Vienna,
+garrisoned by Prussian troops. These territories were treated in every
+way as a part of Belgium, and sent representatives to the chambers.
+Great indignation was therefore felt at the idea of giving them up, when
+Holland (14th of March 1838) signified its readiness to accept the
+conditions of the treaty. The chambers argued that Belgium had been
+induced to agree to the twenty-four articles in 1832 in the hope of
+thereby at once terminating all harassing disputes, but as Holland
+refused then to accept them, the conditions were no longer binding and
+the circumstances were now quite changed. They urged that Luxemburg in
+fact formed an integral part of Belgium and that the people were totally
+opposed to a union with Holland. They offered to pay for the territory
+in dispute, but the treaty gave them no right of purchase, and the
+proposal was not entertained. Addresses were unanimously voted urging
+the king to resist separation, great excitement was aroused throughout
+the country and preparations were made for war. But the firmness of the
+allied powers and their determination to uphold the condtions of the
+treaty compelled the king most reluctantly to submit to the inevitable.
+The treaty was signed in London on the 19th of April 1839. It saddled
+Belgium with a portion of Holland's debt, and a severe financial crisis
+followed.
+
+
+  Struggle between the Catholics and Liberals.
+
+  Electoral reform.
+
+The Belgian revolution owed its success to the union of the Catholic and
+Liberal parties; and the king had been very careful to maintain the
+alliance between them. This continued to be the character of the
+government till 1840, but by degrees it had been growing more and more
+conservative, and was giving rise to dissatisfaction. A ministry was
+formed on more liberal principles, but it clashed with the Catholic
+aristocracy, who had the majority in the senate. A neutral ministry
+under M. Charles Nothomb was then formed. In 1842 it carried a new law
+of primary instruction, which aroused the dislike of the anti-clerical
+Liberals. The Nothomb ministry retired in 1845. In March 1846 the king
+formed a purely Catholic ministry, but it was fiercely attacked by the
+Liberals, who had for several years been steadily organizing. A congress
+was summoned to meet at Brussels (14th of June 1846) composed of
+delegates from the different Liberal associations throughout the
+country. Three hundred and twenty delegates met and drew up an Act of
+Federation and a programme of reforms. The election of 1847 gave a
+majority to the Liberals and a purely Liberal ministry was formed, and
+from this date onwards it has been the constitutional practice in
+Belgium to choose a homogeneous ministry from the party which possesses
+a working majority in the chamber. In 1848 a new electoral law was
+passed, which lowered the franchise to 20 florins' worth of property and
+doubled the number of electors. Hence it came to pass that Belgium
+passed safely through the crisis of the French revolution of 1848. The
+extreme democratic and socialistic party made with French aid some
+spasmodic efforts to stir up a revolutionary movement, but they met with
+no popular sympathy; the throne of Leopold stood firmly based upon the
+trust and respect of the Belgian nation for the wisdom and moderation of
+their king.
+
+The attention of the government was now largely directed to the
+stimulating of private industry and the carrying out of public works of
+great practical utility, such as the extension of railways and the
+opening up of other internal means of communication. Commercial treaties
+were also entered into with various countries with the view of providing
+additional outlets for industrial products. The king also sought as much
+as possible to remove from the domain of politics every irritating
+question, believing that a union of the different parties was most for
+the advantage of the state. In 1850 the question of middle-class
+education was settled. In 1852 the Liberal cabinet was overthrown and a
+ministry of conciliation was formed. A bill was passed authorizing the
+army to be raised to 100,000 men including reserve. The elections of
+1854 modified the parliamentary situation by increasing the strength of
+the Conservatives; the ministry resigned and a new one was formed, under
+Pierre de Decker, of moderate Catholics and Progressives. In 1857 the
+government of M. de Decker brought in a bill to establish "the liberty
+of charity," but in reality to place the administration of charities in
+the hands of the priesthood. This led to a violent agitation throughout
+the kingdom and the military had to be called out. Eventually the bill
+was withdrawn, the ministers resigned and a Liberal ministry was formed
+under M. Charles Rogier. In 1860 the communal _octrois_ or duties on
+articles of food brought into the towns was abolished; in 1863 the
+navigation of the Scheldt was made free, and a treaty of commerce
+established with England. The elections of July 1864 gave a majority to
+the Liberals, and M. Rogier continued in office.
+
+
+  Accession of Leopold II.
+
+On the 10th of December 1865, King Leopold died, after a reign of
+thirty-four years. He was greatly beloved by his people, and to him
+Belgium owed much, for in difficult circumstances and critical times he
+had managed its affairs with great tact and judgment. He was succeeded
+by his eldest son Leopold II., who was immediately proclaimed king and
+took the oath to the constitution on the 17th of December. On the
+outbreak of war between France and Germany in 1870, Belgium saw the
+difficulty and danger of her position, and lost no time in providing for
+contingencies. A large war credit was voted, the strength of the army
+was raised and strong bodies of troops were moved to the frontier. The
+feeling of danger to Belgium also caused great excitement in England.
+The British government declared its intention to maintain the integrity
+of Belgium in accordance with the treaty of 1839, and it induced the two
+belligerent powers to agree not to violate the neutrality of Belgian
+territory. A considerable portion of the French army routed at Sedan did
+indeed seek refuge across the frontier; but they laid down their arms
+according to convention, and were duly "interned."
+
+
+  The Flemish Movement.
+
+In 1870 the Liberal party, which had been in power for thirteen years,
+was overthrown by a union of the Catholics with a number of Liberal
+dissentients to whom the policy of the government had given offence, and
+a Catholic cabinet, at the head of which was Baron Jules Joseph
+d'Anethan, took office. At the election of August 1870, the Catholics
+obtained a majority in both chambers. They increased their power
+considerably by reducing the voting qualification for electors to
+provincial councils to 20 frs., and to communal councils to 10 frs., and
+also by recognizing the importance of what was styled "the Flemish
+Movement." Hitherto French had been the official language of the states.
+The use of Flemish in public documents, in judicial procedure and in
+official correspondence was hereafter required in the Flemish provinces,
+and Belgium became officially bi-lingual. It was, as has been already
+pointed out, a reversion to the policy of the Dutch king, which in 1830
+had been so strongly denounced by the leaders of the Belgian revolution,
+and its object was the same, i.e. to prevent _frenchification_ of a
+population that was Teutonic by race and speech. In 1871 M. Malou had
+become the head of a cabinet of moderate Catholics, and he retained
+office till 1878. This was the period of the struggle between the pope
+and the Italian government, and the German _Kulturkampf_. The Belgian
+Ultramontanes agitated strongly in favour of the re-establishment of the
+temporal power and against the policy of Bismarck. Though
+discountenanced by the ministry, the violence of the Ultra-clericals
+compassed its downfall. They passed a law adopting the ballot in 1877,
+but at the election of the following year a Liberal majority was
+returned.
+
+
+  School law of 1879.
+
+The new cabinet, under M. Frère-Orban, devoted itself solely to the
+settlement of the educational system. Hitherto since 1842 in all primary
+schools instruction by the clergy in the Catholic faith was obligatory,
+children belonging to other persuasions being dispensed from attendance.
+In 1879 a bill was passed for the secularization of primary education;
+but an attempt was made to conciliate the clergy by Art. 4, which
+enacted--"religious instruction is relegated to the care of families and
+the clergy of the various creeds. A place in the school may be put at
+their disposal where the children may receive religious instruction," at
+hours other than those set apart for regular education. The bill
+likewise provided for a rigorous inspection of the communal schools. The
+passing of this law was met by the clergy by uncompromising resistance.
+The bishops ordered that absolution be refused to teachers in the
+schools "sans Dieu," and to the parents who sent their children to them,
+and urged the establishment of private Catholic schools. All over
+Belgium the agitation spread, and the clergy, who were practically
+independent of state control, gained the victory. In November 1879 it
+was calculated that there were but 240,000 scholars in the secularized
+schools against 370,000 in the Catholic schools. In Flanders over 80% of
+the children attended the Catholic schools. The government appealed to
+the pope, but the Holy See declined to take any action, and so great was
+the embitterment that the Belgian minister at the Vatican and the papal
+nuncio at Brussels were recalled, and in 1880 the clergy refused to
+associate themselves with the fêtes of the national jubilee. In order to
+emerge victorious in such a struggle the Liberal party had need of all
+their strength, but a split took place between the sections known as the
+_doctrinaires_ and the _progressists_, on the question of an extension
+of the franchise, and at the election of 1884 the Catholics carried all
+before them at the polls. From 1884 up to the present time the clerical
+party have maintained their supremacy.
+
+
+  Social outbreak in 1886.
+
+  Agitation for a revision of the constitution.
+
+  The Nyssens compromise.
+
+A Catholic administration under M. Malou at once took in hand the
+schools question. A law was passed, despite violent protests from the
+Liberals, which enacted that the communes might maintain the private
+Catholic schools established since 1879 and suppress unsectarian schools
+at their pleasure. They might retain at least one unsectarian or adopt
+one Catholic school, where 25 heads of families demanded it. The state
+subsidized all the communal schools, Catholic and unsectarian alike.
+Under this law in all districts under clerical control the unsectarian
+schools were abolished. In October 1884, M. Beernaert replaced M. Malou
+as prime minister, and retained that post for the following ten years.
+He had in 1886 a troublous and dangerous situation to deal with.
+Socialism had become a political force in the land. Socialism of a
+German type had taken deep root among the working men of the Flemish
+towns, especially at Ghent and Brussels; socialism of a French
+revolutionary type among the Walloon miners and factory hands. On the
+18th of March 1886, a socialist rising suddenly burst out at Liége, on
+the occasion of the anniversary of the Paris Commune, and rapidly
+spread in other industrial centres of the Walloon districts. Thousands
+of workmen went on strike, demanding better wages and the suffrage. The
+ministry acted promptly and with vigour, the outbreak was suppressed by
+the employment of the military and order was restored. But as soon as
+this was accomplished the government opened a comprehensive enquiry into
+the causes of dissatisfaction, which served as the basis of numerous
+social laws, and led eventually to the establishment of universal
+suffrage and the substitution in Belgium of a democratic for a
+middle-class régime. It was not effected till several years had been
+spent in long parliamentary discussions, by demonstrations on the part
+of the supporters of franchise revision and by strikes of a political
+tendency. At last the senate and chamber declared, May 1892, that the
+time for a revision of certain articles of the constitution had come. As
+prescribed by the constitution, a dissolution took place and two new
+chambers were elected. The Catholics had a majority in both, but not
+enough to enable them to dispense with the assistance of the Liberals,
+the constitution requiring for every revision a two-thirds majority. The
+bills proposed for extending the franchise were all rejected (April 11th
+and 12th). Thereupon the council of the Labour party proclaimed a
+general strike. Fifty thousand workmen struck, in Brussels there were
+violent demonstrations, and the agitation assumed generally a dangerous
+aspect. Both the government and the opposition in the chambers saw that
+delay vas impossible, and that revision must be carried out. Agreement
+was reached by the acceptance of a compromise proposed by M. Albert
+Nyssens, Catholic deputy and professor of penal procedure and commercial
+law at the university of Louvain, and on the 18th of April the chamber
+adopted an electoral system until then unknown--_le suffrage universel
+plural_. The citizen in order to possess a vote for the election of
+representatives to the chambers was to be of a _minimum_ age of
+twenty-five years, and of thirty years for the election of senators and
+provincial and communal councillors. For the four categories of
+elections a supplementary vote was given to (a) citizens who having
+attained the age of thirty-five years, and being married or widowers
+with children, paid at least 5 f. income tax, and (b) to citizens of the
+age of twenty-five years possessing real estate to the value of 2000 f.
+or Belgian state securities yielding an income of at least 100 f. Two
+supplementary votes were bestowed upon citizens having certain
+educational certificates, or discharging functions or following
+professions implying their possession. This elaborate system was only
+carried into law after considerable and violent opposition in the
+sessions of 1894 and 1895. It was chiefly the work of the ministry of M.
+de Burlet, who succeeded to the place of M. Beernaert in March 1894.
+
+
+  Catholic majority of 1894.
+
+  Proportional representation.
+
+The composition of the elected bodies for the years 1894-1895 was:--for
+the chamber of representatives 1,354,891 electors with 2,085,605 votes,
+for the senate and provincial councils 1,148,433 electors with 1,856,838
+votes. The result of the first election in October 1894 was to give the
+Catholic party an overwhelming majority. The old Liberal party almost
+disappeared, while the Walloon provinces returned a number of
+Socialists. In February 1896 M. de Burlet, being in bad health,
+transferred the direction of the government to M. Smet de Naeyer. The
+election of 1894 had given the Liberals a much smaller number of seats
+than they ought to have had according to the number of votes they
+polled, and a cry arose for the establishment of proportional
+representation. Both sides felt that reform was again necessary, but the
+Catholic majority disagreed among themselves as to the form it should
+take. In 1899 M. Smet de Naeyer gave place as head of the ministry to M.
+van den Peereboom. But the proposals of the latter met with organized
+obstruction on the part of the Socialist deputies, and after a few
+months' tenure of office he gave way to M. Smet de Naeyer once more. The
+new cabinet at once (August 1899) introduced a bill giving complete
+proportional representation in parliamentary elections to all the
+arrondissements, and it was passed despite the defection of a number of
+Catholic deputies led by M. Woeste. The election in May 1900 resulted in
+the return of a substantial (though reduced) Catholic majority in both
+chambers.
+
+
+  Social legislation.
+
+During this period of Catholic ascendancy social legislation was not
+neglected. Among the enactments the following are the most
+important:--the institution of industrial and labour councils, composed
+of employers and employés, and of a superior council, formed of
+officials, workmen and employers (1887); laws assisting the erection of
+workmen's dwellings and supervising the labour of women and children
+(1889); laws for ameliorating the system of Friendly Societies (1890);
+laws regulating workshops (1896); conferring corporate rights on trades'
+unions (1898); guaranteeing the security and health of working men
+during hours of labour (1899). In 1900 laws were passed regulating the
+contract of labour, placing the workman on a footing of perfect equality
+with his employer, assuring the married woman free control of her
+savings, and organizing a system of old-age pensions. Primary education
+was dealt with in 1895 by a law, which made religious instruction
+obligatory, and extended state support to all schools that satisfied
+certain conditions. In 1899 there were in Belgium 6674 subsidized
+schools, having 775,000 scholars out of a total of 950,000 children of
+school age. Only 68,000 did not receive religious instruction. The
+Catholic party also strove to mitigate the principle of obligatory
+military service by encouraging the system of volunteering and by a
+reduction of the time of active service and of the number with the
+colours.
+
+
+  Politics in 1905.
+
+In 1905 the 75th anniversary of Belgian independence was celebrated, and
+there was a great manifestation of loyalty to King Leopold II. for the
+wisdom and prudence shown by him during his long reign. Owing to
+dissensions among the Catholic and Conservative party on the subject of
+military service and the fortification of Antwerp, their majority in the
+chamber in 1904 fell from 26 to 20, that in the senate from 16 to 12.
+The partial election in 1906 reduced the majority in the chamber to 12,
+while the partial election in 1908 brought the majority down to 8. The
+Smet de Naeyer ministry which had held office since 1900 was defeated in
+April 1907 in a debate on the mining law over the proposal concerning
+the length of the working day. A new cabinet was formed on the 2nd of
+May following under the presidency of M. de Trooz, who had been minister
+of the interior under M. Smet de Naeyer, and who retained that portfolio
+in conjunction with the premiership. M. de Trooz died on the 31st of
+December 1907, and was succeeded by M. Schollaert, president of the
+chamber. The count of Flanders, brother of the king, died on the 17th of
+November 1905, leaving his son Albert heir to the throne.
+
+
+  Belgium and the Congo.
+
+The Congo question had meanwhile become an acute one in Belgium. The
+personal interest taken by Leopold II. in the exploration and commercial
+development of the equatorial regions of Africa had led, in the creation
+of the Congo Free State, to results which had originally not been
+anticipated. The _Comité des Études du Haut Congo_, formed in 1878 at
+the instance of the king and mainly financed by him had developed into
+the International Association of the Congo, of which a Belgian officer,
+Colonel M. Strauch, was president. Through the efforts in Africa of H.M.
+Stanley a rudimentary state was created, and through the efforts of King
+Leopold in Europe the International Association was recognized during
+1884-1885 by the powers as an independent state. Declarations to this
+effect were exchanged between the Belgian government and the Association
+on the 23rd of February 1885. In April of the same year the Belgian
+chambers authorized the king to be the chief of the state founded by the
+Association, which had already taken the name of _État Indépendent du
+Congo_. The union between Belgium and the new state was declared to be
+purely personal, but its European headquarters were in Brussels, its
+officials, in the course of time, became almost exclusively Belgian, and
+financially and commercially the connexion between the two countries
+became increasingly close. In 1889 King Leopold announced that he had
+by his will bequeathed the Congo state to Belgium, and in 1890 the
+Belgian government, in return for financial help, acquired the right of
+annexing the country under certain conditions. At later dates definite
+proposals for immediate annexation were considered but not adopted, the
+king showing a strong disinclination to cede the state, while among the
+mass of the Belgians the disinclination to annex was equally strong. It
+was not until terrible reports as to the misgovernment of the Congo
+created a strong agitation for reform in Great Britain, America and
+other countries responsible for having aided in the creation of the
+state, that public opinion in Belgium seriously concerned itself with
+the subject. The result was that in November 1907 a new treaty of
+cession was presented to the Belgian chambers, while in March 1908 an
+additional act modified one of the most objectionable features of the
+treaty--a clause by which the king retained control of the revenue of a
+vast territory within the Congo which he had declared to be his private
+property. A colonial law, also submitted to the chambers, secured for
+Belgium in case of annexation complete parliamentary control over the
+Congo state, and the bill for annexation was finally passed in September
+1908.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Th. Juste, _Histoire de la Belgique_ (2 vols., 1853);
+  _La Révolution belge de 1830_ (2 vols., 1872); _Congrès national de
+  Belgique_ (2 vols., 1880); _Memoirs of Leopold I._ (2 vols., 1868); De
+  Gerlache, _Histoire du royaume des Pays-Bas_ (3 vols., 1859); D.C.
+  Boulger, _The History of Belgium_, part i. (1900); C. White, _The
+  Belgic Revolution of 1830_ (2 vols., 1835); Moke and Hubert, _Histoire
+  de Belgique_ (_jusque 1885_) (1892); L. Hymans, _Histoire
+  parlementaire de la Belgique_ (1830-1899); _Cinquante ans de liberté_
+  (4 vols., 1881); J.J. Thonissen _La Belgique sous le règne de Leopold
+  I^{er}_ (4 vols., 1855-1858); De Laveleye, _Le Parti clérical en
+  Belgique_ (1874); Vandervelde and Destree, _Le Socialisme belge_
+  (1898); C. Woeste, _Vingt ans de polémique_ (1890); Hamelius, _Le
+  Mouvement flamand_ (1894).     (G. E.)
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+Belgian literature, taken in the widest sense of the term, falls into
+three groups, consisting of works written respectively in Flemish,
+Walloon and French. The earlier Flemish authors are treated under DUTCH
+LITERATURE; the revival of Flemish Literature (q.v.) since the
+separation of Belgium from the Netherlands in 1830, and Walloon
+Literature (q.v.), are each separately noticed. The earlier French
+writers born on what is now Belgian territory--e.g. Adenès le Rois, Jean
+Froissart, Jean Lemaire des Belges and others--are included in the
+general history of French Literature (q.v.). It remains to consider the
+literature written by Belgians in French during the 19th century, and
+its rapid development since the revolution of 1831.
+
+Belgian writers were commonly charged with provincialism, but the
+prejudice against them has been destroyed by the brilliant writers of
+1870-1880. It was also asserted that Belgian French literature lacked a
+national basis, and was merely a reflection of Parisian models. The most
+important section of it, however, has a distinctive quality of its own.
+Many of its most distinguished exponents are Flemings by birth, and
+their writings reflect the characteristic Flemish scenery; they have the
+sensuousness, the colour and the realism of Flemish art; and on the
+other hand the tendency to mysticism, to abstraction, is far removed
+from the lucidity and definiteness associated with French literature
+properly so-called. This profoundly national character disengaged itself
+gradually, and has been more strikingly evident since 1870. The earlier
+writers of the century were content to follow French tradition.
+
+The events of 1830-1831 gave a great stimulus to Belgian letters, but
+the country possessed writers of considerable merit before that date.
+Adolphe Mathieu (1802-1876) belongs to the earlier half of the century,
+although the tenth and last volume of his _Oeuvres en vers_ was only
+printed in 1870. His later works show the influence of the Romantic
+revival. Auguste Clavareau (1787-1864), a mediocre poet, an imitator of
+the French and Dutch, produced some successful comedies, but he ceased
+to write plays before 1830. Édouard Smits (1789-1852) showed romantic
+tendencies in his tragedies of _Marie de Bourgogne_ (1823), _Elfrida_
+(1825), and _Jeanne de Flandre_ (1828). The first of these had a great
+success, partly no doubt because of its patriotic subject. For four
+years before 1830 André van Hasselt (q.v.) had been publishing his
+verses in the _Sentinelle des Pays-Bas_, and from 1829 onwards he was an
+ardent romanticist. A burst of literary and artistic activity followed
+the Revolution; and van Hasselt's house became a centre of poets,
+artists and musicians of the romantic school. The best work of the
+Belgian romanticists is in the rich and picturesque prose of the 16th
+century romance of Charles de Coster (see DE COSTER), and in the
+melancholy and semi-philosophical writings of the moralist Octave Pirmez
+(q.v.). The _Poésies_ (1841) and the _Chansons_ (1866) of Antoine Clesse
+(1816-1889), have been compared with the work of Béranger; and the
+Catholic party found a champion against the liberals and revolutionists
+in the satirical poet, Benoît Quinet (b. 1819). Among the famous
+dramatic pieces of this epoch was the _André Chénier_ (1843) of Édouard
+Wacken (1819-1861), who was a lyric rather than a dramatic poet; also
+the comedies of Louis Labarre (1810-1892) and of Henri Delmotte
+(1822-1884). Charles Potvin (1818-1902), a poet and a dramatist, is best
+known by a patriotic _Histoire des lettres en Belgique_, forming vol.
+iv. of the Belgian compilation, _Cinquante ans de liberté_ (1882), and
+by his essays in literary history. Eugène van Bemmel (1824-1880)
+established an excellent historical tradition in his _Histoire de la
+Belgique_ (1880), reproducing textually the original authorities, and
+also edited a Belgian Encyclopaedia (1873-1875), the _Patria Belgica_.
+Baron E.C. de Gerlache (1785-1871) wrote the history of the Netherlands
+from the ultramontane standpoint. The romanticists were attacked in an
+amusing satire, _Les Voyages et aventures de M. Alfred Nicolas_ (1835),
+by François Grandgagnage (1797-1877), who was a nationalist in the
+narrowest sense, and regarded the movement as an indefensible invasion
+of foreign ideas. The best of the novelists of this period, excluding
+Charles de Coster, was perhaps Estelle Ruelens (_née_ Crèvecoeur;
+1821-1878); she wrote under the pseudonym of "Caroline Gravière." Her
+tales were collected by the bibliophile "P.L. Jacob" (Paris, 1873-1874).
+
+The whole of this literature derived more or less from foreign sources,
+and, with the exception of Charles de Coster and Octave Pirmez, produced
+no striking figures. De Coster died in 1879, and Pirmez in 1883, and the
+new movement in Belgian literature dates from the banquet given in the
+latter year to Camille Lemonnier (q.v.) whose powerful personality did
+much to turn "Young Belgium" into a national channel. Lemonnier himself
+cannot be exclusively claimed by any of the conflicting schools of young
+writers. He was by turns naturalist, lyrist and symbolist; and it has
+been claimed that the germs of all the later developments in Belgian
+letters may be traced in his work. The quinquennial prize of literature
+had been refused to his _Un mâle_, and the younger generation of artists
+and men of letters gave him a banquet which was recognized as a protest
+against the official literature, represented by Louis Hymans
+(1829-1884), Gustave Frédérix (b. 1834), the literary critic of
+_L'Indépendance belge_, and others. The centres around which the young
+writers were grouped were two reviews, _L'Art moderne_ and _La Jeune
+Belgique_. _L'Art moderne_ was founded in 1882 by Edmond Picard, who had
+as his chief supporters Victor Arnould and Octave Maus. The first editor
+of _La Jeune Belgique_ was M. Warlomont (1860-1889), known under the
+pen-name of "Max Waller." This review, which owed much of its success to
+Waller's energy, defended the intense preoccupation of the new writers
+with questions of style, and became the depository of the Parnassian
+tradition in Belgium. It had among its early contributors Georges
+Eekhoud, Albert Giraud, Iwan Gilkin and Georges Rodenbach. Edmond Picard
+(b. 1836) was one of the foremost in the battle. He was well known as an
+advocate in Brussels, and made a considerable contribution to
+jurisprudence as the chief writer of the _Pandectes belges_ (1886-1890).
+His _Pro arte_ (1886) was a kind of literary code for the young Belgian
+writers. His novels, of which _La Forge Roussel_ (1881) is a good
+example, were succeeded in 1902-1903 by two plays, _Jéricho_ and
+_Fatigue de vivre_.
+
+Georges Eekhoud, born at Antwerp on the 27th of May 1854, was in some
+ways the most passionately Flemish of the whole group. He described the
+life of the peasants of his native Flanders with a bold realism, making
+himself the apologist of the vagabond and the outcast in a series of
+tragic stories:--_Kees Doorik_ (1883), _Kermesses_ (1883), _Nouvelles
+Kermesses_ (1887), _Le Cycle patibulaire_ (1892), _Mes Communions_
+(1895), _Escal Vigor_ (1899) and _La Faneuse d'amour_ (1900), &c.
+_Nouvelle Carthage_ (1888) deals with modern Antwerp. In 1892 he
+produced a striking book on English literature entitled _Au siécle de
+Shakespeare_, and has written French versions of Beaumont and Fletcher's
+_Philaster_ (1895) and of Marlow's _Edward II._ (1896).
+
+The earlier work of "Young Belgium" in poetry was experimental in
+character, and was marked by extravagances of style and a general
+exuberance which provoked much hostile criticism. The young writers of
+1870 to 1880 had not long to wait, however, for recognition both at home
+and in Paris, where many of them found hospitality in the pages of the
+_Mercure de France_ from 1890 onwards. They divided their allegiance
+between the leaders of the French Parnassus and the Symbolists.
+
+The most powerful of the Belgian poets, Émile Verhaeren (q.v.), is the
+most daring in his technical methods of expressing bizarre sensation,
+and has been called the "poet of paroxysm." His reputation extends far
+beyond the limits of his own country.
+
+Many of the Belgian poets adhere to the classical form. Albert Giraud
+(born at Louvain in 1860) was faithful to the Parnassian tradition in
+his _Pierrot lunaire_ (1884), _Pierrot narcisse_ (1891) and _Hors du
+siécle_ (1886). In the earlier works of Iwan Gilkin (born at Brussels in
+1858) the influence of Charles Baudelaire is predominant. He wrote
+_Damnation de l'artiste_ (1890), _Ténèbres_ (1892), _Stances dorées_
+(1893), _La Nuit_ (1897) and _Prométhée_ (1899). The poems of Valère
+Gille (born at Brussels in 1867), whose _Cithare_ was crowned by the
+French Academy in 1898, belong to the same group. Émile van Arenberghe
+(born at Louvain in 1854) is the author of some exquisite sonnets.
+Fernand Severin (b. 1867) in his _Poèmes ingénus_ (1900) aims at
+simplicity of form, and seems to have learnt the art of his musical
+verse direct from Racine. With Severin is closely associated Georges
+Marlow (b. 1872), author of _L'Âme en exil_ (1895).
+
+Georges Rodenbach (1855-1898) spent most of his life in Paris and was an
+intimate of Edmond de Goncourt. He produced some Parisian and purely
+imitative work; but the best part of his production is the outcome of a
+passionate idealism of the quiet Flemish towns in which he had passed
+his childhood and early youth. In his best known work, _Bruges la Morte_
+(1892), he explains that his aim is to evoke the town as a living being,
+associated with the moods of the spirit, counselling, dissuading from
+and prompting action.
+
+The most famous of all modern Belgian writers, Maurice Maeterlinck
+(q.v.), made his début in a Parisian journal, the _Pléiade_, in 1886. He
+succeeded more nearly than any of his predecessors in expressing or
+suggesting ideas and emotions which might have been supposed to be
+capable of translation only in terms of music. "The unconscious self, or
+rather the sub-conscious self," says Émile Verhaeren, "recognized in the
+verse and prose of Maeterlinck its language or rather its stammering
+attempt at language." Maeterlinck was a native of Ghent, and the first
+poems of two of his fellow-townsmen also appeared in the _Pléiade_.
+These were Grégoire le Roy (b. 1862), author of _La Chanson d'un soir_
+(1886), and _Mon Coeur pleure d'autrefois_ (1889); and Charles van
+Lerberghe (b. 1861), author of a play, _Les Flaireurs_ (1890) and a
+collection of _Poèmes_ (1897).
+
+Max Elskamp (born at Antwerp in 1862) is the author of some volumes of
+religious poetry--_Dominical_ (1892), _Salutations, dont d'angéliques_
+(1893), _En symbole vers l'apostolat_ (1895)--for which he has devised
+as background an imaginary city. Eugène Demolder (b.1862) also created a
+mythical city as a setting for his prose _contes_ in the _Légende
+d'Yperdamme_ (1897).
+
+Belgian literary activity extends also to historical research. Baron
+Kervyn de Lettenhove (1817-1891) wrote a _Histoire de Flandre_ (7 vols.,
+1847-1855), and a number of monographs on separate points in Flemish and
+English history. Though an accurate historian, he allowed himself lo be
+prejudiced by his extreme Catholic views. He was a vehement defender of
+Mary Stuart. Louis Gachard (1800-1885) wrote many valuable works on 16th
+century history; Mgr. Namèche (1810-1893) completed the 29th volume of
+his _Cours d'histoire nationale_ before his death; Charles Piot (b.
+1812) edited the correspondence of Cardinal de Granvelle; Alphonse
+Wauters (1818-1898), archivist of Brussels, published many
+archaeological works; and Charles Rahlenbeck (1823-1903) wrote
+enthusiastically of the history of Protestantism in Belgium. One of the
+most masterly writers of French in Belgium was the economist Émile de
+Laveleye (q.v.). In aesthetics should be noted the historian of music,
+François Joseph Fétis (1784-1871); F.A. Gevaert (1828-1908), author of
+_Histoire et théorie de la musique d'antiquité_ (2 vols., 1875-1881);
+and Victor Mahillon (b. 1841) for his work in acoustics and his
+descriptive catalogue (1893-1900) of the museum of musical instruments
+belonging to the Brussels conservatoire. In psychology Joseph Delboeuf
+(1831-1896) enjoyed a great reputation outside Belgium; Elisée Reclus
+(b. 1830), though a Frenchman by birth, completed his _Géographie
+universelle_ (1875-1894) in exile at Brussels; and Ernest Nys has
+written many standard works on international law. In the history of
+literature an important work is compiled by Ferdinand van der Haeghen
+and others in the _Bibliotheca Belgica_ (1880, &c.), comprising a
+description of all the books printed in the Netherlands in the 15th and
+16th centuries. The vicomte de Spoelberch de Lovenjoul (1836-1907) was
+well known in France as the author of _Sainte-Beuve inconnu_ (1901), _La
+Genèse d'un roman de Balzac_ (1901), _Une Page perdue de H. de Balzac_
+(1903), and of numerous bibliographical works.
+
+  See F.V. Goethals, _Histoire des lettres, des sciences et des arts en
+  Belgique_ (4 vols., 1840-1844); Fr. Masoin, _Histoire de la
+  littèrature française en Belgique de 1815 à 1830_ (1903); F. Nautet,
+  _Histoire des lettres belges d'expression française_ (3 vols., 1892 et
+  seq.), written from the point of view of young Belgium, and by no
+  means impartial; A. de Koninck, _Bibliographie nationale_ brought down
+  to 1880; _Biographie nationale de Belgique_ (1866, &c.) in progress;
+  see also articles by Émile Verhaeren in the _Revue des revues_ (15th
+  June 1896), by Albert Mockel in the _Revue encyclopédique_ (24th July
+  1897); a collection of criticisms chiefly on Belgian writers by Eugène
+  Gilbert, _France et Belgique; études litteraires_ (1905); Frédéric
+  Faber, _Histoire du théâtre français en Belgique_ (5 vols.,
+  1878-1880). An excellent anthology of Belgian poets was published by
+  K. Pol de Mont with the title of _Modernités_ (1898).     (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See for earlier history NETHERLANDS, FLANDERS, BRABANT, LIÉGE, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BELGRADE (Servian, _Biograd_ or _Beograd_, i.e. "White Castle"), the
+capital of Servia. Pop. (1900) 69,097. Belgrade occupies a triangular
+ridge or foreland, washed on the north-west by the Save, and on the
+north-east by the Danube; these rivers flowing respectively from the
+south-west and north-west. The sides of the triangle slope down abruptly
+towards the west, more gradually towards the east; at the base stands
+the cone of Avala Hill, the last outpost of the Rudnik Mountains, which
+extend far away to the south; and, at the apex, a cliff of Tertiary
+chalk, 200 ft. high, overlooks the confluence of the two rivers, the
+large, flat island of Veliki Voyn and several smaller islets. This cliff
+is crowned by the walls and towers of the citadel, once white, but now
+maroon with age, and, though useful as a prison and barracks, no longer
+of any military value. Behind the citadel, and along its _glacis_ on the
+southern side, are the gardens of Kalemegdan, commanding a famous view
+across the river; behind Kalemegdan comes Belgrade itself, a city of
+white houses, among which a few great public buildings, like the high
+school, national bank, national theatre and the so-called New Palace,
+stand forth prominently. The town was formerly divided into three parts,
+namely, the Old town, the Russian town (_Sava-Makhala_ or Save
+district), and the Turkish town (_Dorcol_, or Cross-road). A great
+change, however, took place in the course of the 19th century, and the
+old divisions are only partially applicable, while there has to be added
+the Tirazia, an important suburban extension along the line of the
+aqueduct or _Tirazi_. A few old Turkish houses, built of plaster, with
+red-tiled roofs, are left among the ill-paved and insanitary districts
+bordering upon the rivers, but as the royal residence, the seat of
+government, and the centre of the import trade, Belgrade was, after
+1869, rapidly transformed into a modern European town, with wide
+streets, electric tramways and electric lighting. Only the multitude of
+small gardens, planted with limes, acacias and lilacs, and the bright
+costumes of the Servian or Hungarian peasants, remain to distinguish it
+from a western capital. For a town of such importance, which is also the
+seat of the metropolitan of Servia, Belgrade has very few churches, and
+these are of a somewhat modest type. There were, in 1900, four Servian
+Orthodox churches, including the cathedral, one Roman Catholic chapel,
+one Evangelical chapel (German), two synagogues and one mosque. This
+last is kept up entirely at the expense of the Servian government.
+
+The highest educational establishments are to be found in Belgrade: the
+_Velika Shkola_ (a small university with three faculties), the military
+academy, the theological seminary, the high school for girls, a
+commercial academy, and several schools for secondary education on
+German models. A commercial tribunal, a court of appeal and the court of
+cassation are also in Belgrade. There is a fine monument to Prince
+Michael (1860-1868) who succeeded in removing the Turkish garrison from
+the Belgrade citadel and obtaining other Turkish fortresses in Servia by
+skilful diplomacy. There are also an interesting national museum, with
+Roman antiquities and numismatic collections, a national library with a
+wealth of old Servian MSS. among its 40,000 volumes, and a botanical
+garden, rich in specimens of the Balkan flora. To promote commerce there
+are a stock and produce exchange (_Berza_), a national bank, privileged
+to issue notes, and several other banking establishments. The insurance
+work is done by foreign companies.
+
+The bulk of the foreign trade of Servia passes through Belgrade, but the
+industrial output of the city itself is not large, owing to the scarcity
+both of labour and capital. The principal industries are brewing,
+iron-founding and the manufacture of cloth, boots, leather, cigarettes,
+matches, pottery, preserved meat and confectionery. The railway from
+Budapest to Constantinople crosses the Save by a fine bridge on the
+south-west, above the landing-place for steamers. Farther south is the
+park of _Topchider_, with an old Turkish kiosk built for Prince Milosh
+(1818-1839) in the beautifully laid-out grounds. In the adjoining forest
+of lime-trees, called _Koshutnyak_ or the "deer-park," Prince Michael
+was assassinated in 1868. Just opposite the citadel, in a north-westerly
+direction, half-an-hour by steamer across the Danube, lies the Hungarian
+town of Semlin. For administrative purposes, Belgrade forms a separate
+department of the kingdom.
+
+The first fortification of the rock, at the confluence of the Save and
+the Danube, was made by the Celts in the 3rd century B.C. They gave it
+the name of _Singidunum_, by which Belgrade was known until the 7th
+century A.D. The Romans took it from the Celts, and replaced their fort
+by a regular Roman _castrum_, placing in it a strong garrison. Roman
+bricks, dug up in the fortress, bear the inscription, _Legio IV. Flavia
+Felix_. From the 4th to the beginning of the 6th century A.D. it often
+changed its masters (Huns, Sarmatians, Goths, Gepids); then the emperor
+Justinian brought it once more under Roman rule and fortified and
+embellished it. Towards the end of the 8th century it was taken by the
+Franks of Charlemagne. In the 9th century it was captured by the
+Bulgarians, and held by them until the beginning of the 11th century,
+when the Byzantine emperor Basil II. reconquered it for the Greek
+empire. The Hungarians, under king Stephen, took it from the Greeks in
+1124. From that time it was constantly changing hands--Greeks,
+Bulgarians, Hungarians, replacing each other in turn. The city was
+considered to be the key of Hungary, and its possession was believed to
+secure possession of Servia, besides giving command of the traffic
+between the Upper and the Lower Danube. It has, in consequence, seen
+more battles under its walls than most fortresses in Europe. The Turks
+used to call it _Darol-i-Jehad_, "the home of wars for faith." During
+the 14th century it was in the hands of the Servian kings. The Servian
+prince George Brankovich ceded it to the Hungarians in 1427. The Turkish
+forces unsuccessfully besieged the city in 1444 and 1456, on which last
+occasion a glorious victory was obtained by the Christian garrison, led
+by the famous John Hunyady and the enthusiastic monk John Capistran. In
+1521 Sultan Suleiman took it from the Hungarians, and from that year it
+remained in Turkish possession until 1688, when the Austrians captured
+it, only to lose it again in 1690. In 1717 Prince Eugene of Savoy
+conquered it for Austria, which kept it until 1739, improving the
+fortifications and giving great impulse to the commercial development of
+the town. From 1739 to 1789 the Turks were again its masters, when, in
+that last year, the Austrians under General Laudon carried it by
+assault, only to lose it again in 1792. In 1807 the Servians, having
+risen for their independence, forced the Turkish garrison to capitulate,
+and became masters of Belgrade, which they kept until the end of
+September 1813, when they abandoned it to the Turks. Up to the year 1862
+not only was the fortress of Belgrade garrisoned by Turkish troops, but
+the Danubian slope of the town was inhabited by Turks, living under a
+special Turkish administration, while the modern part of the town (the
+plateau of the ridge and the western slope) was inhabited by Servians
+living under their own authorities. This dual government was a constant
+cause of friction between the Servians and the Turks, and on the
+occasion of one conflict between the two parties the Turkish commander
+of the fortress bombarded the Servian part of the town (June 1862). The
+indirect consequence of this incident was that in 1866, on the categoric
+demand of Prince Michael of Servia, and under the diplomatic pressure of
+the great powers, the sultan withdrew the Turkish garrison from the
+citadel and delivered it to the Servians.     (C. Mi.)
+
+
+
+
+BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN HAMILTON, 2ND BARON (1656-1708), was the
+eldest son of Robert Hamilton, Lord Presmennan (d. 1696), and was born
+on the 5th of July 1656. Having married Margaret, granddaughter of John
+Hamilton, 1st Baron Belhaven and Stenton, who had been made a peer by
+Charles I. in 1647, he succeeded to this title in 1679. In 1681 he was
+imprisoned for opposing the government and for speaking slightingly of
+James, duke of York, afterwards James II., in parliament, and in 1689 he
+was among those who asked William of Orange to undertake the government
+of Scotland. Belhaven was at the battle of Killiecrankie; he was a
+member of the Scottish privy council, and he was a director of the
+Scottish Trading Company, which was formed in 1695 and was responsible
+for the Darien expedition. He favoured the agitation for securing
+greater liberty for his country, an agitation which culminated in the
+passing of the Act of Security in 1705, and he greatly disliked the
+union of the parliaments, a speech which he delivered against this
+proposal in November 1706 attracting much notice and a certain amount of
+ridicule. Later he was imprisoned, ostensibly for favouring a projected
+French invasion, and he died in London on the 21st of June 1708.
+Belhaven is chiefly famous as an orator, and two of his speeches, one of
+them the famous one of November 1706, were printed by D. Defoe in an
+appendix to his _History of the Union_ (1786).
+
+Belhaven's son, John, who fought on the English side at Sheriffmuir,
+became the 3rd baron on his father's death. He was drowned in November
+1721, whilst proceeding to take up his duties as governor of Barbados,
+and was succeeded by his son John (d. 1764). After the death of John's
+brother James in 1777 the title was for a time dormant; then in 1799 the
+House of Lords declared that William Hamilton (1765-1814), a descendant
+of John Hamilton, the paternal great-grandfather of the 2nd baron, was
+entitled to the dignity. William, who became the 7th baron, was
+succeeded by his son Robert (1793-1868), who was created a peer of the
+United Kingdom as Baron Hamilton of Wishaw in 1831. He died without
+issue in December 1868, when the barony of Hamilton became extinct; in
+1875 the House of Lords declared that his cousin, James Hamilton
+(1822-1893) was rightfully Baron Belhaven and Stenton, and the title
+descended to his kinsman, Alexander Charles (b. 1840), the 10th baron.
+
+
+
+
+BELISARIUS (c. 505-565), one of the most famous generals of the later
+Roman empire, was born about A.D. 505, in "Germania," a district on the
+borders of Thrace and Macedonia. His name is supposed to be Slavonic. As
+a youth he served in the bodyguard of Justinian, who appointed him
+commander of the Eastern army. He won a signal victory over the Persians
+in 530, and successfully conducted a campaign against them, until
+forced, by the rashness of his soldiers, to join battle and suffer
+defeat in the following year. Recalled to Constantinople, he married
+Antonina, a clever, intriguing woman, and a favourite of the empress
+Theodora. During the sedition of the "green" and "blue" parties of the
+circus (known as the Nika sedition, 532) he did Justinian good service,
+effectually crushing the rebels who had proclaimed Hypatius emperor. In
+533 the command of the expedition against the Vandal kingdom in Africa,
+a perilous office, which the rest of the imperial generals shunned, was
+conferred on Belisarius. With 15,000 mercenaries, whom he had to train
+into Roman discipline, he took Carthage, defeated Gelimer the Vandal
+king, and carried him captive, in 534, to grace the first triumph
+witnessed in Constantinople. In reward for these services Belisarius was
+invested with the consular dignity, and medals were struck in his
+honour. At this time the Ostrogothic kingdom, founded in Italy by
+Theodoric the Great, was shaken by internal dissensions, of which
+Justinian resolved to avail himself. Accordingly, Belisarius invaded
+Sicily; and, after storming Naples and defending Rome for a year against
+almost the entire strength of the Goths in Italy, he concluded the war
+by the capture of Ravenna, and with it of the Gothic king Vitiges. So
+conspicuous were Belisarius's heroism and military skill that the
+Ostrogoths offered to acknowledge him emperor of the West. But his
+loyalty did not waver; he rejected the proposal and returned to
+Constantinople in 540. Next year he was sent to check the Persian king
+Chosroes (Anushirvan); but, thwarted by the turbulence of his troops, he
+achieved no decisive result. On his return to Constantinople he lived
+under a cloud for some time, but was pardoned through the influence Of
+Antonina with the empress. The Goths having meanwhile reconquered Italy,
+Belisarius was despatched with utterly inadequate forces to oppose them.
+Nevertheless, during five campaigns he held his enemies at bay, until he
+was removed from the command, and the conclusion of the war was
+entrusted to the eunuch Narses. Belisarius remained at Constantinople in
+tranquil retirement until 559, when an incursion of Bulgarian savages
+spread a panic through the metropolis, and men's eyes were once more
+turned towards the neglected veteran, who placed himself at the head of
+a mixed multitude of peasants and soldiers, and repelled the barbarians
+with his wonted courage and adroitness. But this, like his former
+victories, stimulated Justinian's envy. The saviour of his country was
+coldly received and left unrewarded by his suspicious sovereign. Shortly
+afterwards Belisarius was accused of complicity in a conspiracy against
+the emperor (562); his fortune was confiscated, and he was confined as a
+prisoner in his palace. He was liberated and restored to favour in 563,
+and died in 565.
+
+The fiction of Belisarius wandering as a blind beggar through the
+streets of Constantinople, which has been adopted by Marmontel in his
+_Bélisaire_, and by various painters and poets, is first heard of in the
+10th century. Gibbon justly calls Belisarius the Africanus of New Rome.
+He was merciful as a conqueror, stern as a disciplinarian, enterprising
+and wary as a general; while his courage, loyalty and forbearance seem
+to have been almost unsullied. He was the idol of his soldiers, a good
+tactician, but not a great strategist.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Procopius, _De Bellis_ and _Historia Arcana_ (best
+  edition by J. Haury, 1905, 1907); see Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_ (ed.
+  Bury, vol. 4); T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (vol. 4); J.B.
+  Bury, _Later Roman Empire_, vol. i.; Diehl, _Justinien_ (Paris, 1901).
+       (J. B. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BELIT (signifying the "lady," _par excellence_), in the Babylonian
+religion, the designation of the consort of Bel (q.v.). Her real name
+was Nin-lil, i.e. the "lady of power," if the explanation suggested in
+BEL for the second element is correct. She is also designated as
+Nin-Khar-sag, "Lady of the mountain," which name stands in some
+relationship to Im-Khar-sag, "storm mountain"--the name of the staged
+tower or sacred edifice to Bel at Nippur. As the consort of En-lil, the
+goddess Nin-lil or Belit belongs to Nippur and her titles as "ruler of
+heaven and earth," and "mother of the gods" are all due to her position
+as the wife of Bel. While recognized by a temple of her own in Nippur
+and honoured by rulers at various times by having votive offerings made
+in her honour and fortresses dedicated in her name, she, as all other
+goddesses in Babylonia and Assyria with the single exception of Ishtar,
+is overshadowed by her male consort. The title Belit was naturally
+transferred to the great mother-goddess Ishtar after the decline of the
+cult at Nippur, and we also find the consort of Marduk, known as
+Sarpanit, designated as Belit, for the sufficient reason that Marduk,
+after the rise of the city of Babylon as the seat of his cult, becomes
+the Bel or "lord" of later days. (M. Ja.)
+
+
+
+
+BELIZE, or BALIZE, the capital and principal seaport of British
+Honduras, on the Caribbean Sea, in 17° 29' N. and 88° 11' W. Pop. (1904)
+9969. Belize occupies both banks of the river Belize, at its mouth. Its
+houses are generally built of wood, with high roofs and wide verandahs
+shaded by cocoanut or cabbage palms. The principal buildings are the
+court house, in the centre of the town, government house, at the
+southern end, Fort George, towards the north, the British bank of
+Honduras, the hospital, the Roman Catholic convent, and the Wesleyan
+church, which is the largest and handsomest of all. Mangrove swamps
+surround the town and epidemics of cholera, yellow fever and other
+tropical diseases have been frequent; but the unhealthiness of the
+climate is mitigated to some extent by the high tides which cover the
+marshes, and the invigorating breezes which blow in from the sea. Belize
+is connected by telegraph and telephone with the other chief towns of
+British Honduras, but there is no railway, and communication even by
+road is defective. The exports are mahogany, rosewood, cedar, logwood
+and other cabinet-woods and dye-woods, with cocoanuts, sugar,
+sarsaparilla, tortoiseshell, deerskins, turtles and fruit, especially
+bananas. Breadstuffs, cotton fabrics and hardware are imported.
+
+Belize probably derives its name from the French _balise_, "a beacon,"
+as no doubt some signal or light was raised here for the guidance of the
+buccaneers who once infested this region. Local tradition connects the
+name with that of Wallis or Wallace, a Scottish buccaneer, who, in 1638,
+settled, with a party of logwood cutters, on St George's Cay, a small
+island off the town. In the 18th century the names Wallis and Belize
+were used interchangeably for the town, the river and the whole country.
+The history of Belize is inextricably bound up with that of the rest of
+British Honduras (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+BELJAME, ALEXANDRE (1842-1906), French writer, was born at
+Villiers-le-Bel, Seine-et-Oise, on the 26th of November 1842. He spent
+part of his childhood in England and was a frequent visitor in London.
+His lectures on English literature at the Sorbonne, where a chair was
+created expressly for him, did much to promote the study of English in
+France. In 1905-1906 he was Clark lecturer on English literature at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. He died at Domont (Seine-et-Oise) on the
+19th of September 1906. His best known book was a masterly study of the
+conditions of literary life in England in the 18th century illustrated
+by the lives of Dryden, Addison and Pope. This book, _Le Public et les
+hommes de lettres en Angleterre au XVIII^e siècle_ (1881), was crowned
+by the French Academy on the appearance of the second edition in 1897.
+He was a good Shakespearian scholar, and his editions of Macbeth,
+Othello and Julius Caesar also received an academic prize in 1902.
+
+
+
+
+BELKNAP, JEREMY (1744-1798), American author and clergyman, was born at
+Boston on the 4th of June 1744, and was educated at Harvard College,
+where he graduated in 1762. In 1767 he became minister of a
+Congregational church at Dover, New Hampshire, remaining there until
+1787, when he removed to Federal Street church, Boston. He is recognized
+as the founder of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and in 1792
+became an overseer of Harvard. He died at Boston on the 20th of June
+1798. Belknap's chief works are: _History of New Hampshire_ (1784-1792);
+_An Historical Account of those persons who have been distinguished in
+America_, generally known as _American Biography_ (1792-1794); _The
+Foresters_ (1792), &c.
+
+
+
+
+BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH (1820-1890), American soldier and politician, was
+born at Newburgh, N.Y., on the 22nd of September 1829. Entering the
+Union army in 1861, he took part in the battles of Shiloh, Corinth and
+Vicksburg, as major of the 15th Iowa volunteers. In the Atlanta campaign
+under Sherman he gained considerable distinction, rising successively to
+the rank of brigadier-general in 1864 and major-general in 1865. During
+the four years that followed he was collector of internal revenue for
+Iowa, leaving that post in 1869 to become secretary of war. In 1876, in
+consequence of unproved accusations of corruption, he resigned. He died
+at Washington, D.C., on the 13th of October 1890.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM (1847-   ), American inventor and physicist, son
+of Alexander Melville Bell, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 3rd
+of March 1847. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh and the
+university of London, and removed with his father to Canada in 1870. In
+1872 he became professor of vocal physiology in Boston University. In
+1876 he exhibited an apparatus embodying the results of his studies in
+the transmission of sound by electricity, and this invention, with
+improvements and modifications, constitutes the modern commercial
+telephone. He was the inventor also of the photophone, an instrument for
+transmitting sound by variations in a beam of light, and of phonographic
+apparatus. Later, he interested himself in the problem of mechanical
+flight. He published many scientific monographs, including a memoir on
+the formation of a deaf variety in the human race.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819-1905), American educationalist, was born
+at Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 1st of March 1819. He studied under and
+became the principal assistant of his father, Alexander Bell, an
+authority on phonetics and defective speech. From 1843 to 1865 he
+lectured on elocution at the university of Edinburgh, and from 1865 to
+1870 at the university of London. In 1868, and again in 1870 and 1871,
+he lectured in the Lowell Institute course in Boston. In 1870 he became
+a lecturer on philology at Queen's College, Kingston, Ontario; and in
+1881 he removed to Washington, D.C., where he devoted himself to the
+education of deaf mutes by the "visible speech" method of orthoepy, in
+which the alphabetical characters of his own invention were graphic
+diagrams of positions and motions of the organs of speech. He held high
+rank as an authority on physiological phonetics (q.v.) and was the
+author of numerous works on orthoepy, elocution and education, including
+_Steno-Phonography_ (1852); _Letters and Sounds_ (1858); _The Standard
+Elocutionist_ (1860); _Principles of Speech and Dictionary of Sounds_
+(1863); _Visible Speech: The Science of Universal Alphabetics_ (1867);
+_Sounds and their Relations_ (1881); _Lectures on Phonetics_ (1885); _A
+Popular Manual of Visible Speech and Vocal Physiology_ (1889); _World
+English: the Universal Language_ (1888); _The Science of Speech_ (1897);
+_The Fundamentals of Elocution_ (1899).
+
+  See John Hitz, _Alexander Melville Bell_ (Washington, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+BELL, ANDREW (1753-1832), British divine and educationalist, was born at
+St Andrews on the 27th of March 1753. He graduated at the university
+there, and afterwards spent some years as a tutor in Virginia, U.S.A. On
+his return he took orders, and in 1787 sailed for India, where he held
+eight army chaplaincies at the same time. In 1789 he became
+superintendent of the male orphan asylum at Madras, and having been
+obliged from scarcity of teachers to introduce the system of mutual
+tuition by the pupils, found the scheme answer so well that he became
+convinced of its universal applicability. In 1797, after his return to
+London, he published a small pamphlet explaining his views on education.
+Little public attention was drawn towards the "monitorial" plan till
+Joseph Lancaster (q.v.), the Quaker, opened a school in Southwark,
+conducting it in accordance with Bell's principles, and improving on his
+system. The success of the method, and the strong support given to
+Lancaster by the whole body of Nonconformists gave immense impetus to
+the movement. Similar schools were established in great numbers; and the
+members of the Church of England, becoming alarmed at the patronage of
+such schools resting entirely in the hands of dissenters, resolved to
+set up similar institutions in which their own principles should be
+inculcated. In 1807 Bell was called from his rectory of Swanage in
+Dorset to organize a system of schools in accordance with these views,
+and in 1811 became superintendent of the newly formed "National Society
+for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the
+Established Church." For his valuable services he was in some degree
+recompensed by his preferment to a prebend of Westminster, and to the
+mastership of Sherburn hospital, Durham. He tried, but without success,
+to plant his system in Scotland and on the continent. He died on the
+27th of January 1832, at Cheltenham, and was buried in Westminster
+Abbey. His great fortune was bequeathed almost entirely for educational
+purposes. Of the £120,000 given in trust to the provost of St Andrews,
+two city ministers and the professor of Greek in the university, half
+was devoted to the founding of the important school, called the Madras
+College, at St Andrews; £10,000 was left to each of the large cities,
+Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leith, Inverness and Aberdeen, for school purposes;
+and £10,000 was also given to the Royal Naval School.
+
+  Southey's _Life of Dr Bell_ (3 vols.) is very tedious; J.D.
+  Meiklejohn's _An Old Educational Reformer_ is concise and accurate.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774-1842), Scottish anatomist, was born at Edinburgh
+in November 1774, the youngest son of the Rev. William Bell, a clergyman
+of the Episcopal Church of Scotland; among his brothers were the
+anatomist, John Bell, and the jurist, G.J. Bell. After attending the
+high school and the university of Edinburgh, he embraced the profession
+of medicine, and devoted himself chiefly to the study of anatomy, under
+the direction of his brother John. His first work, entitled _A System of
+Dissections, explaining the anatomy of the human body, the manner of
+displaying the parts, and their varieties in disease_, was published in
+Edinburgh in 1798, while he was still a pupil, and for many years was
+considered to be a valuable guide to the student of practical anatomy.
+In 1802 he published a series of engravings of original drawings,
+showing the anatomy of the brain and nervous system. These drawings,
+which are remarkable for artistic skill and finish, were taken from
+dissections made by Bell for the lectures or demonstrations he gave on
+the nervous system as part of the course of anatomical instruction of
+his brother. In 1804 he wrote the third volume, containing the anatomy
+of the nervous system and of the organs of special sense, of _The
+Anatomy of the Human Body_, by John and Charles Bell. In November of the
+same year he migrated to London, and from that date, for nearly forty
+years, he kept up a regular correspondence with his brother George, much
+of which was published in the _Letters of Sir Charles Bell_, &c., 1870.
+The earlier letters of this correspondence show how rapidly he rose to
+distinction in a field where success was difficult, as it was already
+occupied by such men as John Abernethy, Sir Astley Cooper and Henry
+Cline. Before leaving Edinburgh, he had written his work on the _Anatomy
+of Expression_, which was published in London soon after his arrival and
+at once attracted attention. His practical knowledge of anatomy and his
+skill as an artist qualified him in an exceptional manner for such a
+work. The object of this treatise was to describe the arrangements by
+which the influence of the mind is propagated to the muscular frame, and
+to give a rational explanation of the muscular movements which usually
+accompany the various emotions and passions. One special feature was the
+importance attributed to the respiratory arrangements as a source of
+expression, and it was shown how the physician and surgeon might derive
+information regarding the nature and extent of important diseases by
+observing the expression of bodily suffering. This work, apart from its
+value to artists and psychologists, is of interest historically, as
+there is no doubt the investigations of the author into the nervous
+supply of the muscles of expression induced him to prosecute inquiries
+which led to his great discoveries in the physiology of the nervous
+system.
+
+In 1811 Bell published his _New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain_, in
+which he announced the discovery of the different functions of the
+nerves corresponding with their relations to different parts of the
+brain; his latest researches were described in _The Nervous System of
+the Human Body_ (1830), a collection of papers read by him before the
+Royal Society. He discovered that in the nervous trunks there are
+special sensory filaments, the office of which is to transmit
+impressions from the periphery of the body to the sensorium, and special
+motor filaments which convey motor impressions from the brain or other
+nerve centre to the muscles. He also showed that some nerves consist
+entirely of sensory filaments and are therefore sensory nerves, that
+others are composed of motor filaments and are therefore motor nerves,
+whilst a third variety contains both kinds of filaments and are
+therefore to be regarded as sensory-motor. Furthermore, he indicated
+that the brain and spinal cord may be divided into separate parts, each
+part having a special function--one part ministering to motion, the
+other to sensation, and that the origin of the nerves from one or other
+or both of those sources endows them with the peculiar property of the
+division whence they spring. He also demonstrated that no motor nerve
+ever passes through a ganglion. Lastly, he showed, both from theoretical
+considerations and from the result of actual experiment on the living
+animal, that the anterior roots of the spinal nerves are _motor_, while
+the posterior are _sensory_. These discoveries as a whole must be
+regarded as the greatest in physiology since that of the circulation of
+the blood by William Harvey. They were not only a distinct and definite
+advance in scientific knowledge, but from them flowed many practical
+results of much importance in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. It
+is not surprising that Bell should have viewed his results with
+exultation. On the 26th of November 1807, he wrote to his brother
+George:--"I have done a more interesting _nova anatomia cerebri humani_
+than it is possible to conceive. I lectured it yesterday. I prosecuted
+it last night till one o'clock; and I am sure it will be well received."
+On the 31st of the same month he wrote:--"I really think this new
+anatomy of the brain will strike more than the discovery of the
+lymphatics being absorbents."
+
+In 1807 he produced a _System of Comparative Surgery_, in which surgery
+is regarded almost wholly from an anatomical and operative point of
+view, and there is little or no mention of the use of medicinal
+substances. It placed him, however, in the highest rank of English
+writers on surgery. In 1809 he relinquished his professional work in
+London, and rendered meritorious services to the wounded from Coruña,
+who were brought to the Haslar hospital at Portsmouth. In 1810 he
+published a series of _Letters concerning the Diseases of the Urethra_,
+in which he treated of stricture from an anatomical and pathological
+point of view. In 1812 he was appointed surgeon to the Middlesex
+hospital, a post he retained for twenty-four years. He was also
+professor of anatomy, physiology and surgery to the College of Surgeons
+of London, and for many years teacher of anatomy in the school which
+used to exist in Great Windmill Street. In 1815 he went to Brussels to
+treat the wounded of the battle of Waterloo. In 1816, 1817 and 1818, he
+published a series of _Quarterly Reports of Cases in Surgery_; in 1821 a
+volume of coloured plates with descriptive letterpress, entitled
+_Illustrations of the great operations of Surgery, Trepan, Hernia,
+Amputation and Lithotomy_, and in 1824 _Observations on Injuries of the
+Spine and of the Thigh Bone_. On the formation of University College,
+Gower Street, he was for a short time head of the medical department. In
+1832 he wrote a paper for the Royal Society of London on the "Organs of
+the Human Voice," in which he gave many illustrations of the
+physiological action of these parts, and in 1833 a Bridgewater treatise,
+_The Hand: its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design_. Along
+with Lord Brougham he annotated and illustrated an edition of Paley's
+_Natural Theology_, published in 1836. The Royal Society of London
+awarded to him in 1829 the first annual medal of that year given by
+George IV. for discoveries in science; and when William IV. ascended the
+throne, Charles Bell received the honour of knighthood along with a few
+other men distinguished in science and literature.
+
+In 1836 the chair of surgery in the university of Edinburgh was offered
+to him. He was then one of the foremost scientific men in London, and he
+had a large surgical practice. But his opinion was "London is a place to
+live in, but not to die in"; and he accepted the appointment. In
+Edinburgh he did not earn great local professional success; and, it must
+be confessed, he was not appreciated as he deserved. But honours came
+thick upon him. On the continent of Europe he was spoken of as greater
+than Harvey. It is narrated that one day P.J. Roux, a celebrated French
+physiologist, dismissed his class without a lecture, saying "_C'est
+assez, messieurs, vous avez vu Charles Bell._" During his professorship
+he published the _Institutes of Surgery, arranged in the order of the
+lectures delivered in the university of Edinburgh_ (1838); and in 1841
+he wrote a volume of _Practical Essays_, two of which, "On Squinting,"
+and "On the action of purgatives," are of great value. He died at Hallow
+Park near Worcester on the 28th of April 1842.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843), Scottish jurist, was born at Edinburgh
+on the 20th of March 1770. He was an elder brother of Sir Charles Bell.
+At the age of eight he entered the high school, but he received no
+university education further than attending the lectures of A.F. Tytler,
+Dugald Stewart and Hume. He became a member of the Faculty of Advocates
+in 1791, and was one of the earliest and most attached friends of
+Francis Jeffrey. In 1804 he published a _Treatise on the Law of
+Bankruptcy_ in Scotland, which he subsequently enlarged and published in
+1826 under the title of _Commentaries on the Law of Scotland and on the
+principles of Mercantile Jurisprudence--_ an institutional work of the
+very highest excellence, which has had its value acknowledged by such
+eminent jurists as Joseph Story and James Kent. In 1821 Bell was elected
+professor of the law of Scotland in the university of Edinburgh; and in
+1831 he was appointed to one of the principal clerkships in the supreme
+court. He was placed at the head of a commission in 1833 to inquire into
+the Scottish bankruptcy law; and in consequence of the reports of the
+commissioners, chiefly drawn up by himself, many beneficial alterations
+were made. He died on the 23rd of September 1843. Bell's smaller
+treatise, _Principles of the Law of Scotland_, became a standard
+text-book for law students. The _Illustrations of the Principles_ is
+also a work of high value.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, HENRY (1767-1830), Scottish engineer, was born at Torphichen,
+Linlithgowshire, in 1767. Having received the ordinary education of a
+parish school, he was apprenticed to his uncle, a millwright, and, after
+qualifying himself as a ship-modeller at Bo'ness, went to London, where
+he found employment under John Rennie, the celebrated engineer.
+Returning to Scotland in 1790, he first settled as a carpenter at
+Glasgow and afterwards removed to Helensburgh, on the Firth of Clyde
+where he pursued his mechanical projects, and also found occasional
+employment as an engineer. In January 1812 he placed on the Clyde a
+steamboat (which he named the "Comet") of about 25 tons, propelled by an
+engine of three horse power, at a speed of 7 m. an hour. Although the
+honour of priority is admitted to belong to the American engineer Robert
+Fulton, there appears to be no doubt that Fulton had received very
+material assistance in the construction of his vessel from Bell and
+others in Great Britain. A handsome sum was raised for Bell by
+subscription among the citizens of Glasgow; and he also received from
+the trustees of the river Clyde a pension of £100 a year. He died at
+Helensburgh on the 14th of November 1830. A monument to his memory
+stands on the banks of the Clyde, at Dunglass, near Bowling.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874), a Scottish lawyer and man of letters,
+was born at Glasgow on the 8th of November 1803. He received his
+education at the Glasgow high school and at Edinburgh University. He
+became intimate with "Delta" Moir, James Hogg, John Wilson (Christopher
+North), and others of the brilliant staff of _Blackwood's Magazine_, to
+which he was drawn by his political sympathies. In 1828 he became editor
+of the _Edinburgh Literary Journal_, which was eventually incorporated
+in the _Edinburgh Weekly Chronicle_. He was admitted to the bar in
+1832. In 1839 he was appointed sheriff-substitute of Lanarkshire, and in
+1867 he succeeded Sir Archibald Alison in the post of sheriff-principal
+of the county, an office which he filled with distinguished success. In
+1831 he published _Summer and Winter Hours_, a volume of poems, of which
+the best known is that on Mary, queen of Scots. He further defended the
+cause of the unfortunate queen in a prose _Life_ (2 vols., 1828-1831).
+Among his other works may be mentioned a preface which he wrote to Bell
+and Bains's edition (1865) of the works of Shakespeare, and _Romances
+and Minor Poems_ (1866). He figures in the society of the _Noctes
+Ambrosianae_ as "Tallboys." He died on the 7th of January 1874.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, JACOB (1810-1859), British pharmaceutical chemist, was born in
+London on the 5th of March 1810. On the completion of his education, he
+joined his father in business as a chemist in Oxford Street, and at the
+same time attended the chemistry lectures at the Royal Institution, and
+those on medicine at King's College. Always keenly alive to the
+interests of chemists in general, Bell conceived the idea of a society
+which should at once protect the interests of the trade, and improve its
+status, and at a public meeting held on the 15th of April 1841, it was
+resolved to found the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Bell
+carried his scheme through in the face of many difficulties, and further
+advanced the cause of pharmacy by establishing the _Pharmaceutical
+Journal_, and superintending its publication for eighteen years. The
+Pharmaceutical Society was incorporated by royal charter in 1843. One of
+the first abuses to engage the attention of the new body was the
+practice of pharmacy by unqualified persons, and in 1845 Bell drew up
+the draft of a bill to deal with the matter, one of the provisions of
+which was the recognition of the Pharmaceutical Society as the governing
+body in all questions connected with pharmacy. For some time after this
+the question of pharmaceutical legislation was widely discussed. In 1850
+Bell successfully contested the borough of St Albans in order that he
+might be able to advocate his proposals for reform more effectually in
+parliament. In 1851 he brought forward a bill embodying these proposals.
+It passed its second reading, but was considerably whittled down in
+committee, and when eventually it became law it only partially
+represented its sponsor's intentions. Bell was the author of an
+_Historical Sketch of the Progress of Pharmacy in Great Britain_. He
+died on the 12th of June 1859.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, JOHN (1691-1780), Scottish traveller, was born at Antermony in
+Scotland in 1691, and educated for the medical profession, in which he
+took the degree of M.D. In 1714 he set out for St Petersburg, where,
+through the introduction of a countryman, he was nominated medical
+attendant to Valensky, recently appointed to the Persian embassy, with
+whom he travelled from 1715 to 1718. The next four years he spent in an
+embassy to China, passing through Siberia and the great Tatar deserts.
+He had scarcely rested from this last journey when he was summoned to
+attend Peter the Great in his perilous expedition to Derbend and the
+Caspian Gates. The narrative of this journey he enriched with
+interesting particulars of the public and private life of that
+remarkable prince. In 1738 he was sent by the Russian government on a
+mission to Constantinople, to which, accompanied by a single attendant
+who spoke Turkish, he proceeded in the midst of winter and all the
+horrors of war, returning in May to St Petersburg. It appears that after
+this he was for several years established as a merchant at
+Constantinople, where he married in 1746. In the following year he
+retired to his estate of Antermony, where he spent the remainder of his
+life. He died in 1780. His travels, published at Glasgow in 1763, were
+speedily translated into French, and widely circulated in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, JOHN (1763-1820), Scottish anatomist and surgeon, an elder brother
+of Sir Charles Bell, was born at Edinburgh on the 12th of May 1763.
+After completing his professional education at Edinburgh, he carried on
+from 1790 in Surgeons' Square an anatomical lecture-theatre, where, in
+spite of much opposition, due partly to the unconservative character of
+his teaching, he attracted large audiences by his lectures, in which he
+was for a time assisted by his younger brother Charles. In 1793-1795 he
+published _Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds_, and in 1800 he
+became involved in an unfortunate controversy with James Gregory
+(1753-1821), the professor of medicine at Edinburgh. Gregory in 1800
+attacked the system whereby the fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons
+of Edinburgh acted in rotation as surgeons at the Royal Infirmary, with
+the result that the younger fellows were excluded. Bell, who was among
+the number, composed an _Answer for the Junior Members_ (1800), and ten
+years later published a collection of _Letters on Professional Character
+and Manners_, which he had addressed to Gregory. After his exclusion
+from the infirmary he ceased to lecture and devoted himself to study and
+practice. In 1816 he was injured by a fall from his horse and in the
+following year went to Italy for the benefit of his health. He died at
+Rome on the 15th of April 1820. His works also included _Principles of
+Surgery_ (1801), _Anatomy of the Human Body_, which went through several
+editions and was translated into German, and _Observations on Italy_,
+published by his widow in 1825.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, JOHN (1797-1869), American political leader, was born near
+Nashville, Tennessee, on the 15th of February 1797. He graduated at the
+university of Nashville in 1814, and in 1817 was elected to the state
+senate, but retiring after one term, he devoted himself for ten years to
+the study and the practice of the law. From 1827 until 1841 he was a
+member of the national House of Representatives, of which from June 1834
+to March 1835 he was the speaker, and in which he was conspicuous as a
+debater and a conservative leader. Though he entered political life as a
+Democrat, he became estranged from his party's leader, President
+Jackson, also a Tennessean, and after 1835 was one of the leaders of the
+Whig party in the South. In March 1841 he became the secretary of war in
+President Harrison's cabinet, but in September, after the death of
+Harrison and the rupture between the Whig leaders and President Tyler,
+he resigned this position. From 1847 until 1859 he was a member of the
+United States Senate, and attracted attention by his ability in debate
+and his political independence, being one of two Southern senators to
+vote against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854 and against the admission
+of Kansas with the Lecompton or pro-slavery constitution in 1858.
+Strongly conservative by temperament and devoted to the Union, he
+ardently desired to prevent the threatened secession of the Southern
+states in 1860, and was the candidate, for the presidency, of the
+Constitutional Union Party, often called from the names of its
+candidates for the presidency and the vice-presidency (Edward Everett)
+the "Bell and Everett Party," which was made up largely of former Whigs
+and Southern "Know-Nothings," opposed sectionalism, and strove to
+prevent the disruption of the union. The party adopted no platform, and
+discarding all other issues, resolved that "it is both the part of
+patriotism and of duty to recognize no political principle other than
+the constitution of the country, the union of the states, and the
+enforcement of the laws." Bell was defeated, but received a popular vote
+of 587,830 (mostly cast in the Southern states), and obtained the
+electoral votes of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee--39 altogether, out
+of a total of 303. Bell tried earnestly to prevent the secession of his
+own state, but after the issue of President Lincoln's proclamation of
+the 15th of April 1861 calling on the various states for volunteers, his
+efforts were unavailing, and when Tennessee joined the Confederacy Bell
+"went with his state." He took no part in the Civil War, and died on the
+10th of September 1869.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867), Irish man of letters, was born at Cork on the
+16th of January 1800. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where
+he was one of the founders of the Dublin Historical Society. In 1828 he
+settled in London, where he edited a weekly paper, the _Atlas_, and
+until 1841 was engaged in journalism; and afterwards in miscellaneous
+literary work. He died on the 12th of April 1867. His most important
+work is his annotated edition of the _English Poets_ (24 vols.,
+1854-1857; new ed., 29 vols., 1866), the works of each poet being
+prefaced by a memoir. For Lardner's _Cabinet Cyclopaedia_ he wrote:
+_History of Russia_ (3 vols., 1836-1838); _Lives of English Poets_ (2
+vols., 1839); a continuation, with W. Wallace, of Sir James
+Mackintosh's _History of England_ (vols. iv.-x., 1830-1840); and the
+fifth volume (1840) of the _Lives of the British Admirals_, begun by R.
+Southey. He was a director of the Royal Literary Fund, and well known
+for his open-hearted generosity to fellow men of letters.
+
+
+
+
+BELL a hollow metallic vessel used for making a more or less loud noise
+(A.S. _bellan_, to bellow; Mid. Eng. "to bell"; cf. "As loud as belleth,
+winde in helle," in Chaucer, _House of Fame_, iii. 713). Bells are
+usually cup-like in shape, and are constructed so as to give one
+fundamental note when struck. The term does not strictly include gongs,
+cymbals, metal plates, resonant bars of metal or wood, or tinkling
+ornaments, such as e.g. the "bells" upon the Jewish high priest's dress
+(Exodus xxviii. 32); nor is it necessary here to deal with the common
+useful varieties of sheep or cow bells, or bells on sledges or harness.
+For house bells see the end of this article. A "diving-bell" (see
+DIVERS) is only so called from the analogy of its shape.
+
+The main interest of bells and bell-ringing has reference to church or
+tower bells, their history, construction and uses.
+
+_Early Bells._--Of bells before the Christian era there is no
+trustworthy evidence. The instruments which summoned the Romans to
+public baths or processions, or that which Lucian (A.D. 180) describes
+as set in motion by a water-clock (_clepsydra_) to measure time, were
+probably cymbals or resonant plates of metal, like the timbrels
+(_corybantia aera_, Virg. _Aen._ iii. 111) used in the worship of
+Cybele, or the Egyptian _sistrum_, which seems to have been a sort of
+rattle. The earliest Latin word for a bell (_campana_) is late Latin of
+the 4th or 5th century A.D.; and the first application of bells to
+churches has been ascribed to Paulinus, bishop of Nola in Campania about
+A.D. 400. There is, however, no confirmation of this story, which may
+have arisen from the words _campana_ and _nola_ (a small bell); and in a
+letter from Paulinus to the emperor Severus, describing very fully the
+decoration of his church, the bishop makes no mention of bells. It has
+been maintained with somewhat more reason that Pope Sabinianus (604)
+first used church bells; but it seems clear that they were introduced
+into France as early as 550. In the 7th century Bede mentions a bell
+brought from Italy by Benedict Biscop for his abbey at Wearmouth, and
+speaks of the sound of a bell being well known at Whitby Abbey at the
+time of St Hilda's death (680). St Dunstan hung many in the 10th
+century; and in the 11th they were not uncommon in Switzerland and
+Germany. It is said that the Greek Christians were unacquainted with
+bells till the 9th century; but it is known that for political reasons,
+after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, their use was
+forbidden lest they should provide a popular signal for revolt.
+
+Several old bells are extant in Scotland, Ireland and Wales; the oldest
+are often quadrangular, made of thin iron plates hammered and riveted
+together. A well-known specimen is St Patrick's bell preserved at
+Belfast, called _Clog an eadhachta Phatraic_, "the bell of St Patrick's
+will." It is 6 in. high, 5 broad, 4 deep, adorned with gems and gold and
+silver filigree-work; it is inscribed 1091 and 1105, but it is probably
+alluded to in Ulster annals in 552. (For Scottish bells, see
+_Illustrated Catalogue of Archaeological Museum_, Edinburgh, for 1856.)
+
+The four-sided bell of the Irish missionary St Gall (646) is preserved
+at the monastery of St Gall, Switzerland. In these early times bells
+were usually small; even in the 11th century a bell presented to the
+church at Orleans weighing 2600 lb. was thought large. In the 13th
+century larger bells were cast. The bell Jacqueline of Paris, cast in
+1400, weighed 15,000 lb.; another Paris bell of 1472, 25,000 lb.; and
+the famous Amboise bell at Rouen (1501) 36,364 lb.
+
+To these scanty records of the early history of bells may be added the
+enumeration of different kinds of bells by Hieronymus Magius, in his
+work _De Tintinnabulis:--1. Tintinnabulum_, a little bell, otherwise
+called _tinniolum_, for refectory or dormitory, according to Joannes
+Belethus, but Guillaume Durand names _squilla_ for the refectory; 2.
+_Petasius_, or larger "broad-brimmed hat" bell; 3. _Codon_, orifice of
+trumpet, a Greek hand-bell; 4. _Nola_, a very small bell, used in the
+choir, according to Durand; 5. _Campana_, a large bell, first used in
+the Latin churches in the steeple (Durand), in the tower (Belethus); 6.
+_Squilla_, a shrill little bell. We read of _cymbalum_ for the cloister
+(Durand) or _campanella_ for the cloister (Belethus); _nolula_ or
+_dupla_ in the clock; _signum_ in the tower (e.g. in the _Excerptions_
+of St Egbert, 750); the Portuguese still call a bell _sino._
+
+_Bell-founding._--The earliest bells were probably not cast, but made of
+plates riveted together, like the bells of St Gall or Belfast above
+mentioned. The bell-founder's art, originally practised in the
+monasteries, passed gradually into the hands of a professional class, by
+whom, in England and the Low Countries especially, were gradually worked
+out the principles of construction, mixture of metals, lines and
+proportions, now generally accepted as necessary for a good bell. In
+England some of the early founders were peripatetic artificers, who
+travelled about the country, setting up a temporary foundry to cast
+bells wherever they were wanted. Miles Graye (c. 1650), a celebrated
+East Anglian founder, carried on his work in this fashion, and in old
+churchwardens' accounts are sometimes found notices of payment for the
+casting of bells at places where no regular foundry is known to have
+existed. The chief centres of the art in medieval times were London,
+York, Gloucester and Nottingham; and bells by e.g. "John of York" (14th
+century), Samuel Smith, father and son, of York (1680-1730), Abraham
+Rudhall and his descendants of Gloucester (1684-1774), Mot (16th
+century), Lester and Pack (1750), Christopher Hodson of London (who cast
+"Great Tom" of Oxford, 1681) and Richard Phelps (1716) are still in high
+repute. The Whitechapel Bell Foundry (now Mears and Stainbank),
+established by Robert Mot in 1570, incorporated the business of the
+Rudhalls, Lester and Pack, Phelps, Briant and others, and is now one of
+the leading firms of bell-founders; others being Warner and Sons of
+Spitalfields and Taylor & Co., Loughborough, the founders of "Great
+Paul" for St Paul's cathedral (1881). Of Dutch and Flemish founders the
+firms of van den Gheyn (1550), Hemony (1650), Aerschodt & Wagheven at
+Louvain and others have a great reputation in the Low Countries,
+especially for "carillons," such as those at Antwerp or Bruges, a form
+of bell-music which has not taken much root in England, despite the
+advocacy of the Rev. H.R. Haweis, who proclaimed its superiority to
+English change-ringing.
+
+Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tin in the proportion of 4 to 1.
+In Henry III.'s reign it was 2 to 1. In Layard's Nineveh bronze bells,
+it was 10 to 1. Zinc and lead are used in small bells. The thickness of
+the bell's edge is about one-tenth of its diameter, and its height is
+twelve times its thickness.
+
+Bells, like viols, have been made of every conceivable shape within
+certain limits. The long narrow bell, the quadrangular, and the
+mitre-shaped in Europe at least indicate antiquity, and the graceful
+curved-inwardly-midway and full trumpet-mouthed bell indicates an age
+not earlier than the 16th century.
+
+The bell is first designed on paper according to the scale of
+measurement. Then the crook is made, which is a kind of double wooden
+compass, the legs of which are respectively curved to the shape of the
+inner and outer sides of the bell, a space of the exact form and
+thickness of the bell being left betwixt them. The compass is pivoted on
+a stake driven into the bottom of the casting-pit. A stuffing of
+brickwork is built round the stake, leaving room for a fire to be
+lighted inside it. The outside of this stuffing is then padded with fine
+soft clay, well mixed and bound together with calves' hair, and the
+inner leg of the compass run round it, bringing it to the exact shape of
+the inside of the bell. Upon this _core_, well smeared with grease, is
+fashioned the false clay bell, the outside of which is defined by the
+outer leg of the compass. Inscriptions are now moulded in wax on the
+outside of the clay-bell; these are carefully smeared with grease, then
+lightly covered with the finest clay, and then with coarser clay, until
+a solid mantle is thickened over the outside of the clay bell. A fire is
+now lighted, and the whole baked hard; the grease and wax inscriptions
+steam out through holes at the top, leaving the sham clay bell baked
+hard and tolerably loose, between the _core_ and the _cope_ or
+_mantle_. The cope is then lifted, the clay bell broken up, the _cope_
+let down again, enclosing now between itself and the _core_ the exact
+shape of the bell. The metal is then boiled and run molten into the
+mould. A large bell will take several weeks to cool. When extricated it
+ought to be scarcely touched and should hardly require tuning. This is
+called its maiden state, and it used to be so sought after that many
+bells were left rough and out of tune in order to claim it.
+
+_Bell Tones and Tuning._--A good bell, fairly struck, should give out
+three distinct notes--a "fundamental" note or "tonic"; the octave above,
+or "nominal"; and the octave below, or "hum-note." (It also gives out
+the "third" and "fifth" above the fundamental; but of these it is less
+necessary to take notice.) Very few bells, however, have any two of
+these notes, and hardly any all three, in unison--the "hum-notes" being
+generally a little sharper, and the "fundamentals" a little flatter,
+than their respective "nominals." In tuning a "ring" or series of bells,
+the practice of founders has hitherto been to take one set of notes (in
+England usually the nominals, on the continent the fundamentals) and put
+these into tune, leaving the other tones to take care of themselves. But
+in different circumstances different tones assert themselves. Thus, when
+bells are struck at considerable intervals, the fundamental notes being
+fuller and more persistent are more prominent; but when struck in rapid
+succession (as in English change-ringing or with the higher bells of a
+Belgian "carillon," which take the "air") the higher tone of the
+"nominal" is more perceptible. The inharmonious character of many
+Belgian carillons, and of certain Belgian and French rings in England,
+is ascribed by Canon A.B. Simpson (in his pamphlet, _Why Bells sound out
+of Tune_, 1897) to neglect of the "nominals," the fundamentals only
+being tuned to each other. To tune a series of bells properly, the
+fundamental tone of each bell must be brought into true octave with its
+nominal, and the whole series of bells, thus rectified, put into tune
+with each other. The "hum-note" of each, which is the tone of the whole
+mass of metal, should also be in tune with the others. If flatter than
+the nominal, it cannot be sharpened; but if sharper (as is more usual),
+it may be flattened by thinning the metal near the crown of the bell.
+The great bell ("Great Paul") cast by Messrs Taylor for St Paul's
+cathedral, London, has all its tones in true harmony, except that the
+tone next above the fundamental (E-flat) is a "fourth" (A-flat) instead
+of a "third" (G or G-flat). The great bell cast by the same founders for
+Beverley Minster is in perfect tune; and with the improved machinery now
+in use, there is no reason why this should not henceforth be the case
+with all church bells.
+
+The quality of a bell depends not only on the casting and the fineness
+and mixture of metals, but upon the due proportion of metal to the
+calibre of the bell. The larger the bell the lower the tone; but if we
+try to make a large E bell with metal only enough for a smaller F bell,
+the E bell will be puny and poor. It has been calculated that for a peal
+of bells to give the pure chord of the ground tone or key-note, third,
+fifth and octave, the diameters are required to be as thirty,
+twenty-four, twenty, fifteen, and the weights as eighty, forty-one,
+twenty-four and ten.
+
+_History and Uses of Bells._--The history of bells is full of romantic
+interest. In civilized times they have been intimately associated, not
+only with all kinds of religious and social uses, but with almost every
+important historical event. Their influence upon architecture is not
+less remarkable, for to them indirectly we probably owe most of the
+famous towers in the world. Church towers at first, perhaps, scarcely
+rose above the roof, being intended as lanterns for the admission of
+light, and addition to their height was in all likelihood suggested by
+the more common use of bells.
+
+Bells early summoned soldiers to arms, as well as Christians to church.
+They sounded the alarm in fire or tumult; and the rights of the burghers
+in their bells were jealously guarded. Thus the chief bell in the
+cathedral often belonged to the town, not to the cathedral chapter. The
+curfew, the Carolus and St Mary's bell in the Antwerp tower all belong
+to the town; the rest are the property of the chapter. He who commanded
+the bell commanded the town; for by that sound, at a moment's notice, he
+could rally and concentrate his adherents. Hence a conqueror commonly
+acknowledged the political importance of bells by melting them down; and
+the cannon of the conquered was in turn melted up to supply the garrison
+with bells to be used in the suppression of revolts. Many a bloody
+chapter in history has been rung in and out by bells.
+
+On the third day of Easter 1282, at the ringing of the Sicilian vespers
+(which have given their name to the affair), 8000 French were massacred
+in cold blood by John of Procida, who had thus planned to free Sicily
+from Charles of Anjou. On the 24th of August, St Bartholomew's day,
+1571, bells ushered in the massacre of the Huguenots in France, to the
+number, it is said, of 100,000. Bells have rung alike over slaughtered
+and ransomed cities; and far and wide throughout Europe in the hour of
+victory or irreparable loss. At the news of Nelson's triumph and death
+at Trafalgar, the bells of Chester rang a merry peal alternated with one
+deep toll, and similar incidents could be multiplied.
+
+There are many old customs connected with the use of church bells, some
+of which have died out, while others remain here and there. The best
+known and perhaps oldest of these is the "Curfew" (_couvre-feu_), first
+enforced (though not perhaps introduced) by William the Conqueror in
+England as a signal for all lights and fires to be extinguished at 8
+P.M.--probably to prevent nocturnal gatherings of disaffected subjects.
+In many towns it survived into the 19th century as a signal for closing
+shops at 8 or 9; and it is still kept up in various places as an old
+custom; thus at Oxford the familiar boom of "Tom's" 101 strokes is still
+the signal for closing college gates at 9. The largest and heaviest
+bells were used for the Curfew, to carry the sound as far as possible,
+as it did to Milton's ear, suggesting the descriptive lines in _Il
+Penseroso_ (74-75):--
+
+  "Oft, on a plot of rising ground,
+   I hear the far-off curfew sound
+   Over some wide-watered shore,
+   Swinging slow with sullen roar."
+
+Gray's allusion in the _Elegy_ is well known; as also are those of
+Shakespeare to the elves "that rejoice to hear the solemn curfew"
+(_Tempest_), or the fiend that "begins at curfew and walks till the
+first cock" (_King Lear_); or Milton's in _Comus_ to the ghost "that
+breaks his magic chains at curfew time."
+
+Among secular uses connected with church bells are the "Mote" or
+"Common" bell, summoning to municipal or other meetings, as e.g. the 7th
+at St Mary's, Stamford, tolled for quarter sessions, or the bell at St
+Mary's, Oxford, for meetings of Convocation. In some places one of the
+bells is known as the "Vestry Bell." The "Pancake Bell," still rung here
+and there on Shrove Tuesday, was originally a summons to confession
+before Lent; the "Harvest Bell" and "Seeding Bell" called labourers to
+their work; while the "Gleaning Bell" fixed the hours for beginning or
+leaving off gleaning, so that everyone might start fair and have an even
+chance. The "Oven Bell" gave notice when the lord of the manor's oven
+was ready for his tenants to bake their bread; the "Market Bell" was a
+signal for selling to begin; and in some country districts a church bell
+is still rung at dinner time. The general diffusion of clocks and
+watches has rendered bells less necessary for marking the events of
+daily life; and most of these old customs have either disappeared or are
+fast disappearing. At Strassburg a large bell of eight tons weight,
+known as the "Holy Ghost Bell," is only rung when two fires are seen in
+the town at once; a "storm-bell" warns travellers in the plain of storms
+approaching from the mountains, and the "Thor Glocke" (gate bell) gives
+the signal for opening or shutting the city gates. On the European
+continent, especially in countries which, like Belgium and Holland, were
+distracted by constant war, bells acquired great public importance. They
+were formally baptized with religious ceremonies (as also in England in
+pre-Reformation days), the notabilities of a town or church standing as
+sponsors; and they were very generally supposed to have the power of
+scaring away evil spirits.
+
+Other old customs are naturally connected with the ecclesiastical uses
+of bells. The "Passing Bell," rung for the dying, is now generally rung
+after death; the ancient mode of indicating the sex of the deceased,
+viz. two pulls for a woman and three for a man being still very common,
+with many varying customs as regards the interval after death or the
+bell to be used, e.g. smaller bells for children and females, and larger
+ones for aged men; the tenor bell being sometimes reserved for the death
+of the incumbent, or of a bishop or member of the royal family. "Burial
+Peals," once common at or after funerals to scare away the evil spirits
+from the soul of the departed, though discouraged by bishops as early as
+the 14th century, were kept alive by popular superstition, and only
+finally checked in Puritan times; but they have been revived, since the
+spread of change-ringing, in the "muffled peals" now frequently rung as
+a mark of respect to deceased persons of public or local importance, or
+the short "touches" on hand-bells sometimes rung at the grave by the
+comrades of a deceased ringer. The "Sermon-Bell," rung in
+pre-Reformation times to give notice that a sermon was to be preached
+(cf. Shakespeare, _Henry IV._, Pt. II. iv. 2. 4-7), survives in some
+places in a custom of ringing the tenor bell before a service with a
+sermon; and a similar custom before a celebration of the Holy Communion
+preserves the memory of the "Sacrament Bell." The ancient "Sanctus" or
+"Sance" bell, hung on the rood-screen or in a small bell cot on the
+chancel gable, and sounded three times when the priest said the
+_Tersanctus_ (Holy, Holy, Holy) in the office of mass, was specially
+obnoxious to Puritan zeal, and few of them survived the Reformation. An
+early morning bell, rung in many places for no apparent reason, is
+probably a relic of the _Ave Maria_ or _Angelus_ bell. The inscription
+on some old bells, _Lectum fuge, discute somnum_ ("Away from bed, shake
+off sleep"), points to this use, as also does the name "Gabriel" applied
+to the bell used for ringing the Angelus. In old times bells were
+generally named at their baptism, after the Virgin Mary or saints, or
+their donors; thus the bells at Oseney Abbey in the 13th century were
+called Hautclere, Doucement, Austyn, Marie, Gabriel and John; sometimes
+they were known by mere nicknames, such as "Great (or "Mighty") Tom" at
+Oxford, or "Big Ben," "Great Paul," &c., in recent times.
+
+_Bell Inscriptions._--The names of bells were often stamped upon them in
+the casting; whence arose inscriptions upon church bells, giving in
+monkish Latin the name of some saint, a prayer to the Virgin, or for the
+soul of the donor, or a distich upon the function of the bell itself;
+e.g.--
+
+  "Funera plango, fulgura frango, Sabbata pango,
+    Excito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos."
+    (I mourn for death, I break the lightning, I fix the Sabbath, I rouse
+       the lazy, I scatter the winds, I appease the cruel.)
+
+The character of the lettering and the foundry marks upon old bells, are
+of great assistance in determining their date. Sometimes a set of bells
+has each a separate verse, e.g. on a ring of five in Bedfordshire:--
+
+  1st. "Hoc signum Petri pulsatum nomine Christi."
+    (This emblem of Peter is struck in the name of Christ.)
+
+  2nd. "Nomen Magdalene campana sonat melode."
+    (This bell named Magdalen sounds melodiously.)
+
+  3rd. "Sit nomen Domini benedictum semper in eum."
+    (May the name of the Lord always be blessed upon him, i.e. on
+    the bell when struck.)
+
+  4th. "Musa Raphaelis sonat auribus Immanuelis."
+    (The music of Raphael sounds in the ear of Immanuel.)
+
+  5th. "Sum Rosa pulsata mundique Maria vocata."
+    (I, Maria, am struck and called the Rose of the world.)
+
+The names of these five bells were thus:--Peter, Magdalen, (?) Jesus,
+Raphael and Mary.
+
+Other inscriptions take the form of an invocation or prayer for the bell
+itself, its donor or those who hear it, e.g.--
+
+  "Augustine tuam campanam protege sanam."
+     (Augustine, protect thy bell and keep it sound.)
+
+  "Sancte Johannes, ora pro animabus Johannis Pudsey, militis, et Mariae,
+      consortae suae."
+     (St John, pray for the souls of John Pudsey, knight, and Mary his
+      wife.)
+
+  "Protege pura via quos convoco virgo Maria."
+     (Guard in the way those whom I pure Virgin Mary call.)
+
+The "Mittags Glocke" (mid-day bell) at Strassburg, taken down at the
+time of the French Revolution, bore the legend:
+
+  "Vox ego sum vitae; voco vos; orate venite."
+     (I am the voice of life: I call you: come and pray.)
+
+A bell in Rouen cathedral, melted down in 1793, was inscribed:
+
+  "Je suis George d'Ambois,
+   Qui trente cinque mille pois;
+   Mais lui qui me pesera
+   Trente six mille me trouvera."
+     (I am George d'Ambois, weighing 35,000 lb.; but he who weighs me
+        will find me 36,000.)
+
+A similar inscription is said to have been cast on the largest of the
+bells placed by Edward III. in a "clocher" or bell hut in the Little
+Cloisters at Westminster:
+
+  "King Edward made mee thirty thousand weight and three,
+   Take mee down and wey mee and more you shall find mee."
+
+On the "Thor Glocke" at Strassburg above mentioned are the words:--
+
+  "Dieses Thor Glocke das erst mal schallt
+   Als man 1618 sahlt
+   Dass Mgte jahr regnet man
+   Nach doctor Luther Jubal jahr
+   Das Bos hinaus das Gut hinein
+   Zu läuten soll igr arbeit seyn."
+
+The reference is to the year 1517, when Luther began his crusade, and
+the verse may be Englished as follows:--
+
+   When first ringeth this Gate Bell
+   1618 years we tell.
+   We reckon this a year to be
+   From Dr Luther's jubilee.
+   To ring out ill, the good ring in,
+   Its daily task shall now begin.
+
+_Large Bells._--There are a few bells of world-wide renown, and several
+others more or less celebrated. The great bell at Moscow, "Tsar
+Kolokol," which, according to the inscription, was cast in 1733, was in
+the earth 103 years and was raised by the emperor Nicholas in 1836. The
+present bell seems never to have been actually hung or rung, having been
+cracked in the furnace; and it now stands on a raised platform in the
+middle of a square. It is used as a chapel. It weighs about 180 tons,
+height 19 ft. 3 in., circumference 60 ft. 9 in., thickness 2 ft., weight
+of broken piece 11 tons. The second Moscow bell, the largest in the
+world in actual use, weighs 128 tons. In a pagoda in Upper Burma hangs a
+bell 16 ft. in diameter, weighing about 80 tons. The great bell at
+Peking weighs 53 tons; Nanking, 22 tons; Olmutz, 17 tons; Vienna (1711),
+17 tons; Notre Dame (1680), 17 tons; Erfurt, 13 tons; Great Peter, York
+Minster, recast in 1845, 12½ tons; Great Paul, at St Paul's cathedral,
+16¾ tons; Great Tom at Oxford, 7½ tons; Great Tom at Lincoln, 5½ tons.
+Big Ben of the Westminster Clock Tower weighs 13½ tons; it was cast by
+George Mears under the direction of the first Lord Grimthorpe (E.
+Beckett Denison) in 1858. Its four quarters were cast by Warner in 1856.
+The "Kaiserglocke" of Cologne cathedral, recast in 1875, with metal from
+French cannon captured in 1870-1871, weighs 27½ tons.
+
+These large bells are either not moved at all, or only slightly swung to
+enable the clapper to touch their side; in some cases they are struck by
+a hammer or beam from outside. The heaviest _ringing_ peals in England
+are those at Exeter and St Paul's cathedrals, tenors 72 cwt. and 62 cwt.
+respectively.
+
+_Bell-ringing._--The science and art of bell-ringing, as practised upon
+church and tower bells, falls under two main heads:--(1) Mechanical
+ringing, in connexion with the machinery of a clock or "carillon"; (2)
+Ringing by hand, by means of ropes attached to the fittings of the
+bells, whereby the bell itself is either moved as it hangs mouth
+downwards sufficiently for the clapper just to touch its side (called
+technically "chiming"); or is swung round nearly full circle with its
+mouth uppermost (technically "ringing"), in which case the impact of
+the clapper is much heavier, and the sound produced is consequently
+louder and more far-reaching. Mechanical ringing is more common on the
+continent of Europe, especially in Belgium and Flanders; ringing by hand
+is more common in England, where the development of change-ringing (see
+below) has brought it into prominence.
+
+(1) Mechanical ringing is effected by a system of wires connected with
+small hammers striking the bells, usually on their outside, and worked
+either by connexion with the machinery of a clock, so as to play tunes
+or artificially arranged chimes at definite intervals; or with a
+key-board resembling that of an organ. The first of these methods is
+familiar in the chimes (Cambridge, Westminster, &c.) heard from many
+towers at the striking of the hours and quarters; or in hymn tunes
+played at intervals (e.g. of three hours) upon the church bells. The
+second method is peculiar to the "carillon" (q.v.), as found everywhere
+in Belgium, where with a set of from 20 or 30 to 60 or 70 bells a much
+wider scope for tunes and harmonies is provided than in English
+belfries, few of which have more than one octave of bells in one key
+only and none more than 12 bells. The carillons at Louvain and Bruges
+contain 40 bells, and that of Mechlin 44, while in the tower of Antwerp
+cathedral there are upwards of 90 bells, for the largest of which, cast
+in 1507, Charles V. stood sponsor at its consecration.
+
+(2) _Ringing by Hand._--Church bells may be "chimed" or "rung" (see
+above). One man can, as a rule, chime three bells, with a rope in each
+hand and one foot in the loop of another; but by the use of an
+"Ellacombe" or other chiming apparatus one man can work six, eight or
+ten bells. Some prefer the quieter sound of chiming as an introduction
+to divine service, but where a band of ringers is available and
+change-ringing is practised the bells as a rule are rung. The practice
+of "clocking" a bell, in which the clapper, by means of a cord attached
+to it and pulled from below, is allowed to swing against the bell at
+rest, is often employed to save trouble; but the jar is very likely to
+crack the bell. In ringing, or in true chiming, the bell is in motion
+when struck.
+
+For ringing, a bell is pulled up and "set" mouth uppermost. She (to
+ringers a bell is feminine) is then pulled off, first at "handstroke"
+(i.e. with the hands on the "sally" or tufted portion of the rope, a few
+feet from its lower end) and then at "back-stroke" in the reverse
+direction (with the hands nearer the lower end, the rope having at the
+previous pull coiled round three-quarters of the wheel's circumference),
+describing at each pull almost a full circle till she comes back to the
+upright position. At each revolution the swing is chiefly done by the
+weight of the bell, the ringer giving a pull of just sufficient strength
+to bring the bell back into the upright position; otherwise its swing
+would become gradually shorter till it remained at rest mouth downwards.
+
+_Change-ringing._--When a given number of bells are rung over and over
+again in the same order, from the highest note, or "treble," to the
+lowest, or "tenor"--1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7--they are said to be rung in
+"rounds." "Changes" are variations of this order--e.g. 2 1 3 5 4 7 6, 2
+3 1 4 5 6 7; and "change-ringing" is the art of ringing bells in
+"changes," so that a different "change" or rearrangement of order is
+produced at each pull of the bell-ropes, until, without any repetition
+of the same change, the bells come back into "rounds." The general
+principle of all methods of change-ringing is that each bell, after
+striking in the first place or "lead," works gradually "up" to the last
+place or "behind," and "down" again to the first, and that no bell ever
+shifts more than one place in each change. Thus the ringer of any bell
+knows that whatever his position in one change, his place in the next
+will be either the same, or the place before or the place after. He does
+not have to learn by heart the different changes or variations of order;
+nor need he, unless he is the "conductor," know the exact order of any
+one change. He has to bear in mind, first, which way his bell is
+working, viz. whether "up" from first to last place, or "down" from last
+to first; secondly, in what place his bell is striking; thirdly, what
+bell or bells are striking immediately before or after him--this being
+ascertained chiefly by "rope-sight," i.e. the knack, acquired by
+practice, of seeing which rope is being pulled immediately before and
+after his own. He must also remember and apply the rules of the
+particular "method" which is being rung. The following table
+representing the first twenty changes of a "plain course" of "Grandsire
+Triples" (for these terms, see below) illustrates the subject-matter of
+this section:--
+
+  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Rounds."       7 5 6 1 4 2 3 (10th change.)
+  2 1 3 5 4 7 6 (1st change.)   5 7 1 6 2 4 3
+  2 3 1 4 5 6 7                 5 1 7 2 6 3 4
+  3 2 4 1 6 5 7                 1 5 2 7 3 6 4
+  3 4 2 6 1 7 5                 1 2 5 3 7 4 6
+  4 3 6 2 7 1 5 (5th change.)   2 1 5 7 3 6 4 (15th change.)
+  4 6 3 7 2 5 1                 2 5 1 3 7 4 6
+  6 4 7 3 5 2 1                 5 2 3 1 4 7 6
+  6 7 4 5 3 1 2                 5 3 2 4 1 6 7
+  7 6 5 4 1 3 2                 3 5 4 2 6 1 7
+                                3 4 5 6 2 7 1 (20th change.)
+
+It will be observed that at the 1st change the third bell and at the
+15th the fifth bell, according to the rule of this "method," strikes a
+second blow in the third place ("makes third's place"). This stops the
+regular work of the bells which at the previous change were in the 4th,
+5th, 6th and 7th places ("in 4, 5, 6, 7"), causing them to take a step
+backwards in their course "up" or "down," or as it is technically
+called, to "dodge." Were it not for this, the bells would come back into
+"rounds" at the 14th change. It is by the use of "place-making" and
+"dodging," according to the rules of various "methods," that the
+required number of changes, upon any number of bells, can be produced.
+But in order that this may be done, without the bells coming back into
+"rounds" (as, e.g. in the "plain course" of Grandsire Triples, above
+given, they will do in seventy changes), further modifications of the
+"coursing order," called technically "Bobs" and "Singles," must be
+introduced. In ringing, notice of these alterations as they occur is
+given by one of the ringers, who acts as "conductor," calling out "Bob"
+or "Single" at the right moment to warn the ringers of certain bells to
+make the requisite alteration in the regular work of their bells.
+(Hence, in ringing language, to "call" a peal or touch = to conduct it.)
+Particulars of these, as of other details of change-ringing, may be
+gathered from books dealing with the technique of the art; but they are
+best mastered in actual practice. The term "single," applied to
+five-bell ringing meant that, as the first three bells remained
+unchanged, only a single pair of bells changed places, e.g. 1 5 4 3 2, 1
+5 4 2 3. On larger numbers of bells it loses this meaning; but the
+effect of this "call" is that the "coursing order" of a single pair of
+bells is inverted. The origin of "Bob" is unknown. As a "call" it was
+perhaps adopted as a short, sharp sound, easily uttered and easily heard
+by the ringers. As applied to a "method" or system of ringing it may
+refer to the evolution of "dodging," e.g. in "Treble Bob" to the zigzag
+"dodging" path of the treble bell; but none of the old writers attempts
+to explain it.
+
+The number of _possible_ "changes" on any given series of bells may be
+ascertained, according to the mathematical formula of "permutations," by
+multiplying the number of the bells together. Thus on three bells, only
+6 changes or variations of order (1 × 2 × 3) can be produced; on four
+bells, 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24; on five, 24 × 5 = 120; on six, 120 × 6 = 720;
+on seven, 720 × 7 = 5040. A "peal" on any such number of bells is in
+ordinary language the ringing of all the possible changes. But
+technically, only the full extent of changes upon seven bells, usually
+rung with a "tenor behind," is called a "peal"; a shorter performance
+upon seven or more bells, or the full extent upon less than seven,
+being, in ringing parlance, a "touch." On six bells the full extent of
+changes must be repeated continuously seven times (720 × 7 = 5040), and
+on five bells forty-two times (l20 × 42 = 5040) to rank as a "peal." On
+eight or more bells 5000 changes in round numbers is accepted as the
+_minimum_ standard for a peal; and on such numbers of bells up to twelve
+(the largest number used in change-ringing), peals are so arranged that
+the bells come into rounds at, or at some point beyond, 5000 changes.
+As many as 16,000 changes, occupying from nine to ten hours, have been
+rung upon church bells. But the great physical strain upon the
+ringers--to say nothing of the effect upon those who are within
+hearing--makes such performances exceptional. The word "peal" is often,
+though incorrectly, used (1) for a set of church bells ("a peal of six,"
+"a peal of eight"), for which the correct term is "a ring" of bells; (2)
+for any shorter performance than a full peal (e.g. "wedding-peal,"
+"muffled peal," &c.), called in ringing language a "touch." Its use as
+equivalent for "method," found in old campanological works, is now
+obsolete.
+
+Change-ringing upon five bells is called "Doubles," upon seven bells
+"Triples," upon nine "Caters" (Fr. _quatre_), and upon eleven "Cinques,"
+from the fact that at each change two, three, four or five pairs of
+bells change places with each other. "Doubles" can be and are rung when
+there are only five bells; but as a rule these "odd-bell" systems are
+rung with a "tenor behind," i.e. struck at the end of each change; the
+number of bells in a tower being usually an even number--six, eight, ten
+or twelve. In "even-bell" systems the tenor is "rung in" or "turned in,"
+i.e. changes with the other bells, and a different terminology is
+employed; change-ringing on six bells being called "Minor"; on eight
+bells, "Major"; on ten bells, "Royal"; and on twelve, "Maximus." The
+principal "methods" of change-ringing, each of which has its special
+rules, are--(1) "Grandsire"; (2) "Plain Bob"; (3) "Treble Bob"; (4)
+"Stedman," from the name of its inventor, Fabian Stedman, about 1670. In
+"Grandsire" the treble and one other bell, in "Plain Bob" the treble
+alone, has a "plain hunt," i.e. works from the first place, or "lead,"
+to the last place, or "behind," and back again, without any dodging; in
+"Treble Bob" the treble has a uniform but zigzag course, dodging in each
+place on its way up and down. This is called a "Treble Bob hunt"; and
+under these two heads, according to the work of the treble, are
+classified a variety of "plain methods" and "Treble Bob methods," among
+the latter being the so-called "Surprise" methods, the most complicated
+and difficult of all. "Stedman's principle," which is _sui generis_,
+consists in the three front bells ringing their six possible changes,
+while the remaining pair or pairs of bells dodge. It is thus an
+"odd-bell" method adapted to five, seven, nine or eleven bells; as also
+is "Grandsire," though occasionally rung on even numbers of bells.
+"Treble Bob" is always, and "Plain Bob" generally, rung on even
+numbers--six, eight, ten or twelve. In ringing, whenever the treble has
+a uniform course, unaffected by "Bobs" or "Singles," it serves as a
+guide to the other changing bells, according to the place in which they
+meet and cross its path from "behind" to the "lead." The order in which
+the different dodges occur, and the "course bell," i.e. the bell which
+he follows from behind to lead, are also useful, and on large numbers of
+bells indispensable, guides to the ringer.
+
+Quite distinct from the art of change-ringing is the science of
+"composing," i.e. arranging and uniting by the proper "calls," subject
+to certain fixed laws and conditions, a number of groups of changes, so
+that no one change, or series of changes represented in those groups,
+shall be repeated. A composition, long or short, is said to be "true" if
+it is free from, "false" if it involves, such repetition; and the body
+of ascertained laws and conditions governing true composition in any
+method constitutes the test or "proof" to be applied to a composition in
+that method to demonstrate its truth or falseness. Many practical
+ringers know little or nothing of the principles of composition, and are
+content with performing compositions received from composers, or
+published in ringing books and periodicals. An elaborate statement of
+the principles of composition in the "Grandsire" method may be found in
+an appendix to Snowdon's _Grandsire_ (1888), by the Rev. C.D.P. Davies.
+Those which apply to "Treble Bob" are explained in Snowdon's _Treatise
+on Treble Bob_, Part I. But, so far as can be ascertained, there is no
+treatise dealing with the science of composition as a whole; nor is it
+possible here to attempt a popular exposition of its principles.
+
+One of the objects kept in view by composers is musical effect. Certain
+sequences or contrasts of notes strike the ear as more musical than
+others; and an arrangement which brings up the more musical changes in
+quicker succession improves the musical effect of the "peal" or "touch."
+On seven bells all the possible changes must be inserted in a true peal;
+but on larger numbers of bells, where the choice is from an immense
+number of possible changes, the composer is free to select those which
+are most musical. Unless, however, the bells of any given "ring" are in
+perfect tune and harmony with each other, their musical effect must be
+impaired, however well they are rung. This gives importance to the
+science and art of bell-tuning, in which great progress has been made
+(see above).
+
+The art of scientific change-ringing, peculiar to England, does not seem
+to have been evolved before the middle of the 17th century. Societies or
+gilds of ringers, however, existed much earlier. A patent roll of 39
+Henry III. (1255) confirms the "Brethren of the Guild of Westminster,
+who are appointed to ring the great bells there," in the enjoyment of
+the "privileges and free customs which they have enjoyed from the time
+of Edward the Confessor." In 1602 (as appears from a MS. in the library
+of All Souls' College, Oxford) was founded a society called the
+"Scholars of Cheapside." In 1637 began the "Ancient Society of College
+Youths," so called from their meeting to practise on the six bells at St
+Martin's, College Hill, a church destroyed in the Great Fire of London,
+1666. At first only "rounds" and "call-changes" were rung, till about
+1642, when 120 "Bob Doubles" were achieved; but slow progress was made
+till 1677, when Fabian Stedman of Cambridge published his
+_Campanologia_, dedicating it to this society, his method being first
+rung about this time by some of its members. Before the end of the 17th
+century was founded the "Society of London Scholars," the name of which
+was changed in 1746 to "Cumberland Youths" in compliment to the victor
+of Culloden. These two metropolitan societies still exist, and include
+in their membership most of the leading change-ringers of England: one
+of the oldest provincial societies being that of Saffron Walden in
+Essex, founded in 1623, and still holding an annual ringing festival. In
+the latter half of the 18th and first half of the 19th century
+change-ringing, which at first seems to have been an aristocratic
+pastime, degenerated in social repute. Church bells and their ringers,
+neglected by church authorities, became associated with the lower and
+least reputable phases of parochial life; and belfries were too often an
+adjunct to the pothouse. In the last half of the 19th century there was
+a great revival of change-ringing, leading to improvements in belfries
+and in ringers, and to their gradual recognition as church workers.
+Diocesan or county associations for the promotion of change-ringing and
+of belfry reform spread knowledge of the art and aroused church
+officials to greater interest in and care for their bells. A Central
+Council of Church Bell Ringers, consisting of delegates from these
+various societies, meets annually in London or at some provincial centre
+to discuss ringing matters, and to collect and formulate useful
+knowledge upon practical questions--e.g. the proper care of bells and
+the means of preventing annoyance from their use in the neighbourhood of
+houses, rules for the conduct of belfries, &c. It is now less likely
+than ever that the Belgian carillons will be preferred in England to the
+peculiarly English system of ringing bells in peal; by which, whatever
+its difficulties, the musical sound of bells is most fully brought out,
+and their scientific construction best stimulated.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The literature of bell-lore (or campanology) consists
+  chiefly of scattered treatises or pamphlets upon the technique of
+  different methods of change-ringing, or upon the bells of particular
+  counties or districts. The earliest that deal with the science and art
+  of change-ringing are _Campanologia or the Art of Ringing Improved_
+  (1677), and a chapter of "Advice to a Ringer" in the _School of
+  Recreations, or Gentleman's Tutor_ (1684), showing that in its early
+  days bell-ringing was a fashionable pastime. Then follow
+  _Campanologia, or the Art of Ringing made Easy_ (1766), _Clavis
+  Campanologia, a Key to Ringing_ (1788), and Shipway's _Campanologia_
+  (1816). The revival of change-ringing in recent years has produced
+  many manuals: e.g. Snowdon's _Rope-Sight_ (explaining the "Plain Bob"
+  method), _Grandsire, Treatise on Treble Bob, Double Norwich Court Bob
+  Major_, and _Standard Methods_ (with a book of diagrams); Troyte on
+  _Change-Ringing; The Duffield Method_, by Sir A.P. Heywood, Bart., its
+  inventor. Somewhat prior to these are various works by the Rev. H.T.
+  Ellacombe, inventor of a chiming apparatus which bears his name, and a
+  pioneer in belfry reform. Among these are accounts of the church bells
+  of Devon, Somerset and Gloucester, and pamphlets on _Belfries and
+  Ringers, Chiming, &c._; much of their contents being summarized in
+  _The Ringer's Guide to the Church Bells of Devon_, by C. Pearson
+  (1888). A _Glossary of Technical Terms_ used in connexion with church
+  bells and change-ringing was published (1901) under the auspices of
+  the Central Council of Church Bell Ringers. On the history of church
+  bells and customs connected with them much curious information is
+  given in North's _English Bells and Bell Lore_ (1888). By the same
+  author are monographs on the church bells of Leicestershire,
+  Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire and Hertfordshire. There are similar
+  works on the church bells of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire, by Dr Raven;
+  of Huntingdonshire, by the Rev. T.M.N. Owen; and on the church bells
+  of Essex, by the Rev. C. Deedes. A compilation and summary of many
+  data of bell-lore will be found in _A Book about Bells_, by the Rev.
+  G.S. Tyack; and in a volume by Dr Raven in the "Antiquary's Books"
+  series (Methuen, 1906), entitled _The Bells of England_, which deals
+  with the antiquarian side of bell-lore. See also _Quarterly Review_,
+  No. cxc. (September 1854); _Windsor Magazine_ (December 1896); Lord
+  Rayleigh's paper "On the Tones of Bells" in the _Phil. Mag._ for
+  January 1890; and a series of articles from the _Guardian_, reprinted
+  as a pamphlet under the title, _Church Bells and Bell-ringing_.
+       (T. L. P.)
+
+_House Bells._--Buildings are commonly provided with bells, conveniently
+arranged so as to enable attendants to be summoned to the different
+rooms. In the old system, which has been largely superseded by pneumatic
+and still more by electric bells, the bells themselves are of the
+ordinary conical shape and are provided with clappers hung loosely
+inside them. Being supported on springs they continue to swing, and
+therefore to give out sound as the clapper knocks against the sides, for
+some time after they have been set in motion by means of the strings or
+wires by which each is connected to a bell-pull in the rooms. These
+wires are generally placed out of sight inside the walls, and
+bell-cranks are employed to take them round corners and to change the
+direction of motion as required. A lightly poised pendulum is often
+attached to each bell, to show by its motion when it has been rung. In
+pneumatic bells the wires are replaced by pipes of narrow bore, and the
+current of air which is caused to flow along these by the pressing of a
+push-button actuates a small hammer which impinges rapidly against a
+bell or gong. An electric bell consists of a small electro-magnet acting
+on a soft iron armature which is supported in such a way that normally
+it stands away from the magnet. When the latter is energized by the
+passage of an electric current, the armature is attracted towards it,
+and a small hammer attached to it strikes a blow on the bell or gong.
+This "single stroke" type of bell is largely used in railway signalling
+instruments. For domestic purposes, however, the bells are arranged so
+that the hammer strikes a series of strokes, continuing so long as the
+push-button which closes the electric circuit is pressed. A light spring
+is provided against which the armature rests when it is not attracted by
+the electro-magnet, and the current is arranged to pass through this
+spring and the armature on its way to the magnet. When the armature is
+attracted by the magnet it breaks contact with this spring, the current
+is interrupted, and the magnet being no longer energized allows the
+armature to fall back on the spring and thus restore the circuit. In
+this way a rapid to and fro motion is imparted to the hammer. The
+electric current is supplied by a battery, usually either of Leclanché
+or of dry cells. One bell will serve for all the rooms of a house, an
+"indicator" being provided to show from which it has been rung. Such
+indicators are of two main types: the current either sets in motion a
+pendulum, or causes a disk bearing the name or number of the room
+concerned to come into view. Each push must have one wire appropriated
+to itself leading from the battery through the indicator to the bell,
+but the return wire from the bell to the battery may be common to all
+the pushes. Bells of this kind cease to ring whenever the electrical
+continuity of any of these wires is interrupted, but in some cases, as
+in connexion with burglar-alarms, it is desirable that the bell, once
+set in action, shall continue to ring even though the wires are cut. For
+this purpose, in "continuous ringing" bells, the current, started by the
+push or alarm apparatus, instead of working the bell, is made to operate
+a relay-switch and thus to bring into circuit a second battery which
+continues to ring the bell, no matter what happens to the first circuit.
+     (H. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLABELLA, the common name (popularized from the Indian corruption of
+Milbank) for a tribe of Kwakiutl Indians at Milbank, British Columbia,
+including the subtribes Kokaitk, Oetlitk and Ocalitk. They were
+converted to Christianity by Protestant missionaries, and number about
+300.
+
+
+
+
+BELLACOOLA or BILQULA, a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan
+stock, inhabiting the coast of British Columbia. They number some 300.
+
+
+
+
+BELLADONNA (from the Ital. _bella donna_, "beautiful lady," the berries
+having been used as a cosmetic), the roots and leaves of _Atropa
+belladonna_, or deadly nightshade (q.v.), widely used in medicine on
+account of the alkaloids which they contain. Of these the more important
+are atropine (or atropia), hyoscyamine, hyoscine and belladonine;
+atropine is the most important, occurring as the malate to the extent of
+about 0.47% in the leaves, and from 0.6 to 0.25% in the roots.
+
+Atropine, C17H23NO3, was discovered in 1833 by P.L. Geiger and Hesse and
+by Mein in the tissues of _Atropa belladonna_, from which it may be
+extracted by means of chloroform. By crystallization from alcohol it is
+obtained as colourless needles, melting at 115°. Hydrolysis with
+hydrochloric acid or baryta water gives tropic acid and tropine; on the
+other hand, by boiling equimolecular quantities of these substances with
+dilute hydrochloric acid, atropine is reformed. Since both these
+substances have been synthesized (see TROPINE), the artificial formation
+of atropine is accomplished. Atropine is optically inactive;
+hyoscyamine, possibly a physical isomer, which yields atropine when
+heated to 108.6°, is laevorotatory.
+
+_Medicine._--The official doses of atropine are from 1/200 to 1/100
+grain, and the sulphate, which is in general use in medicine, has a
+similar dose. It is highly important to observe that the official doses
+of the various pharmacopoeias may with safety be greatly exceeded in
+practice. They are based on the experimental _toxic_, as distinguished
+from _lethal_ dose. A toxic dose causes unpleasant symptoms, but in
+certain cases, such as this, it may require very many times a toxic dose
+to produce the lethal effect. In other words, whilst one-fiftieth of a
+grain may cause unpleasant symptoms, it may need more than a grain to
+kill. So valuable are certain of the properties of atropine that it is
+often desirable to give doses of one-twentieth or one-tenth of a grain;
+but these will never be ventured upon by the practitioner who is
+ignorant of the great interval between the minimum toxic and the minimum
+lethal dose. It actually needs twenty to thirty grains of atropine to
+kill a rabbit: the animal is, however, somewhat exceptional in this
+regard. The most valuable preparations of this potent drug are the
+_liquor atropinae sulphatis_, which is a 1% solution, and the
+_lamella_--for insertion within the conjunctival sac--which contains one
+five-thousandth part of a grain of the alkaloid.
+
+_Pharmacology._--When rubbed into the skin with such substances as
+alcohol or glycerine, which are absorbed, atropine is carried through
+the epidermis with them, and in this manner--or when simply applied to a
+raw surface--it paralyses the terminals of the pain-conducting sensory
+nerves. It acts similarly, though less markedly, upon the nerves which
+determine the secretion of the perspiration, and is therefore a local
+anaesthetic or anodyne and an anhidrotic. Being rapidly absorbed into
+the blood, it exercises a long and highly important series of actions on
+nearly every part and function of the nervous system. Perhaps its most
+remarkable action is that upon the terminals of nearly all the secretory
+nerves in the body. This causes the entire skin to become dry--as in the
+case of the local action above mentioned; and it arrests the secretion
+of saliva and mucus in the mouth and throat, causing these parts to
+become very dry and to feel very uncomfortable. This latter result is
+due to paralysis of the _chorda tympani_ nerve, which is mainly
+responsible for the salivary secretion. Certain nerve fibres from the
+sympathetic nervous system, which can also cause the secretion of a
+(specially viscous) saliva, are entirely unaffected by atropine. A
+curious parallel to this occurs in its action on the eye. There is much
+uncertainty as to the influence of atropine on the secretions of the
+stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas and kidneys, and it is not possible
+to make any definite statement, save that in all probability the
+activities of the nerves innervating the gland-cells in these organs are
+reduced, though they are certainly not arrested, as in the other cases.
+The secretion of mucus by the bronchi and trachea is greatly reduced and
+their muscular tissue is paralysed--a fact of which much use is made in
+practical medicine. The secretion of milk, if occurring in the mammary
+gland, is much diminished or entirely arrested. Given internally,
+atropine does not exert any appreciable sedative action upon the nerves
+of pain.
+
+The action of atropine on the motor nerves is equally important. Those
+that go to the voluntary muscles are depressed only by very large and
+dangerous doses. The drug appears to have no influence upon the
+contractile cells that constitute muscle-fibre, any more than it has
+directly upon the secretory cells that constitute any gland. But
+moderate doses of atropine markedly paralyse the terminals of the nerves
+that go to involuntary muscles, whether the action of those nerves be
+motor or inhibitory. In the intestine, for instance, are layers of
+muscle-fibre which are constantly being inhibited or kept under check by
+the splanchnic nerves. These are paralysed by atropine, and intestinal
+peristalsis is consequently made more active, the muscles being released
+from nervous control. The motor nerves of the arteries, of the bladder
+and rectal sphincters, and also of the bronchi, are paralysed by
+atropine, but the nervous arrangements of those organs are highly
+complex and until they are further unravelled by physiologists,
+pharmacology will be unable to give much information which might be of
+great value in the employment of atropine. The action upon the
+vaso-motor system is, however, fairly clear. Whether effected entirely
+by action on the nerve terminals, or by an additional influence upon the
+vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata, atropine certainly causes
+extreme dilatation of the blood-vessels, so much so that the skin
+becomes flushed and there may appear, after large doses, an erythematous
+rash, which must be carefully distinguished, in cases of supposed
+belladonna poisoning, from that of scarlet fever: more especially as the
+temperature may be elevated and the pulse is very rapid in both
+conditions. But whilst the characteristic action of atropine is to
+dilate the blood-vessels, its first action is to stimulate the
+vaso-motor centre--thereby causing temporary contraction of the
+vessels--and to increase the rapidity of the heart's action, so that the
+blood-pressure rapidly rises. Though transient, this action is so
+certain, marked and rapid, as to make the subcutaneous injection of
+atropine invaluable in certain conditions. The respiratory centre is
+similarly stimulated, so that atropine must be regarded as a temporary
+but efficient respiratory and cardiac stimulant.
+
+Toxic doses of atropine--and therefore of belladonna--raise the
+temperature several degrees. The action is probably nervous, but in the
+present state of our knowledge regarding the control of the temperature
+by the nervous system, it cannot be further defined. In small
+therapeutic and in small toxic doses atropine stimulates the motor
+apparatus of the spinal cord, just as it stimulates the centres in the
+medulla oblongata. This is indeed, as Sir Thomas Fraser has pointed out,
+"a strychnine action." In large toxic and in lethal doses the activity
+of the spinal cord is lowered.
+
+No less important than any of the above is the action of atropine on the
+cerebrum. This has long been a debated matter, but it may now be stated,
+with considerable certainty, that the higher centres are incoordinately
+stimulated, a state closely resembling that of delirium tremens being
+induced. In cases of poisoning the delirium may last for many hours or
+even days. Thereafter a more or less sleepy state supervenes, but it is
+not the case that atropine ever causes genuine coma. The stuporose
+condition is the result of exhaustion after the long period of cerebral
+excitement. It is to be noted that children, who are particularly
+susceptible to the influence of certain of the other potent alkaloids,
+such as morphine and strychnine, will take relatively large doses of
+atropine without ill-effect.
+
+The action of atropine on the eye is of high theoretical and practical
+importance. The drug affects only the involuntary muscles of the eye,
+just as it affects only the involuntary or non-striated portion of the
+oesophagus. The result of its instillation into the eye--and the same
+occurs when the atropine has been absorbed elsewhere--is rapidly to
+cause wide dilatation of the pupil. This can be experimentally shown--by
+the method of exclusion--to be caused by a paralysis of the terminals of
+the third cranial nerve in the _sphincter pupillae_ of the iris. The
+action of atropine in dilating the pupil is also aided by a stimulation
+of the fibres from the sympathetic nervous system, which innervate the
+remaining muscle of the iris--the _dilator pupillae_. As a result of the
+extreme pupillary dilatation, the tension of the eyeball is greatly
+raised. The sight of many an eye has been destroyed by the use of
+atropine--in ignorance of this action on the intra-ocular tension--in
+cases of incipient glaucoma. The use of atropine is absolutely
+contra-indicated in any case where the intra-ocular tension already is,
+or threatens to become, unduly high. This warning applies notably to
+those--usually women--who are accustomed indiscriminately to use
+belladonna or atropine in order to give greater brilliancy to their
+eyes. The fourth ocular result of administering atropine is the
+production of a slight but definite degree of local anaesthesia of the
+eyeball. It follows from the above that a patient who is definitely
+under the influence of atropine will display rapid pulse, dilated
+pupils, a dry skin and a sense of discomfort, due to dryness of the
+mouth and throat.
+
+_Therapeutics._--The external uses of the drug are mainly analgesic. The
+liniment or plaster of belladonna will relieve many forms of local pain.
+Generally speaking, it may be laid down that atropine is more likely
+than iodine to relieve a pain of quite superficial origin; and
+conversely. Totally to be reprobated is the use, in order to relieve
+pain, of belladonna or any other application which affects the skin, in
+cases where the surgeon may later be required to operate. In such cases,
+it is necessary to use such anodyne measures as will not interfere with
+the subsequent demands that may be made of the skin, i.e. that it be
+aseptic and in a condition so sound that it is able to undertake the
+process of healing itself after the operation has been performed.
+Atropine is universally and constantly used in ophthalmic practice in
+order to dilate the pupil for examination of the retina by the
+ophthalmoscope, or in cases where the inflamed iris threatens to form
+adhesions to neighbouring parts. The drug is often replaced in
+ophthalmology by homatropine--an alkaloid prepared from tropine--which
+acts similarly to atropine but has the advantage of allowing the ocular
+changes to pass away in a much shorter time. The anhidrotic action of
+atropine is largely employed in controlling the night-sweats so
+characteristic of pulmonary tuberculosis, small doses of the solution of
+the sulphate being given at night.
+
+The uses of atropine in cardiac affections are still obscure and
+dubious. It can only be laid down that the drug is a valuable though
+temporary stimulant in emergencies, and that its use as a plaster or
+internally often relieves cardiac pain. Recollection of the
+extraordinary complexity of the problems which are involved in the whole
+question of pain of cardiac origin will emphasize the extreme vagueness
+of the above assertion. Professor Schäfer recommended the use of
+atropine prior to the administration of a general anaesthetic, in cases
+where the action of the vagus nerve upon the heart is to be dreaded; and
+there is little doubt of the value of this precaution, which has no
+attendant disadvantages, in all such cases. Atropine is often of value
+as an antidote, as in poisoning by pilocarpine, muscarine (mushroom
+poisoning), prussic acid, &c.
+
+Omitting numerous minor applications of this drug, we may pass to two
+therapeutic uses which are of unquestionable utility. In cases of
+whooping-cough or any other condition in which there is spasmodic action
+of the muscular fibre in the bronchi--a definition which includes nearly
+every form of asthma and many cases of bronchitis--atropine is an almost
+invaluable drug. Not only does it relieve the spasm, but it lessens the
+amount of secretion--often dangerously excessive--which is often
+associated with it. The relief of symptoms in whooping-cough is sharply
+to be distinguished from any influence on the course of the disease,
+since the drug does not abbreviate its duration by a single day. In
+treating an actual and present attack of asthma, it is advisable to give
+the standardized tincture of belladonna--unless expense is no
+consideration, in which case atropine may itself be used--in doses of
+twenty minims every quarter of an hour as long as no evil effects
+appear. Relief is thereby constantly obtained. Smaller doses of the drug
+should be given three times a day between the attacks.
+
+The nocturnal enuresis or urinary incontinence of children and of adults
+is frequently relieved by this drug. The excellent toleration of
+atropine displayed by children must be remembered, and if its use is
+"pushed" a cure may almost always be expected.
+
+_Toxicology._--The symptoms of poisoning by belladonna or atropine are
+dealt with above. The essential point here to be added is that death
+takes place from combined cardiac and respiratory failure. This fact is,
+of course, the key to treatment. This consists in the use of emetics or
+the stomach-pump, with lime-water, which decomposes the alkaloid. These
+measures are, however, usually rendered nugatory by the very rapid
+absorption of the alkaloid. Death is to be averted by such measures as
+will keep the heart and lungs in action until the drug has been excreted
+by the kidneys. Inject stimulants subcutaneously; give coffee--hot and
+strong--by the mouth and rectum, or use large doses of caffeine citrate;
+and employ artificial respiration. Do not employ such physiological
+antagonists as pilocarpine or morphine, for the lethal actions of all
+these drugs exhibit not mutual antagonism but coincidence.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAGIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Como, about 15
+m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of Como, situated on the promontory
+which divides the two southern arms of the Lake of Como. Pop. (1901)
+3536. It is chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and is a
+very favourite resort in the spring and autumn. Some of the gardens of
+its villas are remarkably fine. The manufacture of silks and carving in
+olive wood are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAIRE, a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, 5
+m. S. of Wheeling, West Virginia. Pop. (1890) 9934; (1900) 9912 (1159
+foreign-born); (1910) 12,946. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the
+Pennsylvania, and the Ohio River & Western railways. Bellaire is the
+shipping centre of the Belmont county coalfield which in 1907 produced
+19.3% of the total output of coal for the state. Iron, limestone and
+fireclay are found in the vicinity; among the manufactures are iron and
+steel, glass, galvanized and enamelled ware, agricultural implements and
+stoves. The value of the city's factory products increased from
+$8,837,646 in 1900 to $10,712,438 in 1905, or 21.2%. Bellaire was
+settled about 1795, was laid out in 1836, was incorporated as a village
+in 1858, and was chartered as a city in 1874.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAMY, EDWARD (1850-1898), American author and social reformer, was
+born at Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, on the 25th of March 1850. He
+studied for a time at Union College, Schenectady, New York, and in
+Germany; was admitted to the bar in 1871; but soon engaged in newspaper
+work, first as an associate editor of the _Springfield Union_, Mass.,
+and then as an editorial writer for the _New York Evening Post_. After
+publishing three novelettes (_Six to One, Dr Heidenhoff's Process_ and
+_Miss Ludington's Sister_), pleasantly written and showing some
+inventiveness in situation, but attracting no special notice, in 1888 he
+caught the public attention with _Looking Backward, 2000-1887_. in which
+he set forth ideas of co-operative or semi-socialistic life in village
+or city communities. The book was widely circulated in America and
+Europe, and was translated into several foreign languages. It was at
+first judged merely as a romance, but was soon accepted as a statement
+of the deliberate wishes and methods of its author, who devoted the
+remainder of his life as editor, author, lecturer and politician, to the
+promotion of the communistic theories of _Looking Backward_, which he
+called "nationalism"; a Nationalist party (the main points of whose
+immediate programme, according to Bellamy, were embodied in the platform
+of the People's party of 1892) was organized, but obtained no political
+hold. In 1897 Bellamy published _Equality_, a sequel to _Looking
+Backward_. He died at Chicopee Falls on the 22nd of May 1898.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE (1727-1788), English actress, born at Fingal,
+Ireland, by her own account, on the 23rd of April 1733, but more
+probably in 1727, was the illegitimate daughter of Lord Tyrawley,
+British ambassador at Lisbon. Her mother married there a Captain
+Bellamy, and the child received the name George Anne, by mistake for
+Georgiana. Lord Tyrawley acknowledged the child, had her educated in a
+convent in Boulogne, and through him she came to know a number of
+notable people in London. On his appointment as ambassador to Russia,
+she went to live with her mother in London, made the acquaintance of Mrs
+Woffington and Garrick, and adopted the theatrical profession. Her first
+engagement was at Covent Garden as Monimia in the _Orphan_ in 1744.
+Owing to her personal charms and the social patronage extended to her,
+her success was immediate, and till 1770 she acted in London, Edinburgh
+and Dublin, in all the principal tragic roles. She played Juliet to
+Garrick's Romeo at Drury Lane at the time that Spranger Barry (q.v.) was
+giving the rival performances at Covent Garden, and was considered the
+better of the Juliets. Her last years were unhappy, and passed in
+poverty and ill-health. She died on the 16th of February 1788.
+
+  Her _Apology_ (6 vols., 1785) gives an account of her long career and
+  of her private life, the extravagance and licence of which were
+  notorious.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAMY, JOSEPH (1719-1790), American theologian, was born in Cheshire,
+Connecticut, on the 20th of February 1719. He graduated from Yale in
+1735, studied theology for a time under Jonathan Edwards, was licensed
+to preach when scarcely eighteen years old, and from 1740 until his
+death, on the 6th of March 1790, was pastor of the Congregational church
+at Bethlehem, Connecticut. The publication of his best-known work, _True
+Religion Delineated_ (1750), won for him a high reputation as a
+theologian, and the book was several times reprinted both in England and
+in America. Despite the fact that with the exception of the period of
+the "Great Awakening" (1740-1742), when he preached as an itinerant in
+several neighbouring colonies, his active labours were confined to his
+own parish, his influence on the religious thought of his time in
+America was probably surpassed only by that of his old friend and
+teacher Jonathan Edwards. This influence was due not only to his
+publications, but also to the "school" or classes for the training of
+clergymen which he conducted for many years at his home and from which
+went forth scores of preachers to every part of New England and the
+middle colonies (states). Bellamy's "system" of divinity was in general
+similar to that of Edwards. During the War of Independence he was loyal
+to the American cause. The university of Aberdeen conferred upon him the
+honorary degree of D.D. in 1768. He was a powerful and dramatic
+preacher. His published works, in addition to that above mentioned,
+include _The Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin_ (1758), his most
+characteristic work; _Theron, Paulinus and Aspasio; or Letters and
+Dialogues upon the Nature of Love to God, Faith in Christ, and Assurance
+of a Title to Eternal Life_ (1759); _The Nature and Glory of the Gospel_
+(1762); _A Blow at the Root of Antinomianism_ (1763); _There is but One
+Covenant_ (1769); _Four Dialogues on the Half-Way Covenant_ (1769); and
+_A Careful and Strict Examination of the External Covenant_ (1769).
+
+  His collected _Works_ were published in 3 vols. (New York, 1811-1812),
+  and were republished with a _Memoir_ by Rev. Tryon Edwards (2 vols.,
+  Boston, 1850).
+
+
+
+
+BELLARMINE (Ital. _Bellarmino_), ROBERTO FRANCESCO ROMOLO (1542-1621),
+Italian cardinal and theologian, was born at Monte Pulciano, in Tuscany,
+on the 4th of October 1542. He was destined by his father to a political
+career, but feeling a call to the priesthood he entered the Society of
+Jesus in 1560 After spending three years at Rome, he was sent to the
+Jesuit settlement at Mondovi in Piedmont, where he studied and at the
+same time taught Greek, and, though not yet in orders, gained some
+reputation as a preacher. In 1567 and 1568 he was at Padua, studying
+theology under a master who belonged to the school of St Thomas Aquinas.
+In 1569 he was sent by the general of his order to Louvain, and in 1570,
+after being ordained priest, began to lecture on theology at the
+university. His seven years' residence in the Low Countries brought him
+into close relations with modes of thought differing essentially from
+his own; and, though he was neither by temperament nor training inclined
+to be affected by the prevailing Augustinian doctrines of grace and
+free-will, the controversy into which he fell on these questions
+compelled him to define his theological principles more clearly. On his
+return to Rome in 1576 he was chosen by Gregory XIII. to lecture on
+controversial theology in the newly-founded Roman College. The result of
+these labours appeared some years afterwards in the far-famed
+_Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei adversus hujus
+temporis Haereticos_ (3 vols., 1581, 1582, 1593). These volumes, which
+called forth a multitude of answers on the Protestant side, exhaust the
+controversy as it was carried on in those days, and contain a lucid and
+uncompromising statement of Roman Catholic doctrine. For many years
+afterwards, Bellarmine was held by Protestant advocates as the champion
+of the papacy, and a vindication of Protestantism generally took the
+form of an answer to his works. In 1589 he was selected by Sixtus V. to
+accompany, in the capacity of theologian, the papal legation sent to
+France soon after the murder of Henry III. He was created cardinal in
+1599 by Clement VIII., and two years later was made archbishop of Capua.
+His efforts on behalf of the clergy were untiring, and his ideal of the
+bishop's office may be read in his address to his nephew, Angelo della
+Ciaia, who had been raised to the episcopate (_Admonitio ad episcopum
+Theanensem, nepotem suum_, Rome, 1612). Being detained in Rome by the
+desire of the newly-elected pope, Paul V., he resigned his archbishopric
+in 1605. He supported the church in its conflicts with the civil powers
+in Venice, France and England, and sharply criticized James I. for the
+severe legislation against the Roman Catholics that followed the
+discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. When health failed him, he retired to
+Monte Pulciano, where from 1607 to 1611 he acted as bishop. In 1610 he
+published his _De Potestate summi Pontificis in rebus temporalibus_
+directed against the posthumous work of William Barclay of Aberdeen,
+which denied the temporal power of the pope. Bellarmine trod here on
+difficult ground, for, although maintaining that the pope had the
+indirect right to depose unworthy rulers, he gave offence to Paul V. in
+not asserting more strongly the direct papal claim, whilst many French
+theologians, and especially Bossuet, condemned him for his defence of
+ultramontanism. As a _consultor_ of the Sacred Office, Bellarmine took a
+prominent part in the first examination of Galileo's writings. His
+conduct in this matter has been constantly misrepresented. He had
+followed with interest Galileo's scientific discoveries and a respectful
+admiration grew up between them. Bellarmine did not proscribe the
+Copernican system, as has been maintained by Reusch (_Der Process
+Galilei's und die Jesuiten_, Bonn, 1879, p. 125); all he claimed was
+that it should be presented as an hypothesis until it should receive
+scientific demonstration. When Galileo visited Rome in December 1615 he
+was warmly received by Bellarmine, and the high regard in which he was
+held is clearly testified in Bellarmine's letters and in Galileo's
+dedication to the cardinal of his discourse on "flying bodies." The last
+years of Bellarmine's life were mainly devoted to the composition of
+devotional works and to securing the papal approbation of the new order
+of the Visitation, founded by his friend St Francis de Sales, and the
+beatification of St Philip Neri. He died in Rome on the 17th of
+September 1621. Bellarmine, whose life was a model of Christian virtue,
+is the greatest of modern Roman Catholic controversialists, but the
+value of his theological works is seriously impaired by a very defective
+exegesis and a too frequent use of "forced" conclusions. His devotional
+treatises were very popular among English Roman Catholics in the penal
+days.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the older editions of Bellarmine's complete works
+  the best is that in 7 vols. published at Cologne (1617-1620); modern
+  editions appeared in 8 vols. at Naples (1856-1862, reprinted 1872),
+  and in 12 vols. at Paris (1870-1874). For complete bibliography of all
+  works of Bellarmine, of translations and controversial writings
+  against him, see C. Sommervogel, _Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de
+  Jésus_ (Brussels and Paris, 1890 et seq.), vol. i. cols. 1151-1254;
+  _id., Addenda_, pp. x.-xi. vol. viii., cols. 1797-1807. The main
+  source for the life of Bellarmine is his Latin _Autobiography_ (Rome,
+  1675; Louvain, 1753), which was reprinted with original text and
+  German translation in the work of Dollinger and Reusch entitled _Die
+  Selbst-biographie des Cardinals Bellarmin_ (Bonn, 1887). The
+  _Epistolae Familiares_, a very incomplete collection of letters, was
+  published by J. Fuligatti (Rome, 1650), who is also the author of
+  _Vita del cardinale Bellarmino della Compagnia di Giesù_ (Rome, 1624).
+  Cf. D. Bartoli, _Della vita di Roberto cardinal Bellarmino_ (Rome,
+  1678), and M. Cervin, _Imago virtutum Roberti card. Bellarmini
+  Politiani_ (Siena, 1622), All these are panegyrics of small historical
+  value. The best modern studies are J.B. Couderc's _Le Vénérable
+  Cardinal Bellarmin_ (2 vols., Paris, 1893), and X. le Bachelet's
+  article in A. Vacant's _Dict. de theól, cat._ cols. 560-599, with
+  exhaustive bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+BELLARY, or BALLARI, a city and district of British India, in the Madras
+presidency. The city is 305 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901) 58,247.
+The fort rises from a huge mass of granite rock, which with a
+circumference of nearly 2 m., juts up abruptly to a height of 450 ft.
+above the plain. The length of this rock from north-east to south-west
+is about 1150 ft. To the E. and S. lies an irregular heap of boulders,
+but to the W. is an unbroken precipice, and the N. is walled by bare
+rugged ridges. It is defended by two distinct lines of works. The upper
+fort is a quadrangular building on the summit, with only one approach,
+and was deemed impregnable by the Mysore princes. But as it has no
+accommodation for a garrison, it is now only occupied by a small guard
+of British troops in charge of prisoners. The ex-nawab of Kurnool was
+confined in it for forty years for the murder of his wife. It contains
+several cisterns, excavated in the rock. Outside the turreted rampart
+are a ditch and covered way. The lower fort lies at the eastern base of
+the rock and measures about half a mile in diameter. It contains the
+barracks and the commissariat stores, the Protestant church, orphanage,
+Masonic lodge, post-office and numerous private dwellings. The fort of
+Bellary was originally built by Hanumapa, in the 16th century. It was
+first dependent on the kingdom of Vijayanagar, afterwards on Bijapur,
+and subsequently subject to the nizam and Hyder Ali. The latter erected
+the present fortifications according to tradition with the assistance of
+a French engineer in his service, whom he afterwards hanged for not
+building the fort on a higher rock adjacent to it. Bellary is an
+important cantonment and the headquarters of a military division. There
+is a considerable trade in cotton, in connexion with which there are
+large steam presses, and some manufacture of cotton cloth. There is a
+cotton spinning mill. In 1901 Bellary was chosen as one of the places of
+detention in India for Boer prisoners of war.
+
+The district of BELLARY has an area of 5714 sq. m. It consists chiefly
+of an extensive plateau between the Eastern and Western Ghats, of a
+height varying from 800 to 1000 ft. above the sea. The most elevated
+tracts are on the west, where the surface rises towards the culminating
+range of hills, and on the south, where it rises to the elevated
+tableland of Mysore. Towards the centre the almost treeless plain
+presents a monotonous aspect, broken only by a few rocky elevations that
+rise abruptly from the black soil. The hill ranges in Bellary are those
+of Sandur and Kampli to the west, the Lanka Malla to the east and the
+Copper Mountain (3148 ft.) to the south-west. The district is watered by
+five rivers: the Tungabhadra, formed by the junction of two streams,
+Tunga and Bhadra, the Haggari, Hindri, Chitravati and Pennar, the last
+considered sacred by the natives. None of the rivers is navigable and
+all are fordable during the dry season. The climate of Bellary is
+characterized by extreme dryness, due to the passing of the air over a
+great extent of heated plains, and it has a smaller rainfall than any
+other district in south India. The average daily variation of the
+thermometer is from 67° to 83° F. The prevailing diseases are cholera,
+fever, small-pox, ophthalmia, dysentery and those of the skin among the
+lower classes. Bellary is subject to disastrous storms and hurricanes,
+and to famines arising from a series of bad seasons. There were
+memorable famines in 1751, 1793, 1803, 1833, 1854, 1866, 1877 and 1896.
+
+In 1901 the population was 947,214, showing an increase of 8% in the
+decade. The principal crops are millet, other food-grains, pulse,
+oil-seeds and cotton. There are considerable manufactures of cotton and
+woollen goods, and cotton is largely exported. The district is traversed
+by the Madras and Southern Mahratta railways, meeting on the eastern
+border at Guntakal junction, where another line branches off to Bezwada.
+
+Little is known of the early history of the district. It contains the
+ruined capital of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, and on the
+overthrow of that state by the Mahommedans, in 1564, the tract now
+forming the district of Bellary was split up into a number of military
+holdings, held by chiefs called poligars. In 1635 the Carnatic was
+annexed to the Bijapur dominions, from which again it was wrested in
+1680 by Sivaji, the founder of the Mahratta power. It was then included
+in the dominions of Nizam-ul-mulk, the nominal viceroy of the great
+Mogul in the Deccan, from whom again it was subsequently conquered by
+Hyder Ali of Mysore. At the close of the war with Tippoo Sultan in 1792,
+these territories fell to the share of the nizam of Hyderabad, by whom
+they were ceded to the British in 1800, in return for protection by a
+force of British troops to be stationed at his capital. In 1808 the
+"Ceded Districts," as they were called, were split into two districts,
+Cuddapah and Bellary. In 1882 the district of Anantapur, which had
+hitherto formed part of Bellary, was formed into a separate
+collectorate.
+
+  See _Bellary Gazetteer_, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BELL-COT, BELL-GABLE, or BELL-TURRET, the place where one or more bells
+are hung in chapels or small churches which have no towers. Bell-cots
+are sometimes double, as at Northborough and Coxwell; a very common form
+in France and Switzerland admits of three bells. In these countries also
+they are frequently of wood and attached to the ridge. In later times
+bell-turrets were much ornamented; on the continent of Europe they run
+up into a sort of small, slender spire, called _flèche_ in France, and
+_guglio_ in Italy. A bell-cot, gable or turret often holds the
+"Sanctus-bell," rung at the saying of the "Sanctus" at the beginning of
+the canon of the Mass, and at the consecration and elevation of the
+Elements in the Roman Church. This differs but little from the common
+bell-cot, except that it is generally on the top of the arch dividing
+the nave from the chancel. At Cleeve, however, the bell seems to have
+been placed in a cot outside the wall. Sanctus-bells have also been
+placed over the gables of porches.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEAU, REMY (c. 1527-1577), French poet, and member of the Pléiade
+(see DAURAT), was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou about 1527. He studied with
+Ronsard and others under Jean Daurat at the Collège de Coqueret. He was
+attached to Renè de Lorraine, marquis d'Elboeuf, in the expedition
+against Naples in 1557, where he did good military service. On his
+return he was made tutor to the young Charles, marquis d'Elboeuf, who,
+under Belleau's training became a great patron of the muses. Belleau was
+an enthusiast for the new learning and joined the group of young poets
+with ardour. In 1556 he published the first translation of Anacreon
+which had appeared in French. In the next year he published his first
+collection of poems, the _Petites inventions_, in which he describes
+stones, insects and flowers. The _Amours et nouveaux échanges des
+pierres précieuses_ ... (1576) contains perhaps his most characteristic
+work. Its title is quoted in the lines of Ronsard's epitaph on his
+tomb:--
+
+  "Luy mesme a basti son tombeau
+   Dedans ses Pierres Précieuses."
+
+He wrote commentaries to Ronsard's _Amours_ in 1560, notes which evinced
+delicate taste and prodigious learning. Like Ronsard and Joachim Du
+Bellay, he was extremely deaf. His days passed peacefully in the midst
+of his books and friends, and he died on the 6th of March 1577. He was
+buried in the nave of the Grands Augustins at Paris, and was borne to
+the tomb on the pious shoulders of four poets, Ronsard, J.A. de Baïf,
+Philippe Desportes and Amadis Jamyn. His most considerable work is _La
+Bergerie_ (1565-1572), a pastoral in prose and verse, written in
+imitation of Sannazaro. The lines on April in the _Bergerie_ are well
+known to all readers of French poetry. Belleau was the French Herrick,
+full of picturesqueness, warmth and colour. His skies drop flowers and
+all his air is perfumed, and this voluptuous sweetness degenerates
+sometimes into licence. Extremely popular in his own age, he shared the
+fate of his friends, and was undeservedly forgotten in the next. Regnier
+said: "Belleau ne parle pas comme on parle à la ville"; and his lyrical
+beauty was lost on the trim 17th century. His complete works were
+collected in 1578, and contain, besides the works already mentioned, a
+comedy entitled _La Reconnue_, in short rhymed lines, which is not
+without humour and life, and a comic masterpiece, a macaronic poem on
+the religious wars, _Dictamen metrificum de bello huguenotico et
+reistrorum[1] piglamine ad sodales_ (Paris, no date).
+
+  The _Oeuvres complètes_ (3 vols., 1867) of Remy Belleau were edited by
+  A. Gouverneui; and his _OEuvres poétiques_ (2 vols., 1879) by M. Ch.
+  Marty-Laveaux in his _Pléiade française_; see also C.A. Sainte-Beuve,
+  _Tableau historique et critique de la poésie française au XVI^e
+  siècle_ (ed. 1876), i. pp. 155-160, and ii. pp. 296 seq.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _reitres_, German soldiers of fortune.
+
+
+
+
+BELLECOUR (1725-1778), French actor, whose real name was JEAN CLAUDE
+GILLES COLSON, was born on the 16th of January 1725, the son of a
+portrait-painter. He showed decided artistic talent, but soon deserted
+the brush for the stage under the name of Bellecour. After playing in
+the provinces he was called to the Comédie Française, but his _début_,
+on the 21st of December 1750, as Achilles in _Iphigénie_ was not a great
+success. He soon turned to more congenial comedy rôles, which for thirty
+years he filled with great credit. He was a very natural player, and his
+willingness to give others on the stage an opportunity to show their
+talents made him extremely popular. He wrote a successful play, _Fausses
+apparences_ (1761), and was very useful to the Comédie Française in
+editing and adapting the plays of others. He died on the 19th of
+November 1778.
+
+His wife, ROSE PERRINE LE ROY DE LA CORBINAYE, was born at Lamballe on
+the 20th of December 1730, the daughter of an artillery officer. Under
+the stage name of Beaumenard she made her first Paris appearance in 1743
+as Gogo in Favart's _Le Coq du village_. After a year at the Opéra
+Comique she played in several companies, including that of Marshal Saxe,
+who is said to have been not insensible to her charms. In 1749 she made
+her _début_ at the Comédie Française as Dorine in _Tartuffe_, and her
+success was immediate. She retired in 1756, but after an absence of five
+years, during which she married, she reappeared as Madame Bellecour, and
+continued her successes in soubrette parts in the plays of Molière and
+de Regnard. She retired finally at the age of sixty, but troublous times
+had put an end to the pension which she received from Louis XVI. and
+from the theatre, and she died in abject poverty on the 5th of August
+1799. There is a charming portrait of her owned by the Théâtre Français.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEFONTAINE, a city and the county-seat of Logan county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
+about 45 m. N.W. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 4245; (1900) 6649 (267
+foreign-born); (1910) 8238. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
+Chicago & St Louis (which has large shops here) and the Ohio Central
+railways; also by the Dayton, Springfield & Urbana electric railway. It
+is built on the south-west slope of a hill having an elevation of about
+1500 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of which are several springs of
+clear water which suggested the city's name. Among the city's
+manufactures are iron bridges, carriage-bodies, flour and cement. The
+municipality owns and operates its water-works system and its gas and
+electric-lighting plants. Bellefontaine was first settled about 1818,
+was laid out as a town and made the county-seat in 1820 and was
+incorporated in 1835.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEGARDE, the name of an important French family. Roger de Saint-Lary,
+baron of Bellegarde, served with distinction in the wars against the
+French Protestants. He showed much devotion to Henry III., who loaded
+him with favours and made him marshal of France. He eventually fell into
+disgrace, however, and died by poisoning in 1579. His nephew, Roger de
+Saint-Lary de Termes, a favourite with Henry III., Henry IV. and Louis
+XIII., was royal master of the horse and governor of Burgundy. His
+estate of Seurre in Burgundy was created a duchy in the peerage of
+France (_duché-pairie_) in his favour under the name of Bellegarde, in
+1619. In 1645 the title of this duchy was transferred to the estate of
+Choisy-aux-Loges in Gâtinais, and was borne later by the family of
+Pardaillan de Gondrin, heirs of the house of Saint-Lary-Bellegarde. When
+Seurre passed into the possession of the princes of Condé they in the
+same way acquired the title of dukes of Bellegarde. (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOSEPH JOHANNES, COUNT VON (1756-1845), Austrian
+soldier and statesman, was born at Dresden on the 29th of August 1756,
+and for a short time served in the Saxon army. Transferring his services
+to Austria in 1771 he distinguished himself greatly as colonel of
+dragoons in the Turkish War of 1788-1789, and served as a major-general
+in the Netherlands campaigns of 1793-1794. In the campaign of 1796 in
+Germany, as a lieutenant field marshal, he served on the staff of the
+archduke Charles, whom he accompanied to Italy in the following year. He
+was also employed in the congress of Rastatt. In 1799 he commanded a
+corps in eastern Switzerland, connecting the armies of the archduke and
+Suvarov, and finally joined the latter in north Italy. He conducted the
+siege of the citadel of Alessandria, and was present at the decisive
+battle of Novi. He served again in the latter part of the Marengo
+campaign of 1800 in the rank of general of cavalry. In 1805, when the
+archduke Charles left to take command in Italy, Bellegarde became
+president _ad interim_ of the council of war. He was, however, soon
+employed in the field, and at the sanguinary battle of Caldiero he
+commanded the Austrian right. In the war of 1809 he commanded the
+extreme right wing of the main army (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). Cut off
+from Charles as the result of the battle of Eckmühl, he retreated into
+Bohemia, but managed to rejoin before the great battles near Vienna
+(Aspern and Wagram). From 1809 to 1813 Bellegarde, now field marshal,
+was governor-general of Galicia, but was often called to preside over
+the meetings of the Aulic Council, especially in 1810 in connexion with
+the reorganization of the Austrian army. In 1813, 1814 and 1815 he led
+the Austrian armies in Italy. His successes in these campaigns were
+diplomatic as well as military, and he ended them by crushing the last
+attempt of Murat in 1815. From 1816 to 1825 (when he had to retire owing
+to failing eyesight) he held various distinguished civil and military
+posts. He died in 1845.
+
+  See Smola, _Das Leben des F.M. van Bellegarde_ (Vienna, 1847).
+
+
+
+
+BELLE-ÎLE-EN-MER, an island off the W. coast of France, forming a canton
+of the department of Morbihan, 8 m. S. by W. of the peninsula of
+Quiberon. Pop. (1906) 9703. Area, 33 sq. m. The island is divided into
+the four communes of Le Palais, Bangor, Sauzon and Locmaria. It forms a
+treeless plateau with an average height of 130 ft. above sea-level,
+largely covered with moors and bordered by a rugged and broken coast.
+The climate is mild, the fig-tree and myrtle growing in sheltered spots
+and the soil, where cultivated, is productive. The inhabitants are
+principally engaged in agriculture and the fisheries, and in the
+preservation of sardines, anchovies, &c. The breed of draught horses in
+the island is highly prized. The chief town, Le Palais (pop. 2637), has
+an old citadel and fortifications, and possesses a port which is
+accessible to vessels drawing 13 ft. of water. Belle-Île must have been
+inhabited from a very early period, as it possesses several stone
+monuments of the class usually called Druidic.
+
+The Roman name of the island seems to have been _Vindilis_, which in the
+middle ages became corrupted to Guedel. In 1572 the monks of the abbey
+of Ste Croix at Quimperlé ceded the island to the Retz family, in whose
+favour it was raised to a marquisate in the following year. It
+subsequently came into the hands of the family of Fouquet, and was ceded
+by the latter to the crown in 1718. It was held by English troops from
+1761 to 1763 when the French got it in exchange for Nova Scotia. A few
+of the inhabitants of the latter territory migrated to Belle-Île, which
+is partly peopled by their descendants. In the state prison of Nouvelle
+Force at Le Palais political prisoners have at various times been
+confined.
+
+
+
+
+BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET, COMTE, and later DUC, DE
+(1684-1761), French soldier and statesman, was the grandson of Nicholas
+Fouquet, superintendent of finances under Louis XIV., and was born at
+Villefranche de Rouergue. Although his family was in disgrace, he
+entered the army at an early age and was made proprietary colonel of a
+dragoon regiment in 1708. He rose during the War of the Spanish
+Succession to the rank of brigadier, and in March 1718 to that of
+_maréchal de camp_. In the Spanish War of 1718-1719 he was present at
+the capture of Fontarabia in 1718 and at that of St Sebastian in 1719.
+When the duke of Bourbon became prime minister, Belle-Isle was
+imprisoned in the Bastille, and then relegated to his estates, but with
+the advent of Cardinal Fleury to power he regained some measure of
+favour and was made a lieutenant-general. In the War of the Polish
+Succession he commanded a corps under the orders of Marshal Berwick,
+captured Trier and Trarbach and took part in the siege of Philippsburg
+(1734). When peace was made in 1736 the king, in recognition both of his
+military services and of the part he had taken in the negotiations for
+the cession of Lorraine, gave him the government of the three important
+fortresses of Metz, Toul and Verdun--an office which he kept till his
+death. His military and political reputation was now at its height, and
+he was one of the principal advisers of the government in military and
+diplomatic affairs. In 1741 he was sent to Germany as French
+plenipotentiary to carry out, in the interests of France, a grand scheme
+of political reorganization in the moribund empire, and especially to
+obtain the election of Charles, elector of Bavaria, as emperor. His
+diplomacy was thus the mainspring of the War of the Austrian Succession
+(q.v.), and his military command in south Germany was full of incidents
+and vicissitudes. He had been named marshal of France in 1741, and
+received a large army, with which it is said that he promised to make
+peace in three months under the walls of Vienna. The truth of this story
+is open to question, for no one knew better than Belle-Isle the
+limitations imposed upon commanders by the military and political
+circumstances of the times. These circumstances in fact rendered his
+efforts, both as a general and as a statesman, unavailing, and the one
+redeeming feature in the general failure was his heroic retreat from
+Prague. In ten days he led 14,000 men into and across the Bohemian
+Forest, suffering great privations and harassed by the enemy, but never
+allowing himself to be cut off, and his subordinate Chevert defended
+Prague so well that the Austrians were glad to allow him to rejoin his
+chief. The campaign, however, had discredited Belle-Isle; he was
+ridiculed at Paris by the wits and the populace, even Fleury is said to
+have turned against him, and, to complete his misfortunes, he was taken
+prisoner by the English in going from Cassel to Berlin through Hanover.
+He remained a year in England, in spite of the demands of Louis XV. and
+of the emperor Charles VII. During the campaign of 1746 he was in
+command of the "Army of Piedmont" on the Alpine frontier, and although
+he began his work with a demoralized and inferior army, he managed not
+only to repel the invasion of the Spanish and Italian forces but also to
+carry the war back into the plain of Lombardy. At the peace, having thus
+retrieved his military reputation, he was created duke and peer of
+France (1748). In 1757 his credit at court was considerable, and the
+king named him secretary for war. During his three years' ministry he
+undertook many reforms, such as the development of the military school
+for officers, and the suppression of the proprietary colonelcies of
+nobles who were too young to command; and he instituted the Order of
+Merit. But the Seven Years' War was by that time in progress and his
+efforts had no immediate effect. He died at Versailles on the 26th of
+January 1761. Belle-Isle interested himself in literature; was elected a
+member of the French Academy in 1740, and founded the Academy of Metz in
+1760. The dukedom ended with his death, his only son having been killed
+in 1758 at the battle of Crefeld.
+
+His brother, LOUIS CHARLES ARMAND FOUQUET, known as the Chevalier de
+Belle-Isle (1693-1746), was also a soldier and a diplomatist. He served
+as a junior officer in the War of the Spanish Succession and as
+brigadier in the campaign of 1734 on the Rhine and Moselle, where he won
+the grade of _maréchal de camp_. He was employed under his brother in
+political missions in Bavaria and in Swabia in 1741-1742, became a
+lieutenant-general, fought in Bohemia, Bavaria and the Rhine countries
+in 1742-1743, and was arrested and sent to England with the marshal in
+1744. On his release he was given a command in the Army of Piedmont. He
+fell a victim to his romantic bravery at the action of Exilles (Col de
+l'Assiette) on the 19th of July 1746.
+
+  See Jean de Maugre, _Oraison funèbre du maréchal de Belleisle_
+  (Montmédy, 1762); R.P. de Neuville, _Mémoires du maréchal duc de
+  Belleisle_ (Paris, 1761); D.C. (Chevrier), _La Vie politigue et
+  militaire du maréchal duc de Belleisle_ (London, 1760), and _Testament
+  politique du maréchal duc de Belleisle_ (Hague, 1762); _Le Codicille
+  et l'esprit ou commentaire des maximes du maréchal duc de Belleisle_
+  (Amsterdam, 1761); F.M. Chayert, _Notice sur le maréchal de Belleisle_
+  (Metz, 1856); L. Leclerc, _Éloge du maréchal de Belleisle_ (Metz,
+  1862); E. Michel, _Éloge du maréchal de Belleisle_ (Paris, 1862); and
+  Jobez, _La France sous Louis XV_ (6 vols., Paris, 1868-1874).
+
+
+
+
+BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF, the more northern of the two channels connecting
+the Gulf of St Lawrence with the Atlantic Ocean. It separates northern
+Newfoundland from Labrador, and extends N.E. and S.W. for 35 m., with a
+breadth of 10 to 15 m. It derives its name from a precipitous granite
+island, 700 ft. in height, at its Atlantic entrance. On this lighthouses
+are maintained by the government of Canada and constant communication
+with the mainland is kept up by wireless telegraphy. The strait is in
+the most direct route from Europe to the St Lawrence, but is open only
+from June till the end of November, and even during this period
+navigation is often rendered dangerous by floating ice and fogs. Through
+it Jacques Cartier sailed in 1534. The southern or Cabot Strait, between
+Cape Ray in Newfoundland and Cape North in Cape Breton, was discovered
+later, and the expansion below Belle Isle was long known as _La Grande
+Baie_. Cabot Strait is open all the year, save for occasional
+inconvenience from drift ice.
+
+
+
+
+BELLENDEN (BALLANTYNE or BANNATYNE), JOHN (fl. 1533-1587), Scottish
+writer, was born about the end of the 15th century, in the south-east of
+Scotland, perhaps in East Lothian. He appears to have been educated,
+first at the university of St Andrews and then at that of Paris, where
+he took, the degree of doctor. From his own statement, in one of his
+poems, we learn that he had been in the service of James V. from the
+king's earliest years, and that the post he held was clerk of accounts.
+At the request of James he undertook translations of Boece's _Historia
+Scotorum_, which had appeared at Paris in 1527, and the first five books
+of Livy. As a reward for his versions, which he finished in 1533, he was
+appointed archdeacon of Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a strenuous
+opponent of the Reformation and was compelled to go into exile. He is
+said by some authorities to have died at Rome in 1550; by others to have
+been still living in 1587. His translation of Boece, entitled _The
+History and Chronicles of Scotland_, is a remarkable specimen of
+Scottish prose, distinguished by its freedom and vigour of expression.
+It was published in 1536; and was reprinted in 2 vols., edited by
+Maitland, in 1821. The translation of Livy was not printed till 1822
+(also in 2 vols.). Two MSS. of the latter are extant, one, the older, in
+the Advocates' library, Edinburgh (which was the basis of the normalized
+text of 1822), the other (c. 1550) in the possession of Mr Ogilvie
+Forbes of Boyndlie. An edition of the work was edited for the Scottish
+Text Society by Mr W.A. Craigie (2 vols. 1901, 1903). The second volume
+of this edition contains also a complete reprint of the portions of the
+holograph first draft which were discovered in the British Museum in
+1902. Two poems by Bellenden--_The Proheme to the Cosmographe_ and the
+_Proheme of the History_--appeared in the 1536 edition of the _History
+of Scotland_. Others, bearing his name in the well-known Bannatyne MS.
+collection, made by his namesake George Bannatyne (q.v.), may or may not
+be his. Sir David Lyndsay, in his prologue to the _Papyngo_, speaks
+vaguely of:
+
+  "Ane cunnyng Clark quhilk wrythith craftelie
+   Ane plant of poetis callit Ballendyne,
+   Quhose ornat workis my wit can nocht defyne."
+
+  The chief sources of information regarding Belleriden's life are the
+  _Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland_, his own works and
+  the ecclesiastical records.
+
+
+
+
+BELLENDEN, WILLIAM, Scottish classical scholar. Hardly anything is known
+of him. He lived in the reign of James I. (VI. of Scotland), who
+appointed him _magister libellorum supplicum_ or master of requests.
+King James is also said to have provided Bellenden with the means of
+living independently at Paris, where he became professor at the
+university, and advocate in the parliament. The date of his birth cannot
+be fixed, and it can only be said that he died later than 1625. The
+first of the works by which he is known was published anonymously in
+1608, with the title _Ciceronis Princeps_, a laborious compilation of
+all Cicero's remarks on the origin and principles of regal government,
+digested and systematically arranged. In 1612 there appeared a similar
+work, devoted to the consideration of consular authority and the Roman
+senate, _Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senatusque Romanus_. His third work,
+_De Statu Prisci Orbls_, 1615, is a good outline of general history. All
+three works were combined in a single large volume, entitled _De Statu
+Libri Tres_, 1615, which was first brought into due notice by Dr Samuel
+Parr, who, in 1787, published an edition with a preface, famous for the
+elegance of its Latinity, in which he eulogized Burke, Fox and Lord
+North as the "three English luminaries." The greatest of Bellenden's
+works is the extensive treatise _De Tribus Luminibus Romanorum_, printed
+and published posthumously at Paris in 1633. The book is unfinished, and
+treats only of the first luminary, Cicero; the others intended were
+apparently Seneca and Pliny. It contains a most elaborate history of
+Rome and its institutions, drawn from Cicero, and thus forms a
+storehouse of all the historical notices contained in that voluminous
+author. It is said that nearly all the copies were lost on the passage
+to England. One of the few that survived was placed in the university
+library at Cambridge, and freely drawn upon by Conyers Middieton, the
+librarian, in his _History of the Life of Cicero_. Both Joseph Warton
+and Dr Parr accused Middleton of deliberate plagiarism, which was the
+more likely to have escaped detection owing to the small number of
+existing copies of Bellenden's work.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEROPHON, or BELLEROPHONTES, in Greek legend, son of Glaucus or
+Poseidon, grandson of Sisyphus and local hero of Corinth. Having slain
+by accident the Corinthian hero Bellerus (or, according to others, his
+own brother) he fled to Tiryns, where his kinsman Proetus, king of
+Argos, received him hospitably and purged him of his guilt. But Anteia
+(or Stheneboea), wife of Proetus, became enamoured of Bellerophon, and,
+when he refused her advances, charged him with an attempt upon her
+virtue. Proetus thereupon sent him to Iobates, his wife's father, king
+of Lycia, with a letter or sealed tablet, in which were instructions,
+apparently given by means of signs, to take the life of the bearer.
+Arriving in Lycia, he was received as a guest and entertained for nine
+days. On the tenth, being asked the object of his visit, he handed the
+letter to the king, whose first plan for complying with it was to send
+him to slay the Chimaera, a monster which was devastating the country.
+Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus (q.v.), kept up in the air out of the
+way of the Chimaera, but yet near enough to kill it with his spear, or,
+as he is at other times represented, with his sword or with a bow. He
+was next ordered out against the Solymi, a hostile tribe, and afterwards
+against the Amazons, from both of which expeditions he not only returned
+victorious, but also on his way back slew an ambush of chosen warriors
+whom Iobates had placed to intercept him. His divine origin was now
+proved; the king gave him his daughter in marriage; and the Lycians
+presented him with a large and fertile estate on which he lived
+(Apollodorus, ii. 3; Homer, _Iliad_, vi. 155). Bellerophon is said to
+have returned to Tiryns and avenged himself on Anteia: he persuaded her
+to fly with him on his winged horse, and then flung her into the sea
+near the island of Melos (Schol. Aristoph., _Pax_, 140). His ambitious
+attempt to ascend to the heavens on Pegasus brought upon him the wrath
+of the gods. His son was smitten by Ares in battle; his daughter
+Laodameia was slain by Artemis; he himself, flung from his horse, lamed
+or blinded, became a wanderer over the face of the earth until his death
+(Pindar, _Isthmia_, vi. [vii.], 44; Horace, _Odes_, iv. 11, 26).
+Bellerophon was honoured as a hero at Corinth and in Lycia. His story
+formed the subject of the _Debates_ of Sophocles, and of the
+_Bellerophontes_ and _Stheneboea_ of Euripides. It has been suggested
+that Perseus, the local hero of Argos, and Bellerophon were originally
+one and the same, the difference in their exploits being the result of
+the rivalry of Argos and Corinth. Both are connected with the sun-god
+Helios and with the sea-god Poseidon, the symbol of the union being the
+winged horse Pegasus. Bellerophon has been explained as a hero of the
+storm, of which his conflict with the Chimaera is symbolical. The most
+frequent representations of Bellerophon in ancient art are (1) slaying
+the Chimaera, (2) departing from Argos with the letter, (3) leading
+Pegasus to drink. Among the first is to be noted a terra-cotta relief
+from Melos in the British Museum, where also, on a vase of black ware,
+is what seems to be a representation of his escape from Stheneboea.
+
+  See H.A. Fischer, _Bellerophon_ (1851); R. Engelmann, _Annali_ of the
+  Archaeological Institute at Rome (1874); O. Treuber, _Gechichte der
+  Lykier_ (1887); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopadie_, W.H.
+  Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, Daremberg and Saglio's
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquités_; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_.
+
+
+
+
+BELLES-LETTRES (Fr. for "fine literature"), a term used to designate the
+more artistic and imaginative forms of literature, as poetry or romance,
+as opposed to more pedestrian and exact studies. The term appears to
+have been first used in English by Swift (1710).
+
+
+
+
+BELLEVILLE, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of
+Hastings county, 106 m. E.N.E. of Toronto, on Bay of Quinté and the
+Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 9117. Communication is maintained with
+Lake Ontario and St Lawrence ports by several lines of steamers. It is
+the commercial centre of a fine agricultural district, and has a large
+export trade in cheese and farm produce. The principal industries are
+planing mills and cement works, cheese factories and distilleries. There
+are several educational institutions, including a business college, a
+convent, and a government institute for the deaf and dumb. Albert
+College, under the control of the Methodist church, was formerly a
+university, but now confines itself to secondary education.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of St Clair county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state 14 m. S.E. of St Louis, Missouri.
+Pop. (1890) 15,361; (1900) 17,484, of whom 2750 were foreign-born;
+(1910) 21,122. Belleville is served by the Illinois Central, the
+Louisville & Nashville, and the Southern railways, also by extensive
+interurban electric systems; and a belt line to O'Fallon, Illinois,
+connects Belleville with the Baltimore & Ohio South Western railway. A
+large element of the population is of German descent or German birth,
+and two newspapers are published in German, besides three dailies, three
+weeklies and a semi-weekly in English. Among the industrial
+establishments of the city are stove and range factories, flour mills,
+rolling mills, distilleries, breweries, shoe factories, copper refining
+works, nail and tack factories, glass works and agricultural implement
+factories. The value of the city's factory products increased from
+$2,873,334 in 1900 to $4,356,615 in 1905 or 51.6%. Belleville is in a
+rich agricultural region, and in the vicinity there are valuable coal
+mines, the first of which was sunk in 1852; from this dates the
+industrial development of the city. Belleville was first settled in
+1813, was incorporated as a city in 1850, and was re-incorporated in
+1876.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Ain, 52 m. S.E. of Bourg by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop.
+(1906), town, 3709; commune, 5707. It is situated on vine-covered hills
+at the southern extremity of the Jura, 3 m. from the right bank of the
+Rhone. Apart from the cathedral of St Jean, which, with the exception of
+the choir of 1413, is a modern building, there is little of
+architectural interest in the town. Belley is the seat of a bishopric
+and a prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance. The manufacture of
+morocco leather goods and the quarrying of the lithographic stone of the
+vicinity are carried on, and there is trade in cattle, grain, wine,
+truffles and dressed pork. Belley is of Roman origin, and in the 5th
+century became an episcopal see. It was the capital of the province of
+Bugey, which was a dependency of Savoy till 1601, when it was ceded to
+France. In 1385 the town was almost entirely destroyed by an act of
+incendiarism, but was subsequently rebuilt by the dukes of Savoy, who
+surrounded it with ramparts of which little is left.
+
+
+
+
+BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO (1791-1863), Italian poet, was born at Rome,
+and after a period of literary employment in poor circumstances was
+enabled by marriage with a lady of means to follow his own special bent.
+He is remembered for his vivid popular poetry in the Roman dialect, a
+number of satirical sonnets which in their own way are unique.
+
+  See Morandi's edition, _I sonetti romaneschi_ (1886-1889).
+
+
+
+
+BELLIGERENCY, the state of carrying on war (Lat. _bellum_, war, and
+_gerere_, to wage) in accordance with the law of nations. Insurgents are
+not as such excluded from recognition as belligerents, and, even where
+not recognized as belligerents by the government against which they have
+rebelled, they may be so recognized by a neutral state, as in the case
+of the American Civil War, when the Southern states were recognized as
+belligerents by Great Britain, though regarded as rebels by the Northern
+states. The recognition by a neutral state of belligerency does not,
+however, imply recognition of independent political existence. The
+regulations annexed to the Hague Convention, relating to the laws and
+customs of war (29th of July 1899), contain a section entitled
+"Belligerents" which is divided into three chapters, dealing
+respectively with (i.) The Qualifications of Belligerents; (ii.)
+Prisoners of War; (iii.) The Sick and Wounded. To entitle troops to the
+special privileges attaching to belligerency, chapter i. provides that
+all regular, militia or volunteer forces shall alike be commanded by
+persons responsible for the acts of their men, that all such shall carry
+distinctive emblems, recognizable at a distance, that arms shall be
+carried openly and operations conducted in accordance with the usages of
+war observed among civilized mankind. It provides, nevertheless, for the
+emergency of the population of a territory, which has not already been
+occupied by the invader, spontaneously taking up arms to resist the
+invading forces, without having had time to comply with the above
+requirements; they, too, are to be treated as belligerents "if they
+respect the laws and customs of war." In naval war, privateering having
+been finally abolished as among the parties to it by the declaration of
+Paris, a privateer is not entitled, as between such parties, to the
+rights of belligerency. As between states, one of whom is not a party to
+the Declaration, the right to grant letters of marque would remain
+intact for both parties, and the privateer, _as between them_, would be
+a belligerent; as regards neutrals, the situation would be complicated
+(see PRIVATEER). On prisoners of war and sick and wounded, see WAR.
+     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD (d. 1549), lord deputy of Ireland, was a son of
+Edward Bellingham of Erringham, Sussex, his mother being a member of the
+Shelley family. As a soldier he fought in France and elsewhere, then
+became an English member of parliament and a member of the privy
+council, and in 1547 took part in some military operations in Ireland.
+In May 1548 he was sent to that country as lord deputy. Ireland was then
+in a very disturbed condition, but the new governor crushed a rebellion
+of the O'Connors in Leinster, freed the Pale from rebels, built forts,
+and made the English power respected in Münster and Connaught.
+Bellingham, however, was a headstrong man and was constantly quarrelling
+with his council; but one of his opponents admitted that he was "the
+best man of war that ever he had seen in Ireland." His short but
+successful term of office was ended by his recall in 1549.
+
+  See R. Bagwell, _Ireland Under the Tudors_, vol. i. (1885).
+
+
+
+
+BELLINGHAM, a city of Whatcom county, Washington, U.S.A., on the E. side
+of Bellingham Bay, 96 m. N. of Seattle. Pop. (1900) 11,062; (1905, state
+est.) 26,000; (1910, U.S. census) 24,298. Area about 23 sq. m. It is
+served by the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Canadian
+Pacific, and the Bellingham Bay & British Columbia railways--being a
+terminus of the last named, which operates only 62 m. of line and
+connects with the Mt. Baker goldfields and the Nooksack valley farm and
+orchard region. A suburban electric line was projected in 1907. About 2½
+m. south-east of the city is the main body of Lake Whatcom, 13 m. long,
+1¼ m. wide, and 318 ft. higher than the city and the source of its
+water-supply, a gravity system which cost $1,000,000, being owned by the
+city. Bellingham has two Carnegie libraries. Among the principal
+buildings are the county court-house, the city hall, the Young Men's
+Christian Association building, and Beck's theatre, with a seating
+capacity of 2200. The largest of the state's normal colleges is situated
+here; in 1907 it had a faculty of 25 and 350 students; there are two
+high schools, two business colleges, and one industrial school also in
+the city. The excellent harbour, and the fact that Bellingham is nearer
+to the great markets of Alaska than any other city in the states, make
+the port an important shipping centre. In the value of manufactured
+product the city was fourth in the state in 1905 (being passed only by
+Tacoma, Seattle and Spokane), with a value of $3,293,988; according to a
+census taken by the local chamber of commerce the value of the product
+in 1906 was $7,751,464. The principal industrial establishments are
+shingle (especially cedar) and saw-mills, salmon canneries and factories
+for the manufacture of tin cans, and machinery used in the canning of
+salmon. Motive and electric lighting power is brought 52 m. from the
+falls of the north fork of the Nooksack river, where there is a power
+plant which furnishes 3500 horsepower. There are deposits of clay and
+limestone in the surrounding country, and cement is manufactured in the
+vicinity of the city. The blue-grey Chuckanut sandstone is quarried on
+the shore of Chuckanut Bay, south of Bellingham; and a coarse,
+dark-brown sandstone is quarried on Sucia Island, west of the city.
+There are quarries also on Waldron Island. Bellingham was formed in 1903
+by the consolidation of the cities of New Whatcom (pop. in 1900, 6834)
+and Fairhaven (pop. in 1900, 4228), and was chartered as a city of the
+first class in 1904; it is named from Bellingham Bay, which Vancouver is
+supposed to have named, in 1792, in honour of Sir Henry Bellingham.
+
+
+
+
+BELLINI, the name of a family of craftsmen in Venice, three members of
+which fill a great place in the history of the Venetian school of
+painting in the 15th century and the first years of the 16th.
+
+I. JACOPO BELLINI (c. 1400-1470-71) was the son of a tinsmith or
+pewterer, Nicoletto Bellini, by his wife Franceschina. When the
+accomplished Umbrian master Gentile da Fabriano came to practise at
+Venice, where art was backward, several young men of the city took
+service under him as pupils. Among these were Giovanni and Antonio of
+Murano and Jacopo Bellini. Gentile da Fabriano left Venice for Florence
+in 1422, and the two brothers of Murano stayed at home and presently
+founded a school of their own (see VIVARINI). But Jacopo Bellini
+followed his teacher to Florence, where the vast progress lately made,
+alike in truth to natural fact and in sense of classic grace and style,
+by masters like Donatello and Ghiberti, Masaccio and Paolo Uccello,
+offered him better instruction than he could obtain even from his
+Umbrian teacher. But his position as assistant to Gentile brought him
+into trouble. As a stranger coming to practise in Florence, Gentile was
+jealously looked on. One day some young Florentines threw stones into
+his shop, and the Venetian pupil ran out and drove them off with his
+fists. Thinking this might be turned against him, he went and took
+service on board the galleys of the Florentine state; but returning
+after a year, found he had in his absence been condemned and fined for
+assault. He was arrested and imprisoned, but the matter was soon
+compromised, Jacopo submitting to a public act of penance and his
+adversary renouncing further proceedings. Whether Jacopo accompanied his
+master to Rome in 1426 we cannot tell; but by 1429 we find him settled
+at Venice and married to a wife from Pesaro named Anna (family name
+uncertain), who in that year made a will in favour of her first child
+then expected. She survived, however, and bore her husband two sons,
+Gentile and Giovanni (though some evidences have been thought to point
+rather to Giovanni having been his son by another mother), and a
+daughter Nicolosia. In 1436 Jacopo was at Verona, painting a Crucifixion
+in fresco for the chapel of S. Nicholas in the cathedral (destroyed by
+order of the archbishop in 1750, but the composition, a vast one of many
+figures, has been preserved in an old engraving). Documents ranging from
+1437 to 1465 show him to have been a member of the Scuola or mutual aid
+society of St John the Evangelist at Venice, for which he painted at an
+uncertain date a series of eighteen subjects of the Life of the Virgin,
+fully described by Ridolfi but now destroyed or dispersed. In 1439 we
+find him buying a panel of tarsia work at the sale of the effects of the
+deceased painter Jacobello del Fiore, and in 1440 entering into a
+business partnership with another painter of the city called Donato.
+About this time he must have paid a visit to the court of Ferrara, where
+there prevailed a spirit of free culture and humanism most congenial to
+his tastes. Pisanello, the first great naturalist artist of north Italy,
+whose influence on Jacopo at the outset of his career had been only
+second to that of Gentile da Fabriano, had been some time engaged on a
+portrait of Leonello d'Este, the elder son of the reigning marquis
+Niccolo III. Jacopo (according to an almost contemporary sonneteer)
+competed with a rival portrait, which was declared by the father to be
+the better of the two. In the next year, the last of the marquis
+Niccolo's life, we find him making the successful painter a present of
+two bushels of wheat. The relations thus begun with the house of Este
+seem to have been kept up, and among Jacopo's extant drawings are
+several that seem to belong to the scheme of a monument erected to the
+memory of the marquis Niccolo ten years later. He was also esteemed and
+employed by Sigismondo Malatesta at the court of Rimini. In 1443 Jacopo
+took as an articled pupil a nephew whom he had brought up from charity;
+in 1452 he painted a banner for the Scuola of St Mary of Charity at
+Venice, and the next year received a grant from the confraternity for
+the marriage of his daughter Nicolosia with Andrea Mantegna, a marriage
+which had the effect of transferring the gifted young Paduan master
+definitively from the following of Squarcione to that of Bellini. In
+1456 he painted a figure of Lorenzo Giustiniani, first patriarch of
+Venice, for his monument in San Pietro de Castello, and in 1457, with a
+son for salaried assistant, three figures of saints in the great hall of
+the patriarch. For some time about these years Jacopo and his family
+would seem to have resided at, or at least to have paid frequent visits
+to Padua, where he is reported to have carried out works now lost,
+including an altar-piece painted with the assistance of his sons in
+1459-1460 for the Gattamelata chapel in the Santo, and several portraits
+which are described by 16th-century witnesses but have disappeared. At
+Venice he painted a Calvary for the Scuola of St Mark (1466). His
+activity can be traced in documents down to August 1470, but in November
+1471 his wife Anna describes herself as his relict, so that he must have
+died some time in the interval.
+
+The above are all the facts concerning the life of Jacopo Bellini which
+can be gathered from printed and documentary records. The materials
+which have reached posterity for a critical judgment on his work consist
+of four or five pictures only, together with two important and
+invaluable books of drawings. These prove him to have been a worthy
+third, following the Umbrian Gentile da Fabriano and the Veronese
+Pisanello, in that trio of remarkable artists who in the first half of
+the 15th century carried towards maturity the art of painting in Venice
+and the neighbouring cities. Of his pictures, an important signed
+example is a life-size Christ Crucified in the archbishop's palace at
+Verona. The rest are almost all Madonnas: two signed, one in the Tadini
+gallery at Lovere, another in the Venice academy; a third, unsigned and
+long ascribed in error to Gentile da Fabriano, in the Louvre, with the
+portrait of Sigismondo Malatesta as donor; a fourth, richest of all in
+colour and ornamental detail, recently acquired from private hands for
+the Uffizi at Florence. Plausibly, though less certainly, ascribed to
+him are a fifth Madonna at Bergamo, a warrior-saint on horseback (San
+Crisogono) in the church of San Trovaso at Venice, a Crucifixion in the
+Museo Correr, and an Adoration of the Magi in private possession at
+Ferrara. Against this scanty tale of paintings we have to set an
+abundance of drawings and studies preserved in two precious albums in
+the British Museum and the Louvre. The former, which is the earlier in
+date, belonged to the painter's elder son Gentile and was by him
+bequeathed to his brother Giovanni. It consists of ninety-nine paper
+pages, all drawn on both back and front with a lead point, an instrument
+unusual at this date. Two or three of the drawings have been worked over
+in pen; of the remainder many have become dim from time and rubbing. The
+album at the Louvre, discovered in 1883 in the loft of a country-house
+in Guienne, is equally rich and better preserved, the drawings being all
+highly finished in pen, probably over effaced preliminary sketches in
+chalk or lead. The range of subjects is much the same in both
+collections, and in both extremely varied, proving Jacopo to have been a
+craftsman of many-sided curiosity and invention. He passes
+indiscriminately from such usual Scripture scenes as the Adoration of
+the Magi, the Agony in the Garden, and the Crucifixion, to designs from
+classic fable, copies from ancient bas-reliefs, stories of the saints,
+especially St Christopher and St George, the latter many times repeated
+(he was the patron saint of the house of Este), fanciful allegories of
+which the meaning has now become obscure, scenes of daily life, studies
+for monuments, and studies of animals, especially of eagles (the emblem
+of the house of Este), horses and lions. He loves to marshal his figures
+in vast open spaces, whether of architecture or mountainous landscape.
+In designing such spaces and in peopling them with figures of relatively
+small scale, we see him eagerly and continually putting to the test the
+principles of the new science of perspective. His castellated and
+pinnacled architecture, in a mixed medieval and classical spirit, is
+elaborately thought out, and scarcely less so his groups and ranges of
+barren hills, broken in clefts or ascending in spiral terraces. With a
+predilection for tall and slender proportions, he draws the human figure
+with a flowing generalized grace and no small freedom of movement; but
+he does not approach either in mastery of line or in vehemence of action
+a Florentine draughtsman such as Antonio Pollaiuolo. Jacopo's influence
+on the development of Venetian art was very great, not only directly
+through his two sons and his son-in-law Mantegna, but through other and
+independent contemporary workshops of the city, in none of which did it
+remain unfelt.
+
+II. GENTILE BELLINI (1429-1430-1507), the elder son of Jacopo, first
+appears independently as the painter of a Madonna, much in his father's
+manner, dated 1460, and now in the Berlin museum. We have seen how in
+the previous year he and his brother assisted their father in the
+execution of an altar-piece for the Santo at Padua. In July 1466 we find
+him contracting with the officers of the Scuola of St Mark as an
+independent artist to decorate the doors of their organ. These paintings
+still exist in a blackened condition. They represent four saints,
+colossal in size, and designed with much of the harsh and searching
+austerity which characterized the Paduan school under Squarcione. In
+December of the same year Gentile bound himself to execute for the great
+hall of the same company two subjects of the Exodus, to be done better
+than, or at least as well as, his father's work in the same place. These
+paintings have perished. For the next eight years the history of
+Gentile's life and work remains obscure. But he must have risen steadily
+in the esteem of his fellow-citizens, since in 1474 we find him
+commissioned by the senate to restore, renew, and when necessary
+replace, the series of paintings, the work of an earlier generation of
+artists, which were perishing from damp on the walls of the Hall of the
+Great Council in the ducal palace. This was evidently intended to be a
+permanent employment, and in payment the painter was to receive the
+reversion of a broker's stall in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi; a lucrative
+form of sinecure frequently allotted to artists engaged for tasks of
+long duration. In continuation of this work Gentile undertook a series
+of independent paintings on subjects of Venetian history for the same
+hall, but had apparently only finished one, representing the delivery of
+the consecrated candle by the pope to the doge, when his labours were
+interrupted by a mission to the East. The sultan Mahommed II. had
+despatched a friendly embassy to Venice, inviting the doge to visit him
+at Constantinople and at the same time requesting the despatch of an
+excellent painter to work at his court. The former part of the sultan's
+proposal the senate declined, with the latter they complied; and Gentile
+Bellini with two assistants was selected for the mission, his brother
+Giovanni being at the same time appointed to fill his place on the works
+for the Hall of the Great Council. Gentile gave great satisfaction to
+the sultan, and returned after about a year with a knighthood, some fine
+clothes, a gold chain and a pension. The surviving fruits of his labours
+at Constantinople consist of a large painting representing the reception
+of an ambassador in that city, now in the Louvre; a highly finished
+portrait of the sultan himself, now one of the treasures, despite its
+damaged condition, of the collection of the late Sir Henry Layard; an
+exquisitely wrought small portrait in water-colour of a scribe, found in
+1905 by a private collector in the bazaar at Constantinople and now in
+the collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston; and two pen-and-ink drawings of
+Turkish types, now in the British Museum. Early copies of two or three
+other similar drawings are preserved in the Städel Institute at
+Frankfurt; such copies may have been made for the use of Gentile's
+Umbrian contemporary, Pinturicchio, who introduced figures borrowed from
+them into some of his decorative frescoes in the Appartamento Borgia at
+Rome.
+
+A place had been left open for Gentile to continue working beside his
+brother Giovanni (with whom he lived always on terms of the closest
+amity) in the ducal palace; and soon after 1480 he began to carry out
+his share in the great series of frescoes, unfortunately destroyed by
+fire in 1577, illustrating the part played by Venice in the struggles
+between the papacy and the emperor Barbarossa. These works were executed
+not on the wall itself but on canvas (the climate of Venice having so
+many times proved fatal to wall paintings), and probably in oil, a
+method which all the artists of Venice, following the example set by
+Antonello da Messina, had by this time learnt or were learning to
+practise. The subjects allotted to Gentile, in addition to the
+above-mentioned presentation of the consecrated candle, were as follows:
+the departure of the Venetian ambassadors to the court of Barbarossa,
+Barbarossa receiving the ambassadors, the pope inciting the doge and
+senate to war, the pope bestowing a sword and his blessing on the doge
+and his army (a drawing in the British Museum purports to be the
+artist's original sketch for this composition), and according to some
+authorities also the gift of the symbolic ring by the pope to the
+victorious doge on his return. These works received the highest praise
+both from contemporary and from later Venetian critics, but no fragment
+of them survived the fire of 1577. Their character can to some extent be
+judged by a certain number of kindred historical and processional works
+by the same hand which have been preserved. Of such the Academy at
+Venice has three which were painted between 1490 and 1500 for the Scuola
+of St John the Evangelist, and represent certain events connected with a
+famous relic belonging to the Scuola, namely, a supposed fragment of the
+true cross. All have been, much injured and re-painted; nevertheless one
+at least, showing the procession of the relic through St Mark's Place
+and the thanksgiving of a father who owed to it the miraculous cure of
+his son, still gives a good idea of the painter's powers and style.
+Great accuracy and firmness of individual portraiture, a strong gift,
+derived no doubt from his father's example, for grouping and marshalling
+a crowd of personages in spaces of fine architectural perspective, the
+severity and dryness of the Paduan manner much mitigated by the dawning
+splendour of true Venetian colour--these are the qualities that no
+injury has been able to deface. They are again manifest in an
+interesting Adoration of the Magi in the Layard collection; and reappear
+still more forcibly in the last work undertaken by the artist, the great
+picture now at the Brera in Milan of St Mark preaching at Alexandria;
+this was commissioned by the Scuola of St Mark in March 1505, and left
+by the artist in his will, dated 18th of February 1507, to be finished
+by his brother Giovanni. Of single portraits by this artist, who was
+almost as famous for them as for processional groups, there survive one
+of a doge at the Museo Correr in Venice, one of Catarina Cornaro at
+Budapest, one of a mathematician at the National Gallery, another of a
+monk in the same gallery, signed wrongly to all appearance with the name
+of Giovanni Bellini, besides one or two others in private hands. The
+features of Gentile himself are known from a portrait medallion by
+Camelio, and can be recognized in two extant drawings, one at Berlin
+supposed to be by the painter's own hand, and another, much larger and
+more finished, at Christ Church, Oxford, which is variously attributed
+to Bonsignori and A. Vivarini.
+
+III. GIOVANNI BELLINI (1430-1431-1516) is generally assumed to have been
+the second son of Jacopo by his wife Anna; though the fact that she does
+not mention him in her will with her other sons has thrown some slight
+doubt upon the matter. At any rate he was brought up in his father's
+house, and always lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation
+with Gentile. Up till the age of nearly thirty we find documentary
+evidence of the two sons having served as their father's assistants in
+works both at Venice and Padua. In Giovanni's earliest independent works
+we find him more strongly influenced by the harsh and searching manner
+of the Paduan school, and especially of his own brother-in-law Mantegna,
+than by the more graceful and facile style of Jacopo. This influence
+seems to have lasted at full strength until after the departure of his
+brother-in-law Mantegna for the court of Mantua in 1460. The earliest of
+Giovanni's independent works no doubt date from before this period.
+Three of these exist at the Correr museum in Venice: a Crucifixion, a
+Transfiguration, and a Dead Christ supported by Angels. Two Madonnas of
+the same or even earlier date are in private collections in America, a
+third in that of Signor Frizzoni at Milan; while two beautiful works in
+the National Gallery of London seem to bring the period to a close. One
+of these is of a rare subject, the Blood of the Redeemer; the other is
+the fine picture of Christ's Agony in the Garden, formerly in the
+Northbrook collection. The last-named piece was evidently executed in
+friendly rivalry with Mantegna, whose version of the subject hangs near
+by; the main idea of the composition in both cases being taken from a
+drawing by Jacopo Bellini in the British Museum sketch-book. In all
+these pictures Giovanni combines with the Paduan severity of drawing and
+complex rigidity of drapery a depth of religious feeling and human
+pathos which is his own. They are all executed in the old tempera
+method; and in the last named the tragedy of the scene is softened by a
+new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise colour. In a somewhat
+changed and more personal manner, with less harshness of contour and a
+broader treatment of forms and draperies, but not less force of
+religious feeling, are the two pictures of the Dead Christ supported by
+Angels, in these days one of the master's most frequent themes, at
+Rimini and at Berlin. Chronologically to be placed with these are two
+Madonnas, one at the church of the Madonna del Orto at Venice and one in
+the Lochis collection at Bergamo; devout intensity of feeling and rich
+solemnity of colour being in the case of all these early Madonnas
+combined with a singularly direct rendering of the natural movements and
+attitudes of children.
+
+The above-named works, all still executed in tempera, are no doubt
+earlier than the date of Giovanni's first appointment to work along with
+his brother and other artists in the Scuola di San Marco, where among
+other subjects he was commissioned in 1470 to paint a Deluge with Noah's
+Ark. None of the master's works of this kind, whether painted for the
+various schools or confraternities or for the ducal palace, have
+survived. To the decade following 1470 must probably be assigned a
+Transfiguration now in the Naples museum, repeating with greatly ripened
+powers and in a much serener spirit the subject of his early effort at
+Venice; and also the great altar-piece of the Coronation of the Virgin
+at Pesaro, which would seem to be his earliest effort in a form of art
+previously almost monopolized in Venice by the rival school of the
+Vivarini. Probably not much later was the still more famous altar-piece
+painted in tempera for a chapel in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo,
+where it perished along with Titian's Peter Martyr and Tintoretto's
+Crucifixion in the disastrous fire of 1867. After 1479-1480 very much of
+Giovanni's time and energy must have been taken up by his duties as
+conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the ducal palace, in
+payment for which he was awarded, first the reversion of a broker's
+place in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and afterwards, as a substitute, a
+fixed annual pension of eighty ducats. Besides repairing and renewing
+the works of his predecessors he was commissioned to paint a number of
+new subjects, six or seven in all, in further illustration of the part
+played by Venice in the wars of Barbarossa and the pope. These works,
+executed with much interruption and delay, were the object of universal
+admiration while they lasted, but not a trace of them survived the fire
+of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and
+processional compositions come down, enabling us to compare his manner
+in such subjects with that of his brother Gentile. Of the other, the
+religious class of his work, including both altar-pieces with many
+figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable number have fortunately been
+preserved. They show him gradually throwing off the last restraints of
+the 15th-century manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the
+new oil medium introduced in Venice by Antonello da Messina about 1473,
+and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets of the
+perfect fusion of colours and atmospheric gradation of tones. The old
+intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually fades away and gives
+place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity and charm. The enthroned
+Virgin and Child become tranquil and commanding in their sweetness; the
+personages of the attendant saints gain in power, presence and
+individuality; enchanting groups of singing and viol-playing angels
+symbolize and complete the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of
+Venetian colour invests alike the figures, their architectural
+framework, the landscape and the sky. The altar-piece of the Frari at
+Venice, the altar-piece of San Giobbe, now at the academy, the Virgin
+between SS. Paul and George, also at the academy, and the altar-piece
+with the kneeling doge Barbarigo at Murano, are among the most
+conspicuous examples. Simple Madonnas of the same period (about
+1485-1490) are in the Venice academy, in the National Gallery, at Turin
+and at Bergamo. An interval of some years, no doubt chiefly occupied
+with work in the Hall of the Great Council, seems to separate the
+last-named altar-pieces from that of the church of San Zaccaria at
+Venice, which is perhaps the most beautiful and imposing of all, and is
+dated 1505, the year following that of Giorgione's Madonna at
+Castelfranco. Another great altar-piece with saints, that of the church
+of San Francesco de la Vigna at Venice, belongs to 1507; that of La
+Corona at Vicenza, a Baptism of Christ in a landscape, to 1510; to 1513
+that of San Giovanni Crisostomo at Venice, where the aged saint Jerome,
+seated on a hill, is raised high against a resplendent sunset
+background, with SS. Christopher and Augustine standing facing each
+other below him, in front. Of Giovanni's activity in the interval
+between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and of Murano and that of San
+Zaccaria, there are a few minor evidences left, though the great mass of
+its results perished with the fire of the ducal palace in 1577. The
+examples that remain consist of one very interesting and beautiful
+allegorical picture in the Uffizi at Florence, the subject of which had
+remained a riddle until it was recently identified as an illustration of
+a French medieval allegory, the _Pèlerinage de l'âme_ by Guillaume de
+Guilleville; with a set of five other allegories or moral emblems, on a
+smaller scale and very romantically treated, in the academy at Venice.
+To these should probably be added, as painted towards the year 1505,
+the portrait of the doge Loredano in the National Gallery, the only
+portrait by the master which has been preserved, and in its own manner
+one of the most masterly in the whole range of painting.
+
+The last ten or twelve years of the master's life saw him besieged with
+more commissions than he could well complete. Already in the years
+1501-1504 the marchioness Isabella Gonzaga of Mantua had had great
+difficulty in obtaining delivery from him of a picture of the "Madonna
+and Saints" (now lost) for which part payment had been made in advance.
+In 1505 she endeavoured through Cardinal Bembo to obtain from him
+another picture, this time of a secular or mythological character. What
+the subject of this piece was, or whether it was actually delivered, we
+do not know. Albrecht Dürer, visiting Venice for a second time in 1506,
+reports of Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter in the city, and
+as full of all courtesy and generosity towards foreign brethren of the
+brush. In 1507 Gentile Bellini died, and Giovanni completed the picture
+of the "Preaching of St Mark" which he had left unfinished; a task on
+the fulfilment of which the bequest by the elder brother to the younger
+of their father's sketch-book had been made conditional. In 1513
+Giovanni's position as sole master (since the death of his brother and
+of Alvise Vivarini) in charge of the paintings in the Hall of the Great
+Council was threatened by an application on the part of his own former
+pupil, Titian, for a joint-share in the same undertaking, to be paid for
+on the same terms. Titian's application was first granted, then after a
+year rescinded, and then after another year or two granted again; and
+the aged master must no doubt have undergone some annoyance from his
+sometime pupil's proceedings. In 1514 Giovanni undertook to paint a
+Bacchanal for the duke Alfonso of Ferrara, but died in 1516; leaving it
+to be finished by his pupils; this picture is now at Alnwick.
+
+Both in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of Giovanni
+Bellini was upon the whole the most serenely and unbrokenly prosperous,
+from youth to extreme old age, which fell to the lot of any artist of
+the early Renaissance. He lived to see his own school far outshine that
+of his rivals, the Vivarini of Murano; he embodied, with ever growing
+and maturing power, all the devotional gravity and much also of the
+worldly splendour of the Venice of his time; and he saw his influence
+propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione and
+Titian, surpassed their master. Giorgione he outlived by five years;
+Titian, as we have seen, challenged an equal place beside his teacher.
+Among the best known of his other pupils were, in his earlier time,
+Andrea Previtali, Cima da Conegliano, Marco Basaiti, Niccolo Rondinelli,
+Piermaria Pennacchi, Martino da Udine, Girolamo Mocetto; in later time,
+Pierfrancesco Bissolo, Vincenzo Catena, Lorenzo Lotto and Sebastian del
+Piombo.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Vasari, ed. Milanesi, vol. iii.; Ridolfi, _Le
+  Maraviglie_, &c., vol. i.; Francesco Sansovino, _Venezia Descritta_;
+  Morelli, _Notizia, &c., di un Assonimo_; Zanetti, _Pittura Veneziana_;
+  F. Aghietti, _Elagio Storico di Jacopo e Giovanni Bellini_; G.
+  Bernasconi, _Cenni intorna la vita e le opere di Jacopo Bellini_;
+  Moschini, _Giovanni Bellini e pittori contemporanei_; E. Galichon in
+  _Gazette des beaux-arts_ (1866); Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _History of
+  Painting in North Italy_, vol. i.; Hubert Janitschek, "Giovanni
+  Bellini" in Dohme's _Kunst und Künstler_; Julius Meyer in Meyer's
+  _Allgemeines Künstler-Lexikon_, vol. iii. (1885); Pompeo Molmenti, "I
+  pittori Bellini" in _Studi e ricerche di Storia d' Arte_; P. Paoletti,
+  _Raccolta di documenti inediti_, fasc. i.; Vasari, _Vite di Gentile da
+  Fabriano e Vittor Pisanello_, ed. Venturi; Corrado Ricci in _Rassegna
+  d' Arte_ (1901, 1903), and _Rivista d' Arte_ (1906); Roger Fry,
+  _Giovanni Bellini_ in "The Artist's Library"; Everard Meynell,
+  _Giovanni Bellini_ in Newnes's "Art Library" (useful for a nearly
+  complete set of reproductions of the known paintings); Corrado Ricci,
+  _Jacopo Bellini e i suoi Libri di Disegni_; Victor Goloubeff, _Les
+  Dessins de Jacopo Bellini_ (the two works last cited reproduce in
+  full, that of M. Goloubeff by far the most skilfully, the contents of
+  both the Paris and the London sketch-books).     (S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLINI, LORENZO (1643-1704), Italian physician and anatomist, was born
+at Florence on the 3rd of September 1643. At the age of twenty, when he
+had already begun his researches on the structure of the kidneys and had
+described the ducts known by his name (_Exercitatio anatomica de
+structura et usu renum_, 1662), he was chosen professor of theoretical
+medicine at Pisa, but soon after was transferred to the chair of
+anatomy. After spending thirty years at Pisa, he was invited to Florence
+and appointed physician to the grand duke Cosimo III., and was also made
+senior consulting physician to Pope Clement XI. He died at Florence on
+the 8th of January 1704. His works were published in a collected form at
+Venice in 1708.
+
+
+
+
+BELLINI, VINCENZO (1801-1835), operatic composer of the Italian school,
+was born at Catania in Sicily, on the 1st of November 1801. He was
+descended from a family of musicians, both his father and grandfather
+having been composers of some reputation. After having received his
+preparatory musical education at home, he entered the conservatoire of
+Naples, where he studied singing and composition under Tritto and
+Zingarelli. He soon began to write pieces for various instruments, as
+well as a cantata and several masses and other sacred compositions. His
+first opera, _Adelson e Savina_, was performed in 1825 at a small
+theatre in Naples; his second dramatic work, _Bianca e Fernando_, was
+produced next year at the San Carlo theatre of the same city, and made
+his name known in Italy. His next work, _Il Pirata_ (1827), was written
+for the Scala in Milan, to words by Felice Romano, with whom Bellini
+formed a union of friendship to be severed only by his death. The
+splendid rendering of the music by Tamburini, Rubini and other great
+Italian singers contributed greatly to the success of the work, which at
+once established the European reputation of its composer. In almost
+every year of the short remainder of his life he produced a new operatic
+work, which was received with rapture by the audiences of France, Italy,
+Germany and England. The names and dates of four of Bellini's operas
+familiar to most lovers of Italian music are: _I Montecchi e Capuleti_
+(1830), in which the part of Romeo became a favourite with all the great
+contraltos; _La Sonnambula_ (1831); _Norma_, Bellini's best and most
+popular creation (1831); and _I Puritani_ (1835), written for the
+Italian opera in Paris, and to some extent under the influence of French
+music. In 1833 Bellini had left his country to accompany to England the
+singer Pasta, who had created the part of his _Sonnambula_. In 1834 he
+accepted an invitation to write an opera for the national grand opera in
+Paris. While he was carefully studying the French language and the
+cadence of French verse for the purpose, he was seized with a sudden
+illness and died at his villa in Puteaux near Paris on the 24th of
+September 1835. His operatic creations are throughout replete with a
+spirit of gentle melancholy, frequently monotonous and almost always
+undramatic, but at the same time irresistibly sweet. To this spirit,
+combined with a rich flow of _cantilena_, Bellini's operas owe their
+popularity. "I shall never forget," wrote Wagner, "the impression made
+upon me by an opera of Bellini at a period when I was completely
+exhausted with the everlastingly abstract complication used in our
+orchestras, when a simple and noble melody was revealed anew to me."
+
+  See also G. Labat, _Bellini_ (Bordeaux, 1865); A. Pougin, _Bellini, sa
+  vie et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+BELLINZONA (Ger. _Belienz_), the political capital of the Swiss canton
+of Tessin or Ticino. It is 105 m. from Lucerne by the St Gotthard
+railway, 19 m. from Lugano and 14 m. from Locarno at the head of the
+Lago Maggiore, these two towns having been till 1881 capitals of the
+canton jointly with Bellinzona. The old town is built on some hills, on
+the left bank of the Tessin or Ticino river, and a little below the
+junction of the main Ticino valley (the Val Leventina) with that of
+Mesocco. It thus blocked the road from Germany to Italy, while a great
+wall was built from the town to the river bank. Bellinzona still
+possesses three picturesque castles (restored in modern times), dating
+in their present form from the 15th century. They belonged for several
+centuries to the three Swiss cantons which were masters of the town. The
+most westerly, Castello Grande or of San Michele, belonged to Uri; the
+central castle, that of Montebello, was the property of Schwyz; while
+the most easterly castle, that of Sasso Corbaro, was in the hands of
+Unterwalden. The 13th-century church of San Biagio (Blaise) has a
+remarkable 14th-century fresco, while the collegiate church of San
+Stefano dates from the 16th century. In 1900 the population of
+Bellinzona was 4949, practically all Romanists and Italian-speaking.
+
+Possibly Bellinzona is of Roman origin, but it is first mentioned in
+590. It played a considerable part in the early history of Lombardy,
+being a key to several Alpine passes. In the 8th century it belonged to
+the bishop of Como, while in the 13th and 14th centuries it was tossed
+to and fro between the cities of Milan and Como. In 1402 it was taken
+from Milan by Albert von Sax, lord of the Val Mesocco, who in 1419 sold
+it to Uri and Obwalden, which, however, lost it to Milan in 1422 after
+the battle of Arbedo. In 1499 (like the rest of the Milanese) it was
+occupied by the French, but in 1500 it was taken by Uri. In 1503 the
+French king ceded it to Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, which henceforth
+ruled it very harshly through their bailiffs till 1798. At that date it
+became the capital of the canton Bellinzona of the Helvetic republic,
+but in 1803 it was united to the newly-formed canton of Tessin.
+     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL (1740-1795), Swedish poet, son of a civil servant,
+was born at Stockholm on the 4th of February 1740. When quite a child he
+developed an extraordinary gift of improvising verse, during the
+delirium of a severe illness, weaving wild thoughts together lyrically
+and singing airs of his own composition. When he was nineteen he became
+clerk in a bank and afterwards in the customs, but his habits were
+irregular and he was frequently in great distress, particularly after
+the death of his patron, GUSTAVUS III. As early as 1757 he published
+_Evangeliska Dödstankar_, meditations on the Passion from the German of
+David von Schweidnitz, and during the next few years wrote, besides
+other translations, a great quantity of poems, imitative for the most
+part of Dalin. In 1760 appeared his first characteristic work, _Månan_
+(The Moon), a satirical poem, which was revised and edited by Dalin. But
+the great work of his life occupied him from 1765 to 1780, and consists
+of the collections of dithyrambic odes known as _Fredmans Epistlar_
+(1790) and _Fredmans Sånger_ (1791). Fredman and his friends were
+well-known characters in the Stockholm pot-houses, where Bellman had
+studied them from the life. No poetry can possibly smell less of the
+lamp than Bellman's. He was accustomed, when in the presence of none but
+confidential friends, to announce that the god was about to visit him.
+He would shut his eyes, take his zither, and begin apparently to
+improvise the music and the words of a long Bacchic ode in praise of
+love or wine. Most of his melodies are taken direct, or with slight
+adaptations, from old Swedish ballads, and still retain their
+popularity. _Fredman's Epistles_ bear the clear impress of individual
+genius; his torrents of rhymes are not without their method; wild as
+they seem, they all conform to the rules of style, and among those that
+have been preserved there are few that are not perfect in form. A great
+Swedish critic has remarked that the voluptuous joviality and the humour
+of Bellman is, after all, only "sorrow clad in rose-colour," and this
+underlying pathos gives his poems their undying charm. His later works,
+_Bacchi Tempel_ (The Temple of Bacchus) (1783), eight numbers of a
+journal called _Hvad behagas?_ (What you Will) (1781), in 1780 a
+religious anthology entitled in a later edition (1787) _Zions Hogtid_
+(Zion's Holiday), and a translation of Gellert's _Fables_, are
+comparatively unimportant. He died on the 11th of February 1795. Much of
+Bellman's work was only printed after his death, _Bihang till Fredmans
+Epistlar_ (Nyköping, 1809), _Fredmans Handskrifter_ (Upsala, 1813),
+_Skaldestycken_ ("Poems," Stockholm, 1814) being among the most
+important of these posthumous works. A colossal bronze bust of the poet
+by Byström (erected by the Swedish Academy in 1829) adorns the public
+gardens of Stockholm, and a statue by Alfred Nyström is in the
+Hasselbacken, Stockholm. Bellman had a grand manner, a fine voice and
+great gifts of mimicry, and was a favourite companion of King Gustavus
+III.
+
+  The best edition of his works was published at Stockholm, edited by
+  J.G. Carlén, with biographical notes, illustrations and music (5
+  vols., 1856-1861); see also monographs on Bellman by Nils Erdmann
+  (Stockholm, 1895) and by F. Niedner (Berlin, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+BELLO, ANDRÉS (1781-1865), South American poet and scholar, was born at
+Caracas (Venezuela) on the 29th of November 1781, and in early youth
+held a minor post in the civil administration. He joined the colonial
+revolutionary party, and in 1810 was sent on a political mission to
+London, where he resided for nineteen years, acting as secretary to the
+legations of Chile, Colombia and Venezuela, studying in the British
+Museum, supplementing his small salary by giving private lessons in
+Spanish, by journalistic work and by copying Jeremy Bentham's almost
+indecipherable manuscripts. In 1829 he accepted a post in the Chilean
+treasury, settled at Santiago and took a prominent part in founding the
+national university (1843), of which he became rector. He was nominated
+senator, and died at Santiago de Chile on the 15th of October 1865.
+Bello was mainly responsible for the civil code promulgated on the 14th
+of December 1855. His prose works deal with such various subjects as
+law, philosophy, literary criticism and philology; of these the most
+important is his _Gramática castellana_ (1847), the leading authority on
+the subject. But his position in literature proper is secured by his
+_Silvas Americanas_, a poem written during his residence in England,
+which conveys with extraordinary force the majestic impression of the
+South American landscape.
+
+  Bello's complete works were issued in fifteen volumes by the Chilean
+  government (Santiago de Chile, 1881-1893); he is the subject of an
+  excellent biography (Santiago de Chile, 1882) by Miguel Luis
+  Amunátegui.     (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLO-HORIZONTE, or MINAS, a city of Brazil, capital of the state of
+Minas Geraes since 1898, about 50 m. N.W. of Ouro Preto, connected with
+the Central of Brazil railway by a branch line 9 m. in length. Pop.
+(estimated) in 1906, 25,000 to 30,000. The city was built by the state
+on an open plateau, and provided with all necessary public buildings,
+gas, water and tramway services before the seat of government was
+transferred from Ouro Preto. The cost of transfer was about £1,000,000.
+The city has grown rapidly, and is considered one of the most attractive
+state capitals of Brazil.
+
+
+
+
+BELLONA (originally DUELLONA), in Roman mythology, the goddess of war
+(_bellum_, i.e. _duellum_), corresponding to the Greek Enyo. By later
+mythologists she is called sometimes the sister, daughter or wife of
+Mars, sometimes his charioteer or nurse. Her worship appears to have
+been promoted in Rome chiefly by the family of the Claudii, whose Sabine
+origin, together with their use of the name of "Nero," has suggested an
+identification of Bellona with the Sabine war goddess Nerio, herself
+identified, like Bellona, with Virtus. Her temple at Rome, dedicated by
+Appius Claudius Caecus (296 B.C.) during a battle with the Samnites and
+Etruscans (Ovid, _Fasti_ vi. 201), stood in the Campus Martius, near the
+Flaminian Circus, and outside the gates of the city. It was there that
+the senate met to discuss a general's claim to a triumph, and to receive
+ambassadors from foreign states. In front of it was the _columna
+bellica_, where the ceremony of declaring war by the fetialis was
+performed. From this native Italian goddess is to be distinguished the
+Asiatic Bellona, whose worship was introduced into Rome from Comana, in
+Cappadocia, apparently by Sulla, to whom she had appeared, urging him to
+march to Rome and bathe in the blood of his enemies (Plutarch, _Sulla_,
+9). For her a new temple was built, and a college of priests
+(_Bellonarii_) instituted to conduct her fanatical rites, the prominent
+feature of which was to lacerate themselves and sprinkle the blood on
+the spectators (Tibullus i. 6. 45-50). To make the scene more grim they
+wore black dresses (Tertullian, _De Pallio_) from head to foot. The
+festival of Bellona, which originally took place on the 3rd of June, was
+altered to the 24th of March, after the confusion of the Roman Bellona
+with her Asiatic namesake.
+
+  See Tiesler, _De Bellonae Cultu_ (1842).
+
+
+
+
+BELLOT, JOSEPH RENÉ (1826-1853), French Arctic explorer, was born at
+Rochefort on the 18th of March 1826, the son of a farrier. With the aid
+of the authorities of his native town he was enabled at the age of
+fifteen to enter the naval school, in which he studied two years and
+earned a high reputation. He then took part in the Anglo-French
+expedition of 1845 to Madagascar, and received the cross of the Legion
+of Honour for distinguished conduct. He afterwards took part in another
+Anglo-French expedition, that of Parana, which opened the river La Plata
+to commerce. In 1851 he joined the Arctic expedition under the command
+of Captain Kennedy in search of Sir John Franklin, and discovered the
+strait between Boothia Felix and Somerset Land which bears his name.
+Early in 1852 he was promoted lieutenant, and in the same year
+accompanied the Franklin search expedition under Captain Inglefield. As
+on the previous occasion, his intelligence, devotion to duty and courage
+won him the esteem and admiration of all with whom he was associated.
+While making a perilous journey with two comrades for the purpose of
+communicating with Sir Edward Belcher, he suddenly disappeared in an
+opening between the broken masses of ice (August 1853). A pension was
+granted to his family by the emperor Napoleon III., and an obelisk was
+erected to his memory in front of Greenwich hospital.
+
+
+
+
+BELLOWS, ALBERT F. (1829-1883), American landscape-painter, was born at
+Milford, Massachusetts, on the 20th of November 1829. He first studied
+architecture, then turned to painting, and worked in Paris and in the
+Royal Academy at Antwerp. He painted much in England; was a member of
+the National Academy of Design, and of the American Water Color Society,
+New York; and an honorary member of the Royal Belgian Society of
+Water-Colourists. His earlier work was _genre_, in oils; after 1865 he
+used water-colours more and more exclusively and painted landscapes.
+Among his water-colours are "Afternoon in Surrey" (1868); "Sunday in
+Devonshire" (1876), exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition; "New
+England Village School" (1878); and "The Parsonage" (1879). He died in
+Auburndale, Massachusetts, on the 24th of November 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY (1814-1882), American clergyman, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 11th of June 1814. He graduated at Harvard
+College in 1832, and at the Harvard Divinity School in 1837, held a
+brief pastorate (1837-1838) at Mobile, Alabama, and in 1839 became
+pastor of the First Congregational (Unitarian) church in New York City
+(afterwards All Souls church), in charge of which he remained until his
+death. Here Bellows acquired a high reputation as a pulpit orator and
+lyceum lecturer, and was a recognized leader in the Unitarian Church in
+America. For many years after 1846 he edited _The Christian Inquirer_, a
+Unitarian weekly paper, and he was also for some time an editor of _The
+Christian Examiner_. In 1857 he delivered a series of lectures in the
+Lowell Institute course, on "The Treatment of Social Diseases." At the
+outbreak of the Civil War he planned the United States Sanitary
+Commission, of which he was the first and only president (1861 to 1878).
+He was the first president of the first Civil Service Reform Association
+organized in the United States (1877), was an organizer of the Union
+League Club and of the Century Association in New York City, and planned
+with his parishioner and friend, Peter Cooper, the establishment of
+Cooper Union. In 1865 he proposed and organized the national conference
+of Unitarian and other Christian churches, and from 1865 to 1880 was
+chairman of its council. He died in New York City on the 30th of January
+1882. A bronze memorial tablet by Augustus Saint Gaudens was unveiled in
+All Souls church in 1886. His published writings include _Restatements
+of Christian Doctrine in Twenty-Five Sermons_ (1860); _Unconditioned
+Loyalty_ (1863), a strong pro-Union sermon, which was widely circulated
+during the Civil War; _The Old World in its New Face: Impressions of
+Europe in 1867-1868_ (2 vols., 1868-1869); _Historical Sketch of the
+Union League Club_ (1879); and _Twenty-Four Sermons in All Souls Church,
+New York, 1865-1881_ (1886).
+
+  See Russell N. Bellows, _Henry Whitney Bellows_ (Keene, N.H., 1897), a
+  biographical sketch reprinted from T.B. Peck's _Bellows Family
+  Genealogy_; John White Chadwick, _Henry W. Bellows: His Life and
+  Character_ (New York, 1882), a memorial address; and Charles J Stillé,
+  _History of the United States Sanitary Commission_ (Philadelphia,
+  1866).
+
+
+
+
+BELLOWS and BLOWING MACHINES, appliances used for producing currents of
+air, or for moving volumes of air from one place to another. Formerly
+all such artificially-produced currents of air were used to assist the
+combustion of fires and furnaces, but now this purpose only forms a part
+of the uses to which they are put. Blowing appliances, among which are
+included bellows, rotary fans, blowing engines, rotary blowers and
+steam-jet blowers, are now also employed for forcing pure air into
+buildings and mines for purposes of ventilation, for withdrawing
+vitiated air for the same reason, and for supplying the air or other gas
+which is required in some chemical processes. Appliances of this kind
+differ from _air compressors_ in that they are primarily intended for
+the transfer of quantities of air at low pressures, very little above
+that of the atmosphere, whereas the latter are used for supplying air
+which has previously been raised to a pressure which may be many times
+that of the atmosphere (see POWER TRANSMISSION: _Pneumatic_).
+
+Among the earliest contrivances employed for producing the movement of
+air under a small pressure were those used in Egypt during the Greek
+occupation. These depended upon the heating of the air, which, being
+raised in pressure and bulk, was made to force water out of closed
+vessels, the water being afterwards employed for moving some kind of
+mechanism. In the process of iron smelting there is still used in some
+parts of India an artificial blast, produced by a simple form of bellows
+made from the skins of goats; bellows of this kind probably represent
+one of the earliest contrivances used for producing currents of air.
+
+The _bellows_[1] now in use consists, in its simplest form, of two flat
+boards, of rectangular, circular or pear shape, connected round their
+edges by a wide band of leather so as to include an air chamber, which
+can be increased or diminished in volume by separating the boards or
+bringing them nearer together. The leather is kept from collapsing, on
+the separation of the boards, by several rings of wire which act like
+the ribs of animals. The lower board has a hole in the centre, covered
+inside by a leather flap or valve which can only open inwards; there is
+also an open outlet, generally in the form of a pipe or nozzle, whose
+aperture is much smaller than that of the valve. When the upper board is
+raised air rushes into the cavity through the valve to fill up the
+partial vacuum produced; on again depressing the upper board the valve
+is closed by the air attempting to rush out again, and this air is
+discharged through the open nozzle with a velocity depending on the
+pressure exerted.
+
+The current of air produced is evidently not continuous but intermittent
+or in puffs, because an interval is needed to refill the cavity after
+each discharge. In order to remedy this drawback the _double bellows_
+are used. To understand their action it is only necessary to conceive an
+additional board with valve, like the lower board of the single bellows,
+attached in the same way by leather below this lower board. Thus there
+are three boards, forming two cavities, the two lower boards being
+fitted with air-valves. The lowest board is held down by a weight and
+another weight rests on the top board. In working these double bellows
+the lowest board is raised, and drives the air from the lower cavity
+into the upper. On lowering the bottom board again a fresh supply of air
+is drawn in through the bottom valve, to be again discharged when the
+board is raised. As the air passes from the lower to the upper cavity it
+is prevented from returning by the valve in the middle board, and in
+this way a quantity of air is sent into the upper cavity each time the
+lowest board is raised. The weight on the top board provides the
+necessary pressure for the blast, and at the same time causes the
+current of air delivered to be fairly continuous. When the air is being
+forced into the upper cavity the weight is being raised, and, during
+the interval when the lowest board is descending, the weight is slowly
+forcing the top board down and thus keeping up the flow of air.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 1 and 2.--Common Smiths' Bellows.]
+
+Hand-bellows for domestic use are generally shaped like a pear, with the
+hinge at the narrow end. The same shape was adopted for the older forms
+of smiths' bellows, with the difference that two bellows were used
+superposed, in a manner similar to that just described, so as to provide
+for a continuous blast. In the later form of smiths' bellows the same
+principle is employed, but the boards are made circular in shape and are
+always maintained roughly parallel to one another. These are shown on
+figs. 1 and 2. Here A is the blast pipe, B the movable lowest board, C
+the fixed middle board, close to which the pipe A is inserted, and D is
+the movable uppermost board pressed upon by the weight shown. The board
+B is raised by means of a hand lever L, through either a chain or a
+connecting rod, and lowered by a weight. The size of the weight on D
+depends on the air pressure required. For instance, if a blast pressure
+of half a pound per square inch is wanted and the boards are 18 in. in
+diameter, and therefore have an area of 254 sq. in., on each of the 254
+sq. in. there is to be a pressure of half a pound, so that the weight to
+balance this must be half multiplied by 254, or 127 lb. The diameter of
+the air-pipe can be varied to suit the required conditions. Instead of
+bellows with flexible sides, a sliding arrangement is sometimes used;
+this consists of what are really two boxes fitting into one another with
+the open sides both facing inwards, as if one were acting as a lid to
+the other. By having a valve and outlet pipe fitted as in the bellows
+and sliding them alternately apart and together, an intermittent blast
+is produced. The chief defect of this arrangement is the leakage of air
+caused by the difficulty in making the joint a sufficiently good fit to
+be air-tight.
+
+_Blowing Engines._--Where larger quantities of air at higher pressures
+than can conveniently be supplied by bellows are required, as for blast
+furnaces and the Bessemer process of steel-making, what are termed
+"blowing engines" are used. The mode of action of a blowing engine is
+simple. When a piston, accurately fitting a cylinder which has one end
+closed, is forcibly moved towards the other end, a partial vacuum is
+formed between the piston and the blank end, and if this space be
+allowed to communicate with the outer atmosphere air will flow in to
+fill the vacuum. When the piston has completed its movement or "stroke,"
+the cylinder will have been filled with air. On the return of the
+piston, if the valve through which the air entered is now closed and a
+second one communicating with a chamber or pipe is opened, the air in
+the cylinder is expelled through this second valve. The action is
+similar to that of the bellows, but is carried out in a machine which is
+much better able to resist higher pressures and which is more convenient
+for dealing with large quantities of air. The valves through which the
+atmosphere or "free" air is admitted are called "admission" or "suction"
+valves, and those through which the air is driven from the cylinder are
+the "discharge" or "delivery" valves. Formerly one side only of the
+blowing piston was used, the engine working "single-acting"; but now
+both sides of the piston are utilized, so that when it is moving in
+either direction suction will be taking place on one side and delivery
+on the other. All processes in connexion with which blowing engines are
+used require the air to be above the pressure of the outer atmosphere.
+This means that the discharge valves do not open quite at the beginning
+of the delivery stroke, but remain closed until the air in the cylinder
+has been reduced in volume and so increased in pressure to that of the
+air in the discharge chamber.
+
+The power used to actuate these blowing-engines is in most cases steam,
+the steam cylinder being placed in line or "tandem" with the air
+cylinder, so that the steam piston rod is continuous with or directly
+joined to the piston rod of the air cylinder. This plan is always
+adopted where the cylinders are placed horizontally, and often in the
+case of vertical engines. The engines are generally built in pairs, with
+two blowing cylinders and one high-pressure and one low-pressure steam
+cylinder, the piston rods terminating in connecting rods which are
+attached to the pins of the two cranks on the shaft. In the centre of
+this shaft, midway between the two engines, there is usually placed a
+heavy flywheel which helps to maintain a uniform speed of turning. Some
+of the largest blowing engines built in Great Britain are arranged as
+beam engines; that is to say, there is a heavy rocking beam of cast iron
+which in its middle position is horizontal. One end of this beam is
+linked by a short connecting rod to the end of the piston rod of the
+blowing cylinder, while the other end is similarly linked to the top of
+the steam piston rod, so that as the steam piston comes up the air
+piston goes down and _vice versa_. At the steam end of the beam a third
+connecting rod works the crank of a flywheel shaft.
+
+About the end of the 19th century an important development took place
+which consisted in using the waste gas from blast furnaces to form with
+air an explosive mixture, and employing this mixture to drive the piston
+of the actuating cylinder in precisely the same manner as the explosive
+mixture of coal gas and air is used in a gas engine. Since the majority
+of blowing engines are used for providing the air required in iron blast
+furnaces, considerable saving should be effected in this way, because
+the gas which escapes from the top of the furnace is a waste product and
+costs nothing to produce.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Cylinder of Early Blowing Engine
+(1851).]
+
+The general action of a blowing engine may be illustrated by the
+sectional view shown on fig. 3, which represents the internal view of
+one of the blowing cylinders of the engines erected at the Dowlais
+Ironworks as far back as 1851. Many of the details are now obsolete, but
+the general scheme is the same as in all blowing engines. Here A is the
+air cylinder; in this is a piston whose rod is marked R; this piston is
+usually made air-tight by some form of packing fitted into the groove
+which runs round its edge. In this particular case the cylinder is
+placed vertically and its piston rod is actuated from the end of a
+rocking beam. The top and bottom ends are closed by covers and in these
+are a number of openings controlled by valves opening inwards so that
+air can flow freely in but cannot return. The piston is shown moving
+downwards. Air is now being drawn into the space above the piston
+through the valves v at the top, and the air in the space A below the
+piston, drawn in during the previous up-stroke, is being expelled
+through the valve v' into the discharge chamber B, thence passing to the
+outlet pipe O. The action is reversed on the up-stroke. Thus it will be
+seen that air is being delivered both during the up-stroke and the
+down-stroke, and therefore flows almost continuously to the furnaces.
+There must, however, be momentary pauses at the ends of the strokes when
+the direction of movement is changed, and as the piston, though worked
+from an evenly rotating crank shaft, moves more quickly at the middle
+and slows down to no speed at the ends of its travel, there must be a
+considerable variation in the speed of delivery of the air. The air is
+therefore led from O into a large storage chamber or reservoir, whence
+it is again taken to the furnace; if this reservoir is made sufficiently
+large the elasticity of the air in it will serve to compensate for the
+irregularities, and a nearly uniform stream of air will flow from it.
+The valves used in this case and in most of the older blowing engines
+consist of rectangular metal plates hinged at one of the longer edges;
+these plates are faced with leather or india rubber so as to allow them
+to come to rest quietly and without clatter and at the same time to make
+them air-tight. It will be seen that some of these valves hang
+vertically and others lie flat on the bottom of the cover. The Dowlais
+cylinder is very large, having a diameter of 12 ft. and a piston stroke
+of 12 ft., giving a discharge of 44,000 cub. ft. of air per minute, at a
+pressure of 4¼ lb. to the square inch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Vertical Section of Lackenby Blowing Engines
+(1871).]
+
+A later design of blowing engine, built in 1871 for the Lackenby
+iron-works, Middlesbrough, is shown in section in fig. 4, and is of a
+type which is still the most common, especially in the north of England.
+Here A, the high-pressure steam cylinder, and C, the low-pressure one,
+are placed in tandem with the air cylinders B, B, whose pistons they
+actuate. In these blowing cylinders the inlet valves in the bottom are
+circular disk valves of leather, eighteen in number; the inlet valves T
+on the top of the cylinder are arranged in ten rectangular boxes, having
+openings in their vertical sides, inside which are hung leather flap
+valves. The outlet valves O are ten in number at each end of the
+cylinders, and are hung against flat gratings which are arranged round
+the circumference. The blast is delivered into a wrought iron casing M
+which surrounds the cylinder. The combined area of the inlet valves is
+860 sq. in., or one-sixth the area of the piston. The speed is
+twenty-four revolutions per minute and the air delivered at this speed
+is 15,072 cubic ft. per minute, the horse-power in the air cylinders
+being 258. The circulating pump E, air pump F, and feed pumps G, G, are
+worked off the cross-head on the low-pressure side.
+
+A more modern form of blowing engine erected at the Dowlais works about
+the end of the 19th century, may be taken as typical of the present
+design of vertical blowing engine in use in Great Britain. The two air
+cylinders are placed below and in tandem with the steam cylinders as in
+the last case. The piston rods also terminate in connecting rods working
+on to the crank shaft. The air cylinders are each 88 in. in diameter,
+and the high and low pressure cylinders of the compound steam engine are
+30 in. and 64 in. respectively, while the common stroke of all four is
+60 in. The pressure of the air delivered varies from 4½ to 10 lb. per
+sq. in. and the quantity per minute is 25,000 cub. ft. Each engine
+develops about 1200 horse-power. It is to be noted that flap valves such
+as those used in the 1851 Dowlais engine have in most cases given place
+to a larger number of circular steel disk valves, held to their seats by
+springs.
+
+In a large blowing engine built in 1905 by Messrs Davy Bros. of
+Sheffield for the North-Eastern Steel Company at Middlesbrough (see
+_Engineering_, January 6, 1905) the same arrangement was adopted as in
+that just described. The two air cylinders are each 90 in. diameter and
+have a stroke of 72 in. The capacity of this engine is 52,000 cub. ft.
+of air per minute, delivered at a pressure of from 12½ to 15 lb. per sq.
+in. when running at a speed of thirty-three revolutions per minute. The
+air valves consist of a large number of steel disks resting on circular
+seatings and held down by springs, which for the delivery valves are so
+adjusted in strength that they lift and release the air when the desired
+working pressure has been reached. It is worthy of note that in this
+engine no attempt is made to make the air pistons air-tight in the usual
+way by having packing rings set in grooves round the edge, but the
+piston is made deeper than usual and turned so as to be a very good fit
+in the cylinder and one or two small grooves are cut round the edge to
+hold the lubricant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Richardsons, Westgarth & Co.'s Blowing Engine.]
+
+To illustrate a blowing engine driven by a gas engine supplied with
+blast furnace gas, fig. 5 gives a diagrammatic view of the blowing
+cylinder of an engine built by Messrs Richardsons, Westgarth & Co. of
+Middlesbrough about 1905. The gas cylinder is not shown. It will be seen
+that the air cylinder is horizontal, and it is arranged to work in
+tandem with the gas motor cylinder. The chief point of interest is to be
+found in the arrangement of the details of the air cylinder. Its
+diameter is 86½ in. and the length of piston stroke 55 in. As to the
+arrangement of the valves, if the piston be moving in the direction
+shown, on the left side of the piston at A air is being discharged, and
+follows the course indicated by the arrows, so as first to pass into the
+annular chamber which forms a continuation of the space A, and thence,
+through the spring-controlled steel disk valves v', into the discharge
+chamber C, which ultimately leads to the blast pipe. It will be seen
+that the valves v on the other side of the annular chamber are closed.
+At the same time a partial vacuum is being formed in the space B, to be
+filled by the inflow of air through the valves v which are now open, the
+corresponding discharge valves v' being closed. These valves on the
+inside and outside of the annular spaces referred to are arranged so as
+to form a circle round the ends of the barrel of the cylinder. The free
+air, instead of being drawn into the valves v direct from the air of the
+engine house, is taken from an enclosed annular chamber E, which may be
+in communication with the clean, cool air outside. It will be seen that
+the piston is made deep so as to allow for a long bearing surface in the
+cylinder. Two metal packing rings are provided to render the piston
+air-tight. The horse-power of this engine, which is designed on the
+Cockerell system, is 750.
+
+Air valves of other types than those which have been mentioned have been
+tried, such as sliding grid valves, rotatory slide valves and piston
+valves, but it has been found that either flap or disk lift valves are
+more satisfactory for air on account of the grit which is liable to get
+between slide valves and their seatings. In some of the blowing engines
+made by Messrs Fraser & Chalmers (see _Engineer_, June 15, 1906), sheets
+of flexible bronze act as flap valves both for admission and delivery,
+the part which actually closes the opening being thickened for strength.
+
+The pressure of the air supplied by blowing engines depends upon the
+purposes for which it is to be used. In charcoal furnaces the pressure
+is very low, being less than 1 lb. per sq. in.; for blast furnaces using
+coal an average value of 4 lb. is common; for American blast furnaces
+using coke or anthracite coal the pressure is as high as 10 lb.; while
+for the air required in the Bessemer process of steel-making pressures
+up to 25 or 30 lb. per sq. in. are not uncommon. According to British
+practice one large blowing engine is used to supply several blast
+furnaces, while in America a number of smaller ones is used, one for
+each furnace.
+
+_Rotary blowers_ occupy a position midway between blowing engines and
+fan blowers, being used for purposes requiring the delivery of large
+volumes of air at pressures lower than those of blowing engines, but
+higher than those of fan blowers. The blowing engine draws in,
+compresses and delivers its air by the direct action of air-tight
+pistons; the same effect is aimed at in a rotary blower with the
+difference that the piston revolves instead of moving up and down a
+cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Thwaites' Improved Roots' Blower.]
+
+Two of the best-known machines of this kind are Roots' and Baker's, both
+American devices. The mode of action of Roots' blower, as made by Messrs
+Thwaites Bros. of Bradford, will be clear from the section shown on fig.
+6. The moving parts work in a closed casing B, which consists of
+half-cylindrical curved plates placed a little more than their own
+radius apart, the ends being enclosed by two plates. Within the casing,
+and barely touching the curved part of the casing and each other,
+revolve two parts C, D, called "revolvers," the speed of rotation of
+which is the same, but the direction opposite. They are compelled to
+keep their proper relative positions by a pair of equal spur wheels
+fixed on the ends of the shafts on which they run. The free air enters
+the casing through a wire screen at A and passes into the space E.
+
+As the space E increases in volume owing to the movement of the
+revolvers, air is drawn in; it is then imprisoned between D and the
+casing, as shown at G, and is carried round until it is free to enter F,
+from which it is in turn expelled by the lessening of this space as the
+lower ends of the revolvers come together. In this way a series of
+volumes of air is drawn in through A, to be afterwards expelled from H
+in an almost perfectly continuous stream, this result being brought
+about by the relative variation in volume of the spaces E, F and G. In
+their most improved form the revolvers are made hollow, of cast iron,
+and accurately machined to a form such that they always keep close to
+one another and to the end casing without actually touching, there being
+never more space for the escape of air than 1/32nd of an inch. Machines
+after this design are made from the smallest size, delivering 25 cub.
+ft., to the largest, with a capacity of 25,000 cub. ft. per minute
+working up to a pressure of 3 lb. per sq. in. It is not found economical
+to attempt to work at higher pressures, as the leakage between the
+revolvers and the casing becomes too great; where a higher pressure is
+desired two or more blowers can be worked in series, the air being
+raised in pressure by steps. A blower using 1 H.P. will deliver 350 cub.
+ft. of air per minute and one using 2¾ H.P. will deliver 800 cub. ft.,
+at a pressure suitable for smiths' fires. At the higher pressure
+required for cupola work--somewhere about ¾ lb. per sq. in.--6½ H.P.
+will deliver 1300, and 123 H.P. 25,000 cub. ft. per minute. In the Baker
+blower three revolvers are used--a large one which acts as the rotating
+piston and two smaller ones forming air locks or valves.
+
+_Rotary Fans._--Now that power for driving them is so generally
+available, rotary blowing fans have for many purposes taken the place of
+bellows. They are used for blowing smiths' fires, for supplying the
+blast for iron melting cupolas and furnaces and the forced draught for
+boiler fires, and for any other purpose requiring a strong blast of air.
+Their construction will be clear from the two views (figs. 7 and 8) of
+the form made by Messrs Günther of Oldham, Lancashire. The fan consists
+of a circular casing A having the general appearance of a snail shell.
+Within this casing revolves a series of vanes B--in this case
+five--curved as shown, and attached together so as to form a wheel whose
+centre is a boss or hub. This boss is fixed to a shaft or spindle which
+revolves in bearings supported on brackets outside the casing. As the
+shaft is rotated, the vanes B are compelled to revolve in the direction
+indicated by the arrow on fig. 7, and their rotation causes the air
+within the casing to rotate also. Thus a centrifugal action is set up by
+which there is a diminution of pressure at the centre of the fan and an
+increase against the outer casing. In consequence air is sucked in, as
+shown by the arrows on fig. 8, through the openings C, C, at the centre
+of the casing around the spindle. At the same time the air which has
+been forced towards the outside of the casing and given a rotary motion
+is expelled from the opening at D (fig. 8). All blowing fans work on the
+same principle, though differences in detail are adopted by different
+makers to meet the variety of conditions under which they are to be
+used. Where the fan is to be employed for producing a delivery or blast
+of air the opening D is connected to an air pipe which serves to
+transmit the current of air, and C is left open to the atmosphere; when,
+however, the main object is suction, as in the case where the fan is
+used for ventilation, the aperture C is connected through a suction pipe
+with the space to be exhausted, D being usually left open. Günther fans
+range in size from those which have a diameter of fan disk of 8 in. and
+make 5500 revolutions per minute, to those which have a diameter of 50
+in. and run at from 950 to 1200 revolutions per minute. For exhausting
+the fans are run less quickly than for blowing, the speed for a fan of
+10 in. diameter being 4800 revolutions for blowing and 3300-4000 for
+exhausting, while the 50-in. fan only runs at 550-700 when exhausting.
+These two exhausting fans remove 400-500 and 12,000-15,000 cub. ft. of
+air per minute respectively.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Günther's Blowing Fan.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Günther's Blowing Fan.]
+
+The useful effect of rotary fans, that is to say the proportion of the
+total power used to drive the fan which is actually utilized in
+producing the current of air, is very low for the smaller sizes, but may
+rise to 30-70% in sizes above 5 ft. in diameter. It has its maximum
+value for any given fan at a certain definite speed. Fans are most
+suitable in cases where it is required to move or deliver comparatively
+large volumes of air at pressures which are little above that of the
+atmosphere. Where the pressure of the current produced exceeds a quarter
+of a pound on the square inch the waste of work becomes so great as to
+preclude their use. The fan is not the most economical form of blower,
+but it is simple and inexpensive, both in first cost and in maintenance.
+The largest fans are used for ventilating purposes, chiefly in mines,
+their diameters rising to 40 or even 50 ft. The useful effect of some of
+these larger fans, as obtained from experiments, is as high as 75%. In
+the case of the Capell fan, which differs from other forms in that it
+has two series of blades, inner and outer, separated by a curved blank
+piece between the inner wings, dipping into the fan inlet, and the outer
+wings, very high efficiencies have been obtained, being as great as 90%
+in some cases. Capell fans are used for ventilating mines, buildings,
+and ships, and for providing induced currents for use in boiler
+furnaces. In the larger fans the casing, instead of having a curved
+section, is more often built of sheet steel and is given a rectangular
+section at right angles to the periphery. The Sirocco blowing fan, of
+Messrs Davidson of Belfast, has a larger number of blades, which are
+relatively narrow as measured radially, but wide axially. It can be made
+much smaller in diameter than fans of the older designs for the same
+output of air--a great advantage for use in ships or in buildings where
+space is limited--and its useful effect is also said to be superior.
+(See also HYDRAULICS, § 213.)
+
+_Helical or screw blowers_, often called "air propellers," are used
+where relatively large volumes of air have to be moved against hardly
+any perceptible difference in pressure, chiefly for purposes of
+ventilation and drying. Most often the propeller is used to move air
+from one room or chamber to another adjoining, and is placed in a light
+circular iron frame which is fixed in a hole in the wall through which
+the air is to be passed. The propeller itself consists of a series of
+vanes or wings arranged helically on a revolving shaft which is fixed in
+the centre of the opening. The centre line of the shaft is perpendicular
+to the plane of the opening so that when the vanes revolve the air is
+drawn towards and through the opening and is propelled away from it as
+it passes through. The action is similar to that of a steamship screw
+propeller, air taking the place of water. Such blowers are often driven
+by small electric motors working directly on the end of the shaft. For
+moving large volumes of air against little pressure and suction they are
+very suitable, being simpler than fans, cheaper both in first cost and
+maintenance for the same volume of air delivered, and less likely to
+fail or get out of order. To obtain the best effect for the power used a
+certain maximum speed of rotation must not be exceeded; at higher speeds
+a great deal of the power is wasted. For example, a propeller with a
+vane diameter of 2½ ft. was found to deliver a volume of air
+approximately proportional to the speed up to about 700 revolutions per
+minute, when 8000 cub. ft. per minute were passed through the machine;
+but doubling this speed to 1400 revolutions per minute only increased
+delivery by 1000 cub. ft. to 9000. At the lower of these speeds the
+horse-power absorbed was 0.6 and at the higher one 1.6.
+
+_Other Appliances for producing Currents of Air._--In its primitive form
+the "trompe" or water-blowing engine adopted in Savoy, Carniola, and
+some parts of America, consists of a long vertical wooden pipe
+terminating at its lower end in an air chest. Water is allowed to enter
+the top of the pipe through a conical plug and, falling down in
+streamlets, carries with it air which is drawn in through sloping holes
+near the top of the pipe. In this way a quantity of air is delivered
+into the chamber, its pressure depending on the height through which the
+water falls. This simple arrangement has been developed for use in
+compressing large volumes of air at high pressures to be used for
+driving compressed air machinery. It is chiefly used in America, and
+provides a simple and cheap means of obtaining compressed air where
+there is an abundant natural supply of water falling through a
+considerable height. The pressure obtained in the air vessel is somewhat
+less than half a pound per square inch for every foot of fall.
+
+Natural sources of water are also used for compressing and discharging
+air by letting the water under its natural pressure enter and leave
+closed vessels, so alternately discharging and drawing in new supplies
+of air. Here the action is the same as in a blowing engine, the water
+taking the place of the piston. This method was first thoroughly
+developed in connexion with the Mt. Cenis tunnel works, and its use has
+since been extended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Steam-jet Blower.]
+
+In the _jet blower_ (fig. 9) a jet of steam is used to induce a current
+of air. Into one end of a trumpet-shaped pipe B projects a steam pipe A.
+This steam pipe terminates in a small opening, say, one-eighth of an
+inch, through which the steam is allowed to flow freely. The effect is
+to cause a movement of the air in the pipe, with the result that a fresh
+supply is drawn in through the annular opening at C, C, and a continuous
+stream of air passes along the pipe. This is the form of blower made by
+Messrs Meldrum Bros. of Manchester, and is largely used for delivering
+air under the fire bars of boiler and other furnaces. In some cases the
+jets of steam are allowed to enter a boiler furnace above the fire, thus
+inducing a current of air which helps the chimney draught and is often
+used to do away with the production of smoke; they are also used for
+producing currents of air for purposes other than those of boiler fires,
+and are very convenient where considerable quantities of air are wanted
+at very low pressures and where the presence of the moisture of the
+steam does not matter.
+
+Sometimes jets of high-pressure air flowing at great velocities are used
+to induce more slowly-moving currents of larger volumes of air at low
+pressures.     (W. C. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Old English word for this appliance was _blástbaelig_, i.e.
+    "blow-bag," cf. German _Blasebalg_. By the 11th century the first
+    part of the word apparently dropped out of use, and _baelig, bylig_,
+    bag, is found in early glossaries as the equivalent of the Latin
+    _follis. Baelig_ became in Middle English _bely_, i.e. "belly," a
+    sack or bag, and so the general word for the lower part of the trunk
+    in man and animals, the stomach, and another form, probably northern
+    in origin, _belu, belw_, became the regular word for the appliance,
+    the plural "bellies" being still used till the 16th century, when
+    "bellows" appears, and the word in the singular ceases to be used.
+    The verb "to bellow" of the roar of a bull, or the low of a cow, is
+    from Old English _bellan_, to bell, roar.
+
+
+
+
+BELLOY, DORMONT DE, the name assumed by PIERRE LAUREXT BUIREITE
+(1727-1775), French dramatist, was born at Saint-Flour, in Auvergne, on
+the 17th of November 1727. He was educated by his uncle, a distinguished
+advocate in Paris, for the bar. To escape from a profession he disliked
+he joined a troupe of comedians playing in the courts of the northern
+sovereigns. In 1758 the performance of his _Titus_, which had already
+been produced in St Petersburg, was postponed through his uncle's
+exertions; and when it did appear, a hostile cabal procured its failure,
+and it was not until after his guardian's death that de Belloy returned
+to Paris with _Zelmire_ (1762), a fantastic drama which met with great
+success. This was followed in 1765 by the patriotic play, _Le Siège de
+Calais_. The moment was opportune. The humiliations undergone by France
+in the Seven Years' War assured a good reception for a play in which the
+devotion of Frenchmen redeemed disaster. The popular enthusiasm was
+unaffected by the judgment of calmer critics such as Diderot and
+Voltaire, who pointed out that the glorification of France was not best
+effected by a picture of defeat. De Belloy was admitted to the Academy
+in 1772. His attempt to introduce national subjects into French drama
+deserves honour, but it must be confessed that his resources proved
+unequal to the task. The _Siège de Calais_ was followed by _Gaston et
+Bayard_ (1771), _Pedro le cruel_ (1772) and _Gabrielle de Vergy_ (1777).
+None of these attained the success of the earlier play, and de Belloy's
+death, which took place on the 5th of March 1775, is said to have been
+hastened by disappointment.
+
+
+
+
+BELL or INCHCAPE ROCK, a sandstone reef in the North Sea, 11 m. S.E. of
+Arbroath, belonging to Forfarshire, Scotland. It measures 2000 ft. in
+length, is under water at high tide, but at low tide is exposed for a
+few feet, the sea for a distance of 100 yds. around being then only
+three fathoms deep. Lying in the fairway of vessels making or leaving
+the Tay and Forth, besides ports farther north, it was a constant menace
+to navigation. In the great gale of 1799 seventy sail, including the
+"York," 74 guns, were wrecked off the reef, and this disaster compelled
+the authorities to take steps to protect shipping. Next year Robert
+Stevenson modelled a tower and reported that its erection was feasible,
+but it was only in 1806 that parliamentary powers were obtained, and
+operations began in August 1807. Though John Rennie had meanwhile been
+associated with Stevenson as consulting engineer, the structure in
+design and details is wholly Stevenson's work. The tower is 100 ft.
+high; its diameter at the base is 42 ft., decreasing to 15 ft. at the
+top. It is solid for 30 ft. at which height the doorway is placed. The
+interior is divided into six storeys. After five years the building was
+finished at a cost of £61,300. Since the lighting no wrecks have
+occurred on the reef. A bust of Stevenson by Samuel Joseph (d. 1850) was
+placed in the tower.
+
+According to tradition an abbot of Aberbrothock (Arbroath) had ordered a
+bell--whence the name of the rock--to be fastened to the reef in such a
+way that it should respond to the movements of the waves, and thus
+always ring out a warning to mariners. This signal was wantonly
+destroyed by a pirate, whose ship was afterwards wrecked at this very
+spot, the rover and his men being drowned. Southey made the incident the
+subject of his ballad of "The Inchcape Rock."
+
+
+
+
+BELLUNO (anc. _Bellunum_), a city and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy,
+the capital of the province of Belluno, N. of Treviso, 54 m. by rail and
+28 m. direct. Pop. (1901) town, 6898; commune, 19,050. It is situated in
+the valley of the Piave, at its confluence with the Ardo, 1285 ft. above
+sea-level, among the lower Venetian Alps. It was a Roman _municipium_.
+In the middle ages it went through various vicissitudes; it fell under
+the dominion of Venice in 1511, and remained Venetian until 1797. Its
+buildings present Venetian characteristics; it has some good palaces,
+notably the fine early Lombard Renaissance Palazzo dei Rettori, now the
+seat of the prefecture. The cathedral, erected after 1517 by Tullio
+Lombardo, was much damaged by the earthquake of 1873, which destroyed a
+considerable portion of the town, though the campanile, 217 ft. high,
+erected in 1732-1743, stood firm. The façade was never finished.
+Important remains of prehistoric settlements have been found in the
+vicinity; cf. G. Ghirardini in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1883, 27, on the
+necropolis of Caverzano.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+BELMONT, AUGUST (1816-1890), American banker and financier, was born at
+Alzei, Rhenish Prussia, on the 8th of December 1816. He entered the
+banking house of the Rothschilds at Frankfort at the age of fourteen,
+acted as their agent for a time at Naples, and in 1837 settled in New
+York as their American representative. He became an American citizen,
+and married a daughter of Commodore Matthew C. Perry. He was the
+consul-general of Austria at New York from 1844 to 1850, when he
+resigned in protest against Austria's treatment of Hungary. In 1853-1855
+he was chargé d'affaires for the United States at the Hague, and from
+1855 to 1858 was the American minister resident there. In 1860 he was a
+delegate to the Democratic National Convention at Charleston, South
+Carolina, actively supporting Stephen A. Douglas for the presidential
+nomination, and afterwards joining those who withdrew to the convention
+at Baltimore, Maryland, where he was chosen chairman of the National
+Democratic Committee. He energetically supported the Union cause during
+the Civil War, and exerted a strong influence in favour of the North
+upon the merchants and financiers of England and France. He remained at
+the head of the Democratic organization until 1872. He died in New York
+on the 24th of November 1890.
+
+His son, PERRY BELMONT (1851- ), was born in New York on the 28th of
+December 1851, graduated at Harvard in 1872 and at the Columbia Law
+School in 1876, and practised law in New York for five years. He was a
+Democratic member of Congress from 1881 to 1889, serving in 1885-1887 as
+chairman of the committee on foreign affairs. In 1889 he was United
+States minister to Spain.
+
+Another son, AUGUST BELMONT (1853- ), was born in New York on the 18th
+of February 1853 and graduated at Harvard in 1875. He succeeded his
+father as head of the banking house and was prominent in railway
+finance, and in financing and building the New York subway. In 1904 he
+was one of the principal supporters of Alton B. Parker for the
+Democratic presidential nomination, and served as chairman of the
+finance committee of the Democratic National Committee.
+
+  A volume entitled _Letters, Speeches and Addresses of August Belmont_
+  (the elder) was published at New York in 1890.
+
+
+
+
+BELOIT, a city of Rock county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated on the S.
+boundary of the state, on Rock river, about 91 m. N.W. of Chicago and
+about 85 m. S.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 6315; (1900) 10,436, of whom
+1468 were foreign-born; (1910) 15,125. It is served by the Chicago &
+North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by an
+inter-urban electric railway to Janesville, Wisconsin and Rockford,
+Illinois. Beloit is attractively situated on high bluffs on both sides
+of the river. The city is the seat of Beloit College, a co-educational,
+non-sectarian institution, founded under the auspices of the
+Congregational and Presbyterian churches in 1847, and having, in
+1907-1908, 36 instructors and 430 students. It has classical,
+philosophical (1874) and scientific (1892) courses; women were first
+admitted in 1895. The Greek department of the college has supervised
+since 1895 the public presentation nearly every year of an English
+version of a Greek play. The river furnishes good water-power, and among
+the manufactures are wood-working machinery, ploughs, steam pumps,
+windmills, gas engines, paper-mill machinery, cutlery, flour, ladies'
+shoes, cyclometers and paper; the total value of the factory product in
+1905 was $4,485,224, 60.2% more than in 1900. Beloit, founded by New
+Englanders in 1838, was chartered as a city in 1856.
+
+
+
+
+BELOMANCY (from [Greek: belos], a dart, and [Greek: manteia], prophecy
+or divination), a form of divination (q.v.) by means of arrows,
+practised by the Babylonians, Scythians and other ancient peoples.
+Nebuchadrezzar (Ezek. xxi. 21) resorted to this practice "when he stood
+in the parting of the way ... to use divination: he made his arrows
+bright."
+
+
+
+
+BELON, PIERRE (1517-1564), French naturalist, was born about 1517 near
+Le Mans (Sarthe). He studied medicine at Paris, where he took the degree
+of doctor, and then became a pupil of the botanist Valerius Cordus
+(1515-1544) at Wittenberg, with whom he travelled in Germany. On his
+return to France he was taken under the patronage of Cardinal de
+Tournon, who furnished him with means for undertaking an extensive
+scientific journey. Starting in 1546, he travelled through Greece, Asia
+Minor, Egypt, Arabia and Palestine, and returned in 1549. A full account
+of his travels, with illustrations, was published in 1553. Belon, who
+was highly favoured both by Henry II. and by Charles IX., was
+assassinated at Paris one evening in April 1564, when coming through the
+Bois de Boulogne. Besides the narrative of his travels he wrote several
+scientific works of considerable value, particularly the _Histoire
+naturelle des estranges poissons_ (1551), _De aquatilibus_ (1553), and
+_L'Histoire de la nature des oyseaux_ (1555), which entitle him to be
+regarded as one of the first workers in the science of comparative
+anatomy.
+
+
+
+
+BELPER, a market-town in the mid-parliamentary division of Derbyshire,
+England, on the river Derwent, 7 m. N. of Derby on the Midland railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901), 10,934. The chapel of St John is said to
+have been founded by Edmund Crouchback, second son of Henry III., about
+the middle of the 13th century. There is an Anglican convent of the
+Sisters of St Lawrence, with orphanage and school. For a considerable
+period one of the most flourishing towns in the county, Belper owed its
+prosperity to the establishment of cotton works in 1776 by Messrs
+Strutt, the title of Baron Belper (cr. 1856), in the Strutt family,
+being taken from the town. Belper also manufactures linen, hosiery, silk
+and earthenware; and after the decline of nail-making, once an important
+industry, engineering works and iron foundries were opened. The Derwent
+provides water-power for the cotton-mills. John of Gaunt is said to have
+been a great benefactor to Belper, and the foundations of a massive
+building have been believed to mark the site of his residence. A chapel
+which he founded is incorporated with a modern schoolhouse. The scenery
+in the neighbourhood of Belper, especially to the west, is beautiful;
+but there are collieries, lead-mines and quarries in the vicinity of the
+town.
+
+Belper (Beaurepaire) until 1846 formed part of the parish of Duffield,
+granted by William I. to Henry de Ferrers, earl of Derby. There is no
+distinct mention of Belper till 1296, when the manor was held by Edmund
+Crouchback, earl of Lancaster, who is said to have enclosed a park and
+built a hunting seat, to which, from its situation, he gave the name
+Beaurepaire. The manor thus became parcel of the duchy of Lancaster and
+is said to have been the residence of John of Gaunt. It afterwards
+passed with Duffield to the Jodrell family. In a great storm in 1545, 40
+houses were destroyed, and the place was scourged by the plague in 1609.
+
+  See C. Willott, _Historical Records of Belper._
+
+
+
+
+BELSHAM, THOMAS (1750-1829), English Unitarian minister, was born at
+Bedford on the 26th of April 1750. He was educated at the dissenting
+academy at Daventry, where for seven years he acted as assistant tutor.
+After three years spent in a charge at Worcester, he returned as head of
+the Daventry academy, a post which he continued to hold till 1789, when,
+having adopted Unitarian principles, he resigned. With Joseph Priestly
+for colleague, he superintended during its brief existence a new college
+at Hackney, and was, on Priestly's departure in 1794, also called to the
+charge of the Gravel Pit congregation. In 1805 he accepted a call to the
+Essex Street chapel, where in gradually failing health he remained till
+his death in 1829. Belsham's first work of importance, _Review of Mr
+Wilberforce's Treatise entitled Practical View_ (1798), was written
+after his conversion to Unitarianism. His most popular work was the
+_Evidences of Christianity;_ the most important was his translation and
+exposition of the Epistles of St Paul (1822). He was also the author of
+a work on philosophy, _Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind_
+(1801), which is entirely based on Hartley's psychology. Belsham is one
+of the most vigorous and able writers of his church, and the _Quarterly
+Review_ and _Gentleman's Magazine_ of the early years of the 19th
+century abound in evidences that his abilities were recognized by his
+opponents.
+
+
+
+
+BELSHAZZAR (6th century B.C.), Babylonian general. Until the
+decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, he was known only from the
+book of Daniel (v. 2, 11, 13, 18) and its reproduction in Josephus,
+where he is represented as the son of Nebuchadrezzar and the last king
+of Babylon. As his name did not appear in the list of the successors of
+Nebuchadrezzar handed down by the Greek writers, various suggestions
+were put forward as to his identity. Niebuhr identified him with
+Evil-Merodach, Ewald with Nabonidos, others again with Neriglissor. The
+identification with Nabonidos, the last Babylonian king according to the
+native historian Berossus, goes back to Josephus. The decipherment of
+the cuneiform texts put an end to all such speculations. In 1854 Sir
+H.C. Rawlinson discovered the name of Bel-sarra-uzur--"O Bel, defend the
+king"--in an inscription belonging to the first year of Nabonidos which
+had been discovered in the ruins of the temple of the Moon-god at
+Muqayyar or Ur. Here Nabonidos calls him his "first-born son," and prays
+that "he may not give way to sin," but that "the fear of the great
+divinity" of the Moon-god may "dwell in his heart." In the contracts and
+similar documents there are frequent references to Belshazzar, who is
+sometimes entitled simply "the son of the king."
+
+He was never king himself, nor was he son of Nebuchadrezzar. Indeed his
+father Nabonidos (Nabunaid), the son of Nabu-baladsu-iqbi, was not
+related to the family of Nebuchadrezzar and owed his accession to the
+throne to a palace revolution. Belshazzar, however, seems to have had
+more political and military energy than his father, whose tastes were
+antiquarian and religious; he took command of the army, living with it
+in the camp near Sippara, and whatever measures of defence were
+organized against the invasion of Cyrus appear to have been due to him.
+Hence Jewish tradition substituted him for his less-known father, and
+rightly concluded that his death marked the fall of the Babylonian
+monarchy. We learn from the Babylonian Chronicle that from the 7th year
+of Nabonidos (548 B.C.) onwards "the son of the king" was with the army
+in Akkad, that is in the close neighbourhood of Sippara. This, as Dr Th.
+G. Pinches has pointed out, doubtless accounts for the numerous gifts
+bestowed by him on the temple of the Sun-god at Sippara. So late as the
+5th of Ab in the 17th year of Nabonidos--that is to say, about three
+weeks after the forces of Cyrus had entered Babylonia and only three
+months before his death--we find him paying 47 shekels of silver to the
+temple on behalf of his sister, this being the amount of "tithe" due
+from her at the time. At an earlier period there is frequent mention of
+his trading transactions which were carried out through his
+house-steward or agent. Thus in 545 B.C. he lent 20 manehs of silver to
+a private individual, a Persian by race, on the security of the property
+of the latter, and a year later his house-steward negotiated a loan of
+16 shekels, taking as security the produce of a field of corn.
+
+The legends of Belshazzar's feast and of the siege and capture of
+Babylon by Cyrus which have come down to us from the book of Daniel and
+the _Cyropaedia_ of Xenophon have been shown by the contemporaneous
+inscriptions to have been a projection backwards of the re-conquest of
+the city by Darius Hystaspis. The actual facts were very different.
+Cyrus had invaded Babylonia from two directions, he himself marching
+towards the confluence of the Tigris and Diyaleh, while Gobryas, the
+satrap of Kurdistan, led another body of troops along the course of the
+Adhem. The portion of the Babylonian army to which the protection of the
+eastern frontier had been entrusted was defeated at Opis on the banks of
+the Nizallat, and the invaders poured across the Tigris into Babylonia.
+On the 14th of Tammuz (June), 538 B.C., Nabonidos fled from Sippara,
+where he had taken his son's place in the camp, and the city surrendered
+at once to the enemy. Meanwhile Gobryas had been despatched to Babylon,
+which opened its gates to the invader on the 16th of the month "without
+combat or battle," and a few days later Nabonidos was dragged from his
+hiding-place and made a prisoner. According to Berossus he was
+subsequently appointed governor of Karmania by his conqueror.
+Belshazzar, however, still held out, and it was probably on this account
+that Cyrus himself did not arrive at Babylon until nearly four months
+later, on the 3rd of Marchesvan. On the 11th of that month Gobryas was
+despatched to put an end to the last semblance of resistance in the
+country "and the son (?) of the king died." In accordance with the
+conciliatory policy of Cyrus, a general mourning was proclaimed on
+account of his death, and this lasted for six days, from the 27th of
+Adar to the 3rd of Nisan. Unfortunately the character representing the
+word "son" is indistinct on the tablet which contains the annals of
+Nabonidos, so that the reading is not absolutely certain. The only other
+reading possible, however, is "and the king died," and this reading is
+excluded partly by the fact that Nabonidos afterwards became a Persian
+satrap, partly by the silence which would otherwise be maintained by the
+"Annals" in regard to the fate of Belshazzar. Considering how important
+Belshazzar was politically, and what a prominent place he occupied in
+the history of the period, such a silence would be hard to explain. His
+death subsequently to the surrender of Babylon and the capture of
+Nabonidos, and with it the last native effort to resist the invader,
+would account for the position he assumed in later tradition and the
+substitution of his name for that of the actual king.
+
+  See Th. G. Pinches, _P.S.B.A._, May 1884; H. Winckler, _Zetischrift
+  für Assyriologie_, ii. 2, 3 (1887); _Records of the Past_, new series,
+  i. pp. 22-31 (1888); A.H. Sayce, _The Higher Criticism_, pp. 497-537
+  (1893).     (A. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878), English geologist and naturalist, was born at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1832, and educated in that city. As a youth he
+became actively interested in natural history through the Tyneside
+Naturalists' Field Club. In 1852 he went to Australia and for about
+eight years worked at the gold-diggings, where he acquired a practical
+knowledge of ore-deposits. In 1860 he proceeded to Nova Scotia to take
+charge of some gold-mines, and there met with a serious injury, which
+led to his return to England. In 1861 he issued a separate work entitled
+_Mineral Veins: an Enquiry into their Origin, founded on a Study of the
+Auriferous Quartz Veins of Australia_. Later on he was engaged for about
+three years at Dolgelly, another though small gold-mining region, and
+here he carefully investigated the rocks and fossils of the Lingula
+Flags, his observations being published in an important and now classic
+memoir in the _Geological Magazine_ for 1867. In the following year he
+was appointed to take charge of some mines in Nicaragua, where he passed
+four active and adventurous years--the results being given in his
+_Naturalist in Nicaragua_ (1874), a work of high merit. In this volume
+the author expressed his views on the former presence of glaciers in
+that country. In subsequent papers he dealt boldly and suggestively with
+the phenomena of the Glacial period in Britain and in various parts of
+the world. After many further expeditions to Russia, Siberia and
+Colorado, he died at Denver on the 21st of September 1878.
+
+
+
+
+BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being
+_balz_, from which the Lat. _balteus_ probably derived), a flat strap of
+leather or other material used as a girdle (q.v.), especially the
+_cinctura gladii_ or sword-belt, the chief "ornament of investiture" of
+an earl or knight; in machinery, a flexible strap passing round from one
+drum, pulley or wheel to another, for the purpose of power-transmission
+(q.v.). The word is applied to any broad stripe, to the belts of the
+planet Jupiter, to the armour-belt at the water-line of a warship, or to
+a tract of country, narrow in proportion to its length, with special
+distinguishing characteristics, such as the earthquake-belt across a
+continent.
+
+
+
+
+BELTANE, BELTENE, BELTINE, or BEAL-TENE (Scottish Gaelic, _bealltain_),
+the Celtic name for May-day, on which also was held a festival called by
+the same name, originally common to all the Celtic peoples, of which
+traces still linger in Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland and Brittany.
+This festival, the most important ceremony of which in later centuries
+was the lighting of the bonfires known as "beltane fires," is believed
+to represent the Druidical worship of the sun-god. The fuel was piled on
+a hill-top, and at the fire the beltane cake was cooked. This was
+divided into pieces corresponding to the number of those present, and
+one piece was blackened with charcoal. For these pieces lots were drawn,
+and he who had the misfortune to get the black bit became _cailleach
+bealtine_ (the beltane carline)--a term of great reproach. He was pelted
+with egg-shells, and afterwards for some weeks was spoken of as dead. In
+the north-east of Scotland beltane fires were still kindled in the
+latter half of the 18th century. There were many superstitions
+connecting them with the belief in witchcraft. According to Cormac,
+archbishop of Cashel about the year 908, who furnishes in his glossary
+the earliest notice of beltane, it was customary to light two fires
+close together, and between these both men and cattle were driven, under
+the belief that health was thereby promoted and disease warded off. (See
+_Transactions of the Irish Academy_, xiv. pp. 100, 122, 123.) The
+Highlanders have a proverb, "he is between two beltane fires." The
+Strathspey Highlanders used to make a hoop of rowan wood through which
+on beltane day they drove the sheep and lambs both at dawn and sunset.
+
+As to the derivation of the word beltane there is considerable
+obscurity. Following Cormac, it has been usual to regard it as
+representing a combination of the name of the god Bel or Baal or Bil
+with the Celtic _teine_, fire. And on this etymology theories have been
+erected of the connexion of the Semitic Baal with Celtic mythology, and
+the identification of the beltane fires with the worship of this deity.
+This etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists, and the New
+_English Dictionary_ accepts Dr Whitley Stokes's view that beltane in
+its Gaelic form can have no connexion with _teine_, fire. Beltane, as
+the 1st of May, was in ancient Scotland one of the four quarter days,
+the others being Hallowmas, Candlemas, and Lammas.
+
+  For a full description of the beltane celebration in the Highlands of
+  Scotland during the 18th century, see John Ramsay, _Scotland and
+  Scotsmen in the 18th Century_, from MSS. edited by A. Allardyce
+  (1888); and see further J. Robertson in Sinclair's _Statistical
+  Account of Scotland_, xi. 620; Thomas Pennant, _Tour in Scotland_
+  (1769-1770); W. Gregor, "Notes on Beltane Cakes," _Folklore_, vi.
+  (1895), p. 2; and "Notes on the Folklore of the North-East of
+  Scotland," p. 167 (_Folklore Soc_. vii. 1881); A. Bertrand, _La
+  Religion des Gaulois_ (1897); Jamieson, _Scottish Dictionary_ (1808).
+  Cormac's _Glossary_ has been edited by O'Donovan and Stokes (1862).
+
+
+
+
+BELUGA (_Delphinapterus leucas_), also called the "white whale," a
+cetacean of the family _Delphinidae_, characterized by its rounded head
+and uniformly light colour. A native of the Arctic seas, it extends in
+the western Atlantic as far south as the river St Lawrence, which it
+ascends for a considerable distance. In colour it is almost pure white;
+the maximum length is about twelve feet; and the back-fin is replaced by
+a low ridge. Examples have been taken on the British coasts; and
+individuals have been kept for some time in captivity in America and in
+London. See CETACEA.
+
+
+
+
+BELVEDERE, or BELVIDERE (Ital. for "fair-view"), an architectural
+structure built in the upper part of a building or in any elevated
+position so as to command a fine view. The belvedere assumes various
+forms, such as an angle turret, a cupola, a loggia or open gallery. The
+name is also applied to the whole building, as the Belvedere gallery in
+the Vatican at Rome. For Apollo Belvidere see GREEK ART, Plate II. fig.
+55.
+
+
+
+
+BELVIDERE, a city and the county-seat of Boone county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
+in the N. part of the state, on the Kishwaukee river, about 78 m. N.W.
+of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 3867; (1900) 6937 (1018 foreign-born); (1910)
+7253. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western railway, and by an
+extensive inter-urban electric system. Among its manufactures are sewing
+machines, boilers, automobiles, bicycles, roller-skates, pianos, gloves
+and mittens, corsets, flour and dairy products, Borden's condensed milk
+factory being located there. Belvidere was settled in 1836, was
+incorporated in 1852 and was re-incorporated in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1778-1823), Italian explorer of Egyptian
+antiquities, was born at Padua in 1778. His family was from Rome, and in
+that city he spent his youth. He intended taking monastic orders, but in
+1798 the occupation of the city by the French troops drove him from Rome
+and changed his proposed career. He went back to Padua, where he studied
+hydraulics, removed in 1800 to Holland, and in 1803 went to England,
+where he married an Englishwoman. He was 6 ft. 7 in. in height, broad in
+proportion, and his wife was of equally generous build. They were for
+some time compelled to find subsistence by exhibitions of feats of
+strength and agility at fairs and on the streets of London. Through the
+kindness of Henry Salt, the traveller and antiquarian, who was ever
+afterwards his patron, he was engaged at Astley's amphitheatre, and his
+circumstances soon began to improve. In 1812 he left England, and after
+travelling in Spain and Portugal reached Egypt in 1815, where Salt was
+then British consul-general. Belzoni was desirous of laying before
+Mehemet Ali a hydraulic machine of his own invention for raising the
+waters of the Nile. Though the experiment with this engine was
+successful, the design was abandoned by the pasha, and Belzoni resolved
+to continue his travels. On the recommendation of the orientalist, J.L.
+Burckhardt, he was sent at Salt's charges to Thebes, whence he removed
+with great skill the colossal bust of Rameses II., commonly called Young
+Memnon, which he shipped for England, where it is in the British Museum.
+He also pushed his investigations into the great temple of Edfu, visited
+Elephantine and Philae, cleared the great temple at Abu Simbel of sand
+(1817), made excavations at Karnak, and opened up the sepulchre of Seti
+I. ("Belzoni's Tomb"). He was the first to penetrate into the second
+pyramid of Giza, and the first European in modern times to visit the
+oasis of Baharia, which he supposed to be that of Siwa. He also
+identified the ruins of Berenice on the Red Sea. In 1819 he returned to
+England, and published in the following year an account of his travels
+and discoveries entitled _Narrative of the Operations and Recent
+Discoveries within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs and Excavations in Egypt
+and Nubia, &c._ He also exhibited during 1820-1821 facsimiles of the
+tomb of Seti I. The exhibition was held at the Egyptian Hall,
+Piccadilly, London. In 1822 Belzoni showed his model in Paris. In 1823
+he set out for West Africa, intending to penetrate to Timbuktu. Having
+been refused permission to pass through Morocco, he chose the Guinea
+Coast route. He reached Benin, but was seized with dysentery at a
+village called Gwato, and died there on the 3rd of December 1823. In
+1829 his widow published his drawings of the royal tombs at Thebes.
+
+
+
+
+BEM, JOSEF (1795-1850), Polish soldier, was born at Tarnow in Galicia,
+and was educated at the military school at Warsaw, where he especially
+distinguished himself in mathematics. Joining a Polish artillery
+regiment in the French service, he took part in the Russian campaign of
+1812, and subsequently so brilliantly distinguished himself in the
+defence of Danzig (January-November 1813) that he won the cross of the
+Legion of Honour. On returning to Poland he was for a time in the
+Russian service, but lost his post, and his liberty as well for some
+time, for his outspokenness. In 1825 he migrated to Lemberg, where he
+taught the physical sciences. He was about to write a treatise on the
+steam-engine, when the Polish War of Independence summoned him back to
+Warsaw in November 1830. It was his skill as an artillery officer which
+won for the Polish general Skrynecki the battle of Igany (March 8,
+1831), and he distinguished himself at the indecisive battle of
+Ostrolenká (May 26). He took part in the desperate defence of Warsaw
+against Prince Paskievich (September 6-7, 1831). Then Bem escaped to
+Paris, where he supported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1833 he
+went to Portugal to assist the liberal Dom Pedro against the reactionary
+Dom Miguel, but abandoned the idea when it was found that a Polish
+legion could not be formed. A wider field for his activity presented
+itself in 1848. First he attempted to hold Vienna against the imperial
+troops, and, after the capitulation, hastened to Pressburg to offer his
+services to Kossuth, first defending himself, in a long memorial, from
+the accusations of treachery to the Polish cause and of aristocratic
+tendencies which the more fanatical section of the Polish emigrant
+Radicals repeatedly brought against him. He was entrusted with the
+defence of Transylvania at the end of 1848, and in 1849, as the general
+of the Szeklers (q.v.), he performed miracles with his little army,
+notably at the bridge of Piski (February 9), where, after fighting all
+day, he drove back an immense force of pursuers. After recovering
+Transylvania he was sent to drive the Austrian general Puchner out of
+the Banat of Temesvár. Bem defeated him at Orsova (May 16), but the
+Russian invasion recalled him to Transylvania. From the 12th to 22nd of
+July he was fighting continually, but finally, on the 31st of July, his
+army was annihilated by overwhelming numbers near Segesvár (Schässburg),
+Bem only escaping by feigning death. Yet he fought a fresh action at
+Gross-Scheueren on the 6th of August, and contrived to bring off the
+fragments of his host to Temesvár, to aid the hardly-pressed Dembinski.
+Bem was in command and was seriously wounded in the last pitched battle
+of the war, fought there on the 9th of August. On the collapse of the
+rebellion he fled to Turkey, adopted Mahommedanism, and under the name
+of Murad Pasha served as governor of Aleppo, at which place, at the risk
+of his life, he saved the Christian population from being massacred by
+the Moslems. Here he died on the 16th of September 1850. The tiny,
+withered, sickly body of Bem was animated by an heroic temper. Few men
+have been so courageous, and his influence was magnetic. Even the rough
+Szeklers, though they did not understand the language of their "little
+father," regarded him with superstitious reverence. A statue to his
+honour has been erected at Maros-Vásárhely, but he lives still more
+enduringly in the immortal verses of the patriot poet Sandor Petöfi, who
+fell in the fatal action of the 31st of July at Segesvár. As a soldier
+Bem was remarkable for his excellent handling of artillery and the
+rapidity of his marches.
+
+  See Johann Czetz, _Memoiren über Bems Feldzug_ (Hamburg, 1850); Kálmán
+  Deresényi, _General Bem's Winter Campaign in Transylvania, 1848-1849_
+  (Hung.), (Budapest, 1896).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BEMA ([Greek: baema]), in ecclesiastical architecture, the semicircular
+recess or exedra, in the basilica, where the judges sat, and where in
+after times the altar was placed. It generally is roofed with a half
+dome. The seats, [Greek: thronoi], of the priests were against the wall,
+looking into the body of the church, that of the bishop being in the
+centre. The bema is generally ascended by steps, and railed off. In
+Greece the bema was the general name of any raised platform. Thus the
+word was applied to the tribunal from which orators addressed assemblies
+of the citizens at Athens. That in the Pnyx, where the Ecclesia often
+met, was a stone platform from 10 to 11 ft. in height. Again in the
+Athenian law court counsel addressed the court from such a platform: it
+is not known whether each had a separate bema or whether there was only
+one to which each counsel (? and the witnesses) in turn ascended (cf. W.
+Wyse in his edition of Isaeus, p. 440). Another bema was the platform on
+which stood the urns for the reception of the bronze disks ([Greek:
+psiaephoi]) by means of which at the end of the 4th century the judges
+recorded their decisions.
+
+
+
+
+BEMBERG, HERMAN (1861-   ), French musical composer, was born of French
+parents at Buenos Aires, and studied at the Paris Conservatoire, under
+Massenet, whose influence, with that of Gounod, is strongly marked in
+his music. As a composer he is known by numerous songs and pieces for
+the piano, as well as by his cantata _La Mort de Jeanne d'Arc_ (1886),
+comic opera _Le Baiser de Suzon_ (1888) and grand opera _Elaine_
+(produced at Covent Garden in 1892). Among his songs the dramatic
+recitative _Ballade du Désespéré_ is well known.
+
+
+
+
+BEMBO, PIETRO (1470-1547), Italian cardinal and scholar, was born at
+Venice on the 20th of May 1470. While still a boy he accompanied his
+father to Florence, and there acquired a love for that Tuscan form of
+speech which he afterwards cultivated in preference to the dialect of
+his native city. Having completed his studies, which included two years'
+devotion to Greek under Lascaris at Messina, he chose the ecclesiastical
+profession. After a considerable time spent in various cities and courts
+of Italy, where his learning already made him welcome, he accompanied
+Giulio de' Medici to Rome, where he was soon after appointed secretary
+to Leo X. On the pontiff's death he retired, with impaired health, to
+Padua, and there lived for a number of years engaged in literary labours
+and amusements. In 1529 he accepted the office of historiographer to his
+native city, and shortly afterwards was appointed librarian of St
+Mark's. The offer of a cardinal's hat by Pope Paul III. took him in 1539
+again to Rome, where he renounced the study of classical literature and
+devoted himself to theology and classical history, receiving before long
+the reward of his conversion in the shape of the bishoprics of Gubbio
+and Bergamo. He died on the 18th of January 1547. Bembo, as a writer, is
+the _beau ideal_ of a purist. The exact imitation of the style of the
+genuine classics was the highest perfection at which he aimed. This at
+once prevented the graces of spontaneity and secured the beauties of
+artistic elaboration. One cannot fail to be struck with the Ciceronian
+cadence that guides the movement even of his Italian writings.
+
+  His works (collected edition, Venice, 1729) include a _History of
+  Venice_ (1551) from 1487 to 1513, dialogues, poems, and what we would
+  now call essays. Perhaps the most famous are a little treatise on
+  Italian prose, and a dialogue entitled _Gli Asolani_, in which
+  Platonic affection is explained and recommended in a rather
+  long-winded fashion, to the amusement of the reader who remembers the
+  relations of the beautiful Morosina with the author. The edition of
+  Petrarch's _Italian Poems_, published by Aldus in 1501, and the
+  _Terzerime_, which issued from the same press in 1502, were edited by
+  Bembo, who was on intimate terms with the great typographer. See
+  _Opere de P. Bembo_ (Venice, 1729); Casa, _Vita di Bembo_, in 2nd vol.
+  of his works.
+
+
+
+
+BEMBRIDGE BEDS, in geology, strata forming part of the fluvio-marine
+series of deposits of Oligocene age, in the Isle of Wight and Hampshire,
+England. They lie between the Hamstead beds above and the Osborne beds
+below. The Bembridge marls, freshwater, estuarine and marine clays and
+marls (70-120 ft.) rest upon the Bembridge limestone, a freshwater pool
+deposit (15-25 ft.), with large land snails (_Amphidromus_ and
+_Helices_), freshwater snails (_Planorbis, Limnaea_), and the fruits of
+_Chara_. The marls contain, besides the freshwater _Limnaea_ and _Unio_,
+such forms as _Meretrix, Ostrea_ and _Melanopsis_. A thin calcareous
+sandy layer in this division has yielded the remains of many insects and
+fossil leaves.
+
+  See "Geology of the Isle of Wight," _Mem. Geol. Survey_, 2nd ed. 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER (1860-   ), American economist, was born at
+Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 7th of April 1860. He was educated at
+Amherst and Johns Hopkins University. He held the professorship of
+history and political economy in Vanderbilt University from 1887 to
+1892, was associate professor of political economy in the university of
+Chicago from 1892 to 1895, and assistant statistician to the Illinois
+bureau of labour statistics, 1896. In 1901 he became superintendent of
+the Cleveland water works. He wrote much on municipal government, his
+more important works being some chapters in _History of Co-operation in
+the United States_ (1888); _Municipal Ownership of Gas in the U.S._
+(1891); _Municipal Monopolies_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+BÉMONT, CHARLES (1848-   ), French scholar, was born at Paris on the
+16th of November 1848. In 1884 he graduated with two theses, _Simon de
+Montfort_ and _La Condamnation de Jean Sansterre_ (_Revue historique_,
+1886). His _Les Chartes des libertés anglaises_ (1892) has an
+introduction upon the history of Magna Carta, &c., and his _History of
+Europe from 395 to 1270_, in collaboration with G. Monod, was translated
+into English. He was also responsible for the continuation of the
+_Gascon Rolls_, the publication of which had been begun by Francisque
+Michel in 1885 (supplement to vol. i., 1896; vol. ii., for the years
+1273-1290, 1900; vol. iii., for the years 1290-1307, 1906). He received
+the honorary degree of Litt. Doc. at Oxford in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+BEN (from Old Eng. _bennan_, within), in the Scottish phrase "a but and
+a ben," the inner room of a house in which there is only one outer door,
+so that the entrance to the inner room is through the outer, the but
+(Old Eng. _butan_, without). Hence "a but and a ben" meant originally a
+living room and sleeping room, and so a dwelling or a cottage.
+
+
+
+
+BENARES, the Holy City of the Hindus, which gives its name to a district
+and division in the United Provinces of India. It is one of the most
+ancient cities in the world. The derivation of its ancient name
+_Varanasi_ is not known, nor is that of its alternative name _Kasi_,
+which is still in common use among Hindus, and is popularly explained to
+mean "bright." The original site of the city is supposed to have been at
+Sarnath, 3½ m. north of the present city, where ruins of brick and stone
+buildings, with three lofty _stupas_ still standing, cover an area about
+half a mile long by a quarter broad. Sakya Muni, the Buddha, came here
+from Gaya in the 6th century B.C. (from which time some of the remains
+may date), in order to establish his religion, which shows that the
+place was even then a great centre. Hsüan Tsang, the celebrated Chinese
+pilgrim, visited Benares in the 7th century A.D. and described it as
+containing 30 Buddhist monasteries, with about 3000 monks, and about 100
+temples of Hindu gods. Hinduism has now supplanted Buddhism, and the
+Brahman fills the place of the monk. The modern temples number upwards
+of 1500. Even after the lapse of so great a time the city is still in
+its glory, and as seen from the river it presents a scene of great
+picturesqueness and grandeur. The Ganges here forms a fine sweep of
+about 4 m. in length, the city being situated on the outside of the
+curve, on the northern bank of the river, which is higher than the
+other. Being thus elevated, and extending along the river for some 4 m.,
+the city forms a magnificent panorama of buildings in many varieties of
+oriental architecture. The minarets of the mosque of Aurangzeb rise
+above all. The bank of the river is entirely lined with stone, and there
+are many very fine ghats or landing-places built by pious devotees, and
+highly ornamented. These are generally crowded with bathers and
+worshippers, who come to wash away their sins in the sacred river
+Ganges. Near the Manikarnika ghat is the well held to have been dug by
+Vishnu and filled with his sweat; great numbers of pilgrims bathe in its
+venerated water. Shrines and temples line the bank of the river. But in
+spite of its fine appearance from the river, the architecture of Benares
+is not distinguished, nor are its buildings of high antiquity. Among the
+most conspicuous of these are the mosque of Aurangzeb, built as an
+intentional insult in the middle of the Hindu quarter; the Bisheshwar or
+Golden Temple, important less through architectural beauty than through
+its rank as the holiest spot in the holy city; and the Durga temple,
+which, like most of the other principal temples, is a Mahratta building
+of the 17th century. The temples are mostly small and are placed in the
+angles of the streets, under the shadow of the lofty houses. Their forms
+are not ungraceful, and many of them are covered over with beautiful and
+elaborate carvings of flowers, animals and palm branches. The
+observatory of Raja Jai Singh is a notable building of the year 1693.
+The internal streets of the town are so winding and narrow that there is
+not room for a carriage to pass, and it is difficult to penetrate them
+even on horseback. The level of the roadway is considerably lower than
+the ground-floors of the houses, which have generally arched rooms in
+front, with little shops behind them; and above these they are richly
+embellished with verandahs, galleries, projecting oriel windows, and
+very broad overhanging eaves supported by carved brackets. The houses
+are built of _chanar_ stone, and are lofty, none being less than two
+storeys high, most of them three, and several of five or six storeys.
+The Hindus are fond of painting the outside of their houses a deep red
+colour, and of covering the most conspicuous parts with pictures of
+flowers, men, women, bulls, elephants and gods and goddesses in all the
+many forms known in Hindu mythology.
+
+Benares is bounded by a road which, though 50 m. in circuit, is never
+distant from the city more than five kos (7½ m.); hence its name,
+Panch-kos road. All who die within this boundary, be they Brahman or low
+caste, Moslem or Christian, are sure of admittance into Siva's heaven.
+To tread the Panch-kos road is one of the great ambitions of a Hindu's
+life. Even if he be an inhabitant of the sacred city he must traverse it
+once in the year to free himself from the impurities and sins contracted
+within the holy precincts. Thousands from all parts of India make the
+pilgrimage every year. Benares, having from time immemorial been a holy
+city, contains a vast number of Brahmans, who either subsist by
+charitable contributions, or are supported by endowments in the numerous
+religious institutions of the city. Hindu religious mendicants, with
+every conceivable bodily deformity, line the principal streets on both
+sides. Some have their legs or arms distorted by long continuance in one
+position; others have kept their hands clenched until the finger nails
+have pierced entirely through their hands. But besides an immense resort
+to Benares of poor pilgrims from every part of India, as well as from
+Tibet and Burma, numbers of rich Hindus in the decline of life go there
+for religious salvation. These devotees lavish large sums in
+indiscriminate charity, and it is the hope of sharing in such pious
+distributions that brings together the concourse of religious mendicants
+from all quarters of the country.
+
+The city of Benares had a population in 1901 of 209,331. The European
+quarter lies to the west of the native town, on both sides of the river
+Barna. Here is the cantonment of Sikraul, no longer of much military
+importance, and the suburb of Sigra, the seat of the chief missionary
+institutions. The principal modern buildings are the Mint, the Prince of
+Wales' hospital (commemorating the visit of King Edward VII. to the city
+in 1876) and the town hall. The Benares college, including a first-grade
+and a Sanskrit college, was opened in 1791, but its fine buildings date
+from 1852. The Central Hindu College was opened in 1898. Benares
+conducts a flourishing trade by rail and river with the surrounding
+country. It is the junction between the Oudh & Rohilkhand and East
+Indian railways, the Ganges being crossed by a steel girder bridge of
+seven spans, each 350 ft. long. The chief manufactures are silk
+brocades, gold and silver thread, gold filigree work, German-silver
+work, embossed brass vessels and lacquered toys; but the brasswork for
+which Benares used to be famous has greatly degenerated.
+
+The Hindu kingdom of Benares is said to have been founded by one Kas
+Raja about 1200 B.C. Subsequently it became part of the kingdom of
+Kanauj, which in A.D. 1193 was conquered by Mahommed of Ghor. On the
+downfall of the Pathan dynasty of Delhi, about A.D. 1599, it was
+incorporated with the Mogul empire. On the dismemberment of the Delhi
+empire, it was seized by Safdar Jang, the nawab wazir of Oudh, by whose
+grandson it was ceded to the East India Company by the treaty of 1775.
+The subsequent history of Benares contains two important events, the
+rebellion of Chait Singh in 1781, occasioned by the demands of Warren
+Hastings for money and troops to carry on the Mahratta War, and the
+Mutiny of 1857, when the energy and coolness of the European officials,
+chiefly of General Neill, carried the district successfully through the
+storm.
+
+The DISTRICT OF BENARES extends over both sides of the Ganges and has an
+area of 1008 sq. m. The surface of the country is remarkably level, with
+numerous deep ravines in the calcareous conglomerate. The soil is a
+clayey or a sandy loam, and very fertile except in the Usar tracts,
+where there is a saline efflorescence. The principal rivers are the
+Ganges, Karamnasa, Gumti and Barna. The principal crops are barley,
+rice, wheat, other food-grains, pulse, sugar-cane and opium. The main
+line of the East Indian railway runs through the southern portion of the
+district, with a branch to Benares city; the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway
+through the northern portion, starting from the city; and a branch of
+the Bengal & North-Western railway also terminates at Benares. The
+climate of Benares is cool in winter but very warm in the hot season.
+The population in 1901 was 882,084, showing a decrease of 4% in the
+decade due to the effects of famine.
+
+The DIVISION OF BENARES has an area of 10,431 sq. m., and comprises the
+districts of Benares, Mirzapur, Jaunpur, Ghazipur and Ballia. In 1901
+the population was 5,069,020, showing a decrease of 6% in the decade.
+
+  See E.B. Havell, _Benares_ (1906); M.A. Sherring, _The Sacred City of
+  the Hindus_ (1868).
+
+
+
+
+BENBOW, JOHN (1653-1702), English admiral, the son of a tanner in
+Shrewsbury, was born in 1653. He went to sea when very young, and served
+in the navy as master's mate and master, from 1678 to 1681. When trading
+to the Mediterranean in 1686 in a ship of his own he beat off a Salli
+pirate. On the accession of William III. he re-entered the navy as a
+lieutenant and was rapidly promoted. It is probable that he enjoyed the
+protection of Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, under whom he had
+already served in the Mediterranean. After taking part in the
+bombardment of St Malo (1693), and superintending the blockade of
+Dunkirk (1696), he sailed in 1698 for the West Indies, where he
+compelled the Spaniards to restore two vessels belonging to the Scottish
+colonists at Darien (see PATERSON, WILLIAM) which they had seized. On
+his return he was appointed vice-admiral, and was frequently consulted
+by the king. In 1701 he was sent again to the West Indies as
+commander-in-chief. On the 19th of August 1702, when cruising with a
+squadron of seven ships, he sighted, and chased, four French vessels
+commanded by M. du Casse near Santa Marta. The engagement is the most
+disgraceful episode in English naval history. Benbow's captains were
+mutinous, and he was left unsupported in his flagship the "Breda." His
+right leg was shattered by a chain-shot, despite which he remained on
+the quarter-deck till morning, when the flagrant disobedience of the
+captains under him, and the disabled condition of his ship, forced him
+reluctantly to abandon the chase. After his return to Jamaica, where his
+subordinates were tried by court-martial, he died of his wounds on the
+4th of November 1702. A great deal of legendary matter has collected
+round his name, and his life is really obscure.
+
+  See Yonge's _Hist. of the British Navy_, vol. i.; Campbell's _British
+  Admirals_, vol. iii.; also Owen and Blakeway's _History of
+  Shrewsbury._
+
+
+
+
+BENCE-JONES, HENRY (1814-1873), English physician and chemist, was born
+at Thorington Hall, Suffolk, in 1814, the son of an officer in the
+dragoon guards. He was educated at Harrow and Trinity College,
+Cambridge. Subsequently he studied medicine at St George's hospital, and
+chemistry at University College, London. In 1841 he went to Giessen in
+Germany to work at chemistry with Liebig. Besides becoming a fellow, and
+afterwards senior censor, of the Royal College of Physicians, and a
+fellow of the Royal Society, he held the post of secretary to the Royal
+Institution for many years. In 1846 he was elected physician to St
+George's hospital. He died in London on the 20th of April 1873. Dr
+Bence-Jones was a recognized authority on diseases of the stomach and
+kidneys. He wrote, in addition to several scientific books and a number
+of papers in scientific periodicals, _The Life and Letters of Faraday_
+(1870).
+
+
+
+
+BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf.
+Ger. _Bank_, Dan. _baenk_ and the Eng. doublet "bank"), a long narrow
+wooden seat for several persons, with or without a back. While the chair
+was yet a seat of state or dignity the bench was ordinarily used by the
+commonalty. It is still extensively employed for other than domestic
+purposes, as in schools, churches and places of amusement. Bench or
+Banc, in law, originally was the seat occupied by judges in court; hence
+the term is used of a tribunal of justice itself, as the King's Bench,
+the Common Bench, and is now applied to judges or magistrates
+collectively as the "judicial bench," "bench of magistrates." The word
+is also applied to any seat where a number of people sit in an official
+capacity, or as equivalent to the dignity itself, as "the civic bench,"
+the "bench of aldermen," the "episcopal bench," the "front bench," i.e.
+that reserved for the leaders of either party in the British House of
+Commons. King's Bench (q.v.) was one of the three superior courts of
+common law at Westminster, the others being the common pleas and the
+exchequer. Under the Judicature Act 1873, the court of king's bench
+became the king's bench division of the High Court of Justice. The court
+of common pleas was sometimes called the common bench.
+
+Sittings in bane were formerly the sittings of one of the superior
+courts of Westminster for the hearing of motions, special cases, &c., as
+opposed to the _nisi prius_ sittings for trial of facts, where usually
+only a single judge presided. By the Judicature Act 1873 the business of
+courts sitting in bane was transferred to divisional courts.
+
+
+
+
+BENCH-MARK, a surveyor's mark cut in stone or some durable material, to
+indicate a point in a line of levels for the determination of altitudes
+over a given district. The name is taken from the "angle-iron" which is
+inserted in the horizontal incision as a "bench" or support for the
+levelling staff. The mark of the "broad-arrow" is generally incised with
+the bench-mark so that the horizontal bar passes through its apex.
+
+
+
+
+BENCH TABLE (Fr. _banc_; Ital. _sedile_; Ger. _Bank_), the stone seat
+which runs round the walls of large churches, and sometimes round the
+piers; it very generally is placed in the porches.
+
+
+
+
+BEND, (1) (From Old Eng. _bendan_), a bending or curvature, as in "the
+bend of a river," or technically the ribs or "wales" of a ship. (2)
+(From Old Eng. _bindan_, to bind), a nautical term for a knot, the
+"cable bend," the "fisherman's bend." (3) (From the Old Fr. _bende_, a
+ribbon), a term of heraldry, signifying a diagonal band or stripe across
+a shield from the dexter chief to the sinister base; also in tanning,
+the half of a hide from which the thinner parts have been trimmed away,
+"bend-leather" being the thickest and best sole-leather.
+
+
+
+
+BENDA, the name of a family of German musicians, of whom the most
+important is Georg (d. 1795), who was a pupil of his elder brother Franz
+(1709-1786), _Concertmeister_ in Berlin. Georg Benda was a famous
+clavier player and oboist, but his chief interest for modern musical
+history lies in his melodramas. Being a far more solid musician than
+Rousseau he earns the title of the musical pioneer of that art-form
+(i.e. the accompaniment of spoken words by illustrative music) in a
+sense which cannot be claimed for Rousseau's earlier _Pygmalion_.
+Benda's first melodrama, _Ariadne auf Naxos_, was written in 1774 after
+his return from a visit to Italy. He was a voluminous composer, whose
+works (instrumental and dramatic) were enthusiastically taken up by the
+aristocracy in the time of Mozart. Mozart's imagination was much fired
+by Benda's new vehicle for dramatic expression, and in 1778 he wrote to
+his father with the greatest enthusiasm about a project for composing a
+duodrama on the model of Benda's _Ariadne auf Naxos_ and _Medea_, both
+of which he considered excellent and always carried about with him. He
+concluded at the time that that was the way the problems of operatic
+recitative should be solved, or rather shelved, but the only specimen he
+has himself produced is the wonderful melodrama in his unfinished
+operetta, _Zaide_, written in 1780.
+
+
+
+
+BENDER (more correctly BENDERY), a town of Russia, in the government of
+Bessarabia, on the right bank of the Dniester, 37 m. by rail S.E. of
+Kishinev. It possesses a tobacco factory, candle-works and brick-kilns,
+and is an important river port, vessels discharging here their cargoes
+of corn, wine, wool, cattle, flour and tallow, to be conveyed by land to
+Odessa and to Yassy in Rumania. Timber also is floated down the
+Dniester. The citadel was dismantled in 1897. The town had in 1867 a
+population of 24,443, and in 1900 of 33,741, the greater proportion
+being Jews. As early as the 12th century the Genoese had a settlement on
+the site of Bender. In 1709 Charles XII., after the defeat of Poltava,
+collected his forces here in a camp which they called New Stockholm, and
+continued there till 1713. Bender was taken by the Russians in 1770, in
+1789 and in 1806, but it was not held permanently by Russia till 1812.
+
+
+
+
+BENDIGO (formerly SANDHURST), a city of Bendigo county, Victoria,
+Australia, 101 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 31,020. It is
+the centre of a large gold-field consisting of quartz ranges, with some
+alluvial deposits, and many of the mines are deep-level workings. The
+discovery of alluvial gold in 1851 brought many immigrants to the
+district; but the opening up of the quartz reefs in 1872 was the
+principal factor in the importance of Bendigo. It became a municipality
+in 1855 and a city in 1871. It is the seat of Anglican and Roman
+Catholic bishops. Besides mining, the local industries are the
+manufacture of Epsom pottery, bricks and tiles, iron-founding,
+stone-cutting, brewing, tanning and coach-building. The surrounding
+district produces quantities of wheat and fruits for export, and much
+excellent wine is made.
+
+
+
+
+BENDL, KAREL or KARL (1838-1897), Bohemian composer, was born on the
+16th of April 1838 at Prague. He studied at the organ school, and in
+1858 had already composed a number of small choral works. In 1861 his
+_Poletuje holubice_ won a prize and at once became a favourite with the
+local choral societies. In 1864 Bendl went to Brussels, where for a
+short time he held the post of second conductor of the opera. After
+visiting Amsterdam and Paris he returned to Prague. Here in 1865 he was
+appointed conductor of the choral society known as _Hlahoe_, and he held
+the post until 1879, when Baron Dervies engaged his services for his
+private band. Bendl's first opera _Lejla_ was successfully produced in
+1868. It was followed by _Bretislav a Jitka_ (1870), _Stary Zenich_, a
+comic opera (1883), _Karel Skreta_ (1883), _Dite Tabera_, a prize opera
+(1892), and _Matki Mila_ (1891). Other operas by Bendl are _Indicka
+princezna, Cernohorci_, a prize opera, and the two operas _Carovny Kvet_
+and _Gina_. His ballad _Svanda dudak_ acquired much popularity; he
+published a mass in D minor for male voices and another mass for a mixed
+choir; two songs to _Ave Maria_; a violin sonata and a string quartet in
+F; and a quantity of songs and choruses, many of which have come to be
+regarded as national possessions of Bohemia. Bendl died on the 20th of
+September 1897 at Prague.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDEK, LUDWIG, RITTER VON (1804-1881), Austrian general, was born at
+Ödenburg in Hungary on the 14th of July 1804, his father being a doctor.
+He received his commission in the Austrian army as ensign in 1822,
+becoming lieutenant in 1825, first lieutenant in 1831 and captain in
+1835. He was employed for a considerable time in the general staff, and
+had risen to the rank of colonel, when he won his first laurels in the
+suppression of the rising of 1846 in Galicia (see AUSTRIA: _History_).
+In this campaign his bold leadership in the field and his capacity for
+organization were so far conspicuous that he was made a _Ritter_
+(knight) of the Leopold order by his sovereign, and a freeman
+(_Ehrenbürger_) by the city of Lemberg. In 1847 he commanded a regiment
+in Italy, and on the outbreak of war with Sardinia he was placed in
+command of a mixed brigade, at the head of which he displayed against
+regular troops the same qualities of unhesitating bravery and resolution
+which had given him the victory in many actions with the Galician
+rebels. His conduct at Curtatone won for him the commandership of the
+Leopold order, and shortly afterwards the knighthood of the Maria
+Theresa order. At the action of Mortara his tactical skill and bravery
+were again conspicuous, and Radetzky particularly distinguished him in
+despatches. The archduke Albert, with whom he served, is said to have
+given him the sword of his father, the great archduke Charles. He was
+promoted major-general soon afterwards over the heads of several
+colonels senior to him, and was sent as a brigade commander to Hungary.
+Again he was distinguished as a fighting general at Raab, Komorn,
+Szegedin and many other actions, and was three times wounded. Benedek
+then received the cross for military merit, and soon afterwards was
+posted to the staff of the army in Italy. In 1852 he was made lieutenant
+field marshal, and in 1857 commander successively of the II., the IV.
+and the VIII. corps, and also a _Geheimrath_. In the political crisis of
+1854 he had command of a corps in the army of observation under Hess on
+the Turkish frontier. In the war of 1859 in Italy, Benedek commanded the
+VIII. corps, and at the battle of Solferino was in command of the right
+of the Austrian position. That portion of the struggle which was fought
+out between Benedek and the Piedmontese army is sometimes called the
+battle of San Martino. Benedek, with magnificent gallantry, held his own
+all day, and in the end covered the retreat of the rest of the Austrian
+army to the Mincio. His reward was the commandership of the order of
+Maria Theresa, and Vienna and many other cities followed the example of
+Lemberg in 1846. His reputation was now at its highest, and his great
+popularity was enhanced, in the prevailing discontent with the
+reactionary and clerical government of previous years, by the fact that
+he was a Protestant and not of noble birth. He was promoted
+_Feldzeugmeister_ and in 1860 appointed quartermaster-general to the
+army, and soon afterwards governor-general and commander-in-chief in
+Hungary, in succession to the archduke Albert. In 1861 he was made
+commander-in-chief in Venetia and the adjoining provinces of the empire,
+and in the following year he received the grand cross of the Leopold
+order. In 1864 he resigned the quartermaster-generalship and devoted
+himself exclusively to the command of the army in Italy. In 1861 he had
+been made a life-member of the house of peers. In 1866 war with Prussia
+and with Italy became imminent. Benedek was appointed to command the
+Army of the North against the Prussians, the control of affairs in Italy
+being taken over by the archduke Albert. For the story of the campaign
+of Königgrätz, in which the Austrians under Benedek's command were
+decisively defeated, see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR. Benedek took over his new
+command as a stranger to the country and to the troops. Only the
+personal command of the emperor and the requests of the archduke Albert
+prevailed upon him to "sacrifice his honour," as he himself said, in a
+task for which he felt himself ill prepared. When he took the field his
+despondency was increased by the passive obstruction which he met with
+amongst his own officers, many of whom resented being placed under a man
+of the middle class instead of the archduke Albert, and by the general
+state of unpreparedness which he found existing at the front. Further,
+his own staff was self-willed to the verge of disloyalty, and his
+assistants, Lieutenant Field Marshal von Henikstein, and Major-General
+Krismanic in particular, endeavoured to control Benedek's operations in
+the spirit of the 18th-century strategists. Under these circumstances,
+and against the superior numbers, _moral_ and armament of the Prussians,
+the Austrians were foredoomed to defeat. A series of partial actions
+convinced Benedek that success was unattainable, and he telegraphed to
+the emperor advising him to make peace; the emperor refused on the
+ground that no decisive battle had been fought; Benedek, thereupon,
+instead of retreating across the Elbe, determined to bring on a decisive
+engagement, and took up a position with the whole of his forces near
+Königgrätz with the Elbe in his rear. Here he was completely defeated by
+the Prussians on the 3rd of July, but they could not prevent him from
+making good his retreat over the river in magnificent order on the
+evening of the battle. He conducted the operations of his army in
+retreat up to the great concentration at Vienna under the archduke
+Albert, and was then suspended from his command and a court-martial
+ordered; the emperor, however, in December determined that the inquiry
+should be stopped. Benedek from this time lived in absolute retirement,
+and having given his word of honour to the archduke Albert that he would
+not attempt to rehabilitate himself before the world, he published no
+defence of his conduct, and even destroyed his papers relating to the
+campaign of 1866. This attitude of self-sacrificing loyalty he
+maintained even when on the 8th of November 1866 the official _Wiener
+Zeitung_ published an article in which he was made responsible for all
+the disasters of the war. The history of the campaign from the Austrian
+point of view as at present known leaves much unexplained, and the
+published material is primarily of a controversial character. The
+official _Österreichs Kämpfe_ speaks of the unfortunate general in the
+following terms: "A career full of achievements, distinction and fame
+deserved a less tragic close. A dispassionate judgment will not forget
+the ever fortunate and successful deeds which he accomplished earlier in
+the service of the emperor, and will ensure for him, in spite of his
+last heavy misfortune (_Last_), an honourable memory." Praise of his
+earlier career could not well be denied, and the official history is
+careful not to extend its eulogy to cover the events of 1866; the
+recognition in these words cannot therefore be set against the general
+opinion of subsequent critics that Benedek was the victim of political
+necessities, perhaps of court intrigues. For the rest of his life
+Benedek lived at Graz, where he died on the 27th of April 1881.
+
+  See H. Friedjung, _Benedeks nachgelassene Papiere_ (Leipzig, 1901, 3rd
+  and enlarged ed., 1904), and _Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in
+  Deutschland 1859-1866_ (Stuttgart, 1897, 6th ed., 1904); v.
+  Schlichtling, _Moltke und Benedek_ (Berlin, 1900), also therewith A.
+  Krauss, _Moltke, Benedek und Napoleon_ (Vienna, 1901); and a _roman à
+  clé_ by Gräfin Salburg, entitled _Königsglaube_ (Dresden, 1906). The
+  brief memoir in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ represents the court
+  view of Benedek's case.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDETTI, VINCENT, COUNT (1817-1900), French diplomatist, was born at
+Bastia, in the island of Corsica, on the 29th of April 1817. In the year
+1840 he entered the service of the French foreign office, and was
+appointed to a post under the marquis de la Valette, who was
+consul-general at Cairo. He spent eight years in Egypt, being appointed
+consul in 1845; in 1848 he was made consul at Palermo, and in 1851 he
+accompanied the marquis, who had been appointed ambassador at
+Constantinople, as first secretary. For fifteen months during the
+progress of the Crimean War he acted as chargé d'affaires. In the second
+volume of his essays he gives some recollections of his experiences in
+the East, including an account of Mehemet Ali, and a (not very friendly)
+sketch of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. In 1855, after refusing the post
+of minister at Teheran, he was employed in the foreign office at Paris,
+and acted as secretary to the congress at Paris (1855-1856). During the
+next few years he was chiefly occupied with Italian affairs, in which he
+was much interested, and Cavour said of him he was an Italian at heart.
+He was chosen in 1861 to be the first envoy of France to the king of
+Italy, but he resigned his post next year on the retirement of E.A.
+Thouvenel, who had been his patron, when the anti-Italian party began to
+gain the ascendancy at Paris. In 1864 he was appointed ambassador at the
+court of Prussia.
+
+Benedetti remained in Berlin till the outbreak of war in 1870, and
+during these years he played an important part in the diplomatic history
+of Europe. His position was a difficult one, for Napoleon did not keep
+him fully informed as to the course of French policy. In 1866, during
+the critical weeks which followed the attempt of Napoleon to intervene
+between Prussia and Austria, he accompanied the Prussian headquarters in
+the advance on Vienna, and during a visit to Vienna he helped to arrange
+the preliminaries of the armistice signed at Nikolsburg. It was after
+this that he was instructed to present to Bismarck French demands for
+"compensation," and in August, after his return to Berlin, as a result
+of his discussions with Bismarck a draft treaty was drawn up, in which
+Prussia promised France her support in the annexation of Belgium. This
+treaty was never concluded, but the draft, which was in Benedetti's
+handwriting, was kept by Bismarck and, in 1870, a few days after the
+outbreak of the war, was published by him in _The Times_. During 1867
+Benedetti was much occupied with the affair of Luxemburg. In July 1870,
+when the candidature of the prince of Hohenzollern for the throne of
+Spain became known, Benedetti was instructed by the duc de Gramont to
+present to the king of Prussia, who was then at Ems, the French demands,
+that the king should order the prince to withdraw, and afterwards that
+the king should promise that the candidature would never be renewed.
+This last demand Benedetti submitted to the king in an informal meeting
+on the promenade at Ems, and the misleading reports of the conversation
+which were circulated were the immediate cause of the war which
+followed, for the Germans were led to believe that Benedetti had
+insulted the king, and the French that the king had insulted the
+ambassador. Benedetti was severely attacked in his own country for his
+conduct as ambassador, and the duc de Gramont attempted to throw upon
+him the blame for the failures of French diplomacy. He answered the
+charges brought against him in a book, _Ma Mission en Prusse_ (Paris,
+1871), which still remains one of the most valuable authorities for the
+study of Bismarck's diplomacy. In this Benedetti successfully defends
+himself, and shows that he had kept his government well informed; he had
+even warned them a year before as to the proposed Hohenzollern
+candidature. Even if he had been outwitted by Bismarck in the matter of
+the treaty of 1866, the policy of the treaty was not his, but was that
+of E. Drouyn de Lluys. The idea of the annexation of part of Belgium to
+France had been suggested to him first by Bismarck; and the use to which
+Bismarck put the draft was not one which he could be expected to
+anticipate, for he had carried on the negotiations in good faith. After
+the fall of the Empire he retired to Corsica. He lived to see his
+defence confirmed by later publications, which threw more light on the
+secret history of the times. He published in 1895 a volume of _Essais
+diplomatiques_, containing a full account of his mission to Ems, written
+in 1873; and in 1897 a second series dealing with the Eastern question.
+He died on the 28th of March 1900, while on a visit to Paris. He
+received the title of count from Napoleon.
+
+  See Rothan, _La Politique Française en 1866_ (Paris, 1879); and
+  _L'Affaire de Luxemburg_ (Paris, 1881); Sorel, _Histoire diplomatique_
+  (Paris, 1875); Sybel, Die Begründung des deutschen Reiches (Munich,
+  1889), &c.     (J. W. He.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT (BENEDICTUS), the name taken by fourteen of the popes.
+
+BENEDICT I. was pope from 573 to 578. He succeeded John III., and
+occupied the papal chair during the incursions of the Lombards, and
+during the series of plagues and famines which followed these invasions.
+
+BENEDICT II. was pope from 684 to 685. He succeeded Leo II., but
+although chosen in 683 he was not ordained till 684, because the leave
+of the emperor Constantine was not obtained until some months after the
+election.
+
+BENEDICT III. was pope from 855 to 858. He was chosen by the clergy and
+people of Rome, but the election was not confirmed by the emperor, Louis
+II., who appointed an anti-pope, Anastasius (the librarian). But the
+candidature of this person, who had been deposed from the presbyterate
+under Leo IV., was indefensible. The imperial government at length
+recognized Benedict and discontinued its opposition, with the result
+that he was at last successful. The mythical pope Joan is usually placed
+between Benedict and his predecessor, Leo IV.
+
+BENEDICT IV. was pope from 900 to 903.
+
+BENEDICT V. was pope from 964 to 965. He was elected by the Romans on
+the death of John XII. The emperor Otto I. did not approve of the
+choice, and carried off the pope to Hamburg, where he died.
+
+BENEDICT VI. was pope from 972 to 974. He was chosen with great ceremony
+and installed pope under the protection of the emperor, Otto the Great.
+On the death of the emperor the turbulent citizens of Rome renewed their
+outrages, and the pope himself was strangled by order of Crescentius,
+the son of the notorious Theodora, who replaced him by a deacon called
+Franco. This Franco took the name of Boniface VII.
+
+BENEDICT VII. was pope from 974 to 983. He was elected through the
+intervention of a representative of the emperor, Count Sicco, who drove
+out the intruded Franco (afterwards Pope Boniface VII.). Benedict
+governed Rome quietly for nearly nine years, a somewhat rare thing in
+those days.
+
+BENEDICT VIII., pope from 1012 to 1024, was called originally
+Theophylactus. He was a member of the family of the count of Tusculum,
+and was opposed by an anti-pope, Gregory, but defeated him with the aid
+of King Henry II. of Saxony, whom he crowned emperor in 1014. In his
+pontificate the Saracens began to attack the southern coasts of Europe,
+and effected a settlement in Sardinia. The Normans also then began to
+settle in Italy. In Italy Benedict supported the policy of the emperor,
+Henry II., and at the council of Pavia (1022) exerted himself in favour
+of ecclesiastical discipline, then in a state of great decadence.
+
+BENEDICT IX., pope from 1033 to 1056, son of Alberic, count of Tusculum,
+and nephew of Benedict VIII., was also called Theophylactus. He was
+installed pope at the age of twelve through the influence of his father.
+The disorders of his conduct, though tolerated by the emperors, Conrad
+II. and Henry III., who were then morally responsible for the
+pontificate, at length disgusted the Romans, who drove him out in 1044
+and appointed Silvester III. his successor. Silvester remained in the
+papal chair but a few weeks, as the people of Tusculum quickly recovered
+their influence and reinstated their pope. Benedict, however, was
+obliged to bow before the execration of the Romans. He sold his rights
+to his godfather, the priest Johannes Gratianus, who was installed under
+the name of Gregory VI. (1045). The following year Henry III. obtained
+at the council of Sutri the deposition of the three competing popes, and
+replaced them by Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of
+Clement II. But before the close of 1047 Clement II. died, probably from
+poison administered by Benedict, who was reinstalled for the third time.
+At last, on the 17th of July 1048, the marquis of Tuscany drove him from
+Rome, where he was never seen again. He lived several years after his
+expulsion and appears to have died impenitent.
+
+BENEDICT X. (Johannes "Mincius," i.e. the lout or dolt, bishop of
+Velletri) was pope from 1058 to 1059. He was elected on the death of
+Stephen IX. through the influence of the Roman barons, who, however, had
+pledged themselves to take no action without Hildebrand, who was then
+absent from Rome. Hildebrand did not recognize him, and put forward an
+opposition pope in the person of Gerard, bishop of Florence (pope as
+Nicholas II.), whom he supported against the Roman aristocracy. With the
+help of the Normans, Hildebrand seized the castle of Galeria, where
+Benedict had taken refuge, and degraded him to the rank of a simple
+priest.     (L. D.*)
+
+BENEDICT XI. (Niccolo Boccasini), pope from 1303 to 1304, the son of a
+notary, was born in 1240 at Treviso. Entering the Dominican order in
+1254, he became lector, prior of the convent, provincial of his order in
+Lombardy, and in 1296 its general. In 1298 he was created cardinal
+priest of Santa Sabina, and in 1300 cardinal bishop of Ostia and
+Velletri. In 1302 he was papal legate in Hungary. On the 22nd of October
+1303 he was unanimously elected pope. He did much to conciliate the
+enemies made by his predecessor Boniface VIII., notably France, the
+Colonnas and King Frederick II. of Sicily; nevertheless on the 7th of
+June 1304 he excommunicated William of Nogaret and all the Italians who
+had captured Boniface in Anagni. Benedict died at Perugia on the 7th of
+July 1304; if he was really poisoned, as report had it, suspicion would
+fall primarily on Nogaret. His successor Clement V. transferred the
+papal residence to Avignon. Among Benedict's works are commentaries on
+part of the Psalms and on the Gospel of Matthew. His beatification took
+place in 1733.
+
+  See C. Grandjean, "Registres de Benoît XI." (Paris, 1883 ff.),
+  _Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome._
+
+BENEDICT XII. (Jacques Fournier), pope from 1334 to 1342, the son of a
+miller, was born at Saverdun on the Arriège. Entering the Cistercian
+cloister Bolbonne, and graduating doctor of theology at Paris, he became
+in 1311 abbot of Fontfroide, in 1317 bishop of Pamiers and in 1326 of
+Mirepoix. Created cardinal priest of Santa Prisca in 1327 by his uncle
+John XXII. he was elected his successor on the 20th of December 1334.
+Benedict made appointments carefully, reformed monastic orders and
+consistently opposed nepotism. Unable to remove his capital to Rome or
+to Bologna, he began to erect a great palace at Avignon. In 1336 he
+decided against a pet notion of John XXII. by saying that souls of
+saints may attain the fulness of the beatific vision _before_ the last
+judgment. In 1339 he entered upon fruitless negotiations looking toward
+the reunion of the Greek and Roman churches. French influence made
+futile his attempt to come to an understanding with the emperor Louis
+the Bavarian. He died on the 25th of April 1342.
+
+  See the source publications of G. Daumet (_Lettres closes, patentes et
+  curiales_, ... Paris, 1899 ff.), and J.-M. Vidal (_Lettres communes_,
+  ... Paris, 1903 ff.).     (W. W. R.*)
+
+BENEDICT XIII. (Pedro de Luna), (c. 1328-1422 or 1423), anti-pope,
+belonged to one of the most noble families in Aragon. His high birth,
+his legal learning--he was for a long time professor of canon law at
+Montpellier--and the irreproachable purity of his life, recommended him
+to Pope Gregory XI, who created him cardinal in 1375. He was almost the
+only one who succeeded in making a firm stand in the tumultuous
+conclave of 1378; but the deliberation with which he made up his mind as
+to the validity of the election of Urban VI. was equalled, when he took
+the side of Clement VII., by the ardour and resourcefulness which he
+displayed in defending the cause of the pope of Avignon; it was mainly
+to him that the latter owed his recognition by Castile, Aragon and
+Navarre. When elected pope, or rather anti-pope, by the cardinals of
+Avignon, on the 28th of September 1394, it was he who by his astuteness,
+his resolution, and, it may be added, by his unswerving faith in the
+justice of his cause, was to succeed in prolonging the lamentable schism
+of the West for thirty years. The hopes he had aroused that, by a
+voluntary abdication, he would restore unity to the church, were vain;
+though called upon by the princes of France to carry out his plan,
+abandoned by his cardinals, besieged and finally kept under close
+observation in the palace of the popes (1398-1403), he stood firm, and
+tired out the fury of his opponents. Escaping from Avignon, he again won
+obedience in France, and his one thought was how to triumph over his
+Italian rival, if necessary, by force. He yielded, however, to the
+instances of the government of Charles VI., and pretending that he
+wished to have an interview with Gregory XII., with a view to their
+simultaneous abdication, he advanced to Savona, and then to Porto
+Venere. The failure of these negotiations, for which he was only in part
+responsible, led to the universal movement of indignation and
+impatience, which ended, in France, in the declaration of neutrality
+(1408), and at Pisa, in the decree of deposition against the two
+pontiffs (1409). Benedict XIII., who had on his part tried to call
+together a council at Perpignan, was by this time recognized hardly
+anywhere but in his native land, in Scotland, and in the estates of the
+countship of Armagnac. He remained none the less full of energy and of
+illusions, repulsed the overtures of Sigismund, king of the Romans, who
+had come to Perpignan to persuade him to abdicate, and, abandoned by
+nearly all his adherents, he took refuge in the impregnable castle of
+Peñiscola, on a rock dominating the Mediterranean (1415). The council of
+Constance then deposed him, as a perjurer, an incurable schismatic and a
+heretic (26th July 1417). After struggling with the popes of Rome, Urban
+VI., Boniface IX., Innocent VII. and Gregory XII., and against the popes
+of Pisa, Alexander V. and John XXIII., Pedro de Luna, clinging more than
+ever to that apostolic seat which he still professed not to desire,
+again took up the struggle against Martin V., although the latter was
+recognized throughout almost all Christendom, and, before his death
+(29th November 1422, or 23rd May 1423), he nominated four new cardinals
+in order to carry the schism on even after him.
+
+  See Fr. Ehrle, _Archiv für Lit. und Kirchengesch._ vols. v., vi.,
+  vii.; N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme d'occident_ (4 vols.,
+  Paris, 1896-1902); Fr. Ehrle, "Martin de Alpartils chronica
+  actitatorum temporibus domini Benedicti XIII." (_Quellen und
+  Forschungen aus dem Geb. der Gesch._, Görres-Gesellschaft, Paderborn,
+  1906).     (N. V.)
+
+BENEDICT XIII. (Piero Francesco Orsini), pope from 1724 to 1730, at
+first styled Benedict XIV., was born on the 2nd of February 1649, of the
+ducal family of Orsini-Gravina. In 1667 he became a Dominican (as
+Vincentius Maria), studied theology and philosophy, was made a cardinal
+in 1672 and archbishop of Benevento in 1686. Elected pope on the 29th of
+May 1724, he attempted to reform clerical morals; but neither the
+decrees of the Latin council (1725) nor his personal precepts had much
+effect. He confirmed the bull _Unigenitus_; but, despite the Jesuits,
+allowed the Dominicans to preach the Augustinian doctrine of grace.
+State affairs he left entirely to the unpopular Cardinal Nicolo Coscia.
+He died on the 21st of February 1730. His works, were published in 3
+vols. at Ravenna in 1728.
+
+BENEDICT XIV. (Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini), pope from 1740 to 1758, was
+born at Bologna on the 31st of March 1675. At the age of thirteen he
+entered the Collegium Clementinum at Rome. He served the Curia in many
+and important capacities, yet devoted his leisure time to theological
+and canonistic study. Benedict XIII. made him archbishop of Theodosia
+_in partibus_, then of Ancona (1727), and the next year created him
+cardinal priest. In 1731 Clement XII. translated him to his native city
+of Bologna, where as archbishop he was both efficient and popular. He
+published valuable works, notably _De servorum Dei beatificatione et
+canonizatione, De sacrificio missae_, as well as a treatise on the
+feasts of Christ and the Virgin and of some saints honoured in Bologna.
+In a conclave which had lasted for months he was elected on the 17th of
+August 1740 the successor of Clement XII. Benedict XIV. was not merely
+earnest and conscientious, but of incisive intellect, and unfailingly
+cheerful and witty. In several respects he bettered the economic
+conditions of the papal states, but was disinclined to undertake the
+needed thorough-going reform of its administration. In foreign politics
+he made important concessions to Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, Spain, and
+was the first pope expressly to recognize the king of Prussia as such.
+In 1741 he issued the bull _Immensa pastorum principis_, demanding more
+humane treatment for the Indians of Brazil and Paraguay, and in the
+bulls _Ex quo singulari_ (1742) and _Omnium sollicitudinum_ (1744) he
+rebuked the missionary methods of the Jesuits in accommodating their
+message to the heathen usages of the Chinese and of the natives of
+Malabar. In accord with the spirit of the age he reduced the number of
+holy days in several Catholic countries. To the end of his life he kept
+up his studies and his intercourse with other scholars, and founded
+several learned societies. His masterpiece, _Libri octo de synoda
+diocesana_, begun in Bologna, appeared during his pontificate. He died
+on the 3rd of May 1758.
+
+  His works, published in twelve quarto volumes at Rome (1747-1751),
+  appeared in more nearly complete editions at Venice in 1767 and at
+  Prato, 1839-1846; also _Briefe Benedicts XIV._, ed. F.X. Kraus (2nd
+  ed., Freiburg, 1888); _Benedicti XIV. Papae opera inedita_, ed. F.
+  Heiner (Freiburg, 1904). See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, ii. 572
+  ff.; Wetzer and Welter, _Kirchenlexikon_, ii. 317 ff.     (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN (d. 1268), Benedictine abbot of Notre Dame de la
+Grasse (1224) and bishop of Marseilles (1229), twice visited the Holy
+Land (1239 and 1260), where he helped the Templars build the great
+castle of Safet. He founded a short-lived order, the Brothers of the
+Virgin, suppressed by the council of Lyons (1274), and died a
+Franciscan. His writings include a letter to Innocent IV. and _De
+constructione Castri Saphet_ (Baluze, _Miscellanea_, ii.).
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT (c. 480-c. 544), the patriarch of Western
+monks. Our only authority for the facts of St Benedict's life is bk. ii
+of St Gregory's _Dialogues_. St Gregory declares that he obtained his
+information from four of St Benedict's disciples, whom he names; and
+there can be no serious reason for doubting that it is possible to
+reconstruct the outlines of St Benedict's career (see Hodgkin, _Italy
+and her Invaders_, iv. 412). A precise chronology and a pedigree have
+been supplied for Benedict, according to which he was born in 480, of
+the great family of the Anicii; but all we know is what St Gregory tells
+us, that he was born of good family in Nursia, near Spoleto in Umbria.
+His birth must have occurred within a few years of the date assigned;
+the only fixed chronological point is a visit of the Gothic king Totila
+to him in 543, when Benedict was already established at Monte Cassino
+and advanced in years (_Dial_. ii. 14, 15). He was sent by his parents
+to frequent the Roman schools, but shocked by the prevailing
+licentiousness he fled away. It has been usual to represent him as a
+mere boy at this time, but of late years various considerations have
+been pointed out which make it more likely that he was a young man. He
+went to the mountainous districts of the Abruzzi, and at last came to
+the ruins of Nero's palace and the artificial lake at Subiaco, 40 m.
+from Rome. Among the rocks on the side of the valley opposite the palace
+he found a cave in which he took up his abode, unknown to all except one
+friend, Romanus, a monk of a neighbouring monastery, who clothed him in
+the monastic habit and secretly supplied him with food. No one who has
+seen the spot will doubt that the Sacro Speco is indeed the cave wherein
+Benedict spent the three years of opening manhood in solitary prayer,
+contemplation and austerity. After this period of formation his fame
+began to spread abroad, and the monks of a neighbouring monastery
+induced him to become their abbot; but their lives were irregular and
+dissolute, and on his trying to put down abuses they attempted to
+poison him. He returned to his cave, but disciples flocked to him, and
+in time he formed twelve monasteries in the neighbourhood, placing
+twelve monks in each, and himself retaining a general control over all.
+In time patricians and senators from Rome entrusted their young sons to
+his care, to be brought up as monks; in this manner came to him his two
+best-known disciples, Maurus and Placidus. Driven from Subiaco by the
+jealousy and molestations of a neighbouring priest, but leaving behind
+him communities in his twelve monasteries, he himself, accompanied by a
+small band of disciples, journeyed south until he came to Cassino, a
+town halfway between Rome and Naples. Climbing the high mountain that
+overhangs the town, he established on the summit the monastery with
+which his name has ever since been associated, and which for centuries
+was a chief centre of religious life for western Europe. He destroyed
+the remnants of paganism that lingered on here, and by his preaching
+gained the rustic population to Christianity. Few other facts of his
+career are known: there is record of his founding a monastery at
+Terracina; his death must have occurred soon after Totila's visit in
+543.
+
+_Rule of St Benedict._--In order to understand St Benedict's character
+and spirit, and to discover the secret of the success of his institute,
+it is necessary, as St Gregory says, to turn to his Rule. St Gregory's
+characterization of the Rule as "conspicuous for its discretion" touches
+the most essential quality. The relation of St Benedict's Rule to
+earlier monastic rules, and of his institute to the prevailing monachism
+of his day, is explained in the article MONASTICISM. Here it is enough
+to say that nowadays it is commonly recognized by students that the
+manner of life instituted by St Benedict was not intended to be, and as
+a matter of fact was not, one of any great austerity, when judged by the
+standard of his own day (see E.C. Butler, _Lausiac History of
+Palladius_, part i. pp. 251-256). His monks were allowed proper clothes,
+sufficient food, ample sleep. The only bodily austerities were the
+abstinence from flesh meat and the unbroken fast till mid-day or even 3
+P.M., but neither would appear so onerous in Italy even now, as to us in
+northern climes. Midnight office was no part of St Benedict's Rule: the
+time for rising for the night office varied from 1.30 to 3.0, according
+to the season, and the monks had had unbroken sleep for 7½ or even 8
+hours, except in the hot weather, when in compensation they were allowed
+the traditional Italian summer siesta after the mid-day meal. The
+canonical office was chanted throughout, but the directly religious
+duties of the day can hardly have taken more than 4 or 5 hours--perhaps
+8 on Sundays. The remaining hours of the day were divided between work
+and reading, in the proportion (on the average of the whole year) of
+about 6 and 4 hours respectively. The "reading" in St Benedict's time
+was probably confined to the Bible and the Fathers. The "work"
+contemplated by St Benedict was ordinarily field work, as was natural in
+view of the conditions of the time and best suited to the majority of
+the monks; but the principle laid down is that the monks should do
+whatever work is most useful. There were from the beginning young boys
+in the monastery, who were educated by the monks according to the ideas
+of the time. We have seen St Benedict evangelizing the pagan population
+round Monte Cassino; and a considerable time each day is assigned to the
+reading of the Fathers. Thus the germs of all the chief works carried on
+by his monks in later ages were to be found in his own monastery.
+
+The Rule consists of a prologue and 73 chapters. Though it has resisted
+all attempts to reduce it to an ordered scheme, and probably was not
+written on any set plan, still it is possible roughly to indicate its
+contents: after the prologue and introductory chapter setting forth St
+Benedict's intention, follow instructions to the abbot on the manner in
+which he should govern his monastery (2,3); next comes the ascetical
+portion of the Rule, on the chief monastic virtues (4-7); then the
+regulations for the celebration of the canonical office, which St
+Benedict calls "the Work of God" or "the divine work," his monks' first
+duty, "of which nothing is to take precedence" (8-20); faults and
+punishments (23-30); the cellarer and property of the monastery (31,
+32); community of goods (33, 34); various officials and daily life (21,
+22, 35-57); reception of monks (58-61); miscellaneous (62-73).
+
+The most remarkable chapters, in which St Benedict's wisdom stands out
+most conspicuously, are those on the abbot (2,3, 27,64). The abbot is to
+govern the monastery with full and unquestioned patriarchal authority;
+on important matters he must consult the whole community and hear what
+each one, even the youngest, thinks; on matters of less weight he should
+consult a few of the elder monks; but in either case the decision rests
+entirely with him, and all are to acquiesce. He must, however, bear in
+mind that he will have to render an account of all his decisions and to
+answer for the souls of all his monks before the judgment seat of God.
+Moreover, he has to govern in accordance with the Rule, and must
+endeavour, while enforcing discipline and implanting virtues, not to
+sadden or "overdrive" his monks, or give them cause for "just
+murmuring." In these chapters pre-eminently appears that element of
+"discretion," as St Gregory calls it, or humanism as it would now be
+termed, which without doubt has been a chief cause of the success of the
+Rule. There is as yet no satisfactory text of the Rule, either critical
+or manual; the best manual text is Schmidt's _editio minor_ (Regensburg,
+1892). Of the many commentaries the most valuable are those of Paulus
+Diaconus (the earliest, c. 800), of Calmet and of Martène (Migne,
+_Patrol. Lat._ lxvi.).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--An old English translation of St Gregory's _Dialogues_
+  is reprinted in the Quarterly Series (Burns & Oates). On St Benedict's
+  life and Rule see Montalembert, _Monks of the West_, bk. iv.; Abbate
+  L. Tosti, _S. Benedetto_ (translated 1896); also Indexes to standard
+  general histories of the period; Thomas Hodgkin's _Italy and Her
+  Invaders_ and Gregorovius' _History of the City of Rome_ may be
+  specially mentioned. But by far the best summaries in English are
+  those contained in the relevant portions of F.H. Dudden's _Gregory the
+  Great_ (1905), i. 107-115, ii. 160-169; on the recent criticism of the
+  text and contents of the Rule, see Otto Zöckler, _Askese und Mönchtum_
+  (1897), 355-371; and E.C. Butler, articles in _Downside Review_,
+  December 1899, and _Journal of Theological Studies_, April 1902.
+       (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS (1804-1885), musical composer, was born in
+Stuttgart on the 27th of November 1804. He was the son of a Jewish
+banker, and learnt composition from Hummel at Weimar and Weber at
+Dresden; with the latter he enjoyed for three years an intimacy like
+that of a son, and it was Weber who introduced him in Vienna to
+Beethoven on the 5th of October 1823. In the same year he was appointed
+Kapellmeister of the Kärnthnerthor theatre at Vienna, and two years
+later (in 1825) he became Kapellmeister of the San Carlo theatre at
+Naples. Here his first opera, _Giacinta ed Ernesto_, was brought out in
+1829, and another, written for his native city, _I Portoghesi in Goa_,
+was given there in 1830; neither of these was a great success, and in
+1834 he went to Paris, leaving it in 1835 at the suggestion of Malibran
+for London, where he spent the remainder of his life. In 1836 he was
+given the conductorship of an operatic enterprise at the Lyceum Theatre,
+and brought out a short opera, _Un anno ed un giorno_, previously given
+in Naples. In 1838 he became conductor of the English opera at Drury
+Lane during the period of Balfe's great popularity; his own operas
+produced there were _The Gipsy's Warning_ (1838), _The Bride of Venice_
+(1843), and _The Crusaders_ (1846). In 1848 he conducted Mendelssohn's
+_Elijah_ at Exeter Hall, for the first appearance of Jenny Lind in
+oratorio, and in 1850 he went to America as the accompanist on that
+singer's tour. On his return in 1852 he became musical conductor under
+Mapleson's management at Her Majesty's theatre (and afterwards at Drury
+Lane), and in the same year conductor of the Harmonic Union. Benedict
+wrote recitatives for the production of an Italian version of Weber's
+_Oberon_ in 1860. In the same year was produced his beautiful cantata
+_Undine_ at the Norwich festival, in which Clara Novello appeared in
+public for the last time. His best-known opera, _The Lily of Killarney_,
+written on the subject of Dion Boucicault's play _Colleen Bawn_ to a
+libretto by Oxenford, was produced at Covent Garden in 1862. His
+operetta, _The Bride of Song_, was brought out there in 1864. _St
+Cecilia_, an oratorio, was performed at the Norwich festival in 1886;
+_St Peter_ at the Birmingham festival of 1870; _Graziella_, a cantata,
+was given at the Birmingham festival of 1882, and in August 1883 was
+produced in operatic form at the Crystal Palace. Here also a symphony by
+him was given in 1873. Benedict conducted every Norwich festival from
+1845 to 1878 inclusive, and the Liverpool Philharmonic Society's
+concerts from 1876 to 1880. He was the regular accompanist at the Monday
+Popular Concerts in London from their start, and with few exceptions
+acted as conductor of these concerts. He contributed an interesting life
+of Weber to the series of biographies of "Great Musicians." In 1871 he
+was knighted, and in 1874 was made knight commander of the orders of
+Franz Joseph (Austria) and Frederick (Württemberg). He died in London on
+the 5th of June 1885.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT BISCOP (628?-690), also known as BISCOP BADUCING, English
+churchman, was born of a good Northumbrian family and was for a time a
+thegn of King Oswiu. He then went abroad and after a second journey to
+Rome (he made five altogether) lived as a monk at Lerins (665-667). It
+was under his conduct that Theodore of Tarsus came from Rome to
+Canterbury in 669, and in the same year Benedict was appointed abbot of
+St Peter's, Canterbury. Five years later he built the monastery of St
+Peter at Wearmouth, on land granted him by Ecgfrith of Northumbria, and
+endowed it with an excellent library. A papal letter in 678 exempted the
+monastery from external control, and in 682 Benedict erected a sister
+foundation (St Paul) at Jarrow. He died on the 12th of January 690,
+leaving a high reputation for piety and culture. Saxon architecture owes
+nearly everything to his initiative, and Bede was one of his pupils.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTINE, a liqueur manufactured at Fécamp, France. The composition
+is a trade secret, but, according to König, the following are among the
+substances used in the manufacture of imitations of the genuine article:
+fresh lemon peel, cardamoms, hyssop tops, angelica, peppermint, thyme,
+cinnamon, nutmegs, cloves and arnica flowers. (See FÉCAMP.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTINES, or BLACK MONKS, monks living according to the Rule of St
+Benedict (q.v.) of Nursia. Subiaco in the Abruzzi was the cradle of the
+Benedictines, and in that neighbourhood St Benedict established twelve
+monasteries. Afterwards giving up the direction of these, he migrated to
+Monte Cassino and there established the monastery which became the
+centre whence his Rule and institute spread. From Monte Cassino he
+founded a monastery at Terracina. These fourteen are the only
+monasteries of which we have any knowledge as being founded before St
+Benedict's death; for the mission of St Placidus to Sicily must
+certainly be regarded as mere romance, nor does there seem to be any
+solid reason for viewing more favourably the mission of St Maurus to
+Gaul. There is some ground for believing that it was the third abbot of
+Monte Cassino who began to spread a knowledge of the Rule beyond the
+circle of St Benedict's own foundations. About 580-590 Monte Cassino was
+sacked by the Lombards, and the community came to Rome and was
+established in a monastery attached to the Lateran Basilica, in the
+centre of the ecclesiastical world. It is now commonly recognized by
+scholars that when Gregory the Great became a monk and turned his palace
+on the Caelian Hill into a monastery, the monastic life there carried
+out was fundamentally based on the Benedictine Rule (see F.H. Dudden,
+_Gregory the Great_, i. 108). From this monastery went forth St
+Augustine and his companions on their mission to England in 596,
+carrying their monachism with them; thus England was the first country
+out of Italy in which Benedictine life was firmly planted. In the course
+of the 7th century Benedictine life was gradually introduced in Gaul,
+and in the 8th it was carried into the Germanic lands from England. It
+is doubtful whether in Spain there were Benedictine monasteries,
+properly so called, until a later period. In many parts the Benedictine
+Rule met the much stricter Irish Rule of Columbanus, introduced by the
+Irish missionaries on the continent, and after brief periods, first of
+conflict and then of fusion, it gradually absorbed and supplanted it;
+thus during the 8th century it became, out of Ireland and other purely
+Celtic lands, the only rule and form of monastic life throughout western
+Europe,--so completely that Charlemagne once asked if there ever had
+been any other monastic rule.
+
+What may be called the inner side of Benedictine life and history is
+treated in the article MONASTICISM; here it is possible to deal only
+with the broad facts of the external history. The chief external works
+achieved for western Europe by the Benedictines during the early middle
+ages may be summed up under the following heads.
+
+1. _The Conversion of the Teutonic Races._--The tendency of modern
+historical scholarship justifies the maintenance of the tradition that
+St Augustine and his forty companions were the first great Benedictine
+apostles and missioners. Through their efforts Christianity was firmly
+planted in various parts of England; and after the conversion of the
+country it was English Benedictines--Wilfrid, Willibrord, Swithbert,
+Willehad--who evangelized Friesland and Holland; and another, Winfrid or
+Boniface, who, with his fellow-monks Willibald and others, evangelized
+the greater part of central Germany and founded and organized the German
+church. It was Anschar, a monk of Corbie, who first preached to the
+Scandinavians, and other Benedictines were apostles to Poles, Prussians
+and other Slavonic peoples. The conversion of the Teutonic races may
+properly be called the work of the Benedictines.
+
+2. _The Civilization of north-western Europe._--As the result of their
+missionary enterprises the Benedictines penetrated into all these lands
+and established monasteries, so that by the 10th or 11th century
+Benedictine houses existed in great numbers throughout the whole of
+Latin Christendom except Ireland. These monasteries became centres of
+civilizing influences by the method of presenting object-lessons in
+organized work, in agriculture, in farming, in the arts and trades, and
+also in well-ordered life. The unconscious method by which such great
+results were brought about has been well described by J.S. Brewer
+(_Preface_ to Works of Giraldus Cambrensis, Rolls Series, iv.) and F.A.
+Gasquet.
+
+3. _Education._--Boys were educated in Benedictine houses from the
+beginning, but at first they were destined to be monks. The monasteries,
+however, played a great part in the educational side of the Carolingian
+revival; and certainly from that date schools for boys destined to live
+and work in the world were commonly attached to Benedictine monasteries.
+From that day to this education has been among the recognized and
+principal works of Benedictines.
+
+4. _Letters and Learning._--This side of Benedictine life is most
+typically represented by the Venerable Bede, the gentle and learned
+scholar of the early middle ages. In those times the monasteries were
+the only places of security and rest in western Europe, the only places
+where letters could in any measure be cultivated. It was in the
+monasteries that the writings of Latin antiquity, both classical and
+ecclesiastical, were transcribed and preserved.
+
+In a gigantic system embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of
+monks, and spread over all the countries of western Europe, without any
+organic bond between the different houses, and exposed to all the
+vicissitudes of the wars and conquests of those wild times, to say that
+the monks often fell short of the ideal of their state, and sometimes
+short of the Christian, and even the moral standard, is but to say that
+monks are men. Failures there have been many, and scandals not a few in
+Benedictine history; but it may be said with truth that there does not
+appear to have been ever a period of widespread or universal corruption,
+however much at times and in places primitive love may have waxed cold.
+And when such declensions occurred, they soon called forth efforts at
+reform and revival; indeed these constantly recurring reform-movements
+are one of the most striking features of Benedictine history, and the
+great proof of the vitality of the institute throughout the ages.
+
+The first of these movements arose during the Carolingian revival (c.
+800), and is associated with the name of Benedict of Aniane. Under the
+auspices of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious he initiated a scheme for
+federating into one great order, with himself as abbot general, all the
+monasteries of Charles's empire, and for enforcing throughout a rigid
+uniformity in observance. For this purpose a synod of abbots was
+assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle in 817, and a series of 80 _Capitula_
+passed, regulating the life of the monasteries. The scheme as a whole
+was short-lived and did not survive its originator; but the _Capitula_
+were commonly recognized as supplying a useful and much-needed
+supplement to St Benedict's Rule on points not sufficiently provided for
+therein. Accordingly these _Capitula_ exercised a wide influence among
+Benedictines even outside the empire. And Benedict of Aniane's ideas of
+organization found embodiment a century later in the order of Cluny
+(910), which for a time overshadowed the great body of mere Benedictines
+(see CLUNY). Here it will suffice to say that the most distinctive
+features of the Cluny system were (1) a notable increase and
+prolongation of the church services, which came to take up the greater
+part of the working day; (2) a strongly centralized government, whereby
+the houses of the order in their hundreds were strictly subject to the
+abbot of Cluny.
+
+Though forming a distinct and separate organism Cluny claimed to be, and
+was recognized as, a body of Benedictine houses; but from that time
+onwards arose a number of independent bodies, or "orders," which took
+the Benedictine Rule as the basis of their life. The more important of
+these were: in the 11th and 12th centuries, the orders of Camaldulians,
+Vallombrosians, Fontevrault and the Cistercians, and in the 13th and
+14th the Silvestrines, Celestines and Olivetans (see separate articles).
+The general tendency of these Benedictine offshoots was in the direction
+of greater austerity of life than was practised by the Black Monks or
+contemplated by St Benedict's Rule--some of them were semi-eremitical;
+the most important by far were the Cistercians, whose ground-idea was to
+reproduce exactly the life of St Benedict's own monastery. These various
+orders were also organized and governed according to the system of
+centralized authority devised by St Pachomius (see MONASTICISM) and
+brought into vogue by Cluny in the West. What has here to be traced is
+the history of the great body of Benedictine monasteries that held aloof
+from these separatist movements.
+
+For the first four or five centuries of Benedictine history there was no
+organic bond between any of the monasteries; each house formed an
+independent autonomous family, managing its own affairs and subject to
+no external authority or control except that of the bishop of the
+diocese. But the influence of Cluny, even on monasteries that did not
+enter into its organism, was enormous; many adopted Cluny customs and
+practices and moulded their life and spirit after the model it set; and
+many such monasteries became in turn centres of revival and reform in
+many lands, so that during the 10th and 11th centuries arose free unions
+of monasteries based on a common observance derived from a central
+abbey. Fleury and Hirsau are well-known examples. Basing themselves on
+St Gregory's counsel to St Augustine, Dunstan, Aethelwold and Oswald
+adopted from the observance of foreign monasteries, and notably Fleury
+and Ghent, what was suitable for the restoration of English monachism,
+and so produced the _Concordia Regularis_, interesting as the first
+serious attempt to bring about uniformity of observance among the
+monasteries of an entire nation. In the course of the 12th century
+sporadic and limited unions of Black Monk monasteries arose in different
+parts. But notwithstanding all these movements, the majority of the
+great Black Monk abbeys continued to the end of the 12th century in
+their primeval isolation. But in the year 1215, at the fourth Lateran
+council, were made regulations destined profoundly to modify Benedictine
+polity and history. It was decreed that the Benedictine houses of each
+ecclesiastical province should henceforth be federated for the purposes
+of mutual help and the maintenance of discipline, and that for these
+ends the abbots should every third year meet in a provincial chapter (or
+synod), in order to pass laws binding on all and to appoint visitors
+who, in addition to the bishops, should canonically visit the
+monasteries and report on their condition in spirituals and temporals to
+the ensuing chapter. The English monks took the lead in carrying out
+this legislation, and in 1218 the first chapter of the province of
+Canterbury was held at Oxford, and up to the dissolution under Henry
+VIII. the triennial chapters took place with wonderful regularity.
+Fitful attempts were made elsewhere to carry out the decrees, and in
+1336 Benedict XII. by the bull _Benedictina_ tried to give further
+development to the system and to secure its general observance. The
+organization of the Benedictine houses into provinces or chapters under
+this legislation interfered in the least possible degree with the
+Benedictine tradition of mutual independence of the houses; the
+provinces were loose federations of autonomous houses, the legislative
+power of the chapter and the canonical visitations being the only forms
+of external interference. The English Benedictines never advanced
+farther along the path of centralization; up to their destruction this
+polity remained in operation among them, and proved itself by its
+results to be well adapted to the conditions of the Benedictine Rule and
+life.
+
+In other lands things did not on the whole go so well, and many causes
+at work during the later middle ages tended to bring about relaxation in
+the Benedictine houses; above all the vicious system of commendatory
+abbots, rife everywhere except in England. And so in the period of the
+reforming councils of Constance and Basel the state of the religious
+orders was seriously taken in hand, and in response to the public demand
+for reforming the Church, "in head and members," reform movements were
+set on foot, as among others, so among the Benedictines of various parts
+of Europe. These movements issued in the congregational system which is
+the present polity among Benedictines. In the German lands, where the
+most typical congregation was the Bursfeld Union (1446), which finally
+embraced over 100 monasteries throughout Germany, the system was kept on
+the lines of the Lateran decree and the bull _Benedictina_, and received
+only some further developments in the direction of greater organization;
+but in Italy the congregation of S. Justina at Padua (1421), afterwards
+called the Cassinese, departed altogether from the old lines, setting up
+a highly centralized government, after the model of the Italian
+republics, whereby the autonomy of the monasteries was destroyed, and
+they were subjected to the authority of a central governing board. With
+various modifications or restrictions this latter system was imported
+into all the Latin lands, into Spain and Portugal, and thence into
+Brazil, and into Lorraine and France, where the celebrated congregation
+of St Maur (see MAURISTS) was formed early in the 17th century. During
+this century the Benedictine houses in many parts of Catholic Europe
+united themselves into congregations, usually characterized by an
+austerity that was due to the Tridentine reform movement.
+
+In England the Benedictines had, from every point of view, flourished
+exceedingly. At the time of the Dissolution there were nearly 300 Black
+Benedictine houses, great and small, men and women, including most of
+the chief religious houses of the land (for lists see tables and maps in
+Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_, and _Catholic Dictionary_, art.
+"Benedictines"). It is now hardly necessary to say that the grave
+charges brought against the monks are no longer credited by serious
+historians (Gasquet, _Henry VIII. and the Monasteries_; J. Gairdner,
+Prefaces to the relevant volumes of _Calendars of State Papers of Henry
+VIII._). In Mary's reign some of the surviving monks were brought
+together, and Westminster Abbey was restored. Of the monks professed
+there during this momentary revival, one, Sigebert Buckley, lived on
+into the reign of James I.; and being the only survivor of the
+Benedictines of England, he in 1607 invested with the English habit and
+affiliated to Westminster Abbey and to the English congregation two
+English priests, already Benedictines in the Italian congregation. By
+this act the old English Benedictine line was perpetuated; and in 1619 a
+number of English monks professed in Spain were aggregated by pontifical
+act to these representatives of the old English Benedictines, and thus
+was constituted the present English Benedictine congregation. Three or
+four monasteries of the revived English Benedictines were established on
+the continent at the beginning of the 17th century, and remained there
+till driven back to England by the French Revolution.
+
+The Reformation and the religious wars spread havoc among the
+Benedictines in many parts of northern Europe; and as a consequence, in
+part of the rule of Joseph II. of Austria, in part of the French
+Revolution, nearly every Benedictine monastery in Europe was
+suppressed--it is said that in the early years of the 19th century
+scarcely thirty in all survived. But the latter half of the century
+witnessed a series of remarkable revivals, and first in Bavaria, under
+the influence of Louis I. The French congregation (which does not enjoy
+continuity with the Maurists) was inaugurated by Dom Guéranger in 1833,
+and the German congregation of Beuron in 1863. Two vigorous
+congregations have arisen in the United States. These are all new
+creations since 1830. In Italy, Spain, Portugal and Brazil only a few
+monasteries survive the various revolutions, and in a crippled state;
+but signs are not wanting of renewed life: St Benedict's own monasteries
+of Subiaco and Monte Cassino are relatively flourishing. In Austria,
+Hungary and Switzerland there are some thirty great abbeys, most of
+which have had a continued existence since the middle ages. The English
+congregation is composed of three large abbeys (Downside, Ampleforth and
+Woolhampton), a cathedral priory (Hereford) and a nunnery (Stanbrook
+Abbey, Worcester); there are besides in England three or four abbeys
+belonging to foreign congregations, and several nunneries subject to the
+bishops. Each congregation has its president, who is merely a president,
+with limited powers, and not a general superior like the Provincials of
+other orders; so that the primitive Benedictine principle of each
+monastery being self-contained and autonomous is preserved. Similarly
+each congregation is independent and self-governing, there being no
+superior-general or central authority, as in other orders. Leo XIII.
+established an international Benedictine College in Rome for theological
+studies, and conferred on its abbot the title of "Abbot Primate," with
+precedence among Black Monk abbots. He is only _primus inter pares_, and
+exercises no kind of superiority over the other abbots or congregations.
+Thus the Benedictine polity may be described as a number of autonomous
+federations of autonomous monasteries. The individual monks, too, belong
+not to the order or the congregation, but each to the monastery in which
+he became a monk. The chief external work of the Benedictines at the
+present day is secondary education; there are 114 secondary schools or
+_gymnasia_ attached to the abbeys, wherein the monks teach over 12,000
+boys; and many of the nunneries have girls' schools. In certain
+countries (among them England) where there is a dearth of secular
+priests, Benedictines undertake parochial work.
+
+The statistics of the order (1905) show that of Black Benedictines there
+are over 4000 choir-monks and nearly 2000 lay brothers--figures that
+have more than doubled since 1880. If the Cistercians and lesser
+offshoots of the order be added, the sum total of choir-monks and lay
+brothers exceeds 11,000.
+
+In conclusion a word must be said on the Benedictine nuns. From the
+beginning the number of women living the Benedictine life has not fallen
+far short of that of the men. St Gregory describes St Benedict's sister
+Scholastica as a nun (_sanctimonialis_), and she is looked upon as the
+foundress of Benedictine nuns. As the institute spread to other lands
+nunneries arose on all sides, and nowhere were the Benedictine nuns more
+numerous or more remarkable than in England, from Saxon times to the
+Reformation. A strong type of womanhood is revealed in the
+correspondence of St Boniface with various Saxon Benedictine nuns, some
+in England and some who accompanied him to the continent and there
+established great convents. In the early times the Benedictine nuns were
+not strictly enclosed, and could, when occasion called for it, freely go
+out of their convent walls to perform any special work: on the other
+hand, they did not resemble the modern active congregations of women,
+whose ordinary work lies outside the convent. It has to be said that in
+the course of the middle ages, especially the later middle ages, grave
+disorders arose in many convents; and this doubtless led, in the reform
+movements initiated by the councils of Constance and Basel, and later of
+Trent, to the introduction of strict enclosure in Benedictine convents,
+which now is the almost universal practice. At the present day there are
+of Black Benedictine nuns 262 convents with 7000 nuns, the large
+majority being directly subject to the diocesan bishops; if the
+Cistercians and others be included, there are 387 convents with nearly
+11,000 nuns. In England there are a dozen Benedictine nunneries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES--The chief general authority for Benedictine history up to
+  the middle of the 12th century is Mabillon's _Annales_, in 6 vols.
+  folio; for the later period no such general work exists, but the
+  various countries, congregations or even abbeys have to be taken
+  separately. Montalembert's _Monks of the West_ gives the early history
+  very fully; the later history, to the beginning of the 18th century,
+  may be found in Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_, v. and vi.
+  (1792). A useful sketch, with references to the best literature, is in
+  Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. §§ 17-28; see
+  also the article "Benedictinerorden" in Wetzer u. Welter,
+  _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), and "Benedikt von Nursia und der
+  Benediktinerorden," in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed.). For
+  England see Ethelred Taunton, _English Black Monks_ (1897); and for
+  the modern history (19th century) the series entitled "Succisa
+  Virescit" in the _Downside Review_, 1880 onwards, by J.G. Dolan. On
+  the inner spirit and working of the institute see F.A. Gasquet,
+  _Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History_ (being the preface to the
+  2nd ed., 1895, of the trans. of Montalembert) and _English Monastic
+  Life_ (1904); and Newman's two essays on the Benedictines, among the
+  _Historical Sketches_. On Benedictine nuns much will be found in the
+  above-mentioned authorities, and also in Lina Eckenstein, _Woman in
+  Monasticism_ (1896). On Benedictines and the Arts see F.H. Kraus,
+  _Geschichte der christlichen Kunst_ (Freiburg-i-B., 1896-1897).
+       (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTION (Lat. _benedictio_, from _benedicere_, to bless), generally,
+the utterance of a blessing or of a devout wish for the prosperity and
+happiness of a person or enterprise. In the usage of the Catholic
+Church, both East and West, though the benediction as defined above has
+its place as between one Christian and another, it has also a special
+place in the sacramental system in virtue of the special powers of
+blessing vested in the priesthood. Sacerdotal benedictions are not
+indeed sacraments--means of grace ordained by Christ himself,--but
+sacramentals (_sacramenta minora_) ordained by the authority of the
+Church and exercised by the priests, as the plenipotentiaries of God, in
+virtue of the powers conferred on them at their ordination; "that
+whatever they bless may be blessed, and whatever they consecrate may be
+consecrated." The power to bless in this ecclesiastical sense is
+reserved to priests alone; the blessing of the paschal candle on Holy
+Saturday by the deacon being the one exception that proves the rule, for
+he uses for the purpose grains of incense previously blessed by the
+priest at the altar. But though by some the benediction has thus been
+brought into connexion with the supreme means of grace, the sacrifice of
+the Mass, the blessing does not in itself confer grace and does not act
+on its recipients _ex opere operato_. It must not be supposed, however,
+that the Catholic idea of a sacerdotal blessing has anything of the
+vague character associated with a benediction by Protestants. Both by
+Catholics and by Protestants blessings may be applied to things
+inanimate as well as animate; but while in the reformed Churches this
+involves no more than an appeal to God for a special blessing, or a
+solemn "setting apart" of persons or objects for sacred purposes, in the
+Catholic idea it implies a special power, conferred by God, of the
+priests over the invisible forces of evil. It thus stands in the closest
+relation to the rite of exorcism, of which it is the complement.
+
+According to Catholic doctrine, the Fall involved the subjection, not
+only of man, but of all things animate and inanimate, to the influence
+of evil spirits; in support of which St Paul's epistles to the Romans
+(viii.) and to Timothy (1 Tim. iv. 4-5) are quoted. This belief is, of
+course, not specifically Christian; it has been held at all times and
+everywhere by men of the most various races and creeds; and, if there be
+any validity in the contention that that is true which has been held
+_semper, ubique, et ab omnibus_, no fact is better established. In
+general it may be said, then, that whereas exorcism is practised in
+order to cast out devils already in possession, benediction is the
+formula by which they are prevented from entering in. Protestants have
+condemned these formulae as so much magic, and in this modern science
+tends to agree with them; but to orthodox Protestants at least Catholics
+have a perfect right to reply that, in taking this line, they are but
+repeating the accusation brought by the Pharisees against Christ, viz.
+that he cast out devils "by Beelzebub, prince of the devils."
+
+Though, however, the discomfiture of malignant spirits still plays an
+important part in the Catholic doctrine of benedictions, this has on the
+whole tended to become subordinated to other benefits. This is but
+natural; for, though the progress of knowledge has not disproved the
+existence of devils, it has greatly limited the supposed range of their
+activities. According to Father Patrick Morrisroe, dean and professor of
+liturgy at Maynooth, the efficacy of benedictions is fourfold: (1) the
+excitation of pious emotions and affections of the heart, and by their
+means the remission of venial sins and of the temporal punishments due
+for these; (2) freedom from the power of evil spirits; (3) preservation
+and restoration of bodily health; (4) various other benefits, temporal
+and spiritual. Benedictions, moreover, are twofold: (a) invocative, i.e.
+those invoking the divine benignity for persons and things without
+changing their condition, e.g. children or food; (b) constitutive, i.e.
+those which give to persons or things an indelible religious character,
+i.e. monks and nuns, or the furniture of the altar. The second of these
+brings the act of benediction into contact with the principle of
+consecration (q.v.); for by the formal blessing by the duly constituted
+authority persons, places and things are consecrated, i.e. reserved to
+sacred uses and preserved from the contaminating influence of evil
+spirits. Thus graveyards are consecrated, i.e. solemnly blessed in order
+that the powers of evil may not disturb the bodies of the faithful
+departed; thus, too, the blessing of bells gives them a special power
+against evil demons.
+
+Though the giving of blessings as a sacerdotal function is proper to the
+whole order of priests, particular benedictions have, by ecclesiastical
+authority, been reserved for the bishops, who may, however, delegate
+some of them; i.e. the benediction of abbots, of priests at their
+ordination, of virgins taking the veil, of churches, cemeteries,
+oratories, and of all articles for use in connexion with the altar
+(chalices, patens, vestments, &c.), of military colours, of soldiers and
+of their arms. The holy oil is also blessed by bishops in the Roman
+Catholic Church; in the Greek Church, on the other hand, the oil for the
+chrism at baptism is blessed by the priest. To the pope alone is
+reserved the blessing of the pallium, the golden rose, the "Agnus-Dei"
+and royal swords; he alone, too, can issue blessings that involve some
+days' indulgence. The ceremonies prescribed for the various benedictions
+are set forth in the _Rituale Romanum_ (tit. viii.). In general it is
+laid down (cap. i.) that the priest, in benedictions outside the Mass,
+shall be vested in surplice and stole, and shall give the blessing
+standing and bare-headed. Certain prayers are said before each
+benediction, after which he sprinkles the person or thing to be blessed
+with holy water and, where prescribed, censes them. He is attended by a
+minister with a vase of holy water, an _aspergillum_ and a copy of the
+_Rituale_ or missal. In all benedictions the sign of the cross is made.
+In the blessing of the holy water (cap. ii.), the essential instrument
+of all benedictions, the object is dearly to establish its potency
+against evil spirits. First the "creature of salt" is exorcized, "that
+... thou mayest be to all who take thee health of body and soul; that
+wherever thou art sprinkled every phantasy and wickedness and wile of
+diabolic deceit may flee and leave that place, and every unclean
+spirit"; a prayer to God for the blessing of the salt follows; then the
+"creature of water" is exorcized, "that thou mayest become exorcized
+water for the purpose of putting to flight every power of the enemy,
+that thou mayest avail to uproot and expel this enemy with all his
+apostate angels, by the virtue of the same our Lord Jesus Christ, &c.";
+and again a prayer to God follows that the water may "become a creature
+in the service of His mysteries, for the driving out of demons, &c." In
+the formulae of blessings that follow, the special efficacy against
+devils is implied by the aspersion with holy water; the benedictions
+themselves are usually merely invocative of the divine protection or
+assistance, though, e.g., in the form for blessing sick animals the
+priest prays that "all diabolic power in them may be destroyed, and that
+they may be ill no longer." It is to be remarked that the "laying on of
+hands," which in the Old and the New Testament alike is the usual "form"
+of blessing, is not used in liturgical benedictions, the priest being
+directed merely to extend his right hand towards the person to be
+blessed. The appendix _de Benedictionibus_ to the _Rituale Romanum_
+contains formulae, often of much simple beauty, for blessing all manner
+of persons and things, from the congregation as a whole and sick men and
+women, to railways, ships, blast-furnaces, lime-kilns, articles of food,
+medicine and medical bandages and all manner of domestic animals.
+
+The _Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament_, commonly called simply
+"Benediction" (Fr. _salut_, Ger. _Segen_), is one of the most popular of
+the services of the Roman Catholic Church. It is usually held in the
+afternoon or evening, sometimes at the conclusion of Vespers, Compline
+or the Stations of the Cross, and consists in the singing of certain
+hymns and canticles, more particularly the _O salutaris hostia_ and the
+_Tantum ergo_, before the host, which is exposed on the altar in a
+monstrance and surrounded by not less than ten lighted candles. Often
+litanies and hymns to the Virgin are added. At the conclusion the
+priest, his shoulders wrapped in the humeral veil, takes the monstrance
+and with it makes the sign of the cross over the kneeling congregation,
+whence the name Benediction. The service, the details of which vary in
+different countries, is of comparatively modern origin. Father Thurston
+traces it to a combination in the 16th and 17th centuries of customs
+that had their origin in the 13th, i.e. certain gild services in honour
+of the Blessed Virgin, and the growing habit, resulting naturally from
+the doctrine of transubstantiation, of ascribing a supreme virtue to the
+act of looking on the Holy Sacrament.
+
+In the reformed Churches the word "benediction" is technically confined
+to the blessing with which the priest or minister dismisses the
+congregation at the close of the service.
+
+  See the article "Benediktionen," by E.C. Achelis in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (Leipzig, 1897); _The Catholic Encyclopaedia_
+  (London and New York, 1908) s. "Blessing," by P. Morrisroe, and
+  "Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament," by Herbert Thurston, S.J.; in
+  all of which further authorities are cited.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTUS, the hymn of Zacharias (Luke i. 68 sqq.), so called from the
+opening word of the Latin version. The hymn has been used in Christian
+worship since at least the 9th century, and was adopted into the
+Anglican Order of Morning Prayer from the Roman service of matin-lauds.
+In the Prayer-Book of 1549 there was no alternative to the _Benedictus_;
+it was to be used "throughout the whole year." In 1552 the _Jubilate_
+was inserted without any restriction as to how often it should take the
+place of the _Benedictus_. Such restriction is clearly implied in the
+words "except when that (Benedictus) shall happen to be read in the
+chapter for the day, or for the Gospel on Saint John Baptist's day,"
+which were inserted in 1662. The rubric of 1532 had this curious
+wording: "And after the Second Lesson shall be used and said, Benedictus
+in English, as followeth."
+
+The name is also given to a part of the Roman Catholic mass service
+beginning _Benedictus qui venit_.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTUS ABBAS (d. 1194), abbot of Peterborough, whose name is
+accidentally connected with the _Gesta Henrici Regis Secundi_, one of
+the most valuable of English 12th-century chronicles. He first makes his
+appearance in 1174, as the chancellor of Archbishop Richard, the
+successor of Becket in the primacy. In 1175 Benedictus became prior of
+Holy Trinity, Canterbury; in 1177 he received from Henry II. the abbacy
+of Peterborough, which he held until his death. As abbot he
+distinguished himself by his activity in building, in administering the
+finances of his house and in collecting a library. He is described in
+the _Chronicon Petroburgense_ as "blessed both in name and deed." He
+belonged to the circle of Becket's admirers, and wrote two works dealing
+with the martyrdom and the miracles of his hero. Fragments of the former
+work have come down to us in the compilation known as the _Quadrilogus_,
+which is printed in the fourth volume of J.C. Robertson's _Materials for
+the History of Thomas Becket_ (Rolls series); the miracles are extant
+in their entirety, and are printed in the second volume of the same
+collection. Benedictus has been credited with the authorship of the
+_Gesta Henrici_ on the ground that his name appears in the title of the
+oldest manuscript. We have, however, conclusive evidence that Benedictus
+merely caused this work to be transcribed for the Peterborough library.
+It is only through the force of custom that the work is still
+occasionally cited under the name of Benedictus. The question of
+authorship has been discussed by Sir T.D. Hardy, Bishop Stubbs and
+Professor Liebermann; but the results of the discussion are negative.
+Stubbs conjecturally identified the first part of the _Gesta_
+(1170-1177) with the _Liber Tricolumnis_, a register of contemporary
+events kept by Richard Fitz Neal (q.v.), the treasurer of Henry II. and
+author of the _Dialogus de Scaccario_; the latter part (1177-1192) was
+by the same authority ascribed to Roger of Hoveden, who makes large use
+of the _Gesta_ in his own chronicle, copying them with few alterations
+beyond the addition of some documents. This theory, so far as concerns
+the _Liber Tricolumnis_, is rejected by Liebermann and the most recent
+editors of the _Dialogus_ (A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford,
+1902). We can only say that the _Gesta_ are the work of a well-informed
+contemporary who appears to have been closely connected with the court
+and is inclined on all occasions to take the side of Henry II. The
+author confines himself to the external history of events, and his tone
+is strictly impersonal. He incorporates some official documents, and in
+many places obviously derives his information from others which he does
+not quote. There is a break in his work at the year 1177, where the
+earliest manuscript ends; but the reasons which have been given to prove
+that the authorship changes at this point are inconclusive. The work
+begins at Christmas 1169, and concludes in 1192; it is thus in form a
+fragment, covering portions of the reign of Henry II. and Richard I.
+
+  See W. Stubbs' _Gesta regis Henrici Secundi Benedicti abbatis_ (2
+  vols., Rolls series, 1867), and particularly the preface to the first
+  volume; F. Liebermann in _Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario_
+  (Göttingen, 1875); in _Ostenglische Geschichtsquellen_ (Hanover,
+  1892); and in Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores_,
+  vol. xxvii. pp. 82, 83; also the introduction to the _Dialogus de
+  Scaccario_ in the Oxford edition of 1902.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICH (1811-1873), German dramatist and librettist,
+was born at Leipzig on the 21st of January 1811, and was educated at the
+Thomasschule at Leipzig. He joined the stage in 1831, his first
+engagement being with the travelling company of H.E. Bethmann in Dessau,
+Cöthen, Bernburg and Meiningen. Subsequently he was tenor in several
+theatres in Westphalia and on the Rhine, and became manager of the
+theatre at Wesel, where he produced a comedy, _Das bemooste Haupt_
+(1841), which met with great success. After an engagement in Cologne, he
+managed the new theatre at Elberfeld (1844-1845) and in 1849 was
+appointed teacher on the staff of the Rhenish school of music in
+Cologne. In 1855 he was appointed intendant of the municipal theatre in
+Frankfort-On-Main, but retired in 1861, and died in Leipzig on the 26th
+of September 1873. Benedix's comedies, the scenes of which are mostly
+laid in upper middle-class life, still enjoy some popularity; the
+best-known are: _Dr Wespe; Die Hochzeitsreise; Der Vetter; Das
+Gefängnis; Das Lügen; Ein Lustspiel; Der Störenfried; Die Dienstboten;
+Aschenbrödel; Die zärtlichen Verwandten_. The chief characteristics of
+his farces are a clear plot and bright, easy and natural dialogue. Among
+his more serious works are: _Bilder aus dem Schauspielerleben_ (Leipzig,
+1847); _Der mündliche Vortrag_ (Leipzig, 1859-1860); _Das Wesen des
+deutschen Rhythmus_ (Leipzig, 1862) and, posthumously, _Die
+Shakespearomanie_ (1873), in which he attacks the extreme adoration of
+the British poet.
+
+  Benedix's _Gesammelte dramatische Werke_ appeared in 27 vols.
+  (Leipzig, 1846-1875); a selection under the title _Volkstheater_ in 20
+  vols. (Leipzig, 1882); and a collection of smaller comedies as
+  _Haustheater_ in 2 vols. (both ed., Leipzig, 1891); see Benedix's
+  autobiography in the _Gartenlaube_ for 1871.
+
+
+
+
+BENEFICE (Lat. _beneficium_, benefit), a term first applied under the
+Roman empire to portions of land, the usufruct of which was granted by
+the emperors to their soldiers or others for life, as a reward or
+_beneficium_ for past services, and as a retainer for future services. A
+list of all such _beneficia_ was recorded in the _Book of Benefices
+(Liber Beneficiorum_), which was kept by the principal registrar of
+benefices (_Primiscrinius Beneficiorum_). In imitation of the practice
+observed under the Roman empire, the term came to be applied under the
+feudal system to portions of land granted by a lord to his vassal for
+the maintenance of the latter on condition of his rendering military
+service; and such grants were originally for life only, and the land
+reverted to the lord on the death of the vassal. In a similar manner
+grants of land, or of the profits of land, appear to have been made by
+the bishops to their clergy for life, on the ground of some
+extraordinary merit on the part of the grantee. The validity of such
+grants was first formally recognized by the council of Orleans, A.D.
+511, which forbade, however, under any circumstances, the alienation
+from the bishoprics of any lands so granted. The next following council
+of Orleans, 533, broke in upon this principle, by declaring that a
+bishop could not reclaim from his clergy any grants made to them by his
+predecessor, excepting in cases of misconduct. This innovation on the
+ancient practice was confirmed by the subsequent council of Lyons, 566,
+and from this period these grants ceased to be regarded as personal, and
+their substance became annexed to the churches,--in other words, they
+were henceforth enjoyed _jure tituli_, and no longer _jure personali_.
+How and when the term _beneficia_ came to be applied to these episcopal
+grants is uncertain, but they are designated by that term in a canon of
+the council of Mainz, 813.
+
+The term benefice, according to the canon law, implies always an
+ecclesiastical office, _propter quod beneficium datur_, but it does not
+always imply a cure of souls. It has been defined to be the right which
+a clerk has to enjoy certain ecclesiastical revenues on condition of
+discharging certain services prescribed by the canons, or by usage, or
+by the conditions under which his office has been founded. These
+services might be those of a secular priest with cure of souls, or they
+might be those of a regular priest, a member of a religious order,
+without cure of souls; but in every case a benefice implied three
+things: (1) An obligation to discharge the duties of an office, which is
+altogether spiritual; (2) The right to enjoy the fruits attached to that
+office, which is the benefice itself; (3) The fruits themselves, which
+are the temporalities. By keeping these distinctions in view, the right
+of patronage in the case of secular benefices becomes intelligible,
+being in fact the right, which was originally vested in the donor of the
+temporalities, to present to the bishop a clerk to be admitted, if found
+fit by the bishop, to the office to which those temporalities are
+annexed. Nomination or presentation on the part of the patron of the
+benefice is thus the first requisite in order that a clerk should become
+legally entitled to a benefice. The next requisite is that he should be
+admitted by the bishop as a fit person for the spiritual office to which
+the benefice is annexed, and the bishop is the judge of the sufficiency
+of the clerk to be so admitted. By the early constitutions of the Church
+of England a bishop was allowed a space of two months to inquire and
+inform himself of the sufficiency of every presentee, but by the
+ninety-fifth of the canons of 1604 that interval has been abridged to
+twenty-eight days, within which the bishop must admit or reject the
+clerk. If the bishop rejects the clerk within that time he is liable to
+a _duplex querela_ in the ecclesiastical courts, or to a _quare impedit_
+in the common law courts, and the bishop must then certify the reasons
+of his refusal. In cases where the patron is himself a clerk in orders,
+and wishes to be admitted to the benefice, he must proceed by way of
+petition instead of by deed of presentation, reciting that the benefice
+is in his own patronage, and petitioning the bishop to examine him and
+admit him. Upon the bishop having satisfied himself of the sufficiency
+of the clerk, he proceeds to institute him to the spiritual office to
+which the benefice is annexed, but, before such institution can take
+place, the clerk is required to make a declaration of assent to the
+Thirty-nine Articles of Religion and to the Book of Common Prayer
+according to a form prescribed in the Clerical Subscription Act 1865, to
+make a declaration against simony in accordance with that act, and to
+take and subscribe the oath of allegiance according to the form in the
+Promissory Oaths Act 1868. The bishop, by the act of institution,
+commits to the clerk the cure of souls attached to the office to which
+the benefice is annexed. In cases where the bishop himself is patron of
+the benefice, no presentation or petition is required to be tendered by
+the clerk, but the bishop having satisfied himself of the sufficiency of
+the clerk, collates him to the benefice and office. It is not necessary
+that the bishop himself should personally institute or collate a clerk;
+he may issue a fiat to his vicar-general, or to a special commissary for
+that purpose. After the bishop or his commissary has instituted the
+presentee, he issues a mandate under seal, addressed to the archdeacon
+or some other neighbouring clergyman, authorizing him to induct the
+clerk into his benefice,--in other words, to put him into legal
+possession of the temporalities, which is done by some outward form, and
+for the most part by delivery of the bell-rope to the clerk, who
+thereupon tolls the bell. This form of induction is required to give the
+clerk a legal title to his _beneficium_, although his admission to the
+office by institution is sufficient to vacate any other benefice which
+he may already possess.
+
+By a decree of the Lateran council of 1215, which was enforced in
+England, no clerk can hold two benefices with cure of souls, and if a
+beneficed clerk shall take a second benefice with cure of souls, he
+vacates _ipso facto_ his first benefice. Dispensations, however, could
+be easily obtained from Rome, before the reformation of the Church of
+England, to enable a clerk to hold several ecclesiastical dignities or
+benefices at the same time, and by the Peterpence, Dispensations, &c.
+Act 1534, the power to grant such dispensations, which had been
+exercised previously by the court of Rome, was transferred to the
+archbishop of Canterbury, certain ecclesiastical persons having been
+declared by a previous statute (1529) to be entitled to such
+dispensations. The system of pluralities carried with it, as a necessary
+consequence, systematic non-residence on the part of many incumbents,
+and delegation of their spiritual duties in respect of their cures of
+souls to assistant curates. The evils attendant on this system were
+found to be so great that the Pluralities Act 1838 was passed to abridge
+the holding of benefices in plurality, and it was enacted that no person
+should hold under any circumstances more than two benefices, and this
+privilege was made subject to the restriction that his benefices were
+within ten statute miles of each other. By the Pluralities Act 1850, the
+restriction was further narrowed, so that no spiritual person could hold
+two benefices except the churches of such benefices were within three
+miles of each other by the nearest road, and the annual value of one of
+such benefices did not exceed £100. By this statute the term benefice is
+defined to mean benefice with cure of souls and no other, and therein to
+comprehend all parishes, perpetual curacies, donatives, endowed public
+chapels, parochial chapelries and chapelries or districts belonging or
+reputed to belong, or annexed or reputed to be annexed, to any church or
+chapel. The Pluralities Acts Amendment Act 1885, however, enacted that,
+by dispensation from the archbishop, two benefices could be held
+together, the churches of which are within four miles of each other, and
+the annual value of one of which does not exceed £200.
+
+All benefices except those under the clear annual value of £50 pay their
+first fruits (one year's profits) and tenths (of yearly profits) to
+Queen Anne's Bounty for the augmentation of the maintenance of the
+poorer clergy. Their profits during vacation belong to the next
+incumbent. Tithe rent charge attached to a benefice is relieved from
+payment of one-half of the agricultural rates assessed thereon.
+Benefices may be exchanged by agreement between incumbents with the
+consent of the ordinary, and they may, with the consent of the patron
+and ordinary, be united or dissolved after being united. They may also
+be charged with the repayment of money laid out for their permanent
+advantage, and be augmented wholly by the medium of Queen Anne's Bounty.
+
+A benefice is avoided or vacated--(1) by death; (2) by resignation, if
+the bishop is willing to accept the resignation: by the Incumbents'
+Resignation Act 1871, Amendment Act 1887, any clergyman who has been an
+incumbent of one benefice continuously for seven years, and is
+incapacitated by permanent mental or bodily infirmities from fulfilling
+his duties, may, if the bishop thinks fit, have a commission appointed
+to consider the fitness of his resigning; and if the commission report
+in favour of his resigning, he may, with the consent of the patron (or,
+if that is refused, with the consent of the archbishop) resign the cure
+of souls into the bishop's hands, and have assigned to him, out of the
+benefice, a retiring-pension not exceeding one-third of its annual
+value, which is recoverable as a debt from his successor; (3) by
+cession, upon the clerk being instituted to another benefice or some
+other preferment incompatible with it; (4) by deprivation and sentence
+of an ecclesiastical court; under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, an
+incumbent who has been convicted of offences against the law of
+bastardy, or against whom judgment has been given in a divorce or
+matrimonial cause, is deprived, and on being found guilty in the
+consistory court of immorality or ecclesiastical offences (not in
+respect of doctrine or ritual), he may be deprived or suspended or
+declared incapable of preferment; (5) by act of law in consequence of
+simony; (6) by default of the clerk in neglecting to read publicly in
+the church the Book of Common Prayer, and to declare his assent thereto
+within two months after his induction, pursuant to an act of 1662.
+
+  See also ADVOWSON; GLEBE; INCUMBENT; VICAR; also Phillimore, _Eccles.
+  Law_; Cripps, _Law of Church and Clergy_.
+
+
+
+
+BENEFICIARY (from Lat. _beneficium_, a benefit), in law, one who holds a
+benefice; one who is beneficially entitled to, or interested in,
+property, i.e. entitled to it for his own benefit, and not merely
+holding it for others, as does an executor or trustee. In this latter
+sense it is nearly equivalent to _cestui que trust_, a term which it is
+gradually superseding in modern law.
+
+
+
+
+BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1798-1854), German psychologist, was born at
+Berlin on the 17th of February 1798, studied at the universities of
+Halle and Berlin, and served as a volunteer in the war of 1815. After
+studying theology under Schleiermacher and De Wette, he turned to pure
+philosophy, studying particularly English writers and the German
+modifiers of Kantianism, such as Jacobi, Fries and Schopenhauer. In 1820
+he published his _Erkenntnisslehre_, his _Erfahrungsseelenlehre als
+Grundlage alles Wissens_, and his inaugural dissertation _De Veris
+Philosophiae Initiis_. His marked opposition to the philosophy of Hegel,
+then dominant in Berlin, was shown more clearly in the short tract,
+_Neue Grundlegung zur Metaphysik_ (1822), intended to be the programme
+for his lectures as privat-docent, and in the able treatise,
+_Grundlegung zur Physlk der Sitten_ (1822), written, in direct
+antagonism to Kant's _Metaphysic of Ethics_, to deduce ethical
+principles from a basis of empirical feeling. In 1822 his lectures were
+prohibited at Berlin, according to his own belief through the influence
+of Hegel with the Prussian authorities, who also prevented him from
+obtaining a chair from the Saxon government. He retired to Göttingen,
+lectured there for some years, and was then allowed to return to Berlin.
+In 1832 he received an appointment as _professor extraordinarius_ in the
+university, which he continued to hold till his death. On the 1st of
+March 1854 he disappeared, and more than two years later his remains
+were found in the canal near Charlottenburg. There was some suspicion
+that he had committed suicide in a fit of mental depression.
+
+The distinctive peculiarity of Beneke's system consists, first, in the
+firmness with which he maintained that in empirical psychology is to be
+found the basis of all philosophy; and secondly, in his rigid treatment
+of mental phenomena by the genetic method. According to him, the
+perfected mind is a development from simple elements, and the first
+problem of philosophy is the determination of these elements and of the
+processes by which the development takes place. In his _Neue
+Psychologie_, (essays iii., viii. and ix.), he defined his position with
+regard to his predecessors and contemporaries, and both there and in the
+introduction to his _Lehrbuch_ signalized as the two great stages in the
+progress of psychology the negation of innate ideas by Locke, and of
+faculties, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, by Herbart. The
+next step was his own; he insisted that psychology must be treated as
+one of the natural sciences. As is the case with them, its content is
+given by experience alone, and differs from theirs only in being the
+object of the internal as opposed to the external sense. But by this
+Beneke in no wise meant a psychology founded on physiology. These two
+sciences, in his opinion, had quite distinct provinces and gave no
+mutual assistance. Just as little help is to be expected from the
+science of the body as from mathematics and metaphysics, both of which
+had been pressed by Herbart into the service of psychology. The true
+method of study is that applied with so much success in the physical
+sciences--critical examination of the given experience, and reference of
+it to ultimate causes, which may not be themselves perceived, but are
+nevertheless hypotheses necessary to account for the facts. (See on
+method, _Neue Psych._, essay i.)
+
+  Starting from the two assumptions that there is nothing, or at least
+  no formed product, innate in the mind, and that definite faculties do
+  not originally exist, and from the fact that our minds nevertheless
+  actually have a definite content and definite modes of action, Beneke
+  proceeds to state somewhat dogmatically his scientifically verifiable
+  hypotheses as to the primitive condition of the soul and the laws
+  according to which it develops. Originally the soul is possessed of or
+  is an immense variety of powers, faculties or forces (conceptions
+  which Beneke, in opposition to Herbart, holds to be metaphysically
+  justifiable), differing from one another only in tenacity, vivacity,
+  receptivity and grouping. These primitive immaterial forces, so
+  closely united as to form but one being (essence), acquire
+  definiteness or form through the action upon them of _stimuli_ or
+  excitants from the outer world. This action of external impressions
+  which are appropriated by the internal powers is the first fundamental
+  process in the genesis of the completed mind. If the union of
+  impression and faculty be sufficiently strong, consciousness (not
+  _self_-consciousness) arises, and definite sensations and perceptions
+  begin to be formed. These primitive sensations, however, are not to be
+  identified with the sensations of the special senses, for each of
+  these senses is a system of many powers which have grown into a
+  definite unity, have been educated by experience. From ordinary
+  experience it must be concluded that a second fundamental process is
+  incessantly going on, viz. the formation of new powers, which takes
+  place principally during sleep. The third and most important process
+  results from the fact that the combination between stimulus and power
+  may be weak or strong; if weak, then the two elements are said to be
+  movable, and they may flow over from one to another of the already
+  formed psychical products. Any formed faculty does not cease to exist
+  on the removal of its stimulus; in virtue of its fundamental property,
+  _tenacity_, it sinks back as a trace (_Spur_) into unconsciousness,
+  whence it may be recalled by the application to it of another
+  stimulus, or by the attraction towards it of some of the movable
+  elements or newly-formed original powers. These traces and the flowing
+  over of the movable elements are the most important conceptions in
+  Beneke's psychology; by means of them he gives a rationale of
+  reproduction and association, and strives to show that all the formed
+  faculties are simply developments from traces of earlier processes.
+  Lastly, similar forms, according to the degree of their similarity,
+  attract one another or tend to form closer combinations.
+
+  All psychical phenomena are explicable by the relation of impression
+  and power, and by the flow of movable elements; the whole process of
+  mental development is nothing but the result of the action and
+  interaction of the above simple laws. In general this growth may be
+  said to take the direction of rendering more and more definite by
+  repetition and attraction of like to like the originally indefinite
+  activities of the primary faculties. Thus the sensations of the
+  special senses are gradually formed from the primary sensuous feelings
+  (_sinnliche Empfindungen_); concepts are formed from intuitions of
+  individuals by the attraction of the common elements, and the
+  consequent flow towards them of movable forms. Judgment is the
+  springing into consciousness of a concept alongside of an intuition,
+  or of a higher concept alongside of a lower. Reasoning is merely a
+  more complex judgment. Nor are there special faculties of judging or
+  reasoning. The understanding is simply the mass of concepts lying in
+  the background of unconsciousness, ready to be called up and to flow
+  with force towards anything closely connected with them. Even memory
+  is not a special faculty; it is simply the fundamental property of
+  tenacity possessed by the original faculties. The very distinction
+  between the great classes, Knowledge, Feeling and Will, may be
+  referred to elementary differences in the original relations of
+  faculty and impression.
+
+  This is the groundwork of Beneke's philosophy. It should be carefully
+  compared with the association psychology of modern British thinkers,
+  most of whose results and processes will be found there worked into a
+  comprehensive system (see ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS). In logic, metaphysics
+  and ethics Beneke's speculations are naturally dependent on his
+  psychology.
+
+  The special value of Beneke's works, as has been already said,
+  consists in the many specimens of acute psychological analysis
+  scattered throughout them. As a complete explanation of psychical
+  facts, the theory seems defective. The original hypotheses, peculiar
+  to Beneke, on which the whole depends, are hastily assumed and rest on
+  a clumsy mechanical metaphor. As is the case with all empirical
+  theories of mental development, the higher categories or notions,
+  which are apparently shown to result from the simple elements, are
+  really presupposed at every step. Particularly unsatisfactory is the
+  account of consciousness, which is said to arise from the union of
+  impression and faculty. The necessity of consciousness for any mental
+  action whatsoever is apparently granted, but the conditions involved
+  in it are never discussed or mentioned. The same defect appears in the
+  account of ethical judgment; no amount of empirical fact can ever
+  yield the notion of absolute duty. His results have found acceptance
+  mainly with practical teachers. Undoubtedly his minute analysis of
+  temperament and careful exposition of the means whereby the young,
+  unformed mind may be trained are of infinite value; but the truth of
+  many of his doctrines on these points lends no support to the
+  fundamental hypotheses, from which, indeed, they might be almost
+  entirely severed.
+
+  Beneke was a most prolific writer, and besides the works mentioned
+  above, published large treatises in the several departments of
+  philosophy, both pure and as applied to education and ordinary life. A
+  complete list of his writings will be found in the appendix to
+  Dressler's edition of the _Lehrbuch der Psychologie als
+  Naturwissenschaft_ (1861). The chief are:--_Psychologische Skizzen_
+  (1825, 1827); _Lehrbuch der Psychologie_ (1832); _Metaphysik und
+  Religionsphilosophie_ (1840); _Die neue Psychologie_ (1845);
+  _Pragmatische Psychologie oder Seelenlehre in der Anwendung auf das
+  Leben_ (1832).
+
+  Among German writers, who, though not professed followers of Beneke,
+  have been largely influenced by him, may be mentioned Ueberweg and
+  Karl Fortlage (1806-1881). In England, perhaps, the only writer who
+  shows traces of acquaintance with his works is J.D. Morell (_Introd.
+  to Mental Philosophy_). The most eminent members of the school are
+  J.G. Dressler (whose _Beneke oder Seelenlehre als Naturwissenschaft_
+  is an admirable exposition), Fried. Dittes and G. Raue. The compendium
+  by the last-named author passed through four editions in Germany, and
+  has been translated into French, Flemish and English. The English
+  translation, _Elements of Psychology_ (1871), gives a lucid and
+  succinct view of the whole system.
+
+  Among more recent works on Beneke are O.E. Hummel, _Die
+  Unterrichtslehre Benekes_ (Leipzig, 1885); on his ethical theory,
+  C.H.Th. Kühn, _Die Sittenlehre F.E. Benekes_ (1892); Joh. Friedrich,
+  _F.E. Beneke_ (Wiesbaden, 1898, with biography and list of works);
+  Otto Gramzow, _F.E. Benekes Leben und Philos._ (Bern, 1899, with full
+  bibliography); on his theory of knowledge, H. Renner, _Benekes
+  Erkenninistheorie_ (Halle, 1902); on his metaphysics, _Die Metaphysik
+  Benekes_, by A. Wandschneider (Berlin, 1903); Brandt, _Beneke, the Man
+  and His Philosophy_ (New York, 1895); Falckenberg, _Hist. of Phil._
+  (Eng. trans., 1895); and H. Höffding, _Hist. of Mod. Phil._ vol. ii.
+  (Eng. trans., 1900).     (R. Ad.)
+
+
+
+
+BENETT, ETHELDRED (1776-1845), one of the earliest of English women
+geologists, the second daughter of Thomas Benett, of Pyt House near
+Tisbury, was born in 1776. Later she resided at Norton House, near
+Warminster, in Wiltshire, and for more than a quarter of a century
+devoted herself to collecting and studying the fossils of her native
+county. She contributed "A Catalogue of the Organic Remains of the
+County of Wilts" to Sir R.C. Hoare's _County History_, and a limited
+number of copies of this work were printed as a separate volume (1831)
+and privately distributed. She died on the 11th of January 1845.
+
+
+
+
+BENEVENTO, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, capital of
+the province of Benevento, 60 m. by rail and 32 m. direct N.E. of
+Naples, situated on a hill 400 ft. above sea-level at the confluence of
+the Calore and Sabbato. Pop. (1901) town, 17,227; commune, 24,137. It
+occupies the site of the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or
+Maluentum, supposed in the imperial period to have been founded by
+Diomedes. It was the chief town of the Samnites, who took refuge here
+after their defeat by the Romans in 314 B.C. It appears not to have
+fallen into the hands of the latter until Pyrrhus's absence in Sicily,
+but served them as a base of operations in the last campaign against him
+in 275 B.C. A Latin colony was planted there in 268 B.C., and it was
+then that the name was changed for the sake of the omen, and probably
+then that the Via Appia was extended from Capua to Beneventum. It
+remained in the hands of the Romans during both the Punic and the Social
+Wars, and was a fortress of importance to them. The position is strong,
+being protected by the two rivers mentioned, and the medieval
+fortifications, which are nearly 2 m. in length, probably follow the
+ancient line, which was razed to the ground by Totila in A.D. 542.
+After the Social War it became a _municipium_ and under Augustus a
+colony. Being a meeting point of six main roads,[1] it was much visited
+by travellers. Its importance is vouched for by the many remains of
+antiquity which it possesses, of which the most famous is the triumphal
+arch erected in honour of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in
+A.D. 114, with important reliefs relating to its history (E. Petersen in
+_Römische Mitteilungen_, 1892, 241; A. von Domaszewzki in _Jahreshefte
+des Österreich. archäologischen Instituts_, ii., 1899, 173). There are
+also considerable remains of the ancient theatre, a large
+_cryptoporticus_ 197 ft. long known as the ruins of Santi Quaranta, and
+probably an emporium (according to Meomartini, the portion preserved is
+only a fraction of the whole, which once measured 1791 ft. in length)
+and an ancient brick arch (called the Arco del Sacramento), while below
+the town is the Ponte Lebroso, a bridge of the Via Appia over the
+Sabbato, and along the road to Avellino are remains of _thermae_. Many
+inscriptions and ancient fragments may be seen built into the houses; in
+front of the Madonna delle Grazie is a bull in red Egyptian granite, and
+in the Piazza Papiniano the fragments of two Egyptian obelisks erected
+in A.D. 88 in front of the temple of Isis in honour of Domitian. In 1903
+the foundations of this temple were discovered close to the Arch of
+Trajan, and many fragments of fine sculptures in both the Egyptian and
+the Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had apparently
+been used as the foundation of a portion of the city wall, reconstructed
+in A.D. 663 under the fear of an attack by Constans, the Byzantine
+emperor, the temple having been destroyed under the influence of the
+bishop, St Barbatus, to provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini,
+O. Marucchi and L. Savignoni in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1904, 107 sqq.).
+Not long after it had been sacked by Totila Benevento became the seat of
+a powerful Lombard duchy and continued to be independent until 1053,
+when the emperor Henry III. ceded it to Leo IX. in exchange for the
+bishopric of Bamberg; and it continued to be a papal possession until
+1806, when Napoleon granted it to Talleyrand with the title of prince.
+In 1815 it returned to the papacy, but was united to Italy in 1860.
+Manfred lost his life in 1266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far
+from the town. Much damage has been done by earthquakes from time to
+time. The church of S. Sofia, a circular edifice of about 760, now
+modernized, the roof of which is supported by six ancient columns, is a
+relic of the Lombard period; it has a fine cloister of the 12th century
+constructed in part of fragments of earlier buildings; while the
+cathedral with its fine arcaded façade and incomplete square campanile
+(begun in 1279) dates from the 9th century and was rebuilt in 1114. The
+bronze doors, adorned with bas-reliefs, are good; they may belong to the
+beginning of the 13th century. The interior is in the form of a
+basilica, the double aisles being borne by ancient columns, and contains
+_ambones_ and a candelabrum of 1311, the former resting on columns
+supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and coloured marble
+mosaic. The castle at the highest point of the town was erected in the
+14th century.
+
+Benevento is a station on the railway from Naples to Foggia, and has
+branch lines to Campobasso and to Avellino.
+
+  See A. Meomartini, _Monumenti e opere d'Arte di Benevento_ (Benevento,
+  1899); T. Ashby, _Mélanges de l'école française_, 1903, 416.
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These were (1) the prolongation of the Via Appia from Capua, (2)
+    its continuation to Tarentum and Brundisium, of which there were two
+    different lines between Beneventum and Aquilonia at different dates
+    (see APPIA, VIA), (3) the Via Traiana to Brundisium by Herdoniae, (4)
+    the road to Telesia and Aesernia, (5) the road to Aesernia by
+    Bovianum, (6) the road to Abellinum and Salernum.
+
+
+
+
+BENEVOLENCE (Lat. _bene_, well, and _volens_, wishing), a term for an
+act of kindness, or a gift of money, or goods, but used in a special
+sense to indicate sums of money, disguised as gifts, which were extorted
+by various English kings from their subjects, without consent of
+parliament. Among the numerous methods which have been adopted by
+sovereigns everywhere to obtain support from their people, that of
+demanding gifts has frequently found a place, and consequently it is the
+word and not the method which is peculiar to English history. Edward II.
+and Richard II. had obtained funds by resorting to forced loans, a
+practice which was probably not unusual in earlier times. Edward IV.,
+however, discarded even the pretence of repayment, and in 1473 the word
+_benevolence_ was first used with reference to a royal demand for a
+gift. Edward was very successful in these efforts, and as they only
+concerned a limited number of persons he did not incur serious
+unpopularity. But when Richard III. sought to emulate his brother's
+example, protests were made which led to the passing of an act of
+parliament in 1484 abolishing benevolences as "new and unlawful
+inventions." About the same time the Chronicle of Croyland referred to a
+benevolence as a "nova et inaudita impositio muneris ut per
+benevolentiam quilibet daret id quod vellet, immo verius quod nollet."
+In spite of this act Richard demanded a further benevolence; but it was
+Henry VII. who made the most extensive use of this system. In 1491 he
+sent out commissioners to obtain gifts of money, and in 1496 an act of
+parliament enforced payment of the sums promised on this occasion under
+penalty of imprisonment. Henry's chancellor, Cardinal Morton, archbishop
+of Canterbury, was the traditional author of a method of raising money
+by benevolences known as "Morton's Fork." If a man lived economically,
+it was reasoned he was saving money and could afford a present for the
+king. If, on the contrary, he lived sumptuously, he was evidently
+wealthy and could likewise afford a gift. Henry VII. obtained
+considerable sums of money in this manner; and in 1545 Henry VIII.
+demanded a "loving contribution" from all who possessed lands worth not
+less than forty shillings a year, or chattels to the value of £15; and
+those who refused to make payment were summoned before the privy council
+and punished. Elizabeth took loans which were often repaid; and in 1614
+James I. ordered the sheriffs and magistrates in each county and borough
+to collect a general benevolence from all persons of ability, and with
+some difficulty about £40,000 was collected. Four counties had, however,
+distinguished themselves by protests against this demand, and the act of
+Richard III. had been cited by various objectors. Representatives from
+the four counties were accordingly called before the privy council,
+where Sir Edward Coke defended the action of the king, quoted the Tudor
+precedents and urged that the act of 1484 was to prevent exactions, not
+voluntary gifts such as James had requested. Subsequently Oliver St John
+was fined and imprisoned for making a violent protest against the
+benevolence, and on the occasion of his trial Sir Francis Bacon defended
+the request for money as voluntary. In 1615 an attempt to exact a
+benevolence in Ireland failed, and in 1620 it was decided to demand one
+for the defence of the Palatinate. Circular letters were sent out,
+punishments were inflicted, but many excuses were made and only about
+£34,000 was contributed. In 1621 a further attempt was made, judges of
+assize and others were ordered to press for contributions, and wealthy
+men were called before the privy council and asked to name a sum at
+which to be rated. About £88,000 was thus raised, and in 1622 William
+Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, was imprisoned for six months for
+protesting. This was the last time benevolences were actually collected,
+although in 1622 and 1625 it was proposed to raise money in this manner.
+In 1633 Charles I. consented to collect a benevolence for the recovery
+of the Palatinate for Charles Louis, the son of his sister Elizabeth,
+but no further steps were taken to carry out the project.
+
+  See W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_, vol. iii. (Oxford,
+  1895); H. Hallam, _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i.
+  (London, 1855); T.P. Taswell-Langmead, _English Constitutional
+  History_ (London, 1896); S.R. Gardiner, _History of England, passim_
+  (London, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+BENFEY, THEODOR (1809-1881), German philologist, son of a Jewish trader
+at Nörten, near Göttingen, was born on the 28th of January 1809.
+Although originally designed for the medical profession, his taste for
+philology was awakened by a careful instruction in Hebrew which he
+received from his father. After brilliant studies at Göttingen he spent
+a year at Munich, where he was greatly impressed by the lectures of
+Schelling and Thiersch, and afterwards settled as a teacher in
+Frankfort. His pursuits were at first chiefly classical, and his
+attention was diverted to Sanskrit by an accidental wager that he would
+learn enough of the language in a few weeks to be able to review a new
+book upon it. This feat he accomplished, and rivalled in later years
+when he learned Russian in order to translate V.P. Vasilev's work on
+Buddhism. For the time, however, his labours were chiefly in classical
+and Semitic philology. At Göttingen, whither he had returned as
+privat-docent, he wrote a little work on the names of the Hebrew months,
+proving that they were derived from the Persian, prepared the great
+article on India in Ersch and Grüber's _Encyclopaedia_, and published
+from 1839 to 1842 the _Lexicon of Greek Roots_ which gained him the
+Volney prize of the Institute of France. From this time his attention
+was principally given to Sanskrit. He published in 1848 his edition of
+the _Sama-veda_; in 1852-1854 his _Manual of Sanskrit_, comprising a
+grammar and chrestomathy; in 1858 his practical Sanskrit grammar,
+afterwards translated into English; and in 1859 his edition of the
+_Pantscha Tantra_, with an extensive dissertation on the fables and
+mythologies of primitive nations. All these works had been produced
+under the pressure of poverty, the government, whether from parsimony or
+from prejudice against a Jew, refusing to make any substantial addition
+to his small salary as extra-professor at the university. At length, in
+1862, the growing appreciation of foreign scholars shamed it into making
+him an ordinary professor, and in 1866 Benfey published the laborious
+work by which he is on the whole best known, his great _Sanskrit-English
+Dictionary_. In 1869 he wrote a history of German philological research,
+especially Oriental, during the 19th century. In 1878 his jubilee as
+doctor was celebrated by the publication of a volume of philological
+essays dedicated to him and written by the first scholars in Germany. He
+had designed to close his literary labours by a grammar of Vedic
+Sanskrit, and was actively preparing it when he was interrupted by
+illness, which terminated in his death at Göttingen on the 26th of June
+1881.
+
+  A collection of his various writings was published in 1890, prefaced
+  by a memoir by his son.
+
+
+
+
+BENGAL, a province of British India, bounded on the E. by the province
+of Eastern Bengal and Assam, the boundary line being the Madhumati river
+and the Ganges; on the S. by the Bay of Bengal and Madras; on the W. by
+the Central Provinces and United Provinces; and on the N. by Nepal and
+Sikkim. It has an area of 141,580 sq. m. and a population of 54,096,806.
+It consists of the provinces of Behar, Orissa and Chota Nagpur, and the
+western portion of the Ganges valley, but without the provinces of
+Northern and Eastern Bengal; and is divided into the six British
+divisions of the presidency, Bhagalpur, Patna, Burdwan, Chota Nagpur and
+Orissa, and various native states. The province was reconstituted in
+1905, when the Chittagong, Dacca and Rajshahi divisions, the district of
+Malda and the state of Hill Tippera were transferred from Bengal to a
+new province, Eastern Bengal and Assam; the five Hindi-speaking states
+of Chota Nagpur, namely Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and
+Jashpur, were transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces; and
+Sambalpur and the five Oriya states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna
+and Kalahandi were transferred from the Central Provinces to Bengal. The
+province of Bengal, therefore, now consists of the thirty-three British
+districts of Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli, Howrah,
+Twenty-four Parganas, Calcutta, Nadia, Murshidabad, Jessore, Khulna,
+Patna, Gaya, Shahabad, Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga,
+Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Santal Parganas, Cuttack, Balasore, Angul
+and Khondmals, Puri, Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Palamau, Manbhum, Singhbum and
+Sambalpur, and the native states of Sikkim and the tributary states of
+Orissa and Chota Nagpur.
+
+The name Bengal is derived from Sanskrit geography, and applies strictly
+to the country stretching southwards from Bhagalpur to the sea. The
+ancient Banga formed one of the five outlying kingdoms of Aryan India,
+and was practically conterminous with the delta of Bengal. It derived
+its name, according to the etymology of the Pundits, from a prince of
+the Mahabharata, to whose portion it fell on the primitive partition of
+the country among the Lunar race of Delhi. But a city called Bangala,
+near Chittagong, which, although now washed away, is supposed to have
+existed in the Mahommedan period, appears to have given the name to the
+European world. The word Bangala was first used by the Mussulmans; and
+under their rule, like the Banga of old Sanskrit times, it applied
+specifically to the Gangetic delta, although the later conquests to the
+east of the Brahmaputra were eventually included within it. In their
+distribution of the country for fiscal purposes, it formed the central
+province of a governorship, with Behar on the north-west, and Orissa on
+the south-west, jointly ruled by one deputy of the Delhi emperor. Under
+the English the name has at different periods borne very different
+significations. Francis Fernandez applies it to the country from the
+extreme east of Chittagong to Point Palmyras in Orissa, with a coast
+line which Purchas estimates at 600 m., running inland for the same
+distance and watered by the Ganges. This territory would include the
+Mahommedan province of Bengal, with parts of Behar and Orissa. The loose
+idea thus derived from old voyagers became stereotyped in the archives
+of the East India Company. All its north-eastern factories, from
+Balasore, on the Orissa coast, to Patna, in the heart of Behar, belonged
+to the "Bengal Establishment," and as British conquests crept higher up
+the rivers, the term came to be applied to the whole of northern India.
+The presidency of Bengal, in contradistinction to those of Madras and
+Bombay, eventually included all the British territories north of the
+Central Provinces, from the mouths of the Ganges and Brahmaputra to the
+Himalayas and the Punjab. In 1831 the North-Western Provinces were
+created, which are now included with Oudh in the United Provinces; and
+the whole of northern India is now divided into the four
+lieutenant-governorships of the Punjab, the United Provinces, Bengal,
+and Eastern Bengal and Assam, and the North-West Frontier Province under
+a commissioner.
+
+_Physical Geography._--Three sub-provinces of the present
+lieutenant-governorship of Bengal--namely, Bengal proper, Behar and
+Orissa--consist of great river valleys; the fourth, Chota Nagpur, is a
+mountainous region which separates them from the central India plateau.
+Orissa embraces the rich deltas of the Mahanadi and the neighbouring
+rivers, bounded by the Bay of Bengal on the S.E., and walled in on the
+N.W. by tributary hill states. Proceeding west, the sub-province of
+Bengal proper stretches to the banks of the Ganges and inland from the
+sea-board to the Himalayas. Its southern portion is formed by the delta
+of the Ganges; its northern consists of the Ganges valley. Behar lies on
+the north-west of Bengal proper, and comprises, the higher valley of the
+Ganges from the spot where it issues from the United Provinces. Between
+Behar and Orissa lies the province of Chota Nagpur, of which a portion
+was given in 1905 to the Central Provinces. The valley of the Ganges,
+which is now divided between Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam, is one
+of the most fertile and densely-populated tracts of country in the
+world. It teems with every product of nature. Tea, indigo, turmeric,
+lac, waving white fields of the opium-poppy, wheat and innumerable
+grains and pulses, pepper, ginger, betel-nut, quinine and many costly
+spices and drugs, oil-seeds of sorts, cotton, the silk mulberry,
+inexhaustible crops of jute and other fibres; timber, from the feathery
+bamboo and coroneted palm to the iron-hearted _sál_ tree--in short,
+every vegetable product which feeds and clothes a people, and enables it
+to trade with foreign nations, abounds. Nor is the country destitute of
+mineral wealth. The districts near the sea consist entirely of alluvial
+formations; and, indeed, it is stated that no substance so coarse as
+gravel occurs throughout the delta, or in the heart of the provinces
+within 400 m. of the river mouths.
+
+
+  Climate.
+
+The climate varies from the snowy regions of the Himalayas to the
+tropical vapour-bath of the delta and the burning winds of Behar. The
+ordinary range of the thermometer, on the plains is from about 52° F. in
+the coldest month to 103° in the shade in summer. A temperature below
+60° is considered very cold, while with care the temperature of
+well-built houses rarely exceeds 95° in the hot weather. The rainfall
+varies from 37 in. in Behar to about 65 in. in the delta.
+
+
+  Rivers.
+
+Lower Bengal exhibits the two typical stages in the life of a great
+river. In the northern districts the rivers run along the valleys,
+receive the drainage from the country on either side, absorb broad
+tributaries and rush forward with an ever-increasing volume. But near
+the centre of the provinces the rivers enter upon a new stage of their
+career. Their main channels bifurcate, and each new stream so created
+throws off its own set of distributaries to right and left. The country
+which they thus enclose and intersect forms the delta of Bengal.
+Originally conquered by the fluvial deposits from the sea, it now
+stretches out as a vast dead level, in which the rivers find their
+velocity checked, and their current no longer able to carry along the
+silt which they have brought down from northern India. The streams,
+accordingly, deposit their alluvial burden in their channels and upon
+their banks, so that by degrees their beds rise above the level of the
+surrounding country. In this way the rivers in the delta slowly build
+themselves up into canals, which every autumn break through or overflow
+their margins, and leave their silt upon the adjacent flats. Thousands
+of square miles in Lower Bengal annually receive a top-dressing of
+virgin soil from the Himalayas,--a system of natural manuring which
+renders elaborate tillage a waste of labour, and defies the utmost power
+of over-cropping to exhaust its fertility. As the rivers creep farther
+down the delta, they become more and more sluggish, and their
+bifurcations and interfacings more complicated. The last scene of all is
+a vast amphibious wilderness of swamp and forest, amid whose solitudes
+their network of channels insensibly merges into the sea. The rivers,
+finally checked by the sea, deposit their remaining silt, which emerges
+as banks or blunted promontories, or, after a year's battling with the
+tide, adds a few feet or it may be a few inches to the foreshore.
+
+The Ganges gives to the country its peculiar character and aspect. About
+200 m. from its mouth it spreads out into numerous branches, forming a
+large delta, composed, where it borders on the sea, of a labyrinth of
+creeks and rivers, running through the dense forests of the Sundarbans,
+and exhibiting during the annual inundation the appearance of an immense
+sea. At this time the rice fields to the extent of many hundreds of
+square miles are submerged. The scene presents to a European eye a
+panorama of singular novelty and interest--rice fields covered with
+water to a great depth; the ears of grain floating on the surface; the
+stupendous embankments, which restrain without altogether preventing the
+excesses of the inundations; and peasants going out to their daily work
+with their cattle in canoes or on rafts. The navigable streams which
+fall into the Ganges intersect the country in every direction and afford
+great facilities for internal communication. In many parts boats can
+approach by means of lakes, rivulets and water-courses to the door of
+almost every cottage. The lower region of the Ganges is the richest and
+most productive portion of Bengal, abounding in valuable produce. The
+other principal rivers in Bengal are the Sone, Gogra, Gandak, Kusi,
+Tista; the Hugli, formed by the junction of the Bhagirathi and Jalangi,
+and farther to the west, the Damodar and Rupnarayan; and in the
+south-west, the Mahanadi or great river of Orissa. In a level country
+like Bengal, where the soil is composed of yielding and loose materials,
+the courses of the rivers are continually shifting from the wearing away
+of their different banks, or from the water being turned off by
+obstacles in its course into a different channel. As this channel is
+gradually widened the old bed of the river is left dry. The new channel
+into which the river flows is of course so much land lost, while the old
+bed constitutes an accession to the adjacent estates. Thus, one man's
+property is diminished, while that of another is enlarged or improved;
+and a distinct branch of jurisprudence has grown up, the particular
+province of which is the definition and regulation of the alluvial
+rights alike of private property and of the state.
+
+_Geology._--The greater part of Bengal is occupied by the alluvial
+deposits of the Ganges, but in the south-west rises the plateau of Chota
+Nagpur composed chiefly of gneissic rocks. The great thickness of the
+Gangetic alluvium is shown by a borehole at Calcutta which was carried
+to a depth of about 460 ft. below the present level of the sea without
+entering any marine deposit. Over the surface of the gneissic rocks are
+scattered numerous basins of Gondwana beds. Some of these are
+undoubtedly faulted into their present positions, and to this they owe
+their preservation. In the Rajmahal Hills basaltic lava flows are
+interbedded with the Gondwana deposits, and in the Karharbari coalfield
+the Gondwana beds are traversed by dikes of mica-peridotite and basalt,
+which are supposed to be of the same age as the Rajmahal lavas. The
+Gondwana series is economically of great importance. It includes
+numerous seams of coal, many of which are worked on an extensive scale
+(at Giridih, Raniganj, &c.). The quality of the coal is good, but
+unfortunately it contains a large amount of ash, the average being as
+high as 17%.
+
+_People._--In the sub-provinces under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal
+dwell a great congeries of peoples, of widely diverse origin, speaking
+different languages and representing far separated eras of civilization.
+The province, in fact, became so unwieldy that this was the chief reason
+for its partition in 1905. The people exhibit every stage of human
+progress, and every type of human enlightenment and superstition from
+the educated classes to primitive hill tribes. On the same bench of a
+Calcutta college sit youths trained up in the strictest theism, others
+indoctrinated in the mysteries of the Hindu trinity and pantheon, with
+representatives of every link in the chain of superstition--from the
+harmless offering of flowers before the family god to the cruel rites of
+Kali, whose altars in the most civilized districts of Bengal, as lately
+as the famine of 1866, were stained with human blood. Indeed, the very
+word Hindu is one of absolutely indeterminate meaning. The census
+officers employ it as a convenient generic to include 42 millions of the
+population of Bengal, comprising elements of transparently distinct
+ethnical origin, and separated from each other by their language,
+customs and religious rites. But Hinduism, understood even in this wide
+sense, represents only one of many creeds and races found within Bengal.
+The other great historical cultus, which during the last twelve
+centuries did for the Semitic peoples what Christianity accomplished
+among the European Aryans, has won to itself one-fifth of the population
+of Bengal. The Mahommedans number some 9,000,000 in Bengal, but the
+great bulk of their numbers was transferred to Eastern Bengal and Assam.
+They consist largely of the original inhabitants of the country, who
+were proselytized by the successive Pathan and Mogul invasions. In the
+face of great natural catastrophes, such as river inundations, famines,
+tidal waves and cyclones of the lower provinces of Bengal, the religious
+instinct works with a vitality unknown in European countries. Until the
+British government stepped in with its police and canals and railroads,
+between the people and what they were accustomed to consider the
+dealings of Providence, scarcely a year passed without some terrible
+manifestation of the power and the wrath of God. Mahratta invasions from
+central India, piratical devastations on the sea-board, banditti who
+marched about the interior in bodies of 50,000 men, floods which drowned
+the harvests of whole districts, and droughts in which a third of the
+population starved to death, kept alive a sense of human powerlessness
+in the presence of an omnipotent fate. Under the Mahommedans a
+pestilence turned the capital into a silent wilderness, never again to
+be re-peopled. Under British rule it is estimated that 10 millions
+perished within the Lower Provinces alone in the famine of 1769-1770;
+and the first surveyor-general of Bengal entered on his maps a tract of
+many hundreds of square miles as bare of villages and "depopulated by
+the Maghs." But since the advent of British administration the history
+of Bengal has substantially been a record of prosperity; the teeming
+population of its river valleys is one of the densest in the world, and
+the purely agricultural districts of Saran and Muzaffarpur in the Patna
+division support over 900 persons to the square mile, a number hardly
+surpassed elsewhere except in urban areas.
+
+_Language._--Excluding immigrants the languages spoken by the people of
+Bengal belong to one or other of four linguistic families--Aryan,
+Dravidian, Munda and Tibeto-Burman. Of these the languages of the Aryan
+family are by far the most important, being spoken by no less than 95%
+of the population according to the census of 1901. The Aryan languages
+are spoken in the plains by almost the whole population; the Munda and
+Dravidian in the Chota Nagpur plateau and adjoining tracts; and the
+Tibeto-Burman in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Jalpaiguri. The most important
+Aryan languages are Bengali (q.v.), Bihari, Eastern Hindi and Oriya. On
+the average in the province, before partition, out of every 1000 persons
+528 spoke Bengali, 341 Hindi and Bihari, and 79 Oriya. As a rule Bengali
+is the language of Bengal proper, Hindi of Behar and Chota Nagpur, and
+Oriya of Orissa.
+
+_Agriculture._--The staple crop of the province is rice, to which about
+66% of the cropped area is devoted. There are three harvests in the
+year--the _boro_, or spring rice; _áus_, or autumn rice; and _áman_, or
+winter rice. Of these the last or winter rice is by far the most
+extensively cultivated, and forms the great harvest of the year. The
+_áman_ crop is grown on low land. In May, after the first fall of rain,
+a nursery ground is ploughed three times, and the seed scattered
+broadcast. When the seedlings make their appearance another field is
+prepared for transplanting. By this time the rainy season has thoroughly
+set in, and the field is dammed up so as to retain the water. It is then
+repeatedly ploughed until the water becomes worked into the soil, and
+the whole reduced to thick mud. The young rice is then taken from the
+nursery, and transplanted in rows about 9 in. apart. _Áman_ rice is much
+more extensively cultivated than _áus_, and in favourable years is the
+most valuable crop, but being sown in low lands is liable to be
+destroyed by excessive rainfall. Harvest takes place in December or
+January. _Áus_ rice is generally sown on high ground. The field is
+ploughed when the early rains set in, ten or twelve times over, till the
+soil is reduced nearly to dust, the seed being sown broadcast in April
+or May. As soon as the young plants reach 6 in. in height, the land is
+harrowed for the purpose of thinning the crop and to clear it of weeds.
+The crop is harvested in August or September. _Boro_, or spring rice, is
+cultivated on low marshy land, being sown in a nursery in October,
+transplanted a month later, and harvested in March and April. An
+indigenous description of rice, called _uri_ or _jaradhán_, grows in
+certain marshy tracts. The grain is very small, and is gathered for
+consumption only by the poorest. Wheat forms an important food staple in
+Behar, whence there is a considerable export to Calcutta. Oil-seeds are
+very largely grown, particularly in Behar. The principal oil-seeds are
+_sarisha_ (mustard), _til_ (sesamum) and _lisi_ or _masina_ (linseed).
+Jute (_pat_ or _kosta_) forms a very important commercial staple of
+Bengal. The cultivation of this crop has rapidly increased of late
+years. Its principal seat of cultivation, however, is Eastern Bengal,
+where the superior varieties are grown. The crop grows on either high or
+low lands, is sown in April and cut in August. Apart from the quantity
+exported and the quantity made up by hand, it supports a prosperous mill
+industry, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Calcutta and Howrah. In 1905
+there were thirty-six jute mills in the province and 2¼ million acres
+were cropped. The value of jute and of the goods manufactured from it
+represents more than a third of the aggregate value of the trade of
+Calcutta. Indigo used to be an important crop carried on with European
+capital in Behar, but of late years the industry has almost been
+destroyed by the invention of artificial indigo. Tea cultivation is the
+other great industry carried on by European capital, but that is chiefly
+confined to Assam, the industry in Darjeeling and the Dwars being on a
+small scale. Opium is grown in Behar with its head station at Patna. The
+cultivation of the cinchona plant in Bengal was introduced as an
+experiment about 1862, and is grown on government plantations in
+Darjeeling.
+
+_Mineral Products._--The chief mineral product in Bengal is coal, which
+disputes with the gold of Mysore for the place of premier importance in
+the mining industries of India. The most important mine in point of
+area, accessibility and output is Raniganj, with an area of 500 sq. m.
+Another of rising importance is that of Jherria, with an area of 200 sq.
+m., which is situated only 16 m. to the west of Raniganj; while
+Daltonganj also has an area of 200 sq. m. The small coalfield of
+Karharbari with an area of only 11 sq. m. yields the best coal in
+Bengal. Besides these four coalfields there are twenty-five others of
+various sizes, which are only in the initial stages of development.
+
+_Commerce._--The sea-borne trade of Bengal is almost entirely
+concentrated at Calcutta (q.v.), which also serves as the chief port for
+Eastern Bengal and Assam, and for the United Provinces. The principal
+imports are cotton piece goods, railway materials, metals and machinery,
+oils, sugar, cotton, twist and salt; and the principal exports are jute,
+tea, hides, opium, rice, oil-seeds, indigo and lac. The inter-provincial
+trade is mostly carried on with Eastern Bengal and Assam, the United
+Provinces and the Central Provinces. From the United Provinces come
+opium, hides, raw cotton, wheat, shellac and oil-seeds; and from Assam,
+tea, oil-seeds and jute. The frontier trade of Bengal is registered with
+Nepal, Sikkim, Tibet and Bhutan, but except with Nepal the amount is
+insignificant.
+
+_Railways._--Bengal is well supplied with railways, which naturally have
+the seaport of Calcutta as the centre of the system. South of the
+Ganges, the East Indian follows the river from the North-Western
+Provinces, with its terminus at Howrah on the Hugli, opposite Calcutta.
+A chord line passes by the coalfield of Raniganj, which enables this
+great railway to be worked more economically than any other in India.
+The Bengal-Nagpur, from the Central Provinces, also has its terminus at
+Howrah, and the section of this railway through Midnapore carries the
+East Coast line from Madras. North of the Ganges the Eastern Bengal runs
+north to Darjeeling, and maintains a service of river steamers on the
+Brahmaputra. The Bengal Central serves the lower Gangetic delta. Both of
+these have their termini at Sealdah, an eastern suburb of Calcutta.
+Northern Behar is traversed by the Bengal & North-Western, with an
+extension eastwards through Tirhoot to join the Eastern Bengal. In
+addition there are a few light lines and steam tramways.
+
+_Canals and Rivers._--Rivers and other waterways still carry a large
+part of the traffic of Bengal, especially in the delta. The government
+maintains two channels through the Sundarbans, known as the Calcutta and
+Eastern canals, and likewise does its best to keep open the Nadiya
+rivers, which form the communication between the main stream of the
+Ganges and the Hugli. There is further a route by water between Calcutta
+and Midnapore. The most important canals, those in Orissa (see MAHANADI)
+and on the Sone river in southern Behar, have been constructed primarily
+for irrigation, though they are also used for navigation. Except as a
+protection against famine, expenditure on irrigation is not remunerative
+in Bengal, on account of the abundance of rivers, and the general
+dampness of the climate.
+
+_Administration._--The administration of Bengal is conducted by a
+lieutenant-governor, with a chief secretary, two secretaries and three
+under-secretaries. There is no executive council, as in Madras and
+Bombay; but there is a board of revenue, consisting of two members. For
+legislative purposes the lieutenant-governor has a council of twenty
+members, of whom not more than ten may be officials. Of the remaining
+members seven are nominated on the recommendation of the Calcutta
+corporation, groups of municipalities, groups of district boards,
+selected public associations and the senate of Calcutta university. The
+number of divisions or commissionerships is 6, of which Chota Nagpur
+ranks as "non-regulation." The number of districts is 33.
+
+_Army._--In Lord Kitchener's reconstitution of the Indian army in 1904
+the old Bengal command was abolished and its place taken by the Eastern
+army corps, which includes all the troops from Meerut to Assam. The
+boundaries of the 8th division include those of the former Oudh,
+Allahabad, Assam and Presidency districts; and the troops now quartered
+in Bengal only consist of the Presidency brigade with its headquarters
+at Fort William.
+
+_History._--The history of so large a province as Bengal forms an
+integral part of the general history of India. The northern part, Behar
+(q.v.), constituted the ancient kingdom of Magadha, the nucleus of the
+imperial power of the successive great dynasties of the Mauryas,
+Andhras and Guptas; and its chief town, Patna, is the ancient
+Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), once the capital of India.
+The Delta or southern part of Bengal lay beyond the ancient Sanskrit
+polity, and was governed by a number of local kings belonging to a
+pre-Aryan stock. The Chinese travellers, Fa Hien in the 5th century, and
+Hsüan Tsang in the 7th century, found the Buddhist religion prevailing
+throughout Bengal, but already in a fierce struggle with Hinduism--a
+struggle which ended about the 9th or 10th century in the general
+establishment of the latter faith. Until the end of the 12th century
+Hindu princes governed in a number of petty principalities, till, in
+1199, Mahommed Bakhtiyar Khilji was appointed to lead the first
+Mussulman invasion into Bengal. The Mahommedan conquest of Behar dates
+from 1197 A.D., and the new power speedily spread southwards into the
+delta. From about this date until 1340 Bengal was ruled by governors
+appointed by the Mahommedan emperors in the north. From 1340 to 1539 its
+governors asserted a precarious independence, and arrogated the position
+of sovereigns on their own account. From 1540 to 1576 Bengal passed
+under the rule of the Pathan or Afghan dynasty, which commonly bears the
+name of Sher Shah. On the overthrow of this house by the powerful arms
+of Akbar, Bengal was incorporated into the Mogul empire, and
+administered by governors appointed by the Delhi emperor, until the
+treaties of 1765, which placed Bengal, Behar and Orissa under the
+administration of the East India Company. The Company formed its
+earliest settlements in Bengal in the first half of the 17th century.
+These settlements were of a purely commercial character. In 1620 one of
+the Company's factors dates from Patna; in 1624-1636 the Company
+established itself, by the favour of the emperor, on the ruins of the
+ancient Portuguese settlement of Pippli, in the north of Orissa; in
+1640-1642 an English surgeon, Gabriel Boughton, obtained establishments
+at Balasore, also in Orissa, and at Hugli, some miles above Calcutta.
+The vexations and extortions to which the Company's early agents were
+subjected more than once almost induced them to abandon the trade, and
+in 1677-1678 they threatened to withdraw from Bengal altogether. In
+1685, the Bengal factors, driven to extremity by the oppression of the
+Mogul governors, threw down the gauntlet; and after various successes
+and hairbreadth escapes, purchased from the grandson of Aurangzeb, in
+1696, the villages which have since grown up into Calcutta, the
+metropolis of India. During the next fifty years the British had a long
+and hazardous struggle alike with the Mogul governors of the province
+and the Mahratta armies which invaded it. In 1756 this struggle
+culminated in the great outrage known as the Black Hole of Calcutta,
+followed by Clive's battle of Plassey and capture of Calcutta, which
+avenged it. That battle, and the subsequent years of confused fighting,
+established British military supremacy in Bengal, and procured the
+treaties of 1765, by which the provinces of Bengal, Behar and Orissa
+passed under British administration. To Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
+belongs the glory of consolidating the British power, and converting a
+military occupation into a stable civil government. To another member of
+the civil service, John Shore, afterwards Lord Teignmouth (1786-1793),
+is due the formation of a regular system of Anglo-Indian legislation.
+Acting through Lord Cornwallis, then governor-general, he ascertained
+and defined the rights of the landholders in the soil. These landholders
+under the native system had started, for the most part, as collectors of
+the revenues, and gradually acquired certain prescriptive rights as
+quasi-proprietors of the estates entrusted to them by the government. In
+1793 Lord Cornwallis declared their rights perpetual, and made over the
+land of Bengal to the previous quasi-proprietors or _zamindárs_, on
+condition of the payment of a fixed land tax. This piece of legislation
+is known as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. But the
+Cornwallis code, while defining the rights of the proprietors, failed to
+give adequate recognition to the rights of the undertenants and the
+cultivators. His Regulations formally reserved the latter class of
+rights, but did not legally define them, or enable the husbandmen to
+enforce them in the courts. After half a century of rural disquiet, the
+rights of the cultivators were at length carefully formulated by Act X.
+of 1859. This measure, now known as the land law of Bengal, effected for
+the rights of the under-holders and cultivators what the Cornwallis code
+in 1793 had effected for those of the superior landholders. The status
+of each class of persons interested in the soil, from the government as
+suzerain, through the _zamindárs_ or superior landholders, the
+intermediate tenure-holders and the undertenants, down to the actual
+cultivator, is now clearly defined. The act dates from the first year
+after the transfer of India from the company to the crown; for the
+mutiny burst out in 1857. The transactions of that revolt chiefly took
+place in northern India, and are narrated in the article INDIAN MUTINY.
+In Bengal the rising began at Barrackpore, was communicated to Dacca in
+Eastern Bengal, and for a time raged in Behar, producing the memorable
+defence of the billiard-room at Arrah by a handful of civilians and
+Sikhs--one of the most splendid pieces of gallantry in the history of
+the British arms. Since 1858, when the country passed to the crown, the
+history of Bengal has been one of steady progress. Five great lines of
+railway have been constructed. Trade has enormously expanded; new
+centres of commerce have sprung up in spots which formerly were silent
+jungles; new staples of trade, such as tea and jute, have rapidly
+attained importance; and the coalfields and iron ores have opened up
+prospects of a new and splendid era in the internal development of the
+country.
+
+During the decade 1891-1901 Bengal was fortunate in escaping to a great
+extent the two calamities of famine and plague which afflicted central
+and western India. The drought of 1896-1897 did indeed extend to Bengal,
+but not to such an extent as to cause actual famine. The distress was
+most acute in the densely populated districts of northern Behar, and in
+the remote hills of Chota Nagpur. Plague first appeared at Calcutta in a
+sporadic form in April 1898, but down to April of the following year the
+total number of deaths ascribed to plague throughout the province was
+less than 1000, compared with 191,000 for Bombay. At the beginning of
+1900, however, there was a serious recrudescence of plague at Calcutta,
+and a malignant outbreak in the district of Patna, which caused 1000
+deaths a week. In the early months of 1901, plague again appeared in the
+same regions. The number of deaths in 1904 was 75,436, the highest
+recorded up to that date.
+
+The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897, which had its centre of
+disturbance in Assam, was felt throughout eastern and northern Bengal.
+In all the large towns the masonry buildings were severely damaged or
+totally wrecked. The permanent way of the railways also suffered. The
+total number of deaths returned was only 135. Far more destructive to
+life was the cyclone and storm-wave that broke over Chittagong district
+on the night of the 24th of October 1897. Apart from damage to shipping
+and buildings, the low-lying lands along the coast were completely
+submerged, and in many villages half the inhabitants were drowned. The
+loss of human lives was reported to be about 14,000, and the number of
+cattle drowned about 15,000. As usual in such cases, a severe outbreak
+of cholera followed in the track of the storm-wave. Another natural
+calamity on a large scale occurred at Darjeeling in October 1899.
+Torrential rains caused a series of landslips, carrying away houses and
+breaking up the hill railway.
+
+The most notable event, however, of recent times was the partition of
+the province, which was decided upon by Lord Curzon, and carried into
+execution in October 1905. Serious popular agitation followed this step,
+on the ground (_inter alia_) that the Bengali population, the centre of
+whose interests and prosperity was Calcutta, would now be divided under
+two governments, instead of being concentrated and numerically dominant
+under the one; while the bulk would be in the new division. In 1906-1909
+the unrest developed to a considerable extent, requiring special
+attention from the Indian and home governments; but as part of the
+general history of India the movement may be best discussed under that
+heading (see INDIA: _History_).
+
+  See Parliamentary Papers relating to the reconstitution of the
+  provinces of Bengal and Assam (Cd. 2658 and Cd. 2746, 1905); Colonel
+  E.T. Dalton, _The Ethnology of Bengal_ (1872); Sir W.W. Hunter,
+  _Annals of Rural Bengal_ (1868), and _Orissa_ (1872); Sir H.H. Risley,
+  _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_ (1891); C.E. Buckland, _Bengal under the
+  Lieutenant-Governors_ (1901); and Sir James Bourdillon, _The Partition
+  of Bengal_ (Society of Arts, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+BENGAL, BAY OF, a portion of the Indian Ocean, resembling a triangle in
+shape, lying between India and Burma. A zone 50 m. wide extending from
+the island of Ceylon and the Coromandel coast to the head of the bay,
+and thence southwards through a strip embracing the Andaman and Nicobar
+islands, is bounded by the 100 fathom line of sea bottom; some 50 m.
+beyond this lies the 500-fathom limit. Opposite the mouth of the Ganges,
+however, the intervals between these depths are very much extended by
+deltaic influence. The bay receives many large rivers, of which the most
+important are the Ganges and Brahmaputra on the north, the Irrawaddy on
+the east, and the Mahanadi, Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery on the west. On
+the west coast it has no harbours, Madras having a mere open roadstead,
+but on the east there are many good ports, such as Akyab, Moulmein,
+Rangoon and Tavoy river. The islands in the bay are very numerous,
+including the Andaman, Nicobar and Mergui groups. The group of islands,
+Cheduba and others, in the north-east, off the Burmese coast, are
+remarkable for a chain of mud volcanoes, which are occasionally active.
+Thus in December 1906 a new island of mud was thrown up, and measured
+307 by 217 yds.
+
+
+
+
+BENGALI, with ORIYA and ASSAMESE, three of the four forms of speech
+which compose the Eastern Group of the Indo-Aryan Languages (q.v.). This
+group includes all the Aryan languages spoken in India east of the
+longitude of Benares, and its members are the following:--
+
+            Number of speakers in
+             British India, 1901.
+  Bengali        44,624,048
+  Oriya           9,687,429
+  Assamese        1,350,846
+  Bihari         34,579,844
+                 ----------
+     Total       90,242,167
+
+Of these Bihari is treated separately. In the present article we shall
+devote ourselves to the examination of Bengali together with the two
+other closely connected languages. The reader is throughout assumed to
+be in possession of the facts described under the heads INDO-ARYAN
+LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT.
+
+
+  Language.
+
+Bengali is spoken in the province of Bengal proper, i.e. in, and on both
+sides of the delta of the Ganges, and also in the Eastern Bengal
+portion of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The name "Bengali"
+is an English word, derived from the English word "Bengal." Natives call
+the language _Banga-Bhasa_, or the language of Banga, i.e. "Bengal."
+"Oriya" is the native name for the language of Odra or Orissa. Assamese,
+again an English word, is spoken in the Assam Valley. Its native name is
+_Asamiya_, pronounced _Ohamiya_. All these languages have alphabets
+derived from early forms of the well-known Nagari character of northern
+India. That of Bengali dates from about the 11th century A.D. It is a
+cursive script which admits of considerable speed in writing. The
+Assamese alphabet is the same as that of Bengali, but has one additional
+character to represent the sound of _w_, which has to be expressed in
+the former language in a very awkward fashion. In Orissa, till lately,
+writing was done on a talipot palm-leaf, on which the letters were
+scratched with an iron stylus. In such circumstances straight lines
+would tend to split the leaf, and accordingly the alphabet received a
+peculiar curved appearance typical of it and of one or two other South
+Indian methods of writing.
+
+The three languages are all the immediate descendants of Magadhi Prakrit
+(see PRAKRIT), the headquarters of which were in south Behar, near the
+modern city of Patna. From here it spread in three lines--southwards,
+where it developed into Oriya; south-eastwards into Bengal proper, where
+it became Bengali; and eastwards, through Northern Bengal, into Assam,
+where it became Assamese. It thus appears that the language of Northern
+Bengal, though usually and conveniently treated as a dialect of Bengali,
+is not so in reality, but is a connecting link between Assamese and
+Bihari, the language of Behar. It is noteworthy that Northern Bengali
+and Assamese often agree in their grammar with Oriya, as against
+standard Bengali.
+
+Omitting border forms of speech, Bengali, as a vernacular, has two main
+dialects, a western and an eastern, the former being the standard. The
+boundary-line between the two may be roughly put at the 89th degree of
+east longitude. The eastern dialect has many marked peculiarities,
+amongst which we may mention a tendency to disaspiration, the
+pronunciation of _c_ as _ts_, of _ch_ as _s_, and of _j_ as _z_. In the
+northern part of the tract a medial _r_ is often elided, and in the
+extreme east there is a broader pronunciation of the vowel _a_, like
+that in the English word "ball," _k_ is sounded like the _ch_ in "loch,"
+and both _c_ and _ch_ are pronounced like _s_. The letter _p_ is often
+sounded like _w_, and _s_ like _h_, which again, when initial, is
+dropped. The distinction between cerebral and dental letters is lost, so
+that the words _ath_ and _sat_ are both pronounced _'at_. In the
+south-east, near Chittagong, corruption has gone even further, and the
+local dialect, which is practically a new language, is unintelligible to
+a man from Western Bengal. Throughout the eastern districts there is a
+strong tendency to epenthesis, e.g. _kali_ is pronounced _kail_. A more
+important dialectic difference in Bengali is that between the literary
+speech and the vernacular. The literary vocabulary is highly
+Sanskritized, so much so that it is not understood by any native of
+Bengal who has not received special instruction in it. Its grammar
+preserves numerous archaic or pseudo-archaic forms, which are invariably
+contracted in the colloquial speech of even the most highly educated.
+For instance, "I do" is expressed in the literary dialect by
+_karitechi_, but in the vernacular by _korcci_ or _kocci_. Oriya and
+Assamese may be said to have no dialects. There are a few local
+variations, but the standard form of speech, as a whole, is used
+everywhere in the respective tracts where the languages are spoken.
+
+The three languages, being all children of a common parent, present many
+similar features. Oriya on the whole preserves the usual accentuation of
+the Indo-Aryan Languages (q.v.), seldom having the stress syllable
+farther back than the antepenultimate. Bengali, on the other hand,
+throws the accent as far back as possible, and this produces the
+contracted forms which we observe in the colloquial language, the first
+syllable of a word being strongly accented, and the rest being hurried
+over. Literary Bengali preserves the full form of the word, and in
+reading aloud this full form is adhered to. Assamese follows Bengali in
+its accentuation, but the language has never been the toy of euphuism.
+In its literature colloquial words are employed, and are written as they
+are pronounced colloquially.
+
+  In the following account of the three languages, Bengali, literary and
+  colloquial, will be primarily dealt with, and then the points of
+  difference between it and the other two will be described.
+  Abbreviations used: A. = Assamese, Bg. = Bengali, O. = Oriya, Pr. =
+  Prakrit, Mg. Pr. = Magadhi Prakrit, Skr. = Sanskrit.
+
+  _Vocabulary._--As already said, Literary Bengali abounds in
+  _tatsamas_, or words borrowed in modern times from Sanskrit (see
+  INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES), and these have also intruded themselves into
+  the speech of the educated. So much has the false taste for these
+  learned words obtained the mastery that, in the literary language,
+  when a genuine Bengali or _tadbhava_ word is used in literature it is
+  frequently not put into writing, but the corresponding learned
+  _tatsama_ is written in its place, although the _tadbhava_ is read. It
+  is as though a French writer wrote _sicca_ when he wished the word
+  _seche_ to be pronounced. Similarly, the Bengali word for the goddess
+  of Fortune is _Lakkhi_, but in books this is always written in the
+  Skr. form _Laksmi_, although no Bengali would dream of saying anything
+  but _Lakkhi_, even when reciting a purple passage _ore rotunda_. In
+  fact, the vocal organs of most Bengalis are incapable of uttering the
+  sound connoted by the letters _Laksmi_. The result is that the
+  spelling of a Bengali word rarely represents its pronunciation. Oriya
+  also borrows freely from Sanskrit, but there is no confusion between
+  _tatsamas_ and _tadbhavas_, as in Bengali. Assamese, on the other
+  hand, is remarkably free from these parasites, its vocabulary being
+  mainly _tadbhava_. In Eastern Bengal, where Mussulmans predominate,
+  there is a free use of words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. Owing
+  to geographical and historical circumstances, Oriya is to some extent
+  infected by Telugu and Marathi idioms, while the Tibeto-Burman
+  dialects and Ahom have left their marks upon Assamese.
+
+  _Phonetics._--The three forms of speech agree in sounding the vowel
+  _a_ like the _o_ in "hot." When writing phonetically, this sound is
+  represented in the present article by _o_. The pronunciation of this
+  frequently recurring vowel gives a tone to the general sound of the
+  languages which at once strikes a foreigner. In Bg. and A. a final
+  vowel preceded by a single consonant is generally not pronounced. In
+  Bg. this is only true for nouns, a final _a_ being freely sounded in
+  adjectives and verbs. In O., on the other hand, a final _a_ is always
+  pronounced. The sound of such a final _a_ is in all three languages
+  the same as that of the second _o_ in "promote"; thus, the Bg. _bara_
+  is pronounced _boro_. In Bg. a medial _a_ sometimes has the sound of
+  the first _o_ in "promote," as, for instance, in the word _ban_
+  (_bon_), a forest. In A. and Eastern Bg. a medial _a_ is often sounded
+  like the _a_ in "ball," and is then transliterated _a_. _A_ has
+  preserved as a rule its proper sound of _a_ in "father." The
+  distinction between _i_ and _i_ and between _u_ and _u_ is everywhere
+  lost in pronunciation, although in _tatsama_ words the Sanskrit
+  spelling is followed in literature. Thus, in Bg., the Skr. _vyatita_
+  is pronounced _bétíto_, with the accent on the first syllable. In A.
+  the distinction between these long and short vowels is obliterated
+  more than elsewhere, the reason being, as in Bg., the changes of
+  pronunciation due to the shifting back of the accent. In O., the Skr.
+  vowel _r_ is pronounced _ru_. Elsewhere it is _ri_. In O. the vowel
+  _e_ is always long, but in Bg. it may be long or short, and in A. it
+  is always short. The syllable _ya_ preceded by a consonant has in Bg.
+  the sound of a short _e_, so that _vyakti_ is pronounced _bekti_.
+  Moreover, in the same language the letter _e_ is often pronounced like
+  the _a_ in the German _Mann_, a sound here phonetically represented by
+  _a_; thus, _dekha_ is sometimes pronounced _dekho_, and sometimes
+  _dakho_ or even _dako_. The syllable _ya_, when following a consonant,
+  also has this _a_-sound, so that the English word "bank" is written
+  _byank_ in Bengali characters. _O_ in O. is always long. In Bg., when
+  it has not got the accent it is shortened to the sound of the first
+  _o_ in "promote," a sound which, as we have seen, is also sometimes
+  taken by a medial _a_. In A. _o_ approaches the sound of _u_, and it
+  actually becomes _u_ when followed by _i_ in the next syllable. The
+  diphthongs _ai_ (in _tatsamas_, i.e. the Skr. _ai_) and _ai_ (in
+  _tadbhavas_) are sounded like _oi_ in "oil" in Bg. and O., while in A.
+  they have the sound of _oi_ in "going." Similarly, in Bg. and O. the
+  diphthongs _au_ and _au_ are sounded like the _au_ in the German
+  _Haus_, but in A. like _au_ in the French _jaune_, or the second _o_
+  in "promote." In colloquial Bg. the two syllables _ai_ often have the
+  sound of _e_, as in _khaite_ (_khete_), to eat.
+
+  In Eastern Bengal _k_ has often the sound of _ch_ in "loch." In A. the
+  consonants _c_ and _ch_ are both pronounced like _s_, and _j_ and _jh_
+  become _zh_ (i.e. the _s_ in "pleasure") or (when final) _z_. The same
+  tendency is observable in Bg., though it is usually considered vulgar.
+  In parts of Eastern Bengal _c_ is pronounced like _ts_. O. as a rule
+  has the proper sound of these letters, but towards the south _c_ and
+  _ch_ become _ts_ and _tsh_ when not followed by a palatal letter. The
+  letters _d_ and _dh_, when medial, are pronounced as a strongly burred
+  _r_, and are then transliterated _r_ and _rh_ respectively. In A. and
+  Eastern Bg. there is a strong tendency to pronounce both dentals and
+  cerebrals as semi-cerebrals, as is done by the neighbouring
+  Tibeto-Burmans. In A. _r_ and _rh_ become _r_ and _rh_ respectively.
+  In Bg. and A. _n_ has universally become _n_, but is properly
+  pronounced in O. _Y_ is usually pronounced as _j_, unless it is a
+  merely euphonic bridge to avoid a hiatus between two vowels, as in
+  _kariya_ for _kari-a_. In A. the resultant _j_ has the usual
+  _z_-sound. When _y_ is the final element of a conjunct consonant, in
+  Bg. (except in the south-east) it is very faintly pronounced. In
+  compensation the preceding member of the conjunct is doubled and the
+  preceding vowel is shortened if possible, thus _vakya_ becomes
+  _bakk^yo_. In A., while the _y_ is usually preserved, an _i_ is
+  inserted before the conjunct, so that we have _baikyo_. _M_ and _v_
+  when similarly situated are altogether elided in Bg., and this is also
+  the case with _v_ in A., in which language _m_ under these
+  circumstances becomes _w_; thus, _smarana_ becomes Bg. _ssoron_, A.
+  _sworon_, and _dvara_ becomes Bg. and A. _ddara_. _R_ is generally
+  pronounced correctly, except that when a member of a compound it is
+  often not pronounced in colloquial Bg.; thus _karma_ (_kommo_). In
+  North-eastern Bengali and in A. a medial _r_ is commonly dropped;
+  thus, Bg. _karilam_ (_kaïlam_), A. _kari_ (_kaï_).[1] The vulgar
+  commonly confound _n_ and _l_. O. has retained the old cerebral _l_ of
+  Pr., which has disappeared in Bg. and A. The semi-vowel _v_ (_w_)
+  becomes _b_ in Bg. and O., but retains its proper sound when medial in
+  A. When Bg. wishes to represent a _w_, it has to write _oya_; thus,
+  for _chawa_ it writes _chaoya_. Similarly _baro_, twelve, +_yari_,
+  friendship, when compounded together to mean "a collection of twelve
+  friends," is pronounced _barwari_. Bg. pronounces all uncompounded
+  sibilants as if they were _s_, like the English _sh_ in "shin." This
+  was already the case in Mg. Pr. (see PRAKRIT). O., on the contrary,
+  pronounces all three like the dental _s_ in "sin," while A. sounds
+  them like a rough _h_, almost like the _ch_ in "loch." In Eastern Bg.
+  _s_ becomes frankly _h_, and is then often dropped. The compound _ks_
+  is everywhere treated as if it were _khy_, In colloquial Bg. there is
+  a tendency to disaspiration; thus _dekha_ is pronounced _dako_ and the
+  Pr. _hattha-_, a hand, becomes _hat_, not _hath_. In Eastern Bg. there
+  is a cockney tendency to drop _h_, so that we have _'at_, a hand, and
+  _kaïlam_ for _kahilam_, I said.
+
+  The above remarks show that O. has, on the whole, preserved the
+  original sounds of the various letters better than Bg. or A.
+
+  _Declension._--The distinction of gender has disappeared from all
+  three languages. Sex is distinguished either by the use of qualifying
+  terms, such as "male" or "female," or by the employment of different
+  words, as in the case of our "bull" and "cow." The plural number is
+  almost always denoted by the addition of some word meaning "many" or
+  "collection" to the singular, although we sometimes find a true plural
+  used in the case of nouns denoting human beings. Case was originally
+  indicated by postpositions (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES), but in many
+  instances these have been joined to the noun, so that they form one
+  word with it. The following is the full declension of the singular of
+  the word _ghora_, a horse, in the three languages:--
+
+
+    +-----------+---------+-------------------+-----------+
+    |           |  Oriya. |      Bengali.     | Assamese. |
+    +-----------+---------+-------------------+-----------+
+    | Nom.      | ghora   | ghora             | ghora     |
+    | Acc.-Dat. | ghoraku | ghorake           | ghorak    |
+    | Instr.    | ghorare | ghorate           | ghorare   |
+    | Abl.      | ghoraru | ghora-haïte       | ghoraye   |
+    | Gen.      | ghorara | ghorar            | ghorar    |
+    | Loc.      | ghorare | ghorate or ghoray | ghorat    |
+    +-----------+---------+-------------------+-----------+
+
+  In Bg. and A. a noun often takes _e_ (_e_) in the nominative singular,
+  when it is the subject of a transitive verb; thus Bg. _bedee_ (from
+  _bed_) _bale_, the Veda says. In Bg. the nominative plural may, in the
+  case of human beings, be formed by adding _a_ to the genitive
+  singular; thus, _santan_, a son; gen. sing., _santaner_; nom. plur.,
+  _santanera_. The same is the case with the pronouns; thus _amar_, of
+  me; _amara_, we; _tahar_, his; _tahara_, they. In Bihari (q.v.) the
+  pronouns follow the same rule, and, as is explained under that head,
+  the nominative plural is really an oblique form of the genitive. With
+  this exception, the plural in all our three languages is either the
+  same as the singular, or (when the idea of plurality has to be
+  emphasized) is formed by the addition of nouns of multitude, such as
+  _gan_ in Bg., _mana_ in O., or _bilak_ in A.
+
+  We shall see that pronominal suffixes are freely used in all three
+  languages in the conjugation of verbs. In the Outer languages of the
+  north-west of India (for the list of these, see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES)
+  pronominal suffixes are also commonly added to nouns to signify
+  possession. In most of the languages of the Eastern Group such
+  pronominal suffixes added to nouns have fallen into disuse, but in A.
+  they are still commonly employed with nouns of relationship; thus,
+  _bap_, a father; _bopai_, my father; _baper_, your father; _bapek_,
+  his father. Their retention in A. is no doubt due to the example of
+  the neighbouring Tibeto-Burman languages, in which such pronominal
+  _prefixes_ are a common feature.
+
+  In all three languages the adjective does not change for gender, for
+  number or for case.
+
+  The personal pronouns have at the present day lost their old
+  nominatives, and have new nominatives formed from the oblique base. In
+  the first and second persons the singulars have fallen into disuse in
+  polite conversation, and the plurals are used honorifically for the
+  singular, as in the case of the English "you" for "thou." For the
+  plural, new plurals are formed from the new singular (old plural)
+  bases. In A., however, the old singular of the first person is
+  retained, and the old plural plays its proper function. The Bg.
+  pronouns are, _mui_ (old), I; _ami_ (modern), I; _tui_ (old), thou;
+  _tumi_ (modern), thou; _se_, _tini_, he; _e_, _ini_, this; _o_, _uni_,
+  that; _je_, _jini_, who; _ke_, who?; _ki_, what?; _kon_, what
+  (adjective)?; _keha_, anyone; _kichu_, anything; _kona_, any. Most of
+  the forms in the other languages closely follow these. The words in O.
+  for "I" and "thou" are _ambhe_ and _tumbhe_ respectively. All these
+  pronouns have plurals and oblique forms to which the case suffixes are
+  added. These must be learnt from the grammars.
+
+  _Conjugation._--It is in the conjugation of the verb that colloquial
+  Bg. differs most from the literary dialect. There is no distinction in
+  any of the three languages between singular and plural. Most of the
+  old singular forms have survived in a non-honorific sense, but they
+  are rarely employed in polite language except in the third person. The
+  old plural forms are generally employed for the singular also. The
+  usual base for the verb substantive, when employed as an auxiliary, is
+  _ach_, be, derived from the Skr. _rcchati_. O., however, forms its
+  past from the base _tha_ (Skr. _sthita-_), and in South-western Bengal
+  the base _tha_, derived from the same original, is used for both
+  present and past time. Only two of the old Skr.-Pr. tenses have
+  survived in the finite verb, the simple present and the imperative.
+  Thus, Bg. _kari_, I do; _kar_, do thou. The past is formed by adding
+  pronominal suffixes to the old past participle in _il_ (Skr. _-illa-_,
+  a pleonastic suffix, see PRAKRIT), and the future by adding them to
+  the old future participle in _b_ (Skr. _-tavya-_, Pr. _-avva-_). Thus,
+  Bg. _karil-am_, done + by-me, I did; _karib-a_, it-is-to-be-done +
+  by-me, I shall do. In Bg. there are two modern participles, a present
+  (_kar-ite_) and a past (_kar-iya_), and from these there are formed
+  periphrastic tenses by suffixing auxiliary verbs. Thus, _karite-chi_
+  (colloquial, _korci_ or _kocci_), I am doing; _karite-chilam_ (coll.
+  _korcilum_ or _koccilum_), I was doing; _kariya-chi_ (coll., _korsi_),
+  I have done; _kariya-chilam_ (coll., _korsilum_), I had done. A past
+  conditional is formed by adding pronominal suffixes to the present
+  participle; thus, _karitam_ (coll., _kortum_ or _kottum_), (if) I had
+  done. Similar tenses are formed in O. and A., but the periphrastic
+  tenses are formed with verbal nouns and not with participles. Thus, O.
+  _karu-achi_, A. _kari-chõ_, I am a-doing, I am doing. O. and A. have
+  each a very complete series of gerunds or verbal nouns which are fully
+  declined. In Bg. only one gerund, that of the genitive, is in common
+  use.
+
+  In order to illustrate the conjugation of the verb, we here give that
+  of the root _kar_, do, in its present, past and future tenses.
+
+
+    +----------------------------+---------+----------+----------------+----------+
+    |                            |         | Literary |   Colloquial   |          |
+    |                            |  Oriya. | Bengali. |    Bengali.    | Assamese.|
+    +----------------------------+---------+----------+----------------+----------+
+    | I do                       | karñ    | kari     | kori           | karõ     |
+    | Thou doest                 | kara    | kara     | koro           | kara     |
+    | He (non-honorific) does    | kare    | kare     | kore           | kare     |
+    | He (honorific) does        | karanti | karen    | koren          | kare     |
+    | I did                      | karilu  | karilam  | kollum, korlum | kårilõ   |
+    | Thou didst                 | karila  | karile   | kolle, korle   | kårila   |
+    | He (non-honorific) did     | karila  | karila   | kollo, korlo   | kårile   |
+    | He (honorific) did         | karile  | karilen  | kollen, korlen | kårile   |
+    | I shall do                 | karibu  | kariba   | korbo          | kårim    |
+    | Thou wilt do               | kariba  | karibe   | korbe          | kåriba   |
+    | He (non-honorific) will do | kariba  | karibe   | korbe          | kåriba   |
+    | He (honorific) will do     | karibe  | kariben  | korben         | kåriba   |
+    +----------------------------+---------+----------+----------------+----------+
+
+  All the three languages have negative forms of the verb substantive,
+  and A. has a complete negative conjugation for all verbs, made by
+  prefixing the negative syllable _na_ under certain euphonic rules.
+
+
+Literature.
+
+_Bengali Literature._--The oldest recognized writer in Bengali is the
+Vaishnava poet Candi Das, who flourished about the end of the 14th or
+the beginning of the 15th century. His language does not differ much
+from the Bengali of to-day. He founded a school of poets who wrote hymns
+in honour of Krishna, many of whom, in later times, became connected
+with the religious revival instituted by Caitanya in the early part of
+the 16th century. In the 15th century Kasi Ram translated the
+_Mahabharata_, and Krttibas Ojha the _Ramayana_ into the vernacular. The
+principal figure of the 17th century was Mukunda Ram who has left us two
+really admirable poems entitled _Candi_ and _Srimanta Saudagar_. Parts
+of the former have been translated by Professor Cowell into English
+verse, and both well deserve putting into an English dress. With Bharat
+Candra, whose much admired but artificial Bidya Sundar appeared in the
+18th century, the list of old Bengali authors may be considered as
+closed. They wrote in genuine nervous Bengali, and the conspicuous
+success of many of them shows how baseless is the contention of some
+native writers of the present day that modern literary Bengali needs the
+help of its huge imported Sanskrit vocabulary to express anything but
+the simplest ideas. This modern literary Bengali arose early in the 19th
+century, as a child of the revival of Sanskrit learning in Calcutta,
+under the influence of the college founded by the English in Fort
+William. Each decade it has become more and more the slave of Sanskrit.
+It has had some excellent writers, notably the late Bankim Candra, whose
+novels have received the honour of being translated into several
+languages, including English. Even he, however, sometimes laboured under
+the fetters imposed upon him by a strange vocabulary, and all competent
+European scholars are agreed that no work of first-class originality has
+much chance of arising in Bengal till some great genius purges the
+language of its pseudo-classical element.
+
+_Oriya Literature_ does not go back beyond the 16th century, though
+examples of the language are found in inscriptions of the 13th century.
+Nearly all the works are connected with the history of Krishna, and the
+translation of the _Bhagavata Purana_ into Oriya in the first half of
+the 16th century still exercises great influence on the masses. Dina
+Krsna Das (17th century) was the author of another popular work entitled
+_Rasa Kallola_, or "The Waves of Sentiment," which deals with the early
+life of Krishna. Every verse in it begins with the letter k. It is not
+always decent, but is immensely popular. Upendra Bhanja, Raja of Gumsur,
+a petty hill state, is the most famous of Oriya poets, and was the most
+prolific. His work is insipid to a European taste, and when not
+unintelligible is often obscene. Oriya poetry, from first to last, has
+been an artificial production, the work of _pandits_, who clung to the
+rules of Sanskrit rhetoric, and loaded their verses with so many ideas
+and words borrowed from that language that it is rarely understood,
+except by the learned. The whole literature is, in fact, overshadowed by
+the great temple of Jagannath (a name of Krishna) at Puri in Orissa.
+
+_Assamese Literature._--The Assamese are justly proud of their national
+literature. It has an independent growth, and its strength lies in
+history, a branch of letters in which other Indian languages are almost
+entirely wanting. They have chronicles going back for the past 600
+years, and a knowledge of their contents is a necessary part of the
+education of the upper classes of the country. In poetry, the Vaishnava
+reformer, Sankar Deb, who flourished some 450 years ago, was a
+voluminous writer. His best known work is a translation of the
+_Bhagavata Purana_. About the same time Ananta Kandali translated the
+_Mahabharata_ and the _Ramayana_ into his native tongue. Medicine was a
+science much studied, and there are translations of all the principal
+Sanskrit works on the subject. Forty or fifty dramatic works in the
+vernacular are known and are still acted. Some of them date back to the
+time of Sankar Deb.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--There is no work dealing with the three languages as a
+  group. Both the _Comparative Grammars_ of Beames and Hoernle (see
+  INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES) are silent about Assamese. The fullest details
+  concerning them all will be found in vol. v. of the _Linguistic Survey
+  of India_, parts i. and ii. (Calcutta, 1903). In this each dialect and
+  subdialect is treated with great minuteness and with copious examples.
+
+  The first Bengali grammar and dictionary in a European language was
+  the _Vocabulario em Idioma Bengalla e Portuguez_ of Manoel da
+  Assumpçam (Lisbon, 1743). N.B. Halhed wrote the first Bengali grammar
+  in the English language (Hooghly, 1778), but the real father of
+  Bengali philology was the great missionary, William Carey (_Grammar_,
+  Serampore, 1801; _Dictionary, ib_., 1825). W. Yates's _Grammar_, as
+  edited and improved by T. Wenger (Calcutta, 1847) and others, is still
+  on sale. It is entirely confined to the literary Bengali of the
+  pandits. Its great rival has been Syama Caran Sarkar's _Grammar_
+  (Calcutta, 1850), of which there have been numerous reprints. In 1894
+  J. Beames published his _Grammar_ (Oxford), now the standard work on
+  the subject. It is largely based on Syama Caran's work, but with much
+  new material, especially that dealing with the colloquial side of the
+  language. G.F. Nicholl's _Grammar_ (London, 1885) is an independent
+  study of the language, in which the vernacular works of the best
+  native grammarians have been freely utilized. There is no good Bengali
+  dictionary. G.C. Haughton's _Dictionary_ (London, 1833) is perhaps
+  still the best, but J. Mendies' (Calcutta, about 1870) is also well
+  known, and is the parent of countless others which have issued from
+  the Calcutta presses. _A Small Dictionary of Colloquial Bengali
+  Words_, by J. M. C. and G. A. C. (Calcutta, 1904), may also be studied
+  with advantage. Cf. also Syama-caran Ganguli, _Bengali Spoken and
+  Written_ (Calcutta, 1906). For Bengali literature, see R.C. Dutt, _The
+  Literature of Bengal_ (Calcutta and London, 1895), and Hara Prasad
+  Sastri, _The Vernacular Literature of Bengal before the Introduction
+  of English Education_ (Calcutta, n.d.). The most complete work is
+  _Bangabhasa o Sahitya_ by Dines Candra Sen (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1901)
+  in the Bengali language.
+
+  For Oriya there are E. Hallam's (Calcutta, 1874), T. Maltby's
+  (Calcutta, 1874) and J. Browne's (London, 1882) _Grammars_. The last
+  two are in the Roman character. They are all mere sketches of the
+  language. Sutton's (Cuttack, 1841) is still the only _Dictionary_
+  which the present writer has found of any practical use. For Oriya
+  literature, see App. IX. of Hunter's _Orissa_ (London, 1872), and
+  Monmohan Chakravarti's "Notes on the Language and Literature of
+  Orissa" in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. lxvi.
+  (1897), part i. pp. 317 ff., and vol. lxvii. (1898), part i. pp. 332
+  ff.
+
+  The first Assamese _Grammar_ was Nathan Brown's (Sibsagar, 1848, 3rd
+  ed. 1893), and it is still the one usually studied. G.F. Nicholl gives
+  an Assamese grammar as a supplement to his Bengali _Grammar_ already
+  quoted. Like that work, it is quite independent, and is not a revised
+  edition of Brown. M. Bronson's _Dictionary_ (Sibsagar, 1867) was for
+  long the only vocabulary available, and a very useful and practical
+  work it was. It is now superseded by Hem Candra Barua's _Hema-kosa_
+  (Shillong, 1900). For Assamese literature, see Ananda Ram Dhekial
+  Phukan's _A Few Remarks on the Assamese Language_ (Sibsagar, 1855),
+  partly reprinted in the _Indian Antiquary_, vol. xxv. (1896), pp. 57
+  ff.     (G. A. Gr.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In Mg. Pr. every _r_ becomes _l_. For an explanation of the
+    apparent non-observance of this rule in languages of the Eastern
+    Group, see BIHARI.
+
+
+
+
+BENGAZI (anc. _Hesperides-Berenice_), a seaport on the north coast of
+Africa, capital of the sanjak of Bengazi or Barca, formerly in the
+vilayet of Tripoli, but, since 1875, dependent directly on the ministry
+of the interior at Constantinople. It is situated on a narrow strip of
+land between the Gulf of Sidra and a salt marsh, in 30° 7' N. lat. and
+20° 3' E. long. Though for the most part poorly built, it has one or two
+buildings of some pretension--an ancient castle, a mosque, a Franciscan
+monastery, government buildings and barracks. Senussi influence is
+strong and there is a large _zawia_ (convent). The harbour is half
+silted up with sand and the ruins of fortifications and is accessible
+only to vessels of light draught. A lighthouse has been erected at the
+entrance, but reefs render approach difficult, and the outer anchorage
+is fully exposed to west and north and not good holding. The export
+trade is largely in barley, shipped to British and other maltsters. The
+Sudan produce (ivory, ostrich feathers, &c.) formerly brought to Bengazi
+by caravan, has now been almost wholly diverted to Tripoli, the eastern
+tracks from Wadai and Borku by way of Kufra to Aujila having become so
+unsafe that their natural difficulties are no longer worth braving.
+Consular vigilance has also killed the once considerable slave trade.
+Trade in other commodities, however, is on the increase, exports now
+amounting to nearly half a million sterling and imports to half that
+figure. The neighbouring coast is frequented by Greek and Italian
+sponge-fishers, the industry being a valuable one. The province of
+Bengazi, being still without telegraphs or roads, is one of the most
+backward in the Ottoman empire.
+
+Founded by the Greeks of Cyrenaica under the name Hesperides, the town
+received from Ptolemy III. the name of Berenice in compliment to his
+wife. The ruins of the ancient town, which superseded Cyrene and Barca
+as chief place in the province after the 3rd century A.D., are now
+nearly buried in the sand. The modern town lies south-west of the
+original site. Certain large natural pits which are found in the plain
+behind, and have luxuriant gardens at the bottom, are supposed to have
+originated the myth of the Gardens of the Hesperides. Ancient tombs are
+found, which in 1882 yielded fine Greek vases to G. Dennis, then British
+vice-consul. The present name is derived from that of a Moslem saint
+whose tomb, near the sea-coast, is an object of veneration. The
+population, amounting to about 25,000, is greatly mixed. Levantines,
+Maltese, Greeks and Jews form the trading community, but since 1895,
+when a branch of the Agenzia Italiana Commerciale was established at
+Bengazi, Italians have exercised an increasing influence on Cyrenaic
+commerce. Turks, Arabs and Berbers are the ruling castes, and negroes
+act as labourers and domestics. Many of these found their way to Crete,
+and becoming porters, &c. in Canea and Candia, were notorious for
+turbulence and fanaticism. In 1897 and 1898 the European admirals
+forcibly deported consignments of the worst characters back to Bengazi.
+In 1858 and again in 1874 the town was devastated by plague (see also
+TRIPOLI and CYRENAICA).     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT (1687-1752), Lutheran divine and scholar, was
+born at Winnenden in Württemberg, on the 24th of June 1687. His father
+died in 1693, and Bengel was educated by a friend, who became a master
+in the gymnasium at Stuttgart. In 1703 Bengel left Stuttgart and entered
+the university of Tübingen, where, in his spare time, he devoted himself
+specially to the works of Aristotle and Spinoza, and in theology to
+those of Philipp Spener, Johann Arndt and August Franke. His knowledge
+of the metaphysics of Spinoza was such that he was selected by one of
+the professors to prepare materials for a treatise _De Spinosismo_,
+which was afterwards published. After taking his degree, Bengel devoted
+himself to theology. Even at this time he had religious doubts; it is
+interesting in view of his later work that one cause of his perplexities
+was the difficulty of ascertaining the true reading of certain passages
+in the Greek New Testament. In 1707 Bengel entered the ministry and was
+appointed to the parochial charge of Metzingen-unter-Urach. In the
+following year he was recalled to Tübingen to undertake the office of
+_Repetent_ or theological tutor. Here he remained till 1713, when he was
+appointed head of a seminary recently established at Denkendorf as a
+preparatory school of theology. Before entering on his new duties he
+travelled through the greater part of Germany, studying the systems of
+education which were in use, and visiting the seminaries of the Jesuits
+as well as those of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. Among other
+places he went to Heidelberg and Halle, and had his attention directed
+at Heidelberg to the canons of scripture criticism published by Gerhard
+von Mästricht, and at Halle to C. Vitringa's _Anacrisis ad Apocalypsin_.
+The influence exerted by these upon his theological studies is manifest
+in some of his works. For twenty-eight years--from 1713 to 1741--he was
+master (_Klosterpräceptor_) of the _Klosterschule_ at Denkendorf, a
+seminary for candidates for the ministry established in a former
+monastery of the canons of the Holy Sepulchre. To these years, the
+period of his greatest intellectual activity, belong many of his chief
+works. In 1741 he was appointed prelate (i.e. _General Superintendent_)
+at Herbrechtingen, where he remained till 1749, when he was raised to
+the dignity of consistorial counsellor and prelate of Alpirspach, with a
+residence in Stuttgart. He now devoted himself to the discharge of his
+duties as a member of the consistory. A question of considerable
+difficulty was at that time occupying the attention of the church
+courts, viz. the manner in which those who separated themselves from the
+church were to be dealt with, and the amount of toleration which should
+be accorded to meetings held in private houses for the purpose of
+religious edification. The civil power (the duke of Württemberg was a
+Roman Catholic) was disposed to have recourse to measures of repression,
+while the members of the consistory, recognizing the good effects of
+such meetings, were inclined to concede considerable liberty. Bengel
+exerted himself on the side of the members of the consistory. In 1751
+the university of Tübingen conferred upon him the degree of doctor of
+divinity. He died after a short illness, in 1752.
+
+The works on which Bengel's reputation rests as a Biblical scholar and
+critic are his edition of the Greek New Testament, and his _Gnomon_ or
+_Exegetical Commentary_ on the same.
+
+(A.) His edition of the Greek Testament was published at Tübingen in
+1734, and at Stuttgart in the same year, but without the critical
+apparatus. So early as 1725, in an addition to his edition of
+Chrysostom's _De Sacerdotio_, he had given an account in his _Prodromus
+Novi Testamenti Graeci recte cauteque adornandi_ of the principles on
+which his intended edition was to be based. In preparation for his work
+Bengel was able to avail himself of the collations of upwards of twenty
+MSS., none of them, however, of great importance, twelve of which had
+been collated by himself. In constituting the text, he imposed upon
+himself the singular restriction of not inserting any various reading
+which had not already been _printed_ in some preceding edition of the
+Greek text. From this rule, however, he deviated in the case of the
+Apocalypse, where, owing to the corrupt state of the text, he felt
+himself at liberty to introduce certain readings on manuscript
+authority. In the lower margin of the page he inserted a selection of
+various readings, the relative importance of which he denoted by the
+first five letters of the Greek alphabet in the following
+manner:--[alpha] was employed to denote the reading which in his
+judgment was the true one, although he did not venture to place it in
+the text; [beta], a reading better than that in the text; [gamma], one
+equal to the textual reading; [delta] and [epsilon], readings inferior
+to those in the text. R. Étienne's division into verses was retained in
+the inner margin, but the text was divided into paragraphs. The text was
+followed by a critical apparatus, the first part of which consisted of
+an introduction to the criticism of the New Testament, in the
+thirty-fourth section of which he laid down and explained his celebrated
+canon, _"Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua"_ ("The difficult reading is
+to be preferred to that which is easy"), the soundness of which, as a
+general principle, has been recognized by succeeding critics. The second
+part of the critical apparatus was devoted to a consideration of the
+various readings, and here Bengel adopted the plan of stating the
+evidence both _against_ and _in favour_ of a particular reading, thus
+placing before the reader the materials for forming a judgment. Bengel
+was the first definitely to propound the theory of families or
+recensions of MSS. His investigations had led him to see that a certain
+affinity or resemblance existed amongst many of the authorities for the
+Greek text--MSS., versions, and ecclesiastical writers; that if a
+peculiar reading, e.g., was found in one of these, it was generally
+found also in the other members of the same class; and this general
+relationship seemed to point ultimately to a common origin for all the
+authorities which presented such peculiarities. Although disposed at
+first to divide the various documents into three classes, he finally
+adopted a classification into two--the African or older family of
+documents, and the Asiatic, or more recent class, to which he attached
+only a subordinate value. The theory was afterwards adopted by J.S.
+Semler and J.J. Griesbach, and worked up into an elaborate system by the
+latter critic. Bengel's labours on the text of the Greek Testament were
+received with great disfavour in many quarters. Like Brian Walton and
+John Mill before him, he had to encounter the opposition of those who
+believed that the certainty of the word of God was endangered by the
+importance attached to the various readings. J.J. Wetstein, on the other
+hand, accused him of excessive caution in not making freer use of his
+critical materials. In answer to these strictures, Bengel published a
+_Defence of the Greek Text of His New Testament_, which he prefixed to
+his _Harmony of the Four Gospels_, published in 1736, and which
+contained a sufficient answer to the complaints, especially of Wetstein,
+which had been made against him from so many different quarters. The
+text of Bengel long enjoyed a high reputation among scholars, and was
+frequently reprinted. An enlarged edition of the critical apparatus was
+published by Philip David Burk in 1763.
+
+(B.) The other great work of Bengel, and that on which his reputation as
+an exegete is mainly based, is his _Gnomon Novi Testamenti, or
+Exegetical Annotations on the New Testament_, published in 1742. It was
+the fruit of twenty years' labour, and exhibits with a brevity of
+expression, which, it has been said, "condenses more matter into a line
+than can be extracted from pages of other writers," the results of his
+study. He modestly entitled his work a _Gnomon_ or index, his object
+being rather to guide the reader to ascertain the meaning for himself,
+than to save him from the trouble of personal investigation. The
+principles of interpretation on which he proceeded were, to import
+nothing _into_ Scripture, but to draw _out of_ it everything that it
+really contained, in conformity with grammatico-historical rules; not to
+be hampered by dogmatical considerations; and not to be influenced by
+the symbolical books. Bengel's hope that the _Gnomon_ would help to
+rekindle a fresh interest in the study of the New Testament was fully
+realized. It has passed through many editions, has been translated into
+German and into English, and is still one of the books most valued by
+expositors of the New Testament. John Wesley made great use of it in
+compiling his _Expository Notes upon the New Testament_ (1755).
+
+Besides the two works already described, Bengel was the editor or author
+of many others, classical, patristic, ecclesiastical and expository. The
+more important are: _Ordo Temporum_, a treatise on the chronology of
+Scripture, in which he enters upon speculations regarding the end of the
+world, and an _Exposition of the Apocalypse_ which enjoyed for a time
+great popularity in Germany, and was translated into several languages.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For full details regarding Bengel the reader is referred
+  to Oskar Wächter's _J.A. Bengels Lebensabriss_ and to the _Memoir of
+  His Life and Writings_ (_J.A. Bengels Leben und Wirken_), by J.C.F.
+  Burk, translated into English by Rev. R.F. Walker (London, 1837); see
+  also Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, and E. Nestle, _Bengel als
+  Gelehrter_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+BENGUELLA (São Felipe de Benguella), a town of Portuguese West Africa,
+capital of Benguella district, on a bay of the same name, in 12° 33' S.,
+13° 25' E. Benguella was founded in 1617 by the Portuguese under Manoel
+Cerveira Pereira. It was long the centre of an important trade,
+especially in slaves to Brazil and Cuba, but has now greatly declined.
+The anchorage, about a mile from the town, in 4 to 6 fathoms, is nothing
+but an open roadstead. Besides the churches of S. Felipe and S. Antonio,
+the hospital, and the fortress, there are only a few stone-built houses.
+The white population numbers about 1500. A short way beyond Benguella is
+Bahia Tarta, where salt is manufactured and sulphur excavated.
+
+About 20 m. north of Benguella is Lobito Bay, a natural harbour chosen
+(1903) as the starting-point of a railway to Katanga. At Lobito steamers
+can come close inshore and discharge cargo direct. Lobito is connected
+with Benguella by a railway which passes about midway through
+Katumbella, a town at the mouth of the river of the same name, and the
+sea terminus of an ancient route from the heart of Central Africa
+through Bihe. Old Benguella is a small town about 120 m. north of Lobito
+Bay.
+
+
+
+
+BENÍ, a river of Bolivia, a tributary of the Madeira, rising in the
+elevated Cordilleras near the city of La Paz and at first known as the
+Rio de La Paz, and flowing east, and north-east, to a junction with the
+Mamoré at 10° 20' S. lat. to form the Madeira. Fully one-half of its
+length is through the mountainous districts of central Bolivia, where it
+is fed by a large number of rivers and streams from the snowclad peaks,
+and may be described as a raging torrent. Below Reyes its course is
+through the forest-covered hills and open plains of northern Bolivia,
+where some of the old Indian missions were located. The lower river is
+navigable for 217 m. from Reyes to the Esperanza rapids, 18 m. above its
+confluence with the Mamoré, where a fall of 20 ft. in a distance of 330
+yds. obstructs free navigation. Its principal affluent is the Madre de
+Dios, or Mayu-tata, which rises in the eastern Cordilleras about 35 m.
+east of Cuzco, and flows in an east and north-east direction through
+northern Bolivia to a junction with the Bení 120 m. above its mouth. The
+principal tributaries of the Madre de Dios are the Inambari and
+Paucartambo, both large rivers, and the Chandless, Marcapata, and
+Tambopata. In length and size of its tributaries the Madre de Dios is a
+more important river than the Bení itself, and is navigable during the
+wet season to the foot of the Andes, 180 m. from Cuzco.
+
+
+
+
+BENÍ (EL BENÍ), a department of north-eastern Bolivia, bounded N. and E.
+by Brazil, S. by the departments of Santa Cruz and Cochabamba, and W. by
+La Paz and the national territory contiguous to Peru and Brazil. Pop.
+(est., 1900) 32,180, including 6000 wild Indians; area (est., probably
+too high) 102,111 sq. m. The "Llanos de Mojos," famous for their
+flourishing Jesuit mission settlements of the 17th and 18th centuries,
+occupy the eastern part of this department and are still inhabited by an
+industrious peaceful native population, devoted to cattle raising and
+primitive methods of agriculture. Cattle and forest products, including
+rubber and coca, are exported to a limited extent. The capital, Trinidad
+(pop. 2556), is situated on the Mamoré river in an open fertile country,
+and was once a flourishing Jesuit mission.
+
+
+
+
+BENI-AMER (AMIR), a tribe of African "Arabs" of Hamitic stock,
+ethnologically intermediate between Abyssinians and Nubians. They are of
+the Beja family, and occupy the coast of the Red Sea south of Suakin and
+portions of the adjacent coast-country of Eritrea, north of Abyssinia.
+They are of very mixed Beja and Abyssinian blood, and speak a dialect
+half Beja and half Tigré, locally known as _Hassa_. They marry the women
+of the Bogos and other mountain tribes; but are too proud to let their
+daughters marry Abyssinians.
+
+  See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, ed. Count Gleichen (London, 1905); A.H.
+  Keane, _Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan_ (1884); G. Sergi, _Africa:
+  Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica_ (Turin, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+BENI-ISRAEL ("Sons of Israel"), a colony of Jews settled on the Malabar
+coast in Kolaba district, Bombay presidency, chiefly centring in the
+native state of Janjira. With the Jews of Cochin, they represent a very
+ancient Judaic invasion of India, and are to be entirely distinguished
+from those Jews who have come to India in modern days for purposes of
+trade. Some authorities believe that the Beni-Israel settled in Kolaba
+in the 15th century, but they themselves have traditions which indicate
+a far longer connexion with India (see JEWS: § 3).
+
+
+
+
+BENIN, the name of a country, city and river of British West Africa,
+west of the main channel of the Niger, forming part of the protectorate
+of Southern Nigeria. The name was formerly applied to the coast from the
+Volta, in 0° 40' E., to the Rio del Rey, in 8° 40' E., and included the
+Slave Coast, the whole delta of the Niger and a small portion of the
+country to the eastward. Some trace of this earlier application remains
+in the name "Bight of Benin," still given to that part of the sea which
+washes the Slave Coast, whilst up to 1894 "Benin" was used to designate
+the French possessions on the coast now included in Dahomey.
+
+In its restricted sense Benin is the country formerly ruled by the king
+of Benin city. This area, at one time very extensive, gradually
+contracted as subject tribes and towns acquired independence. It may be
+described as bounded W. by Lagos, S. by the territory of the Jakri and
+other tribes of the Niger delta, E. by the Niger river, and N. by
+Yorubaland. The coast-line held by Benin had passed out of its
+sovereignty by the middle of the 19th century. In physical
+characteristics, climate, flora and fauna, Benin in no way differs from
+the rest of the southern portion of Nigeria (q.v.). The coast is low,
+intersected by creeks, and forms one huge mangrove swamp; on the rising
+ground inland are dense forests in which the cotton and mahogany trees
+are conspicuous.
+
+Benin river (known also as the Jakri outlet), though linked to the Niger
+system by a network of creeks, is an independent stream. It is formed by
+the junction of two rivers, the Ethiope and the Jamieson, which rise
+(north of 6° N,) on the western side of the hills which slope east to
+the Niger river. They unite about 50 m. above the sea. The general
+course of the Benin is westerly. It enters the Atlantic in about 5° 46'
+N., 5° 3' E., and at its mouth is 2 m. wide. It is here obstructed by a
+sand-bar over which there is 12-14 ft. of water at high tide. The river
+is navigable by small steamers up to Sapele, a town on the south bank
+immediately below the junction of the head streams. The Ologi and Gwato
+creeks enter the Benin on the right or north bank, and on the same side
+(8 m. above the mouth of the river) a channel, the Lagos creek, 170 m.
+long, branches off to the north-west, affording a waterway to Lagos.
+From the south or left bank of the Benin the Forcados mouth of the Niger
+can be reached by the Nana creek.
+
+The Beni are a pure negro tribe, speaking a distinct language, but
+having many characteristics common to those of the Yoruba-and
+Ewe-speaking tribes. Like the Ashanti and Dahomeyans the Beni had a
+well-organized and powerful government and possessed a culture rare
+among negro races (see below, _History_).
+
+Benin city is situated in a clearing of the forest, about 25 m. from the
+river-port of Gwato, on Gwato creek. The principal building is the
+British residency, which is constructed of brick and timber. A primary
+school, supported by the native chiefs, was opened in 1901, and a
+meteorological station was established in 1902. In 1904 the town was
+placed in telegraphic communication with the rest of the protectorate
+and with Europe. Of the ancient city, whose buildings excited the
+admiration of travellers in the 17th and 18th centuries, scarcely a
+trace remains. The houses are neatly built of clay, coloured with red
+ochre, and frequently ornamented with rudely carved pillars. The port of
+Gwato, which lies about 30 m. north-north-east of the mouth of the Benin
+river, has a special interest as the place where Giovanni Belzoni, the
+explorer of Egyptian antiquities, died in 1823 when starting on an
+expedition to Timbuktu. No trace of his grave can now be found. Wari
+(formerly known also as Owari, Oywheré, &c.) is a much-frequented port
+on a branch of the Niger of the same name reached from the Forcados
+mouth, and is 55 m. south of Benin city.
+
+Since the abolition of the slave trade the chief export of the country
+is palm-oil. Other trade products were from time to time--with the
+desire to preserve the isolation and independence of the country--placed
+under fetish, i.e. their export was forbidden, so that in 1897 the only
+article in which trade was allowed by the king was palm-oil. After the
+British occupation, an extensive trade developed in oil, kernels,
+timber, ivory, rubber, &c. In the rubber and timber industries great
+strides have been made. The chiefs and people have shown considerable
+aptitude in adapting themselves to the new order of things. Among the
+articles prized by the Beni is coral, of which the chiefs wear great
+quantities as ornaments.
+
+_History._--Benin was discovered by the Portuguese about the year 1485,
+and they carried on a brisk trade in slaves, who were taken to Elmina
+and sold to the natives of the Gold Coast. At that time and for more
+than two centuries afterwards, Benin seems to have been one of the most
+powerful states of West Africa. It was known to Europeans in the 17th
+century as the Great Benin. The towns of Lagos and Badagry were both
+founded by Benin colonists. Benin city was the seat of a theocracy of
+priests, in whose hands the oba or king, nominally supreme, appears to
+have often been a puppet. He was revered by his subjects as a species of
+divinity, and seldom left the enclosure surrounding the royal palace.
+The religion and mythology of the Beni, like those of the Yorubas, are
+based on spirit- and ancestor-worship (see NEGRO and AFRICA:
+_Ethnology_); the chief spirit or juju was worshipped with human
+sacrifices to an appalling extent, the Benin fetish being considered the
+most powerful in all West Africa. The usual form of sacrifice was
+crucifixion. Many chiefs, in no way politically dependent on Benin, used
+to send annual presents to the juju. The Benin people do not appear to
+have indulged in wanton cruelty, and it is stated that they usually
+stupefied the victims before putting them to death. The people were
+skilled in brass work; their carving and design were alike excellent.
+Carved ivory objects abound, and there are many evidences of the skill
+attained by native artists, who perhaps owed something to their contact
+with the Portuguese. The weaving of cloth was also carried on. The Beni
+remained politically and socially almost unaffected by European
+influence until the occupation of their country by the British in 1897,
+their connexion with the white men having previously been almost
+confined to matters of trade. The Portuguese withdrew from the coast in
+the 18th century, but one of the most striking proofs of their
+commercial influence is the fact that a corrupt Lusitanian dialect was
+spoken by the older natives up to the last quarter of the 19th century.
+The first English expedition to Benin was in 1553; after that time a
+considerable trade grew up between England and that country, ivory,
+palm-oil and pepper being the chief commodities exported from Benin. The
+Dutch afterwards established factories and maintained them for a
+considerable time, chiefly with a view to the slave trade. In 1788
+Captain Landolphe founded a factory called Barodo, near the native
+village of Obobi for the French Compagnie d'Oywheré; and it lasted till
+1792, when it was destroyed by the English. In 1863 Sir Richard Burton,
+then British consul at Fernando Po, went to Benin to try and put a stop
+to human sacrifices, an attempt in which he did not succeed. At that
+time the decline in power of the kingdom of Benin was obvious, and the
+city was in a decaying condition. In 1885 the coast-line of Benin was
+placed under British protection, and steps were taken to enter into
+friendly relations with the king. Consul G.F.N.B. Annesley[1] saw the
+king in 1890, with the hope of making a treaty, but failed in his
+object. In March 1892 Captain H.L. Gallwey, British vice-consul,
+succeeded in concluding a treaty with the king Overami. The treaty,
+however, proved of no avail, and the king kept as aloof as of old from
+any outside interference. In January 1897 J.R. Phillips, acting
+consul-general, and eight Europeans were brutally massacred on the road
+from Gwato to Benin city, whilst on a mission to the king. Phillips had
+persisted in starting for Benin despite the repeated request of the king
+that he should delay his visit until he (the king) had finished the
+celebration of the annual "customs." Two Europeans, Captain Alan
+Boisragon and R.F. Locke, alone escaped. A punitive expedition was
+organized under the command of Admiral Sir Harry Rawson, the success of
+which was a remarkable example of good organization hastily improvised.
+The news of the massacre of Phillips's party reached Rear-Admiral
+Rawson, the commander-in-chief on the Cape station, on the 4th of
+January 1897. The flagship was at Simons Town. The small craft were
+dispersed. Two ships at Malta had been ordered to join the Cape command.
+A transport was chartered in the Thames for the purposes of the
+expedition. In twenty-nine days a force of 1200 men, coming from three
+places between 3000 and 4500 m. from the Benin river, was landed,
+organized, equipped and provided with transport. Five days later the
+city of Benin was taken, and in twelve days more the men were
+re-embarked, and the ships coaled and ready for any further service. On
+the 17th of February Benin was occupied after considerable fighting. The
+town, which was found to be reeking of human sacrifices, was partly
+burned, and on the 22nd the expedition started on its return. The king
+and chiefs responsible for the massacre were placed on their trial by
+Sir Ralph Moor, high commissioner for Southern Nigeria; the king was
+deposed and deported to Calabar, and the chiefs, six in all, were
+executed. The chief offender was not brought to justice until a second
+punitive expedition in 1899 completed the pacification of the country.
+After the removal of the king in September 1897 a council of chiefs was
+appointed. This council carries on the government of the whole Beni
+country, and is presided over by a British resident.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--H.L. Roth, _Great Benin, its Customs, Art and Horrors_
+  (Halifax, 1903), a comprehensive and profusely illustrated work, with
+  an annotated bibliography; C.H. Read and O.M. Dalton, _Antiquities
+  from Benin ... in the British Museum_ (1899); Pitt Rivers, _Works of
+  Art from Benin_ (1900); R.E. Dennett, _At the Back of the Black Man's
+  Mind_ (London, 1906); Sir R. Burton, _Wanderings in West Africa_
+  (London, 1863); H.L. Gallwey, "Journeys in the Benin Country," _Geog.
+  Jnl._, vol. i., London, 1893; A. Boisragon, _The Benin Massacre_
+  (London, 1897); R.H. Bacon, _Benin, the City of Blood_ (London, 1898),
+  by a member of the punitive expedition of 1897; the annual _Reports on
+  Southern Nigeria_, issued by the Colonial Office, London.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Mr Annesley (b. 1851), after having served in the Prussian army,
+    and in the Turkish army during the war of 1877, was in the British
+    consular service from 1879 to 1892. In 1888 he became consul to the
+    Congo Free State.
+
+
+
+
+BENITOITE, a mineral discovered in 1907 near the headwaters of the San
+Benito river, San Benito Co., California, and described by Prof. G.D.
+Louderback. It is a titano-silicate of barium (BaTiSi3O9), crystallizing
+in the hexagonal system, with a hardness of 6.5, and specific gravity
+3.65. It may be colourless or blue, the colour varying sometimes in
+different parts, and passing to a deep sapphire blue. The blue variety
+is cut as a gem stone, and often resembles blue spinel, though its
+softness distinguishes it from spinel and sapphire. It is a brilliant
+stone, with high refractive index, and is strongly dichroic, being pale
+when viewed parallel to the principal axis and dark when viewed
+transversely.
+
+
+
+
+BENJAMIN, a tribe of Israel, named after the youngest son of Jacob and
+Rachel. As distinct from the others Benjamin was born not beyond the
+Jordan but in Palestine, between Bethel and Ephrath. His mother, dying
+in childbed, gave him the name Ben-oni, "Son of my sorrow," which was
+changed by his father to Ben-jamin, meaning probably "Son of the right
+hand" (i.e. "of prosperity," or, perhaps, "son of the south"; Gen. xxxv.
+16-18). Of his personal history little is recorded. He was the favourite
+of his father and brothers (with which contrast the spirit of the
+stories in Judg. xix.-xxi.), and the reputation of fierceness ascribed
+to him in the blessing of Jacob ("Benjamin is a wolf that teareth," Gen.
+xlix. 27) agrees with what is told of the tribe's warriors (see EHUD,
+SAUL, JONATHAN). It is a curious feature that its noted slingers were
+said to be left-handed (Judg. xx. 16, cf. iii. 15) and even ambidextrous
+(1 Chron. xii. 2). The late references to this tribe in the Israelite
+wanderings in the wilderness are of little value. On entering Palestine
+it is allotted a portion encompassed by the districts of Ephraim, Dan
+and Judah. In the time of the "judges" the tribe of Benjamin was almost
+exterminated (see JUDGES, BOOK OF), 600 men alone escaping (Judges xix.
+sqq.). The tribe was built up again by the rape of the maidens of Shiloh
+at one of their annual festivals (for which cf. Judges ix. 27), but a
+later narrative gives currency to a tradition that 400 virgins were also
+brought to Shiloh, the survivors of a massacre of the inhabitants of
+Jabesh-Gilead. At all events, Benjamin claimed the honour of providing
+the great king of Israel whose heroic deliverance of Jabesh-Gilead is
+referred to elsewhere (see SAUL), and it is noteworthy that the tribe
+only now attain historical importance. If the genealogies associated it
+with Joseph the father of Ephraim and Manasseh, its fortunes were for a
+time bound up with the northern kingdom (see DAVID). Although its
+territory lies open on the west and east, its physical features unite it
+to Judah, and what is known of its mixed population[1] makes it
+difficult to determine how far the youngest of the tribes of Israel
+enjoyed any independent position previous to the monarchy. Its neutral
+position between Judah and Ephraim gave it an importance which was
+religious as well as political. Anathoth the home of Abiathar and
+Jeremiah, Gibeon the old Canaanite sanctuary, the royal sanctuary at
+Bethel, its associations with Samuel and the prophetic gilds of the
+times of Elijah and Elisha, and finally Jerusalem itself, the centre of
+worship, give "the least of all the tribes" a unique value in the
+history of Old Testament religion.
+
+  See H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._, col. 534 sqq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Jerusalem and its district was Jebusite until its capture by
+    David (see 2 Sam. v.); for Beeroth and Gibeon, see 2 Sam. iv. 2 seq.,
+    xxi. 2, and note the Benjamite and Judahite names which find
+    analogies in the Edomite genealogies. See, on these points, S.A.
+    Cook, _Jew. Quarterly Review_ (1906), pp. 528 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+BENJAMIN OF TUDELA (in Navarre), a Jewish rabbi of the 12th century. He
+visited Constantinople, Egypt, Assyria and Persia, and penetrated to the
+frontiers of China. His journeys occupied him for about thirteen years.
+He was credulous, but his _Itinerary_, or _Massa'oth_, contains some
+curious notices of the countries he visited and of the condition of the
+Jews. Thus his work is of much value for the Jewish history of the 12th
+century. It is from Benjamin that we know that the Jews of Palestine and
+other parts of the East were noted for the arts of dyeing and
+glass-making.
+
+  His _Itinerary_ was translated from the Hebrew into Latin by Arias
+  Montanus in 1575, and appeared in a French version by Baratier in
+  1734. There have been various English translations. One was published
+  by Asher in 1840; another (with critical Hebrew text) by M.N. Adler
+  (_Jewish Quarterly Review_, vols. xvi.-xviii.; also reprinted as a
+  separate volume, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP (1811-1884), Anglo-American lawyer, of Jewish
+descent, was born a British subject at St Thomas in the West Indies on
+the 11th of August 1811, and was successively an American lawyer, a
+leading Confederate politician and a distinguished English barrister. He
+eventually died in Paris a domiciled Frenchman. After 1818 his parents
+lived in Charleston, South Carolina, and he went to Yale in 1825 for his
+education, but left without taking a degree, and entered an attorney's
+office in New Orleans. He was admitted to the New Orleans bar in 1832.
+He compiled with his friend John Slidell a valuable digest of decisions
+of the superior courts of New Orleans and Louisiana; and as a partner in
+the firm of Slidell, Benjamin & Conrad, he enjoyed a good practice. In
+1848 he was admitted a councillor of the supreme court, and in 1852 he
+was elected a senator for Louisiana, and thereafter he took an active
+part in politics, declining to accept a judgeship of the supreme court.
+In 1861 he withdrew from the Senate, left Washington and actively
+espoused the Confederate cause. He joined Jefferson Davis's provisional
+government as attorney-general, becoming afterwards his secretary for
+war (1861-1862), and chief secretary of state (1862-1865). Although at
+times subject to fierce criticism with regard to matters of
+administration and finance, he was recognized as one of the ablest men
+on the Confederate side, and he remained with Jefferson Davis to the
+last, sharing his flight after the surrender at Appomattox, and only
+leaving him shortly before his capture, because he found himself unable
+to go farther on horseback. He escaped from the coast of Florida in an
+open boat, and after many vicissitudes reached England, an exile. In
+1866 his remaining property was lost in the banking failure of Overend &
+Gurney.
+
+In London Benjamin was able to earn a little money by journalism, and on
+the 13th of January 1866 he entered Lincoln's Inn. He received a
+hospitable welcome from the legal profession. The influence of English
+judges who knew his abilities and his circumstances enabled him to be
+called to the bar on the 6th of June 1866, dispensing with the usual
+three years as a student, and he acquired his first knowledge of the
+practice and methods of English courts as the pupil of Mr C.E.
+(afterwards Baron) Pollock. Pollock fully recognized his abilities and
+they became and remained firm friends. Benjamin was naturally an apt and
+useful pupil; for instance, an opinion of Mr Pollock, which for long
+guided the London police in the exercise of their right to search
+prisoners, is mentioned by him as having been really composed by
+Benjamin while he was still his pupil. Benjamin joined the northern
+circuit, and a large proportion of his early practice came from
+solicitors at Liverpool who had correspondents in New Orleans. His
+business gradually increased, and having received a patent of
+precedence, he was on the 2nd of November 1872 called within the bar as
+a queen's counsel. In addition to his knowledge of law and of commercial
+matters he had considerable eloquence, and a power of marshalling facts
+and arguments that rendered him extremely effective, particularly before
+judges. He was less successful in addressing juries, and towards the
+close of his career did not take _Nisi prius_ work, but in the court of
+appeal and House of Lords and before the judicial committee of the privy
+council he enjoyed a very large practice, making for some time fully
+£15,000 a year. The question of raising him to the bench was seriously
+considered by Lord Cairns, who, however, seems to have thought that the
+ungrudging hospitality and goodwill with which Benjamin had been
+received by the English legal profession had gone far enough. Towards
+the close of his career he was in ill health, and he suffered from the
+results of a fall from a tramcar. He retired in 1882 to a house in Paris
+which he had built and where he had been in the habit of passing his
+vacations with his wife, who was a Frenchwoman. He never returned to
+practice, but came back to London to be entertained by the bench and bar
+of England at a banquet in the Inner Temple Hall on the 30th of June
+1883. He died at Paris on the 6th of May 1884.
+
+Benjamin was thick-set and stout, with an expression of great
+shrewdness. An early portrait of him is to be found in Jefferson Davis's
+_Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government_. His political history may
+be traced in that work, and in John W. Draper's _American Civil War_ and
+von Holst's _Constitutional History of the United States_. Many
+allusions to his English career will be found in works describing
+English lawyers of his period, and there are some interesting
+reminiscences of him by Baron Pollock in the _Fortnightly Review_ for
+March 1898. His _Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal Property with
+References to the American Decisions and to the French Code and Civil
+Law_--a bulky volume known to practitioners as _Benjamin on Sales_--is
+the principal text-book on its subject, and a fitting monument of the
+author's career at the English bar, of his industry and learning. Many
+of his American speeches have been published.
+
+  See _Judah P. Benjamin_, by Pierce Butler (Philadelphia, 1907, with a
+  good bibliography).
+
+
+
+
+BEN LEDI (Gaelic, "the hill of God"), a mountain of Perthshire,
+Scotland, 2875 ft. high, 5 m. by road N.W. of Callander. It is situated
+close to some of the most romantic scenery in the Highlands, and is
+particularly well known through Scott's _Lady of the Lake_. Its name is
+supposed to point to the time when Beltane rites were observed on its
+summit. A cairn was built on the top in 1887 to commemorate Queen
+Victoria's jubilee. On one of the sides of the mountain is a tarn which
+bears the name of Lochan nan Corp, "the little loch of the dead," from
+an accident to a funeral party by which 200 lives were lost.
+
+
+
+
+BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSÉ (1858-), Spanish painter, was born at Valencia,
+studied painting under Domingo, and showed from the first such marked
+talent that he was sent to the Spanish school in Rome. He was one of the
+select circle pensioned by the Spanish government for residence in Italy
+and executed several state orders for the decoration of public
+buildings; but he owes his chief fame to his large historical paintings,
+notably the "Vision in the Coliseum." He became the leader of the
+Spanish art colony in Rome, where he practised as painter and sculptor.
+
+
+
+
+BEN LOMOND, a mountain in the north-west of Stirlingshire, Scotland. It
+is situated near the eastern bank of Loch Lomond, about 9 m. from the
+head and about 15 from the foot. It is 3192 ft. high, and the prevailing
+rocks are granite, mica schist, diorite, porphyry and quartzite, the
+last, where it crops out on the surface, gleaming in the distance like
+snow. Duchray Water, a head-stream of the Forth, rises in the north-east
+shoulder. The hill, which is covered with grass to the top, is a
+favourite climb, being ascended from Rowardennan (the easiest) or
+Inversnaid on the lake, or Aberfoyle 10 m. inland due east. The view
+from the summit extends northward as far as the Grampians, with
+occasional glimpses of Ben Nevis; westward to Jura in the Atlantic;
+south-westward to Arran in the Firth of Clyde; southward to Tinto Hill,
+the Lowthers and Cairnsmore; and eastward to Edinburgh Castle and
+Arthur's Seat.
+
+
+
+
+BENLOWES, EDWARD (1603?-1676), English poet, son of Andrew Benlowes of
+Brent Hall, Essex, was born about 1603. He matriculated at St John's
+College, Cambridge, in 1620, and on leaving the university he made a
+prolonged tour on the continent of Europe. He was a Roman Catholic in
+middle life, but became a convert to Protestantism in his later years.
+He dissipated his fortune by openhanded generosity to his friends and
+relations, and possibly by serving in the Civil War; so that he was in
+great poverty at the time of his death, which occurred on the 18th of
+December 1676. The last eight years of his life were passed at Oxford.
+Many of his writings are in Latin. His most important work is
+_Theophila, or Love's Sacrifice, a Divine Poem_ (1652). The poem deals
+with mystical religion, telling how the soul, represented by Theophila,
+ascends by humility, zeal and contemplation, and triumphs over the sins
+of the senses. It is written in a curious stanza of three lines of
+unequal length rhyming together. Until recent times justice has hardly
+been done to Benlowes' poetical merits and indisputable piety. Samuel
+Butler, who satirized him in his "Character of a Small Poet," found
+abundant matter for ridicule in his eccentricities; and Pope and
+Warburton noted him as a patron of bad poets.
+
+  His _Theophila_ was reprinted by S.W. Singer; and in _Minor Poets of
+  the Caroline Period_, vol. i. (1905), Mr Saintsbury reprints
+  _Theophila_ and two other poems by Benlowes, "The Summary of
+  Wisedome," and "A Poetic Descant upon a Private Music-Meeting."
+
+
+
+
+BEN MACDHUI, more correctly BEN MUICHDHUI (Gaelic for "the mountain of
+the black pig," in allusion to its shape), the second highest mountain
+(4296 ft.) in Great Britain, one of the Cairngorm group, on the confines
+of south-western Aberdeenshire and south-western Banffshire, not far
+from the eastern boundary of Inverness-shire. It is about 11 m. from
+Castleton of Braemar and about 10 from Aviemore. The ascent is usually
+made from Castleton of Braemar, by way of the Linn of Dee, Glen Lui and
+Glen Derry. From the head of Glen Derry, with its blasted trees, the
+picture of desolation, it becomes more toilsome, but is partly repaid by
+the view of the remarkable columnar cliffs of Corrie Etchachan. The
+summit is flat and quite bare of vegetation, but the panorama in every
+direction is extremely grand. At the foot of a vast gully, 2500 ft.
+above the sea, lies Loch Avon (or A'an), a narrow lake about 1½ m. long,
+with water of the deepest blue and a margin of bright yellow sand. At
+the western end of the lake is the Shelter Stone, an enormous block of
+granite resting upon two other blocks, which can accommodate a dozen
+persons. Beautiful rock crystals occur in veins in the corries. The
+summit of Cairngorm, 3½ m. north of that of Ben Macdhui, may be reached
+from the latter with scarcely any descent, by following the rugged ridge
+flanking the western side of Loch Avon. The other great peaks of the
+group are Braeriach (4248 ft.) and Cairntoul (4241 ft.), and 6 m. to the
+east are the twin masses of Ben a Bourd, the northern top of which is
+3924 ft. and the southern 3860 ft. high. Ben A'an, an adjoining hill, is
+3843 ft. high.
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN (1858-   ), American classical scholar, was born
+on the 6th of April 1858, in Providence, Rhode Island. He graduated from
+Brown University in 1878 and also studied at Harvard (1881-1882) and in
+Germany (1882-1884). He taught in secondary schools in Florida
+(1878-1879), New York (1879-1881), and Nebraska (1885-1889), and became
+professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin in 1889, of classical
+philology at Brown University in 1891, and of Latin at Cornell
+University in 1892. His syntactical studies, notably various papers on
+the subjunctive, are based on a statistical examination of Latin texts
+and are marked by a fresh system of nomenclature; he ranks as one of the
+leaders of the "New American School" of syntacticians, who insist on a
+preliminary re-examination of all available data. Of great importance
+are his advocacy of "quantitative" reading of Latin verse and his
+_Critique of Some Recent Subjunctive Theories_ in vol. ix. (1898) of
+_Cornell Studies in Classical Philology_, of which he was an editor.
+Bennett's _Latin Grammar_ (1895) is the first successful attempt in
+America to adopt the method of the brief, scholarly _Schulgrammatik_.
+Besides the Latin classics commonly read in secondary courses and other
+text-books in "Bennett's Latin Series," he edited Tacitus's _Dialogus de
+Oratoribus_ (1894), and Cicero's _De Senectute_ (1897) and _De Amicitia_
+(1897). He wrote, with George P. Bristol, _The Teaching of Greek and
+Latin in Secondary Schools_ (1900), and _The Latin Language_, (1907),
+and with William Alexander Hammond translated _The Characters of
+Theophrastus_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, JAMES GORDON (1794-1872), American journalist, founder and
+editor of the New York Herald, was born at Newmills in Banffshire,
+Scotland, in 1794 (not in 1800, as has been stated). He was educated for
+the Roman Catholic priesthood in a seminary at Aberdeen, but in the
+spring of 1819, giving up the career which had been chosen for him, he
+emigrated to America. Landing at Halifax, Nova Scotia, he earned a poor
+living there for a short time by giving lessons in French, Spanish and
+bookkeeping; he passed next to Boston, where starvation threatened him
+until he got employment in a printing-office; and in 1822 he went to New
+York. An engagement as translator of Spanish for the _Courier_ of
+Charleston, South Carolina, took him there for a few months in 1823. On
+his return to New York he projected a school, gave lectures on political
+economy and did subordinate work for the journals. During the next ten
+years he was employed on various papers, was the Washington
+correspondent first of the _New York Enquirer_, and later of the
+_Courier and Enquirer_ in 1827-1832, his letters attracting much
+attention; he founded the short-lived _Globe_ in New York in 1832; and
+in 1833-1834 was the chief editor and one of the proprietors of the
+_Pennsylvanian_ at Philadelphia. On the 6th of May 1835 he published the
+first number of a small one-cent paper, bearing the title of _New York
+Herald_, and issuing from a cellar, in which the proprietor and editor
+played also the part of salesman. "He started with a disclaimer of all
+principle, as it is called, all party, all politics"; and to this he
+consistently adhered. By his industry, sagacity and unscrupulousness,
+and by the variety of his news, the "spicy" correspondence, and the
+supply of personal gossip and scandal, he made the paper a great
+commercial success. He devoted his attention particularly to the
+gathering of news, and was the first to introduce many of the methods of
+the modern American reporter. He published on the 13th of June 1835, the
+first Wall Street financial article to appear in any American newspaper;
+printed a vivid and detailed account of the great fire of December 1835,
+in New York; was the first, in 1846, to obtain the report in full by
+telegraph of a long political speech; and during the Civil War
+maintained a staff of sixty-three war correspondents. Bennett continued
+to edit the Herald almost till his death, at New York, on the 1st of
+June 1872.
+
+His son, JAMES GORDON BENNETT (1841-   ), took over the management of
+the paper during the last year of its founder's life, and succeeded him
+in its control. It was he who sent Henry M. Stanley on his mission to
+find Livingstone in Central Africa, and he fitted out the "Jeannette"
+Polar Expedition, and in 1883 established (with John W. Mackay) the
+Commercial Cable Company.
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, JOHN, one of the finest English madrigalists, whose first set
+of madrigals appeared in 1599. In 1614 Ravenscroft, in a collection
+including five of his madrigals, writes a eulogy which reads like an
+obituary notice. The first set of madrigals was reprinted in 1845 by the
+Musical Antiquarian Society. Bennett's works consist of this set and
+several contributions to such collections as the _Triumphs of Oriana_,
+and to various collections of church music.
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES (1812-1875), English physician and pathologist, was
+born in London on the 31st of August 1812. He was educated at Exeter,
+and being destined for the medical profession was articled to a surgeon
+in Maidstone. In 1833 he began his studies at Edinburgh, and in 1837
+graduated with the highest honours. During the next four years he
+studied in Paris and Germany, and on his return to Edinburgh in 1841
+published a _Treatise on Cod-liver Oil as a Therapeutic Agent_. In the
+same year he began to lecture as an extra-academical teacher on
+histology, drawing attention to the importance of the microscope in the
+investigation of disease; and as physician to the Royal Dispensary he
+instituted courses of "polyclinical medicine." In 1843 he was appointed
+professor of the institutes of medicine at Edinburgh, and performed the
+duties of that chair with great energy till incapacitated by failing
+health. He resigned in 1874. In August 1875 he was able to be present at
+the meeting of the British Medical Association in Edinburgh, on which
+occasion he received the degree of LL.D., but the fatigue he then
+underwent brought on a relapse, and he was compelled to have the
+operation of lithotomy performed. He sank rapidly and died on the 25th
+of September at Norwich. His publications were very numerous including
+_Lectures on Clinical Medicine_ (1850-1856), which in second and
+subsequent editions were called _Clinical Lectures on the Principles and
+Practice of Medicine_, and were translated into various languages,
+including Russian and Hindu; _Leucocythaemia_ (1852), the first recorded
+cure of which was published by him in 1845; _Outlines of Physiology_
+(1858), reprinted from the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica;
+Pathology and Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis_ (1853); _Textbook of
+Physiology_ (1871-1872).
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE (1816-1875), English musical composer,
+the son of Robert Bennett, an organist, was born at Sheffield on the
+13th of April 1816. Having lost his father at an early age, he was
+brought up at Cambridge by his grandfather, from whom he received his
+first musical education. He entered the choir of King's College chapel
+in 1824. In 1826 he entered the Royal Academy of Music, and remained a
+pupil of that institution for the next ten years, studying pianoforte
+under W.H. Holmes and Cipriani Potter, and composition under Lucas and
+Dr Crotch. It was during this time that he wrote several of his most
+appreciated works, in which may be traced influences of the contemporary
+movement of music in Germany, which country he frequently visited during
+the years 1836-1842. At one of the Rhenish musical festivals in
+Düsseldorf he made the personal acquaintance of Mendelssohn, and soon
+afterwards renewed it at Leipzig, where the talented young Englishman
+was welcomed by the leading musicians of the rising generation. At one
+of the celebrated Gewandhaus concerts he played his third pianoforte
+concerto, which was received enthusiastically. An enthusiastic account
+of the event was written by Robert Schumann, who pronounced Bennett to
+be the most "_musikalisch_" of all Englishmen, and "an angel of a
+musician" (copying Gregory's pun on _Angli_ and _Angeli_). But it was
+Mendelssohn's influence that dominated Bennett's mode of utterance. A
+good example of this may be studied in Bennett's _Capriccio in D minor_.
+His great success on the continent established his position on his
+return to England. In 1834 he was elected organist of St Anne's chapel
+(now church), Wandsworth. In this year he composed his _Overture to
+Parisina_, and his Concerto in C minor, modelled on Mozart. An
+unpublished concerto in F minor, and the overture to the _Naiads_,
+impressed the firm of Broadwood so favourably in 1836 that they offered
+the composer a year in Leipzig, where the _Naiads_ overture was
+performed at a Gewandhaus concert on the 13th of February 1837. Bennett
+visited Leipzig a second time in 1840-1841, when he composed his
+_Caprice in E_ for pianoforte and orchestra and his overture _The Wood
+Nymphs_. He settled in London, devoting himself chiefly to practical
+teaching. In 1844 he married Mary Anne, daughter of Captain James Wood,
+R.N. He was made musical professor at Cambridge in 1856, the year in
+which he was engaged as permanent conductor of the Philharmonic Society.
+This latter post he held until 1866, when he became principal of the
+Royal Academy of Music. Owing to his professional duties his latter
+years were not fertile, and what he then wrote was scarcely equal to the
+productions of his youth. The principal charm of Bennett's compositions
+(not to mention his absolute mastery of the musical form) consists in
+the tenderness of their conception, rising occasionally to sweetest
+lyrical intensity. Except the opera, Bennett tried his hand at almost
+all the different forms of vocal and instrumental writing. As his best
+works in various branches of art, we may mention, for pianoforte solo,
+and with accompaniment of the orchestra, his three sketches, _The Lake,
+The Millstream_ and _The Fountain_, and his 3rd pianoforte concerto; for
+the orchestra, his _Symphony in G minor_, and his overture _The Naiads_;
+and for voices, his cantata _The May Queen_, written for the Leeds
+Festival in 1858. For the jubilee of the Philharmonic Society he wrote
+the overture _Paradise and the Peri_ in 1862. He also wrote a sacred
+cantata, _The Woman of Samaria_, first performed at the Birmingham
+Musical Festival in 1867. In 1870 the university of Oxford conferred
+upon him the honorary degree of D.C.L. A year later he was knighted, and
+in 1872 he received a public testimonial before a large audience at St
+James's Hall, the money subscribed being devoted to the foundation of a
+scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music. Shortly before his death he
+produced a sonata called the _Maid of Orleans_, an elaborate piece of
+programme music based on Schiller's tragedy. He died at his house in St
+John's Wood, London, on the 15th of February 1875. See the _Life_, by
+his son (1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEN NEVIS, the highest mountain in the British Isles, in
+Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is 4406 ft. above the level of the sea,
+and is situated 4½ m. E.S.E. of Fort William, the meridian of 5° W
+passing through it. As viewed from Banavie on the Caledonian Canal, it
+has the appearance of two great masses, one higher than the other, and
+though its bulk is impressive, its outline is much less striking than
+that of many other Highland hills. Its summit consists of a plateau 100
+acres in area, with a slight slope to the south, terminating on its
+north-eastern side in a sheer fall of more than 1500 ft. Snow lies in
+some of the gorges all the year round. The rocks of its lower half are
+mainly granite and gneiss; its upper half is composed of porphyritic
+greenstone, and a variety of minerals occur. Its circumference at the
+base is about 30 m. It may be described as flanked on the west and south
+by the Glen and Water of Nevis, on the east by the river and Glen of
+Treig, and on the north by the river and Glen of Spean. From 1881 till
+1904 meteorological observations were taken from the summit of Ben
+Nevis, the observers at first making the ascent daily for the purpose.
+In 1883, however, an observatory, equipped at a cost of £4000 (raised by
+public subscription), was opened by Mrs Cameron Campbell of Monzie, who
+provided the site. The observatory, which was connected by wire with the
+post office at Fort William, was provisioned by the Scottish
+Meteorological Society, to whom it belonged. The burden of maintaining
+it, however, proving too great for the society's means, appeal was made
+in vain to government for national support, and the station was closed
+in 1904. The bridle road up the mountain leaves Glen Nevis at Achintee;
+it has a gradient nowhere exceeding 1 in 5, and the ascent is commonly
+effected in two to three hours. There is a small hotel on the summit for
+the convenience of tourists, especially of those anxious to witness
+sunrise. From the summit every considerable peak in Scotland is visible.
+Observations conducted during several months have shown that, whilst the
+mean temperature at Fort William was 57° F., at the summit of Ben Nevis
+it was 41° F., and that though the rainfall at the fort amounted to 24
+in., it was as much as 43 in. on the top of the Ben.
+
+
+
+
+BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST, COUNT VON (1745-1826), Russian general, of
+Hanoverian family, was born on the 10th of February 1745 in Brunswick,
+and served successively as a page at the Hanoverian court and as an
+officer of foot-guards. He retired from the Hanoverian army in 1764, and
+in 1773 entered the Russian service as a field officer. He fought
+against the Turks in 1774 and in 1778, becoming lieutenant-colonel in
+the latter year. In 1787 his conduct at the storming of Oczakov won him
+promotion to the rank of brigadier, and he distinguished himself
+repeatedly in the Polish War of 1793-1794 and in the Persian War of
+1796. The part played by Bennigsen in the actual assassination of the
+tsar Paul I. is not fully known, but he took a most active share in the
+formation and conduct of the conspiracy. Alexander I. made him
+governor-general of Lithuania in 1801, and in 1802 a general of cavalry.
+In 1806 he was in command of one of the Russian armies operating against
+Napoleon, when he fought the battle of Pultusk and met the emperor in
+person in the sanguinary battle of Eylau (8th of February 1807). Here he
+could claim to have inflicted the first reverse suffered by Napoleon,
+but six months later Bennigsen met with the crushing defeat of Friedland
+(14th of June 1807) the direct consequence of which was the treaty of
+Tilsit. Bennigsen now retired for some years, but in the campaign of
+1812 he reappeared in the army in various responsible positions. He was
+present at Borodino, and defeated Murat in the engagement of Tarutino,
+but on account of a quarrel with Marshal Kutusov, the Russian
+commander-in-chief, he was compelled to retire from active military
+employment. After the death of Kutusov he was recalled and placed at the
+head of an army. Bennigsen led one of the columns which made the
+decisive attack on the last day of the battle of Leipzig (16th-19th of
+October 1813). On the same evening he was made a count by the emperor
+Alexander I., and he afterwards commanded the forces which operated
+against Marshal Davout in North Germany. After the general peace he held
+a command from 1815 to 1818, when he retired from active service and
+settled on his Hanoverian estate of Banteln near Hildesheim. Count
+Bennigsen died on the 3rd of December 1826. His son, ALEXANDER LEVIN,
+count von Bennigsen (1809-1893), was a distinguished Hanoverian
+statesman.
+
+
+
+
+BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON (1824-1902), German politician, was born at
+Lüneburg on the 10th of July 1824. He was descended from an old
+Hanoverian family, his father, Karl von Bennigsen, being an officer in
+the Hanoverian army, who rose to the rank of general and also held
+diplomatic appointments. Bennigsen, having studied at the university of
+Göttingen, entered the Hanoverian civil service. In 1855 he was elected
+a member of the second chamber; and as the government refused to allow
+him leave of absence from his official duties he resigned his post in
+the public service. He at once became the recognized leader of the
+Liberal opposition to the reactionary government, but must be
+distinguished from Count Bennigsen, a member of the same family, and son
+of the distinguished Russian general, who was also one of the
+parliamentary leaders at the time. What gave Bennigsen his importance
+not only in Hanover, but throughout the whole of Germany, was the
+foundation of the National Verein, which was due to him, and of which he
+was president. This society, which arose out of the public excitement
+created by the war between France and Austria, had for its object the
+formation of a national party which should strive for the unity and the
+constitutional liberty of the whole Fatherland. It united the moderate
+Liberals throughout Germany, and at once became a great political power,
+notwithstanding all the efforts of the governments, and especially of
+the king of Hanover to suppress it. In 1866 Bennigsen used all his
+influence to keep Hanover neutral in the conflict between Prussia and
+Austria, but in vain. He took no part in the war, but his brother, who
+was an officer in the Prussian army, was killed in Bohemia. In May of
+this year he had an important interview with Bismarck, who wished to
+secure his support for the reform of the confederation, and after the
+war was over at once accepted the position of a Prussian subject, and
+took his seat in the diet of the North German Confederation and in the
+Prussian parliament. He used his influence to procure as much autonomy
+as possible for the province of Hanover, but was a strong opponent of
+the Guelph party. He was one of the three Hanoverians, Windthorst and
+Miquel being the other two, who at once won for the representatives of
+the conquered province the lead in both the Prussian and German
+parliaments. The National Verein, its work being done, was now
+dissolved; but Bennigsen was chiefly instrumental in founding a new
+political party--the National Liberals,--who, while they supported
+Bismarck's national policy, hoped to secure the constitutional
+development of the country. For the next thirty years he was president
+of the party, and was the most influential of the parliamentary leaders.
+It was chiefly owing to him that the building up of the internal
+institutions of the empire was carried on without the open breach
+between Bismarck and the parliament, which was often imminent. Many
+amendments suggested by him were introduced in the debates on the
+constitution; in 1870 he undertook a mission to South Germany to
+strengthen the national party there, and was consulted by Bismarck while
+at Versailles. It was he who brought about the compromise on the
+military bill in 1874. In 1877 he was offered the post of
+vice-chancellor with a seat in the Prussian ministry, but refused it
+because Bismarck or the king would not agree to his conditions. From
+this time his relations with the government were less friendly, and in
+1878 he brought about the rejection of the first Socialist Bill. In 1883
+he resigned his seat in parliament owing to the reactionary measures of
+the government, which made it impossible for him to continue his former
+co-operation with Bismarck, but returned in 1887 to support the
+coalition of national parties. One of the first acts of the emperor
+William II. was to appoint him president of the province of Hanover. In
+1897 he resigned this post and retired from public life. He died on the
+7th of August 1902.
+
+  See biographical notices by A. Kiepert (2nd ed., Hanover, 1902), and
+  E. Schreck (Hanover, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+BENNINGTON, a village and one of the county-seats of Bennington county,
+Vermont, U.S.A., situated in the S.W. part of the state, about 30 m.
+E.N.E. of Troy, New York. Pop. (1890) 3971; (1900) 5656 (965
+foreign-born); (1910) 6211. The township of the same name, in which it
+is situated, had in 1910 a population of 8698, living chiefly in the
+villages of Bennington, North Bennington and Bennington Centre, the last
+a summer resort. The village of Bennington is served by the Rutland
+railway, and is connected by electric railway with North Adams and
+Pittsfield, Mass., and Hoosick Falls, N.Y. It is picturesquely situated
+at the foot of the Green Mountains, and the summit of the neighbouring
+Mt. Anthony (2345 ft.) commands a magnificent view. The village has
+woollen mills, knitting mills, stereoscope, box, and collar and cuff
+factories and machine shops. There are white clay and yellow ochre works
+in different parts of the township. Bennington is the seat of the
+Vermont state soldiers' home. The Bennington Battle Monument, a shaft
+301 ft. high, is said to be the highest battle monument in the world. It
+commemorates the success gained on the 16th of August 1777 by a force of
+nearly 2000 "Green Mountain Boys" and New Hampshire and Massachusetts
+militia under General John Stark over two detachments of General
+Burgoyne's army, totalling about 1200 men, under Col. Friedrich Baum and
+Col. Breyman. These came up one after the other in search of provisions
+and were practically annihilated, Col. Baum being mortally wounded and
+700 men taken prisoners. The scene of the battle is about 5 m. from the
+village. The victory had an important influence on Burgoyne's campaign
+(see AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE), weakening Burgoyne and encouraging
+the American militia to take the field against him. Bennington was
+settled in 1761 and was named in honour of Governor Benning Wentworth of
+New Hampshire. The township was organized in 1762. It was one of the
+"New Hampshire Grant" towns, both New York and New Hampshire claiming
+jurisdiction over it, and, being the home of Ethan Alien and Seth
+Warner, it became the centre of activities of the "Green Mountain Boys,"
+of whom they were leaders. During the fifteen years in which Vermont was
+an independent commonwealth, Bennington was the headquarters of the
+council of safety. In 1828-1829 W.L. Garrison edited here a paper called
+_The Journal of the Times_. The village of Bennington was incorporated
+in 1849.
+
+  See Merrill and Merrill, _Sketches of Historic Bennington_ (Cambridge,
+  Mass., 1898).
+
+
+
+
+BENNO (1010-1106), bishop of Meissen, was the son of Werner, count of
+Woldenburg, was educated at Gosslar, and in 1066 was nominated by the
+emperor Henry IV. to the see of Meissen. In the troubles between empire
+and papacy that followed Benno took part against the emperor. In 1085 he
+was deposed by the synod of Mainz, but after the death of Pope Gregory
+VII. he submitted, and on the recommendation of the imperialist Pope
+Clement III. was restored to his see, which he held till his death. He
+did much for his diocese, both by ecclesiastical reforms on the
+Hildebrandine model and by material developments. He was long reverenced
+in his own diocese as a saint before, in 1523, he was canonized by Pope
+Adrian VI. His canonization drew from Luther a violent brochure "against
+the new false god and old devil, who is to be lifted up at Meissen."
+
+  For bibliography, see Ulysse Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources hist.:
+  Bio-bibliographie, s.v._ "Bennon."
+
+
+
+
+BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD (1834-1901), Flemish composer, was born on
+the 17th of August 1834 at Harlebeke in Flanders. His father and a local
+village organist were his first teachers. In 1851 Benoit entered the
+Brussels Conservatoire, where he remained till 1855, studying chiefly
+under F.J. Fétis. During this period he composed music to many
+melodramas, and to an opera _Le Village dans les montagnes_ for the Park
+theatre, of which in 1856 he became conductor. He won a government prize
+and a money grant in 1857 by his cantata _Le Meurtre d'Abel_, and this
+enabled him to travel through Germany. In course of his journeyings he
+found time to write a considerable amount of music, as well as an essay
+_L'École de musique flamande et son avenir_. Fétis loudly praised his
+_Messe solennelle_, which Benoit produced at Brussels on his return from
+Germany. In 1861 he visited Paris for the production of his opera _Le
+Roi des Aulnes_ ("Erlkönig"), which, though accepted by the Théâtre
+Lyrique, was never mounted; while there he conducted at the
+Bouffes-Parisiens. Again returning home, he astonished a section of the
+musical world by the production at Antwerp of a sacred tetralogy,
+consisting of his _Cantate de Noël_, the above-mentioned _Mass_, a _Te
+Deum_ and a _Requiem_, in which were embodied to a large extent his
+theories of Flemish music. It was in consequence of his passion for the
+founding of an entirely separate Flemish school that Benoit changed his
+name from Pierre to Peter. By prodigious efforts he succeeded in
+gathering round him a small band of enthusiasts, who affected to see
+with him possibilities in the foundation of a school whose music should
+differ completely from that of the French and German schools. In its
+main features this school failed, for its faith was pinned to Benoit's
+music, which is hardly more Flemish than French or German. Benoit's more
+important compositions include the Flemish oratorios _De Schelde_ and
+_Lucifer_, the latter of which met with complete failure on its
+production in London in 1888; the operas _Het Dorp int Gebirgte_ and
+_Isa_, the _Drama Christi_; an enormous mass of songs, choruses, small
+cantatas and motets. Benoit also wrote a great number of essays on
+musical matters. He died at Antwerp on the 8th of March 1901.
+
+
+
+
+BENOÎT DE SAINTE-MORE, or SAINTE-MAURE, 12th century French _trouvère_,
+is supposed to have been a native of Sainte-Maure in Touraine. Very
+little is known of his personal history. The _maître_ prefixed to his
+name implies that he had graduated at the university, but there is
+nothing to show whether he was a simple _trouvère_ by profession or
+belonged to the clergy. He was a loyal subject of Henry II. of England,
+to whose court he was attached, and when he speaks of the French, it is
+as "they." Wace had begun a history of the dukes of Normandy in his
+_Roman du Rou_. This he brought down to the reign of Henry I., but here
+Henry II. seems to have withdrawn his patronage, and at the end of his
+poem Wace refers to a _maistre Beneeit_ who had received a similar
+commission. There is no other contemporary poem extant dealing with the
+subject except the _Chronique des ducs de Normandie_, and it would seem
+reasonable to assume the identity of Wace's rival with Benoît de
+Sainte-More, whose authorship of the chronicle has, nevertheless, been
+often disputed. But a comparison of the _Roman de Troie_, which is
+certainly Benoît's work, with the _Chronique_, confirms the supposition
+that they are by the same author. The poem contains over forty thousand
+lines, and relates the history of the Norman dukes from Rollo to Henry
+I., with a preliminary sketch of the Danish invasions and the adventures
+of Hastings and his companions. It has no claims to be considered an
+original authority. Benoît drew his information from the _De moribus et
+actis primorum Normanniae ducum_ of Dudon de Saint Quentin as far as
+1002, following his model very closely. From that time he avails himself
+of the chronicle of William of Jumieges, also of Ordericus Vitalis and
+others. The _Chronique_ probably dates from about 1172 to 1176. In the
+_Roman de Troie_, written about 1160, Benoît expressly asserts his
+authorship. He mentions "Omers" with great respect as _li clers
+merveillos_, but his authority for the story is naturally not Homer, of
+whom he could have no first-hand knowledge. He follows the apocryphal
+_Historia de excidio Trojae_ of Dares the Phrygian and the _Ephemerides
+belli Trojani_ of Dictys of Crete. The poem runs to about 30,000 lines.
+The personages of the classical story are converted into heroes of
+romance. They have their castles and their abbeys, and act in accordance
+with feudal custom. The supernatural machinery of Homer is missing both
+in Benoît's original and his own narrative. The story begins with the
+capture of the Golden Fleece and comes down to the return of the Greek
+princes after the fall of Troy. Benoît diverges very widely from the
+classical tradition, and M. Léopold Constans sees reason to suppose that
+the _trouvère_ founded his poem on an amplified version of the Dares
+narrative that has not come down to us. In the _Roman de Troie_ first
+appeared the episode of Troïlus and Briseïde, that was to be developed
+later in the _Filostrato_ of Boccaccio, which in its turn formed the
+basis of Chaucer's _Troilus and Creseide_. The Shakespearian play of
+_Troilus and Cressida_ is also indirectly derived from Benoît's story.
+
+On the strength of a certain similarity of treatment Benoît has
+sometimes been credited with the authorship of the anonymous _Roman
+d'Énéas_ and of the _Roman de Thèbes_, a romance derived indirectly from
+the _Thebaïs_ of Statius. M. Constans is inclined to negative both these
+attributions. It is not even certain that the Benoît who chronicled the
+deeds of the Norman dukes for Henry II. between 1172 and 1176 was the
+Benoît de Sainte-More of the _Roman de Troie_.
+
+  The _Chronique des ducs de Normandie_ was edited by Francisque Michel
+  in 1836-1844; the _Roman de Troie_ by A. Joly in 1870-1871; the
+  _Énéas_, by J.J. Salverda de Grave in H. Suchier's _Bibliotheca
+  Normannica_ in 1891; the _Roman de Thèbes_ for the _Société des
+  anciens textes français_, by M.L. Constans in 1890. See E.D. Grand in
+  _La Grande Encyclopédie_; L. Constans in Petit de Julleville's _Hist.
+  de la langue et de la litt, française_ (vol. i. pp. 171-225). where
+  the three romances are analysed at length. The prefaces to the
+  editions just mentioned discuss the authorship of the romances.
+
+
+
+
+BENSERADE, ISAAC DE (1613-1691), French poet, was born in Paris, and
+baptized on the 5th of November 1613. His family appears to have been
+connected with Richelieu, who bestowed on him a pension of 600 livres.
+He began his literary career with the tragedy of _Cléopâtre_ (1635),
+which was followed by four other indifferent pieces. On Richelieu's
+death Benserade lost his pension, but became more and more a favourite
+at court, especially with Anne of Austria. He provided the words for the
+court ballets, and was, in 1674, admitted to the Academy, where he
+wielded an influence quite out of proportion to the merit of his work.
+In 1676 the failure of his _Métamorphoses d'Ovide_ in the form of
+rondeaux gave a blow to his reputation, but by no means destroyed his
+vogue with his contemporaries. Benserade would probably be forgotten but
+for his sonnet on Job (1651). This sonnet, which he sent to a young lady
+with his paraphrase on Job, having been placed in competition with the
+_Urania_ of Voiture, a dispute on their relative merits long divided the
+whole court and the wits into two parties, styled respectively the
+_Jobelins_ and the _Uranists_. The partisans of Benserade were headed by
+the prince de Conti and Mile de Scudéry, while Mme de Montausier and
+J.G. de Balzac took the side of Voiture.
+
+Some years before his death, on the 19th of October 1691, Benserade
+retired to Chantilly, and devoted himself to a translation of the
+Psalms, which he nearly completed.
+
+
+
+
+BENSLEY, ROBERT, an 18th-century English actor, of whom Charles Lamb in
+the _Essays of Elia_ speaks with special praise. His early life is
+obscure, and he is said to have served in America as a lieutenant of
+marines; but he appeared at Drury Lane in 1765, and at that house and at
+Covent Garden, and later at the Haymarket, he played important parts up
+to 1796, when he retired from the stage. He appears then to have been
+given a small post under the government, a paymastership, which he
+resigned in 1798. He is stated in various quarters to have died in 1817,
+but Mr Joseph Knight shows in his article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ that
+this is due to a confusion with another man named William Bensley, who
+possibly belonged to the family of printers of whom Thomas Bensley (d.
+1833) was the chief representative. On the stage he was simply "Mr
+Bensley," but though he is named William and even Richard in some
+accounts, Mr Knight shows that his name was certainly Robert. The actual
+date of his death is unknown, though it was probably later than 1809,
+when he is said to have inherited a fortune. His great character was
+Malvolio, but Charles Lamb's fervent admiration of his acting seems to
+have outrun the general opinion.
+
+
+
+
+BENSON, EDWARD WHITE (1829-1896), archbishop of Canterbury, was born on
+the 14th of July 1829, at Birmingham. He came of a family of Yorkshire
+dalesmen, his father, whose name was also Edward White Benson, being a
+manufacturing chemist of some note. He was educated at King Edward VI.'s
+school, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop of
+Manchester, and amongst his school-fellows were B.F. Westcott and J.B.
+Lightfoot, both of whom preceded him to Trinity College, Cambridge,
+where he was elected a sub-sizar in 1848, becoming subsequently sizar
+and scholar. The death of his widowed mother in 1850 left him almost
+without resources, with a family of younger brothers and sisters
+dependent upon him. Relations came to his aid, and presently his
+anxieties were relieved by Francis Martin, bursar of Trinity, who gave
+him liberal help. Benson took his degree in 1852 as a senior optime,
+eighth classic and senior chancellor's medallist, and was elected fellow
+of Trinity in the following year. He became a master at Rugby, first
+under E.M. Goulburn, and then (1857) under Frederick Temple, who became
+his lifelong friend; he was also ordained deacon in 1854 and priest in
+1856. From Rugby he went to be first headmaster of Wellington College,
+which was opened in January 1859; and in the course of the same year he
+married his cousin, Mary Sidgwick. The school flourished under his
+management and also developed his administrative abilities, but
+gradually his thoughts began to turn towards other work. In 1868 he
+became prebendary of Lincoln and examining chaplain to Bishop
+Christopher Wordsworth, an office which he also held for a short time in
+1870 for Dr Temple, just appointed to the see of Exeter. In 1872 his
+acceptance of the chancellorship of Lincoln opened a new period of his
+life. As chancellor, the statutes directed him to study theology, to
+train others in that study and to oversee the educational work of the
+diocese. To such work Benson at once devoted himself; and did more
+perhaps than any other man to reinvigorate cathedral life in England. He
+started a theological college (the _Scholae Cancellarii_), founded night
+schools, delivered courses of lectures on church history, held Bible
+classes, and was instrumental in founding a society of mission preachers
+for the diocese, the "Novate Novale." Early in 1877 he was consecrated
+first bishop of Truro, and threw himself with characteristic vigour into
+the work of organizing the new diocese. His knowledge, his sympathy, his
+enthusiasm soon made themselves felt everywhere; the ruridecanal
+conferences of clergy became a real force, and the church in Cornwall
+was inspired with a vitality that had never been possible when it was
+part of the unwieldy diocese of Exeter. A chapter was constituted, the
+bishop being dean; amongst its members was a canon missioner (the first
+to be appointed in England), and the _Scholae Cancellarii_ were founded
+after the Lincoln pattern. Moreover, the bishop at once set to work to
+build a cathedral. The foundation-stone was laid on the 20th of May
+1880, and on the 3rd of November 1887 the building, so far as then
+completed, was consecrated. On the death of Dr Tait, Benson was
+nominated to the see of Canterbury and was enthroned on the 29th of
+March 1883. His primacy was one of almost unprecedented activity.
+
+Frequent communications passed between him and the heads of the Eastern
+Churches. With their approval a bishop was again consecrated, after six
+years' interval (1881-1887), for the Anglican congregations in Jerusalem
+and the East; and the features which had made the plan objectionable to
+many English churchmen were now abolished. In 1886, after much careful
+investigation, he founded the "Archbishop's Mission to the Assyrian
+Christians," having for its object the instruction and the strengthening
+from within of the "Nestorian" churches of the East (see NESTORIANS). An
+interchange of courtesies with the Metropolitan of Kiev on the occasion
+of the 900th anniversary of the conversion of Russia (1888), led to
+further intercourse, which has tended to a friendlier feeling between
+the English and Russian churches. On the other hand, with the efforts
+towards a _rapprochement_ with the Church of Rome, to which the visit of
+the French Abbé Portal in 1894 gave some stimulus, the archbishop would
+have nothing to do.
+
+With the other churches of the Anglican Communion the archbishop's
+relations were cordial in the extreme and grew closer as time went on.
+Particular questions of importance, the Jerusalem bishopric, the healing
+of the Colenso schism in the diocese of Natal, the organization of
+native ministries and the like, occupied much of his time; and he did
+all in his power to foster the growth of local churches. But it was the
+work at home which occupied most of his energies. That he in no way
+slighted diocesan work had been shown at Truro. He complained now that
+the bishops were "bishops of their dioceses but not bishops of England,"
+and did all he could to make the Church a greater religious force in
+English life. He sat on the ecclesiastical courts commission (1881-1883)
+and the sweating commission (1888-1890). He brought bills into
+parliament to reform Church patronage and Church discipline, and worked
+unremittingly for years in their behalf. The latter became law in 1892,
+and the former was merged in the Benefices Bill, which passed in 1898,
+after his death. He wrote and spoke vigorously against Welsh
+disestablishment (1893); and in the following year, under his guidance,
+the existing agencies for Church defence were consolidated. He was
+largely instrumental in the inauguration of the House of Laymen in the
+province of Canterbury (1886); he made diligent inquiries as to the
+internal order of the sisterhoods of which he was visitor; from 1884
+onwards he gave regular Bible readings for ladies in Lambeth Palace
+chapel. But the most important ecclesiastical event of his primacy was
+the judgment in the case of the bishop of Lincoln (see LINCOLN
+JUDGMENT), in which the law of the prayer-book is investigated, as it
+had never been before, from the standpoint of the whole history of the
+English Church. In 1896 the archbishop went to Ireland to see the
+working of the sister Church. He was received with enthusiasm, but the
+work which his tour entailed over-fatigued him. On Sunday morning the
+11th of October, just after his return, whilst on a visit to Mr
+Gladstone, he died in Hawarden parish church of heart failure.
+
+Archbishop Benson left numerous writings, including a valuable essay on
+_The Cathedral_ (London, 1878), and various charges and volumes of
+sermons and addresses. But his two chief works, posthumously published,
+are his _Cyprian_ (London, 1897), a work of great learning, which had
+occupied him at intervals since early manhood; and _The Apocalypse, an
+Introductory Study_ (London, 1900), interesting and beautiful, but
+limited by the fact that the method of study is that of a Greek play,
+not of a Hebrew apocalypse. The archbishop's knowledge of the past was
+both wide and minute, but it was that of an antiquary rather than of a
+historian. "I think," writes his son, "he was more interested in modern
+movements for their resemblance to ancient than vice versa." His sermons
+are very noble though written in a style which is over-compressed and
+often obscure. He wrote some good hymns, including "O Throned, O
+Crowned" and a beautiful version of _Urbs Beata_. His "grandeur in
+social function" was unequalled and his interests were very wide. But
+above all else he was a great ecclesiastic. He paid less attention to
+secular politics than Archbishop Tait; but if a man is to be judged by
+the effect of his work, it is Benson and not Tait who should be
+described as a great statesman. His biography, by his son, reveals him
+as a man of devout and holy life, impulsive indeed and masterful, but
+one who learned self-restraint by strenuous endeavour.
+
+His eldest son, ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER BENSON (b. 1862), was educated at
+Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He became fellow of Magdalene
+College, Cambridge, and was a master at Eton College from 1885 to 1903.
+His literary capacity was early shown in the remarkable fiction of his
+_Memoirs of Arthur Hamilton_ (1886) under the pseudonym of "Christopher
+Carr," and his _Poems_ (1893) and _Lyrics_ (1895) established his
+reputation as a writer of verse. Among his works are _Fasti Etonenses_
+(1899); his father's _Life_ (1899); _The Schoolmaster_ (1902), a
+commentary on the aims and methods of an assistant schoolmaster in a
+public school; a study of Archbishop Laud (1887); monographs on D.G.
+Rossetti (1904), Edward FitzGerald (1905) and Walter Pater (1906), in
+the "English Men of Letters" series; _Lord Vyet and other Poems_ (1897),
+_Peace and other Poems_ (1905); _The Upton Letters (1905), From a
+College Window_ (1906), _Beside Still Waters_ (1907). He also
+collaborated with Lord Esher in editing the _Correspondence of Queen
+Victoria_ (1907).
+
+The third son, EDWARD FREDERICK BENSON (b. 1867), was educated at
+Marlborough College and King's College, Cambridge. He worked at Athens
+for the British Archaeological Society from 1892 to 1895, and
+subsequently in Egypt for the Hellenic Society. In 1893 his society
+novel, _Dodo_, brought him to the front among the writers of clever
+fiction; and this was followed by other novels, notably _The Vintage_
+(1898) and _The Capsina_ (1899).
+
+The fourth son, ROBERT HUGH BENSON (b. 1871), was educated at Eton and
+Trinity College, Cambridge. After reading with Dean Vaughan at Llandaff
+he took orders, and in 1898 became a member of the Community of the
+Resurrection at Mirfield. In 1903 he became a Roman Catholic, was
+ordained priest at Rome in the following year, and returned to Cambridge
+as assistant priest of the Roman Catholic church there. Among his
+numerous publications are _The Light Invisible, By What Authority?, The
+King's Achievement, Richard Raynal, Solitary, The Queen's Tragedy, The
+Sentimentalists, Lord of the World_.
+
+  See A.C. Benson, _Life of Archbishop Benson_ (2 vols., London, 1899);
+  J.H. Bernard, _Archbishop Benson in Ireland_ (1897); Sir L.T. Dibdin
+  in _The Quarterly Review_, October 1897.
+
+
+
+
+BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT (1858-), English actor, son of William Benson of
+Alresford, Hants, was born at Tunbridge Wells on the 4th of November
+1858. He came of a talented family, his elder brother, W.A.S. Benson (b.
+1854), becoming well known in the world of art as one of the pioneers in
+the revival of English industrial craftsmanship, especially in the field
+of the metallic arts; and his younger brother, Godfrey Benson, being an
+active Liberal politician. He was educated at Winchester and New
+College, Oxford, and at the university was distinguished both as an
+athlete (winning the Inter-university three miles) and as an amateur
+actor. In the latter respect he was notable for producing at Oxford the
+first performance of a Greek play, the _Agamemnon_, in which many Oxford
+men who afterwards became famous in other fields took part. Mr Benson,
+on leaving Oxford, took to the professional stage, and made his first
+appearance at the Lyceum, under Irving, in _Romeo and Juliet_, as Paris,
+in 1882. In the next year he went into managership with a company of his
+own, taken over from Walter Bentley, and from this time he became
+gradually more and more prominent, both as an actor of leading parts
+himself and as the organizer of practically the only modern "stock
+company" touring through the provinces. In 1886 he married Gertrude
+Constance Cockburn (Featherstonhaugh), who acted in his company and
+continued to play leading parts with him. Mr Benson's chief successes
+were gained out of London for some years, but in 1890 he had a season in
+London at the Globe and in 1900 at the Lyceum, and in later years he was
+seen with his _répertoire_ at the Coronet. His company included from
+time to time many actors and actresses who, having been trained under
+him, became prominent on their own account, and both by his organization
+of this regular company and by his foundation of a dramatic school of
+acting in 1901, Mr Benson exercised a most important influence on the
+contemporary stage. From the first he devoted himself largely to the
+production of Shakespeare's plays, reviving many which had not been
+acted for generations, and his services to the cause of Shakespeare can
+hardly be overestimated. From 1888 onwards he managed the
+Stratford-on-Avon Shakespearian Festival. His romantic and intellectual
+powers as an actor, combined with his athletic and picturesque bearing
+and fine elocution, were conspicuously shown in his own impersonations,
+most remarkable among which were his Hamlet (in 1900 he produced this
+play without cuts in London), his Coriolanus, his Richard II., his Lear
+and his Petruchio.
+
+
+
+
+BENSON, FRANK WESTON (1862-   ), American painter, was born in Salem,
+Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1862. He was a pupil of Boulanger
+and of Lefebvre in Paris; won many distinctions in American exhibitions,
+and a silver medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1900; and became a member
+of the "Ten Americans," and of the National Academy of Design, New
+York. Besides portraits, he painted landscape and still life; and he was
+one of the decorators of the Congressional library, Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+BENSON, GEORGE (1699-1762), English dissenting minister, was born at
+Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, on the 1st of September 1699, of a family
+which had distinguished itself in church and state. He studied at a
+school at Whitehaven and later at the university of Glasgow. In 1722, on
+Calamy's recommendation, he was chosen pastor of a congregation of
+dissenters at Abingdon, in Berkshire, where he continued till 1729,
+when, having embraced Arminian views, he became the choice of a
+congregation in Southwark; and in 1740 he was appointed by the
+congregation of Crutched Friars colleague to the learned Dr Nathaniel
+Lardner, whom he succeeded in 1749. His _Defence of the Reasonableness
+of Prayer_ appeared in 1731, and he afterwards published paraphrases and
+notes on the epistles to the Thessalonians, Timothy, Titus and Philemon,
+adding dissertations on several important subjects, particularly (as an
+appendix to 1 Timothy) on inspiration. In 1738 he published his _History
+of the First Planting of the Christian Religion_, in 3 vols. 4to, a work
+of great learning and ability. He also wrote the _Reasonableness of the
+Christian Religion_ (1743), the _History of the Life of Jesus Christ_,
+posthumously published in 1764, a paraphrase and notes on the seven
+Catholic epistles, and several other works, which gained him great
+reputation as a scholar and theologian even outside his own communion
+and his own country. Owing to his undoubted Socinianism his works
+suffered neglect after his death, which occurred on the 6th of April
+1762.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 3, Slice 5, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 3, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 5
+       "Bedlam" to "Benson, George"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 1, 2010 [EBook #34533]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+One typographical error has been corrected. It
+appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME III SLICE V<br /><br />
+Bedlam to Benson, George</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BEDLAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BELLENDEN, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BEDLINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BELLENDEN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BEDLOE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BELLEROPHON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BEDMAR, ALPHONSO BELLA CUEVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BELLES-LETTRES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BED-MOULD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BELLEVILLE</a> (Ontario, Canada)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BEDOUINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BELLEVILLE</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BEDSORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BELLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BEDWORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BELLIGERENCY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BEECH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BELLINGHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BEECHER, HENRY WARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BELLINI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BEECHER, LYMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BELLINI, LORENZO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BELLINI, VINCENZO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BELLINZONA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BEECHWORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BELLO, ANDRÉS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BEEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BELLO-HORIZONTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BEEFSTEAK CLUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BELLONA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BEELZEBUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BELLOT, JOSEPH RENÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BEER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BELLOWS, ALBERT F.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BEERSHEBA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BELLOWS and BLOWING MACHINES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BEET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BELLOY, DORMONT DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BELL or INCHCAPE ROCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BEETLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BELLUNO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BEETS, NIKOLAAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BELMONT, AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BEFANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BELOIT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BELOMANCY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BEGAS, KARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BELON, PIERRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BEGAS, REINHOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BELPER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BEGGAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BELSHAM, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BELSHAZZAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BEGONIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BELT, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BEGUINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BELT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BEHAIM, MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BELTANE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BEHAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BELUGA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BEH&#256; UD-D&#298;N</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BELVEDERE</a> (architectural structure)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BEH&#256; UD-D&#298;N ZUHAIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BELVIDERE</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BEHBAHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BEHEADING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BEM, JOSEF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BEHEMOTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BEMA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BEHISTUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BEMBERG, HERMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BEHN, APHRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BEMBO, PIETRO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BEMBRIDGE BEDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BEIRA</a> (seaport of East Africa)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BEIRA</a> (province of Portugal)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BÉMONT, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BEIRUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BEIT, ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BENARES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BEJA</a> (tribe)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BENBOW, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BEJA</a> (city)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BENCE-JONES, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BEJAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BENCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BÉJART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BENCH-MARK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BEK, ANTONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BENCH TABLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BEND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BÉSKÉSCSABA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BENDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BENDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57a">BEKKER, BALTHASAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BENDIGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57b">BEKKER, ELIZABETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BENDL, KAREL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BENEDEK, LUDWIG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BELA III.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BENEDETTI, VINCENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BELA IV.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BENEDICT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BELA</a> (capital of Las Bela)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BELA</a> (town of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BELAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BELCHER, SIR EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BENEDICT BISCOP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BELDAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BENEDICTINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BELESME, ROBERT OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BENEDICTINES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BELFAST</a> (Ireland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BENEDICTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BELFAST</a> (Maine, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BENEDICTUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BELFORT</a> (division of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BENEDICTUS ABBAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BELFORT</a> (town of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BELFRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BENEFICE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BELGAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BENEFICIARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BELGARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BELGAUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BENETT, ETHELDRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BELGIAN CONGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BENEVENTO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BELGIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BENEVOLENCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BELGRADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BENFEY, THEODOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN HAMILTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BENGAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BELISARIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BENGAL, BAY OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BELIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BENGALI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BELIZE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BENGAZI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BELJAME, ALEXANDRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BELKNAP, JEREMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BENGUELLA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BENÍ</a> (river of Bolivia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BENÍ</a> (department of Bolivia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BENI-AMER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BELL, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BENI-ISRAEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BELL, SIR CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BENIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BENITOITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BELL, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BENJAMIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BENJAMIN OF TUDELA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BELL, JACOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BELL, JOHN</a> (Scottish traveller)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BEN LEDI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BELL, JOHN</a> (Scottish anatomist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BELL, JOHN</a> (American political leader)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BEN LOMOND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BELL, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BENLOWES, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BEN MACDHUI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BELLABELLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BELLACOOLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BENNETT, JAMES GORDON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BELLADONNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BENNETT, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BELLAGIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BELLAIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BELLAMY, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BEN NEVIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BELLAMY, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BELLARMINE, ROBERTO FRANCESCO ROMOLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BENNINGTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BELLARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BENNO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BELL-COT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BELLEAU, REMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BENOÎT DE SAINTE-MORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BELLECOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BENSERADE, ISAAC DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BELLEFONTAINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BENSLEY, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BELLEGARDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BENSON, EDWARD WHITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOSEPH JOHANNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BELLE-ÎLE-EN-MER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BENSON, FRANK WESTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BENSON, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BEDLAM,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bethlehem Hospital</span>, the first English
+lunatic asylum, originally founded by Simon FitzMary, sheriff
+of London, in 1247, as a priory for the sisters and brethren of
+the order of the Star of Bethlehem. It had as one of its special
+objects the housing and entertainment of the bishop and canons
+of St Mary of Bethlehem, the mother-church, on their visits to
+England. Its first site was in Bishopsgate Street. It is not
+certain when lunatics were first received in Bedlam, but it is
+mentioned as a hospital in 1330 and some were there in 1403.
+In 1547 it was handed over by Henry VIII. with all its revenues
+to the city of London as a hospital for lunatics. With the
+exception of one such asylum in Granada, Spain, the Bethlehem
+Hospital was the first in Europe. It became famous and afterwards
+infamous for the brutal ill-treatment meted out to the
+insane (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>: <i>Hospital Treatment</i>). In 1675 it was
+removed to new buildings in Moorfields and finally to its present
+site in St George&rsquo;s Fields, Lambeth. The word &ldquo;Bedlam&rdquo; has
+long been used generically for all lunatic asylums.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDLINGTON,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> an urban district of Northumberland, England,
+within the parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 5 m. S.E. of that
+town on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
+18,766. It lies on high ground above the river Blyth, 2½ m.
+above its mouth. The church of St Cuthbert shows good
+transitional Norman details. Its dedication recalls the transportation
+of the body of the saintly bishop of Lindisfarne from
+its shrine at Durham by the monks of that foundation to Lindisfarne,
+when in fear of attack from William the Conqueror.
+They rested here with the coffin. The modern growth of the
+town is attributable to the valuable collieries of the neighbourhood,
+and to manufactures of nails and chains. It is one of the
+most populous mining centres in the county. On the south
+bank of the river is the township and urban district of Cowpen
+(pop. 17,879), with collieries and glass works; coal is shipped
+from this point by river.</p>
+
+<p>Bedlington (Betlingtun) and the hamlets belonging to it were
+bought by Cutheard, bishop of Durham, between 900 and 915,
+and although locally situated in the county of Northumberland
+became part of the county palatine of Durham over which
+Bishop Walcher was granted royal rights by William the
+Conqueror. When these rights were taken from Cuthbert
+Tunstall, bishop of Durham, in 1536, Bedlington among his
+other property lost its special privileges, but was confirmed to
+him in 1541 with the other property of his predecessors. Together
+with the other lands of the see of Durham, Bedlington
+was made over to the ecclesiastical commissioners in 1866.
+Bedlingtonshire was made part of Northumberland for civil
+purposes by acts of parliament in 1832 and 1844.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDLOE, WILLIAM<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1650-1680), English informer, was
+born at Chepstow on the 20th of April 1650. He appears to have
+been well educated; he was certainly clever, and after coming
+to London in 1670 he became acquainted with some Jesuits
+and was occasionally employed by them. Calling himself now
+Captain Williams, now Lord Gerard or Lord Newport or Lord
+Cornwallis, he travelled from one part of Europe to another;
+he underwent imprisonments for crime, and became an expert
+in all kinds of duplicity. Then in 1678, following the lead of
+Titus Gates, he gave an account of a supposed popish plot to
+the English government, and his version of the details of the
+murder of Sir E.B. Godfrey was rewarded with £500. Emboldened
+by his success he denounced various Roman Catholics,
+married an Irish lady, and having become very popular lived
+in luxurious fashion. Afterwards his fortunes waned, and he
+died at Bristol on the 20th of August 1680. His dying depositions,
+which were taken by Sir Francis North, chief justice of
+the common pleas, revealed nothing of importance. Bedloe
+wrote a <i>Narrative and impartial discovery of the horrid Popish
+Plot</i> (1679), but all his statements are extremely untrustworthy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Pollock, <i>The Popish Plot</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDMAR, ALPHONSO BELLA CUEVA,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis of</span> (1572-1655),
+Spanish diplomatist, became ambassador to the republic
+of Venice in 1667. This was a very important position owing
+to the amount of information concerning European affairs
+which passed through the hands of the representative of Spain.
+When Bedmar took up this appointment, Venice had just concluded
+an alliance with France, Switzerland and the Netherlands,
+to counterbalance the power of Spain, and the ambassador was
+instructed to destroy this league. Assisted by the duke of Ossuna,
+viceroy of Naples, he formed a plan to bring the city into the power
+of Spain, and the scheme was to be carried out on Ascension Day
+1618. The plot was, however, discovered; and Bedmar, protected
+by his position from arrest, left Venice and went to Flanders
+as president of the council. In 1622 he was made a cardinal,
+and soon afterwards became bishop of Oviedo, a position which
+he retained until his death, which occurred at Oviedo on the
+2nd of August 1655. The authorship of an anonymous work,
+<i>Squitinio della libertà Veneta</i>, published at Mirandola in 1612,
+has been attributed to him.</p>
+
+<p>Some controversy has arisen over the Spanish plot of 1618,
+and some historians have suggested that it only existed in the
+minds of the Venetian senators, and was a ruse for forcing
+Bedmar to leave Venice. From what is known, however, of
+the policy of Spain at this time, it is by no means unlikely that
+such a scheme was planned.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.V. de Saint-Réal, <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, tome iv. (Paris, 1745); P.J.
+Grosley, <i>Discussion historique et critique sur la conjuration de Venise</i>
+(Paris, 1756); P.A.N.B. Daru, <i>Histoire de la république de Venise</i>
+(Paris, 1853); A. Baschet, <i>Histoire de la chancellerie secrète à Venise</i>
+(Paris, 1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BED-MOULD,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> in architecture, the congeries of mouldings
+which is under the projecting part of almost every cornice, of
+which, indeed, it is a part.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDOUINS<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (<i>Ahl Bedu</i>, &ldquo;dwellers in the open land,&rdquo; or
+<i>Ahl el beit</i>, &ldquo;people of the tent,&rdquo; as they call themselves), the
+name given to the most important, as it is the best known,
+division of the Arab race. The Bedouins are the descendants of
+the Arabs of North Arabia whose traditions claim Ishmael as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span>
+their ancestor (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabs</a></span>). The deserts of North Arabia seem
+to have been their earliest home, but even in ancient times they
+had migrated to the lowlands of Egypt and Syria. The Arab
+conquest of northern Africa in the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> caused
+a wide dispersion, so that to-day the Arab element is strongly
+represented in the Nile Valley, Saharan, and Nubian peoples.
+Among the Hamitic-Negroid races the Bedouins have largely
+lost their nomadic character; but in the deserts of the Nile
+lands they remain much what their ancestors were. Thus the
+name has suffered much ethnic confusion, and is often incorrectly
+reserved to describe such pastoral peoples as the Bisharin, the
+Hadendoa and the Ababda. This article treats solely of the
+Arabian Bedouin, as affording the purest type of the people.
+They are shepherds and herdsmen, reduced to an open-air, roving
+life, partly by the nature of their occupations, partly by the
+special characteristics of the countries in which they dwell. For,
+while land, unsuited to all purposes except pasture, forms an
+unusually large proportion of the surface in the Arabian territory,
+the prolonged droughts of summer render considerable portions
+of it unfit even for that, and thus continually oblige the herdsmen
+to migrate from one spot to another in search of sufficient
+herbage and water for their beasts. The same causes also involve
+the Bedouins in frequent quarrels with each other regarding the
+use of some particular well or pasture-ground, besides reducing
+them not unfrequently to extreme want, and thus making them
+plunderers of others in self-support. Professionally, the Bedouins
+are shepherds and herdsmen; their raids on each other or their
+robbery of travellers and caravans are but occasional exceptions
+to the common routine. Their intertribal wars (they very rarely
+venture on a conflict with the better-armed and better-organized
+sedentary population) are rarely bloody; cattle-lifting
+being the usual object. Private feuds exist, but are
+usually limited to two or three individuals at most, one of whom
+has perhaps been ridiculed in satirical verse, to which they are
+very sensitive, or had a relation killed in some previous fray.
+But bloodshed is expensive, as it must be paid for either by
+more bloodshed or by blood-money&mdash;the <i>diya</i>, which varies,
+according to the importance of the person killed, from ten to fifty
+camels, or even more. Previous to Mahomet&rsquo;s time it was
+optional for the injured tribe either to accept this compensation
+or to insist on blood for blood; but the Prophet, though by his
+own account despairing of ever reducing the nomad portion of
+his countrymen to law and order, succeeded in establishing among
+them the rule, that a fair <i>diya</i> if offered must be accepted.
+Instances are, however, not wanting in Arab history of fiercer
+and more general Bedouin conflicts, in which the destruction,
+or at least the complete subjugation, of one tribe has been
+aimed at by another, and when great slaughter has taken place.
+Such were the wars of Pekr and Thagleb in the 6th century,
+of Kelb and Howazin in the 8th, of Harb and Ateba in the 18th.</p>
+
+<p>The Bedouins regard the plundering of caravans or travellers
+as in lieu of the custom dues exacted elsewhere. The land is
+theirs, they argue, and trespassers on it must pay the forfeit.
+Hence whoever can show anything equivalent to a permission
+of entrance into their territory has, in the regular course of
+things, nothing to fear. This permission is obtained by securing
+the protection of the nearest Bedouin sheik, who, for a
+politely-worded request and a small sum of money, will readily grant
+the pass, in the shape of one or two or more men of his tribe,
+who accompany the wayfarers as far as the next encampment on
+their road, where they hand their charge over to fresh guides,
+equally bound to afford the desired safeguard. In the interior
+of Arabia the passport is given in writing by one of the town
+governors, and is respected by the Bedouins of the district;
+for, however impudent and unamenable to law these nomads
+may be on the frontiers of the impotent Ottoman government in
+Syria or the Hejaz, they are submissive enough in other and
+Arab-governed regions. But the traveller who ventures on the
+desert strip without such precautions will be robbed and perhaps
+killed.</p>
+
+<p>Ignorant of writing and unacquainted with books, the Bedouins
+trust to their memory for everything; where memory fails,
+they readily eke it out with imagination. Hence their own
+assertions regarding the antiquity, numbers, strength, &amp;c., of
+their clans are of little worth; even their genealogies, in which
+they pretend to be eminently versed, are not to be much depended
+on; the more so that their own family names hardly ever exceed
+the limits of a patronymic, whilst the constantly renewed subdivisions
+of a tribe, and the temporary increase of one branch
+and decrease of another, tend to efface the original name of the
+clan. Few tribes now preserve their ancient, or at least their
+historical titles; and the mass of the Bedouin multitude resembles
+in this respect a troubled sea, of which the substance is
+indeed always the same, but the surface is continually shifting
+and changing. As, however, no social basis or ties are acknowledged
+among them except those of blood and race, certain broad
+divisions are tolerably accurately kept up, the wider and more
+important of which may here be noted. First, the Aneza clan,
+who extend from Syria southward to the limits of Jebel Shammar.
+It is numerous, and, for a Bedouin tribe, well armed. Two-thirds
+of the Arab horse trade, besides a large traffic in sheep,
+camels, wool, and similar articles, are in their hands. Their
+principal subdivisions are the Sebaá on the north, the Walid Ali
+on the west, and the Ruála on the south; these are generally
+on bad terms with each other. If united, they could muster,
+it is supposed, about 30,000 lances. They claim descent from
+Rabi&rsquo;a. Second, the Shammar Bedouins, whose pasturages lie
+conterminous to those of the Aneza on the east. Their numbers
+are about the same. Thirdly, in the northern desert, the Huwetat
+and Sherarat, comparatively small and savage tribes. There is
+also the Solibi clan, which, however, is disowned by the Arabs,
+and seems to be of gipsy origin. Next follow, in the western
+desert, the Beni-Harb, a powerful tribe, supposed to muster
+about 20,000 fighting men. They are often troublesome to the
+Meccan pilgrims. In the eastern desert are the Muter, the
+Beni-Khalid, and the Ajmans, all numerous clans, often at war with
+each other. To the south, in Nejd itself or on its frontiers,
+are the Hodeil, Ateba, and others. These all belong to the
+&ldquo;Mustareb,&rdquo; or northern Arabs.</p>
+
+<p>The Bedouins of southern or &ldquo;pure Arab&rdquo; origin are comparatively
+few in number, and are, with few exceptions, even poorer
+and more savage than their northern brethren. Al-Morrah,
+on the confines of Oman, Al-Yam and Kahtan, near
+Yemen, and Beni-Yas, between Harik and the Persian Gulf,
+are the best known. The total number of the Bedouin or
+pastoral population throughout Arabia, including men, women,
+and children, appears not to exceed a million and a half, or about
+one fifth of the total population. The only tribal authority is
+the &ldquo;elder,&rdquo; or &ldquo;sheik,&rdquo; a title not necessarily implying
+advanced age, but given to any one who, on account of birth,
+courage, wealth, liberality or some other quality, has been
+chosen to the leadership. Descent has something to do with
+rank, but not much, as every individual of the tribe considers
+himself equal to the others; nor are the distinctions of relative
+riches and poverty greatly taken into account. To the &ldquo;sheik&rdquo;
+all disputes are referred; he is consulted, though not necessarily
+obeyed, on every question which regards the general affairs of
+the tribe, whether in peace or war; there is no other magistrate,
+and no law except what he and the other chief men may consider
+proper. But in fact, for most personal and private affairs,
+every man does pretty much what is right in his own eyes.</p>
+
+<p>All the Bedouins, with the exception of certain tribes in Syria,
+are nominally Mahommedans, but most pay but slight attention
+to the ceremonial precepts of the Koran; the five daily prayers
+and the annual fast of Ramadan are not much in favour among
+them; and however near a tribe may be to Mecca, few of them
+visit it as pilgrims. The militant Wahhabi have, however, from
+time to time enforced some degree of Islamitic observance among
+the Bedouins of Nejd and the adjoining districts: elsewhere
+Mahommedanism is practically confined to the profession of
+the Divine Unity; among the remoter and wilder tribes sun-worship,
+tree-worship, and no worship at all, are not uncommon.
+Some clans even omit the rite of circumcision altogether; others,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span>
+like the tribe of Hodeil, south of Mecca, perform it after a fashion
+peculiar to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Though polygamy is not common among Bedouins, marriages
+are contracted without any legal intervention or guarantee;
+the consent of the parties, and the oral testimony of a couple of
+witnesses, should such be at hand, are all that are required;
+and divorce is equally easy. Nor is mutual constancy much
+expected or observed either by men or women; and the husband
+is rarely strict in exacting from the wife a fidelity that he himself
+has no idea of observing. Jealousy may indeed occasionally bring
+about tragic results, but this rarely occurs except where publicity,
+to which the Bedouins, like all other Arabs, are very sensitive,
+is involved. Burckhardt writes: &ldquo;The Bedouins are jealous of
+their women, but do not prevent them from laughing and talking
+with strangers. It seldom happens that a Bedouin strikes his
+wife; if he does so she calls loudly on her <i>wasy</i> or protector,
+who pacifies the husband and makes him listen to reason....
+The wife and daughters perform all domestic business. They
+grind the wheat in the handmill or pound it in the mortar;
+they prepare the breakfast and dinner; knead and bake the
+bread; make butter, fetch water, work at the loom, mend the
+tent-covering ... while the husband or brother sits before the
+tent smoking his pipe.&rdquo; A maiden&rsquo;s honour is, on the other hand,
+severely guarded; and even too openly avowed a courtship,
+though with the most honourable intentions, is ill looked on.
+But marriage, if indeed so slight and temporary a connexion
+as it is among Bedouins deserves the name, is often merely a
+passport for mutual licence. In other respects Bedouin morality,
+like that of most half-savage races, depends on custom and
+public feeling rather than on any fixed code or trained conscience,
+and hence admits of the strangest contradictions. Not only are
+lying and exaggeration no reproach in ordinary discourse, but
+even deliberate perjury and violation of the most solemn engagements
+are frequent occurrences. Not less frequent, however,
+are instances of prolonged fidelity and observance of promise
+carried to the limits of romance. &ldquo;The wind,&rdquo; &ldquo;the wood,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;the honour of the Arabs&rdquo; are the most ordinary oaths in
+serious matters; but even these do not give absolute security,
+while a simple verbal engagement will at other times prove an
+inviolable guarantee. Thus, too, the extreme abstemiousness
+of a Bedouin alternates with excessive gorgings; and, while
+the name and deeds of &ldquo;robber&rdquo; are hardly a reproach, those of
+&ldquo;thief&rdquo; are marked by abhorrence and contempt. In patience,
+or rather endurance, both physical and moral, few Bedouins
+are deficient; wariness is another quality universally developed
+by their mode of life. And in spite of an excessive coarseness of
+language, and often of action, gross vice, at least of the more
+debasing sorts that dishonour the East, is rare.</p>
+
+<p>Most Bedouins, men and women, are rather undersized;
+their complexion, especially in the south, is dark; their hair
+coarse, thick and black; their eyes dark and oval; the nose is
+generally aquiline, and the features well formed; the beard and
+moustache are usually scanty. The men are active, but not
+strong; the women are generally plain. The dress of the men
+consists of a long cotton shirt, open at the breast, often girt with
+a leathern girdle; a black or striped cloak of hair is sometimes
+thrown over the shoulders; a handkerchief, folded once, black,
+or striped yellow and red, covers the head, round which it is kept
+in its place by a piece of twine or a twisted hairband. To this
+costume a pair of open sandals is sometimes added. Under the
+shirt, round the naked waist, a thin strip of leather plait is wound
+several times, not for any special object, but merely out of
+custom. In his hand a Bedouin almost always carries a slight
+crooked wand, commonly of almond-wood. Among the Bedouins
+of the south a light wrapper takes the place of the handkerchief
+on the head, and a loin-cloth that of the shirt. The women
+usually wear wide loose drawers, a long shirt, and over it a wide
+piece of dark blue cloth enveloping the whole figure and head,
+and trailing on the ground behind. Very rarely does a Bedouin
+woman wear a veil, or even cover her face with her overcloak,
+contenting herself with narrowing the folds of the latter over her
+head on the approach of a stranger. Her wrists and ankles are
+generally adorned with bracelets and rings of blue glass or
+copper or iron, very rarely of silver; her neck with glass beads;
+ear-rings are rare, and nose-rings rarer. Boys, till near puberty,
+usually go stark naked; girls also wear no clothes up to the age
+of six or seven.</p>
+
+<p>On a journey a Bedouin invariably carries with him a light,
+sharp-pointed lance, the stem of which is made of Persian or
+African cane; the manner in which this is carried or trailed
+often indicates the tribe of the owner. The lance is the favourite
+and characteristic weapon of the Arab nomad, and the one in the
+use of which he shows the greatest skill. An antiquated sword,
+an out-of-date musket, an ornamented dagger or knife, a coat of
+mail, the manufacture of Yemen or Bagdad, and a helmet, a mere
+iron head-piece, without visor or crest, complete his military
+outfit.</p>
+
+<p>A Bedouin&rsquo;s tent consists of a few coverings of the coarsest
+goat-hair, dyed black, and spread over two or more small poles,
+in height from 8 to 9 ft., gipsy fashion. If it be the tent of a
+sheik, its total length may be from 30 to 40 ft.; if of an ordinary
+person, less than 20 ft. Sometimes a partition separates the
+quarters of the women and children; sometimes they are
+housed under a lower and narrower covering. A rough carpet
+or mat is spread on the ground; while camel-saddles, ropes,
+halters, two or three cooking pots, one or two platters, a wooden
+drinking bowl, the master&rsquo;s arms at one side of the tent, and his
+spear stuck in the ground at the door, complete the list of household
+valuables. On striking camp all these are fastened on the
+backs of camels; the men mount their saddles, the women their
+litters; and in an hour the blackened stones that served for a
+cooking hearth are the only sign of the encampment. For food
+the Bedouin relies on his herds, but rice, vegetables, honey,
+locusts and even lizards are at times eaten.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, <i>Notes on the
+Bedouins and Wahabis</i> (1831); Karstens Niebuhr, <i>Travels through
+Arabia</i> (orig. Germ. edit. 1772), translated into English by Robert
+Heron (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1792); H.H. Tessup, <i>Women of the
+Arabs</i> (New York, 1874); W.S. Blunt, <i>Bedouin Tribes of the
+Euphrates</i> (1879); Lady Anne Blunt, <i>Pilgrimage to Neid</i> (1881);
+Desmoulins, <i>Les Français d&rsquo;aujourd&rsquo;hui</i> (Paris, 1898); C.M.
+Doughty, <i>Arabia Deserta</i> (2 vols., 1888); E. Reclus, <i>Les Arabes</i>
+(Brussels, 1898); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, <i>Arabia, the Cradle of Islam</i>
+(1900); W. Robertson Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i>
+(Cambridge, 1885); H.C. Trumbull, <i>The Blood Covenant</i> (Philadelphia,
+1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDSORE,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a form of ulceration or sloughing, occasioned in
+people who, through sickness or old age, are confined to bed,
+resulting from pressure or the irritation of sweat and dirt.
+Bedsores usually occur when there is a low condition of nutrition
+of the tissues. The more helpless the patient the more liable he
+is to bedsores, and especially when he is paralysed, delirious or
+insane, or when suffering from one of the acute specific fevers.
+They may occur wherever there is a pressure, more especially
+when any moisture is allowed to remain on the bedding; and
+thus lack of cleanliness is an important factor in the production
+of this condition. In large hospitals a bedsore is now a great
+rarity, and this, considering the helplessness of many of the
+patients treated, shows what good nursing can do. The bed
+must be made with a firm smooth mattress; the undersheet and
+blanket must be changed whenever they become soiled; the
+drawsheet is spread without creases, and changed the moment it
+becomes soiled. Preventive treatment must be followed from
+the first day of the illness. This consists in the most minute
+attention to cleanliness, and constant variation in the position
+of the patient. All parts subjected to pressure or friction must
+be frequently washed with soap and hot water, then thoroughly
+dried with a warm soft towel. The part should next be bathed
+in a solution of corrosive sublimate in spirits of wine, and finally
+dusted with an oxide of zinc and starch powder. This routine
+should be gone through not less than four times in the twenty-four
+hours in any case of prolonged illness. The pressure may be
+relieved over bony prominences by a water-pillow or by a piece
+of thick felt cut into a ring. Signs of impending bedsores must
+constantly be watched for. Where one threatens, the skin loses
+its proper colour, becoming either a deadly white or a dusky red,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span>
+and the redness does not disappear on pressure. The surrounding
+tissues become oedematous, and pain is often severe, except in a
+case of paralysis. As the condition progresses further the pain
+ceases. The epidermis now becomes raised as in a blister, and
+finally becomes detached, forming an excoriation and exposing
+the papillae. Even at this late stage an actual ulceration can
+still be prevented if proper care is taken; but failing this, the
+skin sloughs and an ulcer forms. In treating this, the position
+of the patient must be such that no pressure is ever allowed on the
+sloughing tissue. A hot boracic pad under oil-silk should be
+applied, the affected part being first dusted with iodoform.
+If, however, the slough is very large, it is safer to avoid wet
+applications, and the parts should be dusted with animal charcoal
+and iodoform, and protected with a dry dressing. When the
+slough has separated and the sore is clean, friar&rsquo;s balsam will
+hasten the healing process. In any serious illness the formation
+of a bedsore makes the prognosis far more grave, and may even
+bring about a fatal issue, either directly or indirectly.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEDWORTH,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a manufacturing town in the Nuneaton parliamentary
+division of Warwickshire, England; on the Nuneaton-Coventry
+branch of the London &amp; North Western railway,
+100 m. north-west from London. Pop. (1900) 7169. A tramway
+connects with Coventry, and the Coventry canal passes through.
+Coal and ironstone are mined; there are iron-works, and bricks,
+hats, ribbons and tape and silk are made. Similar industries
+are pursued in the populous district (including the villages
+of Exhall and Foleshill) which extends southward towards
+Coventry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:323px; height:690px" src="images/img625a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Honeybee (<i>Apis mellifica</i>). <i>a</i>,
+male (drone); <i>b</i>, queen, <i>c</i>, worker.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Benton, <i>Bull.</i> 1 (n.s.) <i>Div. Ent.</i>, U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">BEE<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Sanskrit <i>bha</i>, A S. <i>beó</i>, Lat. <i>apis</i>), a large and natural
+family of the zoological order <i>Hymenoptera</i>, characterized by
+the plumose form of many of their hairs, by the large size of
+the basal segment of
+the foot, which is
+always elongate and
+in the hindmost limb
+sometimes as broad
+as the shin, and by
+the development of a
+&ldquo;tongue&rdquo; for sucking
+liquid food; this
+organ has been variously
+interpreted as
+the true insectan
+tongue (hypo-pharynx)
+or as a
+ligula formed by
+fused portions of the
+second maxillae
+(probably the latter).</p>
+
+<p>Bees are specialized
+in correspondence
+with the flowers from
+which they draw the
+bulk of their food
+supply, the flexible
+tongue being used
+for sucking nectar,
+the plumed hairs and
+the modified legs (fig.
+7) for gathering pollen.
+These floral products
+which form the
+food of bees and of
+their larvae, are in
+most cases collected
+and stored by the
+industrious insects;
+but some genera of
+bees act as inquilines
+or &ldquo;cuckoo-parasites,&rdquo; laying their eggs in the nests of other
+bees, so that their larvae may feed at the expense of the
+rightful owners of the nest. In a few cases, the parasitic bee-grub
+devours not only the food-supply, but also the larva of
+its host.</p>
+
+<p><i>Solitary and Social Bees.</i>&mdash;Many genera of bees are represented,
+like most other insects, by ordinary males and females, each
+female constructing a nest formed of several chambers (&ldquo;cells&rdquo;)
+and storing in each chamber a supply of food for the grub to be
+hatched from the egg that she lays therein. Such bees, although
+a number of individuals often make their nests close together,
+are termed &ldquo;solitary,&rdquo; their communities differing in nature
+from those of the &ldquo;social&rdquo; bees, among which there are two
+kinds of females&mdash;the normal fertile females or &ldquo;queens,&rdquo;
+and those specially modified females with undeveloped ovaries
+(see fig. 6) that are called &ldquo;workers&rdquo; (fig. 1). The workers
+are the earliest developed offspring of the queen, and it is their
+associated work which renders possible the rise of an insect
+state&mdash;a state which evidently has its origin in the family.
+It is interesting to trace various stages in the elaboration of the
+bee-society. Among the humble-bees (<i>Bombus</i>) the workers help
+the queen, who takes her share in the duties of the nest; the
+distinction between queen and workers is therefore less absolute
+than in the hive-bees (<i>Apis</i>), whose queen, relieved of all nursing
+and building cares by the workers, devotes her whole energies
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span>
+to egg-laying. The division of labour among the two castes of
+female becomes therefore most complete in the most highly
+organized society.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:511px; height:822px" src="images/img625b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Head and Appendages of Honey-bee (Apis).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>,   Antenna or feeler.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>,   Epipharynx.</p>
+<p><i>mxp</i>, Maxillary palp.</p>
+<p><i>pg</i>,  Opposite to galeae of 2nd maxillae (labium).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>mx</i>,  1st maxilla.</p>
+<p><i>lp</i>,  Labial palp.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>,   Ligula or &ldquo;tongue.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><i>b</i>,   Bouton or spoon of the ligula.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Frank R. Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Structure.</i>&mdash;Details of the structure of bees are given in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hymenoptera</a></span>. The feelers (fig. 2, <i>a</i>) are divided into
+&ldquo;scape&rdquo; and &ldquo;flagellum&rdquo; as in the ants, and the mandibles
+vary greatly in size and sharpness in different genera. The
+proboscis or &ldquo;tongue&rdquo; (fig. 2, <i>l</i>) is a hollow organ enclosing
+an outgrowth of the body-cavity which is filled with fluid,
+and with its flexible under-surface capable of invagination or
+protrusion. Along this surface stretches a groove which is surrounded
+by thickened cuticle and practically formed into a
+tube by numerous fine hairs. Along this channel the nectar is
+drawn into the pharynx and passes, mixed with saliva, into the
+crop or &ldquo;honey-bag&rdquo;; the action of the saliva changes the
+saccharose into dextrose and levulose, and the nectar becomes
+honey, which the bee regurgitates for storage in the cells or for
+the feeding of the grubs. The sting (fig. 6, <i>pg, st</i>.) of female
+bees is usually highly specialized, but in a few genera it is reduced
+and useless.</p>
+
+<p>Many modifications in details of structure may be observed
+within the family. The tongue is bifid at the tip in a few genera;
+usually it is pointed and varies greatly in length, being comparatively
+short in <i>Andrena</i>, long in the humble-bees (<i>Bombus</i>),
+and longest in <i>Euglossa</i>, a tropical American genus of solitary
+bees. The legs, which are so highly modified as pollen-carriers
+in the higher bees, are comparatively simple in certain primitive
+genera. The hairy covering, so notable in the hive-bee and
+especially in humble-bees, is greatly reduced among bees that
+follow a parasitic mode of life.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:486px; height:220px" src="images/img626.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Larva and Pupa of Apis.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><p>SL,  Spinning larva.</p>
+<p>N,   Pupa.</p>
+<p>FL,  Feeding larva.</p>
+<p><i>co</i>,  Cocoon.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>sp</i>,  Spiracles.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>,   &ldquo;Tongue.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><i>m</i>,   Mandible.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>,  Antenna</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 34%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>w</i>,   Wing.</p>
+<p><i>ce</i>,  Compound Eye.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>,   Excrement.</p>
+<p><i>ex</i>,  Exuvium.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="3">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Early stages</i>.&mdash;As is usual where an abundant food supply
+is provided for the young insects, the larvae of bees (fig. 3, SL.)
+are degraded maggots; they have no legs, but possess fairly
+well-developed heads. The successive cuticles that are cast
+as growth proceeds are delicate in texture and sometimes
+separate from the underlying cuticle without being stripped
+off. The maggots may pass no excrement from the intestine
+until they have eaten all their store of food. When fully grown
+the final larval cuticle is shed, and the &ldquo;free&rdquo; pupa (fig. 3, N)
+revealed. The larvae of some bees spin cocoons (fig. 3, <i>co</i>)
+before pupation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nests of Solitary Bees</i>.&mdash;Bees of different genera vary considerably
+in the site and arrangement of their nests. Many&mdash;like
+the common &ldquo;solitary&rdquo; bees <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Andrena</i>&mdash;burrow
+in the ground; the holes of species of <i>Andrena</i> are commonly
+seen in springtime opening on sandy banks, grassy lawns or
+gravel paths. Our knowledge of such bees is due to the observations
+of F. Smith, H. Friese, C. Verhoeff and others. The nest
+may be simple, or, more frequently, a complex excavation, cells
+opening off from the entrance or from a main passage. Sometimes
+the passage is the conjoint work of many bees whose cells
+are grouped along it at convenient distances apart. Other bees,
+the species of <i>Osmia</i> for example, choose the hollow stem of a
+bramble or other shrub, the female forming a linear series of cells
+in each of which an egg is laid and a supply of food stored up.
+J.H. Fabre has found that in the nests of some species of <i>Osmia</i>
+the young bee developed in the first-formed cell, if (as often
+happens) she emerges from her cocoon before the inmates of
+the later cells, will try to work her way round these or to bite
+a lateral hole through the bramble shoot; should she fail to
+do this, she will wait for the emergence of her sisters and not
+make her escape at the price of injury to them. But when
+Fabre substituted dead individuals of her own species or live
+larvae of another genus, the <i>Osmia</i> had no scruple in destroying
+them, so as to bite her way out to air and liberty.</p>
+
+<p>The leaf-cutter bees (<i>Megachile</i>)&mdash;which differ from <i>Andrena</i>
+and <i>Halictus</i> and agree with <i>Osmia</i>, <i>Apis</i> and <i>Bombus</i> in having
+elongate tongues&mdash;cut neat circular disks from leaves, using
+them for lining the cells of their underground nests. The
+carpenter-bees (<i>Xylocopa</i> and allied genera), unrepresented
+in the British Islands, though widely distributed in warmer
+countries, make their nests in dry wood. The habits of <i>X.
+violacea</i>, the commonest European species, were minutely
+described in the 18th century in one of R.A.F. de Réaumur&rsquo;s
+memoirs. This bee excavates several parallel galleries to which
+access is gained by a cylindrical hole. In the galleries are
+situated the cells, separated from one another by transverse
+partitions, which are formed of chips of wood, cemented by
+the saliva of the bee.</p>
+
+<p>Among the solitary bees none has more remarkable nesting
+habits than the mason bee (<i>Chalicodoma</i>) represented in the
+south of France and described at length by Fabre. The female
+constructs on a stone a series of cells, built of cement, which
+she compounds of particles of earth, minute stones and her
+own saliva. Each cell is provided with a store of honey and
+pollen beside which an egg is laid; and after eight or nine cells
+have been successively built and stored, the whole is covered
+by a dome-like mass of cement. Fabre found that a <i>Chalicodoma</i>
+removed to a distance of 4 kilometres from the nest that she was
+building, found her way back without difficulty to the exact
+spot. But if the nest were removed but a few yards from its
+former position, the bee seemed no longer able to recognize it,
+sometimes passing over it, or even into the unfinished cell, and
+then leaving it to visit again uselessly the place whence it had
+been moved. She would accept willingly, however, another
+nest placed in the exact spot where her own had been. If the
+unfinished cell in the old nest had been only just begun, while
+that in the substituted nest were nearly completed, the bee
+would add so much material as to make the cell much larger
+than the normal size, her instinct evidently being to do a certain
+amount of building work before filling the cell with food. The
+food, too, is always placed in the cell after a fixed routine&mdash;first
+honey disgorged from the mouth, then pollen brushed off the
+hairs beneath the body (fig. 7, <i>c</i>) after which the two substances
+are mixed into a paste.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inquilines and Parasites</i>.&mdash;The working bees, such as have been
+mentioned, are victimized by bees of other genera, which throw
+upon the industrious the task of providing for the young of
+the idle. The nests of <i>Andrena</i>, for example, are haunted by
+the black and yellow species of <i>Nomada</i>, whose females lay their
+eggs in the food provided for the larva of the <i>Andrena</i>. According
+to H. Friese, the relations between the host and the inquiline
+are quite friendly, and the insects if they meet in the nest-galleries
+courteously get out of each other&rsquo;s way. D. Sharp,
+in commenting on this strange behaviour, points out that the
+host can have no idea why the inquiline haunts her nest. &ldquo;Why
+then should the <i>Andrena</i> feel alarm? If the species of <i>Nomada</i>
+attack the species of <i>Andrena</i> too much, it brings about the
+destruction of its own species more certainly than that of the
+<i>Andrena</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>More violent in its methods is the larva of a <i>Stelis</i>, whose
+operations in the nest of <i>Osmia leucomelana</i> have been studied
+by Verhoeff. The female <i>Stelis</i> lays her eggs earlier than the
+<i>Osmia</i>, and towards the bottom of the food-mass; the egg of
+the <i>Osmia</i> is laid later, and on the surface of the food. Hence
+the two eggs are at opposite ends of the food, and both larvae
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span>
+feed for a time without conflict, but the <i>Stelis</i>, being the older,
+is the larger of the two. Finally the parasitic larva attacks
+the <i>Osmia</i>, and digging its mandibles into its victim&rsquo;s head
+kills and eats it, taking from one to two days for the completion
+of the repast.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:374px; height:261px" src="images/img627a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Under Side of Worker, carrying Wax
+Scales.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Social Bees</i>.&mdash;The bees hitherto described are &ldquo;solitary,&rdquo;
+all the individuals being either males or unmodified females.
+The most highly developed of the long-tongued bees are &ldquo;social&rdquo;
+species, in which
+the females are
+differentiated
+into egg-laying
+queens and
+(usually) infertile
+&ldquo;workers&rdquo;
+(fig. 6). Verhoeff
+has discussed
+the rise of the
+&ldquo;social&rdquo; from
+the &ldquo;solitary&rdquo;
+condition, and
+points out that
+for the formation
+of an insect
+community three
+conditions are necessary&mdash;a nest large enough for a number
+of individuals, a close grouping of the cells, and an association
+between mother and daughters in the winged state.
+For the fulfilment of this last condition, the older insects of the
+new generation must emerge from the cells while the mother is
+still occupied with the younger eggs or larvae. One species of
+<i>Halictus</i> nearly reaches the desired stage; but the first young
+bees to appear in the perfect state are males, and when the
+females emerge the mother dies.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:295px" src="images/img627b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Abdominal Plate (worker of <i>Apis</i>), under side, third
+segment. W, wax-yielding surface, covering true gland; <i>s</i>, septem,
+or carina; <i>wh</i>, webbed hairs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Among the social bees the mother and daughter-insects
+co-operate, and they differ from the &ldquo;solitary&rdquo; groups in the
+nature of their nest, the cells (fig. 25) of which are formed of
+wax secreted by special glands (fig. 5) in the bee&rsquo;s abdomen,
+the wax being pressed out between the segmental sclerites in
+the form of plates (fig. 4), which are worked by the legs (fig. 7)
+and jaws into the requisite shape. In our well-known hive-bee
+(<i>Apis</i>) and humble-bees (<i>Bombus</i>) the wax glands are ventral
+in position, but in the &ldquo;stingless&rdquo; bees of the tropics (<i>Trigona</i>
+and <i>Melipona</i>) they are dorsal. A colony of humble-bees is
+started in spring by a female &ldquo;queen&rdquo; which has survived the
+winter. She starts her nest underground or in a surface depression,
+forming a number of waxen cells, roughly globular in shape
+and arranged irregularly. The young females (&ldquo;workers&rdquo;)
+that develop from the eggs laid in these early cells assist the
+queen by building fresh cells and gathering food for storage
+therein. The queen may be altogether relieved of the work
+of the nest as the season advances, so that she can devote all
+her energies to egg-laying, and the colony grows rapidly. The
+distinction between queen and worker is not always clear among
+humble-bees, the female insects varying in size and in the development
+of their ovaries. If any mishap befall the queen, the workers
+can sometimes keep the community from dying out. In autumn
+males are produced, as well as young queens. The community
+is broken up on the approach of winter, the males and workers
+perish, and the young queens after hibernation start fresh nests
+in the succeeding year.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:355px; height:523px" src="images/img627c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;Ovaries of Queen and Workers (<i>Apis</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Abdomen of queen, under side.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;P, Petiole.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;o, o, Ovaries.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>hs</i>, Position filled by honey-sack.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>ds</i>, Position through which digestive system passes.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>od</i>, Oviduct.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>co.d</i>, Vagina.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;E, Egg-passing oviduct.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>s</i>, Spermatheca.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+  <p>&emsp;<i>i</i>. Intestine.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>pb</i>, Poison bag.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>pg</i>, Poison gland.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>st</i>, Sting.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>p</i>, &ldquo;Palps&rdquo; or &ldquo;feelers&rdquo; of  sting.</p>
+<p>B, Rudimentary ovaries of ordinary worker.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>sp</i>, Rudimentary spermatheca.</p>
+<p>C, Partially developed ovaries of fertile worker.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;<i>sp</i>, Rudimentary spermatheca.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The appearance of the heavy-bodied hairy <i>Bombi</i> is well
+known. They are closely &ldquo;mimicked&rdquo; by bees of the genus
+<i>Psithyrus</i>, which often share their nests. These <i>Psithyri</i> have
+no pollen-carrying
+structures on the
+legs and their grubs
+are dependent for
+their food-supply
+on the labours of
+the <i>Bombi</i>, though,
+according to E.
+Hoffer&rsquo;s observations,
+it seems that
+the female <i>Psithyrus</i>
+builds her own cells.
+The colonies of
+<i>Bombus</i> illustrate
+the rise of the
+inquiline habit.
+Many of the species
+are very variable
+and have been
+differentiated into
+races or varieties.
+F.W.L. Sladen
+states that a queen
+belonging to the
+<i>virginalis</i> form of
+<i>Bombus terrestris</i>
+often invades a nest
+belonging to the
+<i>lucorum</i> form, kills
+the rightful queen,
+and takes possession
+of the nest, getting
+the <i>lucorum</i> workers
+to rear her young.
+In the nests of
+<i>Bombi</i> are found
+various beetle
+larvae that live as
+inquilines or parasites,
+and also maggots
+of drone-flies
+(<i>Volucella</i>), which
+act as scavengers;
+the Volucella-fly is
+usually a &ldquo;mimic&rdquo; of the <i>Bombus</i>, whose nest she invades.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;stingless&rdquo; bees (<i>Trigona</i>) of the tropics have the parts
+of the sting reduced and useless for piercing. As though to
+compensate for the loss of this means of defence, the mandibles
+are very powerful, and some of the bees construct tubular
+entrances to the nest with a series of constrictions easy to hold
+against an enemy. The habits of the Brazilian species of these
+bees have been described in detail by H. von Jhering, who points
+out that their wax glands are dorsal in position, not ventral as
+in <i>Bombus</i> and <i>Apis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With <i>Apis</i>, the genus of the hive-bee, we come to the most
+highly-specialized members of the family&mdash;better known, perhaps
+than any other insects, on account of the long domestication of
+many of the species or races. In <i>Apis</i> the workers differ structurally
+from the queen, who neither builds cells, gathers food, nor
+tends brood, and is therefore without the special organs adapted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span>
+for those functions which are possessed in perfection by the
+workers. The differentiation of queen and workers is correlated
+with the habit of storing food supplies, and the consequent
+permanence of the community, which finds relief for its surplus
+population by sending off a swarm, consisting of a queen and a
+number of workers, so that the new community is already
+specialized both for reproduction and for labour.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:501px; height:767px" src="images/img628.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Modifications in the Legs of Bees.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A. <i>a-d</i>, Hive-bee (<i>Apis</i>).</p>
+<p>B. <i>f-g</i>, Stingless bee (<i>Melipona</i>).</p>
+<p>C. <i>h-i</i>, Humble-bee (<i>Bombus</i>).</p>
+<p><i>a, f, h</i>, Outer view of hind-leg.</p>
+<p><i>b, g, i</i>, Inner view.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>d</i>, Fore-leg of <i>Apis</i> showing notch in tarsal segment for cleaning feeler.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Tip of intermediate shin with spur.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Feathered hairs with pollen grains, magnified.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(After Riley, <i>Insect Life</i> (U.S. Dept. Agr.), vol. 6.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The workers of <i>Apis</i> may be capable (fig. 6, C) of laying
+eggs&mdash;necessarily unfertilized&mdash;which always give rise to males
+(&ldquo;drones&rdquo;), and, since the researches of J. Dzierzon (1811-1906)
+in 1848, it has been believed that the queen bee lays
+fertilized eggs in cells appropriate for the rearing of queens or
+workers, and unfertilized eggs in &ldquo;drone-cells,&rdquo; virgin reproduction
+or parthenogenesis being therefore a normal factor in the
+life of these insects. F. Dickel and others have lately claimed
+that fertilized eggs can give rise to either queens, workers or
+males, according to the food supplied to the larvae and the
+influence of supposed &ldquo;sex-producing glands&rdquo; possessed by
+the nurse-workers. Dickel states that a German male bee
+mated with a female of the Italian race transmits distinct
+paternal characters to hybrid male offspring. A. Weismann,
+however, doubts these conclusions, and having found a spermaster
+in every one of the eggs that he examined from worker-cells,
+and in only one out of 272 eggs taken from drone-cells,
+he supports Dzierzon&rsquo;s view, explaining the single exception
+mentioned above as a mistake of the queen, she having laid
+inadvertently this single fertilized egg in a drone instead of in a
+worker cell.</p>
+
+<p>The cells of the honeycomb of <i>Apis</i> are usually hexagonal in
+form, and arranged in two series back to back (figs. 3, 25).
+Some of these cells are used for storage, others for the rearing of
+brood. The cells in which workers are reared are smaller than
+those appropriate for the rearing of drones, while the &ldquo;royal
+cells,&rdquo; in which the young queens are developed, are large in
+size and of an irregular oval in form (fig. 25). It is believed that
+from the nature of the cell in which she is ovipositing, the queen
+derives a reflex impulse to lay the appropriate egg&mdash;fertilized
+in the queen or worker cell, unfertilized in the drone cell, as
+previously mentioned. Whether the fertilized egg shall develop
+into a queen or a worker depends upon the nature of the food.
+All young grubs are at first fed with a specially nutritious food,
+discharged from the worker&rsquo;s stomach, to which is added a digestive
+secretion derived from special salivary glands in the worker&rsquo;s
+head. If this &ldquo;royal jelly&rdquo; continue to be given to the grub
+throughout its life, it will grow into a queen; if the ordinary
+mixture of honey and digested pollen be substituted, as is
+usually the case from the fourth day, the grub will become a
+worker. The workers, who control the polity of the hive (the
+&ldquo;queen&rdquo; being exceedingly &ldquo;limited&rdquo; in her monarchy),
+arrange if possible that young queens shall develop only when
+the population of the hive has become so congested that it is
+desirable to send off a swarm. When a young queen has emerged,
+she stings her royal sisters (still in the pupal stage) to death.
+Previous to the emergence of the young queen, the old queen,
+prevented by the workers from attacking her daughters, has led
+off a swarm to find a new home elsewhere. The young queen,
+left in the old home, mounts high into the air for her nuptial
+flight, and then returns to the hive and her duties of egg-laying.
+The number of workers increases largely during the summer,
+and so hard do the insects work that the life of an individual
+may last only a few weeks. On the approach of winter the
+males, having no further function to perform for the community,
+are refused food-supplies by the workers, and are either excluded
+or banished from the hive to perish. Such ruthless habits of the
+bee-commonwealth, no less than the altruistic labours of the
+workers, are adapted for the survival and dominance of the
+species. The struggle for life may deal hardly with the individual,
+but it results&mdash;to quote Darwin&rsquo;s well-known title&mdash;in
+&ldquo;the preservation of favoured races.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;More has been written on bees, and especially on
+the genus <i>Apis</i>, than on any other group of insects. The classical
+observations of Réaumur <i>Mémoires pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire des
+insectes</i>, vols. v., vi. (Paris, 1740-1742) and F. Huber&rsquo;s <i>Nouvelles
+observations sur les abeilles</i> (Genéve, 1792) will never be forgotten;
+they have been matched in recent times by J.H. Fabre&rsquo;s <i>Souvenirs
+entomologiques</i> (Paris, 1879-1891); and M. Maeterlinck&rsquo;s poetic yet
+scientific <i>La vie des abeilles</i> (Paris, 1901). Among writers on the
+solitary and parasitic species may be specially mentioned F. Smith,
+<i>Hymenoptera in the British Museum</i> (London, 1853-1859); H. Friese,
+<i>Zool. Jahrb. Syst.</i>, iv. (1891) J. Pérez, <i>Actes Soc. Bordeaux</i>, xlviii.
+(1895); and C. Verhoeff, <i>Zool. Jahrb. Syst.</i>, vi. (1892). For the
+social species we have valuable papers by E. Hoffer, <i>Mitt. Naturwissen.
+Ver. Steiermark</i>, xxxi. (1881); H. von Jhering, <i>Zool. Jahrb.
+Syst.</i>, xix. (1903); and others. For recent controversy on parthenogenesis
+in the hive bee, see J. Pérez, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.</i> (6), vii.
+(1878); F. Dickel, <i>Zool. Anz.</i>, xxv. (1901), and <i>Anatom. Anzeiger</i>,
+xix. (1902); A. Petrunkevich, <i>Zoolog. Jahrb. Anat.</i>, xiv. (1901);
+and A. Weismann, <i>Anatom. Anzeiger</i>, xviii. (1901). F.R. Cheshire&rsquo;s
+<i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i> (London, 1885-1888), and T.W. Cowan&rsquo;s
+<i>Honey Bee</i> (2nd ed., 1904), are invaluable to the naturalist,
+and contain extensive bibliographies of <i>Apis</i>. D. Sharp&rsquo;s summary in the
+<i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vol. vi., should be consulted for further
+information on bees generally. British bees are described in the
+catalogues of Smith, mentioned above, and by E. Saunders, <i>The
+Hymenoptera of the British Islands</i> (London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Bee-Keeping</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:103px; height:111px" src="images/img629a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Sign of
+the king of Lower
+Egypt; from the
+coffin of Mykerinos,
+3633 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (British
+Museum).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Bee-keeping, or the cultivation of the honey-bee as a source
+of income to those who practise it, is known to have existed
+from the most ancient times. Poets, philosophers, historians
+and naturalists (among whom may be mentioned Virgil, Aristotle,
+Cicero and Pliny) have eulogized the bee as unique among
+insects, endowed by nature with wondrous gifts beneficial to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span>
+mankind in a greater degree than any other creature of the
+insect world. We are told that some of these ancient scientists
+passed years of their lives studying the wonders of bee-life, and
+left accurate records of their observations, which on many points
+agree with the investigations of later observers. As a forcible
+illustration of the manner in which a colony of bees was recognized
+as the embodiment of government by a chief or ruler, in the
+earliest times of which there is any existing record, it may be
+mentioned that on the sarcophagus containing the mummified
+remains of Mykerinos (now in the British
+Museum and dating back 3633 years <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+will be found a hieroglyphic bee, (fig. 8)
+representing the king of Lower Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with the practical side of bee-keeping
+as now understood, it may be said
+that, compared with the methods in vogue
+during the first decade of the 19th century,
+or even within the memory of men still
+living at the beginning of the 20th, it
+is as the modern locomotive to the stagecoach
+of a previous generation. Almost
+everything connected with bee-craft has been revolutionized,
+and apiculture, instead of being classed with such homely
+rural occupations as that of the country housewife who carries a
+few eggs weekly to the market-town in her basket, is to-day
+regarded in many countries as a pursuit of considerable importance.
+<span class="sidenote">Queen-rearing.</span>
+Remarkable progress has also been made in the art of queen-rearing,
+and in improving the common or native bee by judicious crossing
+with the best foreign races, selected mainly for hardiness, working
+qualities and the prolific capacity of their queens. American
+bee-breeders are conspicuous in this respect, extensive apiaries
+being exclusively devoted to the business of rearing queens by the thousand
+for sale and export.</p>
+
+<p>On the European continent queen-rearing apiaries are plentiful,
+but less attention is paid there to hybridizing than to keeping the
+respective races pure. In England also, some bee-keepers include
+queen-rearing as part of their business, while one large apiary
+on the south coast is exclusively devoted to the rearing of queen
+bees on the latest scientific system, and to breeding by selection
+from such races as are most suited to the exceptional climatic
+conditions of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Extensive apiaries have been established on the American
+continent, some containing from 2000 to 3500 colonies of bees,
+and in these honey is harvested in hundreds of tons yearly.
+The magnitude of the bee industry in the United States may be
+judged from the fact of a single bee-farmer located in California
+having harvested from 150,000 &#8468; of honey in one year from
+2000 stocks of bees, and, as an instance of the enormous weight
+of honey obtainable from good hives in that favoured region, the
+same farmer secured 60,000 &#8468; of comb-honey in one season from
+his best 300 colonies. This is probably the maximum, and the
+hives were necessarily located in separate apiaries some few
+miles apart in order to avoid the evils of overstocking, but all
+in the midst of thousands of acres of honey-yielding flowers.
+Results like the above compared with those of the skeppist bee-keeper
+of former days, who was well pleased with an average
+of 20 to 25 &#8468; per hive, may be regarded as wonderful, but
+<span class="sidenote">Honey as food. </span>
+they are matters of fact.  The consumption of honey as an article
+of food has also largely increased of late
+years; a recent computation shows that from 100 to
+125 million &#8468; of honey, representing a money value of from
+eight to ten million dollars, is consumed annually in the United
+States alone. Many of the larger bee-farmers of the United
+States of America and Canada harvest from 50,000 to 60,000 &#8468;
+of honey in a single season, and some of them sell the whole
+crop direct to consumers.</p>
+
+<p>It is a notable fact that in the United States, Canada, Australia,
+New Zealand, and indeed all English-speaking countries outside
+the United Kingdom, honey is far more extensively used than
+it is there as an article of daily food. The natural result of this
+is that the trade in honey is conducted, in those countries, on
+entirely different lines from those followed in the British Isles,
+where honey production as an occupation has, until quite recent
+years, been regarded as too insignificant for official notice in any
+<span class="sidenote">State aid for bee-keeping.</span>
+form. The value of the bee industry is now recognized,
+however, by the British government as worthy of state
+aid, in the promotion of technical instruction connected
+with agriculture. On the American continent apiculture
+is officially recognized by the respective states&rsquo; governments;
+and by the federal government at Washington it is taken into
+account as a section of the Agricultural Department, with fully
+equipped experimental apiaries and qualified professors engaged
+therein for educational work. In several Canadian provinces
+also, the public funds are used in promoting the bee industry in
+various ways, mainly in combating the bee-disease known as
+&ldquo;foul brood.&rdquo; In New Zealand the government of the colony
+has displayed the most praiseworthy earnestness and vigour in
+promoting apiculture. State-aided apiaries have been established
+under the supervision of a skilled bee-keeper, who travels over
+the colony giving instruction in practical bee-work at the public
+schools, and forming classes at various centres where pupils are
+taught bee-keeping in all its branches.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe similar progress is observable; technical schools,
+with well-equipped apiaries attached, are supported by the
+state, and in them the science and practice of modern bee-keeping
+is taught free by scientists and practical experts. Institutions
+of this kind have been established in Germany, Russia,
+Switzerland and elsewhere, all tending in the same direction,
+viz. the cultivation of the honey-bee as an appreciable source of
+income to the farmer, the peasant cultivator, and dwellers in
+districts where bee-forage is abundant and, if unvisited by the
+bee, lies wasting its sweetness on the desert air. It may be
+safely said that the value of the bee to the fruit-grower and the
+market-gardener has been proved beyond dispute; and the
+technical instruction now afforded by county councils in the rural
+<span class="sidenote">Value of bees as fertilizers.</span>
+districts of England has an appreciable effect. In proof
+thereof, we may quote the case of an extensive grower
+in the midland counties&mdash;sending fruit to the London
+market in tons&mdash;whose crop of gooseberries increased
+nearly fourfold after establishing a number of stocks of bees in
+close proximity to the gooseberry bushes. The fruit orchards
+and raspberry fields of Kent are also known to be greatly benefited
+by the numerous colonies of bees owned by more than 3000
+bee-keepers in the county. The important part played by the
+bee in the economy of nature as a fertilizer is shown in fig. 9.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:478px; height:261px" src="images/img629b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;A, Raspberry (<i>Rubus idaeus</i>,
+order <i>Rosaceae</i>), being fertilized. B, Cross section.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Flower.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>p, p</i>, Petals.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>a, a</i>, Anthers.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>s</i>, Stigma.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>no</i>, Nectary openings.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>nc</i>, Nectar cells.</p>
+<p>&emsp;D, Drupels.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>B, Section through core, or torus (C) and drupels (D).</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>ud</i>, Unfertilized drupel.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>ws</i>, Withered stigma.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the United Kingdom the prevailing conditions, climatic
+and otherwise, with regard to apiculture&mdash;as well as the lack of
+sufficient natural bee-forage for large apiaries&mdash;are such as to
+preclude the possibility of establishing apiaries on a scale comparable
+with those located in less confined lands. On the other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span>
+hand, even in England the value of bee-keeping is worthy of
+recognition as a minor industry connected with such items of
+agriculture as fruit-growing, market-gardening or poultry-raising.
+The fact that British honey is second to none for
+quality, and that the British market is eagerly sought by the
+bee-keepers of other nationalities, has of late impressed itself
+on the minds of thinking men. Moreover, their views are confirmed
+by the constant references to bees and the profits obtainable
+from bee-keeping in the leading papers on all sides. This
+newly-aroused interest in the subject is no doubt to a large extent
+fostered by the grants in aid of technical instruction afforded by
+<span class="sidenote">Bee-keepers&rsquo; associations.</span>
+county councils in rural districts. The British Bee-keepers&rsquo;
+Association (instituted in 1874) has been
+untiring in its efforts to raise the standard of efficiency
+among those who are desirous of qualifying as experts
+and teachers of bee-keeping on modern methods. This body had
+for its first president the distinguished naturalist Sir John
+Lubbock (Lord Avebury). Subsequently the baroness Burdett-Coutts
+accepted the office in the year 1878, and was re-elected
+annually until her death in 1906. During this time she presided
+at its meetings and took an active part in its work, until advancing
+years prevented her attendance, but her interest in the
+welfare of the association was maintained to the last. Branch
+societies of bee-keepers were established throughout the English
+counties, mainly by the efforts of the parent body in London,
+with the object of securing co-operation in promoting the sale
+<span class="sidenote">Bee and honey shows.</span>
+of honey, and showing the most modern methods of
+producing it in its most attractive form at exhibitions
+held for the purpose. Nearly the whole of these county
+societies affiliated with the central association, paying
+an affiliation fee yearly, and receiving in return the silver medal,
+bronze medal and certificate of the association, to be offered as
+prizes for competition at the annual county shows. Other advantages
+are given in connexion with the qualifying of experts,
+&amp;c., while nearly all the county associations in the United
+Kingdom employ qualified men who visit members in spring
+and autumn for the purpose of examining hives and giving
+advice on bee management to those needing it. Another
+<span class="sidenote">Honey labels.</span>
+advantage of membership is the use of a &ldquo;county
+label&rdquo; for affixing to each section of honey in comb,
+or jar of extracted honey, offered for sale by members.
+These labels are numbered consecutively, and thus afford a
+guarantee of the genuineness and quality of the honey, the label
+enabling purchasers to trace the producer if needed. The
+British Bee-keepers&rsquo; Association is an entirely philanthropic
+body, the only object of its members being to promote all that
+is good in British bee-keeping, and to &ldquo;teach humanity to that
+industrious little labourer, the honey-bee.&rdquo; Bee-appliance
+manufacturers are not eligible for membership of its council,
+nor are those who make bee-keeping their main business; thus
+no professional jealousies can possibly arise. In this respect the
+association appears to stand alone among the bee-keepers&rsquo;
+societies of the world. There are many equally beneficial
+societies, framed on different lines, existing in Germany, France,
+Russia and Switzerland, but they are mainly co-operative bodies
+instituted for the general benefit of members, who are without
+exception either bee-keepers on a more or less extensive scale,
+or scientists interested in the study of insect life.</p>
+
+<p>The bee-keepers&rsquo; associations of the United States, Canada
+and most of the British colonies, are&mdash;like those last mentioned
+above&mdash;formed for the sole and laudable purpose of promoting
+the business interests of their members, the latter being either
+bee-farmers or bee-appliance manufacturers. Thus they make
+no pretension of any but business discussions at their conferences,
+and much benefit to all concerned follows as a matter of
+course. In fact, we find enthusiastic bee-men and women
+travelling several hundreds of miles and devoting time, money
+and labour in attending conferences of bee-keepers in America,
+while the proceedings usually last for several days and are
+largely attended. The extent of the industry compared with
+that of Great Britain is so great that it fully accounts for the
+difference in procedure of the respective associations.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:355px; height:270px" src="images/img630a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;&ldquo;1-&#8468; section&rdquo; wooden box for
+holding Comb-honey.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Redrawn from the <i>A B C of Bee Culture</i>, published by
+the A. I. Root Co. Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As a natural consequence of this activity, the trade in bee-appliance
+making has assumed enormous proportions in the
+United States, where extensive factories have been
+established; one firm&mdash;employing over 500 hands,
+<span class="sidenote">The bee-appliance trade.</span>
+and using electric-power machinery of the most modern
+type&mdash;being devoted entirely to the manufacture of
+bee-goods and apiarian requisites. From this establishment
+alone the yearly output is about 25,000 bee-hives, and upwards
+of 100 millions of the small wooden boxes used for holding comb-honey.
+The most
+generally approved
+form of this box is
+known as the
+&ldquo;1-&#8468; section,&rdquo;
+made from a strip
+of wood ½ in. thick,
+2 in. wide, and of
+such length that
+when folded by
+joining the morticed
+and tenoned ends
+A B (fig. 10) it
+forms the section of
+box C, measuring
+4¼&Prime; × 4½&Prime; × 2&Prime; when
+complete, and holds
+about 1 &#8468; of comb-honey when filled by the bees and ready
+for table use. The V-shaped groove D (cut across and partly
+through the wood) shows the joint when in the flat, and E the
+same joint when closed for use. All the section boxes used in
+the United Kingdom are made in the U.S.A or in Canada from
+the timber known as basswood, no native wood being suitable
+for the purpose.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:492px; height:226px" src="images/img630b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;Straw skep in section, showing arrangement of Combs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Vertical section.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>fb</i>,      Floor board.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>e</i>,       Entrance.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>br</i>,      Brood</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>p</i>,       Pollen.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>&emsp;<i>h</i>,       Honey.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>fh</i>,      Feeding hole.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>bs, bs</i>,  Bee spaces.</p>
+<p>B, Horizontal section.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 34%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>&emsp;<i>sk</i>,      Skep-side.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>c, c</i>,    Combs.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>sc, sc</i>,  Store combs.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>bs, bs</i>,  Bee spaces.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="3">(from Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Development of the Movable-frame Hive</i>&mdash;The dome-shaped
+straw skep of our forefathers may be regarded as the typical
+bee-hive of all time and of all civilized countries;
+indeed, it may with truth be said that as a healthy
+<span class="sidenote">The straw skep.</span>
+and convenient home for the honey-bee it has no equal.
+A swarm of bees hived in a straw skep, the picturesque little
+domicile known the world over as the personification of industry,
+will furnish their home with waxen combs in form and shape so
+admirably adapted to their requirements as to need no improvement
+by man. Why the circular form was chosen for the skep
+need not be inquired into, beyond saying that its shape conforms
+to that of a swarm, as the bees usually hang clustered on the
+branch of a neighbouring tree or bush after issuing from the
+parent hive. Fig 11 shows a straw skep in section, and explains
+itself as illustrating the admirable way in which the bees furnish
+their dwelling. The vertical section (A) shows the lower portion
+of the combs devoted to brood-rearing, the higher and thicker
+combs being reserved for honey, and midway between the brood
+and food is stored the pollen required for mixing with honey in
+feeding the larvae. It will be seen how well the upper part of
+the combs are fitted for bearing the weight of stores they contain,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span>
+and how the lower portion allows the bees to cluster around the
+tender larvae and thus maintain the warmth necessary during its
+metamorphosis from the egg to the perfect insect. The horizontal
+section (B) with equal clearness demonstrates the bee&rsquo;s
+ingenuity in economizing space, showing how the outer combs
+are used exclusively for stores, and, as such, may be built of
+varying thickness as more or less storage room is required. The
+straw skep has, however, the irredeemable fault of fixed combs,
+<span class="sidenote">The movable-frame hive.</span>
+and the gradual development of the movable-frame
+hive of today may be said to have first appeared in
+1789 with the leaf-hive of Huber, so called from its
+opening like the leaves of a book. Prior to that date
+wooden box-hives of various shapes had been adopted by
+advanced bee-masters anxious to increase their output of honey,
+and by enthusiastic naturalists desirous of studying and investigating
+the wonders of bee-life apart from the utilitarian
+standpoint. Foremost among the latter was the distinguished
+Swiss naturalist and bee-keeper, François Huber, who was led
+to construct the leaf-hive bearing his name after experimenting
+with a single comb observatory hive recommended by Réaumur.
+Huber found that although he could induce swarms to occupy
+the glass-sided single frame advised by Réaumur, if the frame
+was fitted with ready-built pieces of comb patched together
+before hiving the swarm, the experiment was successful, while
+if left to themselves the bees built small combs across the space
+between the sheets of glass, and the desired inspection from the
+outside was thus rendered impossible. He also gathered that the
+abnormal conditions forced upon the bees by a ready-built single
+comb might so turn aside their natural instincts as to render his
+investigations less trustworthy than if conducted under perfectly
+natural conditions; so, in order to remove all doubt, he decided
+to have a series of wooden frames made, measuring 12 in. sq.,
+each of rather more than the ordinary width allowed for brood-combs.
+These frames were numbered consecutively 1 to 12,
+and hinged together as shown in fig. 12 (<i>h</i>, A). In this way the
+frames of comb could be opened for inspection like a book, while
+when closed the bees clustered together as in an ordinary hive.
+Ten of these frames had a small piece of comb fixed to the top-bar
+in each, supported (temporarily) by a thin lath wedged up
+with pegs at side, the latter being removed when the comb had
+been made secure by the bees. When closed, the ten frames,
+together with the two outside ones (fitted with squares of glass
+for inspection), which represent the covers of the book, were tied
+together with a couple of stout strings. In a subsequent form
+of the same hive Huber was enabled&mdash;with the help of very long
+thumb-screws at each side (fig. 13)&mdash;to raise up any frame
+<span class="sidenote">Huber&rsquo;s observatory hive.</span>
+between two sheets of glass which confined the bees
+and allowed him to study the process of comb-building
+better than any hive we know of today. By means
+of the leaf-hive and using the entrances (fig. 12, <i>e, e</i>, A)
+Huber made artificial swarms by dividing and the use of division-boards,
+though not in quite the same fashion as is practised at
+the present day. On the other hand, it must be admitted that
+Huber&rsquo;s hive was defective in many respects; the parting of
+each frame, thus letting loose the whole colony, caused much
+trouble at times, but it remained the only movable-comb hive
+till 1838, when Dr Dzierzon&mdash;whose theory of parthenogenesis
+has made his name famous&mdash;devised a box-hive with a loose
+top-bar on which the bees built their combs and a movable side
+or door, by means of which the frames could be lifted out for
+inspection. This improvement was at once appreciated, and in
+the year 1852 Baron Berlepsch added side-bars and a bottom-bar,
+thus completing the movable frame.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:513px; height:567px" src="images/img631a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;Huber&rsquo;s book or leaf hive.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Book hive.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>e, e</i>, Entrances.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>s, s</i>, Side leaves.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>h</i>,    Hinges.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>B, Side view of frame or leaf.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>tb</i>,   Top-bar</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>c</i>,    Comb.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>p, p</i>, Pegs.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 34%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>C, Part of bin, cross section, lettering as before.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="3">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:291px" src="images/img631b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;Huber&rsquo;s bar-hive, showing how comb is
+built, <i>cb</i>, Comb bar; <i>g, g</i>, glass sheets; <i>s, s</i>, screws; <i>e</i>, entrance</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>About the same time the Rev. L.L. Langstroth was experimenting
+on the same lines in America, and in 1852 his important
+invention was made known, giving to the world of
+bee-keepers a movable frame which in its most important
+<span class="sidenote">Laagstroth&rsquo;s hive.</span>
+details will never be excelled. We refer to the
+respective distances left between the side-bars and hive walls
+on each side, and between the lower edge of the bottom-bars
+and the floor-board. Langstroth, in his measurements, hit upon
+the happy mean which keeps bees from propolizing or fastening
+the frames to the hive body, as they assuredly would do if
+sufficient space had not been allowed for free passage round the
+side-bars; it is equally certain that if too much space had been
+provided, they would fill it with comb and thus render the frame
+immovable. In addition to these benefits, Langstroth&rsquo;s frame
+and hive possessed the enormous advantage over Dzierzon&rsquo;s of
+being manipulated from above, so that any single frame could
+be raised for inspection without disturbing the others. Langstroth&rsquo;s
+space-measurements have remained practically unaltered
+notwithstanding the many improvements in hive-making, and
+in the various sizes of movable frames, since introduced and used
+in different parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States of America Langstroth&rsquo;s frame and hive
+are the acknowledged &ldquo;standards&rdquo; among the great body of
+bee-keepers, although about a dozen different frames,
+varying more or less in size, have their adherents.
+<span class="sidenote">Size of frames in the U.S.A.</span>
+Among these may be named the American, Adair,
+Danzenbaker, Gallup, Heddon, Langstroth and
+Quinby. Three of these, the American, Adair and Gallup, may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span>
+be termed square frames, the others being oblong, but the latter
+shape appears to possess the most all-round advantages to the
+modern bee-keeper. Amid the different climatic conditions of so
+vast a continent as America, variation in size, and in the capacity
+of frames used, is in some measure accounted for.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:183px" src="images/img632a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;Standard Frame.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the British Isles, though the conditions are variable enough,
+they are less extreme, and, fortunately for those engaged in
+the pursuit, only one size of frame is acknowledged by
+the great majority of bee-keepers, viz. the British
+<span class="sidenote">British &ldquo;Standard&rdquo; frame.</span>
+Bee-keepers&rsquo; Association &ldquo;Standard&rdquo; (fig. 14). This
+frame, the outside measurement of which is 14 by 8½
+in., was the outcome of deliberations extending over a considerable
+time on the part of a committee of well-known bee-keepers,
+specially appointed in 1882 to consider the matter. In this way,
+whatever type or form of
+hive is used, the frames
+are interchangeable.
+Differences in view may,
+and do, exist regarding
+the thickness of the wood
+used in frame-making, but
+the <i>outside</i> measurement
+never varies. Notwithstanding
+this fact, the advancement
+of apiculture
+and the continuous development of the modern frame-hive and
+methods of working have proceeded with such rapidity, both
+in England and in America, that hives and appliances used
+prior to 1885 are now obsolete.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 385px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:252px" src="images/img632b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;Langstroth Hive.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Redrawn from the <i>A B C of Bee-Culture</i>,
+  published by the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It may, therefore, be useful to compare the progress made
+in the United States of America and in Great Britain in order to
+show that, while the industry is incomparably larger and of
+more importance in America and Canada than in Great Britain,
+British bee-keepers have been abreast of the times in all things
+apicultural. The original Langstroth hive was single-walled,
+held ten frames (size 17¾ by 9 in.), and had a deep roof, made
+to cover a case of small honey boxes like the sections now in
+use; but the cumbersome projecting porch and sides, made to
+support the roof, are now dispensed with, and the number of
+frames reduced to eight. Although various modifications have
+since been made in minor details&mdash;all tending to improvement&mdash;
+its main features are unaltered. The typical hive of America is
+the <i>improved</i> Langstroth (fig. 15), which has no other
+covering for the frame tops
+but a flat roof-board
+allowing ¼ in. space
+between the roof and
+top-bars for bees to
+pass from frame to
+frame. Consequently,
+on the roof being raised
+the bees can take wing
+if not prevented from
+doing so. This feature
+finds no favour with
+British bee-keepers,
+nevertheless the &ldquo;improved
+Langstroth&rdquo; is
+a useful and simple
+hive, moderate in price,
+and no doubt efficient, but not suitable for bees wintered on their
+summer stands, as nearly all hives are in Great Britain. American bee-keepers,
+<span class="sidenote">Winter cellars for bees.</span>
+therefore, find it necessary to provide
+underground cellars, into which the bees are carried
+in the fall of each year, remaining there till work
+begins in the following spring. Those among them
+who cannot, for various reasons, adopt the cellar-wintering plan
+are obliged to provide what are termed &ldquo;chaff-covers&rdquo; for
+protecting their bees in winter. Of late years they have also
+introduced, as an improvement, the plan long followed in
+England of using double-walled chaff-packed hives. The difference
+here is that packing is now dispensed with, it being found
+that bees winter equally well with an outer case giving 1½ in.
+of free space on all sides of the hive proper, but with no packing
+in between. Thus no change is needed in winter or summer,
+the air-space protecting the bees from cold in winter and heat
+in summer. Another point of difference between the English
+and American hive is the roof, which being gable-shaped in the
+former allows warm packing to be placed directly on the frame
+tops, so that the bees are covered in when the roof is removed
+and may be examined or fed with very little disturbance. Again,
+the American hive is, as a general rule, set close down on the
+ground, while stands or short legs are invariably used in Great
+Britain. One of the best-known hives in England is that known
+as the W.B.C. hive, devised in 1890 by W. Broughton Carr.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 470px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:390px; height:451px" src="images/img632c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;Exterior, W.B.C. Hive.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:365px; height:423px" src="images/img632d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;Interior, W.B.C. Hive.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Figs. 16 and 17 explain its construction and, as will be seen,
+it is equally suitable
+when working
+for comb or
+for extracted
+honey.</p>
+
+<p>Various causes
+have contributed
+to the development
+of the modern hive, the
+most important
+of which are the
+improvements in
+methods of extracting
+honey
+from combs, and
+in the manufacture of comb-foundation.
+Regarding
+the first
+of these, it cannot
+be said that
+the honey extractor,
+even in its latest form, differs very much from the original
+machine (fig. 18) invented by Major Hruschka, an officer in
+the Italian army, who in later life became an enthusiastic apiculturist.
+<span class="sidenote">Honey extractors.</span>
+Hruschka&rsquo;s extractor, first brought to public notice in
+1865, may be said to have revolutionized the bee-industry
+as a business. It enabled the honey producer to increase
+his output considerably by extracting honey from the cells
+in most cleanly
+fashion without
+damaging the
+combs, and in a
+fraction of the time
+previously occupied
+in the draining,
+heating and squeezing process. At
+the same time the
+combs were preserved
+for refilling
+by the bees, in lieu
+of melting them
+down for wax. The
+principle of the
+honey extractor
+(throwing the
+liquid honey out of
+the cells by centrifugal
+force) was
+discovered quite by
+accident. Major
+Hruschka&rsquo;s little son chanced to have in his hand a bit
+of unsealed comb-honey in a basket to which was attached
+a piece of string, and, as the boy playfully whirled the basket
+round in the air, his father noticed a few drops of honey,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span>
+thrown out of the comb by the centrifugal force employed to
+keep the basket suspended. The value of the idea at once struck
+him, he set to work on utilizing the principle involved, and
+ere long had constructed a machine admirably adapted to serve
+its purpose. Since that time changes, of more or less value, have
+been introduced to meet present-day requirements.
+One of the first to take advantage
+of Hruschka&rsquo;s
+invention was Mr A. I. Root,
+who in 1869 perfected a
+machine on similar lines to
+the Hruschka one but
+embodying various improvements.
+This appliance,
+known as the &ldquo;Novice Honey
+Extractor,&rdquo; became very
+popular in the United States of
+America, but it had the fault
+of wasting time in removing
+the combs for reversing after
+one side had been emptied
+of its contents. A simple form of machine for extracting
+honey by centrifugal force was brought to notice in England
+in 1875, and was soon improved upon, as will be seen in fig.
+19, which shows a section of one of the best English machines
+at that time. Various plans were tried in America to improve
+on the &ldquo;Novice&rdquo; machine, and Mr T.W. Cowan, who was
+experimenting in the same direction in England, invented in
+the year 1875 a machine called the &ldquo;Rapid,&rdquo; in which, the combs
+were reversed without removal of the cages (fig. 20).
+The frame-cases&mdash;wired on both sides&mdash;are
+hung at the angles of a revolving
+ring of iron, and the reversing
+process is so simple and effective
+that the &ldquo;Cowan&rdquo; reversible
+frame has been adopted in all
+the best machines both in Great
+Britain and in America.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:278px; height:263px" src="images/img633a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:251px; height:363px" src="images/img633b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;Hruschka Extractor.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;Diagram of the Raynor Extractor.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" style="vertical-align: top;">Redrawn from <i>The A B C of Bee Culture</i>,
+published by the A. I. Root Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td>
+<td class="f90">
+<p>A, Section of extractor.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>fr</i>, Fixing rail</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>ffr</i>, Frame for cage.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>wb</i>, Metal webbing.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>wn</i>, Wire netting.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>co</i>, Comb</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>w</i>, Wire bottom.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>p</i>, Pivot.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>c</i>, Stiffening cone.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>cb</i>, Coned bottom.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>gt</i>, Gutter.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>st</i>, Syrup tap.</p>
+
+<p>C, Perpendicular section of side of cage enlarged.</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>oc</i>, Outer casing</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>wb</i>, Metal webbing</p>
+<p>&emsp;<i>wn</i>, Wire netting</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee keeping, Scientific and Practical.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The latest form of honey
+extractor used in America is that
+known as the &ldquo;Four-frame
+Cowan.&rdquo; Fig. 21 shows the
+working part or inside of the
+appliance. In this, and indeed
+in all extractors used in large
+apiaries, the &ldquo;Cowan&rdquo; or reversible
+frame principle is used.
+Each of the four cages in which
+the combs are placed is swung
+on a pivot attached to the side,
+and when the outer faces of the
+combs are emptied the cages are
+reversed without removal from
+the machine for emptying the
+opposite sides of combs. The
+further development of the
+honey extractor has of late
+been limited to an increase in
+the size of machine used, in
+order to save time and manual
+labour, and thus meet the
+requirements of the largest honey
+producers, who extract honey
+by the car load. Some of the
+largest machines&mdash;propelled by
+motor power&mdash;are capable of
+taking eight or more frames at one time. It may also be claimed
+for the honey extractor that it does away with the objection
+entertained by many persons to the use of honey, by enabling
+the apiarist to remove his produce from the honey-combs in its
+purest form untainted by crushed brood and untouched by hand.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:255px; height:336px" src="images/img633c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;Cowan&rsquo;s rapid Extractor.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:271px; height:314px" src="images/img633d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;Cowan&rsquo;s four-frame Extractor; interior.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Redrawn from <i>The A B C of Bee Culture</i>,
+published by the A. I. Root Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Next in importance, to bee-keepers, is the enormous advance
+made in late years through the invention of a machine for
+manufacturing the impressed wax sheets known as
+&ldquo;comb foundation,&rdquo; aptly so named, because upon
+<span class="sidenote">Comb foundation.</span>
+it the bees build the cells wherein they store their food.
+We need not dwell upon the evolution from the crude
+idea, which first took form in the endeavour to compel bees to build
+straight combs in a given direction by offering them a guiding
+line of wax along the under side of each top-bar of the frame in
+which the combs were built; but we may glance at the more
+important improvements
+which gradually developed
+as time went on. In 1843
+a German bee-keeper,
+Krechner by name, conceived
+the idea of first
+dipping fine linen into
+molten wax, then pressing
+the sheets so made between
+rollers, and thus
+forming a waxen midrib
+on which the bees would
+build their combs. This
+experiment was partially
+successful, but the instinctive
+dislike of bees
+to anything of a fibrous
+nature caused them completely
+to spoil their work
+of comb-building in the endeavour to tear or gnaw away
+the linen threads whenever they got in touch with them.
+In 1857 Mehring (also a German) made a further advance
+by the use of wooden moulds for casting sheets of wax impressed
+with the hexagonal form of the bee-cell. These
+sheets were readily accepted by the bees, and afterwards
+plates cast from metal were employed, with so good a result as to
+give to the bees as perfect a midrib as that of natural comb with
+the deep cell walls cut away. Fig. 22 shows a portion of one of
+these metal plates with worker-cells of natural size, <i>i.e.</i> five cells
+to the inch. Thus Mehring is justly claimed as the originator
+of comb-foundation, though the value of his invention was less
+eagerly taken advantage of even in Germany than its merits
+deserved. Probably it was ahead of the times, for not until
+nearly twenty years later was any prominence given to it, when
+Samuel Wagner, founder
+and editor of the <i>American Bee
+Journal</i>, became impressed
+with Mehring&rsquo;s invention and
+warmly advocated it in his
+paper. Mr Wagner first conceived
+the idea of adding
+slightly raised side walls to the
+hexagonal outlines of the cells,
+by means of which the bees are
+supplied with the material for
+building out one-half or more
+of the complete cell walls
+or sides. The manifest advantage
+of this was at once
+realized by practical American
+apiarists as saving labour
+to the bees and money to the
+bee-keeper. One of the first
+to recognize its value was Mr
+A I. Root, of Medina, Ohio,
+who suggested the substitution of embossed rollers in lieu of
+flat plates, in order to increase the output of foundation
+and lessen its cost to the bee-keeper. He lost no time in
+giving practical shape to his views, and mainly through
+the inventive genius of a skilled machinist (Mr A. Washburn)
+the A. I. Root Co. constructed a roller press (fig 23) for
+producing foundation in sheets. This form of machine came
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span>
+into extensive use in the United States of America and afterwards
+in Great Britain. The first roller press was made
+by the A.I. Root Co. and imported by Mr William Raitt, a
+Scottish bee-keeper of repute in Perthshire, N.B. In all roller
+machines used at that time the plain sheets of wax were first
+made by the &ldquo;dipping&rdquo; process, <i>i.e.</i> by repeated dippings of
+damped boards in molten wax (kept in liquid condition in tanks immersed in
+hot water) until the sheet was of suitable thickness for the purpose. The
+prepared sheets were then passed through the rollers, and after being cut
+out and trimmed were ready for use.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:225px" src="images/img634a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;Portion of a type-metal plate&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>
+form of Comb Midrib (five cells to the inch).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Owing to the enormous demand for comb-foundation at
+that time various devices were tried with the view of securing (1)
+more rapid production, and (2) a foundation thin enough to be
+used in surplus chambers when working for comb-honey intended
+for table use. Foremost among the able men who experimented
+in this latter direction was Mr F.B. Weed, a skilful American
+machinist, who, after some years of strenuous effort, succeeded
+in devising and perfecting special rollers and dies, by the use of
+which foundation was produced with a midrib so thin as to
+compare favourably with natural comb built by the bees.
+&ldquo;Dipping,&rdquo; however, proved not only a stumbling-block to
+speed but to the production of continuous sheets of wax; and
+in the end Mr Weed, acting in concert with Mr A.I. Root (who
+placed the resources of his enormous factory at his disposal),
+devised and perfected machinery&mdash;driven by motor power&mdash;for
+manufacturing foundation by what is known as the &ldquo;Weed&rdquo;
+process. By this process &ldquo;dipping&rdquo; is abolished, and in its
+latest form sheets of wax of any length are produced, passed
+between engraved rollers 6 in in diameter, cut to given lengths,
+trimmed, counted and paper-tissued ready for packing, at a
+rate of speed previously undreamt of.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:534px; height:485px" src="images/img634b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;Foundation Machine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Practical Management of Bees.</i>&mdash;Among the world of insects
+the honey-bee stands pre-eminent as the most serviceable to
+mankind; from the day on which the little labourer leaves its
+home for the first time in search of food, its mission is undoubtedly
+useful. Launched upon an unknown world, and
+guided by unerring instinct to the very flowers it seeks, the bee
+fertilizes fruit and flowers while winging its happy flight among
+the blossoms, gathering pollen for the nurslings of its own home
+and honey for the use of man. Nothing seems to be lost, nor can
+any part of the bee&rsquo;s work be accounted labour in vain; the
+very wax from which the insect builds the store-combs for its
+food and the cells in which its young are hatched and reared is
+valuable to mankind in many ways, and is regarded today no
+less than in the past ages as an important commercial product.
+The hive bee is, moreover, the only insect known to be capable
+of domestication, so far as labouring under the direct control of
+the bee-master is concerned, its habits being admirably adapted
+for embodying human methods of working for profit in our
+present-day life.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with the practical side of apiculture it will not be
+necessary to do more than mention the salient points to be
+considered by those desirous of acquiring more complete knowledge
+of the subject. Authoritative text-books specially written
+for the guidance of bee-keepers are numerous and cheap, and on
+no account should any one engage in an attempt to manage bees
+on modern lines without a careful perusal of one or more of these.
+Bearing this in mind the reader will understand that so much of
+the natural history of the honey-bee as is necessary for elucidating
+the practical part of our subject may be comprised in
+(1) the life of the insect, (2) its mission in life, and (3) utilizing
+to the utmost the brief period during which it can labour before being
+worn out with toil.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:370px; height:165px" src="images/img634c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;Hive bee (<i>Apis mellafica</i>).
+<i>a</i>, Worker; <i>b</i>, queen; <i>c</i>, drone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and
+Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A prosperous bee-colony managed on modern lines will in the
+height of summer consist of three kinds of bees: a queen or
+mother-bee, a certain number of drones, and from
+80,000 to 100,000 workers. With regard to sex, the
+<span class="sidenote">Sex of bees.</span>
+queen is a fully-developed female, the drones are males
+and the workers may be termed neuters or partially developed
+females. These last possess ovaries like the queen, but shrunken
+and aborted so as to render the insect normally incapable of
+egg-production. The relative importance of the three kinds of bees,
+differs greatly in a degree and in somewhat curious fashion.
+For instance, the queen (or &ldquo;king&rdquo; of the hives as it was termed
+by our forefathers) is of paramount importance at certain
+<span class="sidenote">Loss of queens.</span>
+seasons, her death or disablement during the period
+when the male element is absent meaning extinction
+of the whole colony. Fecundation would under such conditions
+be impossible, and without this the eggs of a resultant
+queen will produce nothing but drones. During the summer
+season, however (from May to July), when drones are abundant,
+the loss of a queen is of comparatively little moment, as the
+workers can transform eggs (or young larvae not more than three
+days old), which would in the ordinary course produce worker
+bees, into fully-developed queens, capable of fulfilling all the
+maternal duties of a mother-bee. The value of this wonderful
+provision of nature to the bee-keeper of today may be estimated
+from the fact that bees managed according to modern methods are
+necessarily subject to so much manipulating or handling, that
+fatal accidents are as likely to happen in bee life as among
+human beings.</p>
+
+<p>Authorities differ with regard to the age during which the
+queen bee is useful to the bee-keeper who works for profit.
+Under normal conditions the insect will live for three, four or
+sometimes five years, but the stimulation given together with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span>
+the high-pressure system followed in modern bee-management,
+exhausts the period of her greatest fecundity in two years, so
+that queens are usually superseded after their second season
+has expired and egg-production gradually decreases. This can
+hardly cause wonder if it is borne in mind that for many weeks
+during the height of the season a prolific queen will deposit eggs
+at the rate of from two to three thousand every twenty-four
+hours.</p>
+
+<p>Drones (or male bees) are more or less numerous in hives
+according to the skill of the bee-keeper in limiting their production.
+It is admitted by those best able to judge
+that the proportion of about a hundred drones in each
+<span class="sidenote">The drone.</span>
+hive is conducive to the prosperity of the colony, but
+beyond that number they are worse than useless, being non-producers
+and heavy consumers. Thus in times of scarcity,
+which are not infrequent during the early part of the season,
+they become a heavy tax upon the food-supply of the colony
+at the critical period when brood-rearing is accelerated by an
+abundance of stores, while shortness of food means a falling-off
+in egg-production. The modern bee-keeper, therefore,
+allows just so much drone comb in the hive as will produce
+a sufficient number of drones to ensure queen-mating, while
+affording to the bees the satisfaction of dwelling in a home
+equipped according to natural conditions, and containing all
+the elements necessary to bee-life. The action of the bees
+themselves makes this point clear, for when the season of mating
+is past the drone is no longer needed, the providing of winter
+stores taking first place in the economy of the hive. So long
+as honey is being gathered in plenty drones are tolerated, but
+no sooner does the honey harvest show signs of being over than
+they are mercilessly killed and cast out of the hive by the workers,
+after a brief idle life of about four months&rsquo; duration. Thus
+the &ldquo;lazy yawning drone,&rdquo; as Shakespeare puts it, has a short
+shrift when his usefulness to the community is ended.</p>
+
+<p>Finally we have the aptly named worker-bee, on whom devolves
+the entire labour of the colony. The worker-bee is incapable
+of egg-production and can therefore take no part in
+the perpetuation of its species, so that individually its
+<span class="sidenote">The worker-bee.</span>
+value to the community is infinitesimal. Yet it forms
+an item in a commonwealth, the members of which are
+in all respects equally well endowed. They are in turn skilled
+scientists, architects, builders, artisans, labourers and even
+scavengers; but collectively they are the rulers on whom the
+colony depends for the wonderful condition of law and order
+which has made the bee-community a model of good government
+for all mankind. Then so far as regards longevity, the period
+<span class="sidenote">Longevity in bees.</span>
+of a worker-bee&rsquo;s existence is not measured by numbering
+its days but simply by wear and tear, the marvellous
+intricacy and wonderful perfection of its framework
+being so delicate in construction that after six or seven weeks of
+strenuous toil, such as the bee undergoes in summer time, the
+little creature&rsquo;s labour is ended by a natural death. On the other
+hand, worker-bees hatched in the autumn will seven months
+later be strong with the vigour of lusty youth, able to take
+their full share in the labour of the hive for six weeks or more
+in the early spring, which is the most critical period in the colony&rsquo;s
+existence; hence the value to the apiarist of bees hatched
+in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p>The mission of the worker-bee is <i>work</i>; not so much for itself
+as for the younger members of the community to which it belongs.
+We cannot claim for it the virtue of strict honesty with regard
+to the stranger, but for its own &ldquo;kith and kin&rdquo; it is a model of
+socialism in an ideal form, possessing nothing of its own yet
+toiling unceasingly for the good of all. The increasing warmth
+of each recurring spring finds the bee awake, and full of eagerness
+to be up and doing; its sole mission being apparently to accomplish
+as much work as possible while life lasts. The earliest
+pollen is sought out from far and near, and has its immediate effect
+upon the mother bee of the colony. If healthy and young she
+begins egg-laying at once, and brood-rearing proceeds at an
+ever-increasing rate as each week passes, until the hive is
+brimming over with bees in time for the first honey flow. Then
+comes the almost human foresight with which the bee prevents
+the inevitable chaos created by an overcrowded home. There
+is no cell-room either for storing the abundant supply of food
+constantly being brought in, or for the thousands of eggs which
+a prolific queen will produce daily as a consequence of general
+prosperity; therefore unless help comes from without an exodus
+is prepared for, and what is known as &ldquo;swarming&rdquo; takes
+place.</p>
+
+<p>It would be difficult to imagine anything more exhilarating
+to a beginner in bee-keeping than the sight of his first hive in
+the act of swarming. The little creatures are seen
+rushing in frantic haste from the hive like a living
+<span class="sidenote">Swarming.</span>
+stream, filling the air with ever-increasing thousands of
+bees on the wing. The incoming workers returning pollen-laden
+from the fields, carried away by the prevailing excitement, do
+not stop to unload their burdens in the old home, but join the
+enthusiastic emigrants, tumbling over each other pell-mell
+in the outrush; among them the queen of the colony will in due
+course have taken her place, bound like her children for a new
+home. It soon becomes apparent to the onlooker when the
+queen has joined the flying multitude of bees in the air, for they
+are seen to be closing up their ranks, and in a few moments
+begin to form a solid cluster, usually on the branch of a small
+tree or bush close to the ground. When this stage of swarming
+is reached the bee-keeper has but to take his hiving skep, hold it
+under the swarm, and shake the bees into it, preparatory to transferring
+<span class="sidenote">Hiving swarms.</span>
+them into a frame-hive already prepared for their reception.
+The process of hiving a swarm is very simple and need not occupy many
+moments of time under ordinary conditions, but so many unlooked-for
+contingencies may arise that the apiarist would do well to prepare
+himself beforehand by carefully reading the directions in his
+text-book.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:489px; height:402px" src="images/img635.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.&mdash;Honeycomb, Metamorphoses of the Honey Bee.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The illustration given in fig. 25 will serve more readily than
+words to enlighten the would-be bee-keeper. It shows a portion
+of honeycomb (natural size) not precisely as it appears when
+the frame containing it is lifted out of the hive, but as would be
+seen on two or more combs in the same hive, namely, the various
+cells built for&mdash;and occupied by&mdash;queens, drones and workers;
+also the larvae or grubs in the various stages of transformation
+from egg to perfect insect, with the latter biting their way out
+of sealed cells. It also shows sealed honey and pollen in cells,
+&amp;c. To familiarize himself with the various objects depicted,
+all of which are drawn from nature, will not only help the reader
+to understand the different phases of bee-life during the swarming
+season, but tend to increase the interest of beginners in
+the pursuit. &ldquo;Early drones, early swarms&rdquo; was the ancient
+bee-man&rsquo;s favourite adage, and the skilled apiarist of to-day
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span>
+experiences the same pleasurable thrill as did the skeppist of
+old at the sight of the first drone of the year, which betokens
+an early swarm. As the drones increase in number queen-cells
+are formed, unless steps be taken to turn aside the swarming
+impulse by affording additional room beforehand in the hive.
+The above brief outline of the guiding principles of natural
+swarming is merely intended as introductory to the fuller
+information given in a good text-book.</p>
+
+<p><i>Management of an Apiary.</i>&mdash;The main consideration in establishing
+an apiary is to secure a favourable location, which means
+a place where honey of good marketable quality may be gathered
+from the bee-forage growing around without any planting on
+the part of the bee-keeper himself. It is impossible to deal
+here with the varying conditions under which apiculture is
+carried on in all parts of the world, but, as a rule, the same
+principle applies everywhere. The bee industry prospers greatly
+<span class="sidenote"> Bee-forage in U.S.A.</span>
+in America, where amid the vast stretches of mountain
+and canyon in California the bee-forage extends for
+miles without a break, and the climatic conditions
+are so generally favourable as to reduce to a minimum
+the chances of the honey crop failing through adverse weather.</p>
+
+<p>The bee-keeper&rsquo;s object is to utilize to the utmost the brief
+space of a worker-bee&rsquo;s life in summer, by adopting the best
+methods in vogue for building up stocks to full strength before
+the honey-gathering time begins, and preparing for it by the
+exercise of skill and intelligence in carrying out this work.</p>
+
+<p>In the United Kingdom there is a difference of several weeks
+in the honey season between north and south. Swarming
+usually begins in May in the south of England, and in mid-July
+in the north of Scotland, the issue of swarms coinciding with the
+early part of the main honey flow. The weather is naturally
+more precarious in autumn than earlier in the year, and chances
+of success proportionately smaller for northern bee-men, but
+the disadvantage to the latter is more than compensated for
+by the heather season, which extends well into September.
+With regard to the British bee-keeper located in the south,
+<span class="sidenote">Value of pollen.</span>
+the early fruit crop is what concerns him most, and
+where pollen (the fertilizing dust of flowers) is plentiful
+his bees will make steady progress. If pollen is scarce,
+a substitute in the form of either pea-meal or wheaten flour
+must be supplied to the bees, as brood-rearing cannot make
+headway without the nitrogenous element indispensable in the
+food on which the young are reared. But the main honey-crop
+of both north and south is gathered from the various trifoliums,
+<span class="sidenote">The queen of bee-plants.</span>
+among which the white Dutch or common clover
+(<i>Trifolium repens</i>) is acknowledged to be the most
+important honey-producing plant wherever it grows.
+In the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand
+and in many other parts of the world honey of the finest quality
+is obtained from this &ldquo;queen of bee-plants,&rdquo; and in lesser degree
+from other clovers such as sainfoin, alsike (a hybrid clover),
+trefoil, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Before undertaking the management of a modern apiary, the
+bee-keeper should possess a certain amount of aptitude for
+the pursuit, without which it is hardly possible to succeed. He
+must also acquire the ability to handle bees judiciously and
+well under all imaginable conditions. In doing this it is needful
+to remember that bees resent outside interference with either
+their work or their hives, and will resolutely defend themselves
+when aroused even at the cost of life itself. Experience has also
+proved that, when alarmed, bees instinctively begin to fill their
+honey-sacs with food from the nearest store-cells as a safeguard
+against contingencies, and when so provided they are more
+amenable to interference. The bee-keeper, therefore, by the
+judicious application of a little smoke from smouldering fuel,
+blown into the hive by means of an appliance known as a bee-smoker,
+alarms the bees and is thus able to manipulate the frames
+of comb with ease and almost no disturbance. The smoker
+(fig. 26) devised by T.F. Bingham of Farwell, Michigan, U.S.A.,
+is the one most used in America and in the United Kingdom.
+No other protection is needed beyond a bee-veil of fine black
+net, which slipped over a wide-brimmed straw hat protects the
+face from stings when working among bees; as experience is
+gained the veil is not always used. The man who is hasty and
+nervous in temperament, who fears an occasional sting, and
+resents the same by viciously killing the bee that inflicts it
+will rarely make a good apiarist.  The methods of handling bees
+vary in different countries, this being in a great measure
+accounted for by the number of hives kept. Very few apiaries
+in the United Kingdom contain more than a hundred hives;
+consequently the British bee-keeper has no need for employing
+the forceful or &ldquo;hustling&rdquo; methods found necessary in America,
+<span class="sidenote">British and American methods.</span>
+where the honey-crop is gathered in car-loads and the
+hives numbered by thousands. It naturally follows
+that bee-life is there regarded very slightly by comparison,
+and the bee-garden in England becomes
+the &ldquo;bee-yard&rdquo; in America, where the apiarist when at work
+must thoroughly protect himself from being stung, and, safe
+in his immunity from damage, cares little for bee-life in getting
+through his task, the loss of a few
+hundred bees being considered of
+no account. There are, however,
+other reasons, apart from humanity,
+to account for the difference in
+handling bees as advocated in
+the United Kingdom. The great
+majority of apiaries owned by
+British bee-keepers are located in
+close proximity to neighbours;
+consequently a serious upset among
+the bees would in many cases involve
+an amount of trouble which
+should if possible be avoided;
+therefore quietness and the exercise
+of care when manipulating are
+always recommended by teachers,
+and practised by those who wisely
+take their lessons to heart.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 285px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:234px; height:333px" src="images/img636.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.&mdash;Bee-Smoker.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Redrawn from the <i>A B C of Bee-Culture</i>,
+published by the A.I. Root Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Having made himself proficient
+in practical bee-work and chosen a suitable location for
+his apiary, the bee-keeper should carefully select the particular
+type of hive most suited to his means and
+requirements. This point settled, uniformity is
+<span class="sidenote">Chosing a location.</span>
+secured, and all loose parts of the hives being
+interchangeable time will be saved during the busy season
+when time means money. Beginning with not too many
+stocks he can test the capabilities of his location before
+investing much capital in the undertaking, so that by utilizing
+the information already given and adopting the wise adage
+&ldquo;make haste slowly&rdquo; he will realize in good time whether it
+will pay best to work for honey in comb or extracted honey
+in bulk; not only so, but the knowledge gained will enable
+him to select such appliances as are suited to his needs. As a rule,
+<span class="sidenote">Bee-keeping for profit.</span>
+it may be said that the man content to start with an
+apiary of moderate size&mdash;say fifty stocks&mdash;may
+realize a fair profit from comb-honey only; but so
+limited a venture would need to be supplemented
+by some other means before an adequate income could be secured.
+On the other hand, the owner of one or two hundred colonies
+would find it more lucrative to work for extracted honey and send
+it out to wholesale buyers in that form. By so doing a far
+greater weight of surplus per hive may be secured, and extracted
+honey will keep in good condition for years, while comb-honey
+must be sold before granulation sets in. At the same time it
+is but fair to say that bee-culture in the United Kingdom, if
+limited to honey-production alone, is not sufficiently safe for
+entire reliance to be placed on it for obtaining a livelihood.
+The uncertain climate renders it necessary to include either
+other branches of the craft less dependent on warmth and
+sunshine, or to combine it with fruit-growing, poultry-rearing,
+&amp;c. Under such conditions the bees will usually occupy a good
+position in the balance-sheet.</p>
+
+<p>Another indispensable feature of good bee-management is
+&ldquo;forethought,&rdquo; coupled with order and neatness; the rule of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span>
+&ldquo;a place for everything and everything in its place&rdquo; prepares
+the bee-keeper for any emergency; constant watchfulness is
+<span class="sidenote">Need of forethought.</span>
+also necessary, not only to guard against disease in
+his hives, but to overlook nothing that tends to be of
+advantage to the bees at all seasons. Among the many
+ways of saving time nothing is more useful than a
+carefully-kept note-book, wherein are recorded brief memoranda
+regarding such items as condition of each stock when packed
+for winter, amount of stores, age and prolific capacity of queen,
+strength of colony, healthiness or otherwise, &amp;c., all of which
+particulars should be noted and the hives to which they refer
+plainly numbered. It also enables the bee-keeper to arrange his
+day&rsquo;s work indoors while avoiding disturbance to such colonies
+as do not need interference. In the early spring stores must be
+seen to and replenished where required; breeding stimulated
+when pollen begins to be gathered, and appliances cleaned and
+prepared for use during the busy season.</p>
+
+<p>The main honey-gathering time (lasting about six or seven
+weeks) is so brief that in no pursuit is it more important to
+&ldquo;make hay while the sun shines,&rdquo; and if the bee-keeper
+needs a reminder of this truism he surely has it in the
+<span class="sidenote">Length of bee season.</span>
+example set by his bees. As the season advances and
+the flowers yield nectar more freely, visible signs of comb-building
+will be observed in the whitened edges of empty
+cells in the brood-chambers; the thoughtful workers are
+lengthening out the cells for honey-storing, and the bee-master
+takes the hint by giving room in advance, thus lessening the
+chance of undesired swarms. In other words, order and method,
+combined with the habit of taking time by the forelock, are
+absolutely necessary to the bee-keeper, seeing that the enormous
+army of workers under his control is multiplying daily by
+scores of thousands. As spring merges into summer, sunny days
+become more frequent; the ever-increasing breadth of bee-forage
+yields still more abundantly, and the excitement among
+the labourers crowding the hives increases, rendering room in
+advance, shade and ventilation, a <i>sine qua non</i>.
+It requires a level head to keep cool amongst a couple of hundred
+strong stocks of bees on a hot summer&rsquo;s day in a good honey season.
+<span class="sidenote">Swarm prevention.</span>
+Moreover, it will be too late to think of giving ventilation
+at noontide, when the temperature has risen to
+80° F. in the shade; the necessary precautions for
+swarm prevention must therefore be taken in advance,
+for when what is known as the &ldquo;swarming fever&rdquo; once starts
+it is most difficult to overcome.</p>
+
+<p>The well-read and intelligent bee-keeper, content to work on
+orthodox lines, will be able to manage an apiary&mdash;large or small&mdash;by
+guiding and controlling the countless army he commands in a
+way that will yield him both pleasure and profit. All he needs
+is good bee weather and an apiary free from disease to make him
+appreciate bee-craft as one of the most remunerative of rural
+industries; affording a wholesome open-air life conducive to
+good health and yielding an abundance of contentment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of Bees</i>.&mdash;It is quite natural that bees living in
+colonies should be subject to diseases, and only since the
+introduction of movable-comb hives has it been possible to learn
+something about these ailments. The most serious disease with
+which the bee-keeper has to contend is that commonly known
+as &ldquo;bee-pest&rdquo; or &ldquo;foul brood,&rdquo; so called because of the young
+brood dying and rotting in the cells. This disease has been
+known from the earliest ages, and is probably the same as that
+designated by Pliny as <i>blapsigonia (Natural History</i>, bk. xi.
+ch. xx.). Coming to later times, Della Rocca minutely describes
+a disease to which bees were subject in the island of Syra, between
+the years 1777 and 1780, and through which nearly every colony
+in the island perished. From the description given it was
+undoubtedly foul brood, and the bee-keepers of the island
+became convinced, after bitter experience, that it was extremely
+contagious. Schirach also mentioned and described the disease
+in 1769, and was the first to give it the name of &ldquo;foul brood.&rdquo;
+Still later, in 1874, Dr Cohn, after the most exhaustive experiments
+and bacteriological research, realized that the disease was
+caused by a bacillus, and&mdash;nine years later&mdash;the name <i>Bacillus
+alvei</i> was given to it by Cheyne and Cheshire, whose views were
+in agreement with those of Dr Cohn.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration (fig. 27) shows a portion of comb affected with
+foul brood in its worst form. The sealed cells are dark-coloured
+and sunken, pierced with irregular holes, and the larvae in all
+stages from the crescent-shaped healthy condition to that in
+which the dead larvae are seen lying at the bottom of the cells,
+flaccid and shapeless. The remains then change to buff colour,
+afterwards turning brown, when decomposition sets in, and as
+the bacilli present in the dead larvae increase and the nutrient
+matter is consumed, the mass in some cases becomes sticky and
+ropy in character, making its removal impossible by the bees.
+In course of time it dries up, leaving nothing but a brown scale
+adhering to the bottom or side of the cell. In the worst cases
+the larvae even die after the cells are sealed over; a strong
+characteristic and offensive odour being developed in some
+phases of the disease, noticeable at times some distance away
+from the hive.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:485px; height:314px" src="images/img637.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.&mdash;Foul Brood (<i>Bacillus alvei</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire&rsquo;s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Two forms of foul brood have been long known, one foul
+smelling, the other odourless; and investigations made during
+1906 and 1907 showed that the etiology of the disease is not by
+any means simple, but that it is produced by different microbes,
+two others in addition to <i>Bacillus alvei</i> playing an important
+part. These are <i>Bacillus brandenburgiensis</i>, Maassen (syn.
+<i>B. burri</i>, Burri: <i>B. larvae</i>, white), and <i>Streptococcus apis</i>,
+Maassen (syn. <i>B. Guntheri</i>, Burri). The first two are found in
+both forms of foul brood, whereas the last is only present with
+<i>B. alvei</i> in the strong-smelling form of the disease, in which the
+larvae are attacked prior to the cells being sealed over.</p>
+
+<p>The brood of bees, when healthy, lies in the combs in compact
+masses, the larvae being plump and of a pearly whiteness, and
+when quite young curled up on their sides at the base of the
+cells. When attacked by the disease, the larva moves uneasily,
+stretches itself out lengthwise in the cell, and finally becomes
+loose and flabby, an appearance which plainly indicates death.</p>
+
+<p>When the disease attacks the larvae before they are sealed
+over <i>Bacillus alvei</i> is present, usually associated with
+<i>Streptococcus apis</i>, which latter imparts a sour smell to the dead
+brood. In cases where the disease is odourless the larvae are attacked
+after the cells are sealed over, and just before they change to
+pupae, when they become slimy, sputum-like masses, difficult
+to remove from the cells. Under these conditions <i>Bacillus
+brandenburgiensis</i> is found, although <i>Bacillus alvei</i> may also
+be present. The two bacilli are antagonistic, each striving for
+supremacy, first one then the other predominating. Various
+other microbes are also present in large numbers, but are not
+believed to be pathogenic or disease-producing in character.</p>
+
+<p>It is, therefore, seen that at least three different microbes play
+an important part in the same disease. The danger of contagion
+lies in the wonderful vitality of the spores, and their great
+resistance to heat and cold. Dr Maassen records a case where
+he had no difficulty in obtaining cultures from spores removed
+from combs after being kept dry for twenty years. It should be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span>
+borne in mind that the disease is much easier to cure in the
+earlier stages while the bacilli are still rod-shaped than when the
+rods have turned to spores.</p>
+
+<p>Since the bacterial origin of foul brood has been established,
+the efforts of some bacteriologists have been employed in finding
+a simple remedy by means of which the disease may be checked
+in its earliest stages, and in this an appreciable amount of success
+has been attained. Nor has foul brood in its more advanced
+forms been neglected, all directions for treatment being found
+in text-books written by distinguished writers on apiculture in
+the United Kingdom, America and throughout the European continent.</p>
+
+<p>The only other disease to which reference need be made here
+is dysentery, which sometimes breaks out after the long
+confinement bees are compelled to undergo during severe winters.
+This trouble may be guarded against by feeding the bees in the
+early autumn with good food made from cane sugar, and housing
+them in well-ventilated hives kept warm and dry by suitable
+coverings. When bees are wintered on thin, watery food not
+sealed over, and are unable for months to take cleansing flights,
+they become weak and involuntarily discharge their excrement
+over the combs and hive, a state of things never seen in a healthy
+colony under normal conditions. The stocks of bee-keepers
+who attend to the instructions given in text-books are rarely
+visited by this disease.</p>
+
+<p>The above embraces all that is necessary to be said in relation
+to diseases, though bees have been subject to other ailments
+such as paralysis, constipation, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In the Isle of Wight a serious epidemic broke out in 1906
+which caused great destruction to bee-life in the following year.
+The malady was of an obscure character, but its cause has been
+under investigation by the British Board of Agriculture and
+Fisheries, and by European bacteriologists in 1908.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Though in modern times a great deal has appeared
+in the daily newspapers on the subject, it is a notable fact that not a
+tithe of the wonderful things published in such articles about bees
+and bee-keeping is worthy of credence or possesses any real value.
+Indeed, a pressman possessing any technical knowledge of the
+subject&mdash;beyond that obtainable from books&mdash;would be a <i>rara avis</i>.
+The account given above is the result of forty years&rsquo; practical
+experience with bees in England, the writer having for a great
+portion of the time been connected editorially with the only two
+papers in that country entirely devoted to bees and bee-keeping,
+<i>The British Bee Journal</i> (weekly, founded 1873), and <i>Bee-keepers&rsquo;
+Record</i> (monthly, founded 1882), the former being the only weekly
+journal in the world. The following books on the subject may be
+consulted for further details:&mdash;François Huber, <i>New Observations
+on the Natural History of Bees</i>;
+T.W. Cowan, <i>British Bee-keepers&rsquo; Guide-Book,
+The Honey Bee, its Natural History, Anatomy and Physiology;
+Langstroth on the Honey Bee</i>, revised by C. Dadant &amp; Son;
+A.I. Root, <i>A B C and X Y Z of Bee-culture</i>;
+F.R. Cheshire, <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>;
+Dr Dzierzon, <i>Rational Bee-keeping</i>;
+E. Bertrand, <i>Conduite du rucher</i>;
+A.J. Cook, <i>Manual of the Apiary</i>;
+Dr C.C. Miller, <i>Forty Years among the Bees</i>;
+F.W.L. Sladen, <i>Queen-rearing in England</i>;
+S. Simmins, <i>A Modern Bee Farm</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B. Ca.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEECH,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a well-known tree, <i>Fagus sylvatica</i>, a member of the
+order Fagaceae to which belong the sweet-chestnut (<i>Castanea</i>)
+and oak. The name beech is from the Anglo-Saxon <i>boc, bece</i> or
+<i>beoce</i> (Ger. <i>Buche</i>, Swedish, <i>bok</i>), words meaning at once a book
+and a beech-tree. The connexion of the beech with the graphic
+arts is supposed to have originated in the fact that the ancient
+Runic tablets were formed of thin boards of beech-wood. &ldquo;The
+origin of the word,&rdquo; says Prior (<i>Popular Names of British Plants</i>),
+&ldquo;is identical with that of the Sanskrit <i>b&#333;k&#333;</i>, letter, <i>b&#333;k&#333;s</i>, writings;
+and this correspondence of the Indian and our own is interesting
+as evidence of two things, viz. that the Brahmins had the art of
+writing before they detached themselves from the common stock
+of the Indo-European race in Upper Asia, and that we and other
+Germans have received alphabetic signs from the East by a
+northern route and not by the Mediterranean.&rdquo; Beech-mast,
+the fruit of the beech-tree, was formerly known in England as
+buck; and the county of Buckingham is so named from its fame
+as a beech-growing country. Buckwheat (<i>Bucheweizen</i>) derives
+its name from the similarity of its angular seeds to beech-mast.
+The generic name Fagus is derived from <span class="grk" title="phagein">&#966;&#940;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> to eat; but the
+<span class="grk" title="phaegos">&#966;&#951;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span> of Theophrastus was probably the sweet chestnut
+(<i>Aesculus</i>) of the Romans. Beech-mast has been used as food in times of
+distress and famine; and in autumn it yields an abundant supply
+of food to park-deer and other game, and to pigs, which are
+turned into beech-woods in order to utilize the fallen mast. In
+France it is used for feeding pheasants and domestic poultry.
+Well-ripened beech-mast yields from 17 to 20% of non-drying
+oil, suitable for illumination, and said to be used in some parts
+of France and other European countries in cooking, and as a
+substitute for butter.</p>
+
+<p>The beech is one of the largest British trees, particularly on
+chalky or sandy soils, native in England from Yorkshire southwards,
+and planted in Scotland and Ireland. It is one of the
+common forest trees of temperate Europe, spreading from
+southern Norway and Sweden to the Mediterranean. It is
+found on the Swiss Alps to about 5000 ft. above sea-level, and
+in southern Europe is usually confined to high mountain slopes;
+it is plentiful in southern Russia, and is widely distributed in
+Asia Minor and the northern provinces of Persia.</p>
+
+<p>It is characterized by its sturdy pillar-like stem, often from
+15 to 20 ft. in girth, and smooth olive-grey bark. The main
+branches rise vertically, while the subsidiary branches spread
+outwards and give the whole tree a rounded outline. The
+slender brown pointed buds give place in April to clear green
+leaves fringed with delicate silky hairs. The flowers which
+appear in May are inconspicuous and, as usual with our forest
+trees, of two kinds; the male, in long-stalked globular clusters,
+hang from the axils of the lower leaves of a shoot, while the
+female, each of two or three flowers in a tiny cup (cupule of bracts),
+stand erect nearer the top of the shoot. In the ripe fruit or
+mast the four-sided cupule, which has become much enlarged,
+brown and tough, encloses two or three three-sided rich chestnut-brown
+fruits, each containing a single seed. It is readily propagated
+by its seeds. It is a handsome tree in every stage of its
+growth, but is more injurious to plants under its drip than other
+trees, so that shade-bearing trees, as holly, yew and thuja,
+suffer. Its leaves, however, enrich the soil. The beech has a
+remarkable power of holding the ground where the soil is congenial,
+and the deep shade prevents the growth of other trees.
+It is often and most usefully mixed with oak and Scotch fir.
+The timber is not remarkable for either strength or durability.
+It was formerly much used in mill-work and turnery; but its
+principal use at present is in the manufacture of chairs, bedsteads
+and a variety of minor articles. It makes excellent fuel and
+charcoal. The copper-beech is a variety with copper-coloured
+leaves, due to the presence of a red colouring-matter in the sap.
+There is also a weeping or pendulous-branched variety; and several
+varieties with more or less cut leaves, are known in cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Fagus</i> is widely spread in temperate regions, and
+contains in addition to our native beech, about 15 other species.
+A variety (<i>F. sylvatica</i> var. <i>Sieboldi</i>) is a native of Japan,
+where it is one of the finest and most abundant of the deciduous-leaved
+forest trees. <i>Fagus americana</i> is one of the most beautiful and
+widely-distributed trees of the forests of eastern North America.
+It was confounded by early European travellers with <i>F. sylvatica</i>,
+from which it is distinguished by its paler bark and lighter green,
+more sharply-toothed leaves. Several species are found in
+Australia and New Zealand, and in the forests of southern Chile
+and Patagonia. The dense forests which cover the shore of the
+Straits of Magellan and the mountain-slopes of Tierra del Fuego
+consist largely of two beeches&mdash;one evergreen, <i>Fagus betuloides</i>,
+and one with deciduous leaves, <i>F. antarctica</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1856-1904), American
+palaeontologist, was born at Dunkirk, New York, on the 9th of
+October 1856. He graduated at the university of Michigan in
+1878, and then became assistant to James Hall in the state
+museum at Albany. Ten years later he was appointed to the
+charge of the invertebrate fossils in the Peabody Museum, New
+Haven, under O.C. Marsh, whom he succeeded in 1899 as curator.
+Meanwhile in 1889 he received the degree of Ph.D. from Yale
+University for his memoir on the <i>Brachiospongidae</i>, a remarkable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span>
+group of Silurian sponges; later on he did good work among
+the fossil corals, and other groups, being ultimately regarded
+as a leading authority on fossil crustacea and brachiopoda;
+his researches on the development of the brachiopoda, and on
+the Trilobites <i>Triarthrus</i> and <i>Trinudeus</i>, were especially
+noteworthy. In 1892 he was appointed professor of palaeontology in Yale
+University. He died on the 14th of February 1904.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Memoir by C. Schuchert in <i>Amer. Journ. Science</i>, vol. xvii.,
+June 1904 (with portrait and bibliography).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEECHER, HENRY WARD<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1813-1887), American preacher
+and reformer, was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 24th
+of June 1813. He was the eighth child of Lyman and Roxana
+Foote Beecher, and brother of Harriet Beecher Stowe. Entering
+Amherst College in 1830, and graduating four years later, he
+gave more attention to his own courses of reading than to
+college studies, and was more popular with his fellows than
+with the faculty. With a patience foreign to his impulsive
+nature, he submitted to minute drill in elocution, and became
+a fluent extemporaneous speaker. Reared in a Puritan atmosphere,
+he has graphically described the mystical experience
+which, coming to him in his early youth, changed his whole
+conception of theology and determined his choice of the ministry.
+&ldquo;I think,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;that when I stand in Zion and before God,
+the highest thing that I shall look back upon will be that blessed
+morning of May when it pleased God to reveal to my wondering
+soul the idea that it was His nature to love a man in his sins for
+the sake of helping him out of them.&rdquo; In 1837 he graduated from
+Lane Theological Seminary in Ohio, of which his father was
+president, and entered upon his work as pastor of a missionary
+Presbyterian church at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, a village on the
+Ohio, about 20 m. below Cincinnati. The membership numbered
+nineteen women and one man. Beecher was sexton as well as
+preacher. Two years later he accepted a call to Indianapolis.
+His unconventional preaching shocked the more staid members
+of the flock, but filled the church to overflowing with people
+unaccustomed to churchgoing. He studied men rather than
+books; became acquainted with the vices in what was then a
+pioneer town; and in his <i>Seven Lectures to Young Men</i> (1844)
+treated these with genuine power of realistic description and
+with youthful and exuberant rhetoric. Eight years later (1847)
+he accepted a call to the pastorate of Plymouth Church (Congregational),
+then newly organized in Brooklyn, New York.
+The situation of the church, within five minutes&rsquo; walk of the chief
+ferry to New York, the stalwart character of the man who had
+organized it, and the peculiar eloquence of Beecher, combined
+to make the pulpit a national platform. The audience-room
+of the church, capable of seating 2000 or 2500 people, frequently
+contained 500 or 1000 more.</p>
+
+<p>Beecher at once became a recognized leader. On the all-absorbing
+question of slavery he took a middle ground between the
+pro-slavery or peace party, and abolitionists like William Lloyd
+Garrison and Wendell Phillips, believing, with such statesmen
+as W.H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, and Abraham Lincoln,
+that slavery was to be overthrown under the constitution and
+in the Union, by forbidding its growth and trusting to an
+awakened conscience, enforced by an enlightened self-interest.
+He was always an anti-slavery man, but never technically an
+abolitionist, and he joined the Republican party soon after its
+organization. In the earlier days of the agitation, he challenged
+the hostility which often mobbed the anti-slavery gatherings;
+in the later days he consulted with the political leaders, inspiring
+the patriotism of the North, and sedulously setting himself to
+create a public opinion which should confirm and ratify the
+emancipation proclamation whenever the president should
+issue it. When danger of foreign intervention cast its threatening
+shadow across the national path, he went to England, and by
+his famous addresses did what probably no other American
+could have done to strengthen the spirit in England favourable
+to the United States, and to convert that which was doubtful
+and hostile. In 1861-1863 he was the editor-in-chief of the
+<i>Independent</i>, then a Congregational journal; and in his editorials,
+copied far and wide, produced a profound impression on the public mind
+by clarifying and defining the issue. Later (in 1870),
+he founded and became editor-in-chief of the <i>Christian Union</i>,
+afterwards the <i>Outlook</i>, a religious undenominational weekly.
+His lectures and addresses had the spirit if not the form of his
+sermons, just as his sermons were singularly free from the
+homiletical tone. Yet his work as a reformer was subsidiary
+to his work as a preacher. He was not indeed a parish pastor;
+he inspired church activities which grew to large proportions,
+but trusted the organization of them to laymen of organizing
+abilities in the church; and for acquaintance with his people
+he depended on such social occasions as were furnished in the
+free atmosphere of this essentially New England church at the
+close of every service. But during his pastorate the church grew
+to be probably the largest in membership in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the pulpit that Beecher was seen at his best. His
+mastery of the English tongue, his dramatic power, his instinctive
+art of impersonation, which had become a second nature, his
+vivid imagination, his breadth of intellectual view, the catholicity
+of his sympathies, his passionate enthusiasm, which made for
+the moment his immediate theme seem to him the one theme of
+transcendent importance, his quaint humour alternating with
+genuine pathos, and above all his simple and singularly
+unaffected devotional nature, made him as a preacher without a
+peer in his own time and country. His favourite theme was
+love: love to man was to him the fulfilment of all law; love of
+God was the essence of all Christianity. Retaining to the day
+of his death the forms and phrases of the New England theology
+in which he had been reared, he poured into them a new meaning
+and gave to them a new significance. He probably did more
+than any other man in America to lead the Puritan churches
+from a faith which regarded God as a moral governor, the Bible
+as a book of laws, and religion as obedience to a conscience to
+a faith which regards God as a father, the Bible as a book of
+counsels, and religion as a life of liberty in love. The later years
+of his life were darkened by a scandal which Beecher&rsquo;s personal,
+political and theological enemies used for a time effectively to
+shadow a reputation previously above reproach, he being
+charged by Theodore Tilton, whom he had befriended, with
+having had improper relations with his (Tilton&rsquo;s) wife. But in
+the midst of these accusations (February 1876), the largest and
+most representative Congregational council ever held in the
+United States gave expression to a vote of confidence in him,
+which time has absolutely justified. Not a student of books nor
+a technical scholar in any department, Beecher&rsquo;s knowledge
+was as wide as his interests were varied. He was early familiar
+with the works of Matthew Arnold, Charles Darwin and Herbert
+Spencer; he preached his <i>Bible Studies</i> sermons in 1878, when
+the higher criticism was wholly unknown to most evangelical
+ministers or known only to be dreaded; and his sermons on
+<i>Evolution and Religion</i> in 1885, when many of the ministry
+were denouncing evolution as atheistic. He was stricken with
+apoplexy while still active in the ministry, and died at Brooklyn
+on the 8th of March 1887, in the seventy-fourth year of his age.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal books by Beecher, besides his published sermons,
+are: <i>Seven Lectures to Young Men</i> (1844); <i>Plymouth Collection of
+Hymns and Tunes</i> (1855); <i>Star Papers, Experiences of Art and
+Nature</i> (1855); <i>Life Thoughts</i> (1858); <i>New Star Papers; or Views
+and Experiences of Religious Subjects</i> (1859); <i>Plain and Pleasant
+Talks about Fruits, Flowers, and Farming</i> (1859); <i>American Rebellion,
+Report of Speeches delivered in England at Public Meetings in
+Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and London</i> (1864);
+<i>Prayers from Plymouth Pulpit</i> (1867); <i>Norwood: A Tale of Village
+Life in New England</i> (1867); <i>The Life of Jesus the Christ</i> (1871),
+completed in 2 vols. by his sons (1891); and <i>Yale Lectures on
+Preaching</i> (3 vols., 1872-1874).</p>
+
+<p>The prinipal lives are: Noyes L. Thompson, <i>The History of
+Plymouth Church</i> (1847-1872); Thomas W. Knox, <i>The Life and
+Work of Henry Ward Beecher</i> (Hartford, Conn., 1887); Frank S.
+Child, <i>The Boyhood of Henry Ward Beecher</i> (Pamphlet, New Creston,
+Conn., 1887); Joseph Howard, Jr., <i>Life of Henry Ward Beecher</i>
+(Philadelphia, 1887); T.W. Hanford, <i>Beecher: Christian Philosopher,
+Pulpit Orator, Patriot and Philanthropist</i> (Chicago, 1887);
+Lyman Abbott and S.B. Halliday, <i>Henry Ward Beecher: A Sketch
+of his Career</i> (New York, 1887); William C. Beecher, Rev. Samuel
+Scoville and Mrs. H.W. Beecher, <i>A Biography of Henry Ward
+Beecher</i> (New York, 1888); John R. Howard, <i>Henry Ward Beecher:</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span>
+<i>A Study</i> (1891); John Henry Barrows, <i>Henry Ward Beecher</i> (New York,
+1893); and Lyman Abbott, <i>Henry Ward Beecher</i> (Boston, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEECHER, LYMAN<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1775-1863), American clergyman, was born at New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 12th of October 1775. He was a descendant of one of
+the founders of the New Haven colony, worked as a boy in an uncle&rsquo;s
+blacksmith shop and on his farm, and in 1797 graduated from Yale, having
+studied theology under Timothy Dwight. He preached in the Presbyterian
+church at East Hampton, Long Island (1798-1810, being ordained in 1799);
+in the Congregational church at Litchfield, Connecticut (1810-1826), in
+the Hanover Street church of Boston (1826-1832), and in the Second
+Presbyterian church of Cincinnati, Ohio (1833-1843); was president of
+the newly established Lane Theological Seminary at Walnut Hills,
+Cincinnati, and was professor of didactic and polemic theology there
+(1832-1850), being professor emeritus until his death. At Litchfield and
+in Boston he was a prominent opponent of the growing &ldquo;heresy&rdquo; of
+Unitarianism, though as early as 1836 he was accused of being a
+&ldquo;moderate Calvinist&rdquo; and was tried for heresy, but was acquitted. Upon
+his resignation from Lane Theological Seminary he lived in Boston for a
+short time, devoting himself to literature; but he broke down, and the
+last ten years of his life were spent at the home of his son, Henry Ward
+Beecher, in Brooklyn, New York, where he died on the both of January
+1863. Magnetic in personality, incisive and powerful in manner of
+expression, he was in his prime one of the most eloquent of American
+pulpit orators. In 1806 he preached a widely circulated sermon on
+duelling, and about 1814 a series of six sermons on intemperance, which
+were reprinted frequently and greatly aided temperance reform. Thrice
+married, he had a large family, his seven sons becoming Congregational
+clergymen, and his daughters, Harriet Beecher Stowe (<i>q.v.</i>) and Catherine
+Esther Beecher, attaining literary distinction.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Lyman Beecher&rsquo;s published works include: <i>A Plea for the West</i> (1835),
+<i>Views in Theology</i> (1836), and various sermons; his <i>Collected Works</i>
+were published at Boston in 1852 in 3 vols. Consult his <i>Autobiography
+and Correspondence</i> (2 vols., New York, 1863-1864), edited by his son
+Charles; D.H. Alien, <i>Life and Services of Lyman Beecher</i> (Cincinnati,
+1863); and James C. White, <i>Personal Reminiscences of Lyman Beecher</i>
+(New York, 1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His daughter, <span class="sc">Catherine Esther</span> (1800-1878), was born at East Hampton,
+Long Island, on the 6th of September 1800. She was educated at
+Litchfield Seminary, and from 1822 to 1832 conducted a school for girls
+at Hartford, Connecticut, with her sister Harriet&rsquo;s assistance, and from
+1832 to 1834 conducted a similar school in Cincinnati. She wrote and
+lectured on women&rsquo;s education and in behalf of better primary schools,
+and radically opposed woman suffrage and college education for women,
+holding woman&rsquo;s sphere to be domestic. The National Board of Popular
+Education, a charitable society which she founded, sent hundreds of
+women as teachers into the South and West. She died on the 12th of May
+1878 in Elmira, New York. She published <i>An Essay on Slavery and
+Abolition with Reference to the Duty of American Females</i> (1837), <i>A
+Treatise on Domestic Economy</i> (1842), <i>The True Remedy for the Wrongs of
+Women</i> (1851), <i>Letters to the People on Health and Happiness</i> (1855),
+<i>The Religious Training of Children</i> (1864), and <i>Woman&rsquo;s Profession as
+Mother and Educator</i> (1871).</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Edward Beecher</span> (1803-1895), was born at East Hampton, Long
+Island, on the 27th of August 1803, graduated at Yale in 1822, studied
+theology at Andover, and in 1826 became pastor of the Park Street church
+in Boston. From 1830 to 1844 he was president of Illinois College,
+Jacksonville, Illinois, and subsequently filled pastorates at the Salem
+Street church, Boston (1844-1855), and the Congregational church at
+Galesburg, Illinois (1855-1871). He was senior editor of the
+<i>Congregationalist</i> (1849-1855), and an associate editor of the
+<i>Christian Union</i> from 1870. In 1872 he settled in Brooklyn, New York,
+where in 1885-1889 he was pastor of the Parkville church and where he
+died on the 28th of July 1895. He wrote <i>Addresses on the Kingdom of
+God</i> (1827), <i>History of the Alton Riots</i> (1837), <i>Statement of
+Anti-Slavery Principles</i> (1837), <i>Baptism, its Import and Modes</i> (1850),
+<i>The Conflict of Ages</i> (1853), <i>The Papal Conspiracy Exposed</i> (1855),
+<i>The Concord of Ages</i> (1860), and <i>History of Opinions on the Scriptural
+Doctrine of Future Retribution</i> (1878).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Charles Beecher</span> (1815-1900), another of Lyman&rsquo;s sons, was born at
+Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 7th of October 1815. He graduated at
+Bowdoin College in 1834, and subsequently held pastorates at Newark, New
+Jersey (1851-1857), and Georgetown, Massachusetts; and from 1870 to 1877
+lived in Florida, where he was state superintendent of public
+instruction in 1871-1873. He died at Georgetown, Massachusetts, on the
+21st of April 1900. He was an accomplished musician, and assisted in the
+selection and arrangement of music in the <i>Plymouth Collection of Hymns
+and Tunes</i>. He wrote <i>David and His Throne</i> (1855), <i>Pen Pictures of the
+Bible</i> (1855), <i>Redeemer and Redeemed</i> (1864), and <i>Spiritual
+Manifestations</i> (1879).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Thomas Kinnicutt Beecher</span> (1824-1900), another son, born at Litchfield,
+Connecticut, on the 10th of February 1824, was pastor of the Independent
+Congregational church (now the Park church), at Elmira, New York, one of
+the first institutional churches in the country, from 1854 until his
+death at Elmira on the 14th of March 1900. He wrote Our <i>Seven Churches</i>
+(1870).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1796-1856), English naval officer and
+geographer, son of Sir William Beechey, R.A., was born in London on the
+17th of February 1796. In 1806 he entered the navy, and saw active
+service during the wars with France and America. In 1818 he served under
+Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) John Franklin in Buchan&rsquo;s Arctic expedition,
+of which at a later period he published a narrative; and in the
+following year he accompanied Lieutenant W.E. Parry in the &ldquo;Hecla.&rdquo; In
+1821 he took part in the survey of the Mediterranean coast of Africa
+under the direction of Captain, afterwards Admiral, William Henry Smyth.
+He and his brother Henry William Beechey, made an overland survey of
+this coast, and published a full account of their work in 1828 under the
+title of <i>Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of
+Africa from Tripoly Eastward in 1821-1822</i>. In 1825 Beechey was
+appointed to command the &ldquo;Blossom,&rdquo; which was intended to explore Bering
+Strait, in concert with Franklin and Parry operating from the east. He
+passed the strait and penetrated as far as 71° 23&prime; 31&Prime; N., and 156° 21&prime;
+30&Prime; W., reaching a point only 146 m. west of that reached by Franklin&rsquo;s
+expedition from the Mackenzie river. The whole voyage lasted more than
+three years; and in the course of it Beechey discovered several islands
+in the Pacific, and an excellent harbour near Cape Prince of Wales. In
+1831 there appeared his <i>Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and
+Bering&rsquo;s Strait to Co-operate with the Polar Expeditions, 1825-1828</i>. In
+1835 and the following year Captain Beechey was employed on the coast
+survey of South America, and from 1837 to 1847 carried on the same work
+along the Irish coasts. He was appointed in 1850 to preside over the
+Marine Department of the Board of Trade. In 1854 he was made
+rear-admiral, and in the following year was elected president of the
+Royal Geographical Society. He died on the 29th of November 1856.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1753-1839), English portrait-painter, was born at
+Burford. He was originally meant for a conveyancer, but a strong love
+for painting induced him to become a pupil at the Royal Academy in 1772.
+Some of his smaller portraits gained him considerable reputation; he
+began to be employed by the nobility, and in 1793 became associate of
+the Academy. In the same year he was made portrait-painter to Queen
+Charlotte. He painted the portraits of the members of the royal family,
+and of nearly all the most famous or fashionable persons of the time.
+What is considered his finest production is a review of cavalry, a large
+composition, in the foreground of which he introduced portraits of
+George III., the prince of Wales and the duke of York, surrounded by a
+brilliant staff on horseback. It was painted in 1798, and obtained for
+the artist the honour of knighthood, and his election as R.A.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1859-&emsp;&emsp;), English clergyman and author, was born
+on the 15th of May 1859, and educated at the City of London school and
+at Balliol College, Oxford. He took holy orders in 1882, and after three
+years in a Liverpool
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span>
+curacy he was for fifteen years rector of Yattendon, Berkshire.
+From 1900 to 1903 he lectured on pastoral and liturgical theology
+at King&rsquo;s College, London, and was chaplain of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn,
+where he became preacher in 1903. He became a canon of
+Westminster in 1902, and examining chaplain to the bishop of
+Carlisle in 1905. As a poet he is best known by his share in two
+volumes&mdash;<i>Love in Idleness</i> (1883) and <i>Love&rsquo;s Looking Glass</i>
+(1891)&mdash;which contained also poems by J.W. Mackail and
+J. Bowyer Nichols. He was a sympathetic editor and critic of the
+works of many 16th and 17th century poets, of Richard Crashaw
+(1905), of Herrick (1907), of John Milton (1900), of Henry
+Vaughan (1896). Under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Urbanus Sylvan&rdquo;
+he published two successful volumes of essays, <i>Pages from a
+Private Diary</i> (1898) and <i>Provincial Letters and other Papers</i>
+(1906). His works also include numerous volumes of sermons
+and essays on theological subjects.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEECHWORTH,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a town of Bogong county, Victoria, Australia,
+172 m. by rail N.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 7359. The
+town is the centre of the Ovens goldfields, and the district
+is mainly devoted to mining with both alluvial and reef working,
+but much of the land is under cultivation, yielding grain and
+fruit. The water supply is derived from Lake Kerferd in the
+vicinity, which is a favourite resort of visitors; the scenery near
+the town, which lies at an elevation of 1805 ft. among the May
+Day Hills, being singularly beautiful. The industries of Beechworth
+include tanning, ironfounding and coach-building.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEEF<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>boef</i>, mod. <i>boeuf</i>, from Lat.
+<i>bos, bovis</i>, ox, Gr. <span class="grk" title="bous">&#946;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span>, which show the ultimate
+connexion with the Sanskrit <i>go, g&#257;us</i>, ox, and thus with &ldquo;cow&rdquo;),
+the flesh of the ox, cow or bull, as used for food. The use of the
+French word for the meat, while the Saxon name was retained for the
+animal, has been often noticed, and paralleled with the use of veal,
+mutton and pork. &ldquo;Beef&rdquo; is also used, especially in the plural
+&ldquo;beeves,&rdquo; for the ox itself, but usually in an archaic way. &ldquo;Corned&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;corn&rdquo; beef is the flesh cured by salting, <i>i.e.</i> sprinkling with
+&ldquo;corns&rdquo; or granulated particles of salt. &ldquo;Collared&rdquo; beef is so
+called from the roll or collar into which the meat is pressed, after
+extracting the bones. &ldquo;Jerked&rdquo; beef, <i>i.e.</i>  meat cut into long
+thin slices and dried in the sun, like &ldquo;biltong&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), comes
+through the Spanish-American <i>charque</i>, from <i>echarqui</i>, the
+Peruvian word for this species of preserved meat. For &ldquo;Beefeater&rdquo;
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yeomen of the Guard</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEEFSTEAK CLUB,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> the name of several clubs formed in
+London during the 18th and 19th centuries. The first seems to
+have been that founded in 1709 with Richard Estcourt, the
+actor, as steward. Of this the chief wits and great men of the
+nation were members and its badge was a gridiron. Its fame was,
+however, entirely eclipsed in 1735 when &ldquo;The Sublime Society of
+Steaks&rdquo; was established by John Rich at Covent Garden theatre,
+of which he was then manager. It is said that Lord Peterborough
+supping one night with Rich in his private room, was so delighted
+with the steak the latter grilled him that he suggested a repetition
+of the meal the next week. From this started the Club, the
+members of which delighted to call themselves &ldquo;The Steaks.&rdquo;
+Among them were Hogarth, Garrick, Wilkes, Bubb Doddington
+and many other celebrities. The rendezvous was the theatre
+till the fire in 1808, when the club moved first to the Bedford
+Coffee House, and the next year to the Old Lyceum. In 1785
+the prince of Wales joined, and later his brothers the dukes of
+Clarence and Sussex became members. On the burning of the
+Lyceum, &ldquo;The Steaks&rdquo; met again in the Bedford Coffee House
+till 1838, when the New Lyceum was opened, and a large room
+there was allotted the club. These meetings were held till the
+club ceased to exist in 1867. Thomas Sheridan founded a
+Beefsteak Club in Dublin at the Theatre Royal in 1749, and of
+this Peg Woffington was president. The modern Beefsteak Club
+was founded by J.L. Toole, the actor, in 1876.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Timbs, <i>Clubs and Club Life in London</i> (1873);
+Walter Arnold, <i>Life and Death of the Sublime Society of
+Steaks</i> (1871).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEELZEBUB,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> <span class="sc">Beelzebul, Baalzebub</span>. In 2 Kings i. we
+read that Ahaziah ben Ahab, king of Israel, fell sick, and sent
+to inquire of Baalzebub, the god of the Philistine city Ekron,
+whether he should recover. There is no other mention of this
+god in the Old Testament. <i>Baal</i>, &ldquo;lord,&rdquo; is the ordinary title
+or word for a deity, especially a local deity, cf. such place names
+as Baal Hazor (2 Sam. xiii. 23), Baal Hermon (Judges iii. 3),
+which are probably contractions of fuller forms, like Beth Baal
+Meon (Josh. xiii. 17), the House or Temple of the Baal of Meon.
+According to these analogies we should expect <i>Zebub</i> to be a
+place. No place <i>Zebub</i>, however, is known; and it has been
+objected that the Baal of some other place would hardly be the
+god of Ekron. These objections are hardly conclusive.</p>
+
+<p>Usually <i>Zebub</i> is identified with a Hebrew common noun
+<i>zebub</i> = flies,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> occurring twice in the Old Testament,<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+so that Baalzebub &ldquo;is the Baal to whom flies belong or are holy. As
+children of the summer they are symbols of the warmth of the
+sun, to which ... Baal stands in close relation. Divination by
+means of flies was known at Babylon.&rdquo;<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> There are other cases of
+names compounded of Baal and an element equivalent to a
+descriptive epithet, <i>e.g.</i> Baalgad, the Baal of Fortune.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+For the &ldquo;Fly-god,&rdquo; sometimes interpreted as the &ldquo;averter of
+insects,&rdquo; cf <span class="grk" title="Zeus apomouios, muiagros">&#918;&#949;&#8058;&#962; &#7936;&#960;&#972;&#956;&#965;&#953;&#959;&#962;, &#956;&#965;&#943;&#945;&#947;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, and the Hercules
+<span class="grk" title="muiagros">&#956;&#965;&#943;&#945;&#947;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>. Clemens Alexander speaks of a Hercules
+<span class="grk" title="apomuios">&#7936;&#960;&#972;&#956;&#965;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> as worshipped at Rome. It has been suggested
+that Baalzebub was the dung-beetle, <i>Scarabaeus pillularius</i>, worshipped in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>A name of a deity on an Assyrian inscription of the 12th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> has been read as <i>Baal-zabubi</i>, but this reading has
+now been abandoned in favour of <i>Baal-sapunu</i> (Baal-Zephon).<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+Cheyne considers that Baalzebub is a &ldquo;contemptuous uneuphonic
+Jewish modification of the true name Baalzebul.&rdquo;<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In the New Testament we meet with Beelzebul,<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> which some of the
+versions, especially the Vulgate and Syriac, followed by the
+Authorized Version, have changed to Beelzebub, under the
+influence of 2 Kings. In Matt. x. 25, Christ speaks of men
+calling the master of the house, <i>i.e.</i> Himself, Beelzebul.<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> In
+Mark iii 22-27,<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> the scribes explain that Jesus is possessed by
+Beelzebul<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and is thus enabled to cast out devils. The passage
+speaks of Beelzebul as Satan and as the prince of the demons.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the name Beelzebul is variously explained.
+(<i>a</i>) It is &ldquo;a phonetic corruption, perhaps a softening of the
+original word&rdquo;; as Bab-el-mandel is a corruption of Bab-el-mandeb.
+(<i>b</i>) <i>Zebul</i> is from <i>zebel</i>, a word found in the Targums
+in the sense of &ldquo;dung,&rdquo; so that Beelzebul would mean &ldquo;Lord
+of Dung,&rdquo; a term of contempt. The further suggestion has been
+made that <i>zebul</i> itself in the sense of &ldquo;dung&rdquo; is a term for a
+heathen deity, cf. the Old Testament use of &ldquo;abomination&rdquo; &amp;c.
+for heathen deities, so that Beelzebul would mean &ldquo;Chief of
+false gods,&rdquo; and so arch-fiend. (<i>c</i>) <i>Zebul</i> is found in 1 Kings
+viii. 13 in the sense of &ldquo;height,&rdquo; <i>beth-sebul</i>&mdash;lofty house, and
+in Rabbinical writings in the sense of &ldquo;house&rdquo; or &ldquo;temple,&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;the fourth heaven&rdquo;;<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and Beelzebul may equal &ldquo;Lord
+of the High House&rdquo; or &ldquo;Lord of Heaven.&rdquo; This view is
+perhaps favoured by Matt. x. 25, &ldquo;if they have called the lord of
+the house Beelzebul.&rdquo; It appears, however, that Rabbinical
+writings use <i>y&#333;m</i> (day-of) <i>zebul</i> for the festival of a
+heathen deity; and Jastrow connects this usage with the meaning
+&ldquo;house&rdquo; or &ldquo;temple,&rdquo; so that the meaning &ldquo;Lord of the False
+Gods&rdquo; might be arrived at in a different way.</p>
+
+<p>The names <i>Zebulun, &rsquo;Izebel</i> (Jezebel), suggest that <i>Zebul</i>
+may be an ancient name of a deity; cf. the names <span title="baal ezebel">&#1489;&#1506;&#1500; &#1488;&#1494;&#1489;&#1500;</span>
+(B&lsquo;L &rsquo;ZBL), <span title="shemzebel">&#1513;&#1502;&#1494;&#1489;&#1500;</span> (ShMZBL) in Punic and Phoenician
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span>
+inscriptions.<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The substitution of Beelzebub for Beelzebul by
+the Syriac, Vulgate and other versions implies the identification
+of the New Testament arch-fiend with the god of Ekron;
+this substitution, however, may be due to the influence of the
+Aramaic <i>B&lsquo;el-debaba</i>, &ldquo;adversary,&rdquo; sometimes held to be the
+original of these names.</p>
+
+<p>There is no trace of Beelzebul or Beelzebub outside of the
+Biblical passages mentioned, and the literature dependent
+on them. If we assume a connexion between the two names, there
+is nothing to show how the god became in later times the devil.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Paradise Lost</i>, Book ii., Beelzebub appears as second only
+to Satan himself.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Lightfoot, <i>Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae</i>, Works,
+vol. ii. pp. 188 f., 429, ed. Strype (1684);
+Baethgen, <i>Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i>, pp. 25, 65, 261.
+Commentaries on the Biblical passages especially Burney and Skinner on <i>Kings</i>,
+Meyer and A.B. Bruce on the <i>Synoptic Gospels</i>, and Swete on <i>Mark</i>.
+Articles on &ldquo;Baal,&rdquo; &ldquo;Baalzebub,&rdquo; &ldquo;Beelzebub,&rdquo; &ldquo;Beelzebul,&rdquo; in Hastings&rsquo;
+<i>Bible Dict.</i>, Black and Cheyne&rsquo;s <i>Encycl. Bibl.</i>,
+and Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; on <span title="baal zebub">&#1489;&#1506;&#1500; &#1494;&#1489;&#1489;</span> in Clarendon Press
+<i>Hebr. Lex.</i>; and on <span title="zebel">&#1494;&#1489;&#1500;</span> and <span title="zebul">&#1494;&#1489;&#1493;&#1500;</span> in Jastrow&rsquo;s
+<i>Dict. of the Targumim, &amp;c.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. H. Be.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Clarendon Press, <i>Hebrew Lexicon</i>, p. 127, with LXX.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Eccl. x. 1; Isaiah vii. 18.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Baethgen, <i>Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i>,
+p.  25, cf. pp. 65, 261.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Josh, xii. 7.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Art. &ldquo;Baalzebub,&rdquo; Black and Cheyne&rsquo;s <i>Ency. Bibl.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> With various spellings (<i>e.g.</i> Belzebul, and in XB, Beezebul), all
+variants of Beelzebul. Cf. Deissmann, <i>Bible Studies</i>, 332.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> There is a variation of reading, which has been held to support
+the view that the passage means that men reproached Jesus with
+His supposed connexion with Beelzebul; cf. A.B. Bruce, <i>in loco</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> And in the parallel passages, Matt. xii. 22-29; Luke xi. 14-22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Cf. John vii. 20, viii. 48, 52, x. 20.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Swete, <i>in loco</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Jastrow, <i>Dict. of the Targumim.</i> &amp;c., sub voce.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Lidzbarski, <i>Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik</i>, i. pp. 240, 377.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEER,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a beverage obtained by a process of alcoholic fermentation
+mainly from cereals (chiefly malted barley), hops and
+water. The history of beer extends over several thousand years.
+According to Dr Bush, a beer made from malt or red barley is
+mentioned in Egyptian writings as early as the fourth dynasty.
+It was called <img style="width:34px; height:33px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img642.jpg" alt="" /> or <i>heqa</i>. Papyri of the time of
+Seti I. (1300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) allude to a person inebriated from over-indulgence
+in beer. In the second book (<i>c.</i> 77) of Herodotus (450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) we
+are told that the Egyptians, being without vines, made wine
+from barley (cf. Aesch. <i>Suppl.</i> 954); but as the grape is mentioned
+so frequently in Scripture and elsewhere as being most abundant
+there, and no record exists of the vine being destroyed, we must
+conclude that the historian was only partially acquainted with
+the productions of that most fertile country. Pliny (<i>Natural
+History</i>, xxii. 82) informs us that the Egyptians made wine from
+corn, and gives it the name of <i>sythum</i>, which, in the Greek,
+means drink from barley. The Greeks obtained their knowledge
+of the art of preparing beer from the Egyptians. The writings
+of Archilochus, the Parian poet and satirist who flourished
+about 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, contain evidence that the Greeks of his day were
+acquainted with the process of brewing. There is, in fact, little
+doubt that the discovery of beer and its use as an exhilarating
+beverage were nearly as early as those of the grape itself, though
+both the Greeks and the Romans despised it as a barbarian
+drink. Dioscorides mentions two kinds of beer, namely <span class="grk" title="zythos">&#950;&#8166;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>
+and <span class="grk" title="kourmi">&#954;&#959;&#8166;&#961;&#956;&#953;</span>, but he does not describe them sufficiently to enable
+us to distinguish them. Sophocles and other Greek writers,
+again, styled it <span class="grk" title="bryton">&#946;&#961;&#8166;&#964;&#959;&#957;</span>. In the time of Tacitus (1st century
+after Christ), according to him, beer was the usual drink of the
+Germans, and there can be little doubt that the method of malting
+barley was then known to them. Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxii. 82)
+mentions the use of beer in Spain under the name of <i>celia</i> and
+<i>ceria</i> and in Gaul under that of <i>cerevisia</i>; and elsewhere
+(xiv. 29) he says:&mdash;&ldquo;The natives who inhabit the west of Europe have
+a liquid with which they intoxicate themselves, made from corn
+and water. The manner of making this liquid is somewhat
+different in Gaul, Spain and other countries, and it is called by
+different names, but its nature and properties are everywhere
+the same. The people in Spain in particular brew this liquid
+so well that it will keep good a long time. So exquisite is the
+cunning of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites that they
+have thus invented a method to make water itself produce intoxication.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The knowledge of the preparation of a fermented beverage
+from cereals in early times was not confined to Europe. Thus,
+according to Dr H.H. Mann, the Kaffir races of South Africa have
+made for ages&mdash;and still make&mdash;a kind of beer from millet, and
+similarly the natives of Nubia, Abyssinia and other parts of
+Africa prepare an intoxicating beverage, generally called <i>bousa</i>,
+from a variety of cereal grains. The Russian <i>quass</i>, made from
+barley and rye, the Chinese <i>samshu</i>, made from rice, and the
+Japanese <i>saké</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) are all of ancient origin. Roman historians
+mention the fact that the Britons in the south of England at the
+time of the Roman invasion brewed a species of ale from barley
+and wheat. The Romans much improved the methods of brewing
+in vogue among the Britons, and the Saxons&mdash;among whom ale
+had long been a common beverage&mdash;in their turn profited much
+by the instruction given to the original inhabitants of Great
+Britain by the Romans. We are informed by William of Malmesbury
+that in the reign of Henry II. the English were greatly
+addicted to drinking, and by that time the monasteries were
+already famous, both in England and on the continent, for the
+excellence of their ales. The waters of Burton-on-Trent began
+to be famous in the 13th century. The secret of their being so
+especially adapted for brewing was first discovered by some
+monks, who held land in the adjacent neighbourhood of Wetmore.
+There is a document dated 1295 in which it is stated that Matilda,
+daughter of Nicholas de Shoben, had re-leased to the abbot and
+convent of Burton-on-Trent certain tenements within and
+without the town; for which re-lease they granted her, daily for
+life, two white loaves from the monastery, two gallons of conventual
+beer, and one penny, besides seven gallons of beer for the
+men. The abbots of Burton apparently made their own malt,
+for it was a common covenant in leases of mills belonging to the
+abbey that the malt of the lords of the manor, both spiritual and
+temporal, should be ground free of charge. Robert Plot, in his
+<i>Natural History of Staffordshire</i> (1686), refers to the peculiar
+properties of the Burton waters, from which, he says, &ldquo;by an art
+well known in this country good ale is made, in the management
+of which they have a knack of fining it in three days to that
+degree that it shall not only be potable, but is clear and palatable
+as we could desire any drink of this kind to be.&rdquo; In 1630 Burton
+beer began to be known in London, being sold at &ldquo;Ye Peacocke&rdquo;
+in Gray&rsquo;s Inn Lane, and according to the <i>Spectator</i> was in great
+demand amongst the visitors in Vauxhall. Until tea and coffee
+were introduced, beer and ale (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ale</a></span>) were, practically speaking,
+the only popular beverages accessible to the general body of
+consumers. Since the advent of tea, coffee, cocoa and mineral
+waters, the character of British beers has undergone a gradual
+modification, the strongly alcoholic, heavily hopped liquids
+consumed by the previous generation slowly giving place to the
+lighter beverages in vogue at the present time. The old &ldquo;stock
+bitter&rdquo; has given way to the &ldquo;light dinner ale,&rdquo; and &ldquo;porter&rdquo;
+(so called from the fact that it was the popular drink amongst the
+market porters of the 18th century) has been largely replaced by
+&ldquo;mild ale.&rdquo; A certain quantity of strong beer&mdash;such as heavy
+stouts and &ldquo;stock&rdquo; and &ldquo;Scotch&rdquo; ales&mdash;is still brewed nowadays,
+but it is not an increasing one. The demand is almost entirely
+for medium beers such as mild ale, light stout, and the better class
+of &ldquo;bitter&rdquo; beers, and light beers such as the light &ldquo;family ales,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;dinner ales&rdquo; and lager.</p>
+
+<p>The general run of beers contain from 3 to 6% of alcohol and
+4 to 7% of solids, the remainder being water and certain flavouring
+and preservative matters derived from the malt, hops and
+other materials employed in their manufacture. The solid, <i>i.e.</i>
+non-volatile, matter contained in solution in beer consists mainly
+of maltose or malt sugar, of several varieties of dextrin (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>), of substances which stand in an intermediate position
+between the sugars and the dextrins proper, and of a number of
+bodies containing nitrogen, such as the non-coagulable proteids,
+peptones, &amp;c. In addition there is an appreciable quantity of
+mineral matter, chiefly phosphates and potash. Dietetically
+regarded, therefore, beer possesses considerable food value, and,
+moreover, the nutritious matter in beer is present in a readily
+assimilable form.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the average adult member of the British
+working classes consumes not less than two pints of beer daily.
+A reasonable calculation places the total proteids and
+carbohydrates consumed by the average worker at 140 and 400
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span>
+grammes respectively. Taking the proteid content of the average
+beer at 0.4% and the carbohydrate content at 4%, a simple
+calculation shows that about 3% of the total proteid and 11%
+of the total carbohydrate food of the average worker will be
+consumed in the shape of beer.</p>
+
+<p>The chemical composition of beers of different types will be
+gathered from the following tables.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">A. English Beers.</span><br />
+(Analyses by J.L. Baker, Hulton &amp; P. Schidrowitz.)<br />
+
+I. <i>Mild Ales.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Original Gravity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Extractives (Solids) %.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1055.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2.<a href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1055.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">3.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1071.78</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.57</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.3</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt1">II. <i>Light Bitters and Ales.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Original Gravity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Extractives (Solids) %.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1046.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1047.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1047.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.61</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1050.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">5.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1038.31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.81</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.5</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt1">III. <i>Pale and Stock Ales.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Original Gravity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Extractives (Solids) %.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1059.01</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.77</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1068.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">3.<a href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1076.80</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.68</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.9</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt1">IV. <i>Stouts and Porter.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Original Gravity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Extractives (Solids) %.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1072.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1054.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3.<a href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1081.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">4.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1054.11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.90</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.5</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The figures in the above tables are very fairly representative
+of different classes of British and Irish beers. It will be noticed
+that the <i>Mild Ales</i> are of medium original gravity<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+and alcoholic strength, but contain a relatively large proportion of solid
+matter. The <i>Light Bitters and Ales</i> are of a low original gravity,
+but compared with the Mild Ales the proportion of alcohol to
+solids is higher. The <i>Pale and Stock Ales</i>, which represent the
+more expensive bottle beers, are analytically of much the same
+character as the Light Bitters, except that the figures all round
+are much higher. The <i>Stouts</i>, as a rule, are characterized by a
+high gravity, and contain relatively more solids (as compared
+with alcohol) than do the heavy beers of light colour. With
+regard to the proportions of the various matters constituting the
+extractives (solids) in English beers, roughly 20-30% consists of
+maltose and 20-50% of dextrinous matter. In mild ales the
+proportion of maltose to dextrin is high (roughly 1:1), thus
+accounting for the full sweet taste of these beers. Pale and stock
+ales, on the other hand, which are of a &ldquo;dry&rdquo; character, contain
+relatively more dextrin, the general ratio being about 1:1½
+or 1:2. The mineral matter (&ldquo;ash&rdquo;) of beers is generally in the
+neighbourhood of 0.2 to 0.3%, of which about one-fourth is
+phosphoric acid. The proteid (&ldquo;nitrogenous matters&rdquo;) content
+of beers varies very widely according to character and strength,
+the usual limits being 0.3 to 0.8%, with an average of roughly 0.4%.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">B. Continental Beers.</span><br />
+(Analyses by A. Doemens.)</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Description.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Original<br />Gravity.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Extractives<br />(Solids) %.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich Draught Dark</td> <td class="tcc rb">1056.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1052.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.45</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich Draught Light</td> <td class="tcc rb">1048.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1048.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich Export</td> <td class="tcc rb">1054.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1059.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.48</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich Bock Beer<a name="fa9b" id="fa9b" href="#ft9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1076.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pilsener Bottle</td> <td class="tcc rb">1047.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.90</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pilsener Draught</td> <td class="tcc rb">1044.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.25</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin Dark</td> <td class="tcc rb">1055.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin Light</td> <td class="tcc rb">1056.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.46</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Berlin Weissbier</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1033.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.644</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.01</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It will be seen that, broadly speaking, the original gravity of
+German and Austrian beers is lower than that of English
+beers, and this also applies to the alcohol. On the other
+hand, the foreign beers are relatively very rich in solids, and the
+extractives: alcohol ratio is high. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">C. American Beers and Ales.</span><br />
+(Analyses by M. Wallerstein.)</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Description.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Original<br />Gravity.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Extractives<br />(Solids) %.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm lb cl bb" rowspan="5">Bottom Fermentation<br />Beers<br />(Lager Type).</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1046.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rb">2.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1055.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rb">3.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1063.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rb">4.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1046.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.96</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rb">5.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1051.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.86</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm lb cl bb" rowspan="3">Top Fermentation<br />Ales<br />(British Type).</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1084.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rb">2.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1073.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rb bb">3.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1068.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.50</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.53</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It will be noted that the American <i>beers</i> (<i>i.e.</i> bottom
+fermentation products of the lager type) are very similar in composition
+to the German beers, but that the ales are very much heavier
+than the general run of the corresponding British products.</p>
+
+<p><i>Production and Consumption.</i>&mdash;(For manufacture of beer, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>.) Germany is the greatest beer-producing nation, if
+liquid bulk be taken as a criterion; the United States comes
+next, and the United Kingdom occupies the third place in this
+regard. The consumption per head, however, is slightly greater
+in the United Kingdom than in Germany, and very much
+greater than is the case in the United States. The 1905 figures
+with regard to the total production and consumption of the
+three great beer-producing countries, together with those for
+1885, are as under:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Country.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Total Production (Gallons).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Consumption per <br />Head of Population<br />(Gallons).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">German Empire.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,538,240,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">932,228,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">23.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,434,114,180</td> <td class="tcl rb">494,854,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">19.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">United Kingdom.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1,227,933,468<a name="fa10b" id="fa10b" href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb bb">993,759,000</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">27.90<a href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb bb">27.1</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span></p>
+
+<p>The chief point of interest in the preceding table is the enormous
+increase in the United States. In considering the figures, the
+character of the beer produced must be taken into consideration.
+Thus, although Germany produces roughly 25% more beer in
+liquid measurement than the United Kingdom, the latter actually
+uses about 50% more malt than is the case in the German
+breweries. According to a Viennese technical journal, the
+quantities of malt employed for the production of one hectolitre
+(22 gallons) of beer in the respective countries is 0.40 cwt. in the
+German empire, 0.72 cwt. in the United States, and 0.81 cwt.
+in the United Kingdom. In a sense, therefore, England may
+still claim pre-eminence as a beer-producing nation. Large as
+the <i>per capita</i> consumption in the United Kingdom may seem,
+it is considerably less than is the case in Bavaria, which stands
+at the head of the list with over 50 gallons, and in Belgium, which
+comes second with 47.7 gallons. In the city of Munich the
+consumption is actually over 70 gallons, that is to say, about 1½
+pints a day for every man, woman and child. It is curious to
+note that in Germany, which is usually regarded as a beer-drinking
+country <i>par excellence</i>, the consumption per head of this
+article is slightly less than in England, and that inversely the
+average German consumes more alcohol in the shape of spirits
+than does the inhabitant of the British Islands (consumption of
+spirits per head: Germany, 1.76 gallons; United Kingdom, 0.99
+gallons). This is accounted for by the fact that the peasantry
+of the northern and eastern portions of the German empire
+consume spirits almost exclusively. In the British colonies
+beer is generally one of the staple drinks, but if we except
+Western Australia, where about 25 gallons per head of population
+are consumed, the demand is much smaller than in the United
+Kingdom. In Australia generally, the <i>per capita</i> consumption
+amounts to about 12 gallons, in New Zealand to 10 gallons, and
+in Canada to 5 gallons.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> London Ales.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Strong Burton Mild Ale.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Fairly representative of &ldquo;Pale Ales.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Heavy Stock Ales.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Irish Stout.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Nos. 2 and 3 are respectively &ldquo;single&rdquo; and &ldquo;double&rdquo; London
+    Stouts from the same brewery.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> London Porter or Cooper.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The specific gravity, or &ldquo;gravity&rdquo; as it is always termed in the
+industry, of the brewer is 1000 times the specific gravity of the
+physicist. This is purely a matter of convention and convenience.
+Thus when a brewer speaks of a wort of a &ldquo;gravity&rdquo; of 1045
+(ten-forty-five) he means a wort having a specific gravity of 1.045. Each
+unit in the brewer&rsquo;s scale of specific gravity is termed a &ldquo;degree of
+gravity.&rdquo; The wort referred to above, therefore, possesses forty-five
+<i>degrees</i> of gravity. The &ldquo;original gravity,&rdquo; it may here be
+mentioned, represents the specific gravity of the wort (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>)
+before fermentation. The solids in the original wort may be
+ascertained by dividing the excess of the gravity over 1000 by 3.86.
+Thus in the case of Mild Ale No. 1 the excess of the original gravity
+over 1000 is 1055.13 &minus; 1000 = 55.13. Dividing this by 3.86 we get
+14.28, which indicates that the wort from which the beer was
+manufactured contained 14.28% of solids. In the trade the gravity of
+a beer (or rather of the wort from which it is derived) is generally
+expressed in pounds per barrel. This means the excess in weight
+of a barrel of the wort over the weight of a barrel of water. The
+weight of a barrel (36 gallons) of water is 360 &#8468;; in the above example
+the weight of a barrel of the beer wort is 360 × 1.05513 = 379.8.
+The gravity of the wort in &#8468; is therefore 379.8 &minus; 360 = 19.8. The
+beer which is made from this wort would also be called a 19.8 &#8468;
+beer, the reference in all cases being to the original wort.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> A particularly heavy beer, only brewed at certain times in the year.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10b" id="ft10b" href="#fa10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The maxima of production and consumption were reached
+in 1899/1900, when the production amounted to 1,337,509,116
+gallons (at the standard gravity) and consumption to 32.28 gallons
+per head.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEERSHEBA,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a place midway between Gaza and Hebron
+(28 m. from each), frequently referred to in the Bible as the
+southern limit of Palestine (&ldquo;Dan to Beersheba,&rdquo; Judg. xx. i, &amp;c.)
+Its foundation is variously ascribed to Abraham and Isaac, and
+different etymologies for its name are suggested, in the fundamental
+documents of Genesis (xxi. 22, xxvi. 26). It was an
+important holy place, where Abraham planted a sacred tree
+(Gen. xxi. 23), and where divine manifestations were vouchsafed
+to Hagar (Gen. xxi. 17), Isaac (xxvi. 24), Jacob (xlvi. 2) and
+Elijah (1 Kings xix. 5). Amos mentions it in connexion with
+the shrines of Bethel and Gilgal (Amos v. 5) and denounces oaths
+by its <i>numen</i> (viii. 14). The most probable meaning of the name
+is &ldquo;seven wells,&rdquo; despite the non-Semitic construction involved
+in this interpretation. Seven ancient wells still exist here,
+though two are stopped up. Eusebius and Jerome mention the
+place in the 4th century as a large village and the seat of a Roman
+garrison. Extensive remains of this village exist, though they
+are being rapidly quarried away for building; some inscriptions
+of great importance have been found here. Later it appears to
+have been the site of a bishopric; remains of its churches were
+still standing in the 14th century. Some fine mosaics have been
+here unearthed and immediately destroyed, in sheer wantonness,
+by the natives quarrying building-stone. The Biblical Beersheba
+probably exists at Bir es-Seba&lsquo;, 2 m. distant.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1831-&emsp;&emsp;), English historian
+and positivist, son of the Rev. James Beesly, was born at Feckenham,
+Worcestershire, on the 23rd of January 1831. He was
+educated at Wadham College, Oxford, which may be regarded
+as the original centre of the English positivist movement.
+Richard Congreve (<i>q.v.</i>) was tutor at Wadham from 1849 to 1854,
+and three men of that time, Frederic Harrison (<i>q.v.</i>), Beesly and
+John Henry Bridges (1832-1906), became the leaders of Comtism
+in England. Beesly left Oxford in 1854 to become assistant-master
+at Marlborough College. In 1859 he was appointed
+professor of history at University College, London, and of Latin
+at Bedford College, London, in 1860. He resigned these appointments
+in 1893 and 1889, and in 1893 became the editor of the
+newly-established <i>Positivist Review</i>. He collaborated in the
+translation of Comte&rsquo;s system of <i>Positive Polity</i> (4 vols., 1875-1879),
+translated his <i>Discourse on the Positive Spirit</i> (1903),
+and wrote a biography of Comte for a translation of the first two
+chapters of his <i>Cours de philosophie positive</i>, entitled <i>Fundamental
+Principles of Positive Philosophy</i> (1905). Professor Beesly stood
+unsuccessfully as Liberal candidate for Westminster in 1885
+and for Marylebone in 1886, and is the author of numerous
+review articles on social and political topics, treated from
+the positivist standpoint, especially on the Irish question. His
+works also include a series of lectures on Roman history, entitled
+<i>Catiline, Clodius, Tiberius</i> (1878), in which he rehabilitates in
+some degree the character of each of his subjects, and <i>Queen
+Elizabeth</i> (1892), in the &ldquo;Twelve English Statesmen&rdquo; series.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEET,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a cultivated form of the plant <i>Beta vulgaris</i> (natural
+order Chenopodiaceae), which grows wild on the coasts of
+Europe, North Africa and Asia as far as India. It is a biennial,
+producing, like the carrot, a thick, fleshy tap-root during the first
+year and a branched, leafy, flowering stem in the following season.
+The small, green flowers are borne in clusters. A considerable
+number of varieties are cultivated for use on account of their
+large fleshy roots, under the names of mangel-wurzel or mangold,
+field-beet and garden-beet. The cultivation of beet in relation
+to the production of sugar, for which purpose certain varieties of
+beet stand next in importance to the sugar cane, is dealt with
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sugar</a></span>. The garden-beet has been cultivated from very
+remote times as a salad plant, and for general use as a table
+vegetable. The variety most generally grown has long, tapering,
+carrot-shaped roots, the &ldquo;flesh&rdquo; of which is of a uniform deep
+red colour throughout, and the leaves brownish red. It is boiled
+and cut into slices for being eaten cold; and it is also prepared
+as a pickle, as well as in various other forms. Beet is in much
+more common use on the continent of Europe as a culinary
+vegetable than in Great Britain, where it has, however, been
+cultivated for upwards of two centuries. The white beet, <i>Beta
+cicla</i>, is cultivated for the leaves, which are used as spinach.
+The midribs and stalks of the leaves are also stewed and eaten as
+sea-kale, under the name of Swiss chard. <i>B. cicla</i> is also
+largely used as a decorative plant for its large, handsome
+leaves, blood red or variegated in colour.</p>
+
+<p>The beet prospers in a rich deep soil, well pulverized by the
+spade. If manure is required, it should be deposited at the
+bottom of the trench in preparing the ground. The seeds should
+be sown in drills 15 ins. asunder, in April or early in May, and the
+plants are afterwards to be thinned to about 8 in. apart in the
+lines, but not more, as moderate-sized roots are preferable.
+The plants should grow on till the end of October or later, when a
+portion should be taken up for use, and the rest laid in in a
+sheltered corner, and covered up from frost. The roots must not
+be bruised and the leaves must be twisted off&mdash;not closely cut,
+as they are then liable to bleed. In the north the crop may be
+wholly taken up in autumn, and stored in a pit or cellar, beyond
+reach of frost. If it is desired to have fresh roots early, the seeds
+should be sown at the end of February or beginning of March;
+and if a succession is required, a few more may be sown by the
+end of March.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1770-1827), German musical
+composer, was baptized (probably, as was usual, the day after
+birth) on the 17th of December 1770 at Bonn. His family is
+traceable to a village near Louvain, in Belgium, in the 17th
+century. In 1650 a lineal ancestor of the composer settled in
+Antwerp. Beethoven&rsquo;s grandfather, Louis, quarrelled with his
+family, came to Bonn in 1732, and became one of the court
+musicians of the archbishop-elector of Cologne. He was a genial
+man of estimable character, and though Ludwig van Beethoven
+was only four years old when his grandfather died, he never
+forgot him, but cherished his portrait to the end of his life.
+Beethoven&rsquo;s father, a tenor singer at the archbishop-elector&rsquo;s
+court, was of a rough and violent temper, not improved by his
+passion for drink, nor by the dire poverty under which the
+family laboured. He married Magdelina Leim or Laym, the
+widow of a <i>vâlet-de-chambre</i> of the elector of Trier and daughter
+of the chief cook at Ehrenbreitstein. Beethoven&rsquo;s father wished
+to profit as early as possible by his son&rsquo;s talent, and accordingly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span>
+began to give him a severe musical training, especially on the
+violin, when he was only five years old, at about which time they
+left the house in which he was born (515 Bonngasse, now preserved
+as a Beethoven museum, with a magnificent collection of
+manuscripts and relics). By the time Beethoven was nine his
+father had no more to teach him, and he entered upon a perhaps
+healthier course of clavier lessons under a singer named Pfeiffer.
+A little general education was also edged in by a certain Zambona.
+Van den Eeden, the court organist, and an old friend of his
+grandfather, taught him the organ and the pianoforte, and so
+rapid was Beethoven&rsquo;s progress that when C.G. Neefe succeeded
+to Van den Eeden&rsquo;s post in 1781, he was soon able to allow the
+boy to act as his deputy. With his permission Beethoven published
+in 1783 his earliest extant composition, a set of variations
+on a march by Dressler. The title-page states that they were
+written in 1780 &ldquo;<i>par un jeune amateur Louis van Beethoven
+âgé de dix ans</i>.&rdquo; Beethoven&rsquo;s father was very clumsy in his
+unnecessary attempts to make an infant prodigy of his son;
+for the ante-dating of this composition, implying the correct
+date of birth, contradicts the post-dating of the date of birth
+by which he tried to make out that the three sonatas Beethoven
+wrote in the same year were by a boy of eleven. (Beethoven
+for a long time believed that he was born in 1772, and the
+certificate of his baptism hardly convinced him, because he
+knew that he had an elder brother named Ludwig who died in
+infancy.) In the same year, 1783, Beethoven was given the
+post of cembalist in the Bonn theatre, and in 1784 his position
+of assistant to Neefe became official. In a <i>catalogue raisonné</i> of
+the new archbishop Max Franz&rsquo;s court musicians we find &ldquo;No.
+14, Ludwig Beethoven&rdquo; described &ldquo;as of good capacity, still
+young, of good, quiet behaviour and poor,&rdquo; while his father
+(No. 8) &ldquo;has a completely worn-out voice, has long been in
+service, is very poor, of fairly good behaviour, and married.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1787 Beethoven paid a short visit to Vienna,
+where he astonished Mozart by his extemporizations and had a
+few lessons from him. How he was enabled to afford this visit
+is not clear. After three months the illness of his mother, to
+whom he was devoted, brought him back. She died in July,
+leaving a baby girl, one year old, who died in November. For
+five more years Beethoven remained at Bonn supporting his
+family, of which he had been since the age of fifteen practically
+the head, as his father&rsquo;s bad habits steadily increased until in
+1789 Ludwig was officially entrusted with his father&rsquo;s salary.
+He had already made several lifelong friends at Bonn, of whom
+the chief were Count Waldstein and Stephan Breuning; and his
+prospects brightened as the archbishop-elector, in imitation of his
+brother the emperor Joseph II., enlarged the scale of his artistic
+munificence. By 1792 the archbishop-elector&rsquo;s attention was
+thoroughly aroused to Beethoven&rsquo;s power, and he provided for
+Beethoven&rsquo;s second visit to Vienna. The introductions he and
+Count Waldstein gave to Beethoven, the prefix &ldquo;van&rdquo; in
+Beethoven&rsquo;s name (which looked well though it was not really a
+title of nobility), and above all the unequalled impressiveness
+of his playing and extemporization, quickly secured his footing
+with the exceptionally intelligent and musical aristocracy of
+Vienna, who to the end of his life treated him with genuine
+affection and respect, bearing with all the roughness of his
+manners and temper, not as with the eccentricities of a fashionable
+genius, but as with signs of the sufferings of a passionate
+and noble nature.</p>
+
+<p>Beethoven&rsquo;s life, though outwardly uneventful, was one of
+the most pathetic of tragedies. His character has had the same
+fascination for his biographers as it had for his friends, and
+there is probably hardly any great man in history of whom more
+is known and of whom so much of what is known is interesting.
+Yet it is all too much a matter of detail and anecdote to admit
+of chronological summarizing here, and for the disentangling of
+its actual incidents we must refer the reader to Sir George
+Grove&rsquo;s long and graphic article, &ldquo;Beethoven,&rdquo; in the <i>Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians</i>, and to the monumental biography of
+Thayer, who devoted his whole life to collecting materials.
+These two biographical works, read in the spirit in which their
+authors conceived them, will reveal, beneath a mass of distressing,
+grotesque and sometimes sordid detail, a nobility of character
+and unswerving devotion to the highest moral ideas throughout
+every distress and temptation to which a passionate and totally
+unpractical temper and the growing shadow of a terrible misfortune
+could expose a man.</p>
+
+<p>The man is surpassed only by his works, for in them he had
+that mastery which was denied to him in what he himself calls
+his attempt to &ldquo;grapple with fate.&rdquo; Such of his difficulties as
+lay in his own character already showed themselves in his studies
+with Haydn. Haydn, who seems to have heard of him on his
+first visit to Vienna in 1787, passed through Bonn in July 1792,
+and was so much struck by Beethoven that it was very likely at
+his instigation that the archbishop sent Beethoven to Vienna to
+study under him. But Beethoven did not get on well with him,
+and found him perfunctory in correcting his exercises. Haydn
+appreciated neither his manners nor the audacity of his free
+compositions, and abandoned whatever intentions he may have
+had of taking Beethoven with him to England in 1794. Beethoven
+could do without sympathy, but a grounding in strict
+counterpoint he felt to be a dire necessity, so he continued his
+studies with Albrechtsberger, a mere grammarian who had the
+poorest opinion of him, but who could, at all events, be depended
+on to attend to his work. Almost every comment has been made
+upon the relations between Haydn and Beethoven, except the
+perfectly obvious one that Mozart died at the age of thirty-six,
+just at the time Beethoven came to Vienna, and that Haydn, as is
+perfectly well known, was profoundly shocked by the untimely
+loss of the greatest musician he had ever known. At such a time
+the undeniable clumsiness of Beethoven&rsquo;s efforts at academic
+exercises would combine with his general tactlessness to confirm
+Haydn in the belief that the sun had set for ever in the musical
+world, and would incline him to view with disfavour those bold
+features of style and form which the whole of his own artistic
+development should naturally have predisposed him to welcome.
+It is at least significant that those early works of Beethoven in
+which Mozart&rsquo;s influence is most evident, such as the Septet,
+aroused Haydn&rsquo;s open admiration, whereas he hardly approved
+of the compositions like the sonatas, <i>op.</i> 2 (dedicated to him), in
+which his own influence is stronger. Neither he nor Beethoven
+was skilful in expressing himself except in music, and it is
+impossible to tell what Haydn meant, or what Beethoven
+thought he meant, in advising him not to publish the last and
+finest of the three trios, <i>op</i>. 1. But even if he did not
+mean that it was too daring for the public, it can hardly be expected that
+he never contrasted the meteoric career of Mozart, who after a
+miraculous boyhood had produced at the age of twenty-five
+some of the greatest music Haydn had ever seen, with the slow
+and painful development of his uncouth pupil, who at the same
+age had hardly a dozen presentable works to his credit. It is
+not clear that Haydn ever came to understand Beethoven, and
+many years passed before Beethoven realized the greatness of
+the master whose teaching had so disappointed him.</p>
+
+<p>From the time Beethoven settled permanently in Vienna,
+which he was soon induced to do by the kindness of his aristocratic
+friends, the only noteworthy external features of his
+career are the productions of his compositions. In spite of the
+usual hostile criticism for obscurity, exaggeration and unpopularity,
+his reputation became world-wide and by degrees actually
+popular; nor did it ever decline, for as his later works became
+notorious for their extravagance and unintelligibility his earlier
+works became better understood. He was no man of business,
+but, in a thoroughly unpractical way, he was suspicious and
+exacting in money matters, which in his later years frequently
+turned up in his conversation as a grievance, and at times,
+especially during the depreciation of the Austrian currency
+between 1808 and 1815, were a real anxiety to him. Nevertheless,
+with a little more skill his external prosperity would have been
+great. He was always a personage of importance, as is testified
+by more than one amusing anecdote, like those of his walks with
+Goethe and his half-ironical comments on the hats which flew
+off more for him than for Goethe; and in 1815 it seemed as if the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span>
+summit of his fame was reached when his 7th symphony was
+performed, together with a hastily-written cantata, <i>Der glorreiche
+Augenblick</i> and the blazing piece of descriptive fireworks entitled
+<i>Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria</i>, once popular
+in England as the <i>Battle Symphony</i>. The occasion for this
+performance was the congress of Vienna; and the government
+placed the two halls of the Redouten-Saal at his disposal for
+two nights, while he himself was allowed to invite all the
+sovereigns of Europe. In the same year he received the freedom
+of the city, an honour much valued by him. After that time his
+immediate popularity, as far as new works were concerned, became
+less eminent, as that of his more easy-going contemporaries
+began to increase. Yet there was, not only in the emotional
+power of his earlier works, but also in the known cause of his
+increasing inability to appear in public, something that awakened
+the best popular sensibilities; and when his two greatest and
+most difficult works, the 9th symphony and parts of the <i>Missa
+Solemnis</i>, were produced at a memorable concert in 1824, the
+storm of applause was overwhelming, and the composer, who
+was on the platform in order to give the time to the conductor,
+had to be turned round by one of the singers in order to <i>see</i> it.</p>
+
+<p>Signs of deafness had given him grave anxiety as early as
+1708. For a long time he successfully concealed it from all but
+his most intimate friends, while he consulted physicians and
+quacks with eagerness; but neither quackery nor the best skill
+of his time availed him, and it has been pointed out that the root
+of the evil lay deeper than could have been supposed during his
+lifetime. Although his constitution was magnificently strong
+and his health was preserved by his passion for outdoor life,
+a post-mortem examination revealed a very complicated state of
+disorder, evidently dating almost from childhood (if not inherited)
+and aggravated by lack of care and good food. The touching
+document addressed to his brothers in 1802, and known as
+his &ldquo;will,&rdquo; should be read in its entirety, as given by Thayer
+(iv. 4). No verbal quotation short of the whole will do justice
+to the overpowering outburst which runs almost in one long
+unpunctuated sentence through the whole tragedy of Beethoven&rsquo;s
+life, as he knew it then and foresaw it. He reproaches men for
+their injustice in thinking and calling him pugnacious, stubborn
+and misanthropical when they do not know that for six years
+he has suffered from an incurable condition, aggravated by
+incompetent doctors. He dwells upon his delight in human
+society, from which he has had so early to isolate himself, but the
+thought of which now fills him with dread as it makes him
+realize his loss, not only in music but in all finer interchange of
+ideas, and terrifies him lest the cause of his distress should appear.
+He declares that, when those near him had heard a flute or a
+singing shepherd while he heard nothing, he was only prevented
+from taking his life by the thought of his art, but it seemed impossible
+for him to leave the world until he had brought out
+all that he felt to be in his power. He requests that after his
+death his present doctor, if surviving, shall be asked to describe
+his illness and to append it to this document in order that at
+least then the world may be as far as possible reconciled with
+him. He leaves his brothers his property, such as it is, and in
+terms not less touching, if more conventional than the rest of
+the document, he declares that his experience shows that only
+virtue has preserved his life and his courage through all his
+misery.</p>
+
+<p>And, indeed, his art and his courage rose far above any level
+attainable by those artists who are slaves to the &ldquo;personal
+note,&rdquo; for his chief occupation at the time of this document was
+his 2nd symphony, the most brilliant and triumphant piece
+that had ever been written up to that time. On a smaller scale,
+in which mastery was the more easily attainable as experiment
+was more readily tested, Beethoven was sooner able to strike
+a tragic note, and hence the process of growth in his style is
+more readily traceable in the pianoforte works than in the larger
+compositions which naturally represent a series of crowning
+results. Only in his last period does the pianoforte cease to be
+Beethoven&rsquo;s normal means of expression. Accordingly, if in
+the discussion of Beethoven&rsquo;s works, with which we close this
+article, we dwell rather more on the pianoforte sonatas than on
+his greater works, it is not only because they are more easily
+referred to by the general reader, but because they are actually
+a key to his intellectual development, such as is afforded neither
+by his life nor by the great works which are themselves the crowning
+mystery and wonder of musical art.</p>
+
+<p>Deafness causes inconvenience in conversation long before it
+is noticeable in music, and in 1806 Beethoven could still conduct
+his opera <i>Fidelio</i> and be much annoyed at the inattention to his
+nuances; and his last appearance as a player was not until 1814,
+when he made a great impression with his B flat trio, <i>op</i>. 97.
+At the end of November 1822 an attempt to conduct proved
+disastrous. The touching incident in 1824 has been described,
+but up to the last Beethoven seems to have found or imagined
+that ear-trumpets (of which a collection is now preserved at Bonn)
+were of use to him in playing to himself, though his friends
+were often pained when the pianoforte was badly out of tune,
+and were overcome when Beethoven in soft passages did not make
+the notes sound at all. The instrument sent him by Broadwood
+in 1817-1818 gave him great pleasure and he answered it with
+a characteristically cordial and quaint letter in the best of bad
+French. His fame in England was often a source of great
+comfort to him, especially in his last illness, when the London
+Philharmonic Society, for which the 9th symphony was written
+and a 10th symphony projected, sent him £100 in advance of
+the proceeds of a benefit concert which he had begged them to
+give, being in very straitened circumstances, as he would make
+no use of the money he had deposited in the bank for his nephew.</p>
+
+<p>This nephew was the cause of most of his anxiety and distress
+in the last twelve years of his life. His brother, Kaspar Karl,
+had often given him trouble; for example, by obtaining and
+publishing some of Beethoven&rsquo;s early indiscretions, such as the
+trio-variations, <i>op</i>. 44, the sonatas, <i>op</i>. 49, and other trifles,
+of which the late <i>opus</i> number is thus explained. In 1815, after
+Beethoven had quarrelled with his oldest friend, Stephan
+Breuning, for warning him against trusting his brother in money
+matters, Kaspar died, leaving a widow of whom Beethoven
+strongly disapproved, and a son, nine years old, for the guardianship
+of whom Beethoven fought the widow through all the law
+courts. The boy turned out utterly unworthy of his uncle&rsquo;s
+persistent devotion, and gave him every cause for anxiety.
+He failed in all his examinations, including an attempt to learn
+some trade in the polytechnic school, whereupon he fell into the
+hands of the police for attempting suicide, and, after being
+expelled from Vienna, joined the army. Beethoven&rsquo;s utterly
+simple nature could neither educate nor understand a human
+being who was not possessed by the wish to do his best. His
+nature was passionately affectionate, and he had suffered all
+his life from the want of a natural outlet for it. He had often
+been deeply in love and made no secret of it; but Robert
+Browning had not a more intense dislike of &ldquo;the artistic temperament&rdquo;
+in morals, and though Beethoven&rsquo;s attachments were
+almost all hopelessly above him in rank, there is not one that
+was not honourable and respected by society as showing the
+truthfulness and self-control of a great man. Beethoven&rsquo;s
+orthodoxy in such matters has provoked the smiles of Philistines,
+especially when it showed itself in his objections to Mozart&rsquo;s
+<i>Don Giovanni</i>, and his grounds for selecting the subject of
+<i>Fidelio</i> for his own opera. The last thing that Philistines will
+ever understand is that genius is far too independent of convention
+to abuse it; and Beethoven&rsquo;s life, with all its mistakes,
+its grotesqueness and its pathos, is as far beyond the shafts of
+Philistine wit as his art.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of 1827 Beethoven had projects for a 10th
+symphony, music to Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Faust</i>, and (under the stimulus
+of his newly acquired collection of Handel&rsquo;s works) any amount
+of choral music, compared to which all his previous compositions
+would have seemed but a prelude. But he was in bad health;
+his brother Johann, with whom he had been staying, had not
+allowed him a fire in his bedroom, and had sent him back to
+Vienna in an open chaise in vile weather; and the chill which
+resulted ended in a fatal illness. Within a week of his death
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span>
+Beethoven was still full of his projects. Three days before the
+end he added a codicil to his will, and saw Schubert, whose music
+had aroused his keen interest, but was not able to speak to him,
+though he afterwards spoke of the Philharmonic Society and the
+English, almost his last words being &ldquo;God bless them.&rdquo; On the
+26th of March 1827, during a fierce thunderstorm, he died.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beethoven&rsquo;s Music.</i>&mdash;The division of Beethoven&rsquo;s work into
+three styles has become proverbial, and is based on obvious facts.
+The styles, however, are not rigidly separated, either in
+themselves or in chronology. Nor can the popular description of
+Beethoven&rsquo;s first manner as &ldquo;Mozartesque&rdquo; be accepted as
+doing justice to a style which differs more radically from Mozart&rsquo;s
+than Mozart&rsquo;s differs from Haydn&rsquo;s. The style of Beethoven&rsquo;s
+third period is no longer regarded as &ldquo;showing an obscurity
+traceable to his deafness,&rdquo; but we have, perhaps, only recently
+outgrown the belief that his later treatment of form is revolutionary.
+The peculiar interest and difficulty in tracing Beethoven&rsquo;s
+artistic development is that the changes in the materials
+and range of his art were as great as those in the form, so that he
+appears in the light of a pioneer, while the art with which he
+started was nevertheless already a perfectly mature and highly
+organized thing. And he is perhaps unique among artists in
+this, that his power of constructing perfect works of art never
+deserted him while he revolutionized his means of expression.
+No doubt this is in a measure true of all the greatest artists,
+but it is seldom obvious. In mature art vital differences in
+works of similar form are generally more likely to be overlooked
+than to force themselves on the critic&rsquo;s attention. And when
+they become so great as to make a new epoch it is generally
+at the cost of a period of experiment too heterogeneous and
+insecure for works of art to attain great permanent value.
+But in Beethoven&rsquo;s case, as we have said, the process of development
+is so smooth that it is impossible to separate the periods
+clearly, although the ground covered is, as regards emotional
+range, at least as great as that between Bach and Mozart. No
+artist has ever left more authoritative documentary evidence
+as to the steps of his development than Beethoven. In boyhood
+he seems to have acquired the habit of noting down all his
+musical ideas exactly as they first struck him. It is easy to see
+why in later years he referred to this as a &ldquo;bad habit,&rdquo; for it
+must often take longer to jot down a crude idea than to reject
+it; and by the time the habit was formed Beethoven&rsquo;s powers of
+self-criticism were unparalleled, and he must often have felt
+hampered by the habit of writing down what he knew to be too
+crude to be even an aid to memory. Such first intuitions, if not
+written down, would no doubt be forgotten; but the poetic
+mood, the <i>Stimmung</i>, they attempt to indicate, would remain
+until a better expression was forthcoming. Beethoven had
+acquired the habit of recording them, and thereby he has,
+perhaps, misled some critics into over-emphasizing the contrast
+between his &ldquo;tentative&rdquo; self-critical methods and the
+quasi-extempore outpourings of Mozart. This contrast is probably
+not very radical; indeed, we may doubt whether in every
+thoughtful mind any apparently sudden inspiration is not
+preceded by some anticipatory mood in which the idea was sought
+and its first faint indications tested and rejected so
+instantaneously as to leave no impression on the memory.</p>
+
+<p>The number and triviality of Beethoven&rsquo;s preliminary sketches
+should not, then, be taken as evidence of a timid or vacillating
+spirit. But if we regard his sketches as his diary their significance
+becomes inestimable. They cover every period of Beethoven&rsquo;s
+career, and represent every stage of nearly all his important
+works, as well as of innumerable trifles, including ideas that did
+not survive to be worked out. And the type of self-criticism
+is the same from beginning to end. There is no tendency in the
+middle or last period, any more than in the first, to &ldquo;subordinate
+form to expression,&rdquo; nor do the sketches of the first
+period show any lack of attention to elements that seem more
+characteristic of the third. The difference between Beethoven&rsquo;s
+three styles appears first in its full proportions when we realize
+this complete continuity of his method and art. We have ventured
+to cast doubts upon the Mozartesque character of his early
+style, because that is chiefly a question of perspective. While
+he was handling a range of ideas not, in a modern view, glaringly
+different from Mozart&rsquo;s, he had no reason to use a glaringly
+different language. His contemporaries, however, found it more
+difficult to see the resemblance; and, though their criticism was
+often violently hostile, they saw with prejudice a daring originality
+which we may as well learn to appreciate with study.
+Beethoven himself in later years partly affected and partly felt
+a lack of sympathy with his own early style. But he had other
+things to do than to criticize it. Modern prejudice has not his
+excuse, and the neglect of Beethoven&rsquo;s early works is no less
+than the neglect of the key to the understanding of his later.
+It is also the neglect of a mass of mature art that already places
+Beethoven on the same plane as Mozart, and contains perhaps
+the only traces in all his work of a real struggle between the
+forces of progress and those of construction. We will therefore
+give special attention to this subject here.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is that there are several styles in Beethoven&rsquo;s
+first period, in the centre of which, &ldquo;proving all things,&rdquo; is the
+true and mature Beethoven, however wider may be the scope of
+his later maturity. And he did not, as is often alleged, fail to
+show early promise. The pianoforte quartets he wrote at the age
+of fifteen are, no doubt, clumsy and childish in execution to a
+degree that contrasts remarkably with the works of Mozart&rsquo;s,
+Mendelssohn&rsquo;s or Schubert&rsquo;s boyhood; yet they contain material
+actually used in the sonatas, <i>op</i>. 2, No. 1, and <i>op</i>. 2, No. 3. And
+the passage in <i>op</i>. 2, No. 3, is that immediately after the first
+subject, where, as Beethoven then states it, it embodies one of
+his most epoch-making discoveries, namely, the art of organizing
+a long series of apparently free modulations by means of a
+systematic progression in the bass. In the childish quartet the
+principle is only dimly felt, but it is nevertheless there as a
+subconscious source of inspiration; and it afterwards gives
+inevitable dramatic truth to such passages as the climax of the
+development in the sonata, <i>op</i>. 57 (commonly called <i>Appassionata</i>),
+and throughout the chaos of the mysterious introduction
+to the C major string-quartet, <i>op</i>. 59, No. 3, prepares us for the
+world of loveliness that arises from it.</p>
+
+<p>Although with Beethoven the desire to express new thoughts
+was thus invariably both stimulated and satisfied by the discovery
+of the necessary new means of expression, he felt deeply
+the danger of spoiling great ideas by inadequate execution;
+and his first work in a new form or medium is, even if as late
+as the Mass in C, <i>op</i>. 89, almost always unambitious. His
+teachers had found him sceptical of authority, and never
+convinced of the practical convenience of a rule until he had too
+successfully courted disaster. But he appreciated the experience,
+though he may have found it expensive, and traces of crudeness
+in such early works as he did not disown are as rare as plagiarisms.
+The first three pianoforte sonatas, <i>op</i>. 2. show the different
+elements in Beethoven&rsquo;s early style as clearly as possible. Sir
+Hubert Parry has aptly compared the opening of the sonata,
+<i>op</i>. 2, No. 1, with that of the finale of Mozart&rsquo;s G minor symphony,
+to show how much closer Beethoven&rsquo;s texture is. The
+slow movement well illustrates the rare cases in which Beethoven
+imitates Mozart to the detriment of his own proper richness
+of tone and thought, while the finale in its central episode
+brings a misapplied and somewhat diffuse structure in Mozart&rsquo;s
+style into direct conflict with themes as &ldquo;Beethovenish&rdquo; in
+their terseness as in their sombre passion. The second sonata is
+flawless in execution, and entirely beyond the range of Haydn
+and Mozart in harmonic and dramatic thought, except in the
+finale. And it is just in the adoption of the luxurious
+Mozartesque rondo form as the crown of this work that Beethoven
+shows his true independence. He adopts the form, not because
+it is Mozart&rsquo;s, but because it is right and because he can master it.
+The opening of the second subject in the first movement is a
+wonderful application of the harmonic principle already mentioned
+in connexion with the early piano quartets. In all music
+nothing equally dramatic can be found before the D minor
+sonata, <i>op</i>. 31, No. 2, which is rightly regarded as marking the
+beginning of Beethoven&rsquo;s second period. The slow movement,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span>
+like those of <i>op</i>. 7 and a few other early works, shows a thrilling
+solemnity that immediately proves the identity of the pupil of
+Haydn with the creator of the 9th symphony. The little <i>scherzo</i>
+no less clearly foreshadows the new era in music by the fact
+that in so small and light a movement a modulation from A to G
+sharp minor can occur too naturally to excite surprise. If the
+later work of Beethoven were unknown there would be very
+little evidence that this sonata was by a young man, except,
+perhaps, in the remarkable abruptness of style in the first
+movement, an abruptness which is characteristic, not of
+immaturity, but of art in which problems are successfully solved
+for the first time. This abruptness is, however, in a few of
+Beethoven&rsquo;s early works carried appreciably too far. In the
+sonata in C minor, <i>op</i>. 10, No. 1, for example, the more vigorous
+parts of the first movement lose in breadth from it, while the
+finalé is almost stunted.</p>
+
+<p>But Beethoven was not content to express his individuality
+only in an abrupt epigrammatic style. From the outset breadth
+was also his aim, and while he occasionally attempted to attain
+a greater breadth than his resources would properly allow (as
+in the first movement of the sonata, <i>op</i>. 2, No. 3, and that of the
+violoncello sonata, <i>op</i>. 5, No. 1, in both of which cases a kind of
+extempore outburst in the coda conceals the collapse of his
+peroration), there are many early works in which he shows
+neither abruptness of style nor any tendency to confine himself
+within the limits of previous art. The C minor trio, <i>op</i>. 1, No. 3,
+is not more remarkable for the boldness of thought that made
+Haydn doubtful as to the advisability of publishing it, than for
+the perfect smoothness and spaciousness of its style. These
+qualities Beethoven at first naturally found easier to retain with
+less dramatic material, as in the other trios in the same <i>opus</i>,
+but the C minor trio does not stand alone. It represents, perhaps,
+the most numerous, as certainly the noblest, class of
+Beethoven&rsquo;s early works. Certainly the smallest class is that
+in which there is unmistakable imitation of Mozart, and it is
+significant that almost all examples of this class are works for
+wind instruments, where the technical limitations narrowly
+determine the style and discourage the composer from taking
+things seriously. Such works are the beautiful and popular
+septet, the quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments (modelled
+superficially, yet closely and with a kind of modest ambition, on
+Mozart&rsquo;s wonderful work for the same combination) and, on a
+somewhat higher level, the trio for pianoforte, clarinet and
+violoncello, <i>op</i>. 11.</p>
+
+<p>It is futile to discuss the point at which Beethoven&rsquo;s second
+manner may be said to begin, but he has himself given us
+excellent evidence as to when and how his first manner (as far as
+that is a single thing) became impossible to him. Through quite
+a large number of works, beginning perhaps with the great
+string quintet, <i>op</i>. 29, new types of harmonic and emotional
+expression had been assimilated into a style at least intelligible
+from Mozart&rsquo;s point of view. Indeed, Beethoven&rsquo;s favourite
+way of enlarging his range of expression often seems to consist in
+allowing the Titanic force of his new inventions and the formal
+beauty of the old art to indicate by their contrast a new world
+grander and lovelier than either. Sometimes, as in the C major
+quintet, the new elements are too perfectly assimilated for the
+contrast to appear. The range of key and depth of thought is
+beyond that of Beethoven&rsquo;s first manner, but the smoothness is
+that of Mozart. In the three pianoforte sonatas, <i>op</i>. 31, the
+struggle of the transition is as manifest as its accomplishment is
+triumphant. The first movement of the first sonata (in G major)
+deals with widely separated keys on new principles. These are
+embodied in a style which for abruptness and jocular paradox
+is hardly surpassed by Beethoven&rsquo;s most nervous early works.
+The exceptionally ornate and dilatory slow movement reads
+almost like a protest; while the finale begins as if to show that
+humour should be beautiful, and ends by making fun of the
+beauty. The second sonata (in D minor) is the greatest work
+Beethoven had as yet written. Its first movement, already cited
+above in connexion with the dramatic sequences in <i>op</i>. 2, No. 2,
+is, like that of the <i>Sonata Appassionata</i>, a <i>locus classicus</i> for such
+powerful means of expression. And it is worth noting that the
+only sketch known of this movement is a sketch in which nothing
+but its sequential plan is indicated. In the third sonata
+Beethoven enjoys on a higher plane an experience he had often
+indulged in before, the attainment of smoothness and breadth
+by means of a delicately humorous calm which gives scope to the
+finer subtleties of his new thoughts.</p>
+
+<p>Beethoven himself wrote to his publisher that these three
+sonatas represented a new phase in his style; but when we
+realize his artistic conscientiousness it is not surprising that they
+should be contemporary with larger works like the 2nd symphony,
+which are far more characteristic of his first manner.
+His whole development is entirely ruled by his determination to
+let nothing pass until it has been completely mastered, and long
+before this his sketch-books show that he had many ambitious
+ideas for a 1st symphony, and that it was a deliberate process
+that made his ambitions dwindle into something that could be
+safely realized in the masterly little comedy with which he began
+his orchestral career. The easy breadth and power of the 2nd
+symphony represents an amply sufficient advance, and leaves
+his forces free to develop in less expensive forms those vast
+energies for which afterwards the orchestra and the string-quartet
+were to become the natural field.</p>
+
+<p>In the &ldquo;Waldstein&rdquo; sonata, <i>op</i>. 53, we see Beethoven&rsquo;s
+second manner literally displacing his first; that is to say, we
+reach a state of things at which the two can no longer form an
+artistic contrast. The work, as we know it, is not only perfect,
+but has all the qualities of art in which the newest elements have
+long been familiar. The opening is on the same harmonic train
+of thought as that of the sonata, <i>op</i>. 31, No. 1, but there is no
+longer the slightest need for a paradoxical or jocular manner.
+On the contrary, the harmonies are held together by an orderly
+sequence in the bass, and the onrush is that of some calm diurnal
+energy of nature. The short introduction to the finale is
+harmonically and emotionally the most profound thing in the sonata,
+while the finale itself uses every new resource in the triumphant
+attainment of a leisure more splendid than any conceivable in
+the most spacious of Mozart&rsquo;s rondos. Yet it is well known
+that Beethoven originally intended the beautiful <i>andante</i> in F,
+afterwards published separately, to be the slow movement of
+this sonata. That andante is, like the finale, a spacious and
+gorgeous rondo, which probably Beethoven himself could not
+have written at an earlier period. The modulation to D flat in
+its principal theme, and that to G flat near the end, are its chief
+harmonic effects and stand out in beautiful relief within its
+limits. After the first movement of the Waldstein sonata they
+would be flat and colourless. The sketch-books show that
+Beethoven, when he first planned the sonata, was by no means
+inattentive to the balance of harmonic colour in the whole scheme,
+but that at first he did not realize how far that scheme was
+going to carry him. He originally thought of the slow movement
+as in E major, a remote key to which, however, he soon assigned
+the more intimate position of complementary key in the first
+movement. He then worked at the slow movement in F with
+such zest that he did not discover until the whole sonata was
+finished that he had raised the first and last movements to an
+altogether higher plane of thought, though the redundancy of
+the two rondos in juxtaposition and the unusual length of the
+sonata were so obvious that his friends ventured to point them
+out. Beethoven&rsquo;s revision of his earliest works is now known
+to have been extensive and drastic; but this is the first instance,
+and <i>Fidelio</i> and the quartet in B flat, <i>op</i>. 131, are the only
+other instances, of any later work needing important alteration after
+it was completely executed. From this point up to <i>op</i>. 101 we
+may study Beethoven&rsquo;s second manner entirely free from any
+survivals of his first, even as a legitimate contrast; though it
+is as impossible to fix a point before which his third manner
+cannot be traced as it is to ignore the premonitions of his second
+manner in his early works. The distinguishing features in
+Beethoven&rsquo;s second style are the result of a condition of art in
+which enormous new possibilities have become so well known that
+there is no need for stating them abruptly, paradoxically or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span>
+emphatically, but also no need for working them out to remote
+conclusions. Hence these works have become for most people
+the best-known and best-loved type of classical music. In their
+perfect fusion of untranslatable dramatic emotion with every
+beauty of musical design and tone they have never been equalled,
+nor is it probable that any other art can show a wider range of
+thought embodied in a more perfect form. In music itself there
+is nothing else of so wide a range without grave artistic defects
+from which Beethoven is entirely free. Wagnerian opera aims
+at an ideal as truly artistic, and in so far of wider range than
+Beethoven&rsquo;s that it passes beyond the bounds of pure music
+altogether. Within those bounds Beethoven remained, and
+even the apparent exceptions (such as <i>Fidelio</i> and his two great
+examples of &ldquo;programme music,&rdquo; the <i>Pastoral Symphony</i> and
+the sonata, <i>Les Adieux</i>) only show how universal his conception
+of pure music is. Extraneous ideas had here struck him as
+magnificent material for instrumental music, and he never
+troubled to argue whether instrumental music is the better
+or worse for expressing extraneous ideas. To describe the works
+of Beethoven&rsquo;s second period here would be to describe a library
+of well-known classics, and we must refer the reader for further
+details to the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sonata Forms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contrapuntal Forms</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Instrumentation</a></span>. It remains for us to attempt
+to indicate the essential features of his third style, and to conclude
+with a survey of his influence on the history of music.</p>
+
+<p>Beethoven&rsquo;s third style arose imperceptibly from his second.
+His deafness had very little to do with it, for all his epoch-making
+discoveries in orchestral effect date from the time when he was
+already far too much inconvenienced to test them in a way which
+would satisfy any one who depended more upon his ear than upon
+his imagination. It is indeed highly probable that there are no
+important features in Beethoven&rsquo;s latest style that may not be
+paralleled by the tendencies of all great artists who have handled
+their material until it contains nothing that has not been long
+familiar with them. Such tendencies lead to an extreme simplicity
+of form, underlying an elaboration of detail which may at first
+seem bewildering until we realize that it is purely the working out
+to its logical conclusions of some idea as simple and natural as the
+form itself. The form, however, will be not merely simple, but
+individual. Different works will show such striking external
+differences of form that a criticism which applies merely <i>a priori</i>
+or historic standards will be tempted by the fallacy that there is
+less form in a number of such markedly different works than in a
+number of works that have one scheme in common. All this is
+eminently the case with Beethoven&rsquo;s last works. The extreme
+simplicity of the themes of the first two movements of the
+quartet in B flat, <i>op</i>. 131, and the tremendous complexity of the
+texture into which they are woven, at first impress us as something
+mysterious and intangible rather than astonishing. The
+boldness with which the slow introduction is blended in broad
+statement and counter-statement with the <i>allegro</i>, is directly
+impressive, as is also the entry of the second subject with its
+dark harmony and tone, but the work needs long familiarity
+before its vast mass of thought reveals itself to us in its true
+lucidity. Such works are &ldquo;dark with excessive bright.&rdquo; When
+we enter into them they are transparent as far as our vision
+extends, and their darkness is that of a depth that shines as we
+penetrate it. In all probability only a veil of familiarity prevents
+our finding the same kind of difficulty in Beethoven&rsquo;s earlier
+works. What is undoubtedly newest in the last works is the
+enormous development of those polyphonic elements which are
+always essential to the life of a composition, but which have
+very different functions and degrees of prominence in different
+forms and stages of the art. Polyphony inevitably draws
+attention to detail, and thus Beethoven in his middle period
+found its more obvious manifestations but little conducive to
+the breadth of designs which were not as yet sufficiently familiar
+to take any but the foremost place. Hence, among other
+interesting features of that second period, his marked preference
+for themes founded on rhythmic figures of one note, <i>e.g.</i> the
+famous &ldquo;four taps&rdquo; in the C minor symphony; an identical
+rhythm in a melodious theme of very different character in the
+G major concerto; a similar figure in the <i>Sonata Appassionata</i>;
+the first theme of the <i>scherzo</i> of the F major quartet, <i>op</i>. 59,
+No. 1, and the drum-beats in the violin concerto. Such rhythms give
+thematic life to an inner part without causing it to assume such
+melodic interest as might distract the attention from the flow
+of the surface. But in proportion as polyphony loses its danger
+so does the prominence of such rhythmic figures decrease, until
+in Beethoven&rsquo;s last works they are no more noticeable than other
+kinds of simplicity. The impression of crowded detail is naturally
+more prominent the smaller the means with which Beethoven
+works and the less outwardly dramatic his thought. Thus
+those most gigantic of all musical designs, the 9th symphony,
+and the Mass in D, are, but for the mechanical difficulties of the
+choral writing, almost like works of the second period as far as
+direct impressiveness is concerned; and in the same way the
+enormous pianoforte sonata, <i>op</i>. 106, is in its first three movements
+easier to follow than the extremely terse and subtle works
+on a smaller scale that preceded it (sonata in A major, 101, and
+the two sonatas for violoncello, <i>op</i>. 102).</p>
+
+<p>His enormous development of polyphonic interest soon led
+Beethoven to employ the fugue, not only, as in previous works,
+by way of episodic contrast to passages and designs in which the
+form and not the texture is the main object of interest, but as
+the culminating expression of a condition or art in which the
+unity of form and texture is so perfect that the mind is free to
+concentrate itself on the texture alone. This union was not
+effected without a struggle, the traces of which present a close
+parallel to that abrupt emphasis which we noticed in some of
+Beethoven&rsquo;s early works. In his fugue-writing the notion that
+the chief interest lies in the texture is as yet so difficult to hold
+together with the perception that these fugues are based on a
+modern firmness and range of form, that the texture is forced
+upon the listener&rsquo;s attention by a continual series of ruthlessly
+logical bold strokes of harmony. From this and from the
+notorious violence of Beethoven&rsquo;s choral writing, and also from
+his well-known technical struggles in his years of pupilage, the
+easy inference has been drawn that Beethoven never was a great
+master of counterpoint, an inference that is absolutely irreconcilable
+with such plain facts as, to take but one early example, the
+brilliant piece of triple counterpoint in the <i>andante</i> of the string
+quartet in C minor, <i>op</i>. 18, No. 4, and the complete absence of
+anything like crudeness in his handling of harmonics, basses or
+inner parts at any period of his career. Beethoven may have
+mastered some things with difficulty, but he mastered nothing
+incompletely; and where he is not orthodox it is safest to
+conclude that orthodoxy is wrong. Had he lived for another
+ten years he would certainly have produced an immense amount
+of choral work, and with it many other great instrumental works
+in which this last remaining element of conflict between texture
+and form would have dwindled away. But while this would
+doubtless result in such work being easier to follow and might
+even have given us a version of the great fugue, <i>op</i>. 133 (discarded
+from the string-quartet, <i>op</i>. 131), that did not surpass the bounds
+of practical performance, it would yet be no sound criterion by
+which to stigmatize as an immaturity the roughness of the
+polyphonic works that we know. That roughness is, like the
+abrupt epigrammatic manner of some of his early works, the
+necessary condition in which such material realizes mature
+expression. Without it that material could receive but the
+academic handling of a dead language. And by it was created
+that permanent reconciliation of polyphony and form from which
+has arisen almost all that is true in &ldquo;Romantic&rdquo; music, all that
+is peculiar to the thematic technique of Wagnerian opera, and
+all the perfect smoothness of Brahms&rsquo;s polyphony.</p>
+
+<p>The incalculable depth of thought and closeness of texture in
+Beethoven&rsquo;s later works are, of course, the embodiment of a no
+less incalculable emotional power. If we at times feel that the
+last quartets are more introspective than dramatic, that is
+only because Beethoven&rsquo;s dramatic sense is higher than we can
+realize. The subject is too large and too subtle for dogmatism
+to be profitable; and we cannot in Beethoven&rsquo;s case, as we can
+in Bach&rsquo;s, cite a complete series of illustrations of his musical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span>
+ideas from his treatment in choral music of words which themselves
+interpret the intention of the composer. There is so little
+but the music itself by which one can express Beethoven&rsquo;s
+thought, that the utmost we can do here is to refer the reader,
+as before, to the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sonata Forms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Instrumentation</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Opera</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Music</a></span>, where he will find further
+attempts to indicate in what sense pure music can be described
+as dramatic and expressive of emotion.</p>
+
+<p>As our range of investigation widens, and thoroughness of
+analysis and study increases, so we shall surely find in ourselves
+an ever-deepening conviction that Beethoven, whether in range,
+depth and truth of thought, perfect sense of beauty, or absolute
+conscientiousness of execution, is the greatest musician, perhaps
+the greatest artist, that ever lived. There is no means of
+measuring Beethoven&rsquo;s influence upon subsequent music. Every
+composer of every school claims it. The immense changes he
+brought about in the range of music have their most obvious
+effect in the possibilities of emotional expression; and so any
+outbreak of vulgarity or sentimentality can with impunity claim
+descent from Beethoven, though its ancestry may be no higher
+than Meyerbeer. Again, we have already referred to that
+confusion of thought which regards a series of works markedly
+different in form as containing less form than any number of
+works cast in one mould. Hence the works of Beethoven&rsquo;s third
+period have been cited in defence of more than one &ldquo;revolution,&rdquo;
+attempted in a form which never existed in any true classic, for
+the purpose of setting up something the revolutionist has not yet
+succeeded in inventing. To measure Beethoven&rsquo;s influence is
+like measuring Shakespeare&rsquo;s. It is an influence either too
+vaguely universal to name or too profoundly artistic to analyse.
+Perhaps the truest account of it would be that which ignored its
+presence in the works of ill-balanced artists, or even in the works of
+those who profited merely by an increase of technical and harmonic
+resource which, though effected by Beethoven, would, after the
+French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, almost certainly
+have to some extent arisen from sheer necessity of finding
+expression for the new experience of humanity, if Beethoven had
+never existed. Setting aside, then, all instances of mere
+domination, and of a permanently established new world of musical
+thought, and omitting Schubert and Weber as contemporaries,
+the one attracted and the other partly repelled, we may, perhaps,
+take three later composers, Schumann, Wagner and Brahms, as
+the leading examples of the way in which Beethoven&rsquo;s influence
+is definitely traceable as a creative force. The depth and
+solemnity of Beethoven&rsquo;s melody and later polyphonic richness
+is a leading source of Schumann&rsquo;s inspiration, though Schumann&rsquo;s
+artistic schemes exclude any high degree of formal organization
+on a large scale. Beethoven&rsquo;s late polyphony is carried on by
+Brahms to the point at which perfect smoothness of style is once
+more possible, and there is no aspect of his form which Brahms
+neglects or fails to realize with that complete originality which
+has nothing to fear from its ancestry. Wagner does not handle
+the same art-forms; his task is different, but Beethoven was the
+inspiring source, not only of his purely musical sense, but also of
+his whole sense of dramatic contrast and fitness. When he had
+shaken off the influence of Meyerbeer, which has so often been
+confused with that of Beethoven, there remained to him, pre-eminently
+in his music and more imperfectly realized in his drama,
+a power of combining contrasted emotions such as is the privilege
+of only the very greatest dramatic artists. Bach and Beethoven
+are the sources of the polyphonic means of expression by which
+he attains this. Beethoven alone is the extraneous source of his
+knowledge that it was possible. And it is as certain as anything
+in the history of art that there will never be a time when
+Beethoven&rsquo;s work does not occupy the central place in a sound
+musical mind.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Annotated List of Beethoven&rsquo;s Works</p>
+
+<p>Up to 1823 we give in most cases the dates of publication, the date
+of composition being generally from one to three years earlier.
+Beethoven seldom had less than a dozen projects in hand at once,
+and their immediate chronology is inextricable; whereas publication
+generally means final revision. This list is purposely incomplete
+in order that unimportant works may not distract attention, even
+when they are late and on a large scale.</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+      <p>Sonata = Pianoforte sonata.</p>
+      <p>Violin or violoncello sonata = for pianoforte, V. or Vc.</p>
+      <p>Pianoforte trio = Pfte., V., Vc.</p>
+      <p>Pianoforte quartet = Pfte., V., viola and Vc.</p>
+      <p>String trio = V., Va., Vc.</p>
+      <p>String quartet = VV., Va. and Vc.</p>
+      <p>Pianoforte or violin concerto = Concerto with orchestra.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>1785. 3 pfte. quartets, of which the third contains important material
+        for the sonatas, <i>op.</i> 2, Nos. 1 and 3.</p>
+<p class="j1">(Thayer&rsquo;s attribution of the masterly bagatelles, <i>op.</i> 33,
+        published 1803, to this period can only be rationalized
+        by some similar rough first idea.)</p>
+
+<p>1790. 24 variations on an air by Righini (published 1801). A very
+        remarkable work, anticipating Schumann&rsquo;s <i>Papillons</i> in
+        its humorous close. It was Beethoven&rsquo;s chief early
+        <i>tour-de-force</i> in pianoforte playing.</p>
+
+<p>1795. 3 pfte. trios, <i>op.</i> 1 (E&#9837;, G, C minor).</p>
+
+<p>1796. 3 pfte. sonatas, <i>op.</i> 2 (F minor, A and C, dedicated to Haydn).</p>
+
+<p>1797. String trio, <i>op.</i> 3, 2 violoncello sonatas, <i>op.</i> 5, F and G mi.,
+        sonata, <i>op.</i> 7, E&#9837;.</p>
+
+<p>1798. 3 string trios, <i>op.</i> 9; G, D, C mi., 3 sonatas, <i>op.</i> 10 (C mi.,
+        F, D). Trio for pfte., clarinet and violoncello in B&#9837;, <i>op.</i> 11.</p>
+
+<p>1799. 3 violin sonatas (D, A, E&#9837;), <i>op.</i> 12. Pfte. sonata (<i>Pathétique</i>
+        not Beethoven&rsquo;s title) C mi., <i>op.</i> 13, 2 pfte. sonatas, <i>op.</i> 14,
+        E, G (the first arranged by the composer as a string quartet in F).</p>
+
+<p>1801. Pianoforte concertos, <i>op.</i> 15 in C, <i>op.</i> 19 in B&#9837; (the latter
+        composed first). Quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments,
+        <i>op.</i> 16 (also arranged, with new details, as quartet
+        for pianoforte and strings), composed 1797. 6 string
+        quartets, <i>op.</i> 18 (F, G, D, C mi., A, B&#9837;). 1st symphony (C),
+        <i>op.</i> 21. 2 violin sonatas, A mi., <i>op.</i> 23; F ma., <i>op.</i> 24
+        (made into two opus-numbers by an accident in the <i>format</i>
+        of the volumes).</p>
+
+<p>1802. Pianoforte score of the <i>Prometheus</i> ballet, <i>op.</i> 24 (ousted by
+        the F ma. violin sonata, and reissued as <i>op.</i> 43). Sonata
+        in B&#9837;, <i>op.</i> 22. Sonata in A&#9837;, <i>op.</i> 26 (with the funeral
+        march). 2 sonatas (&ldquo;quasi fantasia&rdquo;), <i>op.</i> 27, E&#9837;, C&#9839; mi.
+        Sonata in D, <i>op.</i> 28 (<i>Pastorale</i> not Beethoven&rsquo;s title).  String
+        quintet in C, <i>op.</i> 29.</p>
+
+<p>1803. 3 violin sonatas, <i>op.</i> 30 (A, C mi., G). 3 sonatas, <i>op.</i> 31, G,
+        D mi., E&#9837; (the last appearing in 1804).</p>
+<p class="j1">Variations, <i>op.</i> 34. 15 variations and fugue on theme from
+        <i>Prometheus</i>, <i>op.</i> 35.</p>
+
+<p>1804. 2nd symphony (D), <i>op.</i> 36 (1802). 3rd pfte. concerto (C mi.),
+        <i>op.</i> 37 (1800).</p>
+
+<p>1805. The &ldquo;Kreutzer&rdquo; sonata, <i>op.</i> 47, for pfte. and violin (A)
+        (finale at first intended for <i>op.</i> 30, No. 1).</p>
+<p class="j1">&ldquo;Waldstein&rdquo; sonata for pfte., <i>op.</i> 53 (C). First version
+        of opera <i>Leonore</i> in three acts (with overture &ldquo;No. 2&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>1806. Sonata in F, <i>op.</i> 54. <i>Eroica Symphony</i>, No. 3, <i>op.</i> 55 (E&#9837;),
+        written in 1804 in honour of Napoleon Bonaparte. It
+        was just finished when news arrived that Napoleon had
+        made himself emperor, and Beethoven was with difficulty
+        restrained from destroying the score. It is still the longest
+        extant perfect design in instrumental music. The finale
+        glorifies the material (and much of the form) of the variations,
+        <i>op.</i> 35. The <i>scherzo</i> is the first full-sized example of
+        Beethoven&rsquo;s special type.</p>
+<p class="j1"><i>Leonore</i> reproduced in two acts with overture No. 3.
+        32 variations in C mi. (no opus-number, but a very important
+        work on the lines of a modernized <i>chaconne</i>).</p>
+
+<p>1807. Triple concerto (pfte., V. and Vc.), <i>op.</i> 56, chiefly interesting
+        as a study for the true concerto-form which had given
+        Beethoven difficulty. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 57 (F mi., <i>Appassionata</i>,
+        not Beethoven&rsquo;s title). New overture, <i>Leonore</i>, &ldquo;No. 1,&rdquo;
+        composed for projected performance of the opera at
+        Prague (posthumously published as <i>op.</i> 138).</p>
+
+<p>1808. 4th pfte. concerto, <i>op.</i> 58 (G). 3 string quartets, <i>op.</i> 59, F,
+        E mi., C (dedicated to Count Rasoumovsky, in compliment
+        to whom Russian tunes appear in the finale of No. 1 and
+        the <i>scherzo</i> of No. 2). Overture to <i>Coriolanus</i>, <i>op.</i> 62.</p>
+
+<p>1809. 4th symphony, <i>op.</i> 60 (B&#9837;). Violin concerto (D), <i>op.</i> 61 (also
+        arranged by the composer for pianoforte). 5th symphony,
+        <i>op.</i> 67 (C mi.) (1806), the first in which trombones appear.
+        6th symphony (Pastorale), <i>op.</i> 68; violoncello sonata,
+        <i>op.</i> 69 (A). 2 pianoforte trios, <i>op.</i> 70 (D, E&#9837;).</p>
+
+<p>1810. Pianoforte score of <i>Leonore</i> (2nd version) published. String
+        quartet, <i>op.</i> 74 (E&#9837;, called &ldquo;Harp&rdquo; because of <i>pizzicato</i>
+        passages in first movement). Fantasia, <i>op.</i> 77, interesting
+        as consisting of a long and capricious series of dramatic
+        beginnings and breakings off of themes, as if in search for
+        a firm idea, which is at last found and developed as a set
+        of variations. This scheme thus foreshadows the choral
+        finale of the 9th symphony even more significantly than the
+        Choral Fantasia.</p>
+
+<p class="j1">Sonata, <i>op.</i> 78, F&#9839; (extremely terse and subtle, and a great
+        favourite with Beethoven, who preferred it to the C&#9839; mi.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span></p>
+
+<p>1811. 5th pfte. concerto, <i>op.</i> 73, E&#9837; (<i>The Emperor</i> not Beethoven&rsquo;s
+        title). Fantasia for pfte., orchestra and chorus, <i>op.</i> 80.
+        Sonata, <i>op.</i> 81a (<i>Les Adieux, l&rsquo;absence, et le retour</i>), first
+        movement written when the archduke Rudolph had to
+        leave Vienna (4th May 1809), and the rest on his return on
+        the 30th of January 1810. It was an anxious time both
+        for Beethoven and his excellent royal friend, for whom he
+        had great affection. (Battle of Wagram, 6th July 1809.)
+        (We may here note that <i>op.</i> 81b is an unimportant and very
+        early sextet.) The overture to <i>Egmont</i>, <i>op.</i> 84; <i>Christus
+        am Oelberge</i> (the Mount of Olives), <i>op.</i> 85, oratorio (probably
+        composed between 1800 and its first performance in 1803).</p>
+
+<p>1812. The rest of the <i>Egmont</i> music, <i>op.</i> 84. 1st mass, <i>op.</i> 87 (C)
+        (first performance, 1807).</p>
+
+<p>1814. Final version of <i>Leonore</i>, performed as <i>Fidelio</i> with great
+        alterations, skilful revision of the libretto, very important
+        new material in the music and a new overture.</p>
+
+<p>1815. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 90 (E mi.).</p>
+
+<p>1816. 7th symphony, <i>op.</i> 92 (A); 8th symphony, <i>op.</i> 93 (F) (Beethoven
+        was planning a group of three of which the last was
+        to be in D mi., which we shall find significant). String
+        quartet, <i>op.</i> 95 (F mi.). Violin sonata, <i>op.</i> 96 (G). Pianoforte
+        trio, <i>op.</i> 97 (B&#9837;); <i>Liederkreis</i>, <i>op.</i> 98.</p>
+
+<p>1817. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 101 (the first indisputably in Beethoven&rsquo;s &ldquo;third
+        manner&rdquo;). 2 violoncello sonatas, <i>op.</i> 102 (C, D, the second
+        containing Beethoven&rsquo;s first modern instrumental strict fugue).</p>
+
+<p>1819. Arrangement for string quintet, <i>op.</i> 104, of C mi. trio, <i>op.</i> 1,
+        No. 3 (a wonderful study in translation, comparable only
+        to Bach&rsquo;s arrangements and very unlike Beethoven&rsquo;s former
+        essays of the kind). Sonata, <i>op.</i> 106 (B&#9837;), the largest and
+        most symphonic pianoforte work extant, surpassed in
+        length only by Bach&rsquo;s <i>Goldberg</i> variations and Beethoven&rsquo;s
+        33 variations on Diabelli&rsquo;s waltz.</p>
+
+<p>1821. 25 Scotch songs accompanied by pfte., V. and Vc., <i>op.</i> 108
+        (the first set of a large and much neglected collection,
+        mostly posthumous, many of great interest and beauty
+        and very Beethovenish, which has shocked persons who
+        expect sympathetic insight into folk-music to prevail over
+        Beethoven&rsquo;s artistic impulse). Sonata, <i>op.</i> 109 (E).</p>
+
+<p>1822. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 110 (A&#9837;). Overture, <i>Die Weihe des Hauses</i>,
+        <i>op.</i> 124 (C), a magnificent essay in orchestral free fugue,
+        published 1825.</p>
+
+<p>1823. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 111 (C mi., the last pianoforte sonata). 33 variations
+        on a waltz by Diabelli, who sent his waltz round to
+        fifty-one musicians in Austria asking each to contribute
+        a variation; the whole to be published for the benefit of
+        the widows and orphans left by the war. Beethoven
+        answered with the greatest set ever written, and it was
+        published in a separate volume. Among the other fifty
+        composers were Schubert and an infant prodigy of eleven,
+        Franz Liszt!</p>
+<p class="j1">The mass in D (<i>Missa Solemnis</i>), <i>op.</i> 123, begun in 1818
+        for the installation of the archduke Rudolph as archbishop
+        of Olmutz, was not finished until 1826, two years
+        after the installation.</p>
+<p class="j1">The 9th symphony, <i>op.</i> 125 D mi. (see note on 7th and
+        8th symphonies); sketches begun 1817; project of setting Schiller&rsquo;s
+        <i>Freude</i> already in Beethoven&rsquo;s mind before he left Bonn.</p>
+<p class="j1">6 bagatelles, <i>op.</i> 126, Beethoven&rsquo;s last pianoforte work a
+        very remarkable and unaccountably neglected group of
+        carefully contrasted lyric pieces.</p>
+
+<p>1824. String quartet, <i>op.</i> 127 (E&#9837;, published 1826).</p>
+
+<p>1825. String quartet, <i>op.</i> 130 (B&#9837;), with finale, <i>op.</i> 133 (grand fugue);
+        string quartet, <i>op.</i> 132 (A mi., with slow movement in
+        Lydian mode, a <i>Heiliger Dankgesang</i> on recovery from
+        illness. Theme of finale first thought of as for instrumental
+        finale to 9th symphony).</p>
+
+<p>1826. String quartet, <i>op.</i> 131 (C&#9839;, mi.). String quartet, <i>op.</i> 135 (F).
+        New finale to <i>op.</i> 130, Beethoven&rsquo;s last composition.</p>
+</div></div>
+<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;A.W. Thayer, <i>Beethovens Leben</i> (1866-1879);
+L. Nohl, <i>Life of Beethoven</i> (Eng. trans., 1884),
+and <i>Letters</i> (Eng.  trans., 1866);
+Sir G. Grove, <i>Beethoven and his Symphonies</i> (1896),
+and in Grove&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Music</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEETLE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>bityl</i>; connected with &ldquo;bite&rdquo;), a name
+commonly applied to those insects which possess horny wing-cases;
+it is used to denote the cockroaches (<i>q.v.</i>) (black beetles),
+as well as the true beetles or <i>Coleoptera</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), the two belonging
+to different orders of <i>Insecta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The adjective &ldquo;beetle-browed,&rdquo; and similarly &ldquo;beetling&rdquo;
+(of a cliff), are derived from the name of the insect. From
+another word (O. Eng. <i>betel</i>, connected with &ldquo;beat&rdquo;) comes
+&ldquo;beetle&rdquo; in the sense of a mallet, and the &ldquo;beetling-machine,&rdquo;
+which subjects fabrics to a hammering process.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEETS, NIKOLAAS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1814-1903), Dutch poet, was born at
+Haarlem on the 13th of September 1814; constant references
+in his poems and sketches show how deeply the beauty of that
+town and its neighbourhood impressed his imagination. He
+studied theology in Leiden, but gave himself early to the cultivation
+of poetry. In his youth Beets was entirely carried away
+on the tide of Byronism which was then sweeping over Europe,
+and his early works&mdash;<i>Jose</i> (1834), <i>Kuser</i> (1835) and <i>Guy de
+Vlaming</i> (1837)&mdash;are gloomy romances of the most impassioned
+type. But at the very same time he was beginning in prose the
+composite work of humour and observation which has made him
+famous, and which certainly had nothing that was in the least
+Byronic about it. This was the celebrated <i>Camera Obscura</i> (1839),
+the most successful imaginative work which any Dutchman
+of the 18th century produced. This work, published under
+the pseudonym of &ldquo;Hildebrand,&rdquo; goes back in its earliest
+inception to the year 1835, when Beets was only twenty-one.
+It consists of complete short stories, descriptive sketches, studies
+of peasant life&mdash;all instinct with humour and pathos, and
+written in a style of great charm; it has been reprinted in
+countless editions. Beets became a professor at the university
+of Leiden, and the pastor of a congregation in that city. In
+middle life he published further collections of verse&mdash;<i>Cornflowers</i>
+(1853) and <i>New Poems</i> (1857)&mdash;in which the romantic melancholy
+was found to have disappeared, and to have left in its place a
+gentle sentiment and a depth of religious feeling. In 1873-1875
+Beets collected his works in three volumes. In April 1883 the
+honorary degree of LL.D. Edin. was conferred upon him. He
+died at Utrecht on the 13th of March 1903.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEFANA<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (Ital., corrupted from <i>Epifania</i>, Epiphany), the
+Italian female counterpart of Santa Claus, the Christmas benefactor
+(St Nicholas). On Epiphany, or Twelfth Night, she plays
+the fairy godmother to the children, filling their stockings with
+presents. Tradition relates that she was too busy with house
+duties to come to the window to see the Three Wise Men of the
+East pass on their journey to pay adoration to the Saviour,
+excusing herself on the ground that she could see them on their
+return. They went back another way, and Befana is alleged
+to have been punished by being obliged to look for them for
+ever. Her legends seem to be rather mixed, for in spite of her
+Santa Claus character, her name is used by Italian mothers as a
+bogey to frighten the babies. It was the custom to carry her
+effigy through Italian towns on the eve of the Epiphany.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1757-1811), French
+dramatist and man of letters, was born at Laon on the 6th of
+November 1757. Under the name of &ldquo;Cousin Jacques&rdquo; he founded
+a periodical called <i>Les Lunes</i> (1785-1787). The <i>Courrier
+des planètes ou Correspondance du Cousin Jacques avec le firmament</i>
+(1788-1792) followed. <i>Nicodème dans la lune, ou la révolution
+pacifique</i> (1790) a three-act farce, is said to have had more
+than four hundred representations. In spite of his protests
+against the evils of the Revolution he escaped interference
+through the influence of his brother, Louis Étienne Beffroy, who
+was a member of the Convention. Of <i>La Petite Nanette</i> (1795)
+and several other operas he wrote both the words and the music.
+His <i>Dictionnaire néologique</i> (3 vols., 1795-1800) of the chief
+actors and events in the Revolution was interdicted by the
+police and remained incomplete. Beffroy spent his last years
+in retirement, dying in Paris on the 17th of December 1811.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEGAS, KARL<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1794-1854), German historical painter, was
+born at Heinsberg near Aix-la-Chapelle. His father, a retired
+judge, destined him for the legal profession, but the boy&rsquo;s tastes
+pointed definitely in another direction. Even at school he was
+remarked for his wonderful skill in drawing and painting, and in
+1812 he was permitted to visit Paris in order to perfect himself
+in his art. He studied for eighteen months in the atelier of Gros
+and then began to work independently. In 1814 his copy of
+the Madonna della Sedia was bought by the king of Prussia,
+who was attracted by the young artist and did much to advance
+him. He was engaged to paint several large Biblical pictures,
+and in 1825, after his return from Italy, continued to produce
+paintings which were placed in the churches of Berlin and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span>
+Potsdam. Some of these were historical pieces, but the majority
+were representations of Scriptural incidents. Begas was also
+celebrated as a portrait-painter, and supplied to the royal gallery
+a long series of portraits of eminent Prussian men of letters.
+At his death he held the post of court painter at Berlin. His
+son <span class="sc">Oskar</span> (1828-1883) was also a painter and professor of
+painting at Berlin. <span class="sc">Reinhold</span>, the sculptor, is noticed below.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEGAS, REINHOLD<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1831-&emsp;&emsp;), German sculptor, younger
+son of Karl Begas, the painter, was born at Berlin on the 15th of
+July 1831. He received his early education (1846-1851) in the
+ateliers of C.D. Rauch and L. Wichmann. During a period of
+study in Italy, from 1856 to 1858, he was influenced by Böcklin
+and Lenbach in the direction of a naturalistic style in sculpture.
+This tendency was marked in the group &ldquo;Borussia,&rdquo; executed
+for the façade of the exchange in Berlin, which first brought
+him into general notice. In 1861 he was appointed professor
+at the art school at Weimar, but retained the appointment only
+a few months. That he was chosen, after competition, to execute
+the statue of Schiller for the Gendarmen Markt in Berlin, was a
+high tribute to the fame he had already acquired; and the result,
+one of the finest statues in the German metropolis, entirely
+justified his selection. Since the year 1870, Begas has entirely
+dominated the plastic art in Prussia, but especially in Berlin.
+Among his chief works during this period are the colossal statue
+of Borussia for the Hall of Glory; the Neptune fountain in
+bronze on the Schlossplatz; the statue of Alexander von Humboldt,
+all in Berlin; the sarcophagus of the emperor Frederick
+III. in the mausoleum of the Friedenskirche at Potsdam; and,
+lastly, the national monument to the emperor William (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Berlin</a></span>), the statue of Bismarck before the Reichstag building,
+and several of the statues in the Siegesallee. He was also entrusted
+with the execution of the sarcophagus of the empress Frederick.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.G. Meyer, &ldquo;Reinhold Begas&rdquo; in <i>Künstler-Monographien</i>,
+ed. H. Knackfuss, Heft xx. (Bielefeld, 1897; new ed., 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEGGAR,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> one who begs, particularly one who gains his living
+by asking the charitable contributions of others. The word,
+with the verbal form &ldquo;to beg,&rdquo; in Middle English <i>beggen</i>, is of
+obscure history. The words appear first in English in the 13th
+century, and were early connected with &ldquo;bag,&rdquo; with reference
+to the receptacle for alms carried by the beggars. The most
+probable derivation of the word, and that now generally accepted,
+is that it is a corruption of the name of the lay communities
+known as Beguines and Beghards, which, shortly after their
+establishment, followed the friars in the practice of mendicancy
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beguines</a></span>). It has been suggested, however, that the
+origin of &ldquo;beg&rdquo; and &ldquo;beggars&rdquo; is to be found in a rare Old
+English word, <i>bedecian</i>, of the same meaning, which is apparently
+connected with the Gothic <i>bidjan</i>, cf. German <i>betteln</i>; but
+between the occurrence of <i>bedecian</i> at the end of the 9th century
+and the appearance of &ldquo;beggar&rdquo; and &ldquo;beg&rdquo; in the 13th, there
+is a blank, and no explanation can be given of the great change
+in form. For the English law relating to begging and its history,
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charity</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poor Law</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vagrancy</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a simple card-game. An ordinary
+pack is divided equally between two players, and the cards are
+held with the backs upwards. The first player lays down his
+top card face up, and the opponent plays his top card on it,
+and this goes on alternately as long as no court-card appears;
+but if either player turns up a court-card, his opponent has to
+play four ordinary cards to an ace, three to a king, two to a
+queen, one to a knave, and when he has done so the other player
+takes all the cards on the table and places them under his pack;
+if, however, in the course of this playing to a court-card, another
+court-card turns up, the adversary has in turn to play to this, and
+as long as neither has played a full number of ordinary cards to
+any court-card the trick continues. The player who gets all the
+cards into his hand is the winner.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEGONIA<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany),
+a large genus (natural order, Begoniaceae) of succulent herbs or
+undershrubs, with about three hundred and fifty species in
+tropical moist climates, especially South America and India.
+About one hundred and fifty species are known in cultivation,
+and innumerable varieties and hybrid forms. Many are tuberous.
+The flowers are usually showy and large, white, rose, scarlet
+or yellow in colour; they are unisexual, the male containing
+numerous stamens, the female having a large inferior ovary and
+two to four branched or twisted stigmas. The fruit is a winged
+capsule containing numerous minute seeds. The leaves, which are
+often large and variegated, are unequal-sided.</p>
+
+<p>Cuttings from flowering begonias root freely in sandy soil,
+if placed in heat at any season when moderately firm; as soon
+as rooted, they should be potted singly into 3-in. pots, in sandy
+loam mixed with leaf-mould and sand. They should be stopped
+to keep them bushy, placed in a light situation, and thinly
+shaded in the middle of very bright days. In a few weeks they
+will require another shift. They should not be overpotted, but
+instead assisted by manure water. The pots should be placed
+in a light pit near the roof glass. The summer-flowering kinds
+will soon begin blooming, but the autumn and winter flowering
+sorts should be kept growing on in a temperature of from 55° to
+60° by night, with a few degrees more in the day. The tuberous-rooted
+sorts require to be kept at rest in winter, in a medium
+temperature, almost but not quite dry. In February they should
+be potted in a compost of sandy loam and leaf-mould, and placed
+in a temperate pit until May or June, when they may be moved
+to the greenhouse for flowering. If they afterwards get at all
+pot-bound, weak manure should be applied. After blooming,
+the supply of water must be again slackened; in winter the
+plants should be stored in a dry place secure from frost; they
+are increased by late summer and autumn cuttings, after being
+partially cut down.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEGUINES<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (Fr. <i>béguine</i>, Med. Lat. <i>beguina, begina, beghina</i>),
+at the present time the name of the members of certain lay
+sisterhoods established in the Netherlands and Germany, the
+enclosed district within which they live being known as a beguinage
+(Lat. <i>beginagium</i>). The equivalent male communities,
+called also Beguines (Fr. <i>béguins</i>, Lat. <i>beguiní</i>), but more usually
+Beghards (Lat. <i>baghardi, beggardi, begehardi</i>, &amp;c., O. Fr. <i>bégard-i</i>,
+Flem. <i>beggaert</i>), have long ceased to exist. The origin of the
+names Beguine and Beghard has been the subject of much
+controversy. In the 15th century a legend arose that both name
+and organization were traceable to St Begga, daughter of Pippin
+of Landen, who consequently in 1630 was chosen by the Beguines
+as the patron saint of their association. In 1630 a professor of
+Louvain, Erycius Puteanus (van Putte), published a treatise,
+<i>De Begginarum apud Belgas instituto et nomine suffragium</i>, in
+which he produced three documents purporting to date from
+the 11th and 12th centuries, which seemed conclusively to prove
+that the Beguines existed long before Lambert le Bègue. For
+two centuries these were accepted as genuine and are admitted
+as such even in the monumental work of Mosheim. In 1843,
+however, they were conclusively proved by the German scholar
+Hallmann, from internal evidence, to be forgeries of the 14th and
+15th centuries. It is now universally admitted that both the
+institution and the name of the Beguines are derived from
+Lambert le Bègue, who died about the year 1187. The confusion
+caused by the spurious documents of Puteanus, however, led,
+even when the legend of St Begga was rejected, to other suggestions
+for the derivation of the name, <i>e.g.</i> from an imaginary old
+Saxon word <i>beggen</i>, &ldquo;to beg&rdquo; or &ldquo;pray,&rdquo; an explanation
+adopted even by Mosheim, or from <i>bègue</i>, &ldquo;stammering,&rdquo; a
+French word of unknown origin, which only brings us back to
+Lambert again, whose name of Le Bègue, as the chronicler
+Aegidius, a monk of Orval (Aureae Vallis), tells us, simply
+means &ldquo;the stammerer,&rdquo; <i>quia balbus erat</i> (<i>Gesta pontificum
+Leodiensium</i>, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1251). Doubtless this coincidence gave
+a ready handle to the scoffing wits of the time, and among the
+numerous popular names given to the Beghards&mdash;<i>bons garçons,
+boni pueri, boni valeti</i> and the like&mdash;we find also that of Lollards
+(from Flemish <i>löllen</i>, &ldquo;to stammer&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1170 Lambert le Bègue, a priest of Liége,
+who had devoted his fortune to founding the hospital and church
+of St Christopher for the widows and children of crusaders,
+conceived the idea of establishing an association of women, who,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span>
+without taking the monastic vows, should devote themselves
+to a life of religion. The effect of his preaching was immense, and
+large numbers of women, many of them left desolate by the loss
+of their husbands on crusade, came under the influence of a
+movement which was attended with all the manifestations of
+what is now called a &ldquo;revival.&rdquo; About the year 1180 Lambert
+gathered some of these women, who had been ironically styled
+&ldquo;Beguines&rdquo; by his opponents, into a semi-conventual community,
+which he established in a quarter of the city belonging
+to him around his church of St Christopher. The district was
+surrounded by a wall within which the Beguines lived in separate
+small houses, subject to no rule save the obligation of good
+works, and of chastity so long as they remained members of the
+community. After Lambert&rsquo;s death (<i>c</i>. 1187?) the movement
+rapidly spread, first in the Netherlands and afterwards in France&mdash;where
+it was encouraged by the saintly Louis IX.&mdash;Germany,
+Switzerland and the countries beyond. Everywhere the community
+was modelled on the type established at Liége. It
+constituted a little city within the city, with separate houses,
+and usually a church, hospital and guest-house, the whole being
+under the government of a mistress (<i>magistra</i>). Women of all
+classes were admitted; and, though there was no rule of poverty,
+many wealthy women devoted their riches to the common cause.
+The Beguines did not beg; and, when the endowments of the
+community were not sufficient, the poorer members had to support
+themselves by manual work, sick-nursing and the like.</p>
+
+<p>The Beguine communities were fruitful soil for the missionary
+enterprise of the friars, and in the course of the 13th century the
+communities in France, Germany and upper Italy had fallen
+under the influence of the Dominicans and Franciscans to such an
+extent that in the Latin-speaking countries the tertiaries of these
+orders were commonly called <i>beguini</i> and <i>beguinae</i>. The very
+looseness of their organization, indeed, made it inevitable that
+the Beguine associations should follow very diverse developments.
+Some of them retained their original character; others
+fell completely under the dominion of the friars, and were ultimately
+converted into houses of Dominican, Franciscan or
+Augustinian tertiaries; others again fell under the influence of
+the mystic movements of the 13th century, turned in increasing
+numbers from work to mendicancy (as being nearer the Christ-life),
+practised the most cruel self-tortures, and lapsed into extravagant
+heresies that called down upon them the condemnation of popes
+and councils.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> All this tended to lower the reputation of the
+Beguines. During the 14th century, indeed, numerous new
+beguinages were established; but ladies of rank and wealth
+ceased to enter them, and they tended to become more and more
+mere almshouses for poor women. By the 15th century in many
+cases they had utterly sunk in reputation, their obligation to
+nurse the sick was quite neglected, and they had, rightly or
+wrongly, acquired the reputation of being mere nests of beggars
+and women of ill fame. At the Reformation the communities
+were suppressed in Protestant countries, but in some Catholic
+countries they still survive. The beguinages found here and
+there in Germany are now simply almshouses for poor spinsters,
+those in Holland (<i>e.g.</i> at Amsterdam and Breda) and Belgium
+preserve more faithfully the characteristics of earlier days.
+The beguinage of St Elizabeth at Ghent has some thousand
+sisters, and occupies quite a distinct quarter of the city, being
+surrounded by a wall and moat. The Beguines wear the old
+Flemish head-dress and a dark costume, and are conspicuous
+for their kindness among the poor and their sick nursing.</p>
+
+<p>It is uncertain whether the parallel communities of men
+originated also with Lambert le Bègue. The first records are of
+communities at Louvain in 1220 and at Antwerp in 1228. The
+history of the male communities is to a certain extent parallel
+with the female, but they were never so numerous and their
+degeneration was far more rapid. The earliest Flemish Beghard
+communities were associations mainly of artisans who earned
+their living by weaving and the like, and appear to have been in
+intimate connexion with the craft-gilds; but under the influence
+of the mendicant movement of the 13th century these tended
+to break up, and, though certain of the male beguinages survived
+or were incorporated as tertiaries in the orders of friars, the name
+of Beghard became associated with groups of wandering mendicants
+who made religion a cloak for living on charity; <i>béguigner</i>
+becoming in the French language of the time synonymous with
+&ldquo;to beg,&rdquo; and <i>beghard</i> with &ldquo;beggar,&rdquo; a word which, according
+to the latest authorities, was probably imported into England
+in the 13th century from this source (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beggar</a></span>). More serious
+still, from the point of view of the Church, was the association of
+these wandering mendicants with the mystic heresies of the
+Fraticelli, the Apostolici and the pantheistic Brethren of the
+Free Spirit. The situation was embittered by the hatred of the
+secular clergy for the friars, with whom the Beguines were
+associated. Restrictions were placed upon them by the synod
+of Fritzlar (1269), by that of Mainz (1281) and Eichstätt (1281).
+and by the synod of Béziers (1299) they were absolutely forbidden.
+They were again condemned by a synod held at Cologne
+in 1306; and at the synod of Trier in 1310 a decree was passed
+against those &ldquo;who under a pretext of feigned religion call
+themselves Beghards ... and, hating manual labour, go about
+begging, holding conventicles and posing among simple people
+as interpreters of the Scriptures.&rdquo; Matters came to a climax at
+the council of Vienne in 1311 under Pope Clement V., where the
+&ldquo;sect of Beguines and Beghards&rdquo; were accused of being the
+main instruments of the spread of heresy, and decrees were
+passed suppressing their organization and demanding their
+severe punishment. The decrees were put into execution by
+Pope John XXII., and a persecution raged in which, though the
+pope expressly protected the female Beguine communities of the
+Netherlands, there was little discrimination between the orthodox
+and unorthodox Beguines. This led to the utmost confusion,
+the laity in many cases taking the part of the Beguine communities,
+and the Church being thus brought into conflict with
+the secular authorities. In these circumstances the persecution
+died down; it was, however, again resumed between 1366 and
+1378 by Popes Urban V. and Gregory XI., and the Beguines were
+not formally reinstated until the pontificate of Eugenius IV.
+(1431-1447). The male communities did not survive the 14th
+century, even in the Netherlands, where they had maintained
+their original character least impaired.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.L. von Mosheirn, <i>De beghardis et beguinabus commentarius</i>
+(Leipzig, 1790); E. Hallmann, <i>Die Geschichte des Ursprungs der
+belgischen Beghinen</i> (Berlin, 1843); J.C.L. Giesclcr, <i>Eccles. Hist.</i>
+(vol. iii., Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853), with useful excerpts from
+documents; Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>; Herzog-Haurk, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(3rd ed., 1897) s. &ldquo;Beginen,&rdquo; by Herman Haupt, where
+numerous further authorities are cited.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the year 1287 the council of Liége decreed that &ldquo;all Beguinae
+desiring to enjoy the Beguine privileges shall enter a Beguinage,
+and we order that all who remain outside the Beguinage shall wear
+a dress to distinguish them from the Beguinae.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEHAIM<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Behem</span>), <b>MARTIN</b> (1436?-1507), a navigator
+and geographer of great pretensions, was born at Nuremberg,
+according to one tradition, about 1436; according to Ghillany,
+as late as 1459. He was drawn to Portugal by participation in
+Flanders trade, and acquired a scientific reputation at the court
+of John II. As a pupil, real or supposed, of the astronomer
+&ldquo;Regiomontanus&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> Johann Müller of Königsberg in Franconia)
+he became (<i>c.</i> 1480) a member of a council appointed by
+King John for the furtherance of navigation. His alleged introduction
+of the cross-staff into Portugal (an invention described
+by the Spanish Jew, Levi ben Gerson, in the 14th century) is
+a matter of controversy; his improvements in the astrolabe
+were perhaps limited to the introduction of handy brass instruments
+in place of cumbrous wooden ones; it seems likely that
+he helped to prepare better navigation tables than had yet been
+known in the Peninsula. In 1484-1485 he claimed to have
+accompanied Diogo Cão in his second expedition to West Africa,
+really undertaken in 1485-86, reaching Cabo Negro in 15° 40&prime; S.
+and Cabo Ledo still farther on. It is now disputed whether
+Behaim&rsquo;s pretensions here deserve any belief; and it is suggested
+that instead of sharing in this great voyage of discovery, the
+Nuremberger only sailed to the nearer coasts of Guinea, perhaps
+as far as the Bight of Benin, and possibly with José Visinho the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span>
+astronomer and with João Affonso d&rsquo;Aveiro, in 1484-86. Martin&rsquo;s
+later history, as traditionally recorded, was as follows. On his
+return from his West African exploration to Lisbon he was
+knighted by King John, who afterwards employed him in various
+capacities; but, from the time of his marriage in 1486, he usually
+resided at Fayal in the Azores, where his father-in-law, Jobst
+van Huerter, was governor of a Flemish colony. On a visit to
+his native city in 1492, he constructed his famous terrestrial
+globe, still preserved in Nuremberg, and often reproduced, in
+which the influence of Ptolemy is strongly apparent, but wherein
+some attempt is also made to incorporate the discoveries of the
+later middle ages (Marco Polo, &amp;c.). The antiquity of this globe
+and the year of its execution, on the eve of the discovery of
+America, are noteworthy; but as a scientific work it is unimportant,
+ranking far below the <i>portolani</i> charts of the 14th century.
+Its West Africa is marvellously incorrect; the Cape Verde
+archipelago lies hundreds of miles out of its proper place; and
+the Atlantic is filled with fabulous islands. Blunders of 16°
+are found in the localization of places the author claims to have
+visited: contemporary maps, at least in regard to continental
+features, seldom went wrong beyond 1°. It is generally agreed
+that Behaim had no share in Transatlantic discovery; and
+though Columbus and he were apparently in Portugal at the
+same time, no connexion between the two has been established.
+He died at Lisbon in 1507.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.G. von Murr, <i>Diplomatische Geschichte des berühmten Ritters
+Behaim</i> (1778); A. von Humboldt, <i>Kritische Untersuchungen</i> (1836);
+F.W. Ghillany, <i>Geschichte des Seefahrers Martin Behaim</i> (1853);
+O. Peschel, <i>Geschichte der Erdkunde</i>, 214-215, 226, 251,
+and <i>Zeitalter der Entdeckungen</i>, esp. p. 90;
+Breusing, <i>Zur Geschichte der Geographie</i> (1869);
+Eugen Gelcich in the <i>Mittheilungen</i> of the Vienna Geographical
+Society, vol. xxxvi. pp. 100, &amp;c.;
+E.G. Ravenstein, <i>Martin de Bohemia</i>, (Lisbon, 1900),
+<i>Martin Behaim, His Life and His Globe</i> (London, 1909),
+and <i>Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias</i>, 1482-1488,
+in <i>Geographical Journal</i>, Dec. 1900; see also
+<i>Geog. Journal</i>, Aug. 1893, p. 175, Nov. 1901, p. 509; Jules Mees
+in <i>Bull. Soc. Geog.</i>, Antwerp, 1902, pp. 182-204; A. Ferreira de Serpa
+in <i>Bull. Soc. Geog.</i>, Lisbon, 1904, pp. 297-307.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEHAR,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bihar</span>, a town of British India, in the Patna
+district of Bengal, which gives its name to an old province,
+situated on the right bank of the river Panchana. Pop. (1901)
+45,063. There are still some manufactures of silk and muslin,
+but trade has deserted Behar in favour of Patna and other
+places more favourably situated on the river Ganges and the
+railway, while the indigo industry has been ruined by the
+synthetic products of the German chemist, and the English
+colony of indigo planters has been scattered abroad.</p>
+
+<p>The old province, stretching widely across the valley of the
+Ganges from the frontier of Nepal to the hills of Chota Nagpur,
+corresponds to the two administrative divisions of Patna and
+Bhagalpur, with a total area of 44,197 sq. m. and a population
+of 24,241,305. It is the most densely populated tract in India,
+and therefore always liable to famine; but it is now well
+protected almost everywhere by railways. It is a country of large
+landholders and formerly of indigo planters. The vernacular
+language is not Bengali, but a dialect of Hindu; and the people
+likewise resemble those of Upper India. The general aspect
+of the country is flat, except in the district of Monghyr, where
+detached hills occur, and in the south-east of the province,
+where the Rajmahal and Santal ranges abut upon the plains.</p>
+
+<p>Behar abounds in great rivers, such as the Ganges, with its
+tributaries, the Ghagra, Gandak, Kusi, Mahananda and Sone.
+The Ganges enters the province near the town of Buxar, flows
+eastward and, passing the towns of Dinajpur, Patna, Monghyr
+and Colgong, leaves the province at Rajmahal. It divides the
+province into two almost equal portions; north of the river lie
+the districts of Saran, Champaran, Tirhoot, Purnea, and part of
+Monghyr and Bhagalpur, and south of it are Shahabad, Patna,
+Gaya, the Santal parganas, and the rest of Monghyr and Bhagalpur.
+The Ganges and its northern tributaries are navigable by
+country boats of large burden all the year round. The cultivation
+of opium is a government monopoly, and no person is allowed to
+grow the poppy except on account of government. The Behar
+Opium Agency has its headquarters at the town of Patna.
+Annual engagements are entered into by the cultivators, under a
+system of pecuniary advances, to sow a certain quantity of land
+with poppy, and the whole produce in the form of opium is
+delivered to government at a fixed rate.</p>
+
+<p>Saltpetre is largely refined in Tirhoot, Saran and Champaran,
+and is exported both by rail and river to Calcutta. The
+manufactures of less importance are tussore-silk, paper, blankets,
+brass utensils, firearms, carpets, coarse cutlery and hardware,
+leather, ornaments of gold and silver, &amp;c. Of minerals&mdash;lead,
+silver and copper exist in the Bhagalpur division, but the mines
+are not worked. One coal-mine is worked in the parganas.
+Before the construction of railways in India, the Ganges and the
+Grand Trunk road afforded the sole means of communication
+from Calcutta to the North-Western Provinces. But now the
+railroad is the great highway which connects Upper India with
+Lower Bengal. The East Indian railway runs throughout the
+length of the province. The climate of Behar is very hot from
+the middle of March to the end of June, when the rains set in,
+which continue till the end of September. The cold season, from
+October to the first half of March, is the pleasantest time of the
+year.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The province of Behar corresponds to the ancient
+kingdom of Magadha, which comprised the country now included
+in the districts of Patna, Gaya and Shahabad, south of the
+Ganges. The origin of this kingdom, famous alike in the political
+and religious history of India, is lost in the mists of antiquity;
+and though the Brahmanical <i>Puranas</i> give lists of its rulers
+extending back to remote ages before the Christian era, the first
+authentic dynasty is that of the Saisunaga, founded by Sisunaga
+(<i>c.</i> 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose capital was at Rajagaha (Rajgir) in the hills
+near Gaya; and the first king of this dynasty of whom anything
+is known was Bimbisara (<i>c.</i> 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who by conquests and
+matrimonial alliances laid the foundations of the greatness of the
+kingdom. It was in the reign of Bimbisara that Vardhamana
+Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, and Gautama, the founder of
+Buddhism, preached in Magadha, and Buddhist missionaries
+issued thence to the conversion of China, Ceylon, Tibet and
+Tatary. Even to this day Behar, where there are extensive
+remains of Buddhist buildings, remains a sacred spot in the
+eyes of the Chinese and other Buddhist nations.</p>
+
+<p>Bimbisara was murdered by his son Ajatasatru, who succeeded
+him, and whose bloodthirsty policy reduced the whole country
+between the Himalayas and the Ganges under the suzerainty of
+Magadha. According to tradition, it was his grandson, Udaya,
+who founded the city of Pataliputra (Patna) on the Ganges,
+which under the Maurya dynasty became the capital not only of
+Magadha but of India. The remaining history of the dynasty is
+obscure; according to Mr Vincent Smith, its last representative
+was Mahanandin (417 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), after whose death the throne was
+usurped, under obscure circumstances, by Mahapadma Nanda,
+a man of low caste (<i>Early Hist. of India</i>, p. 36). It was a son
+of this usurper who was reigning at the time of the invasion
+of Alexander the Great; and the conqueror, when his advance
+was arrested at the Hyphasis (326 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), meditating an attack on
+Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), was informed that
+the king of Magadha could oppose him with a force of 20,000
+cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2000 chariots, and 3000 or 4000
+elephants. The Nanda dynasty seems to have survived only for
+two generations, when (321 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Chandragupta Maurya, the
+founder of the great Maurya dynasty, seized the throne. This
+dynasty, of which the history belongs to that of India (<i>q.v.</i>),
+occupied the throne for 137 years. After the death of the great
+Buddhist king, Asoka (<i>c.</i> 231), the Maurya empire began to break
+up, and it was finally destroyed about fifty years later when
+Pushyamitra Sunga murdered the Maurya king Brihadratha
+and founded the Sunga dynasty. Descendants of Asoka continued,
+however, to subsist in Magadha as subordinate rajas for
+many centuries; and as late as the 8th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> petty
+Maurya dynasties are mentioned as ruling in Konkan. The
+reign of Pushyamitra, who held his own against Menander and
+succeeded in establishing his claim to be lord paramount of
+northern India, is mainly remarkable as marking the beginning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span>
+of the Brahmanical reaction and the decline of Buddhism;
+according to certain Buddhist writers the king, besides reviving
+Hindu rites, indulged in a savage persecution of the monks.
+The Sunga dynasty, which lasted 112 years, was succeeded by
+the Kanva dynasty, which after 45 years was overthrown
+(<i>c.</i> 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) by the Andhras or Satavahanas. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 236 the
+Andhras were overthrown, and, after a confused and obscure
+period of about a century, Chandragupta I. established his power
+at Pataliputra (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320) and founded the famous Gupta empire
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gupta</a></span>), which survived till it was overthrown by the
+Ephthalites (<i>q.v.</i>), or White Huns, at the close of the 5th century.
+In Magadha itself the Guptas continued to rule as tributary
+princes for some centuries longer. About the middle of the 8th
+century Magadha was conquered by Gopala, who had made
+himself master in Bengal, and founded the imperial dynasty
+known as the Palas of Bengal. They were zealous Buddhists,
+and under their rule Magadha became once more an active centre
+of Buddhist influence. Gopala himself built a great monastery
+at Udandapura, or Otantapuri, which has been identified by
+Sir Alexander Cunningham with the city of Behar, where the
+later Pala kings established their capital. Under Mahipala
+(<i>c.</i> 1026), the ninth of his line, and his successor Nayapala,
+missionaries from Magadha succeeded in firmly re-establishing
+Buddhism in Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>In the 11th century the Pala empire, which, according to the
+Tibetan historian Taranath, extended in the 9th century from
+the Bay of Bengal to Delhi and Jalandhar (Jullundur) in the
+north and the Vindhyan range in the south, was partly dismembered
+by the rise of the &ldquo;Sena&rdquo; dynasty in Bengal; and
+at the close of the 12th century both Palas and Senas were swept
+away by the Mahommedan conquerors, the city of Behar itself
+being captured by the Turki free-lance Mahommed-i-Bakhtyar
+Khilji in 1193, by surprise, with a party of 200 horsemen. &ldquo;It
+was discovered,&rdquo; says a contemporary Arab historian, &ldquo;that the
+whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in the Hindi
+tongue they call a college Bihar.&rdquo; Most of the monks were
+massacred in the first heat of the assault; those who survived
+fled to Tibet, Nepal and the south. Buddhism in Magadha
+never recovered from this blow; it lingered in obscurity for a
+while and then vanished.</p>
+
+<p>Behar now came under the rule of the Mahommedan governors
+of Bengal. About 1330 the southern part was annexed to
+Delhi, while north Behar remained for some time longer subject
+to Bengal. In 1397 the whole of Behar became part of the
+kingdom of Jaunpur; but a hundred years later it was annexed
+by the Delhi emperors, by whom&mdash;save for a short period&mdash;it
+continued to be held. The capital of the province was established
+under the Moguls at the city of Behar, which gave its name to
+the province. From the middle of the 14th to the middle of the
+16th century a large part of Behar was ruled by a line of Brahman
+tributary kings; and in the 15th century another Hindu dynasty
+ruled in Champaran and Gorakhpur. Behar came into the
+possession of the East India Company with the acquisition of the
+Diwani in 1765, when the province was united with Bengal. In
+1857 two zemindars, Umar Singh and Kumar Singh, rebelled
+against the British government, and for some months held the
+ruinous fort of Rohtas against the British.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908), <i>s.v.</i>
+&ldquo;Bihar&rdquo; and &ldquo;Bengal&rdquo;; V.A. Smith, <i>Early History of India</i>
+(2nd ed., Oxford, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEH&#256; UD-D&#298;N<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Ab&#363;-l-ma&#7717;&#257;sin Y&#363;suf Ibn R&#257;f&#299;&lsquo; Ibn
+Shadd&#257;d Beh&#257; Ud D&#299;n</span>] (1145-1234), Arabian writer and statesman,
+was born in Mosul and early became famous for his knowledge
+of the Koran and of jurisprudence. Before the age of thirty he
+became teacher in the great college at Bagdad known as the
+Niz&#257;miyya, and soon after became professor at Mosul. In 1187, after
+making the pilgrimage to Mecca, he visited Damascus. Saladin,
+who was at the time besieging Kaukab (a few miles south of
+Tiberias), sent for him and became his friend. Beh&#257; ud-D&#299;n
+observed that the whole soul of the monarch was engrossed by the
+war which he was then engaged in waging against the enemies of
+the faith, and saw that the only mode of acquiring his favour
+was by urging him to its vigorous prosecution. With this view
+he composed a treatise on <i>The Laws and Discipline of Sacred
+War</i>, which he presented to Saladin, who received it with peculiar
+favour. From this time he remained constantly attached to the
+person of the sultan, and was employed on various embassies
+and in departments of the civil government. He was appointed
+judge of the army and judge of Jerusalem. After Saladin&rsquo;s death
+Beh&#257;-ud-Din remained the friend of his son Malik uz-Z&#257;hir,
+who appointed him judge of Aleppo. Here he employed some of
+his wealth in the foundation of colleges. When Malik uz-Z&#257;hir
+died, his son Malik ul-&lsquo;Aziz was a minor, and Beh&#257; ud-D&#299;n had
+the chief power in the regency. This power he used largely for the
+patronage of learning. After the abdication of Malik ul-&lsquo;Aziz,
+he fell from favour and lived in retirement until his death in
+1234. Beh&#257; ud-D&#299;n&rsquo;s chief work is his <i>Life of Saladin</i>
+(published at Leiden with Latin translation by A. Schultens in
+1732 and 1755). An English translation was published by the Palestine
+Pilgrims&rsquo; Text Society, London, 1897.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For list of other extant works see C. Brockelmann, <i>Geschichte der
+arabischen Litteratur</i> (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 316 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEH&#256; UD-D&#298;N ZUHAIR<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ab&#363;-l Fa&#7693;l Zuhair Ibn Ma&#7717;ommed
+Al-Muhallab&#299;</span>) (1186-1258), Arabian poet, was born at or
+near Mecca, and became celebrated as the best writer of prose and
+verse and the best calligraphist of his time. He entered the
+service of Malik u&#7779;-S&#257;li&#7717; Najm ud-D&#299;n in Mesopotamia, and
+was with him at Damascus until he was betrayed and imprisoned.
+Beh&#257; ud-D&#299;n then retired to Nabl&#363;s (Shechem) where he remained
+until Najm ud-D&#299;n escaped and obtained possession
+of Egypt, whither he accompanied him in 1240. There he remained
+as the sultan&rsquo;s confidential secretary until his death,
+due to an epidemic, in 1258. His poetry consists mostly of
+panegyric and brilliant occasional verse distinguished for its
+elegance. It has been published with English metrical translation
+by E.H. Palmer (2 vols., Cambridge, 1877).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life was written by his contemporary Ibn Khallikan (see
+M&lsquo;G. de Slane&rsquo;s trans. of his <i>Biographical Dictionary</i>, vol. i.
+pp. 542-545).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEHBAHAN,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a walled town of Persia in the province of Fars,
+pleasantly situated in the midst of a highly cultivated plain,
+128 m. W.N.W. of Shiraz and 3 m. from the left bank of the river
+Tab, here called Kurdistan river. It is the capital of the
+Kuhgilu-Behbahan sub-province of Fars and has a population of about
+10,000. The walls are about 3 m. in circumference and a Narinj
+Kalah (citadel) stands in the south-east corner. At a short
+distance north-west of the city are the ruins of Arrajan, the old
+capital of the province.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEHEADING,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a mode of executing capital punishment (<i>q.v.</i>).
+It was in use among the Greeks and Romans, and the former, as
+Xenophon says at the end of the second book of the <i>Anabasis</i>,
+regarded it as a most honourable form of death. So did the
+Romans, by whom it was known as <i>decollatio</i> or <i>capitis
+amputatio</i>. The head was laid on a block placed in a pit dug
+for the purpose,&mdash;in the case of a military offender, outside
+the intrenchments, in civil cases outside the city walls, near the <i>porta decumana</i>.
+Before execution the criminal was tied to a stake and whipped
+with rods. In earlier years an axe was used; afterwards a sword,
+which was considered a more honourable instrument of death,
+and was used in the case of citizens (<i>Dig.</i> 48, 19, 28). It was
+with a sword that Cicero&rsquo;s head was struck off by a common
+soldier. The beheading of John the Baptist proves that the
+tetrarch Herod had adopted from his suzerain the Roman mode
+of execution. Suetonius (<i>Calig. c</i>. 32) states that
+Caligula kept a soldier, an artist in beheading, who in his
+presence decapitated prisoners fetched indiscriminately for
+that purpose from the gaols.</p>
+
+<p>Beheading is said to have been introduced into England from
+Normandy by William the Conqueror. The first person to suffer
+was Waltheof, earl of Northumberland, in 1076. An ancient
+MS. relating to the earls of Chester states that the serjeants or
+bailiffs of the earls had power to behead any malefactor or thief,
+and gives an account of the presenting of several heads of felons
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span>
+at the castle of Chester by the earl&rsquo;s serjeant. It appears that
+the custom also attached to the barony of Malpas. In a roll of
+3 Edward II., beheading is called the &ldquo;custom of Cheshire&rdquo;
+(Lysons&rsquo; <i>Cheshire</i>, p. 299, from Harl. MS. 2009 fol. 34<i>b</i>). The
+liberty of Hardwick, in Yorkshire, was granted the privilege
+of beheading thieves. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guillotine</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>But with the exceptions above stated beheading was usually
+reserved as the mode of executing offenders of high rank. From
+the 15th century onward the victims of the axe include some of
+the highest personages in the kingdom: Archbishop Scrope
+(1405); duke of Buckingham (1483); Catherine Howard (1542);
+earl of Surrey (1547); duke of Somerset (1552); duke of
+Northumberland (1553); Lady Jane Grey (1554), Lord Guildford
+Dudley (1554); Mary queen of Scots (1587); earl of Essex
+(1601); Sir Walter Raleigh (1618); earl of Strafford (1641);
+Charles I. (1649); Lord William Russell (1683); duke of
+Monmouth (1685); earl of Derwentwater (1716); earl of
+Kenmure (1716); earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmerino
+(1746); and the list closes with Simon, Lord Lovat, who (9th of
+April 1747) was the last person beheaded in England. The
+execution of Anne Boleyn was carried out not with the axe,
+but with a sword, and by a French headsman specially brought
+over from Calais. In 1644 Archbishop Laud was condemned
+to be hanged, and the only favour granted him, and that reluctantly,
+was that his sentence should be changed to beheading.
+In the case of the 4th Earl Ferrers (1760) his petition to be
+beheaded was refused and he was hanged.</p>
+
+<p>Executions by beheading usually took place on Tower Hill,
+London, where the scaffold stood permanently during the 15th
+and 16th centuries. In the case of certain state prisoners, <i>e.g.</i>
+Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey, the sentence was carried
+out within the Tower on the green by St Peter&rsquo;s chapel.</p>
+
+<p>Beheading was only a part of the common-law method of
+punishing male traitors, which was ferocious in the extreme.
+According to Walcot&rsquo;s case (1696), 1 <i>Eng. Rep.</i> 89, the proper
+sentence was &ldquo;quod ... ibidem super bigam (herdillum)
+ponatur et abinde usque ad furcas de [Tyburn] trahatur, et
+ibidem per collum suspendatur et vivus ad terram prosternatur
+et quod secreta membra ejus amputentur, et interiora sua intra
+ventrem suum capiantur et in ignem ponantur et ibidem <i>ipso
+vivente</i> comburantur, et quod caput ejus amputetur, quodque
+corpus ejus in quatuor partes dividatur et illo ponantur ubi
+dominus rex eas assignare voluit.&rdquo; There is a tradition that
+Harrison the regicide after being disembowelled rose and boxed
+the ears of the executioner.</p>
+
+<p>In Townley&rsquo;s case (18 Howell, <i>State Trials</i>, 350, 351) there is a
+ghastly account of the mode of executing the sentence; and in
+that case the executioner cut the traitor&rsquo;s throat. In the case
+of the Cato Street conspiracy (1820, 33 Howell, <i>State Trials</i>, 1566),
+after the traitors had been hanged as directed by the act of 1814,
+their heads were cut off by a man in a mask whose dexterity led
+to the belief that he was a surgeon.</p>
+
+<p>Female traitors were until 1790 liable to be drawn to execution
+and burnt alive. In that year hanging was substituted for
+burning.</p>
+
+<p>In 1814 so much of the sentence as related to disembowelling
+and burning the bowels was abolished and the king was empowered
+by royal warrant to substitute decapitation for hanging, which
+was made by that act the ordinary mode of executing traitors.
+But it was not till 1870 that the portions of the sentence as to
+drawing and quartering were abolished (Forfeiture Act 1870).</p>
+
+<p>The more barbarous features of the execution were remitted
+in the case of traitors of high rank, and the offender was simply
+decapitated.</p>
+
+<p>The block usually employed is believed to have been a low
+one such as would be used for beheading a corpse. C.H. Firth
+and S.R. Gardiner incline to the view that such a block was the
+one used at Charles I.&rsquo;s execution. The more general custom,
+however, seems to have been to have a high block over which
+the victim knelt. Such is the form of that preserved in the
+armoury of the Tower of London. This is undoubtedly the
+block upon which Lord Lovat suffered, but, in spite of several
+axe-cuts on it, probably not one in early use. The axe which
+stands beside it was used to behead him and the other Jacobite
+lords, but no certainty exists as to its having been previously
+employed. On the ground floor of the King&rsquo;s House, at the
+Tower, is preserved the processional axe which figured in the
+journeys of state prisoners to and from their trials, the edge
+turned from them as they went, but almost invariably turned
+towards them as they returned to the Tower. The axe&rsquo;s head
+is peculiar in form, 1 ft. 8 in. high by 10 in. wide, and is fastened
+into a wooden handle 5 ft. 4 in. long. The handle is ornamented
+by four rows of burnished brass nails.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland they did not behead with the axe, nor with the
+sword, as under the Roman law, and formerly in Holland and
+France, but with the maiden (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Capital punishment is executed by beheading in France, and
+in Belgium by means of the guillotine.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany the instrument used varies in different states:
+in the old provinces of Prussia the axe, in Saxony and Rhenish
+Prussia the guillotine. Until 1851 executions were public.
+They now take place within a prison in the presence of certain
+specified officials.</p>
+
+<p>Beheading is also the mode of executing capital punishment
+in Denmark and Sweden. The axe is used. In Sweden the
+execution takes place on the order of the king within a prison
+in the presence of certain specified officials and, if desired, of
+twelve representatives of the commune within which the prison
+is situate (Code 1864, s. 2, Royal Ordinance 1877).</p>
+
+<p>In the Chinese empire decapitation is the usual mode of
+execution. By an imperial edict (24th of April 1905) certain
+attendant barbarities have been suppressed: viz. slicing, cutting
+up the body, and exhibiting the head to public view
+(32 Clunet, 1175).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEHEMOTH<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (the intensive plural of the Hebrew <i>b&rsquo;hemah</i>, a
+beast), the animal mentioned in the book of Job (ch. xl. 15),
+probably the hippopotamus, which in ancient times was found in
+Egypt below the cataracts of Syene. The word may be used in
+Job as typical of the primeval king of land animals, as leviathan
+of the water animals. The modern use expresses the idea of a
+very large and strong animal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEHISTUN,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bisitun</span>, now pronounced <i>Bisutum</i>, a little
+village at the foot of a precipitous rock, 1700 ft. high, in the
+centre of the Zagros range in Persia on the right bank of the
+Samas-Ab, the principal tributary of the Kerkha (Choaspes).
+The original form of the name, Bagistana, &ldquo;place of the gods&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;of God&rdquo; has been preserved by the Greek authors Stephanus
+of Byzantium, and Diodorus (ii. 13), the latter of whom says
+that the place was sacred to Zeus, <i>i.e.</i> Ahuramazda (Ormuzd).
+At its foot passes the great road which leads from Babylonia
+(Bagdad) to the highlands of Media (Ecbatana, Hamadan). On
+the steep face of the rock, some 500 ft. above the plain, Darius I.,
+king of Persia, had engraved a great cuneiform inscription
+(11 or 12 ft. high), which recounts the way in which, after the
+death of Cambyses, he killed the usurper Gaumata (in Justin
+Gometes, the pseudo-Smerdis), defeated the numerous rebels,
+and restored the kingdom of the Achaemenidae. Above the
+inscription the picture of the king himself is graven, with a bow
+in his hand, putting his left foot on the body of Gaumata. Nine
+rebel chiefs are led before him, their hands bound behind them,
+and a rope round their necks: the ninth is Skunka, the chief of
+the Scythians (Sacae) whom he defeated. Behind the king stand
+his bow-bearer and his lance-bearer; in the air appears the
+figure of the great god Ahuramazda, whose protection led him
+to victory.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The inscriptions are composed in the three languages
+which are written with cuneiform signs, and were used in all
+official inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings: the chief place
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span>
+is of course given to the Persian language (in four columns);
+the three Susian (Elamitic) columns lie to the left, and the
+Babylonian text is on a slanting boulder above them; a part of
+the Babylonian has been destroyed by a torrent, which has made
+its way over it. In former times the second language has often
+been called Scythian, Turanian or Median; but we now know
+from numerous inscriptions of Susa that it is the language of
+Elam which was spoken in Susa, the capital of the Persian
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>In 1835 the difficult and almost inaccessible cliff was first
+climbed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, who copied and deciphered
+the inscriptions (1835-1845), and thus completed the reading
+of the old cuneiform text and laid the foundation of the science
+of Assyriology. Diodorus ii. 13 (cf. xvii. 110), probably following
+a later author who wrote the history of Alexander&rsquo;s campaigns,
+mentions the sculptures and inscriptions, but attributes them to
+Semiramis. At the foot of the rock are the remainders of some
+other sculptures (quite destroyed), the fragments of a Greek
+inscription of the Parthian prince Gotarzes (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 40; text in
+Dittenberger, <i>Orientis graeci inscr. selectae</i>, no. 431), and of an
+Arabic inscription.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir Henry Rawlinson in the <i>Journ. R. Geog. Soc.</i> ix., 1839;
+<i>J. R. Asiatic Soc.</i> x. 1866, xiv., 1853, xv., 1855;
+<i>Archaeologia</i>, xxxiv., 1852;
+Sir R. Ker Porter, <i>Travels</i>, ii. 149 ff.;
+Flandin and Coste, <i>Voyage en Perse</i>, i. pl. 16;
+and the modern editions of the inscriptions,
+the best of which, up to the end of the 19th century, were:
+Weissbach and Bang, <i>Die altpersischen Keilinschriften</i> (1893);
+Weissbach, <i>Die Achaemenideninschriften zweiter Art</i> (1890);
+Bezold, <i>Die (babylonischen) Achaemenideninschriften</i> (1882).
+A description of the locality, with comments on the present state of the
+inscriptions and doubtful passages of the Persian text, was given by
+Dr A.V. Williams Jackson in the <i>Journal of the American Oriental
+Society</i>, xxiv., 1903, and in his <i>Persia, Past and Present</i> (1906).
+Dr Jackson in 1903 climbed to the ledge of the rock and was able to
+collate the lower part of the four large Persian columns; he thus
+convinced himself that Foy&rsquo;s conjecture of <i>&#257;r&#353;t&#257;m</i> (&ldquo;righteousness&rdquo;)
+for Rawlinson&rsquo;s <i>abi&#353;t&#257;m</i> or <i>aba&#353;t&#257;m</i> was correct. A later
+investigation was carried out in 1904 on the instructions of the
+British Museum Trustees by Messrs. L.W. King and R.C. Thompson, who published
+their results in 1907 under the title, <i>The Inscription of Darius
+the Great at Behistûn</i>, including a full illustrated account of the
+sculptures and the inscription, and a complete collation of the text.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A passage in the inscription runs:&mdash;&ldquo;Thus saith Darius the
+king: That which I have done I have done altogether by the grace
+of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda, and the other gods that be, brought
+aid to me. For this reason did Ahuramazda, and the other gods
+that be, bring aid to me, because I was not hostile, nor a liar, nor a
+wrongdoer, neither I nor my family, but according to Rectitude
+(<i>&#257;r&#353;tam</i>) have I ruled.&rdquo; (A.V. Williams Jackson, <i>Persia, Past and
+Present</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEHN, APHRA<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (otherwise <span class="sc">Afra, Aphara</span> or <span class="sc">Ayfara</span>) (1640-1689),
+British dramatist and novelist, was baptized at Wye,
+Kent, in 1640. Her father, John Johnson, was a barber. While
+still a child she was taken out to Surinam, then an English
+possession, from which she returned to England in 1658, when it
+was handed over to the Dutch. In Surinam Aphra learned the
+history, and acquired a personal knowledge of the African prince
+Oroonoko and his beloved Imoinda, whose adventures she has
+related in her novel, <i>Oroonoko</i>. On her return she married Mr
+Behn, a London merchant of Dutch extraction. The wit and
+abilities of Mrs Behn brought her into high estimation at court,
+and&mdash;her husband having died by this time&mdash;Charles II. employed
+her on secret service in the Netherlands during the Dutch
+war. At Antwerp she successfully accomplished the objects of
+her mission; and in the latter end of 1666 she wormed out of
+one Van der Aalbert the design formed by De Ruyter, in conjunction
+with the DeWitts, of sailing up the Thames and burning
+the English ships in their harbours. This she communicated to
+the English court, but although the event proved her intelligence
+to have been well founded, it was at the time disregarded.
+Disgusted with political service, she returned to England, and
+from this period she appears to have supported herself by her
+writings. Among her numerous plays are <i>The Forced Marriage,
+or the Jealous Bridegroom</i> (1671); <i>The Amorous Prince</i> (1671);
+<i>The Town Fop</i> (1677); and <i>The Rover, or the Banished Cavalier</i>
+(in two parts, 1677 and 1681); and <i>The Roundheads</i> (1682).
+The coarseness that disfigures her plays was the fault of her time;
+she possessed great ingenuity, and showed an admirable comprehension
+of stage business, while her wit and vivacity were unfailing.
+Of her short tales, or novelettes, the best is the story of
+<i>Oroonoko</i>, which was made the basis of Thomas Southerne&rsquo;s
+popular tragedy. Mrs Behn died on the 16th of April 1689, and
+was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Plays written by the Late Ingenious Mrs Behn</i> (1702;
+reprinted, 1871); also &ldquo;Aphra Behn&rsquo;s Gedichte und Prosawerke,&rdquo; by
+P. Siegel in <i>Anglia</i> (Halle, vol. xxv., 1902, pp. 86-128,329-385);
+and A.C. Swinburne&rsquo;s essay on &ldquo;Social Verse&rdquo; in <i>Studies in Prose
+and Poetry</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1775-1851), German publicist and
+writer, was born at Salzheim on the 26th of August 1775. He
+studied law at Würzburg and Göttingen, became professor of
+public law in the university of Würzburg in 1799, and in 1819
+was sent as a deputy to the <i>Landtag</i> of Bavaria. Having
+associated himself with the party of reform, he was regarded with
+suspicion by the Bavarian king Maximilian I. and the court
+party, although favoured for a time by Maximilian&rsquo;s son, the
+future King Louis I. In 1821 he was compelled to give up his
+professorship, but he continued to agitate for reform, and in
+1831 the king refused to recognize his election to the <i>Landtag</i>.
+A speech delivered by Behr in 1832 was regarded as seditious,
+and he was arrested. In spite of his assertion of loyalty to the
+principle of monarchy he was detained in custody, and in 1836
+was found guilty of seeking to injure the king. He then admitted
+his offence; but he was not released from prison until 1839, and
+the next nine years of his life were passed under police supervision
+at Passau and Regensburg. In 1848 he obtained a free
+pardon and a sum of money as compensation, and was sent to
+the German national assembly which met at Frankfort in May of
+that year. He passed his remaining days at Bamberg, where
+he died on the 1st of August 1851. Behr&rsquo;s chief writings are:
+<i>Darstellung der Bedürfnisse, Wünsche und Hoffnungen deutscher
+Nation</i> (Aschaffenburg, 1816); <i>Die Verfassung und Verwaltung
+des Staates</i> (Nuremberg, 1811-1812); <i>Von den rechtlichen Grenzen
+der Einwirkung des Deutschen Bundes auf die Verfassung, Gesetzgebung,
+und Rechtspflege seiner Gliederstaaten</i> (Stuttgart, 1820).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEIRA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a seaport of Portuguese East Africa, at the mouth of
+the Pungwe river, in 19° 50&prime; S., 34° 50&prime; E., 488 m. N. of Delagoa
+Bay, in communication by railway with Cape Town via Umtali,
+Salisbury and Bulawayo. Pop. about 4000, of whom a third
+are Europeans, and some 300 Indians. The town is built on a
+tongue of sand extending into the river, and is comparatively
+healthy. The sea front is protected by a masonry wall, and
+there are over 13,000 ft. of wharfage. Vessels drawing 24 ft.
+can enter the port at high tide. Between the customs house and
+the railway terminus is the mouth of a small river, the Chiveve,
+crossed by a steel bridge, the centre span revolving and giving
+two passages each of 40 ft. The town is without any architectural
+pretensions, but possesses fine public gardens. It is the headquarters
+of the Companhai de Moçambique, which administers
+the Beira district under charter from the Portuguese crown.
+The business community is largely British.</p>
+
+<p>Beira occupies the site of a forgotten Arab settlement. The
+present port sprang into being as the result of a clause in the
+Anglo-Portuguese agreement of 1891 providing for the construction
+of a railway between Rhodesia and the navigable waters of
+the Pungwe. The railway at first began at Fontesvilla, about
+50 m. by river above Beira, but was subsequently brought down
+to Beira. The completion in 1902 of the line connecting Salisbury
+with Cape Town adversely affected the port of Beira, the long
+railway route from the Cape being increasingly employed by
+travellers to and from Mashonaland. Moreover, the high freights
+on goods by the Beira route enabled Port Elizabeth to compete
+successfully for the trade of Rhodesia. In October 1905 a
+considerable reduction was made in railway rates and in port
+dues and customs, with the object of re-attracting to the port
+the transit trade of the interior, and in 1907 a branch of the
+Rhodesian customs was opened in the town. In that year goods
+valued at £647,000 passed through the port to Rhodesia. Efforts
+were also made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources
+of the Beira district itself. The principal exports are rubber,
+sugar, ground-nuts and oil seeds, beeswax, chromite (from
+Rhodesia), and gold (from Manica). The imports are chiefly
+rice (from India) and cotton goods for local use, and food stuffs,
+machinery, hardware and manufactured goods for Rhodesia.
+For the three years, 1905-1907, the average annual value of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span>
+imports and exports, excluding the transit trade with Rhodesia,
+was, imports £200,000, exports £90,000. Direct steamship communication
+with Europe is maintained by German and British
+lines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portuguese East Africa</a></span>; also the reports issued yearly by
+the British Foreign Office on the trade of Beira.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEIRA,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> an ancient principality and province of northern and
+central Portugal; bounded on the N. by Entre Minho e Douro
+and by Traz os Montes, E. by the Spanish provinces of Leon
+and Estremadura, S. by Alemtejo and Portuguese Estremadura,
+and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,515,834; area,
+9208 sq. m. Beira is administratively divided into the districts
+of Aveiro, Coimbra, Vizeu, Guarda and Castello Branco, while
+it is popularly regarded as consisting of the three sections&mdash;
+Beira Alta or Upper Beira (Vizeu), north and west of the Serra
+da Estrella; Beira Baixa or Lower Beira (Guarda and Castello
+Branco), south and east of that range; and Beira Mar or Maritime
+Beira (Aveiro and Coimbra), coinciding with the former
+coastal province of Douro. The coast line, about 72 m. long, is
+uniformly flat, with long stretches of sandy pine forest, heath
+or marshland bordered by a wide and fertile plain. Its most
+conspicuous features are the lagoon of Aveiro (<i>q.v.</i>) and the bold
+headland of Cape Mondego; in the south Aveiro, Murtosa, Ovar
+and Figueira da Foz are small seaports. Except along the coast,
+the surface is for the most part mountainous,&mdash;the highest point
+in the Serra da Estrella, which extends from north-east to
+south-west through the centre of the province, being 6532 ft.
+The northern and south-eastern frontiers are respectively marked
+by the two great rivers Douro and Tagus, which rise in Spain
+and flow to the Atlantic. The Agueda and Côa, tributaries
+of the Douro, drain the eastern plateaus of Beira; the Vouga
+rises in the Serra da Lapa, and forms the lagoon of Aveiro at its
+mouth; the Mondego springs from the Serra da Estrella, passes
+through Coimbra, and enters the sea at Figueira da Foz; and
+the Zezere, a tributary of the Tagus, rises north-north-east
+of Covilhã and flows south-west and south.</p>
+
+<p>Beira has a warm and equable climate, except in the mountains,
+where the snowfall is often heavy. The soil, except in the valleys,
+is dry and rocky, and large stretches are covered with heath.
+The principal agricultural products are maize, wheat, garden
+vegetables and fruit. The olive is largely cultivated, the oil
+forming one of the chief articles of export; good wine is also
+produced. In the flat country between Coimbra and Aveiro
+the marshy land is laid out in rice-fields or in pastures for herds of
+cattle and horses. Sheep farming is an important industry in
+the highlands of Upper Beira; while near Lamego swine are
+reared in considerable numbers, and furnish the well-known
+Lisbon hams. Iron, lead, copper, coal and marble are worked
+to a small extent, and millstones are quarried in some places.
+Salt is obtained in considerable quantities from the lagoons along
+the coast. There are few manufactures except the production
+of woollen cloth, which occupies a large part of the population
+in the district of Castello Branco. Three important lines of
+railway, the Salamanca-Oporto, Salamanca-Lisbon and Lisbon-Oporto,
+traverse parts of Beira; the two last named are also
+connected by the Guarda-Figueira da Foz railway, which has a
+short branch line going northwards to Vizeu. The chief towns,
+Aveiro (pop. 1900, 9979), Castello Branco (7288), Coimbra
+(18,144), Covilhã (15,469), Figueira da Foz (6221), Guarda (6124),
+Ilhavo (12,617), Lamego (9471), Murtosa (9737), Ovar (10,462)
+and Vizeu (8057), with the frontier fortress of Almeida (2330),
+are described in separate articles. There is a striking difference
+of character between the inhabitants of the highlands, who are
+grave and reserved, hardy and industrious, and those of the
+lowlands, who are more sociable and courteous, but less energetic.
+The heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal has the title of prince
+of Beira.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEIRUT<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Beyrout</span>. (1) A vilayet of Syria, constituted
+as recently as 1888, which stretches along the sea-coast from
+Jebel el-Akra, south of the Orontes, to the Nahr Zerka, south of
+Mount Carmel, and towards the south extends from the Mediterranean
+to the Jordan. It includes five <i>sanjaks</i>, Latakia,
+Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Buka&rsquo;a. (2) The chief town of the
+vilayet (anc. <i>Berytus</i>), the most important seaport town in
+Syria, situated on the south side of St George&rsquo;s Bay, on rising
+ground at the foot of Lebanon. Pop. 120,000 (Moslems, 36,000;
+Christians, 77,000; Jews, 2500; Druses, 400; foreigners, 4100).
+Berytus, whether it is to be identified with Hebrew <i>Berothai</i>
+or not (2 Sam. viii. 8; Ezek. xlvii. 16), was one of the most
+ancient settlements on the Phoenician coast; but nothing more
+than the name is known of it till <span class="scs">B.C.</span> 140, when the town
+was taken and destroyed by Tryphon in his contest with
+Antiochus VII. for the throne of the Seleucids. It duly passed
+under Rome, was much favoured by the Herods and became
+a <i>colonia</i>. It was famous for its schools, especially that of law,
+from the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> onwards. Justinian recognized it
+as one of the three official law schools of the empire (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 533),
+but within a few years, as the result of a disastrous earthquake
+(551), the students were transferred to Sidon. In the following
+century it passed to the Arabs (635), and was not again a Christian
+city till 1111, when Baldwin captured it. Saladin retook it
+in 1187, and thenceforward, for six centuries and a half, whoever
+its nominal lords may have been, Saracen, Crusader, Mameluke
+or (from the 16th century) Turk, the Druse emirs of Lebanon
+dominated it (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Druses</a></span>). One of these, Fakr ed-Din Maan II.,
+fortified it early in the 17th century; but the Turks asserted
+themselves in 1763 and occupied the place. During the succeeding
+epoch of rebellion at Acre under Jezzar and Abdullah pashas,
+Beirut declined to a small town of about 10,000 souls, in dispute
+between the Druses, the Turks and the pashas,&mdash;a state of things
+which lasted till Ibrahim Pasha captured Acre in 1832. When
+the powers moved against the Egyptians in 1840, Beirut had
+recently been occupied in force by Ibrahim as a menace to the
+Druses; but he was easily driven out after a destructive bombardment
+by Admiral Sir Robert Stopford (1768-1847). Since the
+pacification of the Lebanon after the massacre of the Christians
+in 1860 (for later history, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lebanon</a></span>), Beirut has greatly
+increased in extent, and has become the centre of the transit
+trade for all southern Syria. In 1894 a harbour, constructed
+by a French company, was opened, but the insecurity of the
+outer roadstead militates against its success. Nevertheless
+trade is on the increase. In 1895 a French company completed
+a railway across the Lebanon to Damascus, and connected it
+with Mezerib in the Hauran, whence now starts the line to the
+Hejaz. Since 1907 it has also had railway communication with
+Aleppo; and a narrow-gauge line runs up the coast to Tripoli.
+The steepness of the Lebanon railway, and the break of gauge at
+Rayak, the junction for Aleppo, have prevented the diversion
+of much of the trade of North Syria to Beirut. The town has
+been supplied with water, since 1875, by an English company,
+and with gas, since 1888, by a French company. There are many
+American and European institutions in the city: the American
+Presbyterian mission, with a girls&rsquo; school and a printing office,
+which published the Arabic translation of the Bible, and now
+issues a weekly paper and standard works in Arabic; the Syrian
+Protestant college with its theological seminary, medical faculty,
+training college and astronomical observatory; the Scottish
+mission, and St George&rsquo;s institute for Moslem and Druse girls;
+the British Syrian mission schools; the German hospital,
+orphanage and boarding school; the French hospital and
+schools, and the Jesuit &ldquo;Université de St Joseph&rdquo; with a
+printing office. In summer most of the richer residents reside
+on the Lebanon, and in winter the governor of the Lebanon and
+many Lebanon notables inhabit houses in Beirut. The town
+has many fine houses, but the streets are unpaved and the
+bazaars mean. The Moslem inhabitants, being in a minority,
+have often shown themselves fanatical and turbulent. There
+are several fairly good hotels for tourists.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. W. W.; D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEIT, ALFRED<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1853-1906), British South African financier,
+was the son of a well-to-do merchant of Hamburg, Germany,
+and in 1875, after a commercial education at home, was sent
+out to Kimberley, South Africa, to investigate the diamond
+prospects. He had relatives, the Lipperts, out there in business,
+and in conjunction with Mr (afterwards Sir) Julius Wernher
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span>
+(b. 1850) he rapidly acquired a leading position on the diamond
+fields, and became closely allied with the ideals of Cecil Rhodes
+(<i>q.v.</i>). In 1889 Rhodes and Beit effected the amalgamation of
+various interests in the De Beers Consolidated Mines Limited. It
+was largely owing to the capital and enterprise of Beit that the
+deep-level mining in the Witwatersrand district of the Transvaal
+was started, and he had a large share in the principal company,
+the Rand Mines Limited. The firm of Wernher, Beit &amp; Co.
+gradually transferred the centre of their financial operations to
+London, where they became the leading house in the dealings
+in South African mines. The rapid progress made in developing
+the diamond and gold output made Beit a man of enormous
+wealth, and he utilized it lavishly in pursuit of Rhodes&rsquo;s South
+African policy. He was one of the original directors of the
+British South Africa company, and was included with Rhodes
+in the censure passed by the House of Commons Commission of
+Inquiry on the Jameson Raid (1896). He was subsequently one
+of Rhodes&rsquo;s trustees. Personally of a modest, gentle, generous
+and retiring disposition, and strongly imbued with Rhodes&rsquo;s
+ideas of British imperialism, he was one of the South African
+millionaires of German birth against whom the anti-imperialist
+section in England were never tired of employing their sarcastic
+invective. But though shrinking from ostentation in any form,
+his purse was continually opened for public objects, notably his
+support of the Imperial Light Horse and Imperial Yeomanry in
+the South African War of 1899-1902, and his endowment of the
+professorship of colonial history at Oxford (1905). He gave
+£100,000 to establish a university in his native city of Hamburg
+and £200,000 for a university in Johannesburg. He built a fine
+house in Park Lane, London, but was never prominent in social
+life. He died, unmarried, on the 16th of July 1906.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEJA<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">B&#299;ja</span>), the name under which is comprised a widespread
+family of tribes, usually classed as Hamitic. They
+may, however, represent very early Semitic immigrants (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hamitic Races</a></span>). When first recorded the Beja occupied
+the whole region between the Nile and the Red Sea from the
+border of Upper Egypt to the foot of the Abyssinian plateau.
+They were known to the ancient Egyptians, upon whose monuments
+they are represented. They are the Blemmyes of Strabo
+(xvii. 53), and have also been identified with the Macrobii of
+Herodotus, &ldquo;tallest and finest of men&rdquo; (iii. 17). It has been
+suggested, though on insufficient grounds, that the Beja, rather
+than the Abyssinians, are the &ldquo;Ethiopians&rdquo; of Herodotus, the
+civilized people who built the city of Meroë and its pyramids.
+During the Roman period the Beja were much what they are
+to-day, nomadic and aggressive, and were constantly at war.
+In 216 <span class="scs">A.H.</span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 832) the Moslem governor of Assuan made a
+treaty with the Beja chief, by which the latter undertook to
+guard the road to Aidhab and pay an annual tribute of one
+hundred camels. This is the earliest record of a government
+engagement with the northern section of the Beja, now the
+Ab&#257;bda. Ibn Batuta, early in the 14th century, mentions a
+king of Beja, El Hadrabi, who received two-thirds of the revenue
+of Aidhab, the other third going to the king of Egypt. The Beja
+territory contained gold and emerald mines. The tribesmen
+were the usual escort for pilgrims to Mecca from Kus to Aidhab.
+According to Leo Africanus, at the close of the 14th or very
+early in the 15th century their rich town of Zibid (Aidhab?)
+on the Red Sea was destroyed. This seems to have broken up
+the tribal cohesion. Leo Africanus describes the Beja as &ldquo;most
+base, miserable and living only on milk and camels&rsquo; flesh.&rdquo; In
+the middle ages the Beja, partially at any rate, were Christians.
+The kingdom of Meroö was succeeded by that of &ldquo;Aloa,&rdquo; the
+capital of which, Soba, was on the Blue Nile, about 13 m. above
+Khartum. The country was conquered by the Funj (<i>q.v.</i>), a
+negroid people who subsequently became Mahommedan and
+compelled the Beja to adopt that religion. Until the invasion
+of the Egyptians, under Ismail, son of Mehemet Ali (1820), the
+Funj remained in possession.</p>
+
+<p>All the Beja are now Mahommedans, but generally only so in
+name, though some of the tribes enthusiastically fought for
+Mahdiism (1883-99). As a race the Beja are remarkable for
+physical beauty, with a colour more red than black, and of a
+distinctly Caucasic type of face. The chiefs are, as a rule, of much
+fairer complexion than the tribesmen. In spite of their claim to
+Arab origin, the tribes have preserved many negro customs in
+the matter of costume and scarring the body. Their hair-dressing
+is very characteristic. The hair, worn thick as a protection
+against the sun, is parted in a circle round the head on a level
+with the eyes, above which the hair, saturated with mutton fat
+or butter, is trained straight up like a mop, with separate tufts
+at sides and back. Most of the tribes are nomadic shepherds,
+driving their cattle from pasture to pasture; some few are
+occupied in agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>They are polygynous, but, unlike the Arabs, great independence
+is granted their women. Among most of the Beja peoples
+the wife can return to her mother&rsquo;s tent whenever she likes, and
+after a birth of a child she can repudiate the husband, who must
+make a present to be re-accepted. Cases are said to have occurred
+where the woman has thus obtained all her husband&rsquo;s possessions.
+The whole social position of the Beja women points, indeed, to
+an earlier matriarchal system. Among some of the tribes the
+custom of the &ldquo;fourth day free&rdquo; is observed, by which the
+women are only considered married for so many days a week,
+forming what liaisons they please on the odd day. The chief
+Beja tribes are the Ab&#257;bda, Bish&#257;rïn, Hadendoa, Beni-Amer,
+Amarar, Shukuria, Hallenga and Hamran.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEJA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (probably the ancient <i>Pax Julia</i>), the capital of an
+administrative district formerly included in the province of
+Alemtejo, Portugal; situated 95 m. S.S.E. of Lisbon by
+the Lisbon-Faro railway, and at the head of a branch line
+to Pias e Orada (3855), 26 m. E. Pop. (1900) 8885. Beja is
+an episcopal city, built on an isolated hill, and partly enclosed
+by walls of Roman origin; on the south it has a fine Roman
+gateway. Its cathedral is modern, but the citadel, with its
+beautiful Gothic tower of white marble, was founded by King
+Diniz (1279-1325). The city is surrounded by far-reaching
+plains, known as the Campo de Beja, and devoted partly to the
+cultivation of grain and fruit, partly to the breeding of cattle
+and pigs; copper, iron and manganese are also mined to a
+small extent, and Beja is the central market for all these products.
+Cloth, pottery and olive oil are manufactured in the city.</p>
+
+<p>The administrative district of Beja, the largest and most
+thinly-populated district in Portugal, coincides with the southern
+part of Alemtejo (<i>q.v.</i>); pop. (1900) 163,612; area, 3958 sq. m.;
+41.3 inhabitants per sq. m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEJAN<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Fr. <i>béjaune</i>, from <i>bec jaune</i>, &ldquo;yellow beak,&rdquo; in allusion
+to unfledged birds; the equivalent to Ger. <i>Gelbschnabel</i>, Fr.
+<i>blanc-bec</i>, a greenhorn), a term for freshmen, or undergraduates
+of the first year, in the Scottish universities. The phrase was
+introduced from the French universities, where the levying of
+<i>bejaunium</i> &ldquo;footing-money&rdquo; had been prohibited by the statutes
+of the university of Orleans in 1365 and by those of Toulouse in
+1401. In 1493 the election of an <i>Abbas Bejanorum</i> (Abbot of the
+Freshmen) was forbidden in the university of Paris. In the
+German and Austrian universities the freshman was called <i>beanus</i>.
+In Germany the freshman was anciently called a <i>Pennal</i> (from
+Med. Lat. <i>pennale</i>, a box for pens), in allusion to the fact that the
+newly-arrived student had to carry such for the older pupils.
+Afterwards <i>Fuchs</i> (fox) was substituted for <i>Pennal</i>, and then
+<i>Goldfuchs</i> because he is supposed still to have a few gold coins
+from home.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÉJART,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> the name of several French actors, children of
+Marie Hérve and Joseph Béjart (d. 1643), the holder of a small
+government post. The family&mdash;there were eleven children&mdash;
+was very poor and lived in the Marais, then the theatrical
+quarter of Paris. One of the sons, <span class="sc">Joseph Béjart</span> (<i>c.</i> 1617-1659),
+was a strolling player and later a member of Molière&rsquo;s first
+company (l&rsquo;Illustre Théâtre), accompanied him in his theatrical
+wanderings, and was with him when he returned permanently
+to Paris, dying soon after. He created the parts of Lélie in
+<i>L&rsquo;Étourdie</i>, and Eraste in <i>Le Dépit amoureux</i>. His brother Louis
+BÉJART (<i>c.</i> 1630-1678) was also in Molière&rsquo;s company during
+the last years of its travels. He created many parts in his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span>
+brother-in-law&rsquo;s plays&mdash;Valère in <i>Le Dépit amoureux</i>, Dubois in
+<i>Le Misanthrope</i>, Alcantor in <i>Le Mariage forcé</i>, and Don Luis in
+<i>Le Festin de Pierre</i>&mdash;and was an actor of varied talents. In
+consequence of a wound received when interfering in a street
+brawl, he became lame and retired with a pension&mdash;the first
+ever granted by the company to a comedian&mdash;in 1670.</p>
+
+<p>The more famous members of the family were two sisters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Madeleine Béjart</span> (1618-1672) was at the head of the travelling
+company to which her sister Geneviève (1631-1675)&mdash;who
+played as Mlle Hervé&mdash;and her brothers belonged, before
+they joined Molière in forming l&rsquo;Illustre Théâtre (1643). With
+Molière she remained until her death on the 17th of February
+1672. She had had an illegitimate daughter (1638) by an
+Italian count, and her conduct on her early travels had not
+been exemplary, but whatever her private relations with Molière
+may have been, however acrimonious and violent her temper,
+she and her family remained faithful to his fortunes. She was
+a tall, handsome blonde, and an excellent actress, particularly
+in soubrette parts, a number of which Molière wrote for her.
+Among her creations were Marotte in <i>Les Précieuses ridicules</i>,
+Lisette in <i>L&rsquo;École des maris</i>, Dorine in <i>Tartuffe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Her sister, <span class="sc">Armande Grésinde Claire Elizabeth Béjart</span>
+(1645-1700), seems first to have joined the company at Lyons in
+1653. Molière directed her education and she grew up under his
+eye. In 1662, he being then forty and she seventeen, they were
+married. Neither was happy; the wife was a flirt, the husband
+jealous. On the strength of a scurrilous anonymous pamphlet,
+<i>La Fameuse Comédienne, ou histoire de la Guérin</i> (1688), her
+character has been held perhaps unduly low. She was certainly
+guilty of indifference and ingratitude, possibly of infidelity;
+they separated after the birth of a daughter in 1665 and met only
+at the theatre until 1671. But the charm and grace which fascinated
+others, Molière too could not resist, and they were reconciled.
+Her portrait is given in a well-known scene (Act iii., sc. 9)
+in <i>Le Bourgeois gentilhomme</i>. Mme Molière&rsquo;s first appearance
+on the stage was in 1663, as Élise in the <i>Critique de l&rsquo;école des
+femmes</i>. She was out of the cast for a short time in 1664, when
+she bore Molière a son&mdash;Louis XIV. and Henrietta of England
+standing sponsors. But in the spring, beginning with the fêtes
+given at Versailles by the king to Anne of Austria and Maria
+Theresa, she started her long list of important roles. She was at
+her best as Celimène&mdash;really her own highly-finished portrait&mdash;in
+<i>Le Misanthrope</i>, and hardly less admirable as Angélique in
+<i>Le Malade imaginaire</i>. She was the Elmire at the first performance
+of <i>Tartuffe</i>, and the Lucile of <i>Le Bourgeois gentilhomme</i>.
+All these parts were written by her husband to display her talents
+to the best advantage and she made the most of her opportunities.
+The death of Molière, the secession of Baron and several other
+actors, the rivalry of the Hôtel de Bourgogne and the development
+of the Palais Royal, by royal patent, into the home of
+French opera, brought matters to a crisis with the <i>comédiens du
+roi</i>. Well advised by La Grange (Charles Varlet, 1639-1692),
+Armande leased the Théâtre Guénégaud, and by royal ordinance
+the residue of her company were combined with the players from
+the Théâtre du Marais, the fortunes of which were at low ebb.
+The combination, known as the <i>troupe du roi</i>, at first was
+unfortunate, but in 1679 they secured Mlle du Champmeslé, later
+absorbed the company of the Hôtel de Bourgogne, and in 1680
+the Comédie Française was born. Mme Molière in 1677 had
+married Eustache François Guérin (1636-1728), an actor, and
+by him she had one son (1678-1708). She continued her successes
+at the theatre until she retired in 1694, and she died on the 30th
+of November 1700.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEK, ANTONY<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (d. 1311), bishop of Durham, belonged to a
+Lincolnshire family, and, having entered the church, received
+several benefices and soon attracted the attention of Edward I.,
+who secured his election as bishop of Durham in 1283. When,
+after the death of King Alexander III. in 1285, Edward interfered
+in the affairs of Scotland, he employed Bek on this business, and
+in 1294 he sent him on a diplomatic errand to the German king,
+Adolph of Nassau. Taking part in Edward&rsquo;s campaigns in
+Scotland, the bishop received the surrender of John de Baliol at
+Brechin in 1296, and led one division of the English army at the
+battle of Falkirk in 1298. Soon after his return to England he
+became involved in a quarrel with Richard de Hoton, prior of
+Durham. Deposed and excommunicated by Bek, the prior
+secured the king&rsquo;s support; but the bishop, against whom other
+complaints were preferred, refused to give way, and by his
+obstinacy incurred the lasting enmity of Edward. In 1302, in
+obedience to the command of Pope Boniface VIII., he visited
+Rome on this matter, and during his absence the king seized and
+administered his lands, which, however, he recovered when he
+returned and submitted to Edward. He continued, however,
+to pursue Richard with unrelenting hostility, and was in his turn
+seriously harassed by the king. Having been restored to the
+royal favour by Edward II. who made him lord of the Isle of Man,
+the bishop died at Eltham on the 3rd of March 1311. A man of
+great courage and energy, chaste and generous, Bek was remarkable
+for his haughtiness and ostentation. Both as a bishop and
+as a private individual he was very wealthy, and his household
+and retinue were among the most magnificent in the land. He
+was a soldier and a hunter rather than a bishop, and built castles
+at Eltham and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Bek&rsquo;s elder brother, <span class="sc">Thomas Bek</span> (d. 1293), bishop of St
+David&rsquo;s, was a trusted servant of Edward I. He obtained many
+important and wealthy ecclesiastical positions, was made
+treasurer of England in 1279, and became bishop of St David&rsquo;s
+in 1280. He was a benefactor to his diocese and died on the
+12th of May 1293.</p>
+
+<p>Another <span class="sc">Thomas Bek</span> (1282-1347), who was bishop of Lincoln
+from 1341 until his death on the 2nd of February 1347, was a
+member of the same family.</p>
+
+<p>Antony Bek must not be confused with his kinsman and namesake,
+<span class="sc">Antony Bek</span> (1279-1343), who was chancellor and dean
+of Lincoln cathedral, and became bishop of Norwich after a
+disputed election in 1337. He was a quarrelsome man, and after
+a stormy episcopate, died on the 19th of December 1343.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Robert of Graystanes, <i>Historia de statu ecclesiae Dunelmensis</i>,
+edited by J. Raine in his <i>Historiae Dunelmensis scriptores</i> (London,
+1839); W. Hutchinson, <i>History of Durham</i> (Newcastle, 1785-1794);
+J.L. Low, <i>Diocesan History of Durham</i> (London, 1881); and M. Creighton
+in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, vol. iv. (London, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1800-1874), English traveller,
+geographer and Biblical critic, was born in Stepney, Middlesex,
+on the 10th of October 1800. His father was a merchant in
+London, and Beke engaged for a few years in mercantile pursuits.
+He afterwards studied law at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, and for a time
+practised at the bar, but finally devoted himself to the study
+of historical, geographical and ethnographical subjects. The
+first-fruits of his researches appeared in his work entitled <i>Origines
+Biblicae, or Researches in Primeval History</i>, published in 1834.
+An attempt to reconstruct the early history of the human race
+from geological data, it raised a storm of opposition on the part
+of defenders of the traditional readings of the book of Genesis;
+but in recognition of the value of the work the university of
+Tübingen conferred upon him the degree of Ph.D. For about
+two years (1837-1838) Beke held the post of acting British consul
+in Saxony. From that time till his death his attention was
+largely given to geographical studies, chiefly of the Nile valley.
+Aided by private friends, he visited Abyssinia in connexion with
+the mission to Shoa sent by the Indian government under the
+leadership of Major (afterwards Sir) William Cornwallis Harris,
+and explored Gojam and more southern regions up to that time
+unknown to Europeans. Among other achievements, Beke
+was the first to determine, with any approach to scientific
+accuracy, the course of the Abai (Blue Nile). The valuable
+results of this journey, which occupied him from 1840 to 1843,
+he gave to the world in a number of papers in scientific publications,
+chiefly in the <i>Journal</i> of the Royal Geographical Society.
+On his return to London, Beke re-engaged in commerce, but
+devoted all his leisure to geographical and kindred studies. In
+1848 he planned an expedition from the mainland opposite
+Zanzibar to discover the sources of the Nile. A start was made,
+but the expedition accomplished little. Beke&rsquo;s belief that the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span>
+White Nile was the main stream was, however, shown to be
+accurate by subsequent exploration. In 1856 he endeavoured,
+unsuccessfully, to establish commercial relations with Abyssinia
+through Massawa. In 1861-1862 he and his wife travelled in
+Syria and Palestine, and went to Egypt with the object of
+promoting trade with Central Africa and the growth of cotton in
+the Sudan.  In 1865 he again went to Abyssinia, for the purpose
+of obtaining from King Theodore the release of the British
+captives. On learning that the captives had been released, Beke
+turned back, but Theodore afterwards re-arrested the party. To
+the military expedition sent to effect their release Beke furnished
+much valuable information, and his various services to the
+government and to geographical research were acknowledged by the
+award of £500 in 1868 by the secretary for India, and by the
+grant of a civil list pension of £100 in 1870. In his seventy-fourth
+year he undertook a journey to Egypt for the purpose of
+determining the real position of Mount Sinai. He conceived that
+it was on the eastern side of the Gulf of Akaba, and his
+journey convinced him that his view was right. It has not,
+however, commended itself to general acceptance. Beke died at
+Bromley, in Kent, on the 31st of July 1874.</p>
+
+<p>Beke&rsquo;s writings are very numerous. Among the more important,
+besides those already named, are:
+<i>An Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries</i> (1847),
+<i>The Sources of the Nile</i> (1860),
+and <i>The British Captives in Abyssinia</i> (1865). He was a fellow
+of the Royal Geographical Society, and for his contributions to
+the knowledge of Abyssinia received its gold medal, and also
+that of the Geographical Society of France. As a result of a
+controversy over the statements of another Abyssinian explorer,
+Antoine Abbadie, Beke returned the medal awarded him by the
+French Society.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Summary of the late Dr Beke&rsquo;s published works and ... public
+services</i>, by his widow (Tunbridge Wells, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÉSKÉSCSABA,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a market-town of Hungary, 123 m. S.E. of
+Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 37,108, mostly Slovaks and
+Lutherans, who form the largest Lutheran community in Hungary.
+The town is situated near the White Körös, with which it is
+connected by a canal, and is an important railway-junction in
+central Hungary. Békéscsaba possesses several large milling
+establishments, while the weaving of hemp and the production of
+hemp-linen is largely pursued as a home industry. The town
+carries on an active trade in cereals, wines and cattle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1785-1871), German
+philologist and critic, was born on the 21st of May 1785. He
+completed his classical education at the university of Halle
+under F.A. Wolf, who considered him as his most promising
+pupil. In 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the
+university of Berlin.  For several years, between 1810 and 1821,
+he travelled in France, Italy, England and parts of Germany,
+examining classical manuscripts and gathering materials for his
+great editorial labours. He died at Berlin on the 7th of June
+1871. Some detached fruits of his researches were given in the
+<i>Anecdota Graeca</i>, 1814-1821; but the full result of his
+unwearied industry and ability is to be found in the enormous
+array of classical authors edited by him. Anything like a complete
+list of his works would occupy too much space, but it may be said
+that his industry extended to nearly the whole of Greek literature
+with the exception of the tragedians and lyric poets.  His best
+known editions are: Plato (1816-1823), Oratores Attici (1823-1824),
+Aristotle (1831-1836), Aristophanes (1829), and twenty-five
+volumes of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. The only
+Latin authors edited by him were Livy (1829-1830) and Tacitus
+(1831). Bekker confined himself entirely to textual recension
+and criticism, in which he relied solely upon the MSS., and
+contributed little to the extension of general scholarship.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sauppe, <i>Zur Erinnerung an Meineke und Bekker</i> (1872); Haupt,
+&ldquo;Gedächtnisrede auf Meineke und Bekker,&rdquo; in his <i>Opuscula</i>, iii.;
+E.I. Bekker, &ldquo;Zur Erinnerung an meinen Vater,&rdquo; in the <i>Preussisches Jahrbuch</i>, xxix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEKKER, BALTHASAR<a name="ar57a" id="ar57a"></a></span> (1634-1698), Dutch divine, was born in
+Friesland in 1634, and educated at Groningen, under Jacob
+Alting, and at Franeker. He was pastor at Franeker, and from
+1679, at Amsterdam. An enthusiastic disciple of Descartes, he
+wrote several works in philosophy and theology, which by their
+freedom of thought aroused considerable hostility. His best
+known work <i>Die Betooverde Wereld</i> (1691), or <i>The World
+Bewitched</i> (1695; one volume of an English translation from a
+French copy), in which he examined critically the phenomena
+generally ascribed to spiritual agency, and attacked the belief
+in sorcery and &ldquo;possession&rdquo; by the devil, whose very existence
+he questioned. The book is interesting as an early study in
+comparative religion, but its publication in 1692 led to
+Bekker&rsquo;s deposition from the ministry. He died at Amsterdam.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEKKER<a name="ar57b" id="ar57b"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Wolff</span>), <b>ELIZABETH</b> (1738-1804), Dutch
+novelist, was married to Adrian Wolff, a Reformed clergyman,
+but is always known under her maiden name. After the death of
+her husband in 1777, she resided for some time in France, with
+her close friend, Agatha Deken. She was exposed to some of the
+dangers of the French Revolution, and, it is said, escaped the
+guillotine only by her great presence of mind. In 1795 she
+returned to Holland, and resided at the Hague till her death.
+Her novels were written in conjunction with Agatha Deken, and it
+is somewhat difficult to determine the exact qualities
+contributed by each. The <i>Historie van William Levend</i> (1785),
+<i>Historie van Sara Burgerhart</i> (1790), <i>Abraham Blankaart</i> (1787),
+<i>Cornelie Wildschut</i> (1793-1796), were extremely popular.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEL<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span>, the name of a chief deity in Babylonian religion, the
+counterpart of the Phoenician Baal (<i>q.v.</i>) ideographically written
+as En-lil. Since Bel signifies the &ldquo;lord&rdquo; or &ldquo;master&rdquo; <i>par
+excellence</i>, it is, therefore, a title rather than a genuine name,
+and must have been given to a deity who had acquired a position
+at the head of a pantheon. The real name is accordingly to be
+sought in En-lil, of which the first element again has the force
+of &ldquo;lord&rdquo; and the second presumably &ldquo;might,&rdquo; &ldquo;power,&rdquo; and the
+like, though this cannot be regarded as certain. En-lil is
+associated with the ancient city of Nippur, and since En-lil
+with the determinative for &ldquo;land&rdquo; or &ldquo;district&rdquo; is a common
+method of writing the name of the city, it follows, apart from
+other evidence, that En-lil was originally the patron deity of
+Nippur. At a very early period&mdash;prior to 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>&mdash;Nippur had
+become the centre of a political district of considerable extent,
+and it is to this early period that the designation of En-lil as
+Bel or &ldquo;the lord&rdquo; reverts. Inscriptions found at Nippur, where
+extensive excavations were carried on during 1888-1900 by
+Messrs Peters and Haynes, under the auspices of the University
+of Pennsylvania, show that Bel of Nippur was in fact regarded
+as the head of an extensive pantheon. Among the titles accorded
+to him are &ldquo;king of lands,&rdquo; &ldquo;king of heaven and earth&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;father of the gods.&rdquo; His chief temple at Nippur was known
+as E-Kur, signifying &ldquo;mountain house,&rdquo; and such was the
+sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and Assyrian
+rulers, down to the latest days, vied with one another in
+embellishing and restoring Bel&rsquo;s seat of worship, and the name
+itself became the designation of a temple in general. Grouped
+around the main sanctuary there arose temples and chapels to
+the gods and goddesses who formed his court, so that E-Kur
+became the name for an entire sacred precinct in the city of
+Nippur. The name &ldquo;mountain house&rdquo; suggests a lofty structure and
+was perhaps the designation originally of the staged tower at
+Nippur, built in imitation of a mountain, with the sacred shrine
+of the god on the top. The tower, however, also had its special
+designation of &ldquo;Im-Khar-sag,&rdquo; the elements of which, signifying
+&ldquo;storm&rdquo; and &ldquo;mountain,&rdquo; confirm the conclusion drawn from other
+evidence that En-lil was originally a storm-god having his seat
+on the top of a mountain. Since the Euphrates valley has no
+mountains, En-lil would appear to be a god whose worship was
+carried into Babylonia by a wave of migration from a
+mountainous country&mdash;in all probability from Elam to the east.</p>
+
+<p>When, with the political rise of Babylon as the centre of a
+great empire, Nippur yielded its prerogatives to the city over
+which Marduk presided, the attributes and the titles of En-lil
+were transferred to Marduk, who becomes the &ldquo;lord&rdquo; or Bel of
+later days. The older Bel did not, however, entirely lose his
+standing. Nippur continued to be a sacred city after it ceased
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span>
+to have any considerable political importance, while in addition
+the rise of the doctrine of a triad of gods symbolizing the three
+divisions&mdash;heavens, earth and water&mdash;assured to Bel, to whom
+the earth was assigned as his province, his place in the religious
+system. The disassociation from his local origin involved in
+this doctrine of the triad gave to Bel a rank independent of
+political changes, and we, accordingly, find Bel as a factor in the
+religion of Babylonia and Assyria to the latest days. It was
+no doubt owing to his position as the second figure of the triad
+that enabled him to survive the political eclipse of Nippur and
+made his sanctuary a place of pilgrimage to which Assyrian
+kings down to the days of Assur-baui-pal paid their homage
+equally with Babylonian rulers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Belit</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baal</a></span>. For the apocryphal book of the Bible,
+<i>Bel and the Dragon</i>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Daniel</a></span>: <i>Additions to Daniel</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELA III<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>. (d. 1196), king of Hungary, was the second son of
+King Géza II. Educated at the Byzantine court, where he had
+been compelled to seek refuge, he was fortunate enough to win
+the friendship of the brilliant emperor Manuel who, before the
+birth of his own son Alexius, intended to make Bela his successor
+and betrothed him to his daughter. Subsequently, however,
+he married the handsome and promising youth to Agnes of
+Châtilion, duchess of Antioch, and in 1173 placed him, by force
+of arms, on the Hungarian throne, first expelling Bela&rsquo;s younger
+brother Géza, who was supported by the Catholic party. Initiated
+from childhood in all the arts of diplomacy at what was then the
+focus of civilization, and as much a warrior by nature as his
+imperial kinsman Manuel, Bela showed himself from the first
+fully equal to all the difficulties of his peculiar position. He began
+by adopting Catholicism and boldly seeking the assistance of
+Rome. He then made what had hitherto been an elective a
+hereditary throne by crowning his infant son Emerich his
+successor. In the beginning of his reign he adopted a prudent
+policy of amity with his two most powerful neighbours, the
+emperors of the East and West, but the death of Manuel in 1180
+gave Hungary once more a free hand in the affairs of the Balkan
+Peninsula, her natural sphere of influence. The attempt to
+recover Dalmatia, which involved Bela in two bloody wars with
+Venice (1181-88 and 1190-91), was only partially successful.
+But he assisted the Rascians or Serbs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>)
+to throw off the Greek yoke and establish a native dynasty, and
+attempted to made Galicia an appanage of his younger son
+Andrew. It was in Bela&rsquo;s reign that the emperor Frederick I.,
+in the spring of 1189, traversed Hungary with 100,000 crusaders,
+on which occasion the country was so well policed that no harm
+was done to it and the inhabitants profited largely from their
+commerce with the German host. In his last years Bela assisted
+the Greek emperor Isaac II. Angelus against the Bulgarians.
+His first wife bore Bela two sons, Emerich and Andrew. On her
+death he married Margaret of France, sister of King Philip
+Augustus. Bela was in every sense of the word a great statesman,
+and his court was accounted one of the most brilliant in Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an account of his internal reforms see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>. Though
+the poet Ede Szigligeti has immortalized his memory in the play
+<i>Bela III</i>., we have no historical monograph of him, but in Ignacz
+Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i> (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest,
+1903), there is an excellent account of his reign.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELA IV<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>. (1206-1270), king of Hungary, was the son of
+Andrew II., whom he succeeded in 1235. During his father&rsquo;s
+lifetime he had greatly distinguished himself by his administration
+of Transylvania, then a wilderness, which, with incredible
+patience and energy, he colonized and christianized. He repaired
+as far as possible the ruinous effects of his father&rsquo;s wastefulness,
+but on his accession found everything in the utmost confusion,
+&ldquo;the great lords,&rdquo; to cite the old chronicler Rogerius (<i>c</i>. 1223-1266),
+&ldquo;having so greatly enriched themselves that the king
+was brought to naught.&rdquo; The whole land was full of violence,
+the very bishops storming rich monasteries at the head of armed
+retainers. Bela resolutely put down all disorder. He increased
+the dignity of the crown by introducing a stricter court etiquette,
+and its wealth by recovering those of the royal domains which
+the magnates had appropriated during the troubles of the last
+reign. The pope, naturally on the side of order, staunchly
+supported this regenerator of the realm, and in his own brother
+Coloman, who administered the district of the Drave, Bela also
+found a loyal and intelligent co-operator. He also largely
+employed Jews and Ishmaelites,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the financial specialists of the
+day, whom he rewarded with lands and titles. The salient event
+of Bela&rsquo;s reign was the terrible Tatar invasion which reduced
+three-quarters of Hungary to ashes. The terror of their name
+had long preceded them, and Bela, in 1235 or 1236, sent the
+Dominican monk Julian, by way of Constantinople, to Russia, to
+collect information about them from the &ldquo;ancient Magyars&rdquo;
+settled there, possibly the Volgan Bulgarians. He returned to
+Hungary with the tidings that the Tatars contemplated the
+immediate conquest of Europe. Bela did his utmost to place his
+kingdom in a state of defence, and appealed betimes to the
+pope, the duke of Austria and the emperor for assistance; but
+in February and March 1241 the Tatars burst through the
+Carpathian passes; in April Bela himself, after a gallant stand,
+was routed on the banks of the Sajó and fled to the islands of
+Dalmatia; and for the next twelve months the kingdom of
+Hungary was merely a geographical expression. The last twenty-eight
+years of Bela&rsquo;s reign were mainly devoted to the reconstruction
+of his realm, which he accomplished with a single-minded
+thoroughness which has covered his name with glory.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most difficult part of his task was the recovery of
+the western portions of the kingdom (which had suffered least)
+from the hands of Frederick of Austria, who had seized them as
+the price of assistance which had been promised but never given.
+First Bela solicited the aid of the pope, but was compelled finally
+to resort to arms, and crossing the Leitha on the 15th of June
+1246, routed Frederick, who was seriously wounded and trampled
+to death by his own horsemen. With him was extinguished the
+male line of the house of Babenberg. In the south Bela was less
+successful. In 1243 he was obliged to cede to Venice, Zara, a
+perpetual apple of discord between the two states; but he
+kept his hold upon Spalato and his other Dalmatian possessions,
+and his wise policy of religious tolerance in Bosnia enabled
+Hungary to rule that province peaceably for many years. The
+new Servian kingdom of the Nemanides, on the other hand, gave
+him much trouble and was the occasion of many bloody wars.
+In 1261 the Tatars under Nogai Khan invaded Hungary for the
+second time, but were defeated by Bela and lost 50,000 men.
+Bela reached the apogee of his political greatness in 1264 when,
+shortly after his crushing defeat of the Servian king, Stephen
+Urosh, he entertained at his court, at Kalocsa, the ambassadors
+of the newly restored Greek emperor, of the kings of France,
+Bulgaria and Bohemia and three Tatar <i>mirzas</i>. For a time
+Bela was equally fortunate in the north-west, where the ambitious
+and enterprising Pøemyslidae had erected a new Bohemian
+empire which absorbed the territories of the old Babenbergers
+and was very menacing to Hungary. With Ottakar II. in
+particular, Bela was almost constantly at war for the possession
+of Styria, which ultimately fell to the Bohemians. The last years
+of Bela&rsquo;s life were embittered by the ingratitude of his son
+Stephen, who rebelled continuously against his father and
+ultimately compelled him to divide the kingdom with him, the
+younger prince setting up a capital of his own at Sárospatak, and
+following a foreign policy directly contrary to that of his father.
+Bela died on the 3rd of May 1270 in his sixty-fourth year. With
+the people at large he was popular to the last; his services to
+his country had been inestimable. He married, while still
+crown-prince, Maria, daughter of the Nicaean emperor, Theodore
+Lascaris, whom his own father brought home with him from his
+crusade. She bore him, besides his two sons Stephen and Bela,
+seven daughters, of whom St Margaret was the most famous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>No special monograph for the whole reign exists. For the Tatar
+invasion see the contemporary Rogerius, <i>Epistolae super destructione
+Regni Hungarias per Tartaros facta</i> (Budapest, 1885). A vivid but
+somewhat chauvinistic history of Bela&rsquo;s reign will be found in
+Acsády&rsquo;s <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i> (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest,
+1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mahommedan itinerant chapmen, from the Volga.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELA,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> <span class="sc">Las Bela</span>, or <span class="sc">Lus Beyla</span>, situated in 26° 27&prime; 30&Prime; N.
+lat. and 66° 45&prime; 0&Prime; E. long., 350 ft. above sea level, capital of the
+small independent state of Las Bela to the south of Kalat
+(Baluchistan), ruled by the Jam (or Cham), who occupies the
+position of a protected chief under the British Raj. To the east
+lies Sind, and to the west Makran, and from time immemorial
+the great trading route between Sind and Persia has passed
+through Las Bela. The area of Las Bela is 6357 sq. m., and its
+population in 1901 was 56,109, of which 54,040 were Mussulmans.
+The low-lying, alluvial, hot and malarial plains of Las Bela,
+occupying about 6000 sq. m. on the north-east corner of the
+Arabian Sea, are highly irrigated and fertile&mdash;two rivers from
+the north, the Purali and the Kud, uniting to provide a plentiful
+water supply. The bay of Sonmiani once extended over most
+of these plains, where the Purali delta is now growing with
+measurable strides. The hill ranges to the east, parting the
+plains from Sind (generally known locally as the Mor and the
+Kirthar), between which lies the long narrow line of the Hab
+valley, strike nearly north and south, diminishing in height as
+they approach the sea and allowing of a route skirting the coast
+between Karachi and Bela. To the west they are broken into
+an infinity of minor ridges massing themselves in parallel formation
+with a strike which curves from south to west till they
+form the coast barrier of Makr&#257;n. The Persian route from
+India, curving somewhat to the north, traverses this waste of
+barren ridges almost at right angles, but on dropping into the
+Kolwah valley its difficulty ceases. It then becomes an open
+road to Kej and Persia, with an easy gradient. This was undoubtedly
+one of the greatest trade routes of the medieval days
+of Arab ascendancy in Sind, and it is to this route that Bela
+owes a place in history which its modern appearance and dimensions
+hardly seem to justify. Bela is itself rather prettily situated
+on a rocky site above the banks of the Purali. About four miles
+to the south are the well-kept gardens which surround the tomb
+of Sir Robert Sandeman; which is probably destined to become
+a &ldquo;ziarat,&rdquo; or place of pilgrimage, of even greater sanctity than
+that of General Jacob at Jacobabad. The population of the
+town numbers about 5000. The Jam&rsquo;s retinue consists of about
+300 infantry, 50 cavalry, and 4 guns. Liability to assist on active
+service is the only acknowledgment of the suzerainty which is
+paid by the Jam to the Khan of Kalat. The Jam, Mir Kamal
+Khan, succeeded his father, Sir Mir Khan, in 1895, and was
+formally invested with powers in 1902.</p>
+
+<p>From very early times this remote corner of Baluchistan has
+held a distinct place in history. There are traces of ancient Arab
+(possibly Himyaritic) occupation to be found in certain stone
+ruins at Gondakeha on the Kud river, 10 m. to the north-west of
+Bela, whilst the Greek name &ldquo;Arabis&rdquo; for the Purali is itself
+indicative of an early prehistoric connexion with races of Asiatic
+Ethiopians referred to by Herodotus. On the coast, near the
+village of Sonmiani (a station of the Indo-Persian telegraph line)
+may be traced the indentation which once formed the bay of
+Morontobara, noted in the voyage of Nearchus; and it was on the
+borders of Makr&#257;n that the Turanian town of Rhambakia was
+situated, which was once the centre of the trade in &ldquo;bdellium.&rdquo;
+In the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Las Bela was governed by a Buddhist
+priest, at which time all the province of Gandava was Buddhist,
+and Sind was ruled by the Brahman, Chach. Buddhist caves are
+to be found excavated in the conglomerate cliffs near Gondakeha,
+at a place called Gondrani, or Shahr-i-Rogan. With the influx of
+Arabs into Makran, Bela, under the name of Armel (or Armabel),
+rose to importance as a link in the great chain of trading towns
+between Persia and Sind; and then there existed in the delta such
+places as Yusli (near the modern Uthal) and Kambali (which may
+possibly be recognized in the ruins at Khairokot), and many
+smaller towns, each of which possessed its citadel, its caravanserai
+and bazaar, which are not only recorded but actually mapped by
+one of the medieval Arab geographers, Ibn Haukal. It is probable
+that Karia Pir, 1½ m. to the east of the modern city, represents
+the site of the Armabel which was destroyed by Mahommed
+Kasim in his victorious march to Sind in 710. There is another
+old site 5 m. to the west of the modern town. The ruins at
+Karia Pir, like those of Tijarra Pir and Khairokot, contain Arab
+pottery, seals, and other medieval relics. The Lumris, or Lasis,
+who originate the name Las as a prefix to that of Bela, are the
+dominant tribe in the province. They are comparatively recent
+arrivals who displaced the earlier Tajik and Brahui occupants.
+It is probable that this influx of Rajput population was coincident
+with the displacement of the Arab dynasties in Sind by the
+Mahommedan Rajputs in the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Some authorities
+connect the Lumris with the Sumras.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are no published accounts of Bela, excepting those of the
+Indian government reports and gazetteers. This article is compiled
+from unpublished notes by the author and by Mr Wainwright,
+of the Indian Survey department.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELA,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town of British India, administrative headquarters
+of the Partabgarh district of the United Provinces, with a
+railway station 80 m. from Benares. Pop. (1901) 8041. It
+adjoins the village of Partabgarh proper, and the civil station
+sometimes known as Andrewganj. Bela, which was founded
+in 1802 as a cantonment, became a district headquarters after
+the mutiny. It has trade in agricultural produce. There is a
+well-known hospital for women here.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELAY<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from the same O. Eng. origin as &ldquo;lay&rdquo;; cf. Dutch
+<i>beleggen</i>), a nautical term for making ropes fast round a pin. In
+earlier days the word was synonymous with &ldquo;waylay&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;surround.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELCHER, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1799-1877), British naval officer,
+entered the navy in 1812. In 1825 he accompanied Frederick
+William Beechey&rsquo;s expedition to the Pacific and Bering Strait,
+as a surveyor. He subsequently commanded a surveying ship
+on the north and west coasts of Africa and in the British seas,
+and in 1836 took up the work which Beechey left unfinished on
+the Pacific coast of South America. This was on board the
+&ldquo;Sulphur,&rdquo; which was ordered to return to England in 1839 by
+the Trans-Pacific route. Belcher made various observations
+at a number of islands which he visited, was delayed by being
+despatched to take part in the war in China in 1840-1841, and
+reached home only in 1842. In 1843 he was knighted, and was
+now engaged in the &ldquo;Samarang,&rdquo; in surveying work in the East
+Indies, the Philippines, &amp;c., until 1847. In 1852 he was given
+command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Sir
+John Franklin. This was unsuccessful; Belcher&rsquo;s inability
+to render himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly
+unfortunate in an Arctic voyage, and he was not wholly suited
+to command vessels among ice. This was his last active service,
+but he became K.C.B. in 1867 and an admiral in 1872. He
+published a <i>Treatise on Nautical Surveying</i> (1835), <i>Narrative
+of a Voyage round the World performed in H.M.S. &ldquo;Sulphur,&rdquo;
+1836-1842</i> (1843), <i>Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. &ldquo;Samarang&rdquo;
+during 1843-1846</i> (1848; the <i>Zoology of the Voyage</i> was separately
+dealt with by some of his colleagues, 1850), and <i>The Last of the
+Arctic Voyages</i> (1855); besides minor works, including a novel,
+<i>Horatio Howard Brenton</i> (1856), a story of the navy. He died
+in London on the 18th of March 1877.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELDAM<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (like &ldquo;belsire,&rdquo; grandfather, from the Fr. <i>bel</i>, good,
+expressing relationship; cf. the Fr. <i>belle-mère</i>, mother-in-law,
+and <i>dame</i>, in Eng. form &ldquo;dam,&rdquo; mother), strictly a grandmother
+or remote ancestress, and so an old woman; generally used
+contemptuously as meaning an old hag.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELESME, ROBERT OF<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (fl. 1100), earl of Shrewsbury.
+From his mother Mabel Talvas he inherited the fief of Belesme,
+and from his father, the Conqueror&rsquo;s companion, that of Shrewsbury.
+Both were march-fiefs, the one guarding Normandy from
+Maine, and the other England from the Welsh; consequently
+their lord was peculiarly powerful and independent. Robert is
+the typical feudal noble of the time, circumspect and politic,
+persuasive and eloquent, impetuous and daring in battle, and
+an able military engineer; in person, tall and strong; greedy
+for land, an oppressor of the weak, a systematic rebel and traitor,
+and savagely cruel. He first appears as a supporter of Robert&rsquo;s
+rebellion against the Conqueror (1077); then as an accomplice
+in the English conspiracy of 1088 against Rufus. Later he served
+Rufus in Normandy, and was allowed to succeed his brother Hugh
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span>
+in the earldom of Shrewsbury (1098). But at the height of his
+power, he revolted against Henry I (1102). He was banished
+and deprived of his English estate; for sometime after he
+remained at large in Normandy, defying the authority of Robert
+and Henry alike. He betrayed Robert&rsquo;s cause at Tinchebrai;
+but in 1112 was imprisoned for life by Henry I.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E.A. Freeman&rsquo;s <i>William Rufus</i> and his <i>Norman Conquest</i>,
+vol. iv.; and J.M. Lappenberg&rsquo;s <i>History of England under the
+Norman Kings</i>, trans. B. Thorpe (1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELFAST,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a city, county and parliamentary borough, the
+capital of the province of Ulster, and county town of county
+Antrim, Ireland. Pop. (1901) 349,180. It is a seaport of the
+first rank, situated at the entrance of the river Lagan into
+Belfast Lough, 112¾ m. north of Dublin by rail, on the north-east
+coast of the island. It is an important railway centre, with
+terminal stations of the Great Northern, Northern Counties
+(Midland of England), and Belfast &amp; County Down railways, and
+has regular passenger communication by sea with Liverpool,
+Fleetwood, Heysham, Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain.
+It is built on alluvial deposit and reclaimed land, mostly not
+exceeding 6 ft. above high water mark, and was thus for a long
+period subject to inundation and epidemics, and only careful
+drainage rendered the site healthy. The appearance of the city
+plainly demonstrates the modern growth of its importance, and
+evidence is not wanting that for a considerable period architectural
+improvement was unable to keep pace with commercial
+development. Many squalid districts, however, have been improved
+away to make room for new thoroughfares and handsome
+buildings. One thoroughfare thus constructed at the close of
+the 19th century is the finest in Belfast&mdash;Royal Avenue. It
+contains, among several notable buildings, the post office, and
+the free public library, opened in 1888 and comprising a collection
+of over 40,000 volumes, as well as an art gallery and a museum
+of antiquities especially rich in remains of the Neolithic period.
+The architect was Mr W.H. Lynn. The magnificent city hall,
+from designs of Mr (afterwards Sir) Brumwell Thomas, was
+opened in 1906. The principal streets, such as York Street,
+Donegall Street, North Street, High Street, are traversed by
+tramways. Four bridges cross the Lagan; the Queen&rsquo;s Bridge
+(1844, widened in 1886) is the finest, while the Albert Bridge
+(1889) replaces a former one which collapsed. Other principal
+public buildings, nearly all to be included in modern schemes of
+development, are the city hall, occupying the site of the old
+Linen Hall, in Donegall Square, estimated to cost £300,000;
+the commercial buildings (1820) in Waring Street, the customhouse
+and inland revenue office on Donegall Quay, the architect
+of which, as of the court house, was Sir Charles Lanyon, and
+some of the numerous banks, especially the Ulster Bank. The
+Campbell College in the suburb of Belmont was founded in 1892
+in accordance with the will of Mr W.J. Campbell, a Belfast
+merchant, who left £200,000 for the building and endowment
+of a public school. Other educational establishments are
+Queen&rsquo;s University, replacing the old Queen&rsquo;s College (1849) under
+the Irish Universities Act 1908; the Presbyterian and the
+Methodist Colleges, occupying neighbouring sites close to the
+extensive botanical gardens, the Royal Academical Institution,
+and the Municipal Technical Institute. In 1897 the sum of
+£100,000 was subscribed by citizens to found a hospital (1903) to
+commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and
+named after her. It took the place of an institution which, under
+various names, had existed since 1797. Public monuments are
+few, but include a statue of Queen Victoria (1903) and a South
+African War memorial (1905) in front of the city hall; the Albert
+Memorial (1870), in the form of a clock-tower, in Queen Street;
+a monument to the same prince in High Street; and a statue in
+Wellington Place to Dr Henry Cooke, a prominent Presbyterian
+minister who died in 1868. The corporation controls the gas
+and electric and similar undertakings. The water supply, under
+the control of the City and District Water Commissioners (incorporated
+1840), has its sources in the Mourne Mountains, Co.
+Down, 40 m. distant, with a service reservoir at Knockbreckan;
+also in the hilly district near Carrickfergus. There are several
+public parks, of which the principal are the Ormeau Park (1870),
+the Victoria, Alexandra, and Falls Road parks. There is a
+Theatre Royal in Arthur Square. There are also several excellent
+clubs and societies, social, political, scientific, and sporting;
+including among the last the famous Royal Ulster Yacht
+Club.</p>
+
+<p>In 1899 was laid the foundation stone of the Protestant
+cathedral in Donegall Street, designed by Sir Thomas Drew
+and Mr W.H. Lynn to seat 3000 worshippers, occupying the site
+of the old St Anne&rsquo;s parish church, part of the fabric of which
+the new building incorporates. The diocese is that of Down,
+Connor, and Dromore. The first portion (the nave) was consecrated
+on the 2nd of June 1904. The plan is a Latin cross, the
+west front rising to a height of 105 ft., while the central tower is
+175 ft. The pulpit was formerly used in the nave of Westminster
+Abbey, being presented to Belfast cathedral by the dean and
+chapter of that foundation.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the older churches are classical in design, and the most
+notable are St George&rsquo;s, in High Street, and the Memorial church
+of Dr Cooke in May Street. For the more modern churches the
+Gothic style has frequently been used. Amongst these are St
+James, Antrim Road; St Peter&rsquo;s Roman Catholic chapel, with
+its Florentine spire; Presbyterian churches in Fitzroy Avenue,
+and Elmwood Avenue, and the Methodist chapel, Carlisle Circus.
+The Presbyterians and Protestant Episcopalians each outnumber
+the Roman Catholics in Belfast, and these three are the chief
+religious divisions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Environs.</i>&mdash;The country surrounding Belfast is agreeable and
+picturesque, whether along the shores of the Lough or towards
+the girdle of hills to the west; and is well wooded and studded
+with country seats and villas. In the immediate vicinity of the
+city are several points of historic interest and natural beauty.
+The Cave Hill, though exceeded in height by Mount Divis,
+Squire&rsquo;s Hill, and other summits, is of greatest interest for its
+caves, in the chalk, from which early weapons and other objects
+have been recovered. The battle in 1408, which was fought along
+the base of the cliffs here between the Savages of the Ards and
+the Irish, is described in Sir Samuel Ferguson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Hibernian
+Nights Entertainment.&rdquo; Here also are McArt&rsquo;s Fort and other
+earthworks, and from here the importance of the physical position
+of Belfast may be appreciated to the full. At Newtonbreda,
+overlooking the Lagan, was the palace of Con O&rsquo;Neill, whose sept
+was exterminated by Deputy Mountjoy in the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth. Belfast Lough is of great though quiet beauty;
+and the city itself is seen at its best from its seaward approach,
+with its girdle of hills in the background. On the shores of the
+lough several villages have grown into residential towns for the
+wealthier classes, whose work lies in the city. Of these Whitehouse
+and White Abbey are the principal on the western shore,
+and on the eastern, Holywood, which ranks practically as a
+suburb of Belfast, and, at the entrance to the lough, Bangor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Harbour and Trade.</i>&mdash;The harbour and docks of Belfast are
+managed by a board of harbour commissioners, elected by the
+ratepayers and the shipowners. The outer harbour is one of the
+safest in the kingdom. By the Belfast Harbour Acts the commissioners
+were empowered to borrow more than £2,500,000 in
+order to carry out several new works and improvements in the
+port. Under the powers of these acts a new channel, called the
+Victoria Channel, several miles in length, was cut about 1840
+leading in a direct line from the quays to the sea. This channel
+affords 20 ft. of water at low tide, and 28 ft. at full tide, the
+width of the channel being 300 ft. The Alexandra Dock, which
+is 852 ft. long and 31 ft. deep, was opened in 1889, and the
+extensive improvements (including the York Dock, where vessels
+carrying 10,000 tons can discharge in four to six days) have been
+effected from time to time, making the harbour one of the most
+commodious in the United Kingdom. The provision of a new
+graving dock adjoining the Alexandra was delayed in October
+1905 by a subsidence of the ground during its construction.
+Parliamentary powers were obtained to construct a graving dock
+capable of accommodating the largest class of warships. The
+growth and development of the shipbuilding industry has been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span>
+immense, the firm of Harland &amp; Wolff being amongst the first
+in the trade, and some of the largest vessels in the world come
+from their yards. The vast increase of the foreign trade of
+Belfast marks its development, like Liverpool, as a great distributing
+port. The chief exports are linen, whisky, aerated waters,
+iron ore and cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Belfast is the centre of the Irish linen industry, machinery for
+which was introduced by T. &amp; A. Mulholland in 1830, a rapid
+extension of the industry at once resulting. It is also the headquarters
+and business centre for the entire flax-spinning and
+weaving industry of the country. Distilling is extensively carried
+on. Several firms are engaged in the manufacture of mineral
+waters, for which the water of the Cromac Springs is peculiarly
+adapted. Belfast also has some of the largest tobacco works
+and rope works in the world.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration.</i>&mdash;In conformity with the passing of the
+Municipal Corporations Act of 1840 the constitution of the corporation
+was made to consist of ten aldermen and thirty councillors,
+under the style and title of &ldquo;The Mayor, Aldermen, and
+Burgesses of the Borough of Belfast.&rdquo; In 1888 the rank of a city
+was conferred by royal charter upon Belfast, with the incidental
+rank, liberties, privileges, and immunities. In 1892 Queen
+Victoria conferred upon the mayor of the city the title of lord
+mayor, and upon the corporation the name and description of
+&ldquo;The Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of the city of Belfast.&rdquo;
+By the passing of the Belfast Corporation Act of 1896, the
+boundary of the city was extended, and the corporation made
+to consist of fifteen aldermen and forty-five councillors, and the
+number of wards was increased from five to fifteen. By virtue
+of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, Belfast became a
+county borough on the 1st of April 1899. By the Local Government
+(Ireland) Act 1898, Belfast became for assize purposes
+&ldquo;the county of the city of Belfast,&rdquo; with a high sheriff. It is
+divided into four parliamentary divisions north, south, east and
+west, each returning one member. The total area is 16,594 acres.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The etymology of the name (for which several
+derivations have been proposed) and the origin of the town are
+equally uncertain, and there is not a single monument of antiquarian
+interest upon which to found a conjecture. About 1177
+a castle is said to have been built by John de Courcy, to be
+destroyed by Edward Bruce in 1316. It may be noted here that
+Belfast Castle was finally burnt in 1708; but a modern mansion,
+on Cave Hill, outside the city, bears that name. About the
+beginning of the 16th century, Belfast is described as a town
+and fortress, but it was in reality a mere fishing village in the
+hands of the house of O&rsquo;Neill. In the course of the wars of
+Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th earl of Kildare, Belfast was twice attacked
+by him, in 1503 and 1512. The O&rsquo;Neills, always opposed to the
+English, had forfeited every baronial right; but in 1552 Hugh
+O&rsquo;Neill of Clandeboye promised allegiance to the reigning
+monarch, and obtained the castle of Carrickfergus, the town
+and fortress of Belfast, and all the surrounding lands. Belfast
+was then restored from the half ruined state into which it had
+fallen, and the castle was garrisoned. The turbulent successors
+of O&rsquo;Neill having been routed by the English, the town and
+fortress were obtained by grant dated the 16th of November 1571
+by Sir Thomas Smith, a favourite of Queen Elizabeth, but were
+afterwards forfeited by him to the lord deputy Sir Arthur
+Chichester, who, in 1612, was created Baron Chichester of Belfast.
+At this time the town consisted of about 120 houses, mostly
+built of mud and covered with thatch, while the castle, a two-storeyed
+building, was roofed with shingles. A charter was now
+granted to the town by James I. (April 27, 1613) constituting
+it a corporation with a chief magistrate and 12 burgesses and
+commonalty, with the right of sending two members to parliament.
+In 1632 Thomas Wentworth, Earl Strafford, was appointed
+first lord deputy of Ireland, and Belfast soon shared largely in
+the benefits of his enlightened policy, receiving, among other
+favours, certain fiscal rights which his lordship had purchased
+from the corporation of Carrickfergus. Two years after the
+rebellion of 1641 a rampart was raised round the town, pierced
+by four gates on the land side. In 1662, as appears by a map
+still extant, there were 150 houses within the wall, forming five
+streets and as many lanes; and the upland districts around
+were one dense forest of giant oaks and sycamores, yielding
+an unfailing supply of timber to the woodmen of Carrickfergus.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the succeeding fifty years the progress of Belfast
+surpassed that of most other towns in Ireland. Its merchants
+in 1686 owned forty ships, of a total carrying power of 3300 tons,
+and the customs collected were close upon £20,000. The old
+charter was annulled by James II. and a new one issued in 1688,
+but the old was restored in 1690 by William III. When the
+king arrived at Belfast in that year there were only two places
+of worship in the town, the old corporation church in the High
+Street, and the Presbyterian meeting-house in Rosemary Lane,
+the Roman Catholics not being permitted to build their chapels
+within the walls of corporate towns.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the 18th century Belfast had become
+known as a place of considerable trade, and was then thought a
+handsome, thriving and well-peopled town, with many new
+houses and good shops. During the civil commotions which
+so long afflicted the country, it suffered less than most other
+places; and it soon afterwards attained the rank of the richest
+commercial town in the north of Ireland. James Blow and Co.
+introduced letterpress printing in 1696, and in 1704 issued the
+first copy of the Bible produced in the island. In September
+1737, Henry and Robert Joy started the <i>Belfast News Letter</i>.
+Twenty years afterwards the town contained 1800 houses and
+8549 inhabitants, 556 of whom were members of the Church
+of Rome. It was not, however, till 1789 that Belfast obtained
+the regular communication, which towns of less importance
+already enjoyed, with Dublin by stage coach, a fact which is
+to be explained by the badness of the roads and the steepness
+of the hills between Newry and Belfast.</p>
+
+<p>The increased freedom of trade with which Ireland was
+favoured, the introduction of the cotton manufacture by Robert
+Joy and Thomas M&rsquo;Cabe in 1777, the establishment in 1791 of
+shipbuilding on an extensive scale by William Ritchie, an
+energetic Scotsman, combined with the rope and canvas
+manufacture already existing, supplied the inhabitants with
+employments and increased the demand for skilled labour.
+The population now made rapid strides as well by ordinary
+extension as by immigration from the rural districts. Owing
+to the close proximity of powerful opposed religious sects,
+the modern history of the city is not without its record of riot
+and bloodshed, as in 1880 and 1886, and in August 1907 serious
+rioting followed upon a strike of carters; but the prosperity of
+the city has been happily unaffected.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See George Benn, <i>History of Belfast</i> (Belfast, 1877); Robert M.
+Young, <i>Historical Notices of Old Belfast</i> (Belfast, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELFAST,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Waldo
+county, Maine, U.S.A., on Belfast Bay (an arm of the Penobscot),
+and about 32 m. south-south-west of Bangor. Pop. (1890)
+5294; (1910) 4618. It is served by the Belfast branch of the
+Maine Central railway (connecting with the main line at Burnham
+Junction, 33 m. distant), and by the coasting steamers (from
+Boston) of the Eastern Steamship Co. The city, a summer
+resort, lies on an undulating hillside, which rises from the water&rsquo;s
+edge to a height of more than 150 ft., and commands extensive
+views of the picturesque islands, headlands, and mountains
+of the Maine coast. It has a public library. Among the
+industries of Belfast are trade with the surrounding country,
+the manufacture of shoes, leather boards, axes, and sashes,
+doors and blinds, and the building and repairing of boats.
+Its exports in 1908 were valued at $285,913 and its imports
+at $10,313. Belfast was first settled (by Scottish-Irish) in
+1769, and in 1773 was incorporated as a town under its present
+name (from Belfast, Ireland). The town was almost completely
+destroyed by the British in 1779, but its rebuilding was begun in
+the next year. It was held by a British force for five days in
+September 1814. Belfast was chartered as a city in 1850.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELFORT,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> <span class="sc">Territory of</span>, administrative division of eastern
+France, formed from the southern portion of the department
+of Haut-Rhin, the rest of which was ceded to Germany by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span>
+treaty of Frankfort (1871). It is bounded on the N.E. and E.
+by German Alsace, on the S.E. and S. by Switzerland, on the S.W.
+by the department of Doubs, on the W. by that of Haute-Saône,
+on the N. by that of Vosges. Pop. (1906), 95,421.</p>
+
+<p>With an area of only 235 sq. m., it is, next to that of Seine,
+the smallest department of France. The northern part is
+occupied by the southern offshoots of the Vosges, the southern
+part by the northern outposts of the Jura. Between these two
+highlands stretches the Trouée (depression) de Belfort, 18½ m.
+broad, joining the basins of the Rhine and the Rhone, traversed
+by the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine and by several railways.
+A part of the natural highway open from Frankfort to the
+Mediterranean, the Trouée has from earliest times provided
+the route for the migration from north to south, and is still of
+great commercial and strategical value. The northern part,
+occupied by the Vosges, rises to 4126 ft. in the Ballon d&rsquo;Alsace,
+the northern termination and the culminating point of the
+department; to 3773 ft. in the Planche des Belles-Filles; to
+3579 ft. in the Signal des Plaines; to 3534 ft. in the Bärenkopf;
+and to numerous other lesser heights. South of the Trouée
+de Belfort, there rise near Delle limestone hills, in part wooded,
+on the frontiers of France, Alsace, and Switzerland, attaining
+1680 ft. in the Forêt de Florimont. The territory between
+Lachapelle-sous-Rougemont (in the north-east), Belfort and
+Delle does not rise above 1300 ft. The line of lowest altitude
+follows the river St Nicolas and the Rhone-Rhine canal. The
+chief rivers are the Savoureuse, 24 m. long, running straight
+south from the Ballon d&rsquo;Alsace, and emptying into the Allaine;
+the Allaine, from Switzerland, entering the territory a little to
+the south of Delle, and leaving it a little to the west of Morvillars;
+the St Nicolas, 24 m. long, from the Bärenkopf, running southwards
+and then south-west into the Allaine. The climate to
+the north of the town of Belfort is marked by long and rigorous
+winters, sudden changes of temperature, and an annual rainfall
+of 31 in. to 39 in. retained by an impervious subsoil; farther
+south it is milder and more equable with a rainfall of 23 in. to
+31 in., quickly absorbed by the soil or evaporated by the sun.
+About one-third of the total area is arable land; wheat, oats and
+rye are the chief cereals; potatoes come next in importance.
+Forest covers another third of the surface; the chief trees are
+firs, pines, oak and beech; cherries are largely grown for the
+distillation of kirsch. Pasture and forage crops cover the remaining
+third of the Territory; only horned cattle are raised
+to any extent. There is an unworked concession of copper,
+silver and lead at Giromagny; and there are also quarries of
+stone. The Territory is an active industrial region. The two
+main branches of manufacture are the spinning and weaving
+of cotton and wool, and the production of iron and iron-goods
+(wire, railings, nails, files, &amp;c.) and machinery. Belfort has
+important locomotive and engineering works. Hoisery is
+manufactured at Delle, watches, clocks, agricultural machinery,
+petrol motors, ironware and electrical apparatus at the flourishing
+centre of Beaucourt, and there are numerous saw-mills, tile and
+brick works and breweries. Imports consist of raw materials
+for the industries, dyestuffs, coal, wine, &amp;c., and the exports of
+manufactured goods.</p>
+
+<p>Belfort is the capital of the Territory, which comprises one
+arrondissement, 6 cantons and 106 communes, and falls within
+the circumscriptions of the archbishopric, the court of appeal
+and the académie (educational division) of Besançon. It forms
+the 7th subdivision of the VII. army corps. Both the Eastern
+and the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railways traverse the Territory,
+and the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine accompanies the
+river St Nicolas for about 6 m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELFORT,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of the Territory
+of Belfort, 275 m. E.S.E. of Paris, on the main line of the Eastern
+railway. Pop. (1906), town, 27,805; commune, 34,649. It is
+situated among wooded hills on the Savoureuse at the intersection
+of the roads and railway lines from Paris to Basel and from
+Lyons to Mülhausen and Strassburg, by which it maintains
+considerable trade with Germany and Switzerland. The town is
+divided by the Savoureuse into a new quarter, in which is the
+railway station on the right bank, and the old fortified quarter,
+with the castle, the public buildings and monuments, on the
+left bank. The church of St Denis, a building in the classical
+style, erected from 1727 to 1750, and the hôtel de ville (1721-1724)
+both stand in the Place d&rsquo;Armes opposite the castle. The
+two chief monuments commemorate the defence of Belfort in
+the war of 1870-1871. &ldquo;The Lion of Belfort,&rdquo; a colossal figure
+78 ft. long and 52 ft. high, the work of F.A. Bartholdi, stands
+in front of the castle; and in the Place d&rsquo;Armes is the bronze
+group &ldquo;Quand Même&rdquo; by Antonin Mercié, in memory of Thiers
+and of Colonel Pierre Marie Aristide Denfert-Rochereau (1823-1878),
+commandant of the place during the siege. Other objects
+of interest are the Tour de la Miotte, of unknown origin and date,
+which stands on the hill of La Miotte to the N.E. of Belfort, and
+the Port de Brisach, a gateway built by Vauban in 1687.
+Belfort is the seat of a prefect; its public institutions include
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of
+commerce, a lycée, a training-college and a branch of the Bank
+of France. The construction of locomotives and machinery,
+carried on by the Société Alsacienne, wire-drawing, and the
+spinning and weaving of cotton are included among its industries,
+which together with the population increased greatly owing to
+the Alsacian immigration after 1871. Its trade is in the wines
+of Alsace, brandy and cereals. The town derives its chief
+importance from its value as a military position.</p>
+
+<p>After the war of 1870-1871, Belfort, which after a diplomatic
+struggle remained in French hands, became a frontier fortress
+of the greatest value, and the old works which underwent the
+siege of 1870-1871 (see below) were promptly increased and
+re-modelled. In front of the Perches redoubts, the Bosmont,
+whence the Prussian engineers began their attack, is now heavily
+fortified with continuous lines called the <i>Organisation défensive
+de Bosmont</i>. The old Bellevue redoubt (now Fort Denfert-Rochereau)
+is covered by a new work situated likewise on the
+ground occupied by the siege trenches in the war. Pérouse,
+hastily entrenched in 1870, now possesses a permanent fort.
+The old entrenched camp enclosed by the castle, Fort La Miotte,
+and Fort Justice, is still maintained, and part even of the enceinte
+built by Vauban is used for defensive purposes. Outside this
+improved inner line, which includes the whole area of the attack
+and defence of 1870, lies a complete circle of detached forts and
+batteries of modern construction. To the north, Forts Salbert
+and Roppe form the salients of a long defensive line on high
+ground, at the centre of which, where the Savoureuse river
+divides it, a new work was added later. Two works near
+Giromagny, about 8 m. from Belfort itself, connect the fortress
+with the right of the defensive line of the Moselle (Fort Ballon
+d&rsquo;Alsace). In the eastern sector of the defences (from Roppe
+to the Savoureuse below Belfort) the forts are about 3 m. from
+the centre, the works near the Belfort-Mülhausen railway being
+somewhat more advanced, and in the western (from Salbert to
+Fort Bois d&rsquo;Oyé on the lower Savoureuse) they are advanced to
+about the same distance. The fort of Mont Vaudois, the westernmost,
+overlooks Héricourt and the battlefield of the Lisaine:
+farther to the south Montbéliard is also fortified. The perimeter
+of the Belfort defences is nearly 25 m.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Gallo-Roman remains have been discovered in the
+vicinity of Belfort, but the place is first heard of in the early
+part of the 13th century, when it was in the possession of the counts
+of Montbéliard. From them it passed by marriage to the counts
+of Ferrette and afterwards to the archdukes of Austria. By
+the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the town was ceded to Louis XIV.
+who gave it to Cardinal Mazarin.</p>
+
+<p>In the Thirty Years&rsquo; War Belfort was twice besieged, 1633
+and 1634, and in 1635 there was a battle here between the duke
+of Lorraine and the allied French and Swedes under Marshal
+de la Force. The fortifications of Vauban were begun in 1686.
+Belfort was besieged in 1814 by the troops of the allies and in
+1815 by the Austrians.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous episode of the town&rsquo;s history is its gallant
+and successful defence in the war of 1870-1871.</p>
+
+<p>The events which led up to the siege are described under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span>
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>. Even before the investment Belfort
+was cut off from the interior of France, and the German corps of
+von Werder was, throughout the siege, between the fortress and
+the forces which might attempt its relief. The siege corps was
+commanded by General von Tresckow and numbered at first
+10,000 men with twenty-four field guns&mdash;a force which appeared
+adequate for the reduction of the antiquated works of Vaubau.
+Colonel Denfert-Rochereau was, however, a scientific engineer of
+advanced ideas as well as a veteran soldier of the Crimea and
+Algeria, and he had been stationed at Belfort for six years.
+He was therefore eminently fitted for the command of the
+fortress. He had as a nucleus but few regular troops, but the
+energy of the military and civil authorities enabled his force to
+be augmented by national guards, &amp;c., to 17,600 men. The
+artillery was very numerous, but skilled gunners were not
+available in any great strength and ammunition was scarce.
+Perhaps the most favourable circumstance from a technical
+point of view was the bomb-proof accommodation of the enceinte.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:523px; height:393px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img667.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The old fortress consisted of the town enceinte, the castle
+(situated on high ground and fortified by several concentric
+envelopes), and the entrenched camp, a hollow enclosed by
+continuous lines, the salients of which were the castle, Fort La
+Justice and Fort La Miotte. These were planned in the days
+of short-range guns, and were therefore in 1870 open to an
+overwhelming bombardment by the rifled cannon of the attack.
+Denfert-Rochereau, however, understood better than other
+engineers of the day the power of modern artillery, and his plan
+was to utilize the old works as a keep and an artillery position.
+The Perches ridge, whence the town and suburbs could be
+bombarded, he fortified with all possible speed. On the right
+bank of the Savoureuse he constructed two new forts, Bellevue
+in the south-west and Des Barres to the west, and, further,
+he prepared the suburb on this side for a hand-to-hand defence.
+His general plan was to maintain as advanced a line as possible,
+to manoeuvre against the investing troops, and to support his
+own by the long range fire of his rifled guns. With this object
+he fortified the outlying villages, and when the Germans (chiefly
+Landwehr) began the investment on the 3rd of November 1870,
+they encountered everywhere a most strenuous resistance.
+Throughout the month the garrison made repeated sorties, and
+the Germans were on several occasions forced by the long range
+fire of the fortress to evacuate villages which they had taken.
+Under these circumstances, and also because of their numerical
+weakness and the rigour of the weather, the Germans advanced
+but slowly. On the 2nd of December, when at last von Tresckow
+broke ground for the construction of his batteries, the French
+still held Danjoutin, Bosmont, Pérouse and the adjacent woods,
+and, to the northward (on this side the siege was not pressed)
+La Forge. Thus the first attack of the siege artillery was confined
+to the western side of the river between Essert and Bavillers.
+From this position the bombardment opened on the 3rd of
+December. Some damage was done to the houses of Belfort,
+but the garrison was not intimidated, and their artillery replied
+with such spirit that after some days the German commander
+gave up the bombardment. On this occasion the distant forts
+La Miotte and La Justice fired with effect at a range of 4700 yds.,
+affording a conspicuous illustration of the changed conditions
+of siege-craft. The German batteries, as more guns arrived,
+were extended from left to right, and on the 13th of December
+the Bosmont was captured, ground being also gained in front of
+Bellevue. The difficulties under which the siege corps laboured
+were very great, and it was not until the 7th of January 1871
+that the rightmost battery opened fire. The formal siege of the
+Perches redoubts had now been decided upon, and as an essential
+preliminary to further operations, Danjoutin, now isolated, was
+stormed by the Landwehr on the night of the 7th-8th January.
+In the meanwhile typhus and smallpox had broken out amongst
+the French, many of the national guards were impatient of
+control, and the German trenches, in spite of difficulties of ground
+and weather, made steady progress towards the Perches. A
+week after the fall of Danjoutin the victory of von Werder and
+the XIV. army corps at the Lisaine, in which a part of the siege
+corps bore a share, put an end to the attempt to relieve Belfort,
+and the siege corps was promptly increased to a strength of 17,600
+infantry, 4700 artillery and 1100 engineers, with thirty-four
+field-guns besides the guns and howitzers of the siege train.
+The investment was now more strictly maintained even on the
+north side. On the night of the 20th of January the French
+lines about Pérouse were carried by assault, and, both flanks
+being now cleared, the formal siege of the Perches forts was
+opened, the first parallel extending from Danjoutin to Haut
+Taillis. In the early morning of the 27th a determined but
+premature attempt was made to storm the Perches redoubts,
+which cost the besiegers nearly 500 men. After this failure
+Tresckow once more resorted to the regular method of siege
+approaches, and on the 2nd of February the second parallel was
+thrown up. La Justice was now bombarded by two new batteries
+near Pérouse, the Perches were of course subjected to an &ldquo;artillery
+attack,&rdquo; and henceforward the besiegers fired 1500 shells a day
+into the works of the French. But the besiegers were still weak
+in numbers and their labours were very exhausting. Bellevue
+and Des Barres became very active in hindering the advance
+of the siege works, and the German battalions were so far depleted
+by losses and sickness that they could often muster but 300 men
+for duty. Still, the guns of the attack were now steadily gaining
+the upper hand, and at last on the 8th of February the Germans
+entered the two Perches redoubts. This success, and the arrival
+of German reinforcements, decided the siege. The Perches ridge
+was crowned with a parallel and numerous batteries, which in
+the end mounted ninety-seven guns. The attack on the castle
+now opened, but operations were soon afterwards suspended
+by the news that Belfort was now included in the general armistice
+(February 15th). A little later Denfert-Rochereau received
+a direct order from his own government to surrender the fortress,
+and the garrison, being granted free withdrawal, marched out
+with its arms and trains. &ldquo;The town had suffered terribly ...
+nearly all the buildings were damaged ... the guns in the upper
+batteries could only be reached by ladders. The garrison, of
+its original strength of 17,700 officers and men, had lost 4750,
+besides 336 citizens. The place was no longer tenable&rdquo; (Moltke,
+<i>Franco-German War</i>). Nevertheless, &ldquo;the defence was by no
+means at its last stage&rdquo; at the time of the formal surrender
+(British <i>Text-Book of Fortification</i>, 1893). The total loss of the
+besiegers was about 2000 men.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Liblin, <i>Belfort et son territoire</i> (Mülhausen, 1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELFRY<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Mid. Eng. <i>berfrey</i>, through Med. Lat. <i>berefredus</i>,
+from Teut. <i>bergfrid</i> or <i>bercvrit</i>, which, according to the <i>New
+Eng. Dict.</i>, is a combination of <i>bergen</i>, to protect, and <i>frida</i>,
+safety or peace; the word thus meaning a shelter; the change
+from <i>r</i> to <i>l</i>,&mdash;cf. <i>almery</i> for <i>armarium</i>,&mdash;wrongly associated
+the origin of the word with &ldquo;bell,&rdquo; and aided the restriction
+in meaning), a word in medieval siege-craft for a movable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span>
+wooden tower of several stages, protected with raw hides,
+used for purposes of attack; also a watch-tower, particularly
+one with an alarm bell; hence any detached tower or campanile
+containing bells, as at Evesham, but more generally the ringing
+room or loft of the tower of a church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tower</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELGAE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a Celtic people first mentioned by Caesar, who
+states that they formed the third part of Gaul, and were separated
+from the Celtae by the Sequana (Seine) and Matrona (Marne).
+On the east and north their boundary was the lower Rhine, on
+the west the ocean. Whether Caesar means to include the Leuci,
+Treviri and Mediomatrici among the Belgian tribes is uncertain.
+According to the statement of the deputation from the Remi to
+Caesar (<i>Bell. Gall.</i> ii. 4), the Belgae were a people of German
+origin, who had crossed the Rhine in early times and driven out
+the Galli. But Caesar&rsquo;s own statement (<i>B.G.</i> i. 1) that the
+Belgae differed from the Celtae in language, institutions and
+laws, is too sweeping (see Strabo iv. p. 176), at least as regards
+language, for many words and names are common to both.
+In any case, only the eastern districts would have been affected
+by invaders from over the Rhine, the chief seat of the Belgae
+proper being in the west, the country occupied by the Bellovaci,
+Ambiani and Atrebates, to which it is probable (although the
+reading is uncertain) that Caesar gives the distinctive name
+Belgium (corresponding to the old provinces of Picardy and
+Artois). The question is fully discussed by T.R. Holmes
+(<i>Caesar&rsquo;s Conquest of Gaul</i>, 1899), who comes to the conclusion
+that &ldquo;when the Reman delegates told Caesar that the Belgae
+were descended from the Germans, they probably only meant
+that the ancestors of the Belgic conquerors had formerly dwelt
+in Germany, and this is equally true of the ancestors of the Gauls
+who gave their name to the Celtae; but, on the other hand, it is
+quite possible that in the veins of some of the Belgae flowed
+the blood of genuine German forefathers.&rdquo; W. Ridgeway (<i>Early
+Age of Greece, 1901</i>) considers that the Belgic tribes were Cimbri,
+&ldquo;who had moved directly across the Rhine into north-eastern
+Gaul.&rdquo; No definite number of Belgian tribes is given by Caesar;
+according to Strabo (iv. p. 196) they were fifteen in all. The
+Belgae had also made their way over to Britain in Caesar&rsquo;s time
+(<i>B.G.</i> ii. 4, v. 12), and settled in some of the southern counties
+(Wilts, Hants and Somerset). Among their towns were <i>Magnus
+Portus</i> (Portsmouth) and <i>Venta Belgarum</i> (Winchester).</p>
+
+<p>In 57 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after the defeat of Ariovistus, the Belgae formed a
+coalition against Caesar, and in 52 took part in the general
+rising under Vercingetorix. After their final subjugation,
+Caesar combined the territory of the Belgae, Celtae and Aquitani
+into a single province (Gallia Comata). Augustus, however,
+finding it too unwieldy, again divided it into three provinces,
+one of which was Belgica, bounded on the west by the Seine and
+the Arar (Saône); on the north by the North Sea; on the east
+by the Rhine from its mouth to the Lacus Brigantinus (Lake
+Constance). Its southernmost district embraced the west of
+Switzerland. The capital and residence of the governor of the
+province was Durocortorum Remorum (Reims). Under Diocletian,
+Belgica Prima (capital, Augusta Trevirorum, Trier) and
+Secunda (capital, Reims) formed part of the &ldquo;diocese&rdquo; of Gaul.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.G.B. Schayes, <i>La Belgique et les Pays-Bas avant et pendant
+la domination romaine</i> (2nd ed., Brussels, 1877);
+H.G. Moke, <i>La Belgique ancienne</i> (Ghent, 1855);
+A. Desjardins, <i>Géographie historique de la Gaule</i>, ii. (1878);
+T.R. Holmes, <i>Caesar&rsquo;s Conquest of Gaul</i> (1899);
+M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. pt. 1 (1897);
+J. Jung, &ldquo;Geographie von Italien und dem Orbis romanus&rdquo; (2nd ed., 1897)
+in I. Müller&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELGARD,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Pomerania, at the junction of the rivers Leitznitz and
+Persante, 22 m. S.E. of Kolberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 8047.
+Its industries consist of iron founding and cloth weaving, and
+there are considerable horse and cattle markets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELGAUM,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the southern
+division of Bombay. The town is situated nearly 2500 ft. above
+sea-level; it has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway,
+245 m. S. of Poona. It has an ancient fortress, dating
+apparently from 1519, covering about 100 acres, and surrounded
+by a ditch; within it are two interesting Jain temples. Belgaum
+contains a cantonment which is the headquarters of a brigade
+in the 6th division of the western army corps. It is also a
+considerable centre of trade and of cotton weaving. There are
+cotton mills. Pop. (1901) 36,878.</p>
+
+<p>The district of Belgaum has an area of 4649 sq. m. To the
+north and east the country is open and well cultivated, but to
+the south it is intersected by spurs of the Sahyadri range, thickly
+covered in some places with forest. In 1901 the population was
+993,976, showing a decrease of 2% compared with an increase of
+17% in the preceding decade. The principal crops are millet,
+rice, wheat, other food-grains, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, sugar-cane,
+spices and tobacco. There are considerable manufactures
+of cotton-cloth. The town of Gokak is known for its dyes, its
+paper and its wooden and earthenware toys. The West Deccan
+line of the Southern Mahratta railway runs through the district
+from north to south. Two high schools at Belgaum town are
+maintained by government and by the London Mission. The
+Kurirs, a wandering and thieving tribe, the Kamais, professional
+burglars, and the Baruds, cattle-stealers and highwaymen, are
+notorious among the criminal classes.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The ancient name of the town of Belgaum was
+Venugrama, which is said to be derived from the bamboos that
+are characteristic of its neighbourhood. The most ancient
+place in the district is Halsi; and this, according to inscriptions
+on copper plates discovered in its neighbourhood, was once the
+capital of a dynasty of nine Kadamba kings. It appears that
+from the middle of the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> to about 760 the country
+was held by the Chalukyas, who were succeeded by the Rashtrakutas.
+After the break-up of the Rashtrakuta power a portion
+of it survived in the Rattas (875-1250), who from 1210 onward
+made Venugrama their capital. Inscriptions give evidence of a
+long struggle between the Rattas and the Kadambas of Goa,
+who succeeded in the latter years of the 12th century in acquiring
+and holding part of the district. By 1208, however, the
+Kadambas had been overthrown by the Rattas, who in their
+turn succumbed to the Yadavas of Devagiri in 1250. After the
+overthrow of the Yadavas by the Delhi emperor (1320), Belgaum
+was for a short time under the rule of the latter; but only a few
+years later the part south of the Ghatprabha was subject to the
+Hindu rajas of Vijayanagar. In 1347 the northern part was
+conquered by the Bahmani dynasty, which in 1473 took the town
+of Belgaum and conquered the southern part also. When
+Aurungzeb overthrew the Bijapur sultans in 1686, Belgaum
+passed to the Moguls. In 1776 the country was overrun by
+Hyder Ali, but was retaken by the Peshwa with British assistance.
+In 1818 it was handed over to the East India Company and was
+made part of the district of Dharwar. In 1836 this was divided
+into two parts, the southern district continuing to be known as
+Dharwar, the northern as Belgaum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Imp. Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, ed. 1908), <i>s.v.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELGIAN CONGO,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a Belgian colony in Equatorial Africa
+occupying the greater part of the basin of the Congo river.
+Formerly the Independent State of the Congo, it was annexed
+to Belgium in 1908. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congo Free State</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELGIUM<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Belgique</i>; Flem. <i>Belgie</i>), an independent,
+constitutional and neutral state occupying an important position
+in north-west Europe. It was formerly part of the Low Countries
+or Netherlands (<i>q.v.</i>). Although the name Belgium only came
+into general use with the foundation of the modern kingdom in
+1830, its derivation from ancient times is clear and incontrovertible.
+Beginning with the Belgae and the Gallia Belgica of
+the Romans, the use of the adjective to distinguish the inhabitants
+of the south Netherlands can be traced through all stages of
+subsequent history. During the Crusades, and in the middle ages,
+the term <i>Belgicae principes</i> is of frequent occurrence, and when
+in 1790 the Walloons rose against Austria during what was called
+the Brabant revolution, their leaders proposed to give the
+country the name of Belgique. Again in 1814, on the expulsion
+of the French, when there was much talk of founding an independent
+state, the same name was suggested for it. It was not
+till sixteen years later, on the collapse of the united kingdom of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span>
+the Netherlands, that the occasion presented itself for giving
+effect to this proposal. For the explanation of the English form
+of the name it may be mentioned that Belgium was a canton of
+what had been the Nervian country in the time of the Roman
+occupation.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:920px; height:682px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img668.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img668a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Topography, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Belgium lies between 49° 30&prime; and 51° 30&prime; N.,
+and 2° 32&prime; and 6° 7&prime; E., and on the land side is bounded by
+Holland on the N. and N.E., by Prussia and the grand duchy of
+Luxemburg on the E. and S.E., and by France on the S. Its
+land frontiers measure 793 m., divided as follows:&mdash;with Holland
+269 m., with Prussia 60 m., with the grand duchy 80 m. and
+with France 384 m. In addition it has a sea-coast of 42 m.
+The western portion of Belgium, consisting of the two Flanders,
+Antwerp and parts of Brabant and Hainaut, is flat, being little
+above the level of the sea; and indeed at one point near Furnes
+it is 7 ft. below it. The same description applies more or less to
+the north-east, but in the south of Hainaut and the greater part
+of Brabant the general level of the country is about 300 ft.
+above the sea, with altitudes rising to more than 600 ft. South
+of the Meuse, and in the district distinguished by the appellation
+&ldquo;Between Sambre and Meuse,&rdquo; the level is still greater, and the
+whole of the province of Luxemburg is above 500 ft., with altitudes
+up to 1650 ft. In the south-eastern part of the province
+of Liége there are several points exceeding 2000 ft. The highest
+of these is the Baraque de Michel close to the Prussian frontier,
+with an altitude of 2190 ft. The Baraque de Fraiture, north-east
+of La Roche, is over 2000 ft. While the greater part of western
+and northern Belgium is devoid of the picturesque, the Ardennes
+and the Fagnes districts of &ldquo;Between Sambre and Meuse&rdquo; and
+Liége contain much pleasant and some romantic scenery. The
+principal charm of this region is derived from its fine and
+extensive woods, of which that called St Hubert is the best known.
+There are no lakes in Belgium, but otherwise it is exceedingly
+well watered, being traversed by the Meuse for the greater part
+of its course, as well as by the Scheldt and the Sambre. The
+numerous affluents of these rivers, such as the Lys, Dyle, Dender,
+Ourthe, Amblève, Vesdre, Lesse and Semois, provide a system
+of waterways almost unique in Europe. The canals of Belgium
+are scarcely less numerous or important than those of Holland,
+especially in Flanders, where they give a distinctive character
+to the country. But the most striking feature in Belgium,
+where so much is modern, utilitarian and ugly, is found in the
+older cities with their relics of medieval greatness, and their
+record of ancient fame. These, in their order of interest, are
+Bruges, Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Ghent, Ypres, Courtrai,
+Tournai, Furnes, Oudenarde and Liége. It is to them rather
+than to the sylvan scenes of the Ardennes that travellers and
+tourists flock.</p>
+
+<p>The climate may be described as temperate and approximating
+to that of southern England, but it is somewhat hotter in summer
+and a little colder in winter. In the Ardennes, owing to the
+greater elevation, the winters are more severe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Belgium lies upon the northern side of an ancient
+mountain chain which has long been worn down to a low level
+and the remnants of which rise to the surface in the Ardennes,
+and extend eastward into Germany, forming the Eifel and
+Westerwald, the Hunsrück and the Taunus. Westward the
+chain lies buried beneath the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of
+Belgium and the north of France, but it reappears in the west of
+England and Ireland. It is the &ldquo;Hercynian chain&rdquo; of Marcel
+Bertrand, and is composed entirely of Palaeozoic rocks. Upon
+its northern margin lie the nearly undisturbed Cretaceous and
+Tertiary beds which cover the greater part of Belgium. The
+latest beds which are involved in the folds of this mountain
+range belong to the Coal Measures, and the final elevation must
+have taken place towards the close of the Carboniferous period.
+The fact that in Belgium Jurassic beds are found upon the
+southern and not upon the northern margin indicates that in
+this region the chain was still a ridge in Jurassic times. In the
+Ardennes the rocks which constitute the ancient mountain chain
+belong chiefly to the Devonian System, but Cambrian beds rise
+through the Devonian strata, forming the masses of Rocroi,
+Stavelot, &amp;c., which appear to have been islands in the Devonian
+sea. The Ordovician and Silurian are absent here, and the
+Devonian rests unconformably upon the Cambrian; but along
+the northern margin of the Palaeozoic area, Ordovician and
+Silurian rocks appear, and beds of similar age are also exposed
+farther north where the rivers have cut through the overlying
+Tertiary deposits. Carboniferous beds occur in the north of
+the Palaeozoic area. Near Dinant they are folded amongst the
+Devonian beds, but the most important band runs along the
+northern border of the Ardennes. In this band lie the coalfields
+of Liége, and of Mons and Charleroi. It is a long and narrow
+trough, which is separated from the older rocks of the Ardennes
+by a great reversed fault, the <i>faille du midi</i>. In the southern
+half of the trough the folding of the Coal Measures is intense;
+in the northern half it is much less violent. The structure is
+complicated by a thrust-plane which brings a mass of older
+beds upon the Coal Measures in the middle of the trough.
+Except along the southern border of the Ardennes, and at one or
+two points in the middle of the Palaeozoic massif, Triassic and
+Jurassic beds are unknown in Belgium, and the Palaeozoic
+rocks are directly and unconformably overlaid by Cretaceous
+and Tertiary deposits. The Cretaceous beds are not extensive,
+but the Wealden deposits of Bernissart, with their numerous
+remains of Iguanodon, and the chalk of the district about the
+Dutch frontier near Maastricht, with its very late Cretaceous
+fauna, are of special interest.</p>
+
+<p>Exclusive of the Ardennes the greater part of Belgium is
+covered by Tertiary deposits. The Eocene, consisting chiefly
+of sands and marls, occupies the whole of the west of the country.
+The Oligocene forms a band stretching from Antwerp to Maastricht,
+and this is followed towards the north by a discontinuous
+strip of Miocene and a fairly extensive area of Pliocene. The
+Tertiary deposits are similar in general character to those of the
+north of France and the south of England. Coal and iron are by
+far the most important mineral productions of Belgium. Zinc,
+lead and copper are also extensively worked in the Palaeozoic
+rocks of the Ardennes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Area and Population.</i>&mdash;The area comprises 2,945,503 hectares,
+or about 11,373 English sq. m., and the total population in
+December 1904 was 7,074,910, giving an average of 600 per sq. m.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">The Nine<br />Provinces.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />English sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population at<br />end of 1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population per<br />sq. m. 1904.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Antwerp</td> <td class="tcr rb">1093</td> <td class="tcr rb">888,980</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;813.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brabant</td> <td class="tcr rb">1268</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,366,389</td> <td class="tcl rb">1077.59</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flanders E.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1158</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,078,507</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;931.35</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flanders W.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1249</td> <td class="tcr rb">845,732</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;677.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hainaut</td> <td class="tcr rb">1437</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,192,967</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;830.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Liége</td> <td class="tcr rb">1117</td> <td class="tcr rb">863,254</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;772.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Limburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">931</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,359</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;274.28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1706</td> <td class="tcr rb">225,963</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;132.45</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Namur</td> <td class="tcr rb">1414</td> <td class="tcr rb">357,759</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;253</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">11,373</td> <td class="tcr allb">7,074,910</td> <td class="tcl allb">&ensp;622</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The population was made up of 3,514,491 males and 3,560,419
+females. The rate at which the population has increased is
+shown as follows:&mdash;From 1880 to 1890 the increase was at the
+rate annually of 54,931, from 1890 to 1900 at the rate of
+62,421, and for the five years from 1900 to 1904 at the rate of
+66,200. In 1831 the population of Belgium was 3,785,814, so
+that in 75 years it had not quite doubled. The following table
+gives the total births and deaths in certain years since 1880:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Total births.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Total deaths.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Excess of births.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc rb">171,864</td> <td class="tcc rb">123,323</td> <td class="tcc rb">48,541</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895.</td> <td class="tcc rb">183,015</td> <td class="tcc rb">125,148</td> <td class="tcc rb">57,867</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc rb">193,789</td> <td class="tcc rb">129,046</td> <td class="tcc rb">64,743</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1904.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">191,721</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">119,506</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">72,215</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These figures show that the births were 23,674 more in 1904
+than in 1880, while the deaths were nearly 4000 fewer, with a
+population that had increased from 5½ to 7 millions. Of 191,721
+births in 1904, 12,887 or 6.7% were illegitimate. Statistics of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span>
+recent years show a slight increase in legitimate and a slight
+decrease in illegitimate births.</p>
+
+<p>The emigration of Belgians from their country is small and
+reveals little variation. In 1900, 13,492 emigrated, and in 1904
+the total rose only to 14,752. Of Belgians living abroad it is
+estimated that 400,000 reside in France, 15,000 in Holland,
+12,000 in Germany and 4600 in Great Britain. The number of
+Belgians in the Congo State in 1904 was 1505. The number of
+foreigners resident in Belgium in 1900 with their nationalities
+were Germans, 42,079; English, 5096; French, 85,735; Dutch,
+54,491; Luxemburgers, 9762; and all other nationalities,
+14,411.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the languages spoken by the people of Belgium
+the following comparative table gives the return for the three
+censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1880</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">French only</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,230,316</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,485,072</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,574,805</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flemish only</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,485,384</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,744,271</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,822,005</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">German only</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,206</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,314</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">French and Flemish</td> <td class="tcr rb">423,752</td> <td class="tcr rb">700,997</td> <td class="tcr rb">801,587</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">French and German</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,590</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,447</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flemish and German</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,956</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,028</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,238</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">The three languages</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13,331</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13,185</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">42,885</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Government</i>.&mdash;The Belgian constitution,
+drafted by the national assembly in 1830-1831 after the provisional
+government had announced that &ldquo;the Belgian provinces
+detached by force from Holland shall form an independent state,&rdquo;
+was published on the 7th of February 1831, and the modifications
+introduced into it subsequently, apart from the composition of
+the electorate, have been few and unimportant. The constitution
+originally contained one hundred and thirty-nine articles,
+and decreed in the first place that the government was to be
+&ldquo;a constitutional, representative and hereditary monarchy.&rdquo;
+Having decided in favour of a monarchy, the provisional government
+first offered the throne to the due de Nemours, son of
+Louis-Philippe, but this offer was promptly withdrawn on the
+discovery that Europe would not endorse it. It was then offered
+to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, widower of the princess
+Charlotte of England, and accepted by him. The prince was
+proclaimed on the 4th of June 1831 as Leopold I., king of the
+Belgians, and on the 21st of July 1831 he was solemnly inaugurated
+in Brussels. The succession is vested in the heirs male
+of Leopold I., and should they ever make complete default the
+throne will be declared vacant, and a national assembly composed
+of the two chambers elected in double strength will make a fresh
+nomination. In 1894 a new article numbered 61 was inserted
+in the constitution providing that &ldquo;in default of male heirs the
+king can nominate his successor with the assent of the two
+chambers, and if no such nomination has been made the throne
+shall be vacant,&rdquo; when the original procedure of the constitution
+would be followed. The Belgian national assembly assumed
+that its constitution would extend over the whole of the Belgic or
+south Netherlands, but the powers decreed otherwise. The
+limits of Belgium are fixed by the London protocol of the 15th
+of October 1831&mdash;also called the twenty-four articles&mdash;which
+cut off what is now termed the grand duchy of Luxemburg,
+and also a good portion of the duchy of Limburg. These losses
+of territory held by a brother people are still felt as a grievance
+by many Belgians. The Belgian constitution stipulates for
+&ldquo;freedom of conscience, of education, of the press and also of
+the right of meeting,&rdquo; but the sovereign must be a member of
+the Church of Rome. The government was to consist of the king,
+the senate and the chamber of representatives. The functions
+of the king are those that appertain everywhere to the sovereign
+of a constitutional state. He is the head of the army and has
+the exclusive right of dissolving the chambers as preliminary
+to an appeal to the country.</p>
+
+<p>The senate is composed of seventy-six elected members and
+twenty-six members nominated by the provincial councils.
+A senator sits for eight years unless a dissolution is ordered,
+and no one is eligible until he is forty years of age. Half the
+seventy-six elected senators retire for re-election every four
+years. There is no payment or other privilege, except a pass
+on the state railways, attached to the rank of senator. The
+chamber of representatives contained one hundred and fifty-two
+members until 1899, when the number was increased to one
+hundred and sixty-six. Deputies are elected for four years, but
+half the house is re-elected every two years. A deputy must
+be twenty-five years of age, and the members of both houses
+must be of Belgian nationality, born or naturalized. A deputy
+receives an annual honorarium of 4000 francs and a railway
+pass. Down to 1893 the electorate was exceedingly small.
+Property and other qualifications kept the voting power in the
+hands of a limited class. This may be judged from the fact
+that in the year named there were only 137,772 voters out of a
+population of 65 millions. In April 1894 the new electoral law
+altered the whole system. The property qualification was
+removed and every Belgian was given one vote on attaining
+twenty-five years of age and after one year&rsquo;s residence in his
+commune. At the same time the principle of multiple votes for
+certain qualifications was introduced. The Belgian citizen on
+reaching the age of thirty-five, providing he is married or is a
+widower with legitimate offspring and pays five francs of direct
+taxes, gets a second vote. Two extra votes are given for qualifications
+of property, official status or university diplomas. The
+maximum voting power of any individual is three votes. In
+1904 there were 1,581,649 voters, possessing 2,467,966 votes.
+This system of plural voting has proved a success. It does not,
+however, satisfy the Socialists, whose formula is one man, one
+vote. The final change in the system of parliamentary elections
+was made in 1899-1900, when proportional representation was
+introduced. Proportional representation aims at the protection
+of minorities, and its working out is a little intricate, or at all
+events difficult to describe. The following has been accepted
+as a clear definition of what proportional representation is:&mdash;&ldquo;Each
+electoral district has the number of its members apportioned
+in accordance with the total strength of each party or
+political programme in that district. As a rule there are only the
+three chief parties, viz. Catholic, Liberal and Socialist, but the
+presence of Catholic-Democrats or some other new faction may
+increase the total to four or even five. The number of seats to
+be filled is divided by the number of parties or candidates, and
+then they are distributed in the proportion of the total followers
+or voters of each. The smallest minority is thus sure of one
+seat.&rdquo; An illustration may make this clearer. In an electoral
+district with 32,000 votes which returns eight deputies, four
+parties send up candidates, let us say, eight Catholics, eight
+Liberals, eight Socialists and one Catholic-Democrat. The
+result of the voting is, 16,000 Catholic votes, 9000 Liberal, 4500
+Socialist, and 2500 Catholic-Democrat. The seats would, therefore,
+be apportioned as follows: four Catholic, two Liberal, one
+Socialist and one Catholic-Democrat.</p>
+
+<p>The king has one right which other constitutional rulers do
+not possess. He can initiate proposals for new laws (<i>projets de
+loi</i>). He is also charged with the executive power
+which he delegates to a cabinet composed of ministers
+<span class="sidenote">Administration.</span>
+chosen from the party representing the majority
+in the chamber. Down to 1884 the Liberal party had held
+power with very few intervals since 1840. The Catholic party
+succeeded to office in 1884. The ministers represent departments
+for finance, foreign affairs, colonies, justice, the interior,
+science and arts, war, railways, posts and telegraphs, agriculture,
+public works, and industry and labour. The minister
+for war is generally a soldier, the others are civilians.
+Ministers may be members of either chamber and enjoy the
+privilege of being allowed to speak in both. Sometimes one
+minister will hold several portfolios at the same time, but such
+cases are rare.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom is divided into nine provinces which are subdivided
+into 342 cantons and 2623 communes. The provinces
+are governed by a governor nominated by the king, the canton
+is a judicial division for marking the limit of the jurisdiction of
+each <i>juge de paix</i>, and the commune is the administrative unit,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span>
+possessing self-government in all local matters. For each commune
+<span class="sidenote">Provinces and communes.</span>
+of 5000 inhabitants or over, a burgomaster is appointed by
+the communal council which is chosen by the electors
+of the commune. As three years&rsquo; residence is required
+these electors are fewer in number than those
+for the legislature. In 1902 there were 1,146,482
+voters with 2,007,704 votes, the principles of multiple votes,
+with, however, a maximum of four votes and proportional
+representation, being in force for communal as for legislative
+elections.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion</i>.&mdash;The constitution provides for absolute liberty of
+conscience and there is no state religion, but the people are
+almost to a man Roman Catholics. It is computed that there
+are 10,000 Protestants (half English) and 5000 Jews, and that
+all the rest are Catholics. The government in 1904 voted nearly
+7,000,000 francs in aid of the religious establishments of, and
+the benevolent institutions kept up by, the Roman Church.
+The grant to other cults amounted to 118,000 francs, but small
+as this sum may appear it is in due proportion to the relative
+numbers of each creed. The hierarchy of the Church of Rome
+in Belgium is composed of the archbishop of Malines, and the
+bishops of Liége, Ghent, Bruges, Tournai and Namur. The
+archbishop receives £800, and the bishops £600 apiece from the
+state yearly. The pay of the village <i>curé</i> averages £80 a year
+and a house. Besides the regular clergy there are the members
+of the numerous monastic and conventual houses established in
+Belgium. They are engaged principally in educational and
+eleemosynary work, and the development in such institutions
+is considerable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education</i>.&mdash;Education, though not obligatory, is free for
+those who cannot pay for it. In the primary schools instruction
+in reading, writing, arithmetic, history and geography is obligatory.
+In 1904 there were 7092 primary schools with 859,436
+pupils of both sexes. Of these 807,383 did not pay. Primary
+education is supposed to continue till the age of fourteen, but in
+practice it stops at twelve for all who do not intend to pass
+through the middle schools, which is essential for all persons
+seeking state employment of any kind. The middle schools
+have one privilege. They can give a certificate qualifying
+scholars for a mastership in the primary schools, which are
+under the full control of the communes. These appointments
+are always bestowed on local favourites. The pay of a schoolmaster
+in a small commune is only £48, and in a large town £96,
+with a maximum ranging from £80 to £152 after twenty-four
+years&rsquo; service. It is therefore clear that no very high qualifications
+could be expected from such a staff. The control of the
+state comes in to the extent of providing district inspectors
+who visit the schools once a year, and hold a meeting of the
+teachers in their district once a quarter. In each province there
+is a chief inspector who is bound to visit each school once in two
+years, and reports direct to the minister of public instruction.
+With regard to the middle schools, the government has reserved
+the right to appoint the teaching staff, and to prescribe the books
+that are to be used. The results of the middle schools are fairly
+satisfactory. Still better are the Athénées Royaux, twenty in
+number, which are quite independent of the commune and
+subject to official control under the superior direction of the
+king. Mathematics and classics are taught in them and the
+masters are allowed to take boarders. The expenditure of the
+state on education amounts to about a million sterling. In
+1860 the grants were only for little over one-eighth of the total
+in 1903. In 1900 31.94% of the toal population was illiterate.
+Considerable progress in the education of the people is made
+visible by a comparison of the figures of three decennial censuses.
+In 1880 the illiterate were 42.25% and in 1890 37.63, so that
+there was a further marked improvement by 1900. Among the
+provinces Walloon Belgium is better instructed than Flemish,
+Luxemburg coming first, followed by Namur, Liége and Brabant
+in their order.</p>
+
+<p>Higher instruction is given at the universities and in the
+schools attached thereto. Those at Ghent and Liége are state
+universities; the two others at Brussels and Louvain are free.
+At Louvain alone is there a faculty of theology. The number of
+students inscribed for the academical year 1904-1905 at each
+university was Ghent 899, Liége 1983, Brussels 1082, and
+Louvain 2134, or a grand total of 6098. Liége is specially
+famed for the technical schools attached to it. There are also
+a large number of state-aided schools for special purposes; (1) for
+military instruction, there are the <i>École Militaire</i> at Brussels,
+the school of cadets at Namur, and army schools at different
+stations, <i>e.g.</i> Bouillon, &amp;c. For officers in the army, there are
+the <i>École de Guerre</i> or staff college at Brussels with an average
+attendance of twenty, a riding school at Ypres where a course is
+obligatory for the cavalry and horse artillery, and for soldiers
+in the army there are regimental schools and evening classes for
+illiterate soldiers. (2) For education in the arts, there is the
+Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, and besides this
+famous school of painting there are eighty-four academies for
+teaching drawing throughout the kingdom. In music, there
+are royal conservatoires at Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, and
+Liége. Besides these there are sixty-nine minor conservatoires.
+(3) For commercial and professional education, there are 181
+schools. The Commercial Institute of Antwerp deserves special
+notice as an excellent school for clerks. (4) Among special
+schools may be named the three schools of navigation at Antwerp,
+Ostend and Nieuport. Since the wreck of the training-ship
+&ldquo;Comte de Smet de Naeyer&rdquo; in 1906, it has been decided that a
+stationary training-ship shall be placed in the Scheldt like the
+&ldquo;Worcester&rdquo; on the Thames. Among the numerous learned
+societies may be mentioned the Belgian Royal Academy founded
+in 1769 and revived in 1818. For the encouragement of research
+and literary style the government awards periodical prizes which
+are very keenly contested.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice</i>.&mdash;The administration of justice is very fully organized,
+and in the Code Belge, which was carefully compiled between
+1831 and 1836 from the old laws of the nine provinces leavened
+by the Code Napoleon and modern exigencies, the Belgians
+claim that they possess an almost perfect statute-book. The
+courts of law in their order are <i>Cour de Cassation</i>, <i>Cour d&rsquo;Appel</i>,
+<i>Cour de Première Instance</i>, and the <i>Juge de Paix</i> courts, one
+for each of the 342 cantons. The <i>Cour de Cassation</i> has a
+peculiar judicial sphere. It works automatically, examining
+every judgment to see if it is in strict accord with the code,
+and where it is not the decision or verdict is simply annulled.
+There is only one judge in this court, but he has the assistance of
+a large staff of revisers. The <i>Cour de Cassation</i> never tries a case
+itself except when a minister of state is the accused. The
+president of this tribunal is the highest legal functionary in
+Belgium. There are three courts of appeal, viz. at Brussels,
+Ghent and Liége. At Brussels there are four separate chambers
+or tribunals in the appeal court. Judges of appeal are appointed
+by the king for life from lists of eligible barristers prepared by
+the senate and the courts. Judges can only be removed by the
+unanimous vote of their brother judges. There are twenty-six
+courts of first instance distributed among the principal towns
+of the kingdom, and in Antwerp, Ghent and Liége there are
+besides special tribunals for the settlement of commercial cases.
+Of course there is the right of appeal from the decisions of these
+tribunals as well as of the regular courts. Finally the 342 <i>Juge
+de Paix</i> courts resemble British county courts. Criminal cases are
+tried by (1) the <i>Tribunaux de Police</i>, (2) <i>Tribunaux Correctionnels</i>,
+(3) and the <i>Cours d&rsquo;Assises</i>. The last are held as the length of
+the calendar requires. Capital punishment is retained on the
+statute, but is never enforced, the prisoner on whom sentence
+of death is passed in due form in open court being relegated to
+imprisonment for life in solitary confinement and perpetual
+silence. The chief prisons are at Louvain, Ghent and St Gilles
+(Brussels), and the last named serves as a house of detention.
+At Merxplas, near the Dutch frontier, is the agricultural criminal
+colony at which an average number of two thousand prisoners are
+kept employed in comparative liberty within the radius of the
+convict settlement.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pauperism</i>.&mdash;For the relief of pauperism there are a limited
+number of houses of mendicity, in which inmates are received,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span>
+and houses of refuge for night shelter. At the <i>béguinages</i> of
+Ghent and Bruges women and girls able to contribute a specified
+sum towards their support are given a home.</p>
+
+<p><i>National Finance.</i>&mdash;The budget is submitted to the chambers
+by the minister of finance and passed by them. The revenue
+and expenditure were in the years stated as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Revenue.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Expenditure.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880.</td> <td class="tcl rb">394,215,932 francs</td> <td class="tcl rb">382,908,429 francs</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895.</td> <td class="tcl rb">395,730,445 &emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">410,383,402 &emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1903.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">632,416,810 &emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">627,975,568 &emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The revenue is made up from taxes, including customs, tolls,
+including returns from railway traffic, &amp;c., and the balance comes
+from various revenues, return of capital, loans, &amp;c. The following
+are the principal items of expenditure (1903):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Service of debt</td> <td class="tcr cl">143,065,352</td> <td class="tcl cl">francs</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sovereign, senate, chamber, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr">5,289,087</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Departments, foreign office</td> <td class="tcr cl">3,751,636</td> <td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; agriculture</td> <td class="tcr">12,253,957</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; railways</td> <td class="tcr cl">165,086,019</td> <td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; finance</td> <td class="tcr">34,479,674</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; industry</td> <td class="tcr cl">19,905,589</td> <td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; war</td> <td class="tcr">63,972,473</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; public instruction</td> <td class="tcr cl">31,799,105</td> <td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp; justice</td> <td class="tcr">27,168,032</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Minor items</td> <td class="tcr cl">4,179,046</td> <td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">510,949,970</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">========</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The difference is made up of &ldquo;special expenditure.&rdquo; The total
+debt in English money may be put at 126 millions sterling, which
+requires for interest, sinking fund and service about 5¾ millions
+sterling annually. The rate of interest on all the loans extant
+is 3%, except on one loan of 219,959,632 francs, which pays
+only 2½%.</p>
+
+<p><i>Army and National Defence.</i>&mdash;The army is divided into the
+regular army, the gendarmerie, and the <i>garde civique</i>. The
+Belgian regular army is thus composed: infantry, one regiment
+of carabiniers, one of grenadiers, three of <i>chasseurs à pied</i>, and
+fourteen of the line, all these regiments having 3 or 4 active
+and 3 or 4 reserve battalions apiece; cavalry, two regiments
+of guides, two of <i>chasseurs à cheval</i>, and four of lancers,
+all light cavalry; artillery, four horse, thirty field, and seventy
+siege batteries on active service; engineers, 140 officers and
+2000 men. The train or commissariat has only 30 officers
+and 600 men on the permanent establishment. Belgium
+retains the older form of conscription, and has not adopted the
+system of &ldquo;universal service.&rdquo; The annual levy is small and
+substitution is permitted. In 1904 the number inscribed for
+service was 64,042. Of these only 12,525 were enrolled in the
+army, and of that number 1421 were volunteers, who took an
+engagement on receipt of a premium. The effective strength of
+the army in 1904 with the colours was 3406 officers and 40,382
+men. To this total has to be added the men on the active list,
+but either absent on leave or allowed to return to civil life,
+numbering 70,043. It is assumed that on mobilization these
+men are immediately available. The reserve consists of 181
+officers and 58,014 men, so that the total strength of the Belgian
+army is 3587 officers and 168,439 men. The field force in war is
+organized in four infantry and two cavalry divisions, the total
+strength being about 100,000. The peace effective has not varied
+much since 1870, but the total paper strength is 75,000 more
+than in that year. In the years 1900-1904 it increased by 8000
+men. The gendarmerie is a mounted force composed of men
+picked for their physique and divided into three divisions. It
+numbers 67 officers and 3079 men, but has no reserve. It is in
+every sense a <i>corps d&rsquo;élite</i>, and may be classed as first-rate heavy
+cavalry. The total strength of the <i>garde civique</i> in 1905 was
+35,102, to which have to be added 8532 volunteers belonging to
+the corps of older formation, service in which counts on a par
+with the <i>garde civique</i>. Some of the latter regiments, especially
+the artillery, would rank with British volunteers, but the mass
+of the <i>garde civique</i> does not pretend to possess military value.
+It is a defence against sedition and socialism. The defence of
+Belgium depends on five fortified positions. The fortified position
+and camp of Antwerp represents the true base of the national
+defence. Its detached forts shelter the city from bombardment,
+and so long as sea communication is open with England, Antwerp
+would be practically impregnable. Liége with twelve forts and
+Namur with nine forts are the fortified <i>têtes de pont</i> protecting
+the two most important passages of the Meuse. The forts are
+constructed in concrete with armoured cupolas. Termonde on
+the Scheldt and Diest on the Dender are retained as nominally
+fortified positions, but neither, could resist a regular bombardment
+for more than a few hours, as their casemates are not
+bomb-proof.</p>
+
+<p>The training camp of the Belgian army is at Beverloo in the
+province of Limburg, and at Braschaet not far from Antwerp
+are ranges for artillery as well as rifle practice. The Belgian
+officer is technically as well trained and educated as any in
+Europe, but he lacks practical experience in military service.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mines and Industry.</i>&mdash;The principal mineral produced in
+Belgium is coal. This is found in the Borinage district near
+Mons and in the neighbourhood of Liége, but the working of an
+entirely new coal-field, which promises to attain vast dimensions,
+was commenced in 1906 in the Campine district of the province
+of Limburg. The coal mines of Belgium give employment to
+nearly 150,000 persons, and for some years the average output
+has exceeded 22,000,000 tons. Other minerals are iron, manganese,
+lead and zinc. The iron mines produce much less than formerly,
+and the want of iron is a grave defect in Belgian prosperity, as
+about £5,000,000 sterling worth of iron has to be imported annually,
+chiefly from French Lorraine. The chief metal industry of the
+country is represented by the iron and steel works of Charleroi
+and Liége. Belgium is particularly rich in quarries of marble,
+granite and slate. Ghent is the capital of the textile industry,
+and all the towns of Flanders are actively engaged in producing
+woollen and cotton materials and in lace manufacture. The
+bulk of the population is, however, engaged in agriculture,
+and the extent of land under cultivation of all kinds is about
+6½ million acres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;The trade returns for 1904 were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;<i>Imports&mdash;</i></td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">General Commerce</td> <td class="tcl">4,426,400,000 francs</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Special Commerce (included in General Commerce)</td> <td class="tcl">2,782,200,000 &emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl pt1">&emsp;&emsp;<i>Exports&mdash;</i></td> <td class="tcl pt1">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">General Commerce</td> <td class="tcl">3,849,100,000 &emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Special Commerce (included in General Commerce)</td> <td class="tcl">2,183,300,000 &emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The general commerce includes goods in transit across Belgium,
+the special commerce takes into account only the produce and
+the consumption of Belgium itself. The trade of Belgium has
+more than trebled as regards both imports and exports since
+1870. The following table shows the amount of exports and imports
+between Belgium and the more important foreign states:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Exports.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr">465,684,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">francs</td> <td class="tcr">346,670,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">francs</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">351,025,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">505,473,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">England</td> <td class="tcr">335,404,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">392,324,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr">240,873,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">268,781,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr">222,301,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">86,324,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcr">212,119,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">26,671,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argentina</td> <td class="tcr">198,913,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">41,508,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British India</td> <td class="tcr">141,669,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">25,860,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumani</td> <td class="tcr">102,174,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">3,949,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australia</td> <td class="tcr">58,190,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">12,087,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Congo State</td> <td class="tcr">53,100,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">14,049,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">China</td> <td class="tcr bb">8,770,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr bb">25,546,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In the relative magnitude of the annual value of its commerce,
+excluding that in transit, Belgium stands sixth among the nations
+of the world, following Great Britain, the United States, Germany,
+France and Holland. The principal imports are food supplies
+and raw material such as cotton, wool, silk, flax, hemp and jute.
+Among minerals, iron ore, sulphur, copper, coal, tin, lead and
+diamonds are the most imported. The exports of greatest value
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span>
+are textiles, lace, coal, coke, briquettes, glass, machinery, railway
+material and fire arms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shipping and Navigation.</i>&mdash;Belgium has no state navy, although
+various proposals have been made from time to time to establish
+an armed flotilla in connexion with the defence of Antwerp.
+The state, however, possesses a certain number of steamers.
+In 1904 they numbered sixty-five of 99,893 tons. These steamers
+are chiefly employed on the passenger route between Ostend
+and Dover. The total number of vessels entering the only two
+ports of Belgium which carry on ocean commerce, namely
+Antwerp and Ostend, in 1904 was 7650 of a tonnage of 10,330,127.
+Among inland ports that of Ghent is the most important, 1127
+ships of a tonnage of 786,362 having entered the port in 1904.
+The corresponding figures for ships sailing from the two ports
+first named were in the same year 7642 and tonnage 10,298,405.
+The figures from Ghent were 1128 and 787,173 tons. Whereas
+the lines of steamers from Ostend are chiefly with Dover and
+London, those from Antwerp proceed to all parts of the world.
+A steam service was established in 1906 from Hull to Bruges by
+Zeebrugge and the ship canal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Internal Communications.</i>&mdash;The internal communications of
+Belgium of every kind are excellent. The roads outside the
+province of Luxemburg and Namur are generally paved. In
+the provinces named, or in other words, in the region south
+of the Meuse, the roads are macadamized. The total length of
+roads is about 6000 m. When Belgium became a separate state
+in 1830 they were less than one-third of this total. There are
+about 2900 m. of railways, of which upwards of 2500 m. are
+state railways. It is of interest to note that the state railways
+derived a revenue of 249,355 francs (or nearly £10,000) from
+the penny tickets for the admission of non-travellers to railway
+stations. Besides the main railways there are numerous light
+railways (<i>chemins de fer vicinaux</i>), of a total length approaching
+2500 m. There are also electric and steam tramways in all
+the principal cities. The total of navigable waterways is given
+as 1360 m. Posts, telegraphs and telephones are exclusively
+under state management and form a government department.</p>
+
+<p><i>Banks and Money.</i>&mdash;The principal banking institution is the
+Banque Nationale which issues the bank-notes in current use. In
+1904 the average value of notes in circulation was 645,989,100 francs.
+The rate of discount was 3% throughout the whole of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The mintage of Belgian money is carried out by a <i>directeur
+de la fabrication</i> who is nominated by and responsible to the
+government. The gold coins are for 10 and 20 francs, silver
+for half francs, francs, 2 francs and 5 francs. Nickel money is
+for 5, 10 and 20 centimes, and the copper coinage has been
+withdrawn from circulation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>Annuaire statistique de la Belgique</i> (1905); Beltjens
+and Godenne, <i>La Constitution belge</i> (Brussels, 1880); <i>La Belgique
+illustrée</i> (Brussels, 1878-1882); <i>Les Pandectes belges</i> (Brussels, 1898);
+<i>Annales du parlement belge</i> for each year; <i>Belgian Life in Town and
+Country</i>, &ldquo;Our Neighbours&rdquo; Series (London, 1904). For geology see
+C. Dewalque, <i>Prodrome d&rsquo;une description géologique de la Belgique</i>
+(Brussels, 1880); M. Mourlon, <i>Géologie de la Belgique</i> (Brussels,
+1880-1881); F.L. Cornet and A. Briart, &ldquo;Sur le relief du sol en
+Belgique après les temps paléozoques,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg.</i> vol. iv.,
+1877, pp. 71-115, pls. v.-xi. (see also other papers by the same
+authors in the same journal); J. Gosselet, <i>L&rsquo;Ardenne</i> (Paris, 1888);
+M. Bertrand, &ldquo;Études sur le bassin houiller du nord et sur le
+Boulonnais,&rdquo; <i>Ann. des mines</i>, ser. ix. vol. vi. (Mém.), pp. 569-635,
+1894; C. Malaise, &ldquo;État actuel de nos connaissances sur le silurien
+de la Belgique,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg.</i> vol. xxv, 1900-1901, pp. 179-221;
+H. Forir, &ldquo;Bibliographie des étages laekénien, lédien, wemmélien,
+asschien, tongrien, rupélien et boldérien et des dépêts
+tertiaires de la haute et moyenne Belgique,&rdquo; <i>ibid.</i> pp. 223 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. C. B.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The political severance of the northern and southern Netherlands
+may be conveniently dated from the opening of the year
+1579. By the signing of the league of Arras (5th of January)
+the Walloon &ldquo;Malcontents&rdquo; declared their adherence to the
+cause of Catholicism and their loyalty to the Spanish king, and
+broke away definitely from the northern provinces, who bound
+themselves by the union of Utrecht (29th of January) to defend
+their rights and liberties, political and religious, against all
+<span class="sidenote1">Final separation of the northern and southern Netherlands.</span>
+foreign potentates. Brabant and Flanders were still indeed under
+the control of the prince of Orange and through his
+influence accepted in 1582 the duke of Anjou as their
+sovereign. The French prince was actually inaugurated
+duke of Brabant at Antwerp (February 1582) and count
+of Flanders at Bruges (July), but his misconduct
+speedily led to his withdrawal from the Netherlands,
+and even before the assassination of Orange (July
+1584) the authority of Philip had been practically restored
+throughout the two provinces. This had been achieved by the
+military skill and statesmanlike abilities of Alexander
+<span class="sidenote1">Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, governor-general.
+<br />Successes of Parma.</span>
+Farnese, prince of Parma, appointed governor-general
+on the death of Don John of Austria, on the
+1st of October 1578. Farnese first won by promises
+and blandishments the confidence of the Walloons,
+always jealous of the predominance of the &ldquo;Flemish&rdquo;
+provinces, and then proceeded to make himself master of Brabant
+and Flanders by force of arms. In succession Ypres, Mechlin,
+Ghent, Brussels, and finally Antwerp (17th of August
+1585) fell into his hands. Philip had in the southern
+Netherlands attained his object, and Belgium was
+henceforth Catholic and Spanish, but at the expense of its
+progress and prosperity. Thousands of its inhabitants, and
+those the most enterprising and intelligent, fled from the Inquisition,
+and made their homes in the Dutch republic or in England.
+All commerce and industry was at a standstill; grass grew in
+the streets of Bruges and Ghent; and the trade of Antwerp was
+transferred to Amsterdam. On Parma&rsquo;s death (3rd of December
+1592) the archduke Ernest of Austria was appointed governor-general,
+but he died after a short tenure of office (20th of February
+1595) and was at the beginning of 1596 succeeded by his younger
+brother the cardinal archduke Albert. Philip was now nearing
+<span class="sidenote1">Albert and Isabel, sovereigns of the Netherlands.</span>
+his end, and in 1598 he gave his eldest daughter Isabel
+in marriage to her cousin the archduke Albert, and
+erected the Netherlands into a sovereign state under
+their joint rule. The advent of the new sovereigns,
+officially known as &ldquo;the archdukes,&rdquo; though greeted
+with enthusiasm in the Belgic provinces, was looked
+upon with suspicion by the Dutch, who were as firmly resolved
+as ever to uphold their independence. The chief military
+event of the early years of their reign was the battle of Nieuport
+<span class="sidenote1">The twelve years&rsquo; truce.
+<br />The rule of the archdukes.</span>
+(2nd of July 1600), in which Maurice of Nassau defeated
+the archduke Albert, and the siege of Ostend, which
+after a three years&rsquo; heroic defence was surrendered
+(20th of September 1604) to the archduke&rsquo;s general,
+Spinola. The Dutch, however, being masters of the sea, kept
+the coast closely blockaded, and through sheer exhaustion the
+king of Spain and the archdukes were compelled to
+agree to a truce for twelve years (9th of April 1609)
+with the United Provinces &ldquo;in the capacity of free
+states over which Albert and Isabel made no pretensions.&rdquo;
+During the period of the truce the archdukes, who were
+wise and statesmanlike rulers, did their utmost to restore
+<span class="sidenote1">Reversion of the southern Netherlands to Spain, 1633.</span>
+prosperity to their country and to improve its internal
+condition. Unfortunately they were childless, and
+the instrument of cession of 1598 provided that in
+case they should die without issue, the Netherlands
+should revert to the crown of Spain. This reversion
+actually took place. Albert died in 1621, just before the
+renewal of the war with the Dutch, and Isabel in 1633.
+The Belgic provinces therefore passed under the rule of Philip IV.,
+and were henceforth known as the Spanish Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>This connexion with the declining fortunes of Spain was
+disastrous to the well-being of the Belgian people, for during
+many years a close alliance bound together France and the
+United Provinces, and the Southern Netherlands were exposed
+<span class="sidenote1">Peace of Münster.</span>
+to attack from both sides, and constantly suffered
+from the ravages of hostile armies. The cardinal archduke
+Ferdinand, governor-general from 1634-1641, was
+a capable ruler, and by his military skill prevented in a succession
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span>
+of campaigns the forces of the enemy from overrunning the
+country. On the 30th of January 1648, Spain concluded a
+separate peace at Münster with the Dutch, by which Philip IV.
+<span class="sidenote1">Ruinous consequences of the closing of the Scheldt.</span>
+finally renounced all his claims and rights over the
+United Provinces, and made many concessions to them.
+Among these was the closing of the Scheldt to all ships,
+a clause which was ruinous to the commerce of the
+Belgic provinces, by cutting them off from their only
+access to the ocean. Thus they remained for a long
+course of years without a sea-port, and in the many wars that
+broke out between Spain and France were constantly exposed,
+as an outlying Spanish dependency, to the first attack, and peace
+when it came was usually purchased at the cost of some part of
+Belgian territory. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) Artois
+<span class="sidenote1">Successive cession of Belgian territory to France.</span>
+(except St Omer and Aire) and a number of towns in
+Flanders, Hainaut, and Luxemburg were ceded to
+France. Subsequent French conquests, confirmed by
+the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), took away Lille,
+Douai, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Coutrai and Tournai.
+These were, indeed, partly restored to Belgium by the peace of
+Nijmwegen (1679); but on the other hand it lost Valenciennes,
+Nieuport, St Omer, Ypres and Charlemont, which were only in
+part recovered by the peace of Ryswick (1697).</p>
+
+<p>The internal history of the Belgic provinces has little to record
+during this long period in which the ambition of Louis XIV. to
+possess himself of the Netherlands, in right of his wife the infanta
+Maria Theresa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spanish Succession</a></span>), led to a series of
+invasions and desolating wars. The French king managed to
+incorporate a large slice of territory upon his northern frontier,
+but his main object was baffled by the steady resistance and able
+statesmanship of William III. of England and Holland. Meanwhile
+from 1692 onwards brighter prospects were opened out to
+the unfortunate Belgians by the nomination by the Spanish king
+of Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, to be governor-general
+with well-nigh sovereign powers. The elector had himself
+a claim to the inheritance as the husband of an Austrian archduchess,
+whose mother, the infanta Margaret, was the younger
+sister of the French queen. Maximilian Emanuel was an able
+man, who did his utmost to improve the condition of the country.
+<span class="sidenote1">Efforts of the elector of Bavaria to promote trade.</span>
+He attempted to promote trade and restore prosperity
+to the impoverished land by the introduction of new
+customs laws and other measures, and particularly by
+the construction of canals to counteract the damage
+done to Belgian commerce by the closing of the Scheldt.
+The position of the elector was greatly strengthened by the
+partition treaty of the 19th of August 1698. Under this instrument
+the signatory powers&mdash;England, France and Holland&mdash;agreed
+that on the demise of Charles II. the crown prince of
+Bavaria under his father&rsquo;s guardianship should be sovereign of
+Spain, Belgium and Spanish America. Charles II. himself
+<span class="sidenote1">The Spanish succession.</span>
+shortly afterwards by will appointed the Bavarian
+prince heir to all his dominions.
+The death of the infant heir a few months later (6th of February 1699)
+unfortunately destroyed any prospects of a peaceable
+settlement of the Spanish Succession. Charles II. was persuaded
+to name as his sole successor, Philip duke of Anjou, the second
+son of the dauphin, and on his death (on the 1st November 1700)
+Louis XIV. took immediate steps to support his grandson&rsquo;s
+claims, in spite of his formal renunciation of such claims under
+<span class="sidenote1">The Grand Alliance.</span>
+the treaty of the Pyrenees. England and Holland were determined to prevent, however,
+at all costs the acquisition of Belgium by a French prince, and a
+coalition, known as the Grand Alliance, was formed between
+these two powers and the empire to uphold the claims of the
+archduke Charles, second son of the emperor.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first steps of Louis was to take possession of the
+Netherlands. The hereditary feud between the houses of
+Austria and Bavaria induced the elector to take the
+<span class="sidenote1">Marlborough&rsquo;s successes.</span>
+side of France, and he was nominated by Philip V.
+vicar-general of the Netherlands. The unhappy Belgic
+provinces were again doomed for a number of years to
+be the battle-ground of the contending forces, and it was on
+Belgic soil that Marlborough won the great victories of Ramillies
+(1706) and of Oudenarde (1708), by which he was enabled to drive
+the French armies out of the Netherlands and to carry the war
+into French territory. At the general peace concluded at
+Utrecht (11th of April 1713) the long connexion between Belgium
+<span class="sidenote1">Peace of Utrecht.
+<br />The Austrian Netherlands.</span>
+and Spain was severed, and this portion of the Burgundian
+inheritance of Charles V. placed under the
+sovereignty of the Habsburg claimant, who had, by
+the death of his brother, become the emperor Charles VI.
+The Belgic provinces now came for a full century to be known as the
+Austrian Netherlands. Yet such was the dread of
+France and the enfeebled state of the country that
+Holland retained the privilege, which had been conceded
+to her during the war, of garrisoning the principal
+fortresses or Barrier towns, on the French frontier, and her
+right to close the navigation on the Scheldt was again ratified by
+a European treaty. The beginnings of Austrian sovereignty
+were marked by many collisions between the representatives
+of the new rulers and the States General, and provincial &ldquo;states.&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote1">Marquis de Prié in Belgium.</span>
+Despite their troubled history and long subjection,
+the Belgic provinces still retained to an unusual
+degree their local liberties and privileges, and more
+especially the right of not being taxed, except by the
+express consent of the states. The marquis de Prié, who (as
+deputy for Prince Eugene) was the imperial governor from 1719
+to 1726, encountered on the part of local authorities and town
+gilds vigorous resistance to his attempt to rule the Netherlands
+as an Austrian dependency, and he was driven to take strong
+<span class="sidenote1">Execution of Francis Anneesens.</span>
+measures to assert his authority. He selected as his
+victim a powerful popular leader at Brussels,
+Francis Anneesens, syndic of the gild of St Nicholas, who was
+beheaded on the 19th of September 1719. His name
+is remembered in Belgian annals as a patriot martyr to the
+cause of liberty. The administration of de Prié was not, however,
+without its redeeming features. He endeavoured to create
+at Ostend a seaport, capable in some measure
+to take the place of Antwerp, and in 1722 a Chartered Company of Ostend
+<span class="sidenote1">Chartered Company of Ostend.</span>
+was erected for the purpose of trading in the East and
+West Indies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ostend</a></span>). The determined hostility
+of the Dutch rendered the promising scheme futile,
+and after a precarious struggle for existence, Charles VI., in order
+to gain the assent of the United Provinces and Great Britain to
+the Pragmatic Sanction (<i>q.v.</i>), suppressed the Company in 1731.</p>
+
+<p>For sixteen years (1725-1741) the archduchess Mary Elizabeth,
+sister of the emperor, filled the post of governor-general. Her
+rule was marked by the restoration of the old form
+<span class="sidenote">Archduchess Mary Elizabeth.</span>
+of administration under the three councils, and was
+a period of general tranquillity.
+She died (1741) in the Netherlands, and the empress-queen,
+Maria Theresa, who had succeeded under the Pragmatic Sanction
+to the Burgundian domains of her father about a year before,
+appointed her brother-in-law, Charles of Lorraine, to be
+governor-general in her aunt&rsquo;s place, and he retained that post,
+to the great advantage of Belgium, for nearly forty years.
+<span class="sidenote">Charles of Lorraine.</span>
+He was deservedly known as the &ldquo;Good Governor.&rdquo;
+The first years of his administration were stormy.
+During the Austrian War of Succession the country was conquered
+by the French, and for two years Marshal Saxe bore the title of
+governor-general, but it was restored to Austria by the peace of
+Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Belgium was undisturbed by the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War (1756-1763), and during the long peace which followed
+enjoyed considerable prosperity. Charles of Lorraine thoroughly
+identified himself with the best interests of the country, and was
+the champion of its liberties, and though he had at times to make
+a stand against the imperialistic tendencies of the chancellor
+Kaunitz, he was able to rely on the steady support of the empress,
+who appreciated the wise and liberal policy of her brother-in-law.
+Although the Scheldt was still closed, Charles endeavoured by
+a large extension of the canal system to facilitate commercial
+intercourse, he encouraged agriculture, and was successful in
+restoring the prosperity of the country. He also did much for
+the advancement of learning, founding, among other institutions,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span>
+the Academy of Science, and he consistently restrained the undue
+intervention of the church in secular affairs, and placed restrictions
+upon the accumulation of property in the hands of
+religious bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Charles of Lorraine preceded only by a few
+months that of Maria Theresa, whose son Joseph II. not only
+appointed his sister, the archduchess Maria Christine,
+governor-general, but visited Belgium in person and
+<span class="sidenote">Reforming zeal of Joseph II.</span>
+showed a great and active interest in its affairs.
+Here as elsewhere in his dominions his intentions
+were excellent, but his reforming zeal outran discretion, and his
+hasty and self-opinionated interferences with treaty rights and
+traditional privileges ended in provoking opposition and disaster.
+Finding the United Provinces hampered by a war with England,
+he seized the opportunity to try to get rid of the impediments
+placed upon Belgian development by the Barrier and other
+treaties with Holland. He was able to compel the Dutch to
+withdraw their garrisons from the Barrier towns, but was wholly
+unsuccessful in his high-handed attempt to free the navigation
+of the Scheldt. These efforts to coerce the Dutch, though
+marred by partial failure, were, however, calculated to win for
+Joseph II. popularity with his Belgian subjects; but it was far
+otherwise with his policy of internal reform. He offended the
+states by seeking to sweep away many of their inherited privileges
+and to change the time-honoured, if somewhat obsolete, system
+of civil government. He further excited the religious feelings
+of the people against him, by his edict of Tolerance (1780), and
+his later attempts at the reform of clerical abuses, which were
+pronounced to be an infraction of the Joyous Entry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joyeuse
+Entrée</a></span>). Fierce opposition was aroused. Numbers of malcontents
+left the country and organized themselves as a military
+force in Holland. As the discontent became more general, the
+<span class="sidenote">The Brabancon revolt.</span>
+insurgents returned, took several forts, defeated the
+Austrians at Turnhout, and overran the country.
+On the 11th of December 1789, the people of Brussels
+rose against the Austrian garrison, and compelled it to
+capitulate, and, on the 27th, the states of Brabant declared
+their independence. The other provinces followed and, on the
+11th of January 1790, the whole formed themselves into an
+independent state, under the name of the &ldquo;Belgian United
+States.&rdquo; A few weeks later, on the 20th of February, Joseph II.
+died, his end hastened by chagrin at the utter failure of his well-meant
+efforts, and was succeeded by Leopold II.</p>
+
+<p>The new emperor at once took steps to re-assert, if possible,
+his authority in Belgium without having recourse to armed
+force. He offered the states, if the people would return
+to their allegiance, the restoration of their ancient
+<span class="sidenote">Leopold II. pacifies the country.</span>
+constitution and a general amnesty. This, however,
+did not suit views of the popular party, who, under
+the leadership of an advocate named Van der Noot, had possession
+of the reins of power, and were uplifted by their success.
+The terms offered in an imperial proclamation were rejected,
+and preparations were made to resist coercion by the <i>levée en
+masse</i> of a national army. When, however, in November 1790,
+a powerful Austrian force entered the country, there was practically
+little opposition to its advance. The popular leaders
+fled, the form of government, as it existed at the end of the
+reign of Maria Theresa, and an amnesty for past offences was
+proclaimed; a superficial pacification of the revolted provinces
+was effected, and Austrian rule re-established. It was destined
+to be short-lived. In 1792 the armies of revolutionary France
+assailed Austria at her weakest point by an invasion of Belgium.
+The battle of Jemappes (7th of November) made the French
+<span class="sidenote">Conquest of Belgium by the French.</span>
+masters of the southern portion of the Austrian
+Netherlands; the battle of Fleurus (26th of June 1794)
+put an end to the rule of the Habsburgs over the Belgic
+provinces. The treaty of Campo Formio (1797) and
+the subsequent treaty of Lunéville (1801) confirmed the conquerors
+in the possession of the country, and Belgium became
+an integral part of France, being governed on the same footing,
+receiving the <i>Code Napoléon</i>, and sharing in the fortunes of the
+Republic and the Empire. After the fall of Napoleon and the
+conclusion of the first peace of Paris (30th of May 1814)
+Belgium was indeed for some months placed under the administration
+<span class="sidenote">Union of Holland and Belgium under William I.</span>
+of an Austrian governor-general, but it
+was shortly afterwards united with Holland to form
+the kingdom of the Netherlands. The sovereignty
+of the newly formed state was given to the prince of
+Orange, who mounted the throne (23rd of March 1815)
+under the title of William I. The congress of Vienna
+(31st of May 1815) determined the relations and fixed the
+boundaries of the kingdom; and the new constitution was promulgated
+on the 24th of August following, the king taking the
+oath at Brussels on the 27th of September.</p>
+
+<p>From this date until the Belgian revolt of 1830, the history
+of Holland and Belgium is that of two portions of one political
+entity, but in the relations of those two portions were
+to be found from the very outset fundamental causes
+<span class="sidenote">1814-1830.</span>
+tending to disagreement and separation. The Dutch
+and Belgian provinces of the Netherlands had for one hundred
+and thirty years passed through totally different experiences,
+and had drifted farther and farther apart from one another
+in character, in habits, in ideas and above all in religion. In
+the south the policy of Alva and Philip II. had been wholly
+successful, and the Belgian people, Flemings and Walloons alike,
+were perhaps more devoted to the Catholic faith than any other
+in Europe. On the other hand the incorporation of the country
+for two decades in the French republic and empire had left deep
+traces on a considerable section of the population, the French
+language was commonly spoken and was exclusively used in
+the law courts and in all public proceedings, and French political
+theories had made many converts. The Fundamental Law
+promulgated by William I. aroused strong opposition among
+both the Catholic and Liberal parties in Belgium. The large
+powers granted to the king under the new constitution displeased
+the Liberals, who saw in its provision only a disguised form of
+personal government. The principle of liberty of worship and of
+the press, which it laid down, was so offensive to the Catholics
+that the bishops condemned it publicly, and in the Doctrinal
+Judgment actually forbade their flocks to take the oath. The
+&ldquo;close and complete union,&rdquo; which was stipulated under the
+treaty of 1814, began under unfavourable auspices. Nevertheless
+the difficulties might have been smoothed away in the course
+of time, had the Belgians felt that the Dutch were treating
+them in a fair and conciliatory spirit. This, despite the undoubtedly
+good intentions of the king, was far from being the
+case. Belgium was regarded too much in the light of an annexed
+<span class="sidenote">Causes of disagreement between Holland and Belgium.</span>
+territory, handed over to Holland as compensation for
+the losses sustained by the Dutch in the revolutionary
+and Napoleonic wars. The idea that Holland was the
+predominant partner in the kingdom of the Netherlands
+was firmly rooted in the north and naturally provoked
+in the south the feeling that Belgium was being exploited
+for the benefit of the Dutch. The grievances of
+the Belgians were indeed very substantial. The seat of government
+was in Holland, the king was a Dutchman by birth and
+training, and a Calvinistic protestant by religion. Though the
+population of Belgium was 3,400,000 and that of Holland only
+a little more than 2,000,000 the two countries had equal representation
+in the second chamber of the states-general. Practically
+in all important legislative measures affecting the interests
+of the two countries the Dutch government were able to command
+a small but permanent majority. The use of the term
+&ldquo;the Dutch Government&rdquo; is strictly accurate, for the great
+majority of the public offices were filled by northerners. In
+1830, of the seven members of the ministry only one was a
+Belgian; in the home department out of 117 officials 11 only
+were Belgians; in the ministry of war 3 were Belgians out of
+102; of the officers of the army 288 out of 1967. All the public
+<span class="sidenote">Attitude of the king.</span>
+establishments, the Bank, the military schools, were
+Dutch. That such was the case must not be entirely
+charged to partiality, still less to deliberate unfairness
+on the part of William I. The conduct of the king
+proves that he had a most sincere regard for the welfare of his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span>
+Belgian subjects, and in his choice of measures and men his
+aim was to secure the prosperity of his new kingdom by a policy
+of unification. This was the object he had in view in his attempt
+to make Dutch, except in the Walloon districts, the official
+language for all public and judicial acts, and a knowledge of
+Dutch a necessary qualification for every person entering the
+public service. That the fierce opposition which this attempt
+<span class="sidenote">Language question.</span>
+aroused in the Flemish-speaking provinces was ill-considered
+and unwise, is shown by the fact that in
+recent years there has been a patriotic movement
+in these same provinces which has been successful in forcing
+the Belgian government to adopt Flemish (<i>i.e.</i> Dutch) as well as
+French for official usage. This Flemish movement is all in favour
+of establishing close relations with the sister people of the north.
+Moreover it cannot be gainsaid that Belgium during her union
+with Holland enjoyed a degree of prosperity that
+<span class="sidenote">Belgian prosperity during the union.</span>
+was quite remarkable. The mineral wealth of the
+country was largely developed, the iron manufactures
+of Liége made rapid advance, the woollen manufactures
+of Verviers received a similar impulse, and many large
+establishments were formed at Ghent and other places, where
+cotton goods were produced which rivalled those of England and
+surpassed those of France. The extensive colonial and foreign
+trade of the Dutch furnished them with markets, while the
+opening of the navigation of the Scheldt raised Antwerp once
+more to a place of high commercial importance. The government
+also did much in the way of improving the internal communications
+of the country, in repairing the roads and canals,
+in forming new ones, in deepening and widening rivers, and the
+like. Nor was the social and intellectual improvement of the
+people by any means neglected. A new university was formed at
+Liége, normal schools for the instruction of teachers were instituted,
+and numerous elementary schools and schools for higher
+instruction were established over the country. These measures
+for the furthering of education among the people on the part
+of a government mainly composed of Protestants were received
+with suspicion and disfavour by the priests, and still more the
+attempts subsequently made to regulate the education of the
+priests themselves. The establishment under the auspices of
+the king in 1825 of the Philosophical College at Louvain, and
+the requirement that every priest before ordination should
+spend two years in study there, gave great offence to the clerical
+party, and some of the bishops were prosecuted for the violence
+of their denunciations at this intrusion of the secular arm into
+the religious domain. With the view of terminating these
+differences the king in 1827 entered into a <i>concordat</i> with the
+pope, and an agreement was reached with regard to nominations
+to bishoprics, clerical education and other questions, which
+should have satisfied all reasonable men. But in 1828 the two
+extreme parties, the Catholic Ultramontanes and the revolutionary
+Liberals, in their common hatred to the Dutch régime,
+formed an alliance, the <i>union</i>, for the overthrow of the government.
+Petitions were sent in setting forth the Belgian grievances,
+demanding a separate administration for Belgium and a full
+concession of the liberties guaranteed by the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>Matters were in this state when the news of the success of the
+July revolution of 1830 at Paris reached Brussels, at this time
+a city of refuge for the intriguing and discontented
+of almost every country of Europe. The first outbreak
+<span class="sidenote">Brussels outbreak of 1830.</span>
+took place on the 25th of August, the anniversary
+of the king&rsquo;s accession. An opera called <i>La Muette</i>,
+which abounds in appeals to liberty, was played, and the audience
+were so excited that they rushed out into the street crying,
+&ldquo;Imitons les Parisiens!&rdquo; A mob speedily gathered together,
+who proceeded to destroy or damage a number of public buildings
+and the private residences of unpopular officials. The troops
+were few in number and offered no opposition to the mob, but
+a burgher guard was enrolled among the influential and middle-class
+citizens for the protection of life and property. The intelligence
+of these events in the capital soon spread through the
+provinces; and in most of the large towns similar scenes were
+enacted, beginning with plunderings and outrages, followed
+by the institution of burgher guards for the maintenance of peace.
+The leading men of Brussels were most anxious not to push
+matters to extremities. They demanded the dismissal of the
+specially obnoxious minister, Van Maanen, and a separate administration
+for Belgium. The government, however, could not
+make up their minds what course to pursue, and by allowing
+things to drift ended by converting a popular riot into a national
+revolt. The heir apparent, the prince of Orange (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II.</a></span>
+of the Netherlands), was sent on a peaceful mission to Brussels,
+but furnished with such limited powers, as under the circumstances
+were utterly inadequate. He did his best to get at the
+real facts, and after a number of conferences with the leaders
+became so convinced that nothing but a separate administration
+of the two countries would restore tranquillity that he promised
+to use his influence with his father to bring about that object&mdash;on
+receiving assurances that the personal union under the house
+of Orange would be maintained. The king summoned an extraordinary
+session of the states-general, which met at the Hague on
+the 13th of September and was opened by a speech from the
+throne, which was firm and temperate, but by no means definite.
+The proceedings were dilatory, and the attitude of the Dutch
+deputies exceedingly exasperating. The result was that the
+moderate party in Belgium quickly lost their influence, and
+those in favour of violent measures prevailed. Meanwhile
+although the states were still sitting at the Hague, an army
+of 14,000 troops under the command of Prince Frederick, second
+son of the king, was gradually approaching Brussels. It was
+hoped that the inhabitants would welcome the prince and that
+a display of armed force would speedily restore order. After
+much unnecessary delay, at a time when prompt action was
+required, the prince on the 23rd of September entered Brussels
+and, with little opposition, occupied the upper or court portion
+of it, but when they attempted to advance into the lower town
+the troops found the streets barricaded and defended by citizens
+in arms. Desultory fighting between the soldiers and the
+insurgents continued for three days until, finding that he was
+making no headway, the prince ordered a retreat. The news
+spread like wildfire through the country, and the principal
+towns declared for separation. A provisional government was
+formed at Brussels, which declared Belgium to be an independent
+state, and summoned a national congress to establish a system
+of government. King William now did his utmost to avoid
+a rupture, and sent the prince of Orange to Antwerp to promise
+that Belgium should have a separate administration; but it
+was too late. Antwerp was the only important place that remained
+in the hands of the Dutch, and the army on retreating
+from Brussels had fallen back on this town. At the end of
+October an insurgent army had arrived before the gates, which
+were opened by the populace to receive them, and the troops,
+under General Chassé, retired within the citadel. The general
+ordered a bombardment of the town for two days, destroying
+a number of houses and large quantities of merchandize. This
+act served still further to inflame the minds of the Belgians
+against the Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>A convention of the representatives of the five great powers
+met in London in the beginning of November, at the request
+of the king of the Netherlands, and both sides were
+brought to consent to a cessation of hostilities. On the
+<span class="sidenote">Meeting of the National Congress.</span>
+10th of November the National Congress, consisting
+of 200 deputies, met at Brussels and came to three
+important decisions: (1) the independence of the country&mdash;carried
+unanimously; (2) a constitutional hereditary monarchy&mdash;174
+votes against 13; (3) the perpetual exclusion of the
+Orange-Nassau family&mdash;161 votes against 28. On the 20th of
+December the conference of London proclaimed the dissolution
+of the kingdom of the Netherlands, but claimed the right of
+regulating the conditions under which it should take place.
+On the 28th of January 1831, the congress proceeded to the
+election of a king, and out of a number of candidates the choice
+fell on the duke of Nemours, second son of Louis Philippe, but
+he declined the office. The congress then elected Baron Surlet
+de Chokier to the temporary post of regent, and proceeded to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span>
+draw up a constitution on the British parliamentary pattern. The
+constitution expressly declared that the king has no powers
+except those formally assigned to him. Ministers were to be
+<span class="sidenote">The new constitution.</span>
+appointed by him, but be responsible to the chambers.
+The legislature was composed of two chambers&mdash;the
+senate and the chamber of deputies. Both chambers
+were elected by the same voters, but senators
+required a property qualification,&mdash;the payment of at least
+2000 florins in taxes. Senators and deputies received salaries.
+The franchise was for that time a low one&mdash;every one who paid
+at least 20 florins in taxes had a vote. The choice of a king was
+more difficult than that of drawing up a constitution. It was
+desirable that the new sovereign should be able to count upon
+the friendly support of the great powers, and yet not be actually
+a member of their reigning dynasties. It was from fear of
+arousing the susceptibilities of neighbouring states, especially
+Great Britain, that Louis Philippe had refused to sanction the
+election of his son. It was for this reason that the name of
+Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the widower of Princess Charlotte of
+England, had not been placed among the candidates in January.
+Overtures were, however, made to him, as soon as it was understood
+that, as the result of private negotiations at the London
+conference, the selection of this prince would be favourably
+<span class="sidenote">Leopold I., king of the Belgians.</span>
+received both by Great Britain and France. Leopold
+signified his readiness to accept the crown after having
+first ascertained that he would have the support of
+the great powers in bringing about a satisfactory
+settlement with Holland on those points which he considered
+essential to the security and welfare of the new kingdom. The
+election took place on the 4th of June, when 152 votes out of 196,
+four being absent, determined that Leopold should be proclaimed
+king of the Belgians, under the express condition that he &ldquo;would
+accept the constitution and swear to maintain the national
+independence and territorial integrity.&rdquo; Leopold made his
+public entry into Brussels, on the 21st, and subsequently visited
+other parts of the kingdom, and was everywhere received with
+demonstrations of loyalty and respect.</p>
+
+<p>At this juncture news suddenly arrived that the Dutch were
+preparing to invade the country with a large army. It comprised
+45,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry with 72 pieces of artillery,
+while Leopold could scarcely bring forward 25,000 men to oppose
+it. On the 2nd of August the whole of the Dutch army had
+crossed the frontier; Leopold collected his forces, such as they
+were, near Louvain in order to cover his capital. The two armies
+met on the 9th of August. The undisciplined Belgians, despite
+the personal efforts of their king, were speedily routed, and
+Leopold and his staff narrowly escaped capture. He, however,
+made good his retreat to the capital, and, on the advance of a
+French army, the prince of Orange did not deem it prudent to
+push on farther. A convention was concluded between him
+and the French general, in consequence of which he returned
+to Holland and the French likewise recrossed the frontier.
+Leopold now proceeded with vigour to strengthen his position
+and to restore order and confidence. French officers were
+selected for the training and disciplining of the army, the civil
+list was arranged with economy and order, and reforms were
+introduced into the public service and system of administration.
+He kept on the best of terms, though a Protestant, with the
+Roman Catholic clergy and nobility, and his subsequent marriage
+with the daughter of the French king (9th of August 1832),
+and the contract that the children of the marriage should be
+brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, did much to inspire
+confidence in his good intentions.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the conference in London had drawn up the
+project of a treaty for the separation of Holland and Belgium,
+which was declared &ldquo;to be final and irrevocable.&rdquo;
+The conditions were far less favourable to Belgium
+<span class="sidenote">The treaty of separation.</span>
+than had been hoped, and it was not without much
+heart-burning and considerable opposition, that the
+senate and chamber of deputies gave their assent to them.
+The treaty, which contained 24 articles, was signed on the
+15th of November 1831. By these articles the grand-duchy
+of Luxemburg was divided, but the king of Holland retained
+possession of the fortress of Luxemburg, and also received a
+portion of Limburg to compensate him for the part of Luxemburg
+assigned to Belgium. The district of Maestricht was likewise
+partitioned, but the fortress remained Dutch. The Scheldt
+was declared open to the commerce of both countries. The
+national debt was divided. The powers recognized the independence
+of Belgium, &ldquo;as a neutral state.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This agreement was ratified by the Belgian and French
+sovereigns on the 20th and 24th of November, by the British
+on the 6th of December, but the Austrian and Prussian and
+Russian governments, whose sympathies were with the
+&ldquo;legitimate&rdquo; King William rather than with a prince who
+owed his crown to a revolution, did not give their ratification
+till some five months later. Even then King William remained
+obdurate, refused to sign and continued to keep possession
+of Antwerp. After fruitless efforts on the part of the great powers
+to obtain his acquiescence, France and Great Britain resolved
+to have recourse to force. On the 5th of November their combined
+fleets sailed for the coast of Holland, and, on the 18th,
+<span class="sidenote">The French besiege Antwerp.</span>
+a French army of 60,000 men, under the command of
+Marshal Gérard, crossed the Belgian frontier to besiege
+Antwerp. The Dutch garrison capitulated on the
+23rd of December, and on the 31st the town was handed
+over to the Belgians, and the French troops withdrew across
+the frontier. The Dutch, however, still held two forts, which
+enabled them to command the navigation of the Scheldt, and
+these they stubbornly refused to yield. Belgium therefore kept
+possession of Limburg and Luxemburg, except the fortress of
+Luxemburg, which as a fortress of the German confederation was,
+under the terms of the treaty of Vienna, garrisoned by Prussian
+troops. These territories were treated in every way as a part
+of Belgium, and sent representatives to the chambers. Great
+<span class="sidenote">The Luxemburg question.</span>
+indignation was therefore felt at the idea of giving
+them up, when Holland (14th of March 1838) signified
+its readiness to accept the conditions of the treaty.
+The chambers argued that Belgium had been induced
+to agree to the twenty-four articles in 1832 in the hope of thereby
+at once terminating all harassing disputes, but as Holland
+refused then to accept them, the conditions were no longer
+binding and the circumstances were now quite changed. They
+urged that Luxemburg in fact formed an integral part of Belgium
+and that the people were totally opposed to a union with Holland.
+They offered to pay for the territory in dispute, but the treaty
+gave them no right of purchase, and the proposal was not entertained.
+<span class="sidenote">Final settlement between Holland and Belgium.</span>
+Addresses were unanimously voted urging
+the king to resist separation, great excitement was
+aroused throughout the country and preparations
+were made for war. But the firmness of the allied
+powers and their determination to uphold the condtions
+of the treaty compelled the king most reluctantly
+to submit to the inevitable. The treaty was signed in London
+on the 19th of April 1839. It saddled Belgium with a portion
+of Holland&rsquo;s debt, and a severe financial crisis followed.</p>
+
+<p>The Belgian revolution owed its success to the union of the
+Catholic and Liberal parties; and the king had been very careful
+to maintain the alliance between them. This continued
+to be the character of the government till 1840, but by
+<span class="sidenote">Struggle between the Catholics and Liberals.</span>
+degrees it had been growing more and more conservative,
+and was giving rise to dissatisfaction. A ministry
+was formed on more liberal principles, but it clashed
+with the Catholic aristocracy, who had the majority in
+the senate. A neutral ministry under M. Charles Nothomb was
+then formed. In 1842 it carried a new law of primary instruction,
+which aroused the dislike of the anti-clerical Liberals. The
+Nothomb ministry retired in 1845. In March 1846 the king
+formed a purely Catholic ministry, but it was fiercely attacked by
+the Liberals, who had for several years been steadily organizing.
+A congress was summoned to meet at Brussels (14th of June 1846)
+composed of delegates from the different Liberal associations
+throughout the country. Three hundred and twenty delegates
+met and drew up an Act of Federation and a programme of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span>
+reforms. The election of 1847 gave a majority to the Liberals
+and a purely Liberal ministry was formed, and from this date
+onwards it has been the constitutional practice in Belgium to
+choose a homogeneous ministry from the party which possesses
+a working majority in the chamber. In 1848 a new electoral
+<span class="sidenote">Electoral reform.</span>
+law was passed, which lowered the franchise to 20
+florins&rsquo; worth of property and doubled the number of
+electors. Hence it came to pass that Belgium passed
+safely through the crisis of the French revolution of 1848. The
+extreme democratic and socialistic party made with French
+aid some spasmodic efforts to stir up a revolutionary movement,
+but they met with no popular sympathy; the throne of Leopold
+stood firmly based upon the trust and respect of the Belgian
+nation for the wisdom and moderation of their king.</p>
+
+<p>The attention of the government was now largely directed to
+the stimulating of private industry and the carrying out of
+public works of great practical utility, such as the extension of
+railways and the opening up of other internal means of communication.
+Commercial treaties were also entered into with
+various countries with the view of providing additional outlets
+for industrial products. The king also sought as much as
+possible to remove from the domain of politics every irritating
+question, believing that a union of the different parties was most
+for the advantage of the state. In 1850 the question of middle-class
+education was settled. In 1852 the Liberal cabinet was
+overthrown and a ministry of conciliation was formed. A bill
+was passed authorizing the army to be raised to 100,000 men
+including reserve. The elections of 1854 modified the parliamentary
+situation by increasing the strength of the Conservatives;
+the ministry resigned and a new one was formed, under
+Pierre de Decker, of moderate Catholics and Progressives. In
+1857 the government of M. de Decker brought in a bill to establish
+&ldquo;the liberty of charity,&rdquo; but in reality to place the administration
+of charities in the hands of the priesthood. This led to a violent
+agitation throughout the kingdom and the military had to be
+called out. Eventually the bill was withdrawn, the ministers
+resigned and a Liberal ministry was formed under M. Charles
+Rogier. In 1860 the communal <i>octrois</i> or duties on articles of
+food brought into the towns was abolished; in 1863 the navigation
+of the Scheldt was made free, and a treaty of commerce
+established with England. The elections of July 1864 gave a
+majority to the Liberals, and M. Rogier continued in office.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th of December 1865, King Leopold died, after a
+reign of thirty-four years. He was greatly beloved by his people,
+and to him Belgium owed much, for in difficult circumstances
+and critical times he had managed its affairs
+<span class="sidenote">Accession of Leopold II.</span>
+with great tact and judgment. He was succeeded by
+his eldest son Leopold II., who was immediately
+proclaimed king and took the oath to the constitution on the
+17th of December. On the outbreak of war between France and
+Germany in 1870, Belgium saw the difficulty and danger of her
+position, and lost no time in providing for contingencies. A
+large war credit was voted, the strength of the army was raised
+and strong bodies of troops were moved to the frontier. The
+feeling of danger to Belgium also caused great excitement in
+England. The British government declared its intention to
+maintain the integrity of Belgium in accordance with the treaty
+of 1839, and it induced the two belligerent powers to agree not
+to violate the neutrality of Belgian territory. A considerable
+portion of the French army routed at Sedan did indeed seek
+refuge across the frontier; but they laid down their arms
+according to convention, and were duly &ldquo;interned.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1870 the Liberal party, which had been in power for thirteen
+years, was overthrown by a union of the Catholics with a
+number of Liberal dissentients to whom the policy of the
+government had given offence, and a Catholic cabinet, at the
+head of which was Baron Jules Joseph d&rsquo;Anethan, took office.
+At the election of August 1870, the Catholics obtained a majority
+in both chambers. They increased their power considerably
+by reducing the voting qualification for electors to provincial
+councils to 20 frs., and to communal councils to 10 frs.,
+and also by recognizing the importance of what was styled &ldquo;the
+Flemish Movement.&rdquo; Hitherto French had been the official
+language of the states. The use of Flemish in public documents,
+in judicial procedure and in official correspondence was hereafter
+<span class="sidenote">The Flemish Movement.</span>
+required in the Flemish provinces, and Belgium
+became officially bi-lingual. It was, as has been
+already pointed out, a reversion to the policy of the
+Dutch king, which in 1830 had been so strongly
+denounced by the leaders of the Belgian revolution, and its
+object was the same, <i>i.e</i>. to prevent <i>frenchification</i> of a population
+that was Teutonic by race and speech. In 1871 M. Malou had
+become the head of a cabinet of moderate Catholics, and he
+retained office till 1878. This was the period of the struggle
+between the pope and the Italian government, and the German
+<i>Kulturkampf</i>. The Belgian Ultramontanes agitated strongly in
+favour of the re-establishment of the temporal power and
+against the policy of Bismarck. Though discountenanced by
+the ministry, the violence of the Ultra-clericals compassed its
+downfall. They passed a law adopting the ballot in 1877, but at
+the election of the following year a Liberal majority was returned.</p>
+
+<p>The new cabinet, under M. Frère-Orban, devoted itself solely
+to the settlement of the educational system. Hitherto since
+1842 in all primary schools instruction by the clergy
+in the Catholic faith was obligatory, children belonging
+<span class="sidenote">School law of 1879.</span>
+to other persuasions being dispensed from attendance.
+In 1879 a bill was passed for the secularization of
+primary education; but an attempt was made to conciliate the
+clergy by Art. 4, which enacted&mdash;&ldquo;religious instruction is relegated
+to the care of families and the clergy of the various creeds.
+A place in the school may be put at their disposal where the
+children may receive religious instruction,&rdquo; at hours other than
+those set apart for regular education. The bill likewise provided
+for a rigorous inspection of the communal schools. The passing
+of this law was met by the clergy by uncompromising resistance.
+The bishops ordered that absolution be refused to teachers in the
+schools &ldquo;sans Dieu,&rdquo; and to the parents who sent their children
+to them, and urged the establishment of private Catholic schools.
+All over Belgium the agitation spread, and the clergy, who were
+practically independent of state control, gained the victory. In
+November 1879 it was calculated that there were but 240,000
+scholars in the secularized schools against 370,000 in the Catholic
+schools. In Flanders over 80% of the children attended the
+Catholic schools. The government appealed to the pope, but
+the Holy See declined to take any action, and so great was the
+embitterment that the Belgian minister at the Vatican and the
+papal nuncio at Brussels were recalled, and in 1880 the clergy
+refused to associate themselves with the fêtes of the national
+jubilee. In order to emerge victorious in such a struggle the
+Liberal party had need of all their strength, but a split took
+place between the sections known as the <i>doctrinaires</i> and the
+<i>progressists</i>, on the question of an extension of the franchise, and
+at the election of 1884 the Catholics carried all before them at the
+polls. From 1884 up to the present time the clerical party have
+maintained their supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>A Catholic administration under M. Malou at once took in
+hand the schools question. A law was passed, despite violent
+protests from the Liberals, which enacted that the communes
+might maintain the private Catholic schools established since
+1879 and suppress unsectarian schools at their pleasure. They
+might retain at least one unsectarian or adopt one Catholic school,
+where 25 heads of families demanded it. The state subsidized
+all the communal schools, Catholic and unsectarian alike. Under
+this law in all districts under clerical control the unsectarian
+schools were abolished. In October 1884, M. Beernaert replaced
+M. Malou as prime minister, and retained that post for the
+following ten years. He had in 1886 a troublous and dangerous
+situation to deal with. Socialism had become a political force
+<span class="sidenote">Social outbreak in 1886.</span>
+in the land. Socialism of a German type had taken
+deep root among the working men of the Flemish
+towns, especially at Ghent and Brussels; socialism of
+a French revolutionary type among the Walloon
+miners and factory hands. On the 18th of March 1886, a socialist
+rising suddenly burst out at Liége, on the occasion of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span>
+anniversary of the Paris Commune, and rapidly spread in other
+industrial centres of the Walloon districts. Thousands of workmen
+went on strike, demanding better wages and the suffrage.
+The ministry acted promptly and with vigour, the outbreak was
+suppressed by the employment of the military and order was
+restored. But as soon as this was accomplished the government
+opened a comprehensive enquiry into the causes of dissatisfaction,
+<span class="sidenote">Agitation for a revision of the constitution.</span>
+which served as the basis of numerous social laws, and
+led eventually to the establishment of universal
+suffrage and the substitution in Belgium of a democratic
+for a middle-class régime. It was not effected
+till several years had been spent in long parliamentary
+discussions, by demonstrations on the part of the supporters of
+franchise revision and by strikes of a political tendency. At
+last the senate and chamber declared, May 1892, that the time
+for a revision of certain articles of the constitution had come.
+As prescribed by the constitution, a dissolution took place and
+two new chambers were elected. The Catholics had a majority
+in both, but not enough to enable them to dispense with the
+assistance of the Liberals, the constitution requiring for every
+revision a two-thirds majority. The bills proposed for extending
+the franchise were all rejected (April 11th and 12th). Thereupon
+the council of the Labour party proclaimed a general strike.
+Fifty thousand workmen struck, in Brussels there were violent
+demonstrations, and the agitation assumed generally a dangerous
+aspect. Both the government and the opposition in the chambers
+saw that delay vas impossible, and that revision must be carried
+out. Agreement was reached by the acceptance of a compromise
+<span class="sidenote">The Nyssens compromise.</span>
+proposed by M. Albert Nyssens, Catholic
+deputy and professor of penal procedure and commercial
+law at the university of Louvain, and on the
+18th of April the chamber adopted an electoral system
+until then unknown&mdash;<i>le suffrage universel plural</i>. The citizen in
+order to possess a vote for the election of representatives to the
+chambers was to be of a <i>minimum</i> age of twenty-five years, and
+of thirty years for the election of senators and provincial and
+communal councillors. For the four categories of elections a
+supplementary vote was given to (<i>a</i>) citizens who having attained
+the age of thirty-five years, and being married or widowers with
+children, paid at least 5 f. income tax, and (<i>b</i>) to citizens of
+the age of twenty-five years possessing real estate to the value of
+2000 f. or Belgian state securities yielding an income of at
+least 100 f. Two supplementary votes were bestowed upon
+citizens having certain educational certificates, or discharging
+functions or following professions implying their possession.
+This elaborate system was only carried into law after considerable
+and violent opposition in the sessions of 1894 and 1895. It was
+chiefly the work of the ministry of M. de Burlet, who succeeded
+to the place of M. Beernaert in March 1894.</p>
+
+<p>The composition of the elected bodies for the years 1894-1895
+was:&mdash;for the chamber of representatives 1,354,891 electors
+with 2,085,605 votes, for the senate and provincial
+councils 1,148,433 electors with 1,856,838 votes.
+<span class="sidenote">Catholic majority of 1894.</span>
+The result of the first election in October 1894 was
+to give the Catholic party an overwhelming majority.
+The old Liberal party almost disappeared, while the Walloon
+provinces returned a number of Socialists. In February 1896
+M. de Burlet, being in bad health, transferred the direction of
+the government to M. Smet de Naeyer. The election of 1894
+had given the Liberals a much smaller number of seats than they
+ought to have had according to the number of votes they polled,
+and a cry arose for the establishment of proportional representation.
+Both sides felt that reform was again necessary, but the
+Catholic majority disagreed among themselves as to the form
+it should take. In 1899 M. Smet de Naeyer gave place as head
+of the ministry to M. van den Peereboom. But the proposals
+<span class="sidenote">Proportional representation.</span>
+of the latter met with organized obstruction on the
+part of the Socialist deputies, and after a few months&rsquo;
+tenure of office he gave way to M. Smet de Naeyer
+once more. The new cabinet at once (August 1899)
+introduced a bill giving complete proportional representation
+in parliamentary elections to all the arrondissements, and it
+was passed despite the defection of a number of Catholic
+deputies led by M. Woeste. The election in May 1900 resulted
+in the return of a substantial (though reduced) Catholic
+majority in both chambers.</p>
+
+<p>During this period of Catholic ascendancy social legislation
+was not neglected. Among the enactments the following are
+the most important:&mdash;the institution of industrial
+and labour councils, composed of employers and
+<span class="sidenote">Social legislation.</span>
+employés, and of a superior council, formed of officials,
+workmen and employers (1887); laws assisting the
+erection of workmen&rsquo;s dwellings and supervising the labour
+of women and children (1889); laws for ameliorating the system
+of Friendly Societies (1890); laws regulating workshops (1896);
+conferring corporate rights on trades&rsquo; unions (1898); guaranteeing
+the security and health of working men during hours of labour
+(1899). In 1900 laws were passed regulating the contract of
+labour, placing the workman on a footing of perfect equality
+with his employer, assuring the married woman free control of
+her savings, and organizing a system of old-age pensions.
+Primary education was dealt with in 1895 by a law, which made
+religious instruction obligatory, and extended state support to
+all schools that satisfied certain conditions. In 1899 there were
+in Belgium 6674 subsidized schools, having 775,000 scholars
+out of a total of 950,000 children of school age. Only 68,000
+did not receive religious instruction. The Catholic party also
+strove to mitigate the principle of obligatory military service by
+encouraging the system of volunteering and by a reduction
+of the time of active service and of the number with the colours.</p>
+
+<p>In 1905 the 75th anniversary of Belgian independence was
+celebrated, and there was a great manifestation of loyalty
+to King Leopold II. for the wisdom and prudence
+shown by him during his long reign. Owing to dissensions
+<span class="sidenote">Politics in 1905.</span>
+among the Catholic and Conservative party
+on the subject of military service and the fortification of Antwerp,
+their majority in the chamber in 1904 fell from 26 to 20, that
+in the senate from 16 to 12. The partial election in 1906 reduced
+the majority in the chamber to 12, while the partial election
+in 1908 brought the majority down to 8. The Smet de Naeyer
+ministry which had held office since 1900 was defeated in April
+1907 in a debate on the mining law over the proposal concerning
+the length of the working day. A new cabinet was formed
+on the 2nd of May following under the presidency of M. de Trooz,
+who had been minister of the interior under M. Smet de Naeyer,
+and who retained that portfolio in conjunction with the
+premiership. M. de Trooz died on the 31st of December 1907,
+and was succeeded by M. Schollaert, president of the chamber.
+The count of Flanders, brother of the king, died on the
+17th of November 1905, leaving his son Albert heir to the
+throne.</p>
+
+<p>The Congo question had meanwhile become an acute one
+in Belgium. The personal interest taken by Leopold II. in the
+exploration and commercial development of the
+equatorial regions of Africa had led, in the creation of
+<span class="sidenote">Belgium and the Congo.</span>
+the Congo Free State, to results which had originally
+not been anticipated. The <i>Comité des Études du Haut
+Congo</i>, formed in 1878 at the instance of the king and mainly
+financed by him had developed into the International Association
+of the Congo, of which a Belgian officer, Colonel M. Strauch, was
+president. Through the efforts in Africa of H.M. Stanley a
+rudimentary state was created, and through the efforts of King
+Leopold in Europe the International Association was recognized
+during 1884-1885 by the powers as an independent state.
+Declarations to this effect were exchanged between the Belgian
+government and the Association on the 23rd of February 1885.
+In April of the same year the Belgian chambers authorized the
+king to be the chief of the state founded by the Association,
+which had already taken the name of <i>État Indépendent du Congo</i>.
+The union between Belgium and the new state was declared
+to be purely personal, but its European headquarters were in
+Brussels, its officials, in the course of time, became almost exclusively
+Belgian, and financially and commercially the connexion
+between the two countries became increasingly close.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span>
+In 1889 King Leopold announced that he had by his will bequeathed
+the Congo state to Belgium, and in 1890 the Belgian
+government, in return for financial help, acquired the right of
+annexing the country under certain conditions. At later dates
+definite proposals for immediate annexation were considered
+but not adopted, the king showing a strong disinclination to
+cede the state, while among the mass of the Belgians the disinclination
+to annex was equally strong. It was not until
+terrible reports as to the misgovernment of the Congo created
+a strong agitation for reform in Great Britain, America and other
+countries responsible for having aided in the creation of the state,
+that public opinion in Belgium seriously concerned itself with
+the subject. The result was that in November 1907 a new
+treaty of cession was presented to the Belgian chambers, while
+in March 1908 an additional act modified one of the most objectionable
+features of the treaty&mdash;a clause by which the king
+retained control of the revenue of a vast territory within the
+Congo which he had declared to be his private property. A
+colonial law, also submitted to the chambers, secured for Belgium
+in case of annexation complete parliamentary control over the
+Congo state, and the bill for annexation was finally passed in
+September 1908.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Th. Juste, <i>Histoire de la Belgique</i> (2 vols., 1853);
+<i>La Révolution belge de 1830</i> (2 vols., 1872); <i>Congrès national de
+Belgique</i> (2 vols., 1880); <i>Memoirs of Leopold I.</i> (2 vols., 1868);
+De Gerlache, <i>Histoire du royaume des Pays-Bas</i> (3 vols., 1859);
+D.C. Boulger, <i>The History of Belgium</i>, part i. (1900); C. White, <i>The
+Belgic Revolution of 1830</i> (2 vols., 1835); Moke and Hubert, <i>Histoire
+de Belgique</i> (<i>jusque 1885</i>) (1892); L. Hymans, <i>Histoire parlementaire
+de la Belgique</i> (1830-1899); <i>Cinquante ans de liberté</i> (4 vols., 1881);
+J.J. Thonissen <i>La Belgique sous le règne de Leopold I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (4 vols., 1855-1858);
+De Laveleye, <i>Le Parti clérical en Belgique</i> (1874); Vandervelde
+and Destree, <i>Le Socialisme belge</i> (1898); C. Woeste, <i>Vingt
+ans de polémique</i> (1890); Hamelius, <i>Le Mouvement flamand</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Literature</p>
+
+<p>Belgian literature, taken in the widest sense of the term, falls
+into three groups, consisting of works written respectively in
+Flemish, Walloon and French. The earlier Flemish authors
+are treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Literature</a></span>; the revival of Flemish
+Literature (<i>q.v.</i>) since the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands
+in 1830, and Walloon Literature (<i>q.v.</i>), are each separately
+noticed. The earlier French writers born on what is now Belgian
+territory&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> Adenès le Rois, Jean Froissart, Jean Lemaire des
+Belges and others&mdash;are included in the general history of French Literature
+(<i>q.v.</i>). It remains to consider the literature written
+by Belgians in French during the 19th century, and its rapid
+development since the revolution of 1831.</p>
+
+<p>Belgian writers were commonly charged with provincialism,
+but the prejudice against them has been destroyed by the
+brilliant writers of 1870-1880. It was also asserted that Belgian
+French literature lacked a national basis, and was merely a
+reflection of Parisian models. The most important section of it,
+however, has a distinctive quality of its own. Many of its most
+distinguished exponents are Flemings by birth, and their writings
+reflect the characteristic Flemish scenery; they have the
+sensuousness, the colour and the realism of Flemish art; and
+on the other hand the tendency to mysticism, to abstraction, is
+far removed from the lucidity and definiteness associated with
+French literature properly so-called. This profoundly national
+character disengaged itself gradually, and has been more strikingly
+evident since 1870. The earlier writers of the century
+were content to follow French tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The events of 1830-1831 gave a great stimulus to Belgian
+letters, but the country possessed writers of considerable merit
+before that date. Adolphe Mathieu (1802-1876) belongs to the
+earlier half of the century, although the tenth and last volume
+of his <i>&OElig;uvres en vers</i> was only printed in 1870. His later works
+show the influence of the Romantic revival. Auguste Clavareau
+(1787-1864), a mediocre poet, an imitator of the French and
+Dutch, produced some successful comedies, but he ceased to
+write plays before 1830. Édouard Smits (1789-1852) showed
+romantic tendencies in his tragedies of <i>Marie de Bourgogne</i> (1823),
+<i>Elfrida</i> (1825), and <i>Jeanne de Flandre</i> (1828). The first of these
+had a great success, partly no doubt because of its patriotic
+subject. For four years before 1830 André van Hasselt (<i>q.v.</i>)
+had been publishing his verses in the <i>Sentinelle des Pays-Bas</i>,
+and from 1829 onwards he was an ardent romanticist. A burst
+of literary and artistic activity followed the Revolution; and
+van Hasselt&rsquo;s house became a centre of poets, artists and
+musicians of the romantic school. The best work of the Belgian
+romanticists is in the rich and picturesque prose of the 16th
+century romance of Charles de Coster (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">De Coster</a></span>), and in
+the melancholy and semi-philosophical writings of the moralist
+Octave Pirmez (<i>q.v.</i>). The <i>Poésies</i> (1841) and the <i>Chansons</i>
+(1866) of Antoine Clesse (1816-1889), have been compared with
+the work of Béranger; and the Catholic party found a champion
+against the liberals and revolutionists in the satirical poet, Benoît
+Quinet (b. 1819). Among the famous dramatic pieces of this
+epoch was the <i>André Chénier</i> (1843) of Édouard Wacken (1819-1861),
+who was a lyric rather than a dramatic poet; also the
+comedies of Louis Labarre (1810-1892) and of Henri Delmotte
+(1822-1884). Charles Potvin (1818-1902), a poet and a dramatist,
+is best known by a patriotic <i>Histoire des lettres en Belgique</i>,
+forming vol. iv. of the Belgian compilation, <i>Cinquante ans de
+liberté</i> (1882), and by his essays in literary history. Eugène van
+Bemmel (1824-1880) established an excellent historical tradition
+in his <i>Histoire de la Belgique</i> (1880), reproducing textually the
+original authorities, and also edited a Belgian Encyclopaedia
+(1873-1875), the <i>Patria Belgica</i>. Baron E.C. de Gerlache (1785-1871)
+wrote the history of the Netherlands from the ultramontane
+standpoint. The romanticists were attacked in an amusing
+satire, <i>Les Voyages et aventures de M. Alfred Nicolas</i> (1835), by
+François Grandgagnage (1797-1877), who was a nationalist in
+the narrowest sense, and regarded the movement as an indefensible
+invasion of foreign ideas. The best of the novelists of
+this period, excluding Charles de Coster, was perhaps Estelle
+Ruelens (<i>née</i> Crèvec&oelig;ur; 1821-1878); she wrote under the
+pseudonym of &ldquo;Caroline Gravière.&rdquo; Her tales were collected by
+the bibliophile &ldquo;P.L. Jacob&rdquo; (Paris, 1873-1874).</p>
+
+<p>The whole of this literature derived more or less from foreign
+sources, and, with the exception of Charles de Coster and Octave
+Pirmez, produced no striking figures. De Coster died in 1879,
+and Pirmez in 1883, and the new movement in Belgian literature
+dates from the banquet given in the latter year to Camille
+Lemonnier (<i>q.v.</i>) whose powerful personality did much to turn
+&ldquo;Young Belgium&rdquo; into a national channel. Lemonnier himself
+cannot be exclusively claimed by any of the conflicting schools of
+young writers. He was by turns naturalist, lyrist and symbolist;
+and it has been claimed that the germs of all the later developments
+in Belgian letters may be traced in his work. The quinquennial
+prize of literature had been refused to his <i>Un mâle</i>, and
+the younger generation of artists and men of letters gave him a
+banquet which was recognized as a protest against the official
+literature, represented by Louis Hymans (1829-1884), Gustave
+Frédérix (b. 1834), the literary critic of <i>L&rsquo;Indépendance belge</i>,
+and others. The centres around which the young writers were
+grouped were two reviews, <i>L&rsquo;Art moderne</i> and <i>La Jeune Belgique</i>.
+<i>L&rsquo;Art moderne</i> was founded in 1882 by Edmond Picard, who had
+as his chief supporters Victor Arnould and Octave Maus. The
+first editor of <i>La Jeune Belgique</i> was M. Warlomont (1860-1889),
+known under the pen-name of &ldquo;Max Waller.&rdquo; This review,
+which owed much of its success to Waller&rsquo;s energy, defended the
+intense preoccupation of the new writers with questions of style,
+and became the depository of the Parnassian tradition in Belgium.
+It had among its early contributors Georges Eekhoud, Albert
+Giraud, Iwan Gilkin and Georges Rodenbach. Edmond Picard
+(b. 1836) was one of the foremost in the battle. He was well
+known as an advocate in Brussels, and made a considerable
+contribution to jurisprudence as the chief writer of the <i>Pandectes
+belges</i> (1886-1890). His <i>Pro arte</i> (1886) was a kind of literary
+code for the young Belgian writers. His novels, of which <i>La
+Forge Roussel</i> (1881) is a good example, were succeeded in 1902-1903
+by two plays, <i>Jéricho</i> and <i>Fatigue de vivre</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Georges Eekhoud, born at Antwerp on the 27th of May 1854,
+was in some ways the most passionately Flemish of the whole
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span>
+group. He described the life of the peasants of his native Flanders
+with a bold realism, making himself the apologist of the vagabond
+and the outcast in a series of tragic stories:&mdash;<i>Kees Doorik</i> (1883),
+<i>Kermesses</i> (1883), <i>Nouvelles Kermesses</i> (1887),
+<i>Le Cycle patibulaire</i> (1892), <i>Mes Communions</i> (1895), <i>Escal Vigor</i>
+(1899) and <i>La Faneuse d&rsquo;amour</i> (1900), &amp;c. <i>Nouvelle Carthage</i>
+(1888) deals with modern Antwerp. In 1892 he produced a
+striking book on English literature entitled <i>Au siècle de Shakespeare</i>,
+and has written French versions of Beaumont and Fletcher&rsquo;s
+<i>Philaster</i> (1895) and of Marlow&rsquo;s <i>Edward II.</i>  (1896).</p>
+
+<p>The earlier work of &ldquo;Young Belgium&rdquo; in poetry was experimental
+in character, and was marked by extravagances of style
+and a general exuberance which provoked much hostile criticism.
+The young writers of 1870 to 1880 had not long to wait, however,
+for recognition both at home and in Paris, where many of them
+found hospitality in the pages of the <i>Mercure de France</i> from
+1890 onwards. They divided their allegiance between the
+leaders of the French Parnassus and the Symbolists.</p>
+
+<p>The most powerful of the Belgian poets, Émile Verhaeren (<i>q.v.</i>),
+is the most daring in his technical methods of expressing bizarre
+sensation, and has been called the &ldquo;poet of paroxysm.&rdquo; His
+reputation extends far beyond the limits of his own country.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Belgian poets adhere to the classical form.
+Albert Giraud (born at Louvain in 1860) was faithful to the
+Parnassian tradition in his <i>Pierrot lunaire</i> (1884), <i>Pierrot narcisse</i>
+(1891) and <i>Hors du siècle</i> (1886). In the earlier works of Iwan
+Gilkin (born at Brussels in 1858) the influence of Charles Baudelaire
+is predominant. He wrote <i>Damnation de l&rsquo;artiste</i> (1890),
+<i>Ténèbres</i> (1892), <i>Stances dorées</i> (1893), <i>La Nuit</i> (1897) and
+<i>Prométhée</i> (1899). The poems of Valère Gille (born at Brussels
+in 1867), whose <i>Cithare</i> was crowned by the French Academy in
+1898, belong to the same group. Émile van Arenberghe (born
+at Louvain in 1854) is the author of some exquisite sonnets.
+Fernand Severin (b. 1867) in his <i>Poèmes ingénus</i> (1900) aims at
+simplicity of form, and seems to have learnt the art of his
+musical verse direct from Racine. With Severin is closely associated
+Georges Marlow (b. 1872), author of <i>L&rsquo;Âme en exil</i> (1895).</p>
+
+<p>Georges Rodenbach (1855-1898) spent most of his life in
+Paris and was an intimate of Edmond de Goncourt. He produced
+some Parisian and purely imitative work; but the best part of
+his production is the outcome of a passionate idealism of the
+quiet Flemish towns in which he had passed his childhood and
+early youth. In his best known work, <i>Bruges la Morte</i> (1892), he
+explains that his aim is to evoke the town as a living being,
+associated with the moods of the spirit, counselling, dissuading
+from and prompting action.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous of all modern Belgian writers, Maurice
+Maeterlinck (<i>q.v.</i>), made his début in a Parisian journal, the
+<i>Pléiade</i>, in 1886. He succeeded more nearly than any of his
+predecessors in expressing or suggesting ideas and emotions
+which might have been supposed to be capable of translation
+only in terms of music. &ldquo;The unconscious self, or rather the
+sub-conscious self,&rdquo; says Émile Verhaeren, &ldquo;recognized in the
+verse and prose of Maeterlinck its language or rather its stammering
+attempt at language.&rdquo; Maeterlinck was a native of Ghent,
+and the first poems of two of his fellow-townsmen also appeared
+in the <i>Pléiade</i>. These were Grégoire le Roy (b. 1862), author
+of <i>La Chanson d&rsquo;un soir</i> (1886), and <i>Mon C&oelig;ur pleure d&rsquo;autrefois</i>
+(1889); and Charles van Lerberghe (b. 1861), author of a play,
+<i>Les Flaireurs</i> (1890) and a collection of <i>Poèmes</i> (1897).</p>
+
+<p>Max Elskamp (born at Antwerp in 1862) is the author of some
+volumes of religious poetry&mdash;<i>Dominical</i> (1892), <i>Salutations, dont
+d&rsquo;angéliques</i> (1893), <i>En symbole vers l&rsquo;apostolat</i> (1895)&mdash;for which
+he has devised as background an imaginary city. Eugène
+Demolder (b.1862) also created a mythical city as a setting for
+his prose <i>contes</i> in the <i>Légende d&rsquo;Yperdamme</i> (1897).</p>
+
+<p>Belgian literary activity extends also to historical research.
+Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove (1817-1891) wrote a <i>Histoire de
+Flandre</i> (7 vols., 1847-1855), and a number of monographs
+on separate points in Flemish and English history. Though an
+accurate historian, he allowed himself lo be prejudiced by his
+extreme Catholic views. He was a vehement defender of
+Mary Stuart. Louis Gachard (1800-1885) wrote many valuable
+works on 16th century history; Mgr. Namèche (1810-1893)
+completed the 29th volume of his <i>Cours d&rsquo;histoire nationale</i>
+before his death; Charles Piot (b. 1812) edited the correspondence
+of Cardinal de Granvelle; Alphonse Wauters (1818-1898),
+archivist of Brussels, published many archaeological works; and
+Charles Rahlenbeck (1823-1903) wrote enthusiastically of the
+history of Protestantism in Belgium. One of the most masterly
+writers of French in Belgium was the economist Émile de
+Laveleye (<i>q.v.</i>). In aesthetics should be noted the historian
+of music, François Joseph Fétis (1784-1871); F.A. Gevaert
+(1828-1908), author of <i>Histoire et théorie de la musique d&rsquo;antiquité</i>
+(2 vols., 1875-1881); and Victor Mahillon (b. 1841) for his
+work in acoustics and his descriptive catalogue (1893-1900)
+of the museum of musical instruments belonging to the Brussels
+conservatoire. In psychology Joseph Delboeuf (1831-1896)
+enjoyed a great reputation outside Belgium; Elisée Reclus
+(b. 1830), though a Frenchman by birth, completed his <i>Géographie
+universelle</i> (1875-1894) in exile at Brussels; and Ernest Nys
+has written many standard works on international law. In the
+history of literature an important work is compiled by Ferdinand
+van der Haeghen and others in the <i>Bibliotheca Belgica</i> (1880, &amp;c.),
+comprising a description of all the books printed in the Netherlands
+in the 15th and 16th centuries. The vicomte de Spoelberch
+de Lovenjoul (1836-1907) was well known in France as the
+author of <i>Sainte-Beuve inconnu</i> (1901), <i>La Genèse d&rsquo;un roman
+de Balzac</i> (1901), <i>Une Page perdue de H. de Balzac</i> (1903), and
+of numerous bibliographical works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F.V. Goethals, <i>Histoire des lettres, des sciences et des arts en
+Belgique</i> (4 vols., 1840-1844); Fr. Masoin, <i>Histoire de la littèrature
+française en Belgique de 1815 à 1830</i> (1903); F. Nautet, <i>Histoire des
+lettres belges d&rsquo;expression française</i> (3 vols., 1892 et seq.), written from
+the point of view of young Belgium, and by no means impartial;
+A. de Koninck, <i>Bibliographie nationale</i> brought down to 1880;
+<i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i> (1866, &amp;c.) in progress; see also
+articles by Émile Verhaeren in the <i>Revue des revues</i> (15th June 1896),
+by Albert Mockel in the <i>Revue encyclopédique</i> (24th July 1897); a
+collection of criticisms chiefly on Belgian writers by Eugène Gilbert,
+<i>France et Belgique; études litteraires</i> (1905); Frédéric Faber,
+<i>Histoire du théâtre français en Belgique</i> (5 vols., 1878-1880). An
+excellent anthology of Belgian poets was published by K. Pol de
+Mont with the title of <i>Modernités</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See for earlier history <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brabant</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liége</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELGRADE<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (Servian, <i>Biograd</i> or <i>Beograd</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;White Castle&rdquo;),
+the capital of Servia. Pop. (1900) 69,097. Belgrade occupies a triangular
+ridge or foreland, washed on the north-west by the Save,
+and on the north-east by the Danube; these rivers flowing respectively
+from the south-west and north-west. The sides of the
+triangle slope down abruptly towards the west, more gradually
+towards the east; at the base stands the cone of Avala Hill,
+the last outpost of the Rudnik Mountains, which extend far
+away to the south; and, at the apex, a cliff of Tertiary chalk,
+200 ft. high, overlooks the confluence of the two rivers, the large,
+flat island of Veliki Voyn and several smaller islets. This cliff
+is crowned by the walls and towers of the citadel, once white,
+but now maroon with age, and, though useful as a prison and
+barracks, no longer of any military value. Behind the citadel,
+and along its <i>glacis</i> on the southern side, are the gardens of
+Kalemegdan, commanding a famous view across the river;
+behind Kalemegdan comes Belgrade itself, a city of white
+houses, among which a few great public buildings, like the high
+school, national bank, national theatre and the so-called
+New Palace, stand forth prominently. The town was formerly
+divided into three parts, namely, the Old town, the Russian town
+(<i>Sava-Makhala</i> or Save district), and the Turkish town (<i>Dor&#269;ol</i>, or
+Cross-road). A great change, however, took place in the course of
+the 19th century, and the old divisions are only partially applicable,
+while there has to be added the Tirazia, an important suburban
+extension along the line of the aqueduct or <i>Tirazi</i>. A few old
+Turkish houses, built of plaster, with red-tiled roofs, are left
+among the ill-paved and insanitary districts bordering upon
+the rivers, but as the royal residence, the seat of government,
+and the centre of the import trade, Belgrade was, after 1869,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span>
+rapidly transformed into a modern European town, with wide
+streets, electric tramways and electric lighting. Only the
+multitude of small gardens, planted with limes, acacias and lilacs,
+and the bright costumes of the Servian or Hungarian peasants,
+remain to distinguish it from a western capital. For a town of
+such importance, which is also the seat of the metropolitan of
+Servia, Belgrade has very few churches, and these are of a
+somewhat modest type. There were, in 1900, four Servian
+Orthodox churches, including the cathedral, one Roman Catholic
+chapel, one Evangelical chapel (German), two synagogues and
+one mosque. This last is kept up entirely at the expense of the
+Servian government.</p>
+
+<p>The highest educational establishments are to be found in
+Belgrade: the <i>Velika Shkola</i> (a small university with three
+faculties), the military academy, the theological seminary, the
+high school for girls, a commercial academy, and several schools
+for secondary education on German models. A commercial
+tribunal, a court of appeal and the court of cassation are also
+in Belgrade. There is a fine monument to Prince Michael (1860-1868)
+who succeeded in removing the Turkish garrison from
+the Belgrade citadel and obtaining other Turkish fortresses in
+Servia by skilful diplomacy. There are also an interesting
+national museum, with Roman antiquities and numismatic
+collections, a national library with a wealth of old Servian MSS.
+among its 40,000 volumes, and a botanical garden, rich in
+specimens of the Balkan flora. To promote commerce there are a
+stock and produce exchange (<i>Berza</i>), a national bank, privileged
+to issue notes, and several other banking establishments. The
+insurance work is done by foreign companies.</p>
+
+<p>The bulk of the foreign trade of Servia passes through Belgrade,
+but the industrial output of the city itself is not large, owing to
+the scarcity both of labour and capital. The principal industries
+are brewing, iron-founding and the manufacture of cloth, boots,
+leather, cigarettes, matches, pottery, preserved meat and
+confectionery. The railway from Budapest to Constantinople
+crosses the Save by a fine bridge on the south-west, above the
+landing-place for steamers. Farther south is the park of <i>Topchider</i>,
+with an old Turkish kiosk built for Prince Milosh (1818-1839)
+in the beautifully laid-out grounds. In the adjoining
+forest of lime-trees, called <i>Koshutnyak</i> or the &ldquo;deer-park,&rdquo;
+Prince Michael was assassinated in 1868. Just opposite the
+citadel, in a north-westerly direction, half-an-hour by steamer
+across the Danube, lies the Hungarian town of Semlin. For
+administrative purposes, Belgrade forms a separate department
+of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The first fortification of the rock, at the confluence of the
+Save and the Danube, was made by the Celts in the 3rd century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> They gave it the name of <i>Singidunum</i>, by which Belgrade
+was known until the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The Romans took it
+from the Celts, and replaced their fort by a regular Roman
+<i>castrum</i>, placing in it a strong garrison. Roman bricks, dug
+up in the fortress, bear the inscription, <i>Legio IV. Flavia Felix</i>.
+From the 4th to the beginning of the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> it often
+changed its masters (Huns, Sarmatians, Goths, Gepids); then
+the emperor Justinian brought it once more under Roman rule
+and fortified and embellished it. Towards the end of the 8th
+century it was taken by the Franks of Charlemagne. In the 9th
+century it was captured by the Bulgarians, and held by them
+until the beginning of the 11th century, when the Byzantine
+emperor Basil II. reconquered it for the Greek empire. The
+Hungarians, under king Stephen, took it from the Greeks in
+1124. From that time it was constantly changing hands&mdash;Greeks,
+Bulgarians, Hungarians, replacing each other in turn.
+The city was considered to be the key of Hungary, and its
+possession was believed to secure possession of Servia, besides
+giving command of the traffic between the Upper and the Lower
+Danube. It has, in consequence, seen more battles under its
+walls than most fortresses in Europe. The Turks used to call
+it <i>Darol-i-Jehad</i>, &ldquo;the home of wars for faith.&rdquo; During the
+14th century it was in the hands of the Servian kings. The
+Servian prince George Brankovich ceded it to the Hungarians in
+1427. The Turkish forces unsuccessfully besieged the city
+in 1444 and 1456, on which last occasion a glorious victory was
+obtained by the Christian garrison, led by the famous John
+Hunyady and the enthusiastic monk John Capistran. In 1521
+Sultan Suleiman took it from the Hungarians, and from that
+year it remained in Turkish possession until 1688, when the
+Austrians captured it, only to lose it again in 1690. In 1717
+Prince Eugene of Savoy conquered it for Austria, which kept
+it until 1739, improving the fortifications and giving great
+impulse to the commercial development of the town. From
+1739 to 1789 the Turks were again its masters, when, in that
+last year, the Austrians under General Laudon carried it by
+assault, only to lose it again in 1792. In 1807 the Servians,
+having risen for their independence, forced the Turkish garrison
+to capitulate, and became masters of Belgrade, which they kept
+until the end of September 1813, when they abandoned it to the
+Turks. Up to the year 1862 not only was the fortress of Belgrade
+garrisoned by Turkish troops, but the Danubian slope of the town
+was inhabited by Turks, living under a special Turkish
+administration, while the modern part of the town (the plateau
+of the ridge and the western slope) was inhabited by Servians
+living under their own authorities. This dual government was
+a constant cause of friction between the Servians and the Turks,
+and on the occasion of one conflict between the two parties
+the Turkish commander of the fortress bombarded the Servian
+part of the town (June 1862). The indirect consequence of
+this incident was that in 1866, on the categoric demand of Prince
+Michael of Servia, and under the diplomatic pressure of the great
+powers, the sultan withdrew the Turkish garrison from the
+citadel and delivered it to the Servians.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. Mi.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN HAMILTON,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Baron</span>
+(1656-1708), was the eldest son of Robert Hamilton, Lord
+Presmennan (d. 1696), and was born on the 5th of July 1656.
+Having married Margaret, granddaughter of John Hamilton,
+1st Baron Belhaven and Stenton, who had been made a peer by
+Charles I. in 1647, he succeeded to this title in 1679. In 1681
+he was imprisoned for opposing the government and for speaking
+slightingly of James, duke of York, afterwards James II., in
+parliament, and in 1689 he was among those who asked William
+of Orange to undertake the government of Scotland. Belhaven
+was at the battle of Killiecrankie; he was a member of the
+Scottish privy council, and he was a director of the Scottish
+Trading Company, which was formed in 1695 and was responsible
+for the Darien expedition. He favoured the agitation for
+securing greater liberty for his country, an agitation which
+culminated in the passing of the Act of Security in 1705, and he
+greatly disliked the union of the parliaments, a speech which he
+delivered against this proposal in November 1706 attracting
+much notice and a certain amount of ridicule. Later he was
+imprisoned, ostensibly for favouring a projected French invasion,
+and he died in London on the 21st of June 1708. Belhaven is
+chiefly famous as an orator, and two of his speeches, one of them
+the famous one of November 1706, were printed by D. Defoe in
+an appendix to his <i>History of the Union</i> (1786).</p>
+
+<p>Belhaven&rsquo;s son, John, who fought on the English side at
+Sheriffmuir, became the 3rd baron on his father&rsquo;s death. He
+was drowned in November 1721, whilst proceeding to take up
+his duties as governor of Barbados, and was succeeded by his
+son John (d. 1764). After the death of John&rsquo;s brother James in
+1777 the title was for a time dormant; then in 1799 the House
+of Lords declared that William Hamilton (1765-1814), a
+descendant of John Hamilton, the paternal great-grandfather
+of the 2nd baron, was entitled to the dignity. William, who
+became the 7th baron, was succeeded by his son Robert (1793-1868),
+who was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron
+Hamilton of Wishaw in 1831. He died without issue in December
+1868, when the barony of Hamilton became extinct; in 1875
+the House of Lords declared that his cousin, James Hamilton
+(1822-1893) was rightfully Baron Belhaven and Stenton, and
+the title descended to his kinsman, Alexander Charles (b. 1840),
+the 10th baron.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELISARIUS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 505-565), one of the most famous generals of
+the later Roman empire, was born about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 505, in &ldquo;Germania,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span>
+a district on the borders of Thrace and Macedonia. His name is
+supposed to be Slavonic. As a youth he served in the bodyguard
+of Justinian, who appointed him commander of the
+Eastern army. He won a signal victory over the Persians in
+530, and successfully conducted a campaign against them, until
+forced, by the rashness of his soldiers, to join battle and suffer
+defeat in the following year. Recalled to Constantinople, he
+married Antonina, a clever, intriguing woman, and a favourite of
+the empress Theodora. During the sedition of the &ldquo;green&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;blue&rdquo; parties of the circus (known as the Nika sedition,
+532) he did Justinian good service, effectually crushing the rebels
+who had proclaimed Hypatius emperor. In 533 the command
+of the expedition against the Vandal kingdom in Africa, a
+perilous office, which the rest of the imperial generals shunned,
+was conferred on Belisarius. With 15,000 mercenaries, whom he
+had to train into Roman discipline, he took Carthage, defeated
+Gelimer the Vandal king, and carried him captive, in 534, to
+grace the first triumph witnessed in Constantinople. In reward
+for these services Belisarius was invested with the consular
+dignity, and medals were struck in his honour. At this time the
+Ostrogothic kingdom, founded in Italy by Theodoric the Great,
+was shaken by internal dissensions, of which Justinian resolved
+to avail himself. Accordingly, Belisarius invaded Sicily; and,
+after storming Naples and defending Rome for a year against
+almost the entire strength of the Goths in Italy, he concluded
+the war by the capture of Ravenna, and with it of the Gothic
+king Vitiges. So conspicuous were Belisarius&rsquo;s heroism and
+military skill that the Ostrogoths offered to acknowledge him
+emperor of the West. But his loyalty did not waver; he
+rejected the proposal and returned to Constantinople in 540.
+Next year he was sent to check the Persian king Chosroes (Anushirvan);
+but, thwarted by the turbulence of his troops, he
+achieved no decisive result. On his return to Constantinople he
+lived under a cloud for some time, but was pardoned through
+the influence Of Antonina with the empress. The Goths having
+meanwhile reconquered Italy, Belisarius was despatched with
+utterly inadequate forces to oppose them. Nevertheless, during
+five campaigns he held his enemies at bay, until he was removed
+from the command, and the conclusion of the war was entrusted
+to the eunuch Narses. Belisarius remained at Constantinople
+in tranquil retirement until 559, when an incursion of Bulgarian
+savages spread a panic through the metropolis, and men&rsquo;s eyes
+were once more turned towards the neglected veteran, who
+placed himself at the head of a mixed multitude of peasants and
+soldiers, and repelled the barbarians with his wonted courage
+and adroitness. But this, like his former victories, stimulated
+Justinian&rsquo;s envy. The saviour of his country was coldly received
+and left unrewarded by his suspicious sovereign. Shortly afterwards
+Belisarius was accused of complicity in a conspiracy
+against the emperor (562); his fortune was confiscated, and he
+was confined as a prisoner in his palace. He was liberated and
+restored to favour in 563, and died in 565.</p>
+
+<p>The fiction of Belisarius wandering as a blind beggar through
+the streets of Constantinople, which has been adopted by
+Marmontel in his <i>Bélisaire</i>, and by various painters and poets,
+is first heard of in the 10th century. Gibbon justly calls Belisarius
+the Africanus of New Rome. He was merciful as a
+conqueror, stern as a disciplinarian, enterprising and wary as a
+general; while his courage, loyalty and forbearance seem to
+have been almost unsullied. He was the idol of his soldiers, a
+good tactician, but not a great strategist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Procopius, <i>De Bellis</i> and <i>Historia Arcana</i> (best
+edition by J. Haury, 1905, 1907); see Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i> (ed.
+Bury, vol. 4); T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i> (vol. 4); J.B.
+Bury, <i>Later Roman Empire</i>, vol. i.; Diehl, <i>Justinien</i> (Paris, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. B. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELIT<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (signifying the &ldquo;lady,&rdquo; <i>par excellence</i>), in the Babylonian
+religion, the designation of the consort of Bel (<i>q.v.</i>). Her
+real name was Nin-lil, <i>i.e.</i> the &ldquo;lady of power,&rdquo; if the explanation
+suggested in <span class="sc">Bel</span> for the second element is correct. She is also
+designated as Nin-Khar-sag, &ldquo;Lady of the mountain,&rdquo; which
+name stands in some relationship to Im-Khar-sag, &ldquo;storm
+mountain&rdquo;&mdash;the name of the staged tower or sacred edifice to
+Bel at Nippur. As the consort of En-lil, the goddess Nin-lil or
+Belit belongs to Nippur and her titles as &ldquo;ruler of heaven and
+earth,&rdquo; and &ldquo;mother of the gods&rdquo; are all due to her position
+as the wife of Bel. While recognized by a temple of her own in
+Nippur and honoured by rulers at various times by having votive
+offerings made in her honour and fortresses dedicated in her
+name, she, as all other goddesses in Babylonia and Assyria with
+the single exception of Ishtar, is overshadowed by her male
+consort. The title Belit was naturally transferred to the great mother-goddess
+Ishtar after the decline of the cult at Nippur,
+and we also find the consort of Marduk, known as Sarpanit,
+designated as Belit, for the sufficient reason that Marduk, after
+the rise of the city of Babylon as the seat of his cult, becomes the
+Bel or &ldquo;lord&rdquo; of later days.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELIZE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Balize</span>, the capital and principal seaport of
+British Honduras, on the Caribbean Sea, in 17° 29&prime; N. and
+88° 11&prime; W. Pop. (1904) 9969. Belize occupies both banks of
+the river Belize, at its mouth. Its houses are generally built of
+wood, with high roofs and wide verandahs shaded by cocoanut
+or cabbage palms. The principal buildings are the court house,
+in the centre of the town, government house, at the southern
+end, Fort George, towards the north, the British bank of
+Honduras, the hospital, the Roman Catholic convent, and the
+Wesleyan church, which is the largest and handsomest of all.
+Mangrove swamps surround the town and epidemics of cholera,
+yellow fever and other tropical diseases have been frequent;
+but the unhealthiness of the climate is mitigated to some extent
+by the high tides which cover the marshes, and the invigorating
+breezes which blow in from the sea. Belize is connected by
+telegraph and telephone with the other chief towns of British
+Honduras, but there is no railway, and communication even by
+road is defective. The exports are mahogany, rosewood, cedar,
+logwood and other cabinet-woods and dye-woods, with cocoanuts,
+sugar, sarsaparilla, tortoiseshell, deerskins, turtles and fruit,
+especially bananas. Breadstuffs, cotton fabrics and hardware
+are imported.</p>
+
+<p>Belize probably derives its name from the French <i>balise</i>,
+&ldquo;a beacon,&rdquo; as no doubt some signal or light was raised here
+for the guidance of the buccaneers who once infested this region.
+Local tradition connects the name with that of Wallis or Wallace,
+a Scottish buccaneer, who, in 1638, settled, with a party of
+logwood cutters, on St George&rsquo;s Cay, a small island off the town.
+In the 18th century the names Wallis and Belize were used
+interchangeably for the town, the river and the whole country.
+The history of Belize is inextricably bound up with that of the
+rest of British Honduras (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELJAME, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1842-1906), French writer, was born
+at Villiers-le-Bel, Seine-et-Oise, on the 26th of November 1842.
+He spent part of his childhood in England and was a frequent
+visitor in London. His lectures on English literature at the
+Sorbonne, where a chair was created expressly for him, did much
+to promote the study of English in France. In 1905-1906 he
+was Clark lecturer on English literature at Trinity College,
+Cambridge. He died at Domont (Seine-et-Oise) on the 19th of
+September 1906. His best known book was a masterly study
+of the conditions of literary life in England in the 18th century
+illustrated by the lives of Dryden, Addison and Pope. This
+book, <i>Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i> (1881), was crowned by the French Academy on the appearance
+of the second edition in 1897. He was a good Shakespearian
+scholar, and his editions of Macbeth, Othello and Julius Caesar
+also received an academic prize in 1902.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELKNAP, JEREMY<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1744-1798), American author and
+clergyman, was born at Boston on the 4th of June 1744, and was
+educated at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1762.
+In 1767 he became minister of a Congregational church at Dover,
+New Hampshire, remaining there until 1787, when he removed
+to Federal Street church, Boston. He is recognized as the
+founder of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and in 1792
+became an overseer of Harvard. He died at Boston on the
+20th of June 1798. Belknap&rsquo;s chief works are: <i>History of
+New Hampshire</i> (1784-1792); <i>An Historical Account of those</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span>
+<i>persons who have been distinguished in America</i>, generally known
+as <i>American Biography</i> (1792-1794); <i>The Foresters</i> (1792), &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1820-1890), American
+soldier and politician, was born at Newburgh, N.Y., on the
+22nd of September 1829. Entering the Union army in 1861,
+he took part in the battles of Shiloh, Corinth and Vicksburg,
+as major of the 15th Iowa volunteers. In the Atlanta
+campaign under Sherman he gained considerable distinction,
+rising successively to the rank of brigadier-general in 1864
+and major-general in 1865. During the four years that followed
+he was collector of internal revenue for Iowa, leaving that post in
+1869 to become secretary of war. In 1876, in consequence of
+unproved accusations of corruption, he resigned. He died at
+Washington, D.C., on the 13th of October 1890.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+inventor and physicist, son of Alexander Melville Bell, was born
+in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 3rd of March 1847. He was
+educated at the university of Edinburgh and the university of
+London, and removed with his father to Canada in 1870. In
+1872 he became professor of vocal physiology in Boston University.
+In 1876 he exhibited an apparatus embodying the results
+of his studies in the transmission of sound by electricity, and this
+invention, with improvements and modifications, constitutes
+the modern commercial telephone. He was the inventor also of
+the photophone, an instrument for transmitting sound by
+variations in a beam of light, and of phonographic apparatus.
+Later, he interested himself in the problem of mechanical flight.
+He published many scientific monographs, including a memoir
+on the formation of a deaf variety in the human race.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1819-1905), American
+educationalist, was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 1st of
+March 1819. He studied under and became the principal assistant
+of his father, Alexander Bell, an authority on phonetics
+and defective speech. From 1843 to 1865 he lectured on elocution
+at the university of Edinburgh, and from 1865 to 1870 at the
+university of London. In 1868, and again in 1870 and 1871, he
+lectured in the Lowell Institute course in Boston. In 1870 he
+became a lecturer on philology at Queen&rsquo;s College, Kingston,
+Ontario; and in 1881 he removed to Washington, D.C., where
+he devoted himself to the education of deaf mutes by the &ldquo;visible
+speech&rdquo; method of orthoepy, in which the alphabetical characters
+of his own invention were graphic diagrams of positions and
+motions of the organs of speech. He held high rank as an
+authority on physiological phonetics (<i>q.v</i>.) and was the author of
+numerous works on orthoepy, elocution and education, including
+<i>Steno-Phonography</i> (1852); <i>Letters and Sounds</i> (1858); <i>The
+Standard Elocutionist</i> (1860); <i>Principles of Speech and Dictionary
+of Sounds</i> (1863); <i>Visible Speech: The Science of Universal
+Alphabetics</i> (1867); <i>Sounds and their Relations</i> (1881); <i>Lectures
+on Phonetics</i> (1885); <i>A Popular Manual of Visible Speech and
+Vocal Physiology</i> (1889); <i>World English: the Universal Language</i>
+(1888); <i>The Science of Speech</i> (1897); <i>The Fundamentals of
+Elocution</i> (1899).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See John Hitz, <i>Alexander Melville Bell</i> (Washington, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, ANDREW<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1753-1832), British divine and educationalist,
+was born at St Andrews on the 27th of March 1753. He
+graduated at the university there, and afterwards spent some
+years as a tutor in Virginia, U.S.A. On his return he took orders,
+and in 1787 sailed for India, where he held eight army chaplaincies
+at the same time. In 1789 he became superintendent
+of the male orphan asylum at Madras, and having been obliged
+from scarcity of teachers to introduce the system of mutual
+tuition by the pupils, found the scheme answer so well that he
+became convinced of its universal applicability. In 1797, after
+his return to London, he published a small pamphlet explaining
+his views on education. Little public attention was drawn
+towards the &ldquo;monitorial&rdquo; plan till Joseph Lancaster (<i>q.v</i>.), the
+Quaker, opened a school in Southwark, conducting it in accordance
+with Bell&rsquo;s principles, and improving on his system. The
+success of the method, and the strong support given to Lancaster
+by the whole body of Nonconformists gave immense impetus to
+the movement. Similar schools were established in great
+numbers; and the members of the Church of England, becoming
+alarmed at the patronage of such schools resting entirely in the
+hands of dissenters, resolved to set up similar institutions in
+which their own principles should be inculcated. In 1807 Bell
+was called from his rectory of Swanage in Dorset to organize a
+system of schools in accordance with these views, and in 1811
+became superintendent of the newly formed &ldquo;National Society
+for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the
+Established Church.&rdquo; For his valuable services he was in some
+degree recompensed by his preferment to a prebend of Westminster,
+and to the mastership of Sherburn hospital, Durham.
+He tried, but without success, to plant his system in Scotland
+and on the continent. He died on the 27th of January 1832, at
+Cheltenham, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His great
+fortune was bequeathed almost entirely for educational purposes.
+Of the £120,000 given in trust to the provost of St Andrews, two
+city ministers and the professor of Greek in the university, half
+was devoted to the founding of the important school, called the
+Madras College, at St Andrews; £10,000 was left to each of the
+large cities, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leith, Inverness and Aberdeen,
+for school purposes; and £10,000 was also given to the Royal
+Naval School.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Southey&rsquo;s <i>Life of Dr Bell</i> (3 vols.) is very tedious; J.D.
+Meiklejohn&rsquo;s <i>An Old Educational Reformer</i> is concise and accurate.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1774-1842), Scottish anatomist, was
+born at Edinburgh in November 1774, the youngest son of the
+Rev. William Bell, a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of
+Scotland; among his brothers were the anatomist, John Bell,
+and the jurist, G.J. Bell. After attending the high school and
+the university of Edinburgh, he embraced the profession of
+medicine, and devoted himself chiefly to the study of anatomy,
+under the direction of his brother John. His first work, entitled
+<i>A System of Dissections, explaining the anatomy of the human
+body, the manner of displaying the parts, and their varieties in
+disease</i>, was published in Edinburgh in 1798, while he was still
+a pupil, and for many years was considered to be a valuable
+guide to the student of practical anatomy. In 1802 he published
+a series of engravings of original drawings, showing the anatomy
+of the brain and nervous system. These drawings, which are
+remarkable for artistic skill and finish, were taken from dissections
+made by Bell for the lectures or demonstrations he gave
+on the nervous system as part of the course of anatomical
+instruction of his brother. In 1804 he wrote the third volume,
+containing the anatomy of the nervous system and of the organs
+of special sense, of <i>The Anatomy of the Human Body</i>, by John
+and Charles Bell. In November of the same year he migrated
+to London, and from that date, for nearly forty years, he kept up
+a regular correspondence with his brother George, much of which
+was published in the <i>Letters of Sir Charles Bell</i>, &amp;c., 1870.
+The earlier letters of this correspondence show how rapidly he rose
+to distinction in a field where success was difficult, as it was
+already occupied by such men as John Abernethy, Sir Astley
+Cooper and Henry Cline. Before leaving Edinburgh, he had
+written his work on the <i>Anatomy of Expression</i>, which was
+published in London soon after his arrival and at once attracted
+attention. His practical knowledge of anatomy and his skill as an
+artist qualified him in an exceptional manner for such a work.
+The object of this treatise was to describe the arrangements by
+which the influence of the mind is propagated to the muscular
+frame, and to give a rational explanation of the muscular movements
+which usually accompany the various emotions and
+passions. One special feature was the importance attributed
+to the respiratory arrangements as a source of expression, and it
+was shown how the physician and surgeon might derive information
+regarding the nature and extent of important diseases by
+observing the expression of bodily suffering. This work, apart
+from its value to artists and psychologists, is of interest historically,
+as there is no doubt the investigations of the author into the
+nervous supply of the muscles of expression induced him to
+prosecute inquiries which led to his great discoveries in the
+physiology of the nervous system.</p>
+
+<p>In 1811 Bell published his <i>New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span>
+in which he announced the discovery of the different functions
+of the nerves corresponding with their relations to different
+parts of the brain; his latest researches were described in <i>The
+Nervous System of the Human Body</i> (1830), a collection of papers
+read by him before the Royal Society. He discovered that in the
+nervous trunks there are special sensory filaments, the office
+of which is to transmit impressions from the periphery of the
+body to the sensorium, and special motor filaments which convey
+motor impressions from the brain or other nerve centre to the
+muscles. He also showed that some nerves consist entirely of
+sensory filaments and are therefore sensory nerves, that others
+are composed of motor filaments and are therefore motor nerves,
+whilst a third variety contains both kinds of filaments and are
+therefore to be regarded as sensory-motor. Furthermore, he
+indicated that the brain and spinal cord may be divided into
+separate parts, each part having a special function&mdash;one part
+ministering to motion, the other to sensation, and that the origin
+of the nerves from one or other or both of those sources endows
+them with the peculiar property of the division whence they
+spring. He also demonstrated that no motor nerve ever passes
+through a ganglion. Lastly, he showed, both from theoretical
+considerations and from the result of actual experiment on the
+living animal, that the anterior roots of the spinal nerves are
+<i>motor</i>, while the posterior are <i>sensory</i>. These discoveries as a
+whole must be regarded as the greatest in physiology since that
+of the circulation of the blood by William Harvey. They were
+not only a distinct and definite advance in scientific knowledge,
+but from them flowed many practical results of much importance
+in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. It is not surprising
+that Bell should have viewed his results with exultation. On
+the 26th of November 1807, he wrote to his brother George:&mdash;&ldquo;I
+have done a more interesting <i>nova anatomia cerebri humani</i>
+than it is possible to conceive. I lectured it yesterday. I
+prosecuted it last night till one o&rsquo;clock; and I am sure it will
+be well received.&rdquo; On the 31st of the same month he wrote:&mdash;&ldquo;I
+really think this new anatomy of the brain will strike more
+than the discovery of the lymphatics being absorbents.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1807 he produced a <i>System of Comparative Surgery</i>, in which
+surgery is regarded almost wholly from an anatomical and
+operative point of view, and there is little or no mention of the
+use of medicinal substances. It placed him, however, in the
+highest rank of English writers on surgery. In 1809 he relinquished
+his professional work in London, and rendered
+meritorious services to the wounded from Coruña, who were
+brought to the Haslar hospital at Portsmouth. In 1810 he published
+a series of <i>Letters concerning the Diseases of the Urethra</i>,
+in which he treated of stricture from an anatomical and pathological
+point of view. In 1812 he was appointed surgeon to the
+Middlesex hospital, a post he retained for twenty-four years.
+He was also professor of anatomy, physiology and surgery to
+the College of Surgeons of London, and for many years teacher
+of anatomy in the school which used to exist in Great Windmill
+Street. In 1815 he went to Brussels to treat the wounded of
+the battle of Waterloo. In 1816, 1817 and 1818, he published
+a series of <i>Quarterly Reports of Cases in Surgery</i>;
+in 1821 a volume of coloured plates with descriptive
+letterpress, entitled <i>Illustrations
+of the great operations of Surgery, Trepan, Hernia, Amputation
+and Lithotomy</i>, and in 1824 <i>Observations on Injuries of the
+Spine and of the Thigh Bone</i>. On the formation of University
+College, Gower Street, he was for a short time head of the
+medical department. In 1832 he wrote a paper for the Royal
+Society of London on the &ldquo;Organs of the Human Voice,&rdquo; in which
+he gave many illustrations of the physiological action of these
+parts, and in 1833 a Bridgewater treatise, <i>The Hand: its Mechanism
+and Vital Endowments as evincing Design</i>. Along with Lord
+Brougham he annotated and illustrated an edition of Paley&rsquo;s
+<i>Natural Theology</i>, published in 1836. The Royal Society of
+London awarded to him in 1829 the first annual medal of that
+year given by George IV. for discoveries in science; and when
+William IV. ascended the throne, Charles Bell received the
+honour of knighthood along with a few other men distinguished
+in science and literature.</p>
+
+<p>In 1836 the chair of surgery in the university of Edinburgh
+was offered to him. He was then one of the foremost scientific
+men in London, and he had a large surgical practice. But his
+opinion was &ldquo;London is a place to live in, but not to die in&rdquo;;
+and he accepted the appointment. In Edinburgh he did not
+earn great local professional success; and, it must be confessed,
+he was not appreciated as he deserved. But honours came
+thick upon him. On the continent of Europe he was spoken
+of as greater than Harvey. It is narrated that one day P.J.
+Roux, a celebrated French physiologist, dismissed his class
+without a lecture, saying &ldquo;<i>C&rsquo;est assez, messieurs, vous avez vu
+Charles Bell.</i>&rdquo; During his professorship he published the <i>Institutes
+of Surgery, arranged in the order of the lectures delivered in the
+university of Edinburgh</i> (1838); and in 1841 he wrote a volume
+of <i>Practical Essays</i>, two of which, &ldquo;On Squinting,&rdquo; and &ldquo;On
+the action of purgatives,&rdquo; are of great value. He died at
+Hallow Park near Worcester on the 28th of April 1842.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1770-1843), Scottish jurist, was
+born at Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1770. He was an elder
+brother of Sir Charles Bell. At the age of eight he entered the
+high school, but he received no university education further than
+attending the lectures of A.F. Tytler, Dugald Stewart and
+Hume. He became a member of the Faculty of Advocates in
+1791, and was one of the earliest and most attached friends
+of Francis Jeffrey. In 1804 he published a <i>Treatise on the Law
+of Bankruptcy</i> in Scotland, which he subsequently enlarged
+and published in 1826 under the title of <i>Commentaries on the Law
+of Scotland and on the principles of Mercantile Jurisprudence&mdash;</i>
+an institutional work of the very highest excellence, which has
+had its value acknowledged by such eminent jurists as Joseph
+Story and James Kent. In 1821 Bell was elected professor of
+the law of Scotland in the university of Edinburgh; and in
+1831 he was appointed to one of the principal clerkships in
+the supreme court. He was placed at the head of a commission
+in 1833 to inquire into the Scottish bankruptcy law;
+and in consequence of the reports of the commissioners, chiefly
+drawn up by himself, many beneficial alterations were made.
+He died on the 23rd of September 1843. Bell&rsquo;s smaller treatise,
+<i>Principles of the Law of Scotland</i>, became a standard text-book
+for law students. The <i>Illustrations of the Principles</i>
+ is also a work of high value.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, HENRY<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1767-1830), Scottish engineer, was born
+at Torphichen, Linlithgowshire, in 1767. Having received
+the ordinary education of a parish school, he was apprenticed
+to his uncle, a millwright, and, after qualifying himself as a
+ship-modeller at Bo&rsquo;ness, went to London, where he found
+employment under John Rennie, the celebrated engineer. Returning
+to Scotland in 1790, he first settled as a carpenter at
+Glasgow and afterwards removed to Helensburgh, on the Firth
+of Clyde where he pursued his mechanical projects, and also
+found occasional employment as an engineer. In January
+1812 he placed on the Clyde a steamboat (which he named the
+&ldquo;Comet&rdquo;) of about 25 tons, propelled by an engine of three
+horse power, at a speed of 7 m. an hour. Although the honour
+of priority is admitted to belong to the American engineer
+Robert Fulton, there appears to be no doubt that Fulton had
+received very material assistance in the construction of his
+vessel from Bell and others in Great Britain. A handsome sum
+was raised for Bell by subscription among the citizens of Glasgow;
+and he also received from the trustees of the river Clyde a pension
+of £100 a year. He died at Helensburgh on the 14th of November
+1830. A monument to his memory stands on the banks of the
+Clyde, at Dunglass, near Bowling.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1803-1874), a Scottish lawyer
+and man of letters, was born at Glasgow on the 8th of November
+1803. He received his education at the Glasgow high school
+and at Edinburgh University. He became intimate with &ldquo;Delta&rdquo;
+Moir, James Hogg, John Wilson (Christopher North), and others
+of the brilliant staff of <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>,
+to which he was drawn by his political sympathies.
+In 1828 he became editor of the <i>Edinburgh Literary Journal</i>,
+which was eventually incorporated in the <i>Edinburgh Weekly Chronicle</i>. He was admitted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span>
+to the bar in 1832. In 1839 he was appointed sheriff-substitute
+of Lanarkshire, and in 1867 he succeeded Sir Archibald Alison
+in the post of sheriff-principal of the county, an office which he
+filled with distinguished success. In 1831 he published <i>Summer
+and Winter Hours</i>, a volume of poems, of which the best known
+is that on Mary, queen of Scots. He further defended the cause of
+the unfortunate queen in a prose <i>Life</i> (2 vols., 1828-1831).
+Among his other works may be mentioned a preface which he
+wrote to Bell and Bains&rsquo;s edition (1865) of the works of Shakespeare,
+and <i>Romances and Minor Poems</i> (1866). He figures
+in the society of the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i> as &ldquo;Tallboys.&rdquo; He
+died on the 7th of January 1874.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, JACOB<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1810-1859), British pharmaceutical chemist,
+was born in London on the 5th of March 1810. On the completion
+of his education, he joined his father in business as a
+chemist in Oxford Street, and at the same time attended the
+chemistry lectures at the Royal Institution, and those on
+medicine at King&rsquo;s College. Always keenly alive to the interests
+of chemists in general, Bell conceived the idea of a society which
+should at once protect the interests of the trade, and improve
+its status, and at a public meeting held on the 15th of April 1841,
+it was resolved to found the Pharmaceutical Society of Great
+Britain. Bell carried his scheme through in the face of many
+difficulties, and further advanced the cause of pharmacy by
+establishing the <i>Pharmaceutical Journal</i>, and superintending
+its publication for eighteen years. The Pharmaceutical Society
+was incorporated by royal charter in 1843. One of the first abuses
+to engage the attention of the new body was the practice of
+pharmacy by unqualified persons, and in 1845 Bell drew up the
+draft of a bill to deal with the matter, one of the provisions of
+which was the recognition of the Pharmaceutical Society as the
+governing body in all questions connected with pharmacy.
+For some time after this the question of pharmaceutical legislation
+was widely discussed. In 1850 Bell successfully contested
+the borough of St Albans in order that he might be able to advocate
+his proposals for reform more effectually in parliament.
+In 1851 he brought forward a bill embodying these proposals.
+It passed its second reading, but was considerably whittled
+down in committee, and when eventually it became law it only
+partially represented its sponsor&rsquo;s intentions. Bell was the
+author of an <i>Historical Sketch of the Progress of Pharmacy in
+Great Britain</i>. He died on the 12th of June 1859.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, JOHN<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1691-1780), Scottish traveller, was born at
+Antermony in Scotland in 1691, and educated for the medical
+profession, in which he took the degree of M.D. In 1714 he set
+out for St Petersburg, where, through the introduction of a
+countryman, he was nominated medical attendant to Valensky,
+recently appointed to the Persian embassy, with whom he
+travelled from 1715 to 1718. The next four years he spent in
+an embassy to China, passing through Siberia and the great
+Tatar deserts. He had scarcely rested from this last journey
+when he was summoned to attend Peter the Great in his perilous
+expedition to Derbend and the Caspian Gates. The narrative
+of this journey he enriched with interesting particulars of the
+public and private life of that remarkable prince. In 1738 he
+was sent by the Russian government on a mission to Constantinople,
+to which, accompanied by a single attendant who spoke
+Turkish, he proceeded in the midst of winter and all the horrors
+of war, returning in May to St Petersburg. It appears that
+after this he was for several years established as a merchant
+at Constantinople, where he married in 1746. In the following
+year he retired to his estate of Antermony, where he spent the
+remainder of his life. He died in 1780. His travels, published
+at Glasgow in 1763, were speedily translated into French, and
+widely circulated in Europe.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, JOHN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1763-1820), Scottish anatomist and surgeon,
+an elder brother of Sir Charles Bell, was born at Edinburgh on
+the 12th of May 1763. After completing his professional education
+at Edinburgh, he carried on from 1790 in Surgeons&rsquo; Square
+an anatomical lecture-theatre, where, in spite of much opposition,
+due partly to the unconservative character of his teaching, he
+attracted large audiences by his lectures, in which he was for a
+time assisted by his younger brother Charles. In 1793-1795 he
+published <i>Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds</i>, and in
+1800 he became involved in an unfortunate controversy with
+James Gregory (1753-1821), the professor of medicine at Edinburgh.
+Gregory in 1800 attacked the system whereby the
+fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh acted in
+rotation as surgeons at the Royal Infirmary, with the result
+that the younger fellows were excluded. Bell, who was among
+the number, composed an <i>Answer for the Junior Members</i> (1800),
+and ten years later published a collection of <i>Letters on Professional
+Character and Manners</i>, which he had addressed to Gregory.
+After his exclusion from the infirmary he ceased to lecture and
+devoted himself to study and practice. In 1816 he was injured
+by a fall from his horse and in the following year went to Italy
+for the benefit of his health. He died at Rome on the 15th of
+April 1820. His works also included <i>Principles of Surgery</i> (1801),
+<i>Anatomy of the Human Body</i>, which went through several
+editions and was translated into German, and <i>Observations on
+Italy</i>, published by his widow in 1825.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, JOHN<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1797-1869), American political leader, was born
+near Nashville, Tennessee, on the 15th of February 1797. He
+graduated at the university of Nashville in 1814, and in 1817
+was elected to the state senate, but retiring after one term, he
+devoted himself for ten years to the study and the practice of
+the law. From 1827 until 1841 he was a member of the national
+House of Representatives, of which from June 1834 to March
+1835 he was the speaker, and in which he was conspicuous as a
+debater and a conservative leader. Though he entered political
+life as a Democrat, he became estranged from his party&rsquo;s leader,
+President Jackson, also a Tennessean, and after 1835 was one of
+the leaders of the Whig party in the South. In March 1841 he
+became the secretary of war in President Harrison&rsquo;s cabinet,
+but in September, after the death of Harrison and the rupture
+between the Whig leaders and President Tyler, he resigned this
+position. From 1847 until 1859 he was a member of the United
+States Senate, and attracted attention by his ability in debate
+and his political independence, being one of two Southern
+senators to vote against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854 and
+against the admission of Kansas with the Lecompton or pro-slavery
+constitution in 1858. Strongly conservative by temperament
+and devoted to the Union, he ardently desired to prevent
+the threatened secession of the Southern states in 1860, and
+was the candidate, for the presidency, of the Constitutional
+Union Party, often called from the names of its candidates for
+the presidency and the vice-presidency (Edward Everett) the
+&ldquo;Bell and Everett Party,&rdquo; which was made up largely of former
+Whigs and Southern &ldquo;Know-Nothings,&rdquo; opposed sectionalism,
+and strove to prevent the disruption of the union. The party
+adopted no platform, and discarding all other issues, resolved
+that &ldquo;it is both the part of patriotism and of duty to recognize
+no political principle other than the constitution of the country,
+the union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws.&rdquo; Bell
+was defeated, but received a popular vote of 587,830 (mostly
+cast in the Southern states), and obtained the electoral votes of
+Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee&mdash;39 altogether, out of a total
+of 303. Bell tried earnestly to prevent the secession of his own
+state, but after the issue of President Lincoln&rsquo;s proclamation
+of the 15th of April 1861 calling on the various states for volunteers,
+his efforts were unavailing, and when Tennessee joined the
+Confederacy Bell &ldquo;went with his state.&rdquo; He took no part in
+the Civil War, and died on the 10th of September 1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL, ROBERT<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1800-1867), Irish man of letters, was born at
+Cork on the 16th of January 1800. He was educated at Trinity
+College, Dublin, where he was one of the founders of the Dublin
+Historical Society. In 1828 he settled in London, where he
+edited a weekly paper, the <i>Atlas</i>, and until 1841 was engaged
+in journalism; and afterwards in miscellaneous literary work. He
+died on the 12th of April 1867. His most important work is his
+annotated edition of the <i>English Poets</i> (24 vols., 1854-1857;
+new ed., 29 vols., 1866), the works of each poet being prefaced by
+a memoir. For Lardner&rsquo;s <i>Cabinet Cyclopaedia</i> he wrote: <i>History
+of Russia</i> (3 vols., 1836-1838); <i>Lives of English Poets</i> (2 vols.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span>
+1839); a continuation, with W. Wallace, of Sir James Mackintosh&rsquo;s
+<i>History of England</i> (vols. iv.-x., 1830-1840); and the fifth
+volume (1840) of the <i>Lives of the British Admirals</i>, begun by
+R. Southey. He was a director of the Royal Literary Fund,
+and well known for his open-hearted generosity to fellow men of
+letters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a hollow metallic vessel used for making a more or less
+loud noise (A.S. <i>bellan</i>, to bellow; Mid. Eng. &ldquo;to bell&rdquo;; cf.
+&ldquo;As loud as belleth, winde in helle,&rdquo; in Chaucer, <i>House of Fame</i>,
+iii. 713). Bells are usually cup-like in shape, and are constructed
+so as to give one fundamental note when struck. The term does
+not strictly include gongs, cymbals, metal plates, resonant bars
+of metal or wood, or tinkling ornaments, such as <i>e.g.</i> the &ldquo;bells&rdquo;
+upon the Jewish high priest&rsquo;s dress (Exodus xxviii. 32); nor is
+it necessary here to deal with the common useful varieties of
+sheep or cow bells, or bells on sledges or harness. For house
+bells see the end of this article. A &ldquo;diving-bell&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divers</a></span>)
+is only so called from the analogy of its shape.</p>
+
+<p>The main interest of bells and bell-ringing has reference to
+church or tower bells, their history, construction and uses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Bells.</i>&mdash;Of bells before the Christian era there is no
+trustworthy evidence. The instruments which summoned the
+Romans to public baths or processions, or that which Lucian
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180) describes as set in motion by a water-clock (<i>clepsydra</i>)
+to measure time, were probably cymbals or resonant plates of
+metal, like the timbrels (<i>corybantia aera</i>, Virg. <i>Aen.</i> iii. 111)
+used in the worship of Cybele, or the Egyptian <i>sistrum</i>, which
+seems to have been a sort of rattle. The earliest Latin word
+for a bell (<i>campana</i>) is late Latin of the 4th or 5th century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span>; and the first application of bells to churches has been
+ascribed to Paulinus, bishop of Nola in Campania about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400.
+There is, however, no confirmation of this story, which may have
+arisen from the words <i>campana</i> and <i>nola</i> (a small bell); and in a
+letter from Paulinus to the emperor Severus, describing very
+fully the decoration of his church, the bishop makes no mention
+of bells. It has been maintained with somewhat more reason
+that Pope Sabinianus (604) first used church bells; but it seems
+clear that they were introduced into France as early as 550.
+In the 7th century Bede mentions a bell brought from Italy
+by Benedict Biscop for his abbey at Wearmouth, and speaks
+of the sound of a bell being well known at Whitby Abbey at the
+time of St Hilda&rsquo;s death (680). St Dunstan hung many in the
+10th century; and in the 11th they were not uncommon in
+Switzerland and Germany. It is said that the Greek Christians
+were unacquainted with bells till the 9th century; but it is
+known that for political reasons, after the taking of Constantinople
+by the Turks in 1453, their use was forbidden lest they
+should provide a popular signal for revolt.</p>
+
+<p>Several old bells are extant in Scotland, Ireland and Wales;
+the oldest are often quadrangular, made of thin iron plates
+hammered and riveted together. A well-known specimen is
+St Patrick&rsquo;s bell preserved at Belfast, called <i>Clog an eadhachta
+Phatraic</i>, &ldquo;the bell of St Patrick&rsquo;s will.&rdquo; It is 6 in. high, 5
+broad, 4 deep, adorned with gems and gold and silver filigree-work;
+it is inscribed 1091 and 1105, but it is probably alluded to
+in Ulster annals in 552. (For Scottish bells, see <i>Illustrated Catalogue
+of Archaeological Museum</i>, Edinburgh, for 1856.)</p>
+
+<p>The four-sided bell of the Irish missionary St Gall (646) is
+preserved at the monastery of St Gall, Switzerland. In these
+early times bells were usually small; even in the 11th century
+a bell presented to the church at Orleans weighing 2600 &#8468; was
+thought large. In the 13th century larger bells were cast. The
+bell Jacqueline of Paris, cast in 1400, weighed 15,000 &#8468;; another
+Paris bell of 1472, 25,000 &#8468;; and the famous Amboise bell at
+Rouen (1501) 36,364 &#8468;</p>
+
+<p>To these scanty records of the early history of bells may be
+added the enumeration of different kinds of bells by Hieronymus
+Magius, in his work <i>De Tintinnabulis</i>:&mdash;1. <i>Tintinnabulum</i>, a little
+bell, otherwise called <i>tinniolum</i>, for refectory or dormitory, according
+to Joannes Belethus, but Guillaume Durand names <i>squilla</i> for
+the refectory; 2. <i>Petasius</i>, or larger &ldquo;broad-brimmed hat&rdquo; bell;
+3. <i>Codon</i>, orifice of trumpet, a Greek hand-bell; 4. <i>Nola</i>, a very
+small bell, used in the choir, according to Durand; 5. <i>Campana</i>, a
+large bell, first used in the Latin churches in the steeple (Durand),
+in the tower (Belethus); 6. <i>Squilla</i>, a shrill little bell. We read
+of <i>cymbalum</i> for the cloister (Durand) or <i>campanella</i> for the
+cloister (Belethus); <i>nolula</i> or <i>dupla</i> in the clock; <i>signum</i>
+in the tower (<i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Excerptions</i> of St Egbert, 750); the
+Portuguese still call a bell <i>sino.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Bell-founding.</i>&mdash;The earliest bells were probably not cast,
+but made of plates riveted together, like the bells of St Gall
+or Belfast above mentioned. The bell-founder&rsquo;s art, originally
+practised in the monasteries, passed gradually into the hands
+of a professional class, by whom, in England and the Low
+Countries especially, were gradually worked out the principles
+of construction, mixture of metals, lines and proportions, now
+generally accepted as necessary for a good bell. In England
+some of the early founders were peripatetic artificers, who
+travelled about the country, setting up a temporary foundry
+to cast bells wherever they were wanted. Miles Graye (<i>c.</i> 1650),
+a celebrated East Anglian founder, carried on his work in this
+fashion, and in old churchwardens&rsquo; accounts are sometimes
+found notices of payment for the casting of bells at places where
+no regular foundry is known to have existed. The chief centres
+of the art in medieval times were London, York, Gloucester
+and Nottingham; and bells by <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;John of York&rdquo; (14th
+century), Samuel Smith, father and son, of York (1680-1730),
+Abraham Rudhall and his descendants of Gloucester (1684-1774),
+Mot (16th century), Lester and Pack (1750), Christopher
+Hodson of London (who cast &ldquo;Great Tom&rdquo; of Oxford, 1681)
+and Richard Phelps (1716) are still in high repute. The Whitechapel
+Bell Foundry (now Mears and Stainbank), established
+by Robert Mot in 1570, incorporated the business of the Rudhalls,
+Lester and Pack, Phelps, Briant and others, and is now one
+of the leading firms of bell-founders; others being Warner
+and Sons of Spitalfields and Taylor &amp; Co., Loughborough, the
+founders of &ldquo;Great Paul&rdquo; for St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral (1881). Of
+Dutch and Flemish founders the firms of van den Gheyn (1550),
+Hemony (1650), Aerschodt &amp; Wagheven at Louvain and others
+have a great reputation in the Low Countries, especially for
+&ldquo;carillons,&rdquo; such as those at Antwerp or Bruges, a form of
+bell-music which has not taken much root in England, despite
+the advocacy of the Rev. H.R. Haweis, who proclaimed its
+superiority to English change-ringing.</p>
+
+<p>Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tin in the proportion
+of 4 to 1. In Henry III.&rsquo;s reign it was 2 to 1. In Layard&rsquo;s
+Nineveh bronze bells, it was 10 to 1. Zinc and lead are used in
+small bells. The thickness of the bell&rsquo;s edge is about one-tenth
+of its diameter, and its height is twelve times its thickness.</p>
+
+<p>Bells, like viols, have been made of every conceivable shape
+within certain limits. The long narrow bell, the quadrangular,
+and the mitre-shaped in Europe at least indicate antiquity,
+and the graceful curved-inwardly-midway and full trumpet-mouthed
+bell indicates an age not earlier than the 16th century.</p>
+
+<p>The bell is first designed on paper according to the scale of
+measurement. Then the crook is made, which is a kind of double
+wooden compass, the legs of which are respectively curved to
+the shape of the inner and outer sides of the bell, a space of the
+exact form and thickness of the bell being left betwixt them.
+The compass is pivoted on a stake driven into the bottom of
+the casting-pit. A stuffing of brickwork is built round the stake,
+leaving room for a fire to be lighted inside it. The outside of this
+stuffing is then padded with fine soft clay, well mixed and bound
+together with calves&rsquo; hair, and the inner leg of the compass run
+round it, bringing it to the exact shape of the inside of the bell.
+Upon this <i>core</i>, well smeared with grease, is fashioned the false
+clay bell, the outside of which is defined by the outer leg of the
+compass. Inscriptions are now moulded in wax on the outside
+of the clay-bell; these are carefully smeared with grease, then
+lightly covered with the finest clay, and then with coarser clay,
+until a solid mantle is thickened over the outside of the clay bell.
+A fire is now lighted, and the whole baked hard; the grease and
+wax inscriptions steam out through holes at the top, leaving
+the sham clay bell baked hard and tolerably loose, between the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span>
+<i>core</i> and the <i>cope</i> or <i>mantle</i>. The cope is then lifted, the clay
+bell broken up, the <i>cope</i> let down again, enclosing now between
+itself and the <i>core</i> the exact shape of the bell. The metal is then
+boiled and run molten into the mould. A large bell will take
+several weeks to cool. When extricated it ought to be scarcely
+touched and should hardly require tuning. This is called its
+maiden state, and it used to be so sought after that many bells
+were left rough and out of tune in order to claim it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bell Tones and Tuning.</i>&mdash;A good bell, fairly struck, should
+give out three distinct notes&mdash;a &ldquo;fundamental&rdquo; note or &ldquo;tonic&rdquo;;
+the octave above, or &ldquo;nominal&rdquo;; and the octave below, or
+&ldquo;hum-note.&rdquo; (It also gives out the &ldquo;third&rdquo; and &ldquo;fifth&rdquo;
+above the fundamental; but of these it is less necessary to take
+notice.) Very few bells, however, have any two of these notes,
+and hardly any all three, in unison&mdash;the &ldquo;hum-notes&rdquo; being
+generally a little sharper, and the &ldquo;fundamentals&rdquo; a little
+flatter, than their respective &ldquo;nominals.&rdquo; In tuning a &ldquo;ring&rdquo;
+or series of bells, the practice of founders has hitherto been to
+take one set of notes (in England usually the nominals, on the
+continent the fundamentals) and put these into tune, leaving
+the other tones to take care of themselves. But in different
+circumstances different tones assert themselves. Thus, when
+bells are struck at considerable intervals, the fundamental notes
+being fuller and more persistent are more prominent; but when
+struck in rapid succession (as in English change-ringing or
+with the higher bells of a Belgian &ldquo;carillon,&rdquo; which take the
+&ldquo;air&rdquo;) the higher tone of the &ldquo;nominal&rdquo; is more perceptible.
+The inharmonious character of many Belgian carillons, and of
+certain Belgian and French rings in England, is ascribed by
+Canon A.B. Simpson (in his pamphlet, <i>Why Bells sound out of
+Tune</i>, 1897) to neglect of the &ldquo;nominals,&rdquo; the fundamentals
+only being tuned to each other. To tune a series of bells properly,
+the fundamental tone of each bell must be brought into true
+octave with its nominal, and the whole series of bells, thus
+rectified, put into tune with each other. The &ldquo;hum-note&rdquo;
+of each, which is the tone of the whole mass of metal, should also
+be in tune with the others. If flatter than the nominal, it cannot
+be sharpened; but if sharper (as is more usual), it may be flattened
+by thinning the metal near the crown of the bell. The great bell
+(&ldquo;Great Paul&rdquo;) cast by Messrs Taylor for St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral,
+London, has all its tones in true harmony, except that the tone
+next above the fundamental (E&#9837;) is a &ldquo;fourth&rdquo; (A&#9837;) instead
+of a &ldquo;third&rdquo; (G or G&#9837;). The great bell cast by the same founders
+for Beverley Minster is in perfect tune; and with the improved
+machinery now in use, there is no reason why this should not
+henceforth be the case with all church bells.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of a bell depends not only on the casting and the
+fineness and mixture of metals, but upon the due proportion of
+metal to the calibre of the bell. The larger the bell the lower
+the tone; but if we try to make a large E bell with metal only
+enough for a smaller F bell, the E bell will be puny and poor. It
+has been calculated that for a peal of bells to give the pure chord
+of the ground tone or key-note, third, fifth and octave, the
+diameters are required to be as thirty, twenty-four, twenty,
+fifteen, and the weights as eighty, forty-one, twenty-four and
+ten.</p>
+
+<p><i>History and Uses of Bells.</i>&mdash;The history of bells is full of
+romantic interest. In civilized times they have been intimately
+associated, not only with all kinds of religious and social uses,
+but with almost every important historical event. Their influence
+upon architecture is not less remarkable, for to them indirectly
+we probably owe most of the famous towers in the world.
+Church towers at first, perhaps, scarcely rose above the roof,
+being intended as lanterns for the admission of light, and addition
+to their height was in all likelihood suggested by the more common
+use of bells.</p>
+
+<p>Bells early summoned soldiers to arms, as well as Christians
+to church. They sounded the alarm in fire or tumult; and the
+rights of the burghers in their bells were jealously guarded.
+Thus the chief bell in the cathedral often belonged to the town,
+not to the cathedral chapter. The curfew, the Carolus and
+St Mary&rsquo;s bell in the Antwerp tower all belong to the town; the
+rest are the property of the chapter. He who commanded the
+bell commanded the town; for by that sound, at a moment&rsquo;s
+notice, he could rally and concentrate his adherents. Hence a
+conqueror commonly acknowledged the political importance of
+bells by melting them down; and the cannon of the conquered
+was in turn melted up to supply the garrison with bells to be used
+in the suppression of revolts. Many a bloody chapter in history
+has been rung in and out by bells.</p>
+
+<p>On the third day of Easter 1282, at the ringing of the Sicilian
+vespers (which have given their name to the affair), 8000 French
+were massacred in cold blood by John of Procida, who had thus
+planned to free Sicily from Charles of Anjou. On the 24th of
+August, St Bartholomew&rsquo;s day, 1571, bells ushered in the
+massacre of the Huguenots in France, to the number, it is said, of
+100,000. Bells have rung alike over slaughtered and ransomed
+cities; and far and wide throughout Europe in the hour of
+victory or irreparable loss. At the news of Nelson&rsquo;s triumph
+and death at Trafalgar, the bells of Chester rang a merry peal
+alternated with one deep toll, and similar incidents could be
+multiplied.</p>
+
+<p>There are many old customs connected with the use of church
+bells, some of which have died out, while others remain here and
+there. The best known and perhaps oldest of these is the
+&ldquo;Curfew&rdquo; (<i>couvre-feu</i>), first enforced (though not perhaps
+introduced) by William the Conqueror in England as a signal for
+all lights and fires to be extinguished at 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>&mdash;probably to
+prevent nocturnal gatherings of disaffected subjects. In many
+towns it survived into the 19th century as a signal for closing
+shops at 8 or 9; and it is still kept up in various places as an old
+custom; thus at Oxford the familiar boom of &ldquo;Tom&rsquo;s&rdquo; 101
+strokes is still the signal for closing college gates at 9. The
+largest and heaviest bells were used for the Curfew, to carry the
+sound as far as possible, as it did to Milton&rsquo;s ear, suggesting the
+descriptive lines in <i>Il Penseroso</i> (74-75):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Oft, on a plot of rising ground,</p>
+<p class="i05">I hear the far-off curfew sound</p>
+<p class="i05">Over some wide-watered shore,</p>
+<p class="i05">Swinging slow with sullen roar.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Gray&rsquo;s allusion in the <i>Elegy</i> is well known; as also are those of
+Shakespeare to the elves &ldquo;that rejoice to hear the solemn
+curfew&rdquo; (<i>Tempest</i>), or the fiend that &ldquo;begins at curfew and
+walks till the first cock&rdquo; (<i>King Lear</i>); or Milton&rsquo;s in <i>Comus</i>
+to the ghost &ldquo;that breaks his magic chains at curfew time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among secular uses connected with church bells are the
+&ldquo;Mote&rdquo; or &ldquo;Common&rdquo; bell, summoning to municipal or other
+meetings, as <i>e.g.</i> the 7th at St Mary&rsquo;s, Stamford, tolled for
+quarter sessions, or the bell at St Mary&rsquo;s, Oxford, for meetings
+of Convocation. In some places one of the bells is known as the
+&ldquo;Vestry Bell.&rdquo; The &ldquo;Pancake Bell,&rdquo; still rung here and there
+on Shrove Tuesday, was originally a summons to confession
+before Lent; the &ldquo;Harvest Bell&rdquo; and &ldquo;Seeding Bell&rdquo; called
+labourers to their work; while the &ldquo;Gleaning Bell&rdquo; fixed the
+hours for beginning or leaving off gleaning, so that everyone
+might start fair and have an even chance. The &ldquo;Oven Bell&rdquo;
+gave notice when the lord of the manor&rsquo;s oven was ready for his
+tenants to bake their bread; the &ldquo;Market Bell&rdquo; was a signal
+for selling to begin; and in some country districts a church bell
+is still rung at dinner time. The general diffusion of clocks and
+watches has rendered bells less necessary for marking the events
+of daily life; and most of these old customs have either disappeared
+or are fast disappearing. At Strassburg a large bell
+of eight tons weight, known as the &ldquo;Holy Ghost Bell,&rdquo; is only
+rung when two fires are seen in the town at once; a &ldquo;storm-bell&rdquo;
+warns travellers in the plain of storms approaching from
+the mountains, and the &ldquo;Thor Glocke&rdquo; (gate bell) gives the
+signal for opening or shutting the city gates. On the European
+continent, especially in countries which, like Belgium and
+Holland, were distracted by constant war, bells acquired great
+public importance. They were formally baptized with religious
+ceremonies (as also in England in pre-Reformation days), the
+notabilities of a town or church standing as sponsors; and they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span>
+were very generally supposed to have the power of scaring away
+evil spirits.</p>
+
+<p>Other old customs are naturally connected with the ecclesiastical
+uses of bells. The &ldquo;Passing Bell,&rdquo; rung for the dying,
+is now generally rung after death; the ancient mode of indicating
+the sex of the deceased, viz. two pulls for a woman and three
+for a man being still very common, with many varying customs
+as regards the interval after death or the bell to be used, <i>e.g.</i>
+smaller bells for children and females, and larger ones for aged
+men; the tenor bell being sometimes reserved for the death of
+the incumbent, or of a bishop or member of the royal family.
+&ldquo;Burial Peals,&rdquo; once common at or after funerals to scare away
+the evil spirits from the soul of the departed, though discouraged
+by bishops as early as the 14th century, were kept alive by
+popular superstition, and only finally checked in Puritan times;
+but they have been revived, since the spread of change-ringing,
+in the &ldquo;muffled peals&rdquo; now frequently rung as a mark of
+respect to deceased persons of public or local importance, or the
+short &ldquo;touches&rdquo; on hand-bells sometimes rung at the grave by
+the comrades of a deceased ringer. The &ldquo;Sermon-Bell,&rdquo; rung
+in pre-Reformation times to give notice that a sermon was to
+be preached (cf. Shakespeare, <i>Henry IV.</i>, Pt. II. iv. 2. 4-7),
+survives in some places in a custom of ringing the tenor bell
+before a service with a sermon; and a similar custom before
+a celebration of the Holy Communion preserves the memory of
+the &ldquo;Sacrament Bell.&rdquo; The ancient &ldquo;Sanctus&rdquo; or &ldquo;Sance&rdquo;
+bell, hung on the rood-screen or in a small bell cot on the chancel
+gable, and sounded three times when the priest said the <i>Tersanctus</i>
+(Holy, Holy, Holy) in the office of mass, was specially
+obnoxious to Puritan zeal, and few of them survived the Reformation.
+An early morning bell, rung in many places for no apparent
+reason, is probably a relic of the <i>Ave Maria</i> or <i>Angelus</i>
+bell. The inscription on some old bells, <i>Lectum fuge, discute
+somnum</i> (&ldquo;Away from bed, shake off sleep&rdquo;), points to this use,
+as also does the name &ldquo;Gabriel&rdquo; applied to the bell used for
+ringing the Angelus. In old times bells were generally named
+at their baptism, after the Virgin Mary or saints, or their donors;
+thus the bells at Oseney Abbey in the 13th century were called
+Hautclere, Doucement, Austyn, Marie, Gabriel and John;
+sometimes they were known by mere nicknames, such as &ldquo;Great
+(or &ldquo;Mighty&rdquo;) Tom&rdquo; at Oxford, or &ldquo;Big Ben,&rdquo; &ldquo;Great Paul,&rdquo;
+&amp;c., in recent times.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bell Inscriptions.</i>&mdash;The names of bells were often stamped
+upon them in the casting; whence arose inscriptions upon church
+bells, giving in monkish Latin the name of some saint, a prayer
+to the Virgin, or for the soul of the donor, or a distich upon
+the function of the bell itself; <i>e.g.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Funera plango, fulgura frango, Sabbata pango,</p>
+<p class="i05">Excito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>(I mourn for death, I break the lightning, I fix the Sabbath, I
+rouse the lazy, I scatter the winds, I appease the cruel.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The character of the lettering and the foundry marks upon
+old bells, are of great assistance in determining their date.
+Sometimes a set of bells has each a separate verse, <i>e.g.</i> on a ring
+of five in Bedfordshire:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>1st. &ldquo;Hoc signum Petri pulsatum nomine Christi.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(This emblem of Peter is struck in the name of Christ.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">2nd. &ldquo;Nomen Magdalene campana sonat melode.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(This bell named Magdalen sounds melodiously.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">3rd. &ldquo;Sit nomen Domini benedictum semper in eum.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(May the name of the Lord always be blessed upon him, <i>i.e.</i> on
+    the bell when struck.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">4th. &ldquo;Musa Raphaelis sonat auribus Immanuelis.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(The music of Raphael sounds in the ear of Immanuel.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">5th. &ldquo;Sum Rosa pulsata mundique Maria vocata.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(I, Maria, am struck and called the Rose of the world.)</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The names of these five bells were thus:&mdash;Peter, Magdalen,
+(?) Jesus, Raphael and Mary.</p>
+
+<p>Other inscriptions take the form of an invocation or prayer
+for the bell itself, its donor or those who hear it, <i>e.g.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Augustine tuam campanam protege sanam.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(Augustine, protect thy bell and keep it sound.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">&ldquo;Sancte Johannes, ora pro animabus Johannis Pudsey, militis,
+   et Mariae, consortae suae.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(St John, pray for the souls of John Pudsey, knight, and Mary his wife.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">&ldquo;Protege pura via quos convoco virgo Maria.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(Guard in the way those whom I pure Virgin Mary call.)</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Mittags Glocke&rdquo; (mid-day bell) at Strassburg, taken
+down at the time of the French Revolution, bore the legend:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Vox ego sum vitae; voco vos; orate venite.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i1">(I am the voice of life: I call you: come and pray.)</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+</div>
+
+<p>A bell in Rouen cathedral, melted down in 1793, was inscribed:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Je suis George d&rsquo;Ambois,</p>
+<p class="i05">Qui trente cinque mille pois;</p>
+<p class="i05">Mais lui qui me pesera</p>
+<p class="i05">Trente six mille me trouvera.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>(I am George d&rsquo;Ambois, weighing 35,000 &#8468;; but he who weighs
+  me will find me 36,000.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A similar inscription is said to have been cast on the largest
+of the bells placed by Edward III. in a &ldquo;clocher&rdquo; or bell hut
+in the Little Cloisters at Westminster:</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90">
+<p>&ldquo;King Edward made mee thirty thousand weight and three,</p>
+<p class="i05">Take mee down and wey mee and more you shall find mee.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>On the &ldquo;Thor Glocke&rdquo; at Strassburg above mentioned are the words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90">
+<p>&ldquo;Dieses Thor Glocke das erst mal schallt</p>
+<p class="i05">Als man 1618 sahlt</p>
+<p class="i05">Dass Mgte jahr regnet man</p>
+<p class="i05">Nach doctor Luther Jubal jahr</p>
+<p class="i05">Das Bös hinaus das Gut hinein</p>
+<p class="i05">Zu läuten soll igr arbeit seyn.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The reference is to the year 1517, when Luther began his
+crusade, and the verse may be Englished as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90">
+<p>When first ringeth this Gate Bell</p>
+<p>1618 years we tell.</p>
+<p>We reckon this a year to be</p>
+<p>From Dr Luther&rsquo;s jubilee.</p>
+<p>To ring out ill, the good ring in,</p>
+<p>Its daily task shall now begin.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Large Bells.</i>&mdash;There are a few bells of world-wide renown,
+and several others more or less celebrated. The great bell at
+Moscow, &ldquo;Tsar Kolokol,&rdquo; which, according to the inscription,
+was cast in 1733, was in the earth 103 years and was raised by
+the emperor Nicholas in 1836. The present bell seems never
+to have been actually hung or rung, having been cracked in
+the furnace; and it now stands on a raised platform in the
+middle of a square. It is used as a chapel. It weighs about
+180 tons, height 19 ft. 3 in., circumference 60 ft. 9 in., thickness
+2 ft., weight of broken piece 11 tons. The second Moscow bell,
+the largest in the world in actual use, weighs 128 tons. In a
+pagoda in Upper Burma hangs a bell 16 ft. in diameter, weighing
+about 80 tons. The great bell at Peking weighs 53 tons; Nanking,
+22 tons; Olmutz, 17 tons; Vienna (1711), 17 tons;
+Notre Dame (1680), 17 tons; Erfurt, 13 tons; Great Peter,
+York Minster, recast in 1845, 12½ tons; Great Paul, at St Paul&rsquo;s
+cathedral, 16¾ tons; Great Tom at Oxford, 7½ tons; Great
+Tom at Lincoln, 5½ tons. Big Ben of the Westminster Clock
+Tower weighs 13½ tons; it was cast by George Mears under
+the direction of the first Lord Grimthorpe (E. Beckett Denison)
+in 1858. Its four quarters were cast by Warner in 1856. The
+&ldquo;Kaiserglocke&rdquo; of Cologne cathedral, recast in 1875, with
+metal from French cannon captured in 1870-1871, weighs 27½ tons.</p>
+
+<p>These large bells are either not moved at all, or only slightly
+swung to enable the clapper to touch their side; in some cases
+they are struck by a hammer or beam from outside. The heaviest
+<i>ringing</i> peals in England are those at Exeter and St Paul&rsquo;s
+cathedrals, tenors 72 cwt. and 62 cwt. respectively.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bell-ringing.</i>&mdash;The science and art of bell-ringing, as practised
+upon church and tower bells, falls under two main heads:&mdash;(1) Mechanical
+ringing, in connexion with the machinery of a clock or &ldquo;carillon&rdquo;;
+(2) Ringing by hand, by means of ropes attached
+to the fittings of the bells, whereby the bell itself is either moved
+as it hangs mouth downwards sufficiently for the clapper just
+to touch its side (called technically &ldquo;chiming&rdquo;); or is swung
+round nearly full circle with its mouth uppermost (technically
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span>
+&ldquo;ringing&rdquo;), in which case the impact of the clapper is much
+heavier, and the sound produced is consequently louder and more
+far-reaching. Mechanical ringing is more common on the continent
+of Europe, especially in Belgium and Flanders; ringing
+by hand is more common in England, where the development
+of change-ringing (see below) has brought it into prominence.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Mechanical ringing is effected by a system of wires connected
+with small hammers striking the bells, usually on their
+outside, and worked either by connexion with the machinery
+of a clock, so as to play tunes or artificially arranged chimes
+at definite intervals; or with a key-board resembling that of
+an organ. The first of these methods is familiar in the chimes
+(Cambridge, Westminster, &amp;c.) heard from many towers at the
+striking of the hours and quarters; or in hymn tunes played at
+intervals (<i>e.g.</i> of three hours) upon the church bells. The second
+method is peculiar to the &ldquo;carillon&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), as found everywhere
+in Belgium, where with a set of from 20 or 30 to 60 or 70 bells
+a much wider scope for tunes and harmonies is provided than
+in English belfries, few of which have more than one octave of
+bells in one key only and none more than 12 bells. The carillons
+at Louvain and Bruges contain 40 bells, and that of Mechlin
+44, while in the tower of Antwerp cathedral there are upwards of
+90 bells, for the largest of which, cast in 1507, Charles V. stood
+sponsor at its consecration.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Ringing by Hand.</i>&mdash;Church bells may be &ldquo;chimed&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;rung&rdquo; (see above). One man can, as a rule, chime three bells,
+with a rope in each hand and one foot in the loop of another;
+but by the use of an &ldquo;Ellacombe&rdquo; or other chiming apparatus
+one man can work six, eight or ten bells. Some prefer the
+quieter sound of chiming as an introduction to divine service,
+but where a band of ringers is available and change-ringing is
+practised the bells as a rule are rung. The practice of &ldquo;clocking&rdquo;
+a bell, in which the clapper, by means of a cord attached to it
+and pulled from below, is allowed to swing against the bell at
+rest, is often employed to save trouble; but the jar is very
+likely to crack the bell. In ringing, or in true chiming, the bell
+is in motion when struck.</p>
+
+<p>For ringing, a bell is pulled up and &ldquo;set&rdquo; mouth uppermost.
+She (to ringers a bell is feminine) is then pulled off, first at
+&ldquo;handstroke&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> with the hands on the &ldquo;sally&rdquo; or tufted
+portion of the rope, a few feet from its lower end) and then at
+&ldquo;back-stroke&rdquo; in the reverse direction (with the hands nearer
+the lower end, the rope having at the previous pull coiled round
+three-quarters of the wheel&rsquo;s circumference), describing at each
+pull almost a full circle till she comes back to the upright position.
+At each revolution the swing is chiefly done by the weight of the
+bell, the ringer giving a pull of just sufficient strength to bring
+the bell back into the upright position; otherwise its swing
+would become gradually shorter till it remained at rest mouth downwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Change-ringing</i>.&mdash;When a given number of bells are rung over
+and over again in the same order, from the highest note, or
+&ldquo;treble,&rdquo; to the lowest, or &ldquo;tenor&rdquo;&mdash;1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7&mdash;they are
+said to be rung in &ldquo;rounds.&rdquo; &ldquo;Changes&rdquo; are variations of this
+order&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> 2 1 3 5 4 7 6, 2 3 1 4 5 6 7; and &ldquo;change-ringing&rdquo;
+is the art of ringing bells in &ldquo;changes,&rdquo; so that a different
+&ldquo;change&rdquo; or rearrangement of order is produced at each pull
+of the bell-ropes, until, without any repetition of the same
+change, the bells come back into &ldquo;rounds.&rdquo; The general principle
+of all methods of change-ringing is that each bell, after
+striking in the first place or &ldquo;lead,&rdquo; works gradually &ldquo;up&rdquo; to
+the last place or &ldquo;behind,&rdquo; and &ldquo;down&rdquo; again to the first, and
+that no bell ever shifts more than one place in each change.
+Thus the ringer of any bell knows that whatever his position
+in one change, his place in the next will be either the same, or the
+place before or the place after. He does not have to learn by
+heart the different changes or variations of order; nor need he,
+unless he is the &ldquo;conductor,&rdquo; know the exact order of any one
+change. He has to bear in mind, first, which way his bell is
+working, viz. whether &ldquo;up&rdquo; from first to last place, or &ldquo;down&rdquo;
+from last to first; secondly, in what place his bell is striking;
+thirdly, what bell or bells are striking immediately before or
+after him&mdash;this being ascertained chiefly by &ldquo;rope-sight,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+the knack, acquired by practice, of seeing which rope is being
+pulled immediately before and after his own. He must also
+remember and apply the rules of the particular &ldquo;method&rdquo;
+which is being rung. The following table representing the first
+twenty changes of a &ldquo;plain course&rdquo; of &ldquo;Grandsire Triples&rdquo;
+(for these terms, see below) illustrates the subject-matter of this
+section:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">1 2 3 4 5 6 7</td> <td class="tcl">&ldquo;Rounds.&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">7 5 6 1 4 2 3</td> <td class="tcl">(10th change.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">2 1 3 5 4 7 6</td> <td class="tcl">(1st change.)</td> <td class="tcr">5 7 1 6 2 4 3</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">2 3 1 4 5 6 7</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">5 1 7 2 6 3 4</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">3 2 4 1 6 5 7</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">1 5 2 7 3 6 4</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">3 4 2 6 1 7 5</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">1 2 5 3 7 4 6</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">4 3 6 2 7 1 5</td> <td class="tcl">(5th change.)</td> <td class="tcr">2 1 5 7 3 6 4</td> <td class="tcl">(15th change.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">4 6 3 7 2 5 1</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">2 5 1 3 7 4 6</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">6 4 7 3 5 2 1</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">5 2 3 1 4 7 6</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">6 7 4 5 3 1 2</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">5 3 2 4 1 6 7</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">7 6 5 4 1 3 2</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">3 5 4 2 6 1 7</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">3 4 5 6 2 7 1</td> <td class="tcl">(20th change.)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It will be observed that at the 1st change the third bell and
+at the 15th the fifth bell, according to the rule of this &ldquo;method,&rdquo;
+strikes a second blow in the third place (&ldquo;makes third&rsquo;s place&rdquo;).
+This stops the regular work of the bells which at the previous
+change were in the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th places (&ldquo;in 4, 5, 6, 7&rdquo;),
+causing them to take a step backwards in their course &ldquo;up&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;down,&rdquo; or as it is technically called, to &ldquo;dodge.&rdquo; Were it not
+for this, the bells would come back into &ldquo;rounds&rdquo; at the 14th
+change. It is by the use of &ldquo;place-making&rdquo; and &ldquo;dodging,&rdquo;
+according to the rules of various &ldquo;methods,&rdquo; that the required
+number of changes, upon any number of bells, can be produced.
+But in order that this may be done, without the bells coming
+back into &ldquo;rounds&rdquo; (as, <i>e.g.</i> in the &ldquo;plain course&rdquo; of Grandsire
+Triples, above given, they will do in seventy changes), further
+modifications of the &ldquo;coursing order,&rdquo; called technically &ldquo;Bobs&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Singles,&rdquo; must be introduced. In ringing, notice of these
+alterations as they occur is given by one of the ringers, who acts
+as &ldquo;conductor,&rdquo; calling out &ldquo;Bob&rdquo; or &ldquo;Single&rdquo; at the right
+moment to warn the ringers of certain bells to make the requisite
+alteration in the regular work of their bells. (Hence, in ringing
+language, to &ldquo;call&rdquo; a peal or touch = to conduct it.) Particulars
+of these, as of other details of change-ringing, may be gathered
+from books dealing with the technique of the art; but they are
+best mastered in actual practice. The term &ldquo;single,&rdquo; applied
+to five-bell ringing meant that, as the first three bells remained
+unchanged, only a single pair of bells changed places, <i>e.g.</i>
+1 5 4 3 2, 1 5 4 2 3. On larger numbers of bells it loses this
+meaning; but the effect of this &ldquo;call&rdquo; is that the &ldquo;coursing
+order&rdquo; of a single pair of bells is inverted. The origin of &ldquo;Bob&rdquo; is
+unknown. As a &ldquo;call&rdquo; it was perhaps adopted as a short, sharp
+sound, easily uttered and easily heard by the ringers. As
+applied to a &ldquo;method&rdquo; or system of ringing it may refer to the
+evolution of &ldquo;dodging,&rdquo; <i>e.g.</i> in &ldquo;Treble Bob&rdquo; to the zigzag
+&ldquo;dodging&rdquo; path of the treble bell; but none of the old writers
+attempts to explain it.</p>
+
+<p>The number of <i>possible</i> &ldquo;changes&rdquo; on any given series of bells
+may be ascertained, according to the mathematical formula of
+&ldquo;permutations,&rdquo; by multiplying the number of the bells together.
+Thus on three bells, only 6 changes or variations of order (1 × 2 × 3)
+can be produced; on four bells, 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24; on five,
+24 × 5 = 120; on six, 120 × 6 = 720; on seven, 720 × 7 = 5040.
+A &ldquo;peal&rdquo; on any such number of bells is in ordinary language
+the ringing of all the possible changes. But technically, only
+the full extent of changes upon seven bells, usually rung with a
+&ldquo;tenor behind,&rdquo; is called a &ldquo;peal&rdquo;; a shorter performance
+upon seven or more bells, or the full extent upon less than seven,
+being, in ringing parlance, a &ldquo;touch.&rdquo; On six bells the full
+extent of changes must be repeated continuously seven times
+(720 × 7 = 5040), and on five bells forty-two times (l20 × 42
+= 5040) to rank as a &ldquo;peal.&rdquo; On eight or more bells 5000
+changes in round numbers is accepted as the <i>minimum</i> standard
+for a peal; and on such numbers of bells up to twelve (the
+largest number used in change-ringing), peals are so arranged
+that the bells come into rounds at, or at some point beyond,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span>
+5000 changes. As many as 16,000 changes, occupying from nine
+to ten hours, have been rung upon church bells. But the great
+physical strain upon the ringers&mdash;to say nothing of the effect
+upon those who are within hearing&mdash;makes such performances
+exceptional. The word &ldquo;peal&rdquo; is often, though incorrectly, used
+(1) for a set of church bells (&ldquo;a peal of six,&rdquo; &ldquo;a peal of eight&rdquo;),
+for which the correct term is &ldquo;a ring&rdquo; of bells; (2) for any
+shorter performance than a full peal (<i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;wedding-peal,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;muffled peal,&rdquo; &amp;c.), called in ringing language a &ldquo;touch.&rdquo;
+Its use as equivalent for &ldquo;method,&rdquo; found in old campanological
+works, is now obsolete.</p>
+
+<p>Change-ringing upon five bells is called &ldquo;Doubles,&rdquo; upon
+seven bells &ldquo;Triples,&rdquo; upon nine &ldquo;Caters&rdquo; (Fr. <i>quatre</i>), and
+upon eleven &ldquo;Cinques,&rdquo; from the fact that at each change two,
+three, four or five pairs of bells change places with each other.
+&ldquo;Doubles&rdquo; can be and are rung when there are only five bells;
+but as a rule these &ldquo;odd-bell&rdquo; systems are rung with a &ldquo;tenor
+behind,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> struck at the end of each change; the number of
+bells in a tower being usually an even number&mdash;six, eight, ten
+or twelve. In &ldquo;even-bell&rdquo; systems the tenor is &ldquo;rung in&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;turned in,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> changes with the other bells, and a different
+terminology is employed; change-ringing on six bells being
+called &ldquo;Minor&rdquo;; on eight bells, &ldquo;Major&rdquo;; on ten bells,
+&ldquo;Royal&rdquo;; and on twelve, &ldquo;Maximus.&rdquo; The principal
+&ldquo;methods&rdquo; of change-ringing, each of which has its special
+rules, are&mdash;(1) &ldquo;Grandsire&rdquo;; (2) &ldquo;Plain Bob&rdquo;; (3) &ldquo;Treble Bob&rdquo;;
+(4) &ldquo;Stedman,&rdquo; from the name of its inventor, Fabian
+Stedman, about 1670. In &ldquo;Grandsire&rdquo; the treble and one other
+bell, in &ldquo;Plain Bob&rdquo; the treble alone, has a &ldquo;plain hunt,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+works from the first place, or &ldquo;lead,&rdquo; to the last place, or
+&ldquo;behind,&rdquo; and back again, without any dodging; in &ldquo;Treble
+Bob&rdquo; the treble has a uniform but zigzag course, dodging in
+each place on its way up and down. This is called a &ldquo;Treble
+Bob hunt&rdquo;; and under these two heads, according to the work
+of the treble, are classified a variety of &ldquo;plain methods&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Treble Bob methods,&rdquo; among the latter being the so-called
+&ldquo;Surprise&rdquo; methods, the most complicated and difficult of all.
+&ldquo;Stedman&rsquo;s principle,&rdquo; which is <i>sui generis</i>, consists in the three
+front bells ringing their six possible changes, while the remaining
+pair or pairs of bells dodge. It is thus an &ldquo;odd-bell&rdquo; method
+adapted to five, seven, nine or eleven bells; as also is
+&ldquo;Grandsire,&rdquo; though occasionally rung on even numbers of bells.
+&ldquo;Treble Bob&rdquo; is always, and &ldquo;Plain Bob&rdquo; generally, rung
+on even numbers&mdash;six, eight, ten or twelve. In ringing, whenever
+the treble has a uniform course, unaffected by &ldquo;Bobs&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;Singles,&rdquo; it serves as a guide to the other changing bells,
+according to the place in which they meet and cross its path from
+&ldquo;behind&rdquo; to the &ldquo;lead.&rdquo; The order in which the different dodges
+occur, and the &ldquo;course bell,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the bell which he follows from
+behind to lead, are also useful, and on large numbers of bells
+indispensable, guides to the ringer.</p>
+
+<p>Quite distinct from the art of change-ringing is the science
+of &ldquo;composing,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> arranging and uniting by the proper
+&ldquo;calls,&rdquo; subject to certain fixed laws and conditions, a number
+of groups of changes, so that no one change, or series of changes
+represented in those groups, shall be repeated. A composition,
+long or short, is said to be &ldquo;true&rdquo; if it is free from, &ldquo;false&rdquo;
+if it involves, such repetition; and the body of ascertained laws
+and conditions governing true composition in any method
+constitutes the test or &ldquo;proof&rdquo; to be applied to a composition
+in that method to demonstrate its truth or falseness. Many practical
+ringers know little or nothing of the principles of composition,
+and are content with performing compositions received from
+composers, or published in ringing books and periodicals. An
+elaborate statement of the principles of composition in the
+&ldquo;Grandsire&rdquo; method may be found in an appendix to Snowdon&rsquo;s
+<i>Grandsire</i> (1888), by the Rev. C.D.P. Davies. Those which
+apply to &ldquo;Treble Bob&rdquo; are explained in Snowdon&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on
+Treble Bob</i>, Part I. But, so far as can be ascertained, there is no
+treatise dealing with the science of composition as a whole; nor is
+it possible here to attempt a popular exposition of its principles.</p>
+
+<p>One of the objects kept in view by composers is musical
+effect. Certain sequences or contrasts of notes strike the ear as
+more musical than others; and an arrangement which brings
+up the more musical changes in quicker succession improves
+the musical effect of the &ldquo;peal&rdquo; or &ldquo;touch.&rdquo; On seven bells
+all the possible changes must be inserted in a true peal; but on
+larger numbers of bells, where the choice is from an immense
+number of possible changes, the composer is free to select those
+which are most musical. Unless, however, the bells of any given
+&ldquo;ring&rdquo; are in perfect tune and harmony with each other, their
+musical effect must be impaired, however well they are rung.
+This gives importance to the science and art of bell-tuning,
+in which great progress has been made (see above).</p>
+
+<p>The art of scientific change-ringing, peculiar to England,
+does not seem to have been evolved before the middle of the
+17th century. Societies or gilds of ringers, however, existed
+much earlier. A patent roll of 39 Henry III. (1255) confirms
+the &ldquo;Brethren of the Guild of Westminster, who are appointed
+to ring the great bells there,&rdquo; in the enjoyment of the &ldquo;privileges
+and free customs which they have enjoyed from the time of
+Edward the Confessor.&rdquo; In 1602 (as appears from a MS. in the
+library of All Souls&rsquo; College, Oxford) was founded a society
+called the &ldquo;Scholars of Cheapside.&rdquo; In 1637 began the &ldquo;Ancient
+Society of College Youths,&rdquo; so called from their meeting to practise
+on the six bells at St Martin&rsquo;s, College Hill, a church destroyed
+in the Great Fire of London, 1666. At first only &ldquo;rounds&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;call-changes&rdquo; were rung, till about 1642, when 120
+&ldquo;Bob Doubles&rdquo; were achieved; but slow progress was made
+till 1677, when Fabian Stedman of Cambridge published his
+<i>Campanologia</i>, dedicating it to this society, his method being
+first rung about this time by some of its members. Before the
+end of the 17th century was founded the &ldquo;Society of London
+Scholars,&rdquo; the name of which was changed in 1746 to &ldquo;Cumberland
+Youths&rdquo; in compliment to the victor of Culloden. These
+two metropolitan societies still exist, and include in their membership
+most of the leading change-ringers of England: one of the
+oldest provincial societies being that of Saffron Walden in
+Essex, founded in 1623, and still holding an annual ringing
+festival. In the latter half of the 18th and first half of the 19th
+century change-ringing, which at first seems to have been an
+aristocratic pastime, degenerated in social repute. Church
+bells and their ringers, neglected by church authorities, became
+associated with the lower and least reputable phases of parochial
+life; and belfries were too often an adjunct to the pothouse.
+In the last half of the 19th century there was a great revival
+of change-ringing, leading to improvements in belfries and in
+ringers, and to their gradual recognition as church workers.
+Diocesan or county associations for the promotion of change-ringing
+and of belfry reform spread knowledge of the art and
+aroused church officials to greater interest in and care for their
+bells. A Central Council of Church Bell Ringers, consisting
+of delegates from these various societies, meets annually in
+London or at some provincial centre to discuss ringing matters,
+and to collect and formulate useful knowledge upon practical
+questions&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the proper care of bells and the means of preventing
+annoyance from their use in the neighbourhood of houses,
+rules for the conduct of belfries, &amp;c. It is now less likely than
+ever that the Belgian carillons will be preferred in England to
+the peculiarly English system of ringing bells in peal; by which,
+whatever its difficulties, the musical sound of bells is most fully
+brought out, and their scientific construction best stimulated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The literature of bell-lore (or campanology)
+consists chiefly of scattered treatises or pamphlets upon the technique
+of different methods of change-ringing, or upon the bells of
+particular counties or districts. The earliest that deal with the
+science and art of change-ringing are <i>Campanologia or the Art of
+Ringing Improved</i> (1677), and a chapter of &ldquo;Advice to a Ringer&rdquo;
+in the <i>School of Recreations, or Gentleman&rsquo;s Tutor</i> (1684), showing
+that in its early days bell-ringing was a fashionable pastime. Then
+follow <i>Campanologia, or the Art of Ringing made Easy</i> (1766), <i>Clavis
+Campanologia, a Key to Ringing</i> (1788), and Shipway&rsquo;s <i>Campanologia</i>
+(1816). The revival of change-ringing in recent years has produced
+many manuals: <i>e.g.</i> Snowdon&rsquo;s <i>Rope-Sight</i> (explaining the &ldquo;Plain Bob&rdquo;
+method), <i>Grandsire, Treatise on Treble Bob, Double Norwich
+Court Bob Major</i>, and <i>Standard Methods</i> (with a book of diagrams);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span>
+Troyte on <i>Change-Ringing</i>; <i>The Duffield Method</i>, by Sir A.P.
+Heywood, Bart., its inventor. Somewhat prior to these are various
+works by the Rev. H.T. Ellacombe, inventor of a chiming apparatus
+which bears his name, and a pioneer in belfry reform. Among these
+are accounts of the church bells of Devon, Somerset and Gloucester,
+and pamphlets on <i>Belfries and Ringers, Chiming, &amp;c.</i>; much of their
+contents being summarized in <i>The Ringer&rsquo;s Guide to the Church Bells
+of Devon</i>, by C. Pearson (1888). A <i>Glossary of Technical Terms</i> used
+in connexion with church bells and change-ringing was published
+(1901) under the auspices of the Central Council of Church Bell
+Ringers. On the history of church bells and customs connected with
+them much curious information is given in North&rsquo;s <i>English Bells
+and Bell Lore</i> (1888). By the same author are monographs on the
+church bells of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire and
+Hertfordshire. There are similar works on the church bells of Suffolk
+and Cambridgeshire, by Dr Raven; of Huntingdonshire, by the
+Rev. T.M.N. Owen; and on the church bells of Essex, by the
+Rev. C. Deedes. A compilation and summary of many data of bell-lore
+will be found in <i>A Book about Bells</i>, by the Rev. G.S. Tyack;
+and in a volume by Dr Raven in the &ldquo;Antiquary&rsquo;s Books&rdquo; series
+(Methuen, 1906), entitled <i>The Bells of England</i>, which deals with the
+antiquarian side of bell-lore. See also <i>Quarterly Review</i>, No. cxc.
+(September 1854); <i>Windsor Magazine</i> (December 1896); Lord Rayleigh&rsquo;s
+paper &ldquo;On the Tones of Bells&rdquo; in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> for January 1890;
+and a series of articles from the <i>Guardian</i>, reprinted as a pamphlet
+under the title, <i>Church Bells and Bell-ringing</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. L. P.)</div>
+
+<p><i>House Bells.</i>&mdash;Buildings are commonly provided with bells,
+conveniently arranged so as to enable attendants to be summoned
+to the different rooms. In the old system, which has been
+largely superseded by pneumatic and still more by electric bells,
+the bells themselves are of the ordinary conical shape and are
+provided with clappers hung loosely inside them. Being supported
+on springs they continue to swing, and therefore to give
+out sound as the clapper knocks against the sides, for some time
+after they have been set in motion by means of the strings or
+wires by which each is connected to a bell-pull in the rooms.
+These wires are generally placed out of sight inside the walls,
+and bell-cranks are employed to take them round corners and
+to change the direction of motion as required. A lightly poised
+pendulum is often attached to each bell, to show by its motion
+when it has been rung. In pneumatic bells the wires are replaced
+by pipes of narrow bore, and the current of air which is caused
+to flow along these by the pressing of a push-button actuates
+a small hammer which impinges rapidly against a bell or gong.
+An electric bell consists of a small electro-magnet acting on a
+soft iron armature which is supported in such a way that normally
+it stands away from the magnet. When the latter is energized
+by the passage of an electric current, the armature is attracted
+towards it, and a small hammer attached to it strikes a blow on
+the bell or gong. This &ldquo;single stroke&rdquo; type of bell is largely
+used in railway signalling instruments. For domestic purposes,
+however, the bells are arranged so that the hammer strikes a series
+of strokes, continuing so long as the push-button which closes
+the electric circuit is pressed. A light spring is provided against
+which the armature rests when it is not attracted by the electro-magnet,
+and the current is arranged to pass through this spring
+and the armature on its way to the magnet. When the armature
+is attracted by the magnet it breaks contact with this spring,
+the current is interrupted, and the magnet being no longer
+energized allows the armature to fall back on the spring and thus
+restore the circuit. In this way a rapid to and fro motion is
+imparted to the hammer. The electric current is supplied by a
+battery, usually either of Leclanché or of dry cells. One bell
+will serve for all the rooms of a house, an &ldquo;indicator&rdquo; being
+provided to show from which it has been rung. Such indicators
+are of two main types: the current either sets in motion a
+pendulum, or causes a disk bearing the name or number of the
+room concerned to come into view. Each push must have one
+wire appropriated to itself leading from the battery through
+the indicator to the bell, but the return wire from the bell to
+the battery may be common to all the pushes. Bells of this kind
+cease to ring whenever the electrical continuity of any of these
+wires is interrupted, but in some cases, as in connexion with
+burglar-alarms, it is desirable that the bell, once set in action,
+shall continue to ring even though the wires are cut.
+For this purpose, in &ldquo;continuous ringing&rdquo; bells, the current,
+started by the push or alarm apparatus, instead of working
+the bell, is made to operate a relay-switch and thus to bring into
+circuit a second battery which continues to ring the bell, no
+matter what happens to the first circuit.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLABELLA,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> the common name (popularized from the
+Indian corruption of Milbank) for a tribe of Kwakiutl Indians
+at Milbank, British Columbia, including the subtribes Kokaitk,
+Oetlitk and Ocalitk. They were converted to Christianity
+by Protestant missionaries, and number about 300.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLACOOLA<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bilqula</span>, a tribe of North American Indians
+of Salishan stock, inhabiting the coast of British Columbia.
+They number some 300.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLADONNA<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (from the Ital. <i>bella donna</i>, &ldquo;beautiful lady,&rdquo;
+the berries having been used as a cosmetic), the roots and leaves of
+<i>Atropa belladonna</i>, or deadly nightshade (<i>q.v.</i>), widely used in
+medicine on account of the alkaloids which they contain. Of
+these the more important are atropine (or atropia), hyoscyamine,
+hyoscine and belladonine; atropine is the most important,
+occurring as the malate to the extent of about 0.47% in the leaves,
+and from 0.6 to 0.25% in the roots.</p>
+
+<p>Atropine, C<span class="su">17</span>H<span class="su">23</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, was discovered in 1833 by P.L. Geiger
+and Hesse and by Mein in the tissues of <i>Atropa belladonna</i>, from
+which it may be extracted by means of chloroform. By crystallization
+from alcohol it is obtained as colourless needles, melting
+at 115°. Hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid or baryta water
+gives tropic acid and tropine; on the other hand, by boiling
+equimolecular quantities of these substances with dilute hydrochloric
+acid, atropine is reformed. Since both these substances
+have been synthesized (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tropine</a></span>), the artificial formation
+of atropine is accomplished. Atropine is optically inactive;
+hyoscyamine, possibly a physical isomer, which yields atropine
+when heated to 108.6°, is laevorotatory.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medicine.</i>&mdash;The official doses of atropine are from <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">200</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">100</span>
+grain, and the sulphate, which is in general use in medicine,
+has a similar dose. It is highly important to observe that the
+official doses of the various pharmacopoeias may with safety
+be greatly exceeded in practice. They are based on the experimental
+<i>toxic</i>, as distinguished from <i>lethal</i> dose. A toxic
+dose causes unpleasant symptoms, but in certain cases, such as
+this, it may require very many times a toxic dose to produce
+the lethal effect. In other words, whilst one-fiftieth of a grain
+may cause unpleasant symptoms, it may need more than a grain
+to kill. So valuable are certain of the properties of atropine
+that it is often desirable to give doses of one-twentieth or one-tenth
+of a grain; but these will never be ventured upon by the
+practitioner who is ignorant of the great interval between the
+minimum toxic and the minimum lethal dose. It actually needs
+twenty to thirty grains of atropine to kill a rabbit: the animal
+is, however, somewhat exceptional in this regard. The most
+valuable preparations of this potent drug are the <i>liquor atropinae
+sulphatis</i>, which is a 1% solution, and the <i>lamella</i>&mdash;for insertion
+within the conjunctival sac&mdash;which contains one five-thousandth
+part of a grain of the alkaloid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pharmacology.</i>&mdash;When rubbed into the skin with such substances
+as alcohol or glycerine, which are absorbed, atropine is
+carried through the epidermis with them, and in this manner&mdash;or
+when simply applied to a raw surface&mdash;it paralyses the
+terminals of the pain-conducting sensory nerves. It acts
+similarly, though less markedly, upon the nerves which determine
+the secretion of the perspiration, and is therefore a local anaesthetic
+or anodyne and an anhidrotic. Being rapidly absorbed
+into the blood, it exercises a long and highly important series of
+actions on nearly every part and function of the nervous system.
+Perhaps its most remarkable action is that upon the terminals
+of nearly all the secretory nerves in the body. This causes the
+entire skin to become dry&mdash;as in the case of the local action above
+mentioned; and it arrests the secretion of saliva and mucus in
+the mouth and throat, causing these parts to become very dry
+and to feel very uncomfortable. This latter result is due to
+paralysis of the <i>chorda tympani</i> nerve, which is mainly responsible
+for the salivary secretion. Certain nerve fibres from the sympathetic
+nervous system, which can also cause the secretion of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span>
+(specially viscous) saliva, are entirely unaffected by atropine.
+A curious parallel to this occurs in its action on the eye. There
+is much uncertainty as to the influence of atropine on the secretions
+of the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas and kidneys, and
+it is not possible to make any definite statement, save that in all
+probability the activities of the nerves innervating the gland-cells
+in these organs are reduced, though they are certainly not
+arrested, as in the other cases. The secretion of mucus by the
+bronchi and trachea is greatly reduced and their muscular tissue
+is paralysed&mdash;a fact of which much use is made in practical
+medicine. The secretion of milk, if occurring in the mammary
+gland, is much diminished or entirely arrested. Given internally,
+atropine does not exert any appreciable sedative action upon the
+nerves of pain.</p>
+
+<p>The action of atropine on the motor nerves is equally important.
+Those that go to the voluntary muscles are depressed only by
+very large and dangerous doses. The drug appears to have no
+influence upon the contractile cells that constitute muscle-fibre,
+any more than it has directly upon the secretory cells that
+constitute any gland. But moderate doses of atropine markedly
+paralyse the terminals of the nerves that go to involuntary
+muscles, whether the action of those nerves be motor or inhibitory.
+In the intestine, for instance, are layers of muscle-fibre which are
+constantly being inhibited or kept under check by the splanchnic
+nerves. These are paralysed by atropine, and intestinal peristalsis
+is consequently made more active, the muscles being
+released from nervous control. The motor nerves of the arteries,
+of the bladder and rectal sphincters, and also of the bronchi, are
+paralysed by atropine, but the nervous arrangements of those
+organs are highly complex and until they are further unravelled
+by physiologists, pharmacology will be unable to give much
+information which might be of great value in the employment
+of atropine. The action upon the vaso-motor system is, however,
+fairly clear. Whether effected entirely by action on the nerve
+terminals, or by an additional influence upon the vaso-motor
+centre in the medulla oblongata, atropine certainly causes
+extreme dilatation of the blood-vessels, so much so that the skin
+becomes flushed and there may appear, after large doses, an
+erythematous rash, which must be carefully distinguished, in
+cases of supposed belladonna poisoning, from that of scarlet fever:
+more especially as the temperature may be elevated and the
+pulse is very rapid in both conditions. But whilst the characteristic
+action of atropine is to dilate the blood-vessels, its first
+action is to stimulate the vaso-motor centre&mdash;thereby causing
+temporary contraction of the vessels&mdash;and to increase the rapidity
+of the heart&rsquo;s action, so that the blood-pressure rapidly rises.
+Though transient, this action is so certain, marked and rapid,
+as to make the subcutaneous injection of atropine invaluable
+in certain conditions. The respiratory centre is similarly
+stimulated, so that atropine must be regarded as a temporary
+but efficient respiratory and cardiac stimulant.</p>
+
+<p>Toxic doses of atropine&mdash;and therefore of belladonna&mdash;raise
+the temperature several degrees. The action is probably nervous,
+but in the present state of our knowledge regarding the control
+of the temperature by the nervous system, it cannot be further
+defined. In small therapeutic and in small toxic doses atropine
+stimulates the motor apparatus of the spinal cord, just as it
+stimulates the centres in the medulla oblongata. This is indeed,
+as Sir Thomas Fraser has pointed out, &ldquo;a strychnine action.&rdquo;
+In large toxic and in lethal doses the activity of the spinal cord
+is lowered.</p>
+
+<p>No less important than any of the above is the action of
+atropine on the cerebrum. This has long been a debated matter,
+but it may now be stated, with considerable certainty, that the
+higher centres are incoordinately stimulated, a state closely
+resembling that of delirium tremens being induced. In cases
+of poisoning the delirium may last for many hours or even days.
+Thereafter a more or less sleepy state supervenes, but it is not the
+case that atropine ever causes genuine coma. The stuporose
+condition is the result of exhaustion after the long period of
+cerebral excitement. It is to be noted that children, who are
+particularly susceptible to the influence of certain of the other
+potent alkaloids, such as morphine and strychnine, will take
+relatively large doses of atropine without ill-effect.</p>
+
+<p>The action of atropine on the eye is of high theoretical and
+practical importance. The drug affects only the involuntary
+muscles of the eye, just as it affects only the involuntary or
+non-striated portion of the oesophagus. The result of its instillation
+into the eye&mdash;and the same occurs when the atropine
+has been absorbed elsewhere&mdash;is rapidly to cause wide dilatation
+of the pupil. This can be experimentally shown&mdash;by the method
+of exclusion&mdash;to be caused by a paralysis of the terminals of the
+third cranial nerve in the <i>sphincter pupillae</i> of the iris. The
+action of atropine in dilating the pupil is also aided by a stimulation
+of the fibres from the sympathetic nervous system, which
+innervate the remaining muscle of the iris&mdash;the <i>dilator pupillae</i>.
+As a result of the extreme pupillary dilatation, the tension of the
+eyeball is greatly raised. The sight of many an eye has been
+destroyed by the use of atropine&mdash;in ignorance of this action on
+the intra-ocular tension&mdash;in cases of incipient glaucoma. The
+use of atropine is absolutely contra-indicated in any case where
+the intra-ocular tension already is, or threatens to become,
+unduly high. This warning applies notably to those&mdash;usually
+women&mdash;who are accustomed indiscriminately to use belladonna
+or atropine in order to give greater brilliancy to their eyes. The
+fourth ocular result of administering atropine is the production
+of a slight but definite degree of local anaesthesia of the eyeball.
+It follows from the above that a patient who is definitely under
+the influence of atropine will display rapid pulse, dilated pupils,
+a dry skin and a sense of discomfort, due to dryness of the mouth
+and throat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Therapeutics</i>.&mdash;The external uses of the drug are mainly
+analgesic. The liniment or plaster of belladonna will relieve
+many forms of local pain. Generally speaking, it may be laid
+down that atropine is more likely than iodine to relieve a pain
+of quite superficial origin; and conversely. Totally to be
+reprobated is the use, in order to relieve pain, of belladonna or
+any other application which affects the skin, in cases where
+the surgeon may later be required to operate. In such cases,
+it is necessary to use such anodyne measures as will not interfere
+with the subsequent demands that may be made of the skin,
+<i>i.e.</i> that it be aseptic and in a condition so sound that it is able
+to undertake the process of healing itself after the operation
+has been performed. Atropine is universally and constantly
+used in ophthalmic practice in order to dilate the pupil for
+examination of the retina by the ophthalmoscope, or in cases
+where the inflamed iris threatens to form adhesions to neighbouring
+parts. The drug is often replaced in ophthalmology
+by homatropine&mdash;an alkaloid prepared from tropine&mdash;which
+acts similarly to atropine but has the advantage of allowing
+the ocular changes to pass away in a much shorter time. The
+anhidrotic action of atropine is largely employed in controlling
+the night-sweats so characteristic of pulmonary tuberculosis,
+small doses of the solution of the sulphate being given at night.</p>
+
+<p>The uses of atropine in cardiac affections are still obscure
+and dubious. It can only be laid down that the drug is a valuable
+though temporary stimulant in emergencies, and that its use as
+a plaster or internally often relieves cardiac pain. Recollection
+of the extraordinary complexity of the problems which are
+involved in the whole question of pain of cardiac origin will
+emphasize the extreme vagueness of the above assertion. Professor
+Schäfer recommended the use of atropine prior to the
+administration of a general anaesthetic, in cases where the
+action of the vagus nerve upon the heart is to be dreaded; and
+there is little doubt of the value of this precaution, which has
+no attendant disadvantages, in all such cases. Atropine is
+often of value as an antidote, as in poisoning by pilocarpine,
+muscarine (mushroom poisoning), prussic acid, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Omitting numerous minor applications of this drug, we may
+pass to two therapeutic uses which are of unquestionable utility.
+In cases of whooping-cough or any other condition in which
+there is spasmodic action of the muscular fibre in the bronchi&mdash;a
+definition which includes nearly every form of asthma and
+many cases of bronchitis&mdash;atropine is an almost invaluable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span>
+drug. Not only does it relieve the spasm, but it lessens the
+amount of secretion&mdash;often dangerously excessive&mdash;which is
+often associated with it. The relief of symptoms in whooping-cough
+is sharply to be distinguished from any influence on the
+course of the disease, since the drug does not abbreviate its
+duration by a single day. In treating an actual and present
+attack of asthma, it is advisable to give the standardized tincture
+of belladonna&mdash;unless expense is no consideration, in which
+case atropine may itself be used&mdash;in doses of twenty minims
+every quarter of an hour as long as no evil effects appear. Relief
+is thereby constantly obtained. Smaller doses of the drug
+should be given three times a day between the attacks.</p>
+
+<p>The nocturnal enuresis or urinary incontinence of children
+and of adults is frequently relieved by this drug. The excellent
+toleration of atropine displayed by children must be remembered,
+and if its use is &ldquo;pushed&rdquo; a cure may almost always be expected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Toxicology.</i>&mdash;The symptoms of poisoning by belladonna or
+atropine are dealt with above. The essential point here to be
+added is that death takes place from combined cardiac and
+respiratory failure. This fact is, of course, the key to treatment.
+This consists in the use of emetics or the stomach-pump, with
+lime-water, which decomposes the alkaloid. These measures are,
+however, usually rendered nugatory by the very rapid absorption
+of the alkaloid. Death is to be averted by such measures as will
+keep the heart and lungs in action until the drug has been
+excreted by the kidneys. Inject stimulants subcutaneously;
+give coffee&mdash;hot and strong&mdash;by the mouth and rectum, or use
+large doses of caffeine citrate; and employ artificial respiration.
+Do not employ such physiological antagonists as pilocarpine
+or morphine, for the lethal actions of all these drugs exhibit
+not mutual antagonism but coincidence.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLAGIO,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
+of Como, about 15 m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of
+Como, situated on the promontory which divides the two
+southern arms of the Lake of Como. Pop. (1901) 3536. It is
+chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and is a very
+favourite resort in the spring and autumn. Some of the gardens
+of its villas are remarkably fine. The manufacture of silks and
+carving in olive wood are carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLAIRE,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the Ohio river, 5 m. S. of Wheeling, West Virginia. Pop.
+(1890) 9934; (1900) 9912 (1159 foreign-born); (1910) 12,946.
+It is served by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, the Pennsylvania, and the
+Ohio River &amp; Western railways. Bellaire is the shipping centre
+of the Belmont county coalfield which in 1907 produced 19.3%
+of the total output of coal for the state. Iron, limestone and fireclay
+are found in the vicinity; among the manufactures are
+iron and steel, glass, galvanized and enamelled ware, agricultural
+implements and stoves. The value of the city&rsquo;s factory products
+increased from $8,837,646 in 1900 to $10,712,438 in 1905, or
+21.2%. Bellaire was settled about 1795, was laid out in 1836,
+was incorporated as a village in 1858, and was chartered as a
+city in 1874.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLAMY, EDWARD<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1850-1898), American author and
+social reformer, was born at Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, on
+the 25th of March 1850. He studied for a time at Union College,
+Schenectady, New York, and in Germany; was admitted to the
+bar in 1871; but soon engaged in newspaper work, first as an
+associate editor of the <i>Springfield Union</i>, Mass., and then as an
+editorial writer for the <i>New York Evening Post</i>. After publishing
+three novelettes (<i>Six to One, Dr Heidenhoff&rsquo;s Process</i> and <i>Miss
+Ludington&rsquo;s Sister</i>), pleasantly written and showing some inventiveness
+in situation, but attracting no special notice, in 1888
+he caught the public attention with <i>Looking Backward, 2000-1887</i>.
+in which he set forth ideas of co-operative or semi-socialistic
+life in village or city communities. The book was widely
+circulated in America and Europe, and was translated into
+several foreign languages. It was at first judged merely as a
+romance, but was soon accepted as a statement of the deliberate
+wishes and methods of its author, who devoted the remainder
+of his life as editor, author, lecturer and politician, to the
+promotion of the communistic theories of <i>Looking Backward</i>, which
+he called &ldquo;nationalism&rdquo;; a Nationalist party (the main points
+of whose immediate programme, according to Bellamy, were
+embodied in the platform of the People&rsquo;s party of 1892) was
+organized, but obtained no political hold. In 1897 Bellamy
+published <i>Equality</i>, a sequel to <i>Looking Backward</i>.
+He died at Chicopee Falls on the 22nd of May 1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1727-1788), English actress,
+born at Fingal, Ireland, by her own account, on the 23rd of
+April 1733, but more probably in 1727, was the illegitimate
+daughter of Lord Tyrawley, British ambassador at Lisbon.
+Her mother married there a Captain Bellamy, and the child
+received the name George Anne, by mistake for Georgiana.
+Lord Tyrawley acknowledged the child, had her educated in a
+convent in Boulogne, and through him she came to know a
+number of notable people in London. On his appointment as
+ambassador to Russia, she went to live with her mother in
+London, made the acquaintance of Mrs Woffington and Garrick,
+and adopted the theatrical profession. Her first engagement
+was at Covent Garden as Monimia in the <i>Orphan</i> in 1744. Owing
+to her personal charms and the social patronage extended to her,
+her success was immediate, and till 1770 she acted in London,
+Edinburgh and Dublin, in all the principal tragic roles. She
+played Juliet to Garrick&rsquo;s Romeo at Drury Lane at the time that
+Spranger Barry (<i>q.v.</i>) was giving the rival performances at Covent
+Garden, and was considered the better of the Juliets. Her last
+years were unhappy, and passed in poverty and ill-health. She
+died on the 16th of February 1788.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Her <i>Apology</i> (6 vols., 1785) gives an account of her long career
+and of her private life, the extravagance and licence of which were
+notorious.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLAMY, JOSEPH<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1719-1790), American theologian, was
+born in Cheshire, Connecticut, on the 20th of February 1719.
+He graduated from Yale in 1735, studied theology for a time
+under Jonathan Edwards, was licensed to preach when scarcely
+eighteen years old, and from 1740 until his death, on the 6th of
+March 1790, was pastor of the Congregational church at Bethlehem,
+Connecticut. The publication of his best-known work, <i>True
+Religion Delineated</i> (1750), won for him a high reputation as a
+theologian, and the book was several times reprinted both in
+England and in America. Despite the fact that with the exception
+of the period of the &ldquo;Great Awakening&rdquo; (1740-1742), when
+he preached as an itinerant in several neighbouring colonies, his
+active labours were confined to his own parish, his influence
+on the religious thought of his time in America was probably
+surpassed only by that of his old friend and teacher Jonathan
+Edwards. This influence was due not only to his publications,
+but also to the &ldquo;school&rdquo; or classes for the training of clergymen
+which he conducted for many years at his home and from which
+went forth scores of preachers to every part of New England and
+the middle colonies (states). Bellamy&rsquo;s &ldquo;system&rdquo; of divinity
+was in general similar to that of Edwards. During the War of
+Independence he was loyal to the American cause. The university
+of Aberdeen conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D.
+in 1768. He was a powerful and dramatic preacher. His
+published works, in addition to that above mentioned, include
+<i>The Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin</i> (1758), his most
+characteristic work; <i>Theron, Paulinus and Aspasio; or
+Letters and Dialogues upon the Nature of Love to God, Faith in
+Christ, and Assurance of a Title to Eternal Life</i> (1759); <i>The Nature
+and Glory of the Gospel</i> (1762); <i>A Blow at the Root of Antinomianism</i>
+(1763); <i>There is but One Covenant</i> (1769); <i>Four Dialogues on
+the Half-Way Covenant</i> (1769); and <i>A Careful and Strict Examination
+of the External Covenant</i> (1769).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collected <i>Works</i> were published in 3 vols. (New York, 1811-1812),
+and were republished with a <i>Memoir</i> by Rev. Tryon Edwards
+(2 vols., Boston, 1850).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLARMINE<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Ital. <i>Bellarmino</i>), <b>ROBERTO FRANCESCO
+ROMOLO</b> (1542-1621), Italian cardinal and theologian, was
+born at Monte Pulciano, in Tuscany, on the 4th of October 1542.
+He was destined by his father to a political career, but feeling
+a call to the priesthood he entered the Society of Jesus in 1560
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span>
+After spending three years at Rome, he was sent to the Jesuit
+settlement at Mondovi in Piedmont, where he studied and at
+the same time taught Greek, and, though not yet in orders,
+gained some reputation as a preacher. In 1567 and 1568 he
+was at Padua, studying theology under a master who belonged
+to the school of St Thomas Aquinas. In 1569 he was sent by the
+general of his order to Louvain, and in 1570, after being ordained
+priest, began to lecture on theology at the university. His
+seven years&rsquo; residence in the Low Countries brought him into
+close relations with modes of thought differing essentially from
+his own; and, though he was neither by temperament nor
+training inclined to be affected by the prevailing Augustinian
+doctrines of grace and free-will, the controversy into which he
+fell on these questions compelled him to define his theological
+principles more clearly. On his return to Rome in 1576 he was
+chosen by Gregory XIII. to lecture on controversial theology in
+the newly-founded Roman College. The result of these labours
+appeared some years afterwards in the far-famed <i>Disputationes
+de Controversiis Christianae Fidei adversus hujus temporis
+Haereticos</i> (3 vols., 1581, 1582, 1593). These volumes, which
+called forth a multitude of answers on the Protestant side,
+exhaust the controversy as it was carried on in those days,
+and contain a lucid and uncompromising statement of Roman
+Catholic doctrine. For many years afterwards, Bellarmine
+was held by Protestant advocates as the champion of the papacy,
+and a vindication of Protestantism generally took the form
+of an answer to his works. In 1589 he was selected by Sixtus V.
+to accompany, in the capacity of theologian, the papal legation
+sent to France soon after the murder of Henry III. He was
+created cardinal in 1599 by Clement VIII., and two years later
+was made archbishop of Capua. His efforts on behalf of the
+clergy were untiring, and his ideal of the bishop&rsquo;s office may
+be read in his address to his nephew, Angelo della Ciaia, who
+had been raised to the episcopate (<i>Admonitio ad episcopum
+Theanensem, nepotem suum</i>, Rome, 1612). Being detained
+in Rome by the desire of the newly-elected pope, Paul V., he
+resigned his archbishopric in 1605. He supported the church
+in its conflicts with the civil powers in Venice, France and
+England, and sharply criticized James I. for the severe legislation
+against the Roman Catholics that followed the discovery of the
+Gunpowder Plot. When health failed him, he retired to Monte
+Pulciano, where from 1607 to 1611 he acted as bishop. In 1610
+he published his <i>De Potestate summi Pontificis in rebus temporalibus</i>
+directed against the posthumous work of William Barclay of
+Aberdeen, which denied the temporal power of the pope.
+Bellarmine trod here on difficult ground, for, although maintaining
+that the pope had the indirect right to depose unworthy
+rulers, he gave offence to Paul V. in not asserting more strongly
+the direct papal claim, whilst many French theologians, and
+especially Bossuet, condemned him for his defence of ultramontanism.
+As a <i>consultor</i> of the Sacred Office, Bellarmine
+took a prominent part in the first examination of Galileo&rsquo;s
+writings. His conduct in this matter has been constantly misrepresented.
+He had followed with interest Galileo&rsquo;s scientific
+discoveries and a respectful admiration grew up between them.
+Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system, as has
+been maintained by Reusch (<i>Der Process Galilei&rsquo;s und die
+Jesuiten</i>, Bonn, 1879, p. 125); all he claimed was that it should
+be presented as an hypothesis until it should receive scientific
+demonstration. When Galileo visited Rome in December 1615
+he was warmly received by Bellarmine, and the high regard in
+which he was held is clearly testified in Bellarmine&rsquo;s letters
+and in Galileo&rsquo;s dedication to the cardinal of his discourse on
+&ldquo;flying bodies.&rdquo; The last years of Bellarmine&rsquo;s life were mainly
+devoted to the composition of devotional works and to securing
+the papal approbation of the new order of the Visitation, founded
+by his friend St Francis de Sales, and the beatification of St
+Philip Neri. He died in Rome on the 17th of September 1621.
+Bellarmine, whose life was a model of Christian virtue, is the
+greatest of modern Roman Catholic controversialists, but the
+value of his theological works is seriously impaired by a very
+defective exegesis and a too frequent use of &ldquo;forced&rdquo; conclusions.
+His devotional treatises were very popular among English
+Roman Catholics in the penal days.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Of the older editions of Bellarmine&rsquo;s complete
+works the best is that in 7 vols. published at Cologne (1617-1620);
+modern editions appeared in 8 vols. at Naples (1856-1862, reprinted
+1872), and in 12 vols. at Paris (1870-1874). For complete bibliography
+of all works of Bellarmine, of translations and controversial
+writings against him, see C. Sommervogel, <i>Bibliothèque de la Compagnie
+de Jésus</i> (Brussels and Paris, 1890 et seq.), vol. i. cols. 1151-1254;
+<i>id., Addenda</i>, pp. x.-xi. vol. viii., cols. 1797-1807. The main source
+for the life of Bellarmine is his Latin <i>Autobiography</i> (Rome, 1675;
+Louvain, 1753), which was reprinted with original text and German
+translation in the work of Dollinger and Reusch entitled <i>Die Selbst-biographie
+des Cardinals Bellarmin</i> (Bonn, 1887). The <i>Epistolae
+Familiares</i>, a very incomplete collection of letters, was published by
+J. Fuligatti (Rome, 1650), who is also the author of <i>Vita del cardinale
+Bellarmino della Compagnia di Giesù</i> (Rome, 1624). Cf. D. Bartoli,
+<i>Della vita di Roberto cardinal Bellarmino</i> (Rome, 1678), and M. Cervin,
+<i>Imago virtutum Roberti card. Bellarmini Politiani</i> (Siena, 1622),
+All these are panegyrics of small historical value. The best modern
+studies are J.B. Couderc&rsquo;s <i>Le Vénérable Cardinal Bellarmin</i> (2 vols.,
+Paris, 1893), and X. le Bachelet&rsquo;s article in A. Vacant&rsquo;s <i>Dict. de
+theól, cat.</i> cols. 560-599, with exhaustive bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLARY,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ballari</span>, a city and district of British India,
+in the Madras presidency. The city is 305 m. by rail from Madras.
+Pop. (1901) 58,247. The fort rises from a huge mass of granite
+rock, which with a circumference of nearly 2 m., juts up abruptly
+to a height of 450 ft. above the plain. The length of this rock
+from north-east to south-west is about 1150 ft. To the E. and
+S. lies an irregular heap of boulders, but to the W. is an unbroken
+precipice, and the N. is walled by bare rugged ridges. It is
+defended by two distinct lines of works. The upper fort is a
+quadrangular building on the summit, with only one approach,
+and was deemed impregnable by the Mysore princes. But as it
+has no accommodation for a garrison, it is now only occupied by
+a small guard of British troops in charge of prisoners. The ex-nawab
+of Kurnool was confined in it for forty years for the
+murder of his wife. It contains several cisterns, excavated in
+the rock. Outside the turreted rampart are a ditch and covered
+way. The lower fort lies at the eastern base of the rock and
+measures about half a mile in diameter. It contains the barracks
+and the commissariat stores, the Protestant church, orphanage,
+Masonic lodge, post-office and numerous private dwellings.
+The fort of Bellary was originally built by Hanumapa, in the 16th
+century. It was first dependent on the kingdom of Vijayanagar,
+afterwards on Bijapur, and subsequently subject to the nizam
+and Hyder Ali. The latter erected the present fortifications
+according to tradition with the assistance of a French engineer
+in his service, whom he afterwards hanged for not building the
+fort on a higher rock adjacent to it. Bellary is an important
+cantonment and the headquarters of a military division. There
+is a considerable trade in cotton, in connexion with which there
+are large steam presses, and some manufacture of cotton cloth.
+There is a cotton spinning mill. In 1901 Bellary was chosen as
+one of the places of detention in India for Boer prisoners of war.</p>
+
+<p>The district of <span class="sc">Bellary</span> has an area of 5714 sq. m. It
+consists chiefly of an extensive plateau between the Eastern and
+Western Ghats, of a height varying from 800 to 1000 ft. above
+the sea. The most elevated tracts are on the west, where the
+surface rises towards the culminating range of hills, and on the
+south, where it rises to the elevated tableland of Mysore.
+Towards the centre the almost treeless plain presents a monotonous
+aspect, broken only by a few rocky elevations that rise
+abruptly from the black soil. The hill ranges in Bellary are
+those of Sandur and Kampli to the west, the Lanka Malla to the
+east and the Copper Mountain (3148 ft.) to the south-west.
+The district is watered by five rivers: the Tungabhadra,
+formed by the junction of two streams, Tunga and Bhadra,
+the Haggari, Hindri, Chitravati and Pennar, the last considered
+sacred by the natives. None of the rivers is navigable and all
+are fordable during the dry season. The climate of Bellary is
+characterized by extreme dryness, due to the passing of the air
+over a great extent of heated plains, and it has a smaller rainfall
+than any other district in south India. The average daily
+variation of the thermometer is from 67° to 83° F. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span>
+prevailing diseases are cholera, fever, small-pox, ophthalmia,
+dysentery and those of the skin among the lower classes. Bellary
+is subject to disastrous storms and hurricanes, and to famines
+arising from a series of bad seasons. There were memorable
+famines in 1751, 1793, 1803, 1833, 1854, 1866, 1877 and 1896.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 the population was 947,214, showing an increase of 8%
+in the decade. The principal crops are millet, other food-grains,
+pulse, oil-seeds and cotton. There are considerable manufactures
+of cotton and woollen goods, and cotton is largely
+exported. The district is traversed by the Madras and Southern
+Mahratta railways, meeting on the eastern border at Guntakal
+junction, where another line branches off to Bezwada.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the early history of the district. It contains
+the ruined capital of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar,
+and on the overthrow of that state by the Mahommedans, in
+1564, the tract now forming the district of Bellary was split up
+into a number of military holdings, held by chiefs called poligars.
+In 1635 the Carnatic was annexed to the Bijapur dominions,
+from which again it was wrested in 1680 by Sivaji, the founder
+of the Mahratta power. It was then included in the dominions
+of Nizam-ul-mulk, the nominal viceroy of the great Mogul in the
+Deccan, from whom again it was subsequently conquered by
+Hyder Ali of Mysore. At the close of the war with Tippoo
+Sultan in 1792, these territories fell to the share of the nizam of
+Hyderabad, by whom they were ceded to the British in 1800,
+in return for protection by a force of British troops to be stationed
+at his capital. In 1808 the &ldquo;Ceded Districts,&rdquo; as they were
+called, were split into two districts, Cuddapah and Bellary. In
+1882 the district of Anantapur, which had hitherto formed part
+of Bellary, was formed into a separate collectorate.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Bellary Gazetteer</i>, 1904.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL-COT,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bell-gable</span>, or <span class="sc">Bell-turret</span>, the place where
+one or more bells are hung in chapels or small churches
+which have no towers. Bell-cots are sometimes double, as at
+Northborough and Coxwell; a very common form in France and
+Switzerland admits of three bells. In these countries also they
+are frequently of wood and attached to the ridge. In later
+times bell-turrets were much ornamented; on the continent of
+Europe they run up into a sort of small, slender spire, called
+<i>flèche</i> in France, and <i>guglio</i> in Italy. A bell-cot, gable or turret
+often holds the &ldquo;Sanctus-bell,&rdquo; rung at the saying of the
+&ldquo;Sanctus&rdquo; at the beginning of the canon of the Mass, and at
+the consecration and elevation of the Elements in the Roman
+Church. This differs but little from the common bell-cot,
+except that it is generally on the top of the arch dividing the
+nave from the chancel. At Cleeve, however, the bell seems to
+have been placed in a cot outside the wall. Sanctus-bells have
+also been placed over the gables of porches.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLEAU, REMY<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1527-1577), French poet, and member
+of the Pléiade (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Daurat</a></span>), was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou
+about 1527. He studied with Ronsard and others under Jean
+Daurat at the Collège de Coqueret. He was attached to Renè
+de Lorraine, marquis d&rsquo;Elboeuf, in the expedition against Naples
+in 1557, where he did good military service. On his return he
+was made tutor to the young Charles, marquis d&rsquo;Elboeuf, who,
+under Belleau&rsquo;s training became a great patron of the muses.
+Belleau was an enthusiast for the new learning and joined the
+group of young poets with ardour. In 1556 he published the
+first translation of Anacreon which had appeared in French.
+In the next year he published his first collection of poems, the
+<i>Petites inventions</i>, in which he describes stones, insects and
+flowers. The <i>Amours et nouveaux échanges des pierres précieuses</i>
+... (1576) contains perhaps his most characteristic work. Its
+title is quoted in the lines of Ronsard&rsquo;s epitaph on his tomb:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Luy mesme a basti son tombeau</p>
+<p class="i05">Dedans ses Pierres Précieuses.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">He wrote commentaries to Ronsard&rsquo;s <i>Amours</i> in 1560, notes
+which evinced delicate taste and prodigious learning. Like
+Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay, he was extremely deaf. His
+days passed peacefully in the midst of his books and friends, and
+he died on the 6th of March 1577. He was buried in the nave
+of the Grands Augustins at Paris, and was borne to the tomb on
+the pious shoulders of four poets, Ronsard, J.A. de Baïf, Philippe
+Desportes and Amadis Jamyn. His most considerable work is
+<i>La Bergerie</i> (1565-1572), a pastoral in prose and verse, written in
+imitation of Sannazaro. The lines on April in the <i>Bergerie</i> are
+well known to all readers of French poetry. Belleau was the
+French Herrick, full of picturesqueness, warmth and colour. His
+skies drop flowers and all his air is perfumed, and this voluptuous
+sweetness degenerates sometimes into licence. Extremely
+popular in his own age, he shared the fate of his friends, and
+was undeservedly forgotten in the next. Regnier said: &ldquo;Belleau
+ne parle pas comme on parle à la ville&rdquo;; and his lyrical beauty
+was lost on the trim 17th century. His complete works were
+collected in 1578, and contain, besides the works already
+mentioned, a comedy entitled <i>La Reconnue</i>, in short rhymed lines,
+which is not without humour and life, and a comic masterpiece,
+a macaronic poem on the religious wars, <i>Dictamen metrificum de
+bello huguenotico et reistrorum<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> piglamine ad sodales</i> (Paris, no date).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> (3 vols., 1867) of Remy Belleau were edited
+by A. Gouverneui; and his <i>&OElig;uvres poétiques</i> (2 vols., 1879) by
+M. Ch. Marty-Laveaux in his <i>Pléiade française</i>; see also C.A.
+Sainte-Beuve, <i>Tableau historique et critique de la poésie française
+au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (ed. 1876), i. pp. 155-160, and ii. pp. 296 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>reîtres</i>, German soldiers of fortune.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLECOUR<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1725-1778), French actor, whose real name was
+<span class="sc">Jean Claude Gilles Colson</span>, was born on the 16th of January
+1725, the son of a portrait-painter. He showed decided artistic
+talent, but soon deserted the brush for the stage under the name
+of Bellecour. After playing in the provinces he was called to
+the Comédie Française, but his <i>début</i>, on the 21st of December
+1750, as Achilles in <i>Iphigénie</i> was not a great success. He soon
+turned to more congenial comedy rôles, which for thirty years he
+filled with great credit. He was a very natural player, and his
+willingness to give others on the stage an opportunity to show
+their talents made him extremely popular. He wrote a successful
+play, <i>Fausses apparences</i> (1761), and was very useful to the
+Comédie Française in editing and adapting the plays of others.
+He died on the 19th of November 1778.</p>
+
+<p>His wife, <span class="sc">Rose Perrine le Roy de la Corbinaye</span>, was born
+at Lamballe on the 20th of December 1730, the daughter of an
+artillery officer. Under the stage name of Beaumenard she
+made her first Paris appearance in 1743 as Gogo in Favart&rsquo;s
+<i>Le Coq du village</i>. After a year at the Opéra Comique she played
+in several companies, including that of Marshal Saxe, who
+is said to have been not insensible to her charms. In 1749 she
+made her <i>début</i> at the Comédie Française as Dorine in <i>Tartuffe</i>,
+and her success was immediate. She retired in 1756, but after
+an absence of five years, during which she married, she reappeared
+as Madame Bellecour, and continued her successes in soubrette
+parts in the plays of Molière and de Regnard. She retired
+finally at the age of sixty, but troublous times had put an end to
+the pension which she received from Louis XVI. and from the
+theatre, and she died in abject poverty on the 5th of August
+1799. There is a charming portrait of her owned by the Théâtre
+Français.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLEFONTAINE,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Logan
+county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 45 m. N.W. of Columbus. Pop.
+(1890) 4245; (1900) 6649 (267 foreign-born); (1910) 8238.
+It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis
+(which has large shops here) and the Ohio Central railways;
+also by the Dayton, Springfield &amp; Urbana electric railway. It
+is built on the south-west slope of a hill having an elevation of
+about 1500 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of which are several
+springs of clear water which suggested the city&rsquo;s name. Among
+the city&rsquo;s manufactures are iron bridges, carriage-bodies, flour and
+cement. The municipality owns and operates its water-works
+system and its gas and electric-lighting plants. Bellefontaine
+was first settled about 1818, was laid out as a town and made
+the county-seat in 1820 and was incorporated in 1835.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLEGARDE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> the name of an important French family.
+Roger de Saint-Lary, baron of Bellegarde, served with distinction
+in the wars against the French Protestants. He showed much
+devotion to Henry III., who loaded him with favours and made
+him marshal of France. He eventually fell into disgrace,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span>
+however, and died by poisoning in 1579. His nephew, Roger de
+Saint-Lary de Termes, a favourite with Henry III., Henry IV.
+and Louis XIII., was royal master of the horse and governor of
+Burgundy. His estate of Seurre in Burgundy was created a
+duchy in the peerage of France (<i>duché-pairie</i>) in his favour under
+the name of Bellegarde, in 1619. In 1645 the title of this duchy
+was transferred to the estate of Choisy-aux-Loges in Gâtinais,
+and was borne later by the family of Pardaillan de Gondrin, heirs
+of the house of Saint-Lary-Bellegarde. When Seurre passed
+into the possession of the princes of Condé they in the same way
+acquired the title of dukes of Bellegarde.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOSEPH JOHANNES,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Count von</span> (1756-1845), Austrian soldier and statesman, was born at
+Dresden on the 29th of August 1756, and for a short time served
+in the Saxon army. Transferring his services to Austria in 1771
+he distinguished himself greatly as colonel of dragoons in the
+Turkish War of 1788-1789, and served as a major-general in
+the Netherlands campaigns of 1793-1794. In the campaign of
+1796 in Germany, as a lieutenant field marshal, he served on
+the staff of the archduke Charles, whom he accompanied to Italy
+in the following year. He was also employed in the congress of
+Rastatt. In 1799 he commanded a corps in eastern Switzerland,
+connecting the armies of the archduke and Suvarov, and finally
+joined the latter in north Italy. He conducted the siege of the
+citadel of Alessandria, and was present at the decisive battle
+of Novi. He served again in the latter part of the Marengo
+campaign of 1800 in the rank of general of cavalry. In 1805,
+when the archduke Charles left to take command in Italy,
+Bellegarde became president <i>ad interim</i> of the council of war.
+He was, however, soon employed in the field, and at the sanguinary
+battle of Caldiero he commanded the Austrian right. In
+the war of 1809 he commanded the extreme right wing of the
+main army (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). Cut off from Charles
+as the result of the battle of Eckmühl, he retreated into
+Bohemia, but managed to rejoin before the great battles
+near Vienna (Aspern and Wagram). From 1809 to 1813 Bellegarde,
+now field marshal, was governor-general of Galicia, but
+was often called to preside over the meetings of the Aulic
+Council, especially in 1810 in connexion with the reorganization
+of the Austrian army. In 1813, 1814 and 1815 he led the
+Austrian armies in Italy. His successes in these campaigns
+were diplomatic as well as military, and he ended them by
+crushing the last attempt of Murat in 1815. From 1816 to 1825
+(when he had to retire owing to failing eyesight) he held various
+distinguished civil and military posts. He died in 1845.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Smola, <i>Das Leben des F.M. van Bellegarde</i> (Vienna, 1847).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLE-ÎLE-EN-MER,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> an island off the W. coast of France,
+forming a canton of the department of Morbihan, 8 m. S. by W. of
+the peninsula of Quiberon. Pop. (1906) 9703. Area, 33 sq. m.
+The island is divided into the four communes of Le Palais,
+Bangor, Sauzon and Locmaria. It forms a treeless plateau with
+an average height of 130 ft. above sea-level, largely covered
+with moors and bordered by a rugged and broken coast. The
+climate is mild, the fig-tree and myrtle growing in sheltered spots
+and the soil, where cultivated, is productive. The inhabitants
+are principally engaged in agriculture and the fisheries, and in
+the preservation of sardines, anchovies, &amp;c. The breed of draught
+horses in the island is highly prized. The chief town, Le Palais
+(pop. 2637), has an old citadel and fortifications, and possesses a
+port which is accessible to vessels drawing 13 ft. of water.
+Belle-Île must have been inhabited from a very early period,
+as it possesses several stone monuments of the class usually
+called Druidic.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman name of the island seems to have been <i>Vindilis</i>,
+which in the middle ages became corrupted to Guedel. In 1572
+the monks of the abbey of Ste Croix at Quimperlé ceded the
+island to the Retz family, in whose favour it was raised to a
+marquisate in the following year. It subsequently came into
+the hands of the family of Fouquet, and was ceded by the latter
+to the crown in 1718. It was held by English troops from 1761
+to 1763 when the French got it in exchange for Nova Scotia.
+A few of the inhabitants of the latter territory migrated to
+Belle-Île, which is partly peopled by their descendants. In
+the state prison of Nouvelle Force at Le Palais political prisoners
+have at various times been confined.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Comte</span>, and later <span class="sc">Duc, de</span> (1684-1761), French soldier and
+statesman, was the grandson of Nicholas Fouquet, superintendent
+of finances under Louis XIV., and was born at Villefranche
+de Rouergue. Although his family was in disgrace, he entered
+the army at an early age and was made proprietary colonel of a
+dragoon regiment in 1708. He rose during the War of the Spanish
+Succession to the rank of brigadier, and in March 1718 to that
+of <i>maréchal de camp</i>. In the Spanish War of 1718-1719 he was
+present at the capture of Fontarabia in 1718 and at that of St
+Sebastian in 1719. When the duke of Bourbon became prime
+minister, Belle-Isle was imprisoned in the Bastille, and then
+relegated to his estates, but with the advent of Cardinal Fleury
+to power he regained some measure of favour and was made
+a lieutenant-general. In the War of the Polish Succession he
+commanded a corps under the orders of Marshal Berwick, captured
+Trier and Trarbach and took part in the siege of Philippsburg
+(1734). When peace was made in 1736 the king, in recognition
+both of his military services and of the part he had taken
+in the negotiations for the cession of Lorraine, gave him the
+government of the three important fortresses of Metz, Toul
+and Verdun&mdash;an office which he kept till his death. His
+military and political reputation was now at its height, and he
+was one of the principal advisers of the government in military
+and diplomatic affairs. In 1741 he was sent to Germany as
+French plenipotentiary to carry out, in the interests of France,
+a grand scheme of political reorganization in the moribund
+empire, and especially to obtain the election of Charles, elector
+of Bavaria, as emperor. His diplomacy was thus the mainspring
+of the War of the Austrian Succession (<i>q.v.</i>), and his military
+command in south Germany was full of incidents and vicissitudes.
+He had been named marshal of France in 1741, and received a
+large army, with which it is said that he promised to make
+peace in three months under the walls of Vienna. The truth of
+this story is open to question, for no one knew better than Belle-Isle
+the limitations imposed upon commanders by the military
+and political circumstances of the times. These circumstances
+in fact rendered his efforts, both as a general and as a statesman,
+unavailing, and the one redeeming feature in the general failure
+was his heroic retreat from Prague. In ten days he led 14,000
+men into and across the Bohemian Forest, suffering great privations
+and harassed by the enemy, but never allowing himself
+to be cut off, and his subordinate Chevert defended Prague so
+well that the Austrians were glad to allow him to rejoin his
+chief. The campaign, however, had discredited Belle-Isle;
+he was ridiculed at Paris by the wits and the populace, even
+Fleury is said to have turned against him, and, to complete his
+misfortunes, he was taken prisoner by the English in going
+from Cassel to Berlin through Hanover. He remained a year
+in England, in spite of the demands of Louis XV. and of the
+emperor Charles VII. During the campaign of 1746 he was
+in command of the &ldquo;Army of Piedmont&rdquo; on the Alpine frontier,
+and although he began his work with a demoralized and inferior
+army, he managed not only to repel the invasion of the Spanish
+and Italian forces but also to carry the war back into the plain
+of Lombardy. At the peace, having thus retrieved his military
+reputation, he was created duke and peer of France (1748).
+In 1757 his credit at court was considerable, and the king named
+him secretary for war. During his three years&rsquo; ministry he undertook
+many reforms, such as the development of the military
+school for officers, and the suppression of the proprietary
+colonelcies of nobles who were too young to command; and he
+instituted the Order of Merit. But the Seven Years&rsquo; War was
+by that time in progress and his efforts had no immediate effect.
+He died at Versailles on the 26th of January 1761. Belle-Isle
+interested himself in literature; was elected a member of the
+French Academy in 1740, and founded the Academy of Metz
+in 1760. The dukedom ended with his death, his only son
+having been killed in 1758 at the battle of Crefeld.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span></p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Louis Charles Armand Fouquet</span>, known as
+the Chevalier de Belle-Isle (1693-1746), was also a soldier and
+a diplomatist. He served as a junior officer in the War of the
+Spanish Succession and as brigadier in the campaign of 1734
+on the Rhine and Moselle, where he won the grade of <i>maréchal
+de camp</i>. He was employed under his brother in political
+missions in Bavaria and in Swabia in 1741-1742, became a
+lieutenant-general, fought in Bohemia, Bavaria and the Rhine
+countries in 1742-1743, and was arrested and sent to England
+with the marshal in 1744. On his release he was given a command
+in the Army of Piedmont. He fell a victim to his romantic
+bravery at the action of Exilles (Col de l&rsquo;Assiette) on the 19th
+of July 1746.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jean de Maugre, <i>Oraison funèbre du maréchal de Belleisle</i>
+(Montmédy, 1762); R.P. de Neuville, <i>Mémoires du maréchal duc
+de Belleisle</i> (Paris, 1761); D.C. (Chevrier), <i>La Vie politigue et militaire
+du maréchal duc de Belleisle</i> (London, 1760), and <i>Testament
+politique du maréchal duc de Belleisle</i> (Hague, 1762); <i>Le Codicille et
+l&rsquo;esprit ou commentaire des maximes du maréchal duc de Belleisle</i>
+(Amsterdam, 1761); F.M. Chayert, <i>Notice sur le maréchal de Belleisle</i>
+(Metz, 1856); L. Leclerc, <i>Éloge du maréchal de Belleisle</i> (Metz,
+1862); E. Michel, <i>Éloge du maréchal de Belleisle</i> (Paris, 1862); and
+Jobez, <i>La France sous Louis XV</i> (6 vols., Paris, 1868-1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> the more northern of the two
+channels connecting the Gulf of St Lawrence with the Atlantic
+Ocean. It separates northern Newfoundland from Labrador,
+and extends N.E. and S.W. for 35 m., with a breadth
+of 10 to 15 m. It derives its name from a precipitous granite
+island, 700 ft. in height, at its Atlantic entrance. On this lighthouses
+are maintained by the government of Canada and constant
+communication with the mainland is kept up by wireless telegraphy.
+The strait is in the most direct route from Europe
+to the St Lawrence, but is open only from June till the end of
+November, and even during this period navigation is often
+rendered dangerous by floating ice and fogs. Through it Jacques
+Cartier sailed in 1534. The southern or Cabot Strait, between
+Cape Ray in Newfoundland and Cape North in Cape Breton,
+was discovered later, and the expansion below Belle Isle was
+long known as <i>La Grande Baie</i>. Cabot Strait is open all the year,
+save for occasional inconvenience from drift ice.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLENDEN<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ballantyne</span> or <span class="sc">Bannatyne</span>), <b>JOHN</b> (fl.
+1533-1587), Scottish writer, was born about the end of the
+15th century, in the south-east of Scotland, perhaps in East
+Lothian. He appears to have been educated, first at the university
+of St Andrews and then at that of Paris, where he took, the
+degree of doctor. From his own statement, in one of his poems,
+we learn that he had been in the service of James V. from the
+king&rsquo;s earliest years, and that the post he held was clerk of
+accounts. At the request of James he undertook translations of
+Boece&rsquo;s <i>Historia Scotorum</i>, which had appeared at Paris in 1527,
+and the first five books of Livy. As a reward for his versions,
+which he finished in 1533, he was appointed archdeacon of
+Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a strenuous opponent of
+the Reformation and was compelled to go into exile. He is said
+by some authorities to have died at Rome in 1550; by others
+to have been still living in 1587. His translation of Boece,
+entitled <i>The History and Chronicles of Scotland</i>, is a remarkable
+specimen of Scottish prose, distinguished by its freedom and
+vigour of expression. It was published in 1536; and was
+reprinted in 2 vols., edited by Maitland, in 1821. The translation
+of Livy was not printed till 1822 (also in 2 vols.). Two MSS. of
+the latter are extant, one, the older, in the Advocates&rsquo; library,
+Edinburgh (which was the basis of the normalized text of 1822),
+the other (<i>c.</i> 1550) in the possession of Mr Ogilvie Forbes of
+Boyndlie. An edition of the work was edited for the Scottish
+Text Society by Mr W.A. Craigie (2 vols. 1901, 1903). The
+second volume of this edition contains also a complete reprint
+of the portions of the holograph first draft which were discovered
+in the British Museum in 1902. Two poems by Bellenden&mdash;<i>The
+Proheme to the Cosmographe</i> and the <i>Proheme of the History</i>&mdash;appeared
+in the 1536 edition of the <i>History of Scotland</i>. Others,
+bearing his name in the well-known Bannatyne MS. collection,
+made by his namesake George Bannatyne (<i>q.v.</i>), may or may not
+be his. Sir David Lyndsay, in his prologue to the <i>Papyngo</i>,
+speaks vaguely of:</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Ane cunnyng Clark quhilk wrythith craftelie</p>
+<p class="i05">Ane plant of poetis callit Ballendyne,</p>
+<p class="i05">Quhose ornat workis my wit can nocht defyne.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief sources of information regarding Belleriden&rsquo;s life are the
+<i>Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland</i>, his own works and
+the ecclesiastical records.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLENDEN, WILLIAM,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> Scottish classical scholar. Hardly
+anything is known of him. He lived in the reign of James I.
+(VI. of Scotland), who appointed him <i>magister libellorum supplicum</i>
+or master of requests. King James is also said to have provided
+Bellenden with the means of living independently at Paris,
+where he became professor at the university, and advocate in
+the parliament. The date of his birth cannot be fixed, and it
+can only be said that he died later than 1625. The first of the
+works by which he is known was published anonymously in 1608,
+with the title <i>Ciceronis Princeps</i>, a laborious compilation of all
+Cicero&rsquo;s remarks on the origin and principles of regal government,
+digested and systematically arranged. In 1612 there appeared
+a similar work, devoted to the consideration of consular authority
+and the Roman senate, <i>Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senatusque
+Romanus</i>. His third work, <i>De Statu Prisci Orbls</i>, 1615, is a
+good outline of general history. All three works were combined
+in a single large volume, entitled <i>De Statu Libri Tres</i>, 1615, which
+was first brought into due notice by Dr Samuel Parr, who, in
+1787, published an edition with a preface, famous for the elegance
+of its Latinity, in which he eulogized Burke, Fox and Lord
+North as the &ldquo;three English luminaries.&rdquo; The greatest of
+Bellenden&rsquo;s works is the extensive treatise <i>De Tribus Luminibus
+Romanorum</i>, printed and published posthumously at Paris in
+1633. The book is unfinished, and treats only of the first
+luminary, Cicero; the others intended were apparently Seneca
+and Pliny. It contains a most elaborate history of Rome and
+its institutions, drawn from Cicero, and thus forms a storehouse
+of all the historical notices contained in that voluminous author.
+It is said that nearly all the copies were lost on the passage to
+England. One of the few that survived was placed in the university
+library at Cambridge, and freely drawn upon by Conyers
+Middieton, the librarian, in his <i>History of the Life of Cicero</i>.
+Both Joseph Warton and Dr Parr accused Middleton of deliberate
+plagiarism, which was the more likely to have escaped detection
+owing to the small number of existing copies of Bellenden&rsquo;s work.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLEROPHON,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bellerophontes</span>, in Greek legend,
+son of Glaucus or Poseidon, grandson of Sisyphus and local hero
+of Corinth. Having slain by accident the Corinthian hero
+Bellerus (or, according to others, his own brother) he fled to
+Tiryns, where his kinsman Proetus, king of Argos, received him
+hospitably and purged him of his guilt. But Anteia (or Stheneboea),
+wife of Proetus, became enamoured of Bellerophon, and,
+when he refused her advances, charged him with an attempt
+upon her virtue. Proetus thereupon sent him to Iobates, his
+wife&rsquo;s father, king of Lycia, with a letter or sealed tablet, in
+which were instructions, apparently given by means of signs, to
+take the life of the bearer. Arriving in Lycia, he was received
+as a guest and entertained for nine days. On the tenth, being
+asked the object of his visit, he handed the letter to the king,
+whose first plan for complying with it was to send him to slay
+the Chimaera, a monster which was devastating the country.
+Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus (<i>q.v.</i>), kept up in the air out of the
+way of the Chimaera, but yet near enough to kill it with his spear,
+or, as he is at other times represented, with his sword or with a bow.
+He was next ordered out against the Solymi, a hostile tribe, and
+afterwards against the Amazons, from both of which expeditions
+he not only returned victorious, but also on his way back slew
+an ambush of chosen warriors whom Iobates had placed to
+intercept him. His divine origin was now proved; the king
+gave him his daughter in marriage; and the Lycians presented
+him with a large and fertile estate on which he lived (Apollodorus,
+ii. 3; Homer, <i>Iliad</i>, vi. 155). Bellerophon is said to have
+returned to Tiryns and avenged himself on Anteia: he persuaded
+her to fly with him on his winged horse, and then flung her into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span>
+the sea near the island of Melos (Schol. Aristoph., <i>Pax</i>, 140).
+His ambitious attempt to ascend to the heavens on Pegasus
+brought upon him the wrath of the gods. His son was smitten
+by Ares in battle; his daughter Laodameia was slain by Artemis;
+he himself, flung from his horse, lamed or blinded, became a
+wanderer over the face of the earth until his death (Pindar,
+<i>Isthmia</i>, vi. [vii.], 44; Horace, <i>Odes</i>, iv. 11, 26).
+Bellerophon was honoured as a hero at Corinth and in Lycia.
+His story formed the subject of the <i>Debates</i> of Sophocles,
+and of the <i>Bellerophontes</i> and <i>Stheneboea</i> of Euripides.
+It has been suggested that Perseus, the local hero of Argos, and Bellerophon
+were originally one and the same, the difference in their exploits being the
+result of the rivalry of Argos and Corinth. Both are connected
+with the sun-god Helios and with the sea-god Poseidon, the
+symbol of the union being the winged horse Pegasus. Bellerophon
+has been explained as a hero of the storm, of which his conflict
+with the Chimaera is symbolical. The most frequent representations
+of Bellerophon in ancient art are (1) slaying the Chimaera,
+(2) departing from Argos with the letter, (3) leading Pegasus to
+drink. Among the first is to be noted a terra-cotta relief from
+Melos in the British Museum, where also, on a vase of black ware,
+is what seems to be a representation of his escape from Stheneboea.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H.A. Fischer, <i>Bellerophon</i> (1851);
+R. Engelmann, <i>Annali</i> of the Archaeological Institute at Rome (1874);
+O. Treuber, <i>Gechichte der Lykier</i> (1887);
+articles in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Real-Encyclopadie</i>,
+W.H. Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>,
+Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>;
+L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLES-LETTRES<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (Fr. for &ldquo;fine literature&rdquo;), a term used
+to designate the more artistic and imaginative forms of literature,
+as poetry or romance, as opposed to more pedestrian and exact
+studies. The term appears to have been first used in English by Swift (1710).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLEVILLE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada,
+and capital of Hastings county, 106 m. E.N.E. of Toronto,
+on Bay of Quinté and the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901)
+9117. Communication is maintained with Lake Ontario and
+St Lawrence ports by several lines of steamers. It is the commercial
+centre of a fine agricultural district, and has a large
+export trade in cheese and farm produce. The principal industries
+are planing mills and cement works, cheese factories and distilleries.
+There are several educational institutions, including a
+business college, a convent, and a government institute for the
+deaf and dumb. Albert College, under the control of the Methodist
+church, was formerly a university, but now confines itself to
+secondary education.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLEVILLE,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of St Clair county,
+Illinois, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state 14 m. S.E.
+of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1890) 15,361; (1900) 17,484,
+of whom 2750 were foreign-born; (1910) 21,122. Belleville is
+served by the Illinois Central, the Louisville &amp; Nashville, and
+the Southern railways, also by extensive interurban electric
+systems; and a belt line to O&rsquo;Fallon, Illinois, connects Belleville
+with the Baltimore &amp; Ohio South Western railway. A large
+element of the population is of German descent or German
+birth, and two newspapers are published in German, besides
+three dailies, three weeklies and a semi-weekly in English.
+Among the industrial establishments of the city are stove and
+range factories, flour mills, rolling mills, distilleries, breweries,
+shoe factories, copper refining works, nail and tack factories,
+glass works and agricultural implement factories. The value
+of the city&rsquo;s factory products increased from $2,873,334 in 1900
+to $4,356,615 in 1905 or 51.6%. Belleville is in a rich agricultural
+region, and in the vicinity there are valuable coal mines,
+the first of which was sunk in 1852; from this dates the industrial
+development of the city. Belleville was first settled in 1813,
+was incorporated as a city in 1850, and was re-incorporated
+in 1876.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLEY,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Ain, 52 m. S.E. of Bourg by
+the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), town, 3709; commune,
+5707. It is situated on vine-covered hills at the southern
+extremity of the Jura, 3 m. from the right bank of the Rhone.
+Apart from the cathedral of St Jean, which, with the exception
+of the choir of 1413, is a modern building, there is little of
+architectural interest in the town. Belley is the seat of a bishopric
+and a prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance. The
+manufacture of morocco leather goods and the quarrying of the
+lithographic stone of the vicinity are carried on, and there is
+trade in cattle, grain, wine, truffles and dressed pork. Belley
+is of Roman origin, and in the 5th century became an episcopal
+see. It was the capital of the province of Bugey, which was a
+dependency of Savoy till 1601, when it was ceded to France.
+In 1385 the town was almost entirely destroyed by an act of
+incendiarism, but was subsequently rebuilt by the dukes of
+Savoy, who surrounded it with ramparts of which little is left.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1791-1863), Italian poet,
+was born at Rome, and after a period of literary employment
+in poor circumstances was enabled by marriage with a lady of
+means to follow his own special bent. He is remembered for
+his vivid popular poetry in the Roman dialect, a number of
+satirical sonnets which in their own way are unique.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Morandi&rsquo;s edition, <i>I sonetti romaneschi</i> (1886-1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLIGERENCY,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the state of carrying on war (Lat. <i>bellum</i>,
+war, and <i>gerere</i>, to wage) in accordance with the law of nations.
+Insurgents are not as such excluded from recognition as belligerents,
+and, even where not recognized as belligerents by the
+government against which they have rebelled, they may be so
+recognized by a neutral state, as in the case of the American
+Civil War, when the Southern states were recognized as
+belligerents by Great Britain, though regarded as rebels by the
+Northern states. The recognition by a neutral state of
+belligerency does not, however, imply recognition of independent
+political existence. The regulations annexed to the Hague
+Convention, relating to the laws and customs of war (29th of July
+1899), contain a section entitled &ldquo;Belligerents&rdquo; which is
+divided into three chapters, dealing respectively with (i.) The
+Qualifications of Belligerents; (ii.) Prisoners of War; (iii.) The
+Sick and Wounded. To entitle troops to the special privileges
+attaching to belligerency, chapter i. provides that all regular,
+militia or volunteer forces shall alike be commanded by persons
+responsible for the acts of their men, that all such shall carry
+distinctive emblems, recognizable at a distance, that arms shall
+be carried openly and operations conducted in accordance with
+the usages of war observed among civilized mankind. It provides,
+nevertheless, for the emergency of the population of a territory,
+which has not already been occupied by the invader, spontaneously
+taking up arms to resist the invading forces, without
+having had time to comply with the above requirements; they,
+too, are to be treated as belligerents &ldquo;if they respect the laws
+and customs of war.&rdquo; In naval war, privateering having been
+finally abolished as among the parties to it by the declaration
+of Paris, a privateer is not entitled, as between such parties,
+to the rights of belligerency. As between states, one of whom
+is not a party to the Declaration, the right to grant letters of
+marque would remain intact for both parties, and the privateer,
+<i>as between them</i>, would be a belligerent; as regards neutrals,
+the situation would be complicated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Privateer</a></span>). On
+prisoners of war and sick and wounded, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">War</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (d. 1549), lord deputy of
+Ireland, was a son of Edward Bellingham of Erringham, Sussex,
+his mother being a member of the Shelley family. As a soldier
+he fought in France and elsewhere, then became an English
+member of parliament and a member of the privy council, and
+in 1547 took part in some military operations in Ireland. In
+May 1548 he was sent to that country as lord deputy. Ireland
+was then in a very disturbed condition, but the new governor
+crushed a rebellion of the O&rsquo;Connors in Leinster, freed the Pale
+from rebels, built forts, and made the English power respected
+in Münster and Connaught. Bellingham, however, was a
+headstrong man and was constantly quarrelling with his council;
+but one of his opponents admitted that he was &ldquo;the best man of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span>
+war that ever he had seen in Ireland.&rdquo; His short but successful
+term of office was ended by his recall in 1549.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland Under the Tudors</i>, vol. i. (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLINGHAM,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a city of Whatcom county, Washington,
+U.S.A., on the E. side of Bellingham Bay, 96 m. N. of Seattle.
+Pop. (1900) 11,062; (1905, state est.) 26,000; (1910, U.S. census)
+24,298. Area about 23 sq. m. It is served by the Great
+Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Canadian Pacific, and
+the Bellingham Bay &amp; British Columbia railways&mdash;being a
+terminus of the last named, which operates only 62 m. of line
+and connects with the Mt. Baker goldfields and the Nooksack
+valley farm and orchard region. A suburban electric line was
+projected in 1907. About 2½ m. south-east of the city is the
+main body of Lake Whatcom, 13 m. long, 1¼ m. wide, and 318 ft.
+higher than the city and the source of its water-supply, a gravity
+system which cost $1,000,000, being owned by the city. Bellingham
+has two Carnegie libraries. Among the principal buildings
+are the county court-house, the city hall, the Young Men&rsquo;s
+Christian Association building, and Beck&rsquo;s theatre, with a
+seating capacity of 2200. The largest of the state&rsquo;s normal
+colleges is situated here; in 1907 it had a faculty of 25 and
+350 students; there are two high schools, two business colleges,
+and one industrial school also in the city. The excellent harbour,
+and the fact that Bellingham is nearer to the great markets of
+Alaska than any other city in the states, make the port an important
+shipping centre. In the value of manufactured product
+the city was fourth in the state in 1905 (being passed only by
+Tacoma, Seattle and Spokane), with a value of $3,293,988;
+according to a census taken by the local chamber of commerce
+the value of the product in 1906 was $7,751,464. The principal
+industrial establishments are shingle (especially cedar) and
+saw-mills, salmon canneries and factories for the manufacture
+of tin cans, and machinery used in the canning of salmon. Motive
+and electric lighting power is brought 52 m. from the falls
+of the north fork of the Nooksack river, where there is a power
+plant which furnishes 3500 horsepower. There are deposits
+of clay and limestone in the surrounding country, and cement
+is manufactured in the vicinity of the city. The blue-grey
+Chuckanut sandstone is quarried on the shore of Chuckanut
+Bay, south of Bellingham; and a coarse, dark-brown sandstone
+is quarried on Sucia Island, west of the city. There are quarries
+also on Waldron Island. Bellingham was formed in 1903 by
+the consolidation of the cities of New Whatcom (pop. in 1900,
+6834) and Fairhaven (pop. in 1900, 4228), and was chartered
+as a city of the first class in 1904; it is named from Bellingham
+Bay, which Vancouver is supposed to have named, in 1792,
+in honour of Sir Henry Bellingham.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLINI,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> the name of a family of craftsmen in Venice, three
+members of which fill a great place in the history of the Venetian
+school of painting in the 15th century and the first years of the 16th.</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="sc">Jacopo Bellini</span> (<i>c.</i> 1400-1470-71) was the son of a tinsmith
+or pewterer, Nicoletto Bellini, by his wife Franceschina.
+When the accomplished Umbrian master Gentile da Fabriano
+came to practise at Venice, where art was backward, several
+young men of the city took service under him as pupils. Among
+these were Giovanni and Antonio of Murano and Jacopo Bellini.
+Gentile da Fabriano left Venice for Florence in 1422, and the
+two brothers of Murano stayed at home and presently founded
+a school of their own (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vivarini</a></span>). But Jacopo Bellini followed
+his teacher to Florence, where the vast progress lately made,
+alike in truth to natural fact and in sense of classic grace and style,
+by masters like Donatello and Ghiberti, Masaccio and Paolo
+Uccello, offered him better instruction than he could obtain even
+from his Umbrian teacher. But his position as assistant to
+Gentile brought him into trouble. As a stranger coming to
+practise in Florence, Gentile was jealously looked on. One day
+some young Florentines threw stones into his shop, and the
+Venetian pupil ran out and drove them off with his fists. Thinking
+this might be turned against him, he went and took service on
+board the galleys of the Florentine state; but returning after a
+year, found he had in his absence been condemned and fined for
+assault. He was arrested and imprisoned, but the matter was
+soon compromised, Jacopo submitting to a public act of penance
+and his adversary renouncing further proceedings. Whether
+Jacopo accompanied his master to Rome in 1426 we cannot
+tell; but by 1429 we find him settled at Venice and married
+to a wife from Pesaro named Anna (family name uncertain),
+who in that year made a will in favour of her first child then
+expected. She survived, however, and bore her husband two
+sons, Gentile and Giovanni (though some evidences have been
+thought to point rather to Giovanni having been his son by another
+mother), and a daughter Nicolosia. In 1436 Jacopo was at
+Verona, painting a Crucifixion in fresco for the chapel of S.
+Nicholas in the cathedral (destroyed by order of the archbishop
+in 1750, but the composition, a vast one of many figures, has been
+preserved in an old engraving). Documents ranging from 1437
+to 1465 show him to have been a member of the Scuola or mutual
+aid society of St John the Evangelist at Venice, for which he
+painted at an uncertain date a series of eighteen subjects of the
+Life of the Virgin, fully described by Ridolfi but now destroyed
+or dispersed. In 1439 we find him buying a panel of tarsia work
+at the sale of the effects of the deceased painter Jacobello del
+Fiore, and in 1440 entering into a business partnership with
+another painter of the city called Donato. About this time he
+must have paid a visit to the court of Ferrara, where there
+prevailed a spirit of free culture and humanism most congenial
+to his tastes. Pisanello, the first great naturalist artist of north
+Italy, whose influence on Jacopo at the outset of his career had
+been only second to that of Gentile da Fabriano, had been some
+time engaged on a portrait of Leonello d&rsquo;Este, the elder son of
+the reigning marquis Niccolo III. Jacopo (according to an almost
+contemporary sonneteer) competed with a rival portrait, which
+was declared by the father to be the better of the two. In the
+next year, the last of the marquis Niccolo&rsquo;s life, we find him
+making the successful painter a present of two bushels of wheat.
+The relations thus begun with the house of Este seem to have been
+kept up, and among Jacopo&rsquo;s extant drawings are several that
+seem to belong to the scheme of a monument erected to the
+memory of the marquis Niccolo ten years later. He was also
+esteemed and employed by Sigismondo Malatesta at the court
+of Rimini. In 1443 Jacopo took as an articled pupil a nephew
+whom he had brought up from charity; in 1452 he painted a
+banner for the Scuola of St Mary of Charity at Venice, and the
+next year received a grant from the confraternity for the marriage
+of his daughter Nicolosia with Andrea Mantegna, a marriage
+which had the effect of transferring the gifted young Paduan
+master definitively from the following of Squarcione to that
+of Bellini. In 1456 he painted a figure of Lorenzo Giustiniani,
+first patriarch of Venice, for his monument in San Pietro de
+Castello, and in 1457, with a son for salaried assistant, three
+figures of saints in the great hall of the patriarch. For some
+time about these years Jacopo and his family would seem to
+have resided at, or at least to have paid frequent visits to Padua,
+where he is reported to have carried out works now lost, including
+an altar-piece painted with the assistance of his sons in 1459-1460
+for the Gattamelata chapel in the Santo, and several portraits
+which are described by 16th-century witnesses but have disappeared.
+At Venice he painted a Calvary for the Scuola of St Mark (1466).
+His activity can be traced in documents down to August 1470, but in
+November 1471 his wife Anna describes herself as his relict, so
+that he must have died some time in the interval.</p>
+
+<p>The above are all the facts concerning the life of Jacopo
+Bellini which can be gathered from printed and documentary
+records. The materials which have reached posterity for a
+critical judgment on his work consist of four or five pictures only,
+together with two important and invaluable books of drawings.
+These prove him to have been a worthy third, following the
+Umbrian Gentile da Fabriano and the Veronese Pisanello, in
+that trio of remarkable artists who in the first half of the 15th
+century carried towards maturity the art of painting in Venice
+and the neighbouring cities. Of his pictures, an important
+signed example is a life-size Christ Crucified in the archbishop&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span>
+palace at Verona. The rest are almost all Madonnas: two
+signed, one in the Tadini gallery at Lovere, another in the
+Venice academy; a third, unsigned and long ascribed in error to
+Gentile da Fabriano, in the Louvre, with the portrait of Sigismondo
+Malatesta as donor; a fourth, richest of all in colour and
+ornamental detail, recently acquired from private hands for the
+Uffizi at Florence. Plausibly, though less certainly, ascribed to
+him are a fifth Madonna at Bergamo, a warrior-saint on horseback
+(San Crisogono) in the church of San Trovaso at Venice, a Crucifixion
+in the Museo Correr, and an Adoration of the Magi in
+private possession at Ferrara. Against this scanty tale of
+paintings we have to set an abundance of drawings and studies
+preserved in two precious albums in the British Museum and the
+Louvre. The former, which is the earlier in date, belonged to
+the painter&rsquo;s elder son Gentile and was by him bequeathed to
+his brother Giovanni. It consists of ninety-nine paper pages,
+all drawn on both back and front with a lead point, an instrument
+unusual at this date. Two or three of the drawings have been
+worked over in pen; of the remainder many have become dim
+from time and rubbing. The album at the Louvre, discovered
+in 1883 in the loft of a country-house in Guienne, is equally rich
+and better preserved, the drawings being all highly finished in
+pen, probably over effaced preliminary sketches in chalk or lead.
+The range of subjects is much the same in both collections, and
+in both extremely varied, proving Jacopo to have been a craftsman
+of many-sided curiosity and invention. He passes indiscriminately
+from such usual Scripture scenes as the Adoration
+of the Magi, the Agony in the Garden, and the Crucifixion, to
+designs from classic fable, copies from ancient bas-reliefs, stories
+of the saints, especially St Christopher and St George, the latter
+many times repeated (he was the patron saint of the house of
+Este), fanciful allegories of which the meaning has now become
+obscure, scenes of daily life, studies for monuments, and studies
+of animals, especially of eagles (the emblem of the house of Este),
+horses and lions. He loves to marshal his figures in vast open
+spaces, whether of architecture or mountainous landscape. In
+designing such spaces and in peopling them with figures of
+relatively small scale, we see him eagerly and continually putting
+to the test the principles of the new science of perspective. His
+castellated and pinnacled architecture, in a mixed medieval and
+classical spirit, is elaborately thought out, and scarcely less so his
+groups and ranges of barren hills, broken in clefts or ascending
+in spiral terraces. With a predilection for tall and slender
+proportions, he draws the human figure with a flowing generalized
+grace and no small freedom of movement; but he does not
+approach either in mastery of line or in vehemence of action a
+Florentine draughtsman such as Antonio Pollaiuolo. Jacopo&rsquo;s
+influence on the development of Venetian art was very great,
+not only directly through his two sons and his son-in-law Mantegna,
+but through other and independent contemporary workshops
+of the city, in none of which did it remain unfelt.</p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="sc">Gentile Bellini</span> (1429-1430-1507), the elder son of
+Jacopo, first appears independently as the painter of a Madonna,
+much in his father&rsquo;s manner, dated 1460, and now in the Berlin
+museum. We have seen how in the previous year he and his
+brother assisted their father in the execution of an altar-piece
+for the Santo at Padua. In July 1466 we find him contracting
+with the officers of the Scuola of St Mark as an independent
+artist to decorate the doors of their organ. These paintings still
+exist in a blackened condition. They represent four saints,
+colossal in size, and designed with much of the harsh and searching
+austerity which characterized the Paduan school under Squarcione.
+In December of the same year Gentile bound himself to
+execute for the great hall of the same company two subjects of
+the Exodus, to be done better than, or at least as well as, his
+father&rsquo;s work in the same place. These paintings have perished.
+For the next eight years the history of Gentile&rsquo;s life and work
+remains obscure. But he must have risen steadily in the esteem
+of his fellow-citizens, since in 1474 we find him commissioned
+by the senate to restore, renew, and when necessary replace, the
+series of paintings, the work of an earlier generation of artists,
+which were perishing from damp on the walls of the Hall of the
+Great Council in the ducal palace. This was evidently intended
+to be a permanent employment, and in payment the painter was
+to receive the reversion of a broker&rsquo;s stall in the Fondaco dei
+Tedeschi; a lucrative form of sinecure frequently allotted to
+artists engaged for tasks of long duration. In continuation of
+this work Gentile undertook a series of independent paintings
+on subjects of Venetian history for the same hall, but had
+apparently only finished one, representing the delivery of the
+consecrated candle by the pope to the doge, when his labours
+were interrupted by a mission to the East. The sultan
+Mahommed II. had despatched a friendly embassy to Venice,
+inviting the doge to visit him at Constantinople and at the same
+time requesting the despatch of an excellent painter to work at
+his court. The former part of the sultan&rsquo;s proposal the senate
+declined, with the latter they complied; and Gentile Bellini with
+two assistants was selected for the mission, his brother Giovanni
+being at the same time appointed to fill his place on the works
+for the Hall of the Great Council. Gentile gave great satisfaction
+to the sultan, and returned after about a year with a knighthood,
+some fine clothes, a gold chain and a pension. The surviving
+fruits of his labours at Constantinople consist of a large painting
+representing the reception of an ambassador in that city, now in
+the Louvre; a highly finished portrait of the sultan himself, now
+one of the treasures, despite its damaged condition, of the
+collection of the late Sir Henry Layard; an exquisitely wrought
+small portrait in water-colour of a scribe, found in 1905 by a
+private collector in the bazaar at Constantinople and now in the
+collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston; and two pen-and-ink
+drawings of Turkish types, now in the British Museum. Early
+copies of two or three other similar drawings are preserved in
+the Städel Institute at Frankfurt; such copies may have been
+made for the use of Gentile&rsquo;s Umbrian contemporary, Pinturicchio,
+who introduced figures borrowed from them into
+some of his decorative frescoes in the Appartamento Borgia
+at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>A place had been left open for Gentile to continue working
+beside his brother Giovanni (with whom he lived always on terms
+of the closest amity) in the ducal palace; and soon after 1480
+he began to carry out his share in the great series of frescoes,
+unfortunately destroyed by fire in 1577, illustrating the part
+played by Venice in the struggles between the papacy and the
+emperor Barbarossa. These works were executed not on the
+wall itself but on canvas (the climate of Venice having so
+many times proved fatal to wall paintings), and probably in oil,
+a method which all the artists of Venice, following the example
+set by Antonello da Messina, had by this time learnt or were
+learning to practise. The subjects allotted to Gentile, in addition
+to the above-mentioned presentation of the consecrated candle,
+were as follows: the departure of the Venetian ambassadors
+to the court of Barbarossa, Barbarossa receiving the ambassadors,
+the pope inciting the doge and senate to war, the pope bestowing
+a sword and his blessing on the doge and his army (a drawing in
+the British Museum purports to be the artist&rsquo;s original sketch
+for this composition), and according to some authorities also the
+gift of the symbolic ring by the pope to the victorious doge on
+his return. These works received the highest praise both from
+contemporary and from later Venetian critics, but no fragment
+of them survived the fire of 1577. Their character can to some
+extent be judged by a certain number of kindred historical and
+processional works by the same hand which have been preserved.
+Of such the Academy at Venice has three which were painted
+between 1490 and 1500 for the Scuola of St John the Evangelist,
+and represent certain events connected with a famous relic
+belonging to the Scuola, namely, a supposed fragment of the
+true cross. All have been, much injured and re-painted; nevertheless
+one at least, showing the procession of the relic through
+St Mark&rsquo;s Place and the thanksgiving of a father who owed to
+it the miraculous cure of his son, still gives a good idea of the
+painter&rsquo;s powers and style. Great accuracy and firmness of
+individual portraiture, a strong gift, derived no doubt from his
+father&rsquo;s example, for grouping and marshalling a crowd of
+personages in spaces of fine architectural perspective, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span>
+severity and dryness of the Paduan manner much mitigated by
+the dawning splendour of true Venetian colour&mdash;these are the
+qualities that no injury has been able to deface. They are again
+manifest in an interesting Adoration of the Magi in the Layard
+collection; and reappear still more forcibly in the last work
+undertaken by the artist, the great picture now at the Brera in
+Milan of St Mark preaching at Alexandria; this was commissioned
+by the Scuola of St Mark in March 1505, and left by the artist
+in his will, dated 18th of February 1507, to be finished by his
+brother Giovanni. Of single portraits by this artist, who was
+almost as famous for them as for processional groups, there
+survive one of a doge at the Museo Correr in Venice, one of
+Catarina Cornaro at Budapest, one of a mathematician at the
+National Gallery, another of a monk in the same gallery, signed
+wrongly to all appearance with the name of Giovanni Bellini,
+besides one or two others in private hands. The features of
+Gentile himself are known from a portrait medallion by Camelio,
+and can be recognized in two extant drawings, one at Berlin
+supposed to be by the painter&rsquo;s own hand, and another, much
+larger and more finished, at Christ Church, Oxford, which is
+variously attributed to Bonsignori and A. Vivarini.</p>
+
+<p>III. <span class="sc">Giovanni Bellini</span> (1430-1431-1516) is generally
+assumed to have been the second son of Jacopo by his wife Anna;
+though the fact that she does not mention him in her will with
+her other sons has thrown some slight doubt upon the matter.
+At any rate he was brought up in his father&rsquo;s house, and always
+lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation with Gentile.
+Up till the age of nearly thirty we find documentary evidence
+of the two sons having served as their father&rsquo;s assistants in
+works both at Venice and Padua. In Giovanni&rsquo;s earliest independent
+works we find him more strongly influenced by the
+harsh and searching manner of the Paduan school, and especially
+of his own brother-in-law Mantegna, than by the more graceful
+and facile style of Jacopo. This influence seems to have lasted
+at full strength until after the departure of his brother-in-law
+Mantegna for the court of Mantua in 1460. The earliest of
+Giovanni&rsquo;s independent works no doubt date from before this
+period. Three of these exist at the Correr museum in Venice:
+a Crucifixion, a Transfiguration, and a Dead Christ supported by
+Angels. Two Madonnas of the same or even earlier date are in
+private collections in America, a third in that of Signor Frizzoni
+at Milan; while two beautiful works in the National Gallery
+of London seem to bring the period to a close. One of these is
+of a rare subject, the Blood of the Redeemer; the other is the
+fine picture of Christ&rsquo;s Agony in the Garden, formerly in the
+Northbrook collection. The last-named piece was evidently
+executed in friendly rivalry with Mantegna, whose version of
+the subject hangs near by; the main idea of the composition
+in both cases being taken from a drawing by Jacopo Bellini in
+the British Museum sketch-book. In all these pictures Giovanni
+combines with the Paduan severity of drawing and complex
+rigidity of drapery a depth of religious feeling and human pathos
+which is his own. They are all executed in the old tempera
+method; and in the last named the tragedy of the scene is
+softened by a new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise
+colour. In a somewhat changed and more personal manner,
+with less harshness of contour and a broader treatment of forms
+and draperies, but not less force of religious feeling, are the two
+pictures of the Dead Christ supported by Angels, in these days
+one of the master&rsquo;s most frequent themes, at Rimini and at
+Berlin. Chronologically to be placed with these are two
+Madonnas, one at the church of the Madonna del Orto at Venice
+and one in the Lochis collection at Bergamo; devout intensity
+of feeling and rich solemnity of colour being in the case of all
+these early Madonnas combined with a singularly direct rendering
+of the natural movements and attitudes of children.</p>
+
+<p>The above-named works, all still executed in tempera, are
+no doubt earlier than the date of Giovanni&rsquo;s first appointment
+to work along with his brother and other artists in the Scuola
+di San Marco, where among other subjects he was commissioned
+in 1470 to paint a Deluge with Noah&rsquo;s Ark. None of the master&rsquo;s
+works of this kind, whether painted for the various schools or
+confraternities or for the ducal palace, have survived. To the
+decade following 1470 must probably be assigned a Transfiguration
+now in the Naples museum, repeating with greatly ripened
+powers and in a much serener spirit the subject of his early
+effort at Venice; and also the great altar-piece of the Coronation
+of the Virgin at Pesaro, which would seem to be his earliest
+effort in a form of art previously almost monopolized in Venice
+by the rival school of the Vivarini. Probably not much later
+was the still more famous altar-piece painted in tempera for a
+chapel in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, where it perished
+along with Titian&rsquo;s Peter Martyr and Tintoretto&rsquo;s Crucifixion
+in the disastrous fire of 1867. After 1479-1480 very much of
+Giovanni&rsquo;s time and energy must have been taken up by his
+duties as conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the ducal
+palace, in payment for which he was awarded, first the reversion
+of a broker&rsquo;s place in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and afterwards,
+as a substitute, a fixed annual pension of eighty ducats. Besides
+repairing and renewing the works of his predecessors he was
+commissioned to paint a number of new subjects, six or seven
+in all, in further illustration of the part played by Venice in the
+wars of Barbarossa and the pope. These works, executed with
+much interruption and delay, were the object of universal admiration
+while they lasted, but not a trace of them survived the fire
+of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and
+processional compositions come down, enabling us to compare
+his manner in such subjects with that of his brother Gentile.
+Of the other, the religious class of his work, including both
+altar-pieces with many figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable
+number have fortunately been preserved. They show him
+gradually throwing off the last restraints of the 15th-century
+manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the new oil
+medium introduced in Venice by Antonello da Messina about
+1473, and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets
+of the perfect fusion of colours and atmospheric gradation of
+tones. The old intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually
+fades away and gives place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity
+and charm. The enthroned Virgin and Child become tranquil and
+commanding in their sweetness; the personages of the attendant
+saints gain in power, presence and individuality; enchanting
+groups of singing and viol-playing angels symbolize and complete
+the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of Venetian colour
+invests alike the figures, their architectural framework, the
+landscape and the sky. The altar-piece of the Frari at Venice,
+the altar-piece of San Giobbe, now at the academy, the Virgin
+between SS. Paul and George, also at the academy, and the altar-piece
+with the kneeling doge Barbarigo at Murano, are among
+the most conspicuous examples. Simple Madonnas of the same
+period (about 1485-1490) are in the Venice academy, in the
+National Gallery, at Turin and at Bergamo. An interval of some
+years, no doubt chiefly occupied with work in the Hall of the Great
+Council, seems to separate the last-named altar-pieces from that
+of the church of San Zaccaria at Venice, which is perhaps the
+most beautiful and imposing of all, and is dated 1505, the year
+following that of Giorgione&rsquo;s Madonna at Castelfranco. Another
+great altar-piece with saints, that of the church of San Francesco
+de la Vigna at Venice, belongs to 1507; that of La Corona at
+Vicenza, a Baptism of Christ in a landscape, to 1510; to 1513
+that of San Giovanni Crisostomo at Venice, where the aged saint
+Jerome, seated on a hill, is raised high against a resplendent
+sunset background, with SS. Christopher and Augustine standing
+facing each other below him, in front. Of Giovanni&rsquo;s activity
+in the interval between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and of
+Murano and that of San Zaccaria, there are a few minor evidences
+left, though the great mass of its results perished with the fire
+of the ducal palace in 1577. The examples that remain consist
+of one very interesting and beautiful allegorical picture in the
+Uffizi at Florence, the subject of which had remained a riddle
+until it was recently identified as an illustration of a French
+medieval allegory, the <i>Pèlerinage de l&rsquo;âme</i> by Guillaume de
+Guilleville; with a set of five other allegories or moral emblems,
+on a smaller scale and very romantically treated, in the academy
+at Venice. To these should probably be added, as painted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span>
+towards the year 1505, the portrait of the doge Loredano in the
+National Gallery, the only portrait by the master which has
+been preserved, and in its own manner one of the most masterly
+in the whole range of painting.</p>
+
+<p>The last ten or twelve years of the master&rsquo;s life saw him
+besieged with more commissions than he could well complete.
+Already in the years 1501-1504 the marchioness Isabella Gonzaga
+of Mantua had had great difficulty in obtaining delivery from
+him of a picture of the &ldquo;Madonna and Saints&rdquo; (now lost) for
+which part payment had been made in advance. In 1505 she
+endeavoured through Cardinal Bembo to obtain from him another
+picture, this time of a secular or mythological character. What
+the subject of this piece was, or whether it was actually delivered,
+we do not know. Albrecht Dürer, visiting Venice for a second
+time in 1506, reports of Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter
+in the city, and as full of all courtesy and generosity towards
+foreign brethren of the brush. In 1507 Gentile Bellini died,
+and Giovanni completed the picture of the &ldquo;Preaching of St
+Mark&rdquo; which he had left unfinished; a task on the fulfilment of
+which the bequest by the elder brother to the younger of their
+father&rsquo;s sketch-book had been made conditional. In 1513
+Giovanni&rsquo;s position as sole master (since the death of his brother
+and of Alvise Vivarini) in charge of the paintings in the Hall
+of the Great Council was threatened by an application on the
+part of his own former pupil, Titian, for a joint-share in the
+same undertaking, to be paid for on the same terms. Titian&rsquo;s
+application was first granted, then after a year rescinded, and
+then after another year or two granted again; and the aged
+master must no doubt have undergone some annoyance from
+his sometime pupil&rsquo;s proceedings. In 1514 Giovanni undertook
+to paint a Bacchanal for the duke Alfonso of Ferrara, but died
+in 1516; leaving it to be finished by his pupils; this picture is
+now at Alnwick.</p>
+
+<p>Both in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of
+Giovanni Bellini was upon the whole the most serenely and
+unbrokenly prosperous, from youth to extreme old age, which
+fell to the lot of any artist of the early Renaissance. He lived
+to see his own school far outshine that of his rivals, the Vivarini
+of Murano; he embodied, with ever growing and maturing
+power, all the devotional gravity and much also of the worldly
+splendour of the Venice of his time; and he saw his influence
+propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione
+and Titian, surpassed their master. Giorgione he outlived by
+five years; Titian, as we have seen, challenged an equal place
+beside his teacher. Among the best known of his other pupils
+were, in his earlier time, Andrea Previtali, Cima da Conegliano,
+Marco Basaiti, Niccolo Rondinelli, Piermaria Pennacchi, Martino
+da Udine, Girolamo Mocetto; in later time, Pierfrancesco
+Bissolo, Vincenzo Catena, Lorenzo Lotto and Sebastian del
+Piombo.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Vasari, ed. Milanesi, vol. iii.; Ridolfi, <i>Le
+Maraviglie</i>, &amp;c., vol. i.; Francesco Sansovino, <i>Venezia Descritta</i>;
+Morelli, <i>Notizia, &amp;c., di un Assonimo</i>; Zanetti, <i>Pittura Veneziana</i>;
+F. Aghietti, <i>Elagio Storico di Jacopo e Giovanni Bellini</i>; G. Bernasconi,
+<i>Cenni intorna la vita e le opere di Jacopo Bellini</i>; Moschini,
+<i>Giovanni Bellini e pittori contemporanei</i>; E. Galichon in <i>Gazette des
+beaux-arts</i> (1866); Crowe and Cavalcaselle, <i>History of Painting in
+North Italy</i>, vol. i.; Hubert Janitschek, &ldquo;Giovanni Bellini&rdquo; in
+Dohme&rsquo;s <i>Kunst und Künstler</i>; Julius Meyer in Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeines
+Künstler-Lexikon</i>, vol. iii. (1885); Pompeo Molmenti,
+&ldquo;I pittori Bellini&rdquo; in <i>Studi e ricerche di Storia d&rsquo; Arte</i>; P. Paoletti,
+<i>Raccolta di documenti inediti</i>, fasc. i.; Vasari, <i>Vite di Gentile da
+Fabriano e Vittor Pisanello</i>, ed. Venturi; Corrado Ricci in <i>Rassegna
+d&rsquo; Arte</i> (1901, 1903), and <i>Rivista d&rsquo; Arte</i> (1906); Roger Fry, <i>Giovanni
+Bellini</i> in &ldquo;The Artist&rsquo;s Library&rdquo;; Everard Meynell, <i>Giovanni
+Bellini</i> in Newnes&rsquo;s &ldquo;Art Library&rdquo; (useful for a nearly complete
+set of reproductions of the known paintings); Corrado Ricci,
+<i>Jacopo Bellini e i suoi Libri di Disegni</i>; Victor Goloubeff, <i>Les
+Dessins de Jacopo Bellini</i> (the two works last cited reproduce in full,
+that of M. Goloubeff by far the most skilfully, the contents of both
+the Paris and the London sketch-books).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLINI, LORENZO<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1643-1704), Italian physician and
+anatomist, was born at Florence on the 3rd of September 1643.
+At the age of twenty, when he had already begun his researches
+on the structure of the kidneys and had described the ducts
+known by his name (<i>Exercitatio anatomica de structura et usu
+renum</i>, 1662), he was chosen professor of theoretical medicine
+at Pisa, but soon after was transferred to the chair of anatomy.
+After spending thirty years at Pisa, he was invited to Florence
+and appointed physician to the grand duke Cosimo III., and was
+also made senior consulting physician to Pope Clement XI.
+He died at Florence on the 8th of January 1704. His works
+were published in a collected form at Venice in 1708.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLINI, VINCENZO<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1801-1835), operatic composer of the
+Italian school, was born at Catania in Sicily, on the 1st of
+November 1801. He was descended from a family of musicians,
+both his father and grandfather having been composers of some
+reputation. After having received his preparatory musical
+education at home, he entered the conservatoire of Naples,
+where he studied singing and composition under Tritto and
+Zingarelli. He soon began to write pieces for various instruments,
+as well as a cantata and several masses and other sacred compositions.
+His first opera, <i>Adelson e Savina</i>, was performed in
+1825 at a small theatre in Naples; his second dramatic work,
+<i>Bianca e Fernando</i>, was produced next year at the San Carlo
+theatre of the same city, and made his name known in Italy.
+His next work, <i>Il Pirata</i> (1827), was written for the Scala in
+Milan, to words by Felice Romano, with whom Bellini formed
+a union of friendship to be severed only by his death. The
+splendid rendering of the music by Tamburini, Rubini and other
+great Italian singers contributed greatly to the success of the
+work, which at once established the European reputation of its
+composer. In almost every year of the short remainder of his
+life he produced a new operatic work, which was received with
+rapture by the audiences of France, Italy, Germany and England.
+The names and dates of four of Bellini&rsquo;s operas familiar to most
+lovers of Italian music are: <i>I Montecchi e Capuleti</i> (1830), in
+which the part of Romeo became a favourite with all the great
+contraltos; <i>La Sonnambula</i> (1831); <i>Norma</i>, Bellini&rsquo;s best and
+most popular creation (1831); and <i>I Puritani</i> (1835), written for
+the Italian opera in Paris, and to some extent under the influence
+of French music. In 1833 Bellini had left his country to accompany
+to England the singer Pasta, who had created the part of
+his <i>Sonnambula</i>. In 1834 he accepted an invitation to write an
+opera for the national grand opera in Paris. While he was
+carefully studying the French language and the cadence of French
+verse for the purpose, he was seized with a sudden illness and
+died at his villa in Puteaux near Paris on the 24th of September
+1835. His operatic creations are throughout replete with a
+spirit of gentle melancholy, frequently monotonous and almost
+always undramatic, but at the same time irresistibly sweet.
+To this spirit, combined with a rich flow of <i>cantilena</i>, Bellini&rsquo;s
+operas owe their popularity. &ldquo;I shall never forget,&rdquo; wrote
+Wagner, &ldquo;the impression made upon me by an opera of Bellini
+at a period when I was completely exhausted with the everlastingly
+abstract complication used in our orchestras, when a
+simple and noble melody was revealed anew to me.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also G. Labat, <i>Bellini</i> (Bordeaux, 1865); A. Pougin, <i>Bellini,
+sa vie et ses &oelig;uvres</i> (Paris, 1868).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLINZONA<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Belienz</i>), the political capital of the
+Swiss canton of Tessin or Ticino. It is 105 m. from Lucerne by
+the St Gotthard railway, 19 m. from Lugano and 14 m. from
+Locarno at the head of the Lago Maggiore, these two towns
+having been till 1881 capitals of the canton jointly with Bellinzona.
+The old town is built on some hills, on the left bank of the
+Tessin or Ticino river, and a little below the junction of the main
+Ticino valley (the Val Leventina) with that of Mesocco. It
+thus blocked the road from Germany to Italy, while a great wall
+was built from the town to the river bank. Bellinzona still
+possesses three picturesque castles (restored in modern times),
+dating in their present form from the 15th century. They
+belonged for several centuries to the three Swiss cantons which
+were masters of the town. The most westerly, Castello Grande
+or of San Michele, belonged to Uri; the central castle, that of
+Montebello, was the property of Schwyz; while the most
+easterly castle, that of Sasso Corbaro, was in the hands of
+Unterwalden. The 13th-century church of San Biagio (Blaise) has a
+remarkable 14th-century fresco, while the collegiate church of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span>
+San Stefano dates from the 16th century. In 1900 the population
+of Bellinzona was 4949, practically all Romanists and Italian-speaking.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly Bellinzona is of Roman origin, but it is first mentioned
+in 590. It played a considerable part in the early history of
+Lombardy, being a key to several Alpine passes. In the 8th
+century it belonged to the bishop of Como, while in the 13th and
+14th centuries it was tossed to and fro between the cities of Milan
+and Como. In 1402 it was taken from Milan by Albert von Sax,
+lord of the Val Mesocco, who in 1419 sold it to Uri and Obwalden,
+which, however, lost it to Milan in 1422 after the battle of Arbedo.
+In 1499 (like the rest of the Milanese) it was occupied by the
+French, but in 1500 it was taken by Uri. In 1503 the French king
+ceded it to Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, which henceforth
+ruled it very harshly through their bailiffs till 1798. At that
+date it became the capital of the canton Bellinzona of the
+Helvetic republic, but in 1803 it was united to the newly-formed
+canton of Tessin.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1740-1795), Swedish poet, son
+of a civil servant, was born at Stockholm on the 4th of February
+1740. When quite a child he developed an extraordinary gift
+of improvising verse, during the delirium of a severe illness,
+weaving wild thoughts together lyrically and singing airs of his
+own composition. When he was nineteen he became clerk in
+a bank and afterwards in the customs, but his habits were
+irregular and he was frequently in great distress, particularly
+after the death of his patron, <span class="sc">Gustavus</span> III. As early as 1757
+he published <i>Evangeliska Dödstankar</i>, meditations on the
+Passion from the German of David von Schweidnitz, and during
+the next few years wrote, besides other translations, a great
+quantity of poems, imitative for the most part of Dalin. In
+1760 appeared his first characteristic work, <i>Månan</i> (The Moon),
+a satirical poem, which was revised and edited by Dalin. But
+the great work of his life occupied him from 1765 to 1780, and
+consists of the collections of dithyrambic odes known as <i>Fredmans
+Epistlar</i> (1790) and <i>Fredmans Sånger</i> (1791). Fredman
+and his friends were well-known characters in the Stockholm
+pot-houses, where Bellman had studied them from the life.
+No poetry can possibly smell less of the lamp than Bellman&rsquo;s.
+He was accustomed, when in the presence of none but confidential
+friends, to announce that the god was about to visit
+him. He would shut his eyes, take his zither, and begin apparently
+to improvise the music and the words of a long Bacchic
+ode in praise of love or wine. Most of his melodies are taken
+direct, or with slight adaptations, from old Swedish ballads, and
+still retain their popularity. <i>Fredman&rsquo;s Epistles</i> bear the clear
+impress of individual genius; his torrents of rhymes are not
+without their method; wild as they seem, they all conform to
+the rules of style, and among those that have been preserved
+there are few that are not perfect in form. A great Swedish
+critic has remarked that the voluptuous joviality and the humour
+of Bellman is, after all, only &ldquo;sorrow clad in rose-colour,&rdquo; and
+this underlying pathos gives his poems their undying charm.
+His later works, <i>Bacchi Tempel</i> (The Temple of Bacchus) (1783),
+eight numbers of a journal called <i>Hvad behagas?</i> (What you
+Will) (1781), in 1780 a religious anthology entitled in a later
+edition (1787) <i>Zions Hogtid</i> (Zion&rsquo;s Holiday), and a translation
+of Gellert&rsquo;s <i>Fables</i>, are comparatively unimportant. He died
+on the 11th of February 1795. Much of Bellman&rsquo;s work was
+only printed after his death, <i>Bihang till Fredmans Epistlar</i>
+(Nyköping, 1809), <i>Fredmans Handskrifter</i> (Upsala, 1813),
+<i>Skaldestycken</i> (&ldquo;Poems,&rdquo; Stockholm, 1814) being among the
+most important of these posthumous works. A colossal bronze
+bust of the poet by Byström (erected by the Swedish Academy
+in 1829) adorns the public gardens of Stockholm, and a statue
+by Alfred Nyström is in the Hasselbacken, Stockholm. Bellman
+had a grand manner, a fine voice and great gifts of mimicry,
+and was a favourite companion of King Gustavus III.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of his works was published at Stockholm, edited
+by J.G. Carlén, with biographical notes, illustrations and music
+(5 vols., 1856-1861); see also monographs on Bellman by Nils
+Erdmann (Stockholm, 1895) and by F. Niedner (Berlin, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLO, ANDRÉS <a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span>(1781-1865), South American poet and
+scholar, was born at Caracas (Venezuela) on the 29th of November
+1781, and in early youth held a minor post in the civil administration.
+He joined the colonial revolutionary party, and in 1810
+was sent on a political mission to London, where he resided for
+nineteen years, acting as secretary to the legations of Chile,
+Colombia and Venezuela, studying in the British Museum,
+supplementing his small salary by giving private lessons in
+Spanish, by journalistic work and by copying Jeremy Bentham&rsquo;s
+almost indecipherable manuscripts. In 1829 he accepted a
+post in the Chilean treasury, settled at Santiago and took a
+prominent part in founding the national university (1843), of
+which he became rector. He was nominated senator, and died
+at Santiago de Chile on the 15th of October 1865. Bello was
+mainly responsible for the civil code promulgated on the 14th
+of December 1855. His prose works deal with such various
+subjects as law, philosophy, literary criticism and philology;
+of these the most important is his <i>Gramática castellana</i> (1847),
+the leading authority on the subject. But his position in literature
+proper is secured by his <i>Silvas Americanas</i>, a poem written
+during his residence in England, which conveys with extraordinary
+force the majestic impression of the South American landscape.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bello&rsquo;s complete works were issued in fifteen volumes by the
+Chilean government (Santiago de Chile, 1881-1893); he is the subject
+of an excellent biography (Santiago de Chile, 1882) by Miguel
+Luis Amunátegui.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. F.-K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLO-HORIZONTE,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Minas</span>, a city of Brazil, capital of
+the state of Minas Geraes since 1898, about 50 m. N.W. of
+Ouro Preto, connected with the Central of Brazil railway by a
+branch line 9 m. in length. Pop. (estimated) in 1906, 25,000 to
+30,000. The city was built by the state on an open plateau, and
+provided with all necessary public buildings, gas, water and
+tramway services before the seat of government was transferred
+from Ouro Preto. The cost of transfer was about £1,000,000.
+The city has grown rapidly, and is considered one of the most
+attractive state capitals of Brazil.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLONA<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Duellona</span>), in Roman mythology,
+the goddess of war (<i>bellum</i>, <i>i.e.</i> <i>duellum</i>), corresponding to the
+Greek Enyo. By later mythologists she is called sometimes
+the sister, daughter or wife of Mars, sometimes his charioteer
+or nurse. Her worship appears to have been promoted in Rome
+chiefly by the family of the Claudii, whose Sabine origin, together
+with their use of the name of &ldquo;Nero,&rdquo; has suggested an identification
+of Bellona with the Sabine war goddess Nerio, herself
+identified, like Bellona, with Virtus. Her temple at Rome,
+dedicated by Appius Claudius Caecus (296 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) during a battle
+with the Samnites and Etruscans (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i> vi. 201), stood in
+the Campus Martius, near the Flaminian Circus, and outside
+the gates of the city. It was there that the senate met to discuss
+a general&rsquo;s claim to a triumph, and to receive ambassadors
+from foreign states. In front of it was the <i>columna bellica</i>,
+where the ceremony of declaring war by the fetialis was performed.
+From this native Italian goddess is to be distinguished the
+Asiatic Bellona, whose worship was introduced into Rome from
+Comana, in Cappadocia, apparently by Sulla, to whom she had
+appeared, urging him to march to Rome and bathe in the blood
+of his enemies (Plutarch, <i>Sulla</i>, 9). For her a new temple was
+built, and a college of priests (<i>Bellonarii</i>) instituted to conduct
+her fanatical rites, the prominent feature of which was to lacerate
+themselves and sprinkle the blood on the spectators (Tibullus
+i. 6. 45-50). To make the scene more grim they wore black
+dresses (Tertullian, <i>De Pallio</i>) from head to foot. The festival
+of Bellona, which originally took place on the 3rd of June, was
+altered to the 24th of March, after the confusion of the Roman
+Bellona with her Asiatic namesake.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Tiesler, <i>De Bellonae Cultu</i> (1842).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLOT, JOSEPH RENÉ<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1826-1853), French Arctic explorer,
+was born at Rochefort on the 18th of March 1826, the son of a
+farrier. With the aid of the authorities of his native town he
+was enabled at the age of fifteen to enter the naval school, in
+which he studied two years and earned a high reputation. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span>
+then took part in the Anglo-French expedition of 1845 to Madagascar,
+and received the cross of the Legion of Honour for
+distinguished conduct. He afterwards took part in another
+Anglo-French expedition, that of Parana, which opened the
+river La Plata to commerce. In 1851 he joined the Arctic
+expedition under the command of Captain Kennedy in search
+of Sir John Franklin, and discovered the strait between Boothia
+Felix and Somerset Land which bears his name. Early in 1852
+he was promoted lieutenant, and in the same year accompanied
+the Franklin search expedition under Captain Inglefield. As on
+the previous occasion, his intelligence, devotion to duty and
+courage won him the esteem and admiration of all with whom he
+was associated. While making a perilous journey with two
+comrades for the purpose of communicating with Sir Edward
+Belcher, he suddenly disappeared in an opening between the
+broken masses of ice (August 1853). A pension was granted to
+his family by the emperor Napoleon III., and an obelisk was
+erected to his memory in front of Greenwich hospital.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLOWS, ALBERT F.<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1829-1883), American landscape-painter,
+was born at Milford, Massachusetts, on the 20th of
+November 1829. He first studied architecture, then turned to
+painting, and worked in Paris and in the Royal Academy at
+Antwerp. He painted much in England; was a member of the
+National Academy of Design, and of the American Water Color
+Society, New York; and an honorary member of the Royal
+Belgian Society of Water-Colourists. His earlier work was <i>genre</i>,
+in oils; after 1865 he used water-colours more and more exclusively
+and painted landscapes. Among his water-colours
+are &ldquo;Afternoon in Surrey&rdquo; (1868); &ldquo;Sunday in Devonshire&rdquo;
+(1876), exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition; &ldquo;New England
+Village School&rdquo; (1878); and &ldquo;The Parsonage&rdquo; (1879). He
+died in Auburndale, Massachusetts, on the 24th of November 1883.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1814-1882), American
+clergyman, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 11th of
+June 1814. He graduated at Harvard College in 1832, and at
+the Harvard Divinity School in 1837, held a brief pastorate
+(1837-1838) at Mobile, Alabama, and in 1839 became pastor of
+the First Congregational (Unitarian) church in New York City
+(afterwards All Souls church), in charge of which he remained
+until his death. Here Bellows acquired a high reputation as a
+pulpit orator and lyceum lecturer, and was a recognized leader
+in the Unitarian Church in America. For many years after 1846
+he edited <i>The Christian Inquirer</i>, a Unitarian weekly paper, and
+he was also for some time an editor of <i>The Christian Examiner</i>.
+In 1857 he delivered a series of lectures in the Lowell Institute
+course, on &ldquo;The Treatment of Social Diseases.&rdquo; At the outbreak
+of the Civil War he planned the United States Sanitary Commission,
+of which he was the first and only president (1861 to 1878).
+He was the first president of the first Civil Service Reform
+Association organized in the United States (1877), was an
+organizer of the Union League Club and of the Century Association
+in New York City, and planned with his parishioner and
+friend, Peter Cooper, the establishment of Cooper Union. In
+1865 he proposed and organized the national conference of
+Unitarian and other Christian churches, and from 1865 to 1880
+was chairman of its council. He died in New York City on the
+30th of January 1882. A bronze memorial tablet by Augustus
+Saint Gaudens was unveiled in All Souls church in 1886. His
+published writings include <i>Restatements of Christian Doctrine in
+Twenty-Five Sermons</i> (1860); <i>Unconditioned Loyalty</i> (1863),
+a strong pro-Union sermon, which was widely circulated during
+the Civil War; <i>The Old World in its New Face: Impressions of
+Europe in 1867-1868</i> (2 vols., 1868-1869); <i>Historical Sketch of the
+Union League Club</i> (1879); and <i>Twenty-Four Sermons in All Souls
+Church, New York, 1865-1881</i> (1886).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Russell N. Bellows, <i>Henry Whitney Bellows</i> (Keene, N.H.,
+1897), a biographical sketch reprinted from T.B. Peck&rsquo;s <i>Bellows
+Family Genealogy</i>; John White Chadwick, <i>Henry W. Bellows:
+His Life and Character</i> (New York, 1882), a memorial address; and
+Charles J Stillé, <i>History of the United States Sanitary Commission</i>
+(Philadelphia, 1866).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLOWS<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> and <b>BLOWING MACHINES,</b> appliances used for
+producing currents of air, or for moving volumes of air from one
+place to another. Formerly all such artificially-produced
+currents of air were used to assist the combustion of fires and
+furnaces, but now this purpose only forms a part of the uses to
+which they are put. Blowing appliances, among which are
+included bellows, rotary fans, blowing engines, rotary blowers
+and steam-jet blowers, are now also employed for forcing pure
+air into buildings and mines for purposes of ventilation, for
+withdrawing vitiated air for the same reason, and for supplying
+the air or other gas which is required in some chemical processes.
+Appliances of this kind differ from <i>air compressors</i> in that they
+are primarily intended for the transfer of quantities of air at low
+pressures, very little above that of the atmosphere, whereas the
+latter are used for supplying air which has previously been
+raised to a pressure which may be many times that of the atmosphere
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Power Transmission</a></span>: <i>Pneumatic</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest contrivances employed for producing the
+movement of air under a small pressure were those used in Egypt
+during the Greek occupation. These depended upon the heating
+of the air, which, being raised in pressure and bulk, was made to
+force water out of closed vessels, the water being afterwards
+employed for moving some kind of mechanism. In the process
+of iron smelting there is still used in some parts of India an
+artificial blast, produced by a simple form of bellows made from
+the skins of goats; bellows of this kind probably represent one
+of the earliest contrivances used for producing currents of air.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>bellows</i><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> now in use consists, in its simplest form, of two
+flat boards, of rectangular, circular or pear shape, connected
+round their edges by a wide band of leather so as to include an
+air chamber, which can be increased or diminished in volume by
+separating the boards or bringing them nearer together. The
+leather is kept from collapsing, on the separation of the boards,
+by several rings of wire which act like the ribs of animals. The
+lower board has a hole in the centre, covered inside by a leather
+flap or valve which can only open inwards; there is also an open
+outlet, generally in the form of a pipe or nozzle, whose aperture
+is much smaller than that of the valve. When the upper board
+is raised air rushes into the cavity through the valve to fill up
+the partial vacuum produced; on again depressing the upper
+board the valve is closed by the air attempting to rush out again,
+and this air is discharged through the open nozzle with a velocity
+depending on the pressure exerted.</p>
+
+<p>The current of air produced is evidently not continuous but
+intermittent or in puffs, because an interval is needed to refill
+the cavity after each discharge. In order to remedy this drawback
+the <i>double bellows</i> are used. To understand their action
+it is only necessary to conceive an additional board with valve,
+like the lower board of the single bellows, attached in the same
+way by leather below this lower board. Thus there are three
+boards, forming two cavities, the two lower boards being fitted
+with air-valves. The lowest board is held down by a weight and
+another weight rests on the top board. In working these double
+bellows the lowest board is raised, and drives the air from the
+lower cavity into the upper. On lowering the bottom board
+again a fresh supply of air is drawn in through the bottom valve,
+to be again discharged when the board is raised. As the air
+passes from the lower to the upper cavity it is prevented from
+returning by the valve in the middle board, and in this way a
+quantity of air is sent into the upper cavity each time the lowest
+board is raised. The weight on the top board provides the
+necessary pressure for the blast, and at the same time causes
+the current of air delivered to be fairly continuous. When the
+air is being forced into the upper cavity the weight is being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span>
+raised, and, during the interval when the lowest board is descending,
+the weight is slowly forcing the top board down and thus
+keeping up the flow of air.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:319px" src="images/img706a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 1 and 2.&mdash;Common Smiths&rsquo; Bellows.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Hand-bellows for domestic use are generally shaped like a
+pear, with the hinge at the narrow end. The same shape was
+adopted for the older forms of smiths&rsquo; bellows, with the difference
+that two bellows were used superposed, in a manner similar to
+that just described, so as to provide for a continuous blast. In
+the later form of smiths&rsquo; bellows the same principle is employed,
+but the boards are made circular in shape and are always maintained
+roughly parallel to one another. These are shown on figs.
+1 and 2. Here A is the blast pipe, B the movable lowest board,
+C the fixed
+middle board,
+close to which
+the pipe A is
+inserted, and D
+is the movable
+uppermost board
+pressed upon by
+the weight
+shown. The
+board B is raised
+by means of a
+hand lever L,
+through either a
+chain or a connecting
+rod, and
+lowered by a
+weight. The size
+of the weight on D depends on the air pressure required.
+For instance, if a blast pressure of half a pound per
+square inch is wanted and the boards are 18 in. in diameter,
+and therefore have an area of 254 sq. in., on each of the
+254 sq. in. there is to be a pressure of half a pound, so that
+the weight to balance this must be half multiplied by 254, or
+127 &#8468; The diameter of the air-pipe can be varied to
+suit the required conditions. Instead of bellows with flexible
+sides, a sliding arrangement is sometimes used; this consists
+of what are really two boxes fitting into one another with the
+open sides both facing inwards, as if one were acting as a lid
+to the other. By having a valve and outlet pipe fitted as in
+the bellows and sliding them alternately apart and together, an
+intermittent blast is produced. The chief defect of this arrangement
+is the leakage of air caused by the difficulty in making the
+joint a sufficiently good fit to be air-tight.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blowing Engines.</i>&mdash;Where larger quantities of air at higher
+pressures than can conveniently be supplied by bellows are required,
+as for blast furnaces and the Bessemer process of steel-making,
+what are termed &ldquo;blowing engines&rdquo; are used. The
+mode of action of a blowing engine is simple. When a piston,
+accurately fitting a cylinder which has one end closed, is forcibly
+moved towards the other end, a partial vacuum is formed
+between the piston and the blank end, and if this space be
+allowed to communicate with the outer atmosphere air will
+flow in to fill the vacuum. When the piston has completed its
+movement or &ldquo;stroke,&rdquo; the cylinder will have been filled with
+air. On the return of the piston, if the valve through which
+the air entered is now closed and a second one communicating
+with a chamber or pipe is opened, the air in the cylinder is
+expelled through this second valve. The action is similar to
+that of the bellows, but is carried out in a machine which is much
+better able to resist higher pressures and which is more convenient
+for dealing with large quantities of air. The valves through
+which the atmosphere or &ldquo;free&rdquo; air is admitted are called
+&ldquo;admission&rdquo; or &ldquo;suction&rdquo; valves, and those through which
+the air is driven from the cylinder are the &ldquo;discharge&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;delivery&rdquo; valves. Formerly one side only of the blowing
+piston was used, the engine working &ldquo;single-acting&rdquo;; but now
+both sides of the piston are utilized, so that when it is moving
+in either direction suction will be taking place on one side and
+delivery on the other. All processes in connexion with which
+blowing engines are used require the air to be above the pressure
+of the outer atmosphere. This means that the discharge valves
+do not open quite at the beginning of the delivery stroke, but
+remain closed until the air in the cylinder has been reduced
+in volume and so increased in pressure to that of the air in the
+discharge chamber.</p>
+
+<p>The power used to actuate these blowing-engines is in most
+cases steam, the steam cylinder being placed in line or &ldquo;tandem&rdquo;
+with the air cylinder, so that the steam piston rod is continuous
+with or directly joined to the piston rod of the air cylinder.
+This plan is always adopted where the cylinders are placed
+horizontally, and often in the case of vertical engines. The
+engines are generally built in pairs, with two blowing cylinders
+and one high-pressure and one low-pressure steam cylinder, the
+piston rods terminating in connecting rods which are attached
+to the pins of the two cranks on the shaft. In the centre of this
+shaft, midway between the two engines, there is usually placed
+a heavy flywheel which helps to maintain a uniform speed of
+turning. Some of the largest blowing engines built in Great
+Britain are arranged as beam engines; that is to say, there is
+a heavy rocking beam of cast iron which in its middle position
+is horizontal. One end of this beam is linked by a short connecting
+rod to the end of the piston rod of the blowing cylinder,
+while the other end is similarly linked to the top of the steam
+piston rod, so that as the steam piston comes up the air piston
+goes down and <i>vice versa</i>. At the steam end of the beam a third
+connecting rod works the crank of a flywheel shaft.</p>
+
+<p>About the end of the 19th century an important development
+took place which consisted in using the waste gas from blast
+furnaces to form with air an explosive mixture, and employing
+this mixture to drive the piston of the actuating cylinder in
+precisely the same manner as the explosive mixture of coal gas
+and air is used in a gas engine. Since the majority of blowing
+engines are used for providing the air required in iron blast
+furnaces, considerable saving should be effected in this way,
+because the gas which escapes from the top of the furnace is
+a waste product and costs nothing to produce.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:425px" src="images/img706b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Section of Cylinder of Early Blowing Engine (1851).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The general action of a blowing engine may be illustrated
+by the sectional view shown on fig. 3, which represents the
+internal view of one of the blowing cylinders of the engines
+erected at the Dowlais Ironworks as far back as 1851. Many of
+the details are now obsolete, but the general scheme is the same
+as in all blowing engines. Here A is the air cylinder; in this is a
+piston whose rod is marked R; this piston is usually made
+air-tight by some form of packing fitted into the groove which
+runs round its edge. In this particular case the cylinder is placed
+vertically and its piston rod is actuated from the end of a rocking
+beam. The top and bottom ends are closed by covers and in these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span>
+are a number of openings controlled by valves opening inwards
+so that air can flow freely in but cannot return. The piston is
+shown moving downwards. Air is now being drawn into the
+space above the piston through the valves v at the top, and the
+air in the space A below the piston, drawn in during the previous
+up-stroke, is being expelled through the valve v&prime; into the discharge
+chamber B, thence passing to the outlet pipe O. The action
+is reversed on the up-stroke. Thus it will be seen that air is being
+delivered both during the up-stroke and the down-stroke, and
+therefore flows almost continuously to the furnaces. There must,
+however, be momentary pauses at the ends of the strokes when
+the direction of movement is changed, and as the piston, though
+worked from an evenly rotating crank shaft, moves more quickly
+at the middle and slows down to no speed at the ends of its
+travel, there must be a considerable variation in the speed of
+delivery of the air. The air is therefore led from O into a large
+storage chamber or reservoir, whence it is again taken to the
+furnace; if this reservoir is made sufficiently large the elasticity
+of the air in it will serve to compensate for the irregularities, and
+a nearly uniform stream of air will flow from it. The valves
+used in this case and in most of the older blowing engines consist
+of rectangular metal plates hinged at one of the longer edges;
+these plates are faced with leather or india rubber so as to allow
+them to come to rest quietly and without clatter and at the same
+time to make them air-tight. It will be seen that some of these
+valves hang vertically and others lie flat on the bottom of the
+cover. The Dowlais cylinder is very large, having a diameter
+of 12 ft. and a piston stroke of 12 ft., giving a discharge of 44,000
+cub. ft. of air per minute, at a pressure of 4¼ &#8468; to the square inch.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:482px; height:753px" src="images/img707a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Vertical Section of Lackenby Blowing Engines (1871).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A later design of blowing engine, built in 1871 for the Lackenby
+iron-works, Middlesbrough, is shown in section in fig. 4, and
+is of a type which is still the most common, especially in the
+north of England. Here A, the high-pressure steam cylinder,
+and C, the low-pressure one, are placed in tandem with the air
+cylinders B, B, whose pistons they actuate. In these blowing
+cylinders the inlet valves in the bottom are circular disk valves
+of leather, eighteen in number; the inlet valves T on the top of
+the cylinder are arranged in ten rectangular boxes, having
+openings in their vertical sides, inside which are hung leather
+flap valves. The outlet valves O are ten in number at each end
+of the cylinders, and are hung against flat gratings which are
+arranged round the circumference. The blast is delivered into
+a wrought iron casing M which surrounds the cylinder. The
+combined area of the inlet valves is 860 sq. in., or one-sixth the
+area of the piston. The speed is twenty-four revolutions per
+minute and the air delivered at this speed is 15,072 cubic ft. per
+minute, the horse-power in the air cylinders being 258. The
+circulating pump E, air pump F, and feed pumps G, G, are
+worked off the cross-head on the low-pressure side.</p>
+
+<p>A more modern form of blowing engine erected at the Dowlais
+works about the end of the 19th century, may be taken as
+typical of the present design of vertical blowing engine in use
+in Great Britain. The two air cylinders are placed below and in
+tandem with the steam cylinders as in the last case. The piston
+rods also terminate in connecting rods working on to the crank
+shaft. The air cylinders are each 88 in. in diameter, and the
+high and low pressure cylinders of the compound steam engine
+are 30 in. and 64 in. respectively, while the common stroke of all
+four is 60 in. The pressure of the air delivered varies from 4½
+to 10 &#8468; per sq. in. and the quantity per minute is 25,000 cub. ft.
+Each engine develops about 1200 horse-power. It is to be
+noted that flap valves such as those used in the 1851 Dowlais
+engine have in most cases given place to a larger number of
+circular steel disk valves, held to their seats by springs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 335px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:283px; height:309px" src="images/img707b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Richardsons, Westgarth &amp; Co.&rsquo;s Blowing Engine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In a large blowing engine built in 1905 by Messrs Davy Bros.
+of Sheffield for the North-Eastern Steel Company at Middlesbrough
+(see <i>Engineering</i>, January 6, 1905) the same arrangement
+was adopted as in that just described. The two air cylinders are
+each 90 in. diameter and have a stroke of 72 in. The capacity of
+this engine is 52,000 cub. ft. of air per minute, delivered at a
+pressure of from 12½ to 15 &#8468; per sq. in. when running at a speed
+of thirty-three revolutions per minute. The air valves consist
+of a large number of steel disks resting on circular seatings and
+held down by springs, which for the delivery valves are so
+adjusted in strength that they lift and release the air when the
+desired working pressure has been reached. It is worthy of note
+that in this engine no attempt is made to make the air pistons
+air-tight in the usual way by having packing rings set in grooves
+round the edge, but the piston is made deeper than usual and
+turned so as to be a very good
+fit in the cylinder and one or
+two small grooves are cut
+round the edge to hold the
+lubricant.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate a blowing
+engine driven by a gas engine
+supplied with blast furnace
+gas, fig. 5 gives a diagrammatic
+view of the blowing
+cylinder of an engine built
+by Messrs Richardsons,
+Westgarth &amp; Co. of
+Middlesbrough about 1905.
+The gas cylinder is not
+shown. It will be seen
+that the air cylinder is
+horizontal, and it is arranged
+to work in tandem with the gas motor cylinder. The chief
+point of interest is to be found in the arrangement of the
+details of the air cylinder. Its diameter is 86½ in. and the
+length of piston stroke 55 in. As to the arrangement of the
+valves, if the piston be moving in the direction shown, on
+the left side of the piston at A air is being discharged, and
+follows the course indicated by the arrows, so as first to pass
+into the annular chamber which forms a continuation of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span>
+space A, and thence, through the spring-controlled steel disk
+valves v&prime;, into the discharge chamber C, which ultimately leads
+to the blast pipe. It will be seen that the valves v on the other
+side of the annular chamber are closed. At the same time a
+partial vacuum is being formed in the space B, to be filled by
+the inflow of air through the valves v which are now open, the
+corresponding discharge valves v&prime; being closed. These valves
+on the inside and outside of the annular spaces referred to are
+arranged so as to form a circle round the ends of the barrel of the
+cylinder. The free air, instead of being drawn into the valves v
+direct from the air of the engine house, is taken from an enclosed
+annular chamber E, which may be in communication with the
+clean, cool air outside. It will be seen that the piston is made
+deep so as to allow for a long bearing surface in the cylinder.
+Two metal packing rings are provided to render the piston
+air-tight. The horse-power of this engine, which is designed
+on the Cockerell system, is 750.</p>
+
+<p>Air valves of other types than those which have been mentioned
+have been tried, such as sliding grid valves, rotatory slide valves
+and piston valves, but it has been found that either flap or disk
+lift valves are more satisfactory for air on account of the grit
+which is liable to get between slide valves and their seatings.
+In some of the blowing engines made by Messrs Fraser &amp;
+Chalmers (see <i>Engineer</i>, June 15, 1906), sheets of flexible bronze
+act as flap valves both for admission and delivery, the part
+which actually closes the opening being thickened for strength.</p>
+
+<p>The pressure of the air supplied by blowing engines depends
+upon the purposes for which it is to be used. In charcoal
+furnaces the pressure is very low, being less than 1 &#8468; per sq. in.;
+for blast furnaces using coal an average value of 4 &#8468; is common;
+for American blast furnaces using coke or anthracite coal the
+pressure is as high as 10 &#8468;; while for the air required in the
+Bessemer process of steel-making pressures up to 25 or 30 &#8468;
+per sq. in. are not uncommon. According to British practice
+one large blowing engine is used to supply several blast furnaces,
+while in America a number of smaller ones is used, one for each
+furnace.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:348px; height:419px" src="images/img708.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;Thwaites&rsquo; Improved Roots&rsquo; Blower.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Rotary blowers</i> occupy a position midway between blowing
+engines and fan blowers, being used for purposes requiring the
+delivery of large volumes of air at pressures lower than those of
+blowing engines, but higher than those of fan blowers. The
+blowing engine draws in, compresses and delivers its air by the
+direct action of air-tight pistons; the same effect is aimed at in a
+rotary blower with
+the difference that
+the piston revolves
+instead of moving up
+and down a cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the best-known
+machines of
+this kind are Roots&rsquo;
+and Baker&rsquo;s, both
+American devices.
+The mode of action
+of Roots&rsquo; blower,
+as made by Messrs
+Thwaites Bros. of
+Bradford, will be
+clear from the section
+shown on fig. 6.
+The moving parts
+work in a closed
+casing B, which consists
+of half-cylindrical
+curved plates
+placed a little more
+than their own radius apart, the ends being enclosed by two
+plates. Within the casing, and barely touching the curved
+part of the casing and each other, revolve two parts C, D,
+called &ldquo;revolvers,&rdquo; the speed of rotation of which is the
+same, but the direction opposite. They are compelled to keep
+their proper relative positions by a pair of equal spur wheels
+fixed on the ends of the shafts on which they run. The free air
+enters the casing through a wire screen at A and passes into the
+space E.</p>
+
+<p>As the space E increases in volume owing to the movement
+of the revolvers, air is drawn in; it is then imprisoned between
+D and the casing, as shown at G, and is carried round until it is
+free to enter F, from which it is in turn expelled by the lessening
+of this space as the lower ends of the revolvers come together.
+In this way a series of volumes of air is drawn in through A, to be
+afterwards expelled from H in an almost perfectly continuous
+stream, this result being brought about by the relative variation
+in volume of the spaces E, F and G. In their most improved
+form the revolvers are made hollow, of cast iron, and accurately
+machined to a form such that they always keep close to one
+another and to the end casing without actually touching, there
+being never more space for the escape of air than <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">32</span>nd of an
+inch. Machines after this design are made from the smallest size,
+delivering 25 cub. ft., to the largest, with a capacity of 25,000
+cub. ft. per minute working up to a pressure of 3 &#8468; per sq. in.
+It is not found economical to attempt to work at higher pressures,
+as the leakage between the revolvers and the casing becomes too
+great; where a higher pressure is desired two or more blowers
+can be worked in series, the air being raised in pressure by steps.
+A blower using 1 H.P. will deliver 350 cub. ft. of air per minute
+and one using 2¾ H.P. will deliver 800 cub. ft., at a pressure
+suitable for smiths&rsquo; fires. At the higher pressure required for
+cupola work&mdash;somewhere about ¾ &#8468; per sq. in.&mdash;6½ H.P. will
+deliver 1300, and 123 H.P. 25,000 cub. ft. per minute. In the
+Baker blower three revolvers are used&mdash;a large one which acts
+as the rotating piston and two smaller ones forming air locks or
+valves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rotary Fans</i>.&mdash;Now that power for driving them is so generally
+available, rotary blowing fans have for many purposes taken
+the place of bellows. They are used for blowing smiths&rsquo; fires, for
+supplying the blast for iron melting cupolas and furnaces and the
+forced draught for boiler fires, and for any other purpose requiring
+a strong blast of air. Their construction will be clear from the
+two views (figs. 7 and 8) of the form made by Messrs Günther of
+Oldham, Lancashire. The fan consists of a circular casing A
+having the general appearance of a snail shell. Within this
+casing revolves a series of vanes B&mdash;in this case five&mdash;curved as
+shown, and attached together so as to form a wheel whose centre
+is a boss or hub. This boss is fixed to a shaft or spindle which
+revolves in bearings supported on brackets outside the casing.
+As the shaft is rotated, the vanes B are compelled to revolve in
+the direction indicated by the arrow on fig. 7, and their rotation
+causes the air within the casing to rotate also. Thus a centrifugal
+action is set up by which there is a diminution of pressure
+at the centre of the fan and an increase against the outer casing.
+In consequence air is sucked in, as shown by the arrows on fig. 8,
+through the openings C, C, at the centre of the casing around the
+spindle. At the same time the air which has been forced towards
+the outside of the casing and given a rotary motion is expelled
+from the opening at D (fig. 8). All blowing fans work on the
+same principle, though differences in detail are adopted by
+different makers to meet the variety of conditions under which
+they are to be used. Where the fan is to be employed for producing
+a delivery or blast of air the opening D is connected to an
+air pipe which serves to transmit the current of air, and C is left
+open to the atmosphere; when, however, the main object is
+suction, as in the case where the fan is used for ventilation, the
+aperture C is connected through a suction pipe with the space to
+be exhausted, D being usually left open. Günther fans range
+in size from those which have a diameter of fan disk of 8 in. and
+make 5500 revolutions per minute, to those which have a diameter
+of 50 in. and run at from 950 to 1200 revolutions per
+minute. For exhausting the fans are run less quickly than for
+blowing, the speed for a fan of 10 in. diameter being 4800
+revolutions for blowing and 3300-4000 for exhausting, while
+the 50-in. fan only runs at 550-700 when exhausting. These two
+exhausting fans remove 400-500 and 12,000-15,000 cub. ft. of
+air per minute respectively.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:425px; height:420px" src="images/img709a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Günther&rsquo;s Blowing Fan.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:327px; height:355px" src="images/img709b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Günther&rsquo;s Blowing Fan.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The useful effect of rotary fans, that is to say the proportion
+of the total power used to drive the fan which is actually utilized
+in producing the current of air, is very low for the smaller sizes,
+but may rise to 30-70% in sizes above 5 ft. in diameter. It has
+its maximum value for any given fan at a certain definite speed.
+Fans are most suitable in cases where it is required to move or
+deliver comparatively large volumes of air at pressures which are
+little above that of the atmosphere. Where the pressure of the
+current produced exceeds a quarter of a pound on the square inch
+the waste of work becomes so great as to preclude their use. The
+fan is not the most economical form of blower, but it is simple
+and inexpensive, both in first cost and in maintenance. The
+largest fans are used for ventilating purposes, chiefly in mines,
+their diameters rising to 40 or even 50 ft. The useful effect of
+some of these larger fans, as obtained from experiments, is as
+high as 75%. In the case of the Capell fan, which differs from
+other forms in that it has two series of blades, inner and outer,
+separated by a curved blank piece between the inner wings,
+dipping into the fan inlet, and the outer wings, very high
+efficiencies have been obtained, being as great as 90% in some cases.
+Capell fans are used for ventilating mines, buildings, and ships,
+and for providing induced currents for use in boiler furnaces.
+In the larger fans the casing, instead of having a curved section,
+is more often built of sheet steel and is given a rectangular
+section at right angles to the periphery. The Sirocco blowing
+fan, of Messrs Davidson of Belfast, has a larger number of blades,
+which are relatively narrow as measured radially, but wide
+axially. It can be made much smaller in diameter than fans of
+the older designs for the same output of air&mdash;a great advantage
+for use in ships or in buildings where space is limited&mdash;and its
+useful effect is also said to be superior. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hydraulics</a></span>,
+§ 213.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Helical or screw blowers</i>, often called &ldquo;air propellers,&rdquo; are used
+where relatively large volumes of air have to be moved against
+hardly any perceptible difference in pressure, chiefly for purposes
+of ventilation and drying. Most often the propeller is used to
+move air from one room or chamber to another adjoining, and
+is placed in a light circular iron frame which is fixed in a hole in
+the wall through which the air is to be passed. The propeller
+itself consists of a series of vanes or wings arranged helically on a
+revolving shaft which is fixed in the centre of the opening. The
+centre line of the shaft is perpendicular to the plane of the opening
+so that when the vanes revolve the air is drawn towards and
+through the opening and is propelled away from it as it passes
+through. The action is similar to that of a steamship screw
+propeller, air taking the place of water. Such blowers are often
+driven by small electric motors working directly on the end of
+the shaft. For moving large volumes of air against little pressure
+and suction they are very suitable, being simpler than fans,
+cheaper both in first cost and maintenance for the same volume
+of air delivered, and less likely to fail or get out of order. To
+obtain the best effect for the power used a certain maximum
+speed of rotation must not be exceeded; at higher speeds a great
+deal of the power is wasted. For example, a propeller with a
+vane diameter of 2½ ft. was found to deliver a volume of air
+approximately proportional to the speed up to about 700 revolutions
+per minute, when 8000 cub. ft. per minute were passed
+through the machine; but doubling this speed to 1400 revolutions
+per minute only increased delivery by 1000 cub. ft. to 9000.
+At the lower of these speeds the horse-power absorbed was 0.6
+and at the higher one 1.6.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Appliances for producing Currents of Air</i>.&mdash;In its primitive
+form the &ldquo;trompe&rdquo; or water-blowing engine adopted in Savoy,
+Carniola, and some parts of America, consists of a long vertical
+wooden pipe terminating at its lower end in an air chest. Water
+is allowed to enter the top of the pipe through a conical plug and,
+falling down in streamlets, carries with it air which is drawn in
+through sloping holes near the top of the pipe. In this way a
+quantity of air is delivered into the chamber, its pressure depending
+on the height through which the water falls. This simple
+arrangement has been developed for use in compressing large
+volumes of air at high pressures to be used for driving compressed
+air machinery. It is chiefly used in America, and provides a
+simple and cheap means of obtaining compressed air where there is
+an abundant natural supply of water falling through a considerable
+height. The pressure obtained in the air vessel is somewhat
+less than half a pound per square inch for every foot of fall.</p>
+
+<p>Natural sources of water are also used for compressing and
+discharging air by letting the water under its natural pressure
+enter and leave closed vessels, so alternately discharging and
+drawing in new supplies of air. Here the action is the same as in
+a blowing engine, the water taking the place of the piston.
+This method was first thoroughly developed in connexion with
+the Mt. Cenis tunnel works, and its use has since been extended.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:164px" src="images/img709c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Steam-jet Blower.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the <i>jet blower</i> (fig. 9) a jet of steam is used to induce a
+current of air. Into one end of a trumpet-shaped pipe B projects
+a steam pipe A. This steam pipe terminates in a small opening,
+say, one-eighth of an inch, through which the steam is allowed to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span>
+flow freely. The effect is to cause a movement of the air in the
+pipe, with the result that a fresh supply is drawn in through the
+annular opening at C, C, and a continuous stream of air passes
+along the pipe. This is the form of blower made by Messrs
+Meldrum Bros. of Manchester, and is largely used for delivering
+air under the fire bars of boiler and other furnaces. In some
+cases the jets of steam are allowed to enter a boiler furnace above
+the fire, thus inducing a current of air which helps the chimney
+draught and is often used to do away with the production of
+smoke; they are also used for producing currents of air for
+purposes other than those of boiler fires, and are very convenient
+where considerable quantities of air are wanted at very low
+pressures and where the presence of the moisture of the steam
+does not matter.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes jets of high-pressure air flowing at great velocities
+are used to induce more slowly-moving currents of larger volumes
+of air at low pressures.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. C. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Old English word for this appliance was <i>blástbaelig</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
+&ldquo;blow-bag,&rdquo; cf. German <i>Blasebalg</i>. By the 11th century the first
+part of the word apparently dropped out of use, and <i>baelig, bylig</i>, bag,
+is found in early glossaries as the equivalent of the Latin <i>follis.
+Baelig</i> became in Middle English <i>bely</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;belly,&rdquo; a sack or bag,
+and so the general word for the lower part of the trunk in man and
+animals, the stomach, and another form, probably northern in
+origin, <i>belu, belw</i>, became the regular word for the appliance, the
+plural &ldquo;bellies&rdquo; being still used till the 16th century, when &ldquo;bellows&rdquo;
+appears, and the word in the singular ceases to be used. The verb
+&ldquo;to bellow&rdquo; of the roar of a bull, or the low of a cow, is from Old
+English <i>bellan</i>, to bell, roar.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLOY, DORMONT DE,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> the name assumed by <span class="sc">Pierre
+Laurext Buireite</span> (1727-1775), French dramatist, was born
+at Saint-Flour, in Auvergne, on the 17th of November 1727.
+He was educated by his uncle, a distinguished advocate in Paris,
+for the bar. To escape from a profession he disliked he joined a
+troupe of comedians playing in the courts of the northern
+sovereigns. In 1758 the performance of his <i>Titus</i>, which had
+already been produced in St Petersburg, was postponed through
+his uncle&rsquo;s exertions; and when it did appear, a hostile cabal
+procured its failure, and it was not until after his guardian&rsquo;s
+death that de Belloy returned to Paris with <i>Zelmire</i> (1762),
+a fantastic drama which met with great success. This was
+followed in 1765 by the patriotic play, <i>Le Siège de Calais</i>. The
+moment was opportune. The humiliations undergone by France
+in the Seven Years&rsquo; War assured a good reception for a play in
+which the devotion of Frenchmen redeemed disaster. The
+popular enthusiasm was unaffected by the judgment of calmer
+critics such as Diderot and Voltaire, who pointed out that the
+glorification of France was not best effected by a picture of
+defeat. De Belloy was admitted to the Academy in 1772. His
+attempt to introduce national subjects into French drama
+deserves honour, but it must be confessed that his resources
+proved unequal to the task. The <i>Siège de Calais</i> was followed by
+<i>Gaston et Bayard</i> (1771), <i>Pedro le cruel</i> (1772) and <i>Gabrielle de
+Vergy</i> (1777). None of these attained the success of the earlier
+play, and de Belloy&rsquo;s death, which took place on the 5th of March
+1775, is said to have been hastened by disappointment.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELL<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> or <b>INCHCAPE ROCK,</b> a sandstone reef in the North Sea,
+11 m. S.E. of Arbroath, belonging to Forfarshire, Scotland. It
+measures 2000 ft. in length, is under water at high tide, but at
+low tide is exposed for a few feet, the sea for a distance of 100 yds.
+around being then only three fathoms deep. Lying in the fairway
+of vessels making or leaving the Tay and Forth, besides
+ports farther north, it was a constant menace to navigation.
+In the great gale of 1799 seventy sail, including the &ldquo;York,&rdquo;
+74 guns, were wrecked off the reef, and this disaster compelled the
+authorities to take steps to protect shipping. Next year Robert
+Stevenson modelled a tower and reported that its erection was
+feasible, but it was only in 1806 that parliamentary powers were
+obtained, and operations began in August 1807. Though John
+Rennie had meanwhile been associated with Stevenson as
+consulting engineer, the structure in design and details is wholly
+Stevenson&rsquo;s work. The tower is 100 ft. high; its diameter at the
+base is 42 ft., decreasing to 15 ft. at the top. It is solid for 30 ft.
+at which height the doorway is placed. The interior is divided
+into six storeys. After five years the building was finished at a
+cost of £61,300. Since the lighting no wrecks have occurred on
+the reef. A bust of Stevenson by Samuel Joseph (d. 1850) was
+placed in the tower.</p>
+
+<p>According to tradition an abbot of Aberbrothock (Arbroath)
+had ordered a bell&mdash;whence the name of the rock&mdash;to be fastened
+to the reef in such a way that it should respond to the movements
+of the waves, and thus always ring out a warning to mariners.
+This signal was wantonly destroyed by a pirate, whose ship was
+afterwards wrecked at this very spot, the rover and his men
+being drowned. Southey made the incident the subject of his
+ballad of &ldquo;The Inchcape Rock.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELLUNO<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (anc. <i>Bellunum</i>), a city and episcopal see of Venetia,
+Italy, the capital of the province of Belluno, N. of Treviso,
+54 m. by rail and 28 m. direct. Pop. (1901) town, 6898; commune,
+19,050. It is situated in the valley of the Piave, at its
+confluence with the Ardo, 1285 ft. above sea-level, among the
+lower Venetian Alps. It was a Roman <i>municipium</i>. In the
+middle ages it went through various vicissitudes; it fell under
+the dominion of Venice in 1511, and remained Venetian until
+1797. Its buildings present Venetian characteristics; it has
+some good palaces, notably the fine early Lombard Renaissance
+Palazzo dei Rettori, now the seat of the prefecture. The cathedral,
+erected after 1517 by Tullio Lombardo, was much damaged
+by the earthquake of 1873, which destroyed a considerable
+portion of the town, though the campanile, 217 ft. high, erected
+in 1732-1743, stood firm. The façade was never finished.
+Important remains of prehistoric settlements have been found
+in the vicinity; cf. G. Ghirardini in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1883, 27,
+on the necropolis of Caverzano.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELMONT, AUGUST<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1816-1890), American banker and
+financier, was born at Alzei, Rhenish Prussia, on the 8th of
+December 1816. He entered the banking house of the Rothschilds
+at Frankfort at the age of fourteen, acted as their agent
+for a time at Naples, and in 1837 settled in New York as their
+American representative. He became an American citizen,
+and married a daughter of Commodore Matthew C. Perry. He
+was the consul-general of Austria at New York from 1844 to
+1850, when he resigned in protest against Austria&rsquo;s treatment of
+Hungary. In 1853-1855 he was chargé d&rsquo;affaires for the United
+States at the Hague, and from 1855 to 1858 was the American
+minister resident there. In 1860 he was a delegate to the
+Democratic National Convention at Charleston, South Carolina,
+actively supporting Stephen A. Douglas for the presidential
+nomination, and afterwards joining those who withdrew to the
+convention at Baltimore, Maryland, where he was chosen chairman
+of the National Democratic Committee. He energetically
+supported the Union cause during the Civil War, and exerted a
+strong influence in favour of the North upon the merchants and
+financiers of England and France. He remained at the head of
+the Democratic organization until 1872. He died in New York
+on the 24th of November 1890.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Perry Belmont</span> (1851-&emsp;&emsp;), was born in New York
+on the 28th of December 1851, graduated at Harvard in 1872
+and at the Columbia Law School in 1876, and practised law in
+New York for five years. He was a Democratic member of
+Congress from 1881 to 1889, serving in 1885-1887 as chairman
+of the committee on foreign affairs. In 1889 he was United
+States minister to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Another son, <span class="sc">August Belmont</span> (1853-&emsp;&emsp;), was born in
+New York on the 18th of February 1853 and graduated at
+Harvard in 1875. He succeeded his father as head of the banking
+house and was prominent in railway finance, and in financing
+and building the New York subway. In 1904 he was one of the
+principal supporters of Alton B. Parker for the Democratic
+presidential nomination, and served as chairman of the finance
+committee of the Democratic National Committee.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A volume entitled <i>Letters, Speeches and Addresses of August
+Belmont</i> (the elder) was published at New York in 1890.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELOIT,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a city of Rock county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated
+on the S. boundary of the state, on Rock river, about 91 m. N.W.
+of Chicago and about 85 m. S.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)
+6315; (1900) 10,436, of whom 1468 were foreign-born; (1910)
+15,125. It is served by the Chicago &amp; North-Western, and
+the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St Paul railways, and by an
+inter-urban electric railway to Janesville, Wisconsin and Rockford,
+Illinois. Beloit is attractively situated on high bluffs on
+both sides of the river. The city is the seat of Beloit College, a
+co-educational, non-sectarian institution, founded under the
+auspices of the Congregational and Presbyterian churches in
+1847, and having, in 1907-1908, 36 instructors and 430 students.
+It has classical, philosophical (1874) and scientific (1892) courses;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span>
+women were first admitted in 1895. The Greek department of
+the college has supervised since 1895 the public presentation
+nearly every year of an English version of a Greek play. The
+river furnishes good water-power, and among the manufactures
+are wood-working machinery, ploughs, steam pumps, windmills,
+gas engines, paper-mill machinery, cutlery, flour, ladies&rsquo; shoes,
+cyclometers and paper; the total value of the factory product
+in 1905 was $4,485,224, 60.2% more than in 1900. Beloit, founded
+by New Englanders in 1838, was chartered as a city in 1856.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELOMANCY<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (from <span class="grk" title="belos">&#946;&#941;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, a dart, and <span class="grk" title="manteia">&#956;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, prophecy
+or divination), a form of divination (<i>q.v.</i>) by means of arrows,
+practised by the Babylonians, Scythians and other ancient
+peoples. Nebuchadrezzar (Ezek. xxi. 21) resorted to this
+practice &ldquo;when he stood in the parting of the way ... to use
+divination: he made his arrows bright.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELON, PIERRE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1517-1564), French naturalist, was born
+about 1517 near Le Mans (Sarthe). He studied medicine at
+Paris, where he took the degree of doctor, and then became a
+pupil of the botanist Valerius Cordus (1515-1544) at Wittenberg,
+with whom he travelled in Germany. On his return to France
+he was taken under the patronage of Cardinal de Tournon, who
+furnished him with means for undertaking an extensive scientific
+journey. Starting in 1546, he travelled through Greece, Asia
+Minor, Egypt, Arabia and Palestine, and returned in 1549. A
+full account of his travels, with illustrations, was published in
+1553. Belon, who was highly favoured both by Henry II. and
+by Charles IX., was assassinated at Paris one evening in April
+1564, when coming through the Bois de Boulogne. Besides the
+narrative of his travels he wrote several scientific works of
+considerable value, particularly the <i>Histoire naturelle des estranges
+poissons</i> (1551), <i>De aquatilibus</i> (1553), and <i>L&rsquo;Histoire de la nature
+des oyseaux</i> (1555), which entitle him to be regarded as one of
+the first workers in the science of comparative anatomy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELPER,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a market-town in the mid-parliamentary division
+of Derbyshire, England, on the river Derwent, 7 m. N. of Derby
+on the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 10,934.
+The chapel of St John is said to have been founded by Edmund
+Crouchback, second son of Henry III., about the middle of the
+13th century. There is an Anglican convent of the Sisters of
+St Lawrence, with orphanage and school. For a considerable
+period one of the most flourishing towns in the county, Belper
+owed its prosperity to the establishment of cotton works in 1776
+by Messrs Strutt, the title of Baron Belper (cr. 1856), in the
+Strutt family, being taken from the town. Belper also manufactures
+linen, hosiery, silk and earthenware; and after the
+decline of nail-making, once an important industry, engineering
+works and iron foundries were opened. The Derwent provides
+water-power for the cotton-mills. John of Gaunt is said to have
+been a great benefactor to Belper, and the foundations of a
+massive building have been believed to mark the site of his
+residence. A chapel which he founded is incorporated with a
+modern schoolhouse. The scenery in the neighbourhood of
+Belper, especially to the west, is beautiful; but there are
+collieries, lead-mines and quarries in the vicinity of the town.</p>
+
+<p>Belper (Beaurepaire) until 1846 formed part of the parish of
+Duffield, granted by William I. to Henry de Ferrers, earl of
+Derby. There is no distinct mention of Belper till 1296, when
+the manor was held by Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancaster,
+who is said to have enclosed a park and built a hunting seat,
+to which, from its situation, he gave the name Beaurepaire.
+The manor thus became parcel of the duchy of Lancaster and is
+said to have been the residence of John of Gaunt. It afterwards
+passed with Duffield to the Jodrell family. In a great storm in
+1545, 40 houses were destroyed, and the place was scourged by
+the plague in 1609.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Willott, <i>Historical Records of Belper.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELSHAM, THOMAS<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1750-1829), English Unitarian minister,
+was born at Bedford on the 26th of April 1750. He was educated
+at the dissenting academy at Daventry, where for seven years
+he acted as assistant tutor. After three years spent in a charge
+at Worcester, he returned as head of the Daventry academy, a
+post which he continued to hold till 1789, when, having adopted
+Unitarian principles, he resigned. With Joseph Priestly for
+colleague, he superintended during its brief existence a new
+college at Hackney, and was, on Priestly&rsquo;s departure in 1794,
+also called to the charge of the Gravel Pit congregation. In
+1805 he accepted a call to the Essex Street chapel, where in
+gradually failing health he remained till his death in 1829.
+Belsham&rsquo;s first work of importance, <i>Review of Mr Wilberforce&rsquo;s
+Treatise entitled Practical View</i> (1798), was written after his
+conversion to Unitarianism. His most popular work was the
+<i>Evidences of Christianity;</i> the most important was his translation
+and exposition of the Epistles of St Paul (1822). He was
+also the author of a work on philosophy, <i>Elements of the Philosophy
+of the Human Mind</i> (1801), which is entirely based on Hartley&rsquo;s
+psychology. Belsham is one of the most vigorous and able
+writers of his church, and the <i>Quarterly Review</i> and <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s
+Magazine</i> of the early years of the 19th century abound in
+evidences that his abilities were recognized by his opponents.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELSHAZZAR<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Babylonian general. Until
+the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, he was known
+only from the book of Daniel (v. 2, 11, 13, 18) and its reproduction
+in Josephus, where he is represented as the son of Nebuchadrezzar
+and the last king of Babylon. As his name did not appear
+in the list of the successors of Nebuchadrezzar handed down by
+the Greek writers, various suggestions were put forward as to
+his identity. Niebuhr identified him  with Evil-Merodach, Ewald
+with Nabonidos, others again with Neriglissor. The identification
+with Nabonidos, the last Babylonian king according to the
+native historian Berossus, goes back to Josephus. The decipherment
+of the cuneiform texts put an end to all such speculations. In 1854
+Sir H.C. Rawlinson discovered the name of Bel-sarra-uzur&mdash;&ldquo;O Bel,
+defend the king&rdquo;&mdash;in an inscription belonging
+to the first year of Nabonidos which had been discovered in the
+ruins of the temple of the Moon-god at Muqayyar or Ur. Here
+Nabonidos calls him his &ldquo;first-born son,&rdquo; and prays that &ldquo;he
+may not give way to sin,&rdquo; but that &ldquo;the fear of the great
+divinity&rdquo; of the Moon-god may &ldquo;dwell in his heart.&rdquo; In the
+contracts and similar documents there are frequent references
+to Belshazzar, who is sometimes entitled simply &ldquo;the son of the
+king.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>He was never king himself, nor was he son of Nebuchadrezzar.
+Indeed his father Nabonidos (Nabunaid), the son of Nabu-baladsu-iqbi,
+was not related to the family of Nebuchadrezzar
+and owed his accession to the throne to a palace revolution.
+Belshazzar, however, seems to have had more political and
+military energy than his father, whose tastes were antiquarian
+and religious; he took command of the army, living with it in the
+camp near Sippara, and whatever measures of defence were
+organized against the invasion of Cyrus appear to have been
+due to him. Hence Jewish tradition substituted him for his
+less-known father, and rightly concluded that his death marked
+the fall of the Babylonian monarchy. We learn from the
+Babylonian Chronicle that from the 7th year of Nabonidos
+(548 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) onwards &ldquo;the son of the king&rdquo; was with the army in
+Akkad, that is in the close neighbourhood of Sippara. This,
+as Dr Th. G. Pinches has pointed out, doubtless accounts for the
+numerous gifts bestowed by him on the temple of the Sun-god
+at Sippara. So late as the 5th of Ab in the 17th year of
+Nabonidos&mdash;that is to say, about three weeks after the forces of Cyrus
+had entered Babylonia and only three months before his death&mdash;we
+find him paying 47 shekels of silver to the temple on behalf
+of his sister, this being the amount of &ldquo;tithe&rdquo; due from her at
+the time. At an earlier period there is frequent mention of his
+trading transactions which were carried out through his house-steward
+or agent. Thus in 545 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he lent 20 manehs of silver
+to a private individual, a Persian by race, on the security of
+the property of the latter, and a year later his house-steward
+negotiated a loan of 16 shekels, taking as security the produce
+of a field of corn.</p>
+
+<p>The legends of Belshazzar&rsquo;s feast and of the siege and capture
+of Babylon by Cyrus which have come down to us from the book
+of Daniel and the <i>Cyropaedia</i> of Xenophon have been shown by
+the contemporaneous inscriptions to have been a projection
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span>
+backwards of the re-conquest of the city by Darius Hystaspis.
+The actual facts were very different. Cyrus had invaded
+Babylonia from two directions, he himself marching towards the
+confluence of the Tigris and Diyaleh, while Gobryas, the satrap
+of Kurdistan, led another body of troops along the course of the
+Adhem. The portion of the Babylonian army to which the
+protection of the eastern frontier had been entrusted was defeated
+at Opis on the banks of the Nizallat, and the invaders
+poured across the Tigris into Babylonia. On the 14th of Tammuz
+(June), 538 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Nabonidos fled from Sippara, where he had
+taken his son&rsquo;s place in the camp, and the city surrendered at
+once to the enemy. Meanwhile Gobryas had been despatched
+to Babylon, which opened its gates to the invader on the 16th
+of the month &ldquo;without combat or battle,&rdquo; and a few days later
+Nabonidos was dragged from his hiding-place and made a prisoner.
+According to Berossus he was subsequently appointed governor
+of Karmania by his conqueror. Belshazzar, however, still held
+out, and it was probably on this account that Cyrus himself did
+not arrive at Babylon until nearly four months later, on the
+3rd of Marchesvan. On the 11th of that month Gobryas was
+despatched to put an end to the last semblance of resistance in
+the country &ldquo;and the son (?) of the king died.&rdquo; In accordance
+with the conciliatory policy of Cyrus, a general mourning was
+proclaimed on account of his death, and this lasted for six days,
+from the 27th of Adar to the 3rd of Nisan. Unfortunately the
+character representing the word &ldquo;son&rdquo; is indistinct on the tablet
+which contains the annals of Nabonidos, so that the reading is
+not absolutely certain. The only other reading possible, however,
+is &ldquo;and the king died,&rdquo; and this reading is excluded partly by
+the fact that Nabonidos afterwards became a Persian satrap,
+partly by the silence which would otherwise be maintained by
+the &ldquo;Annals&rdquo; in regard to the fate of Belshazzar. Considering
+how important Belshazzar was politically, and what a prominent
+place he occupied in the history of the period, such a silence
+would be hard to explain. His death subsequently to the
+surrender of Babylon and the capture of Nabonidos, and with it
+the last native effort to resist the invader, would account for the
+position he assumed in later tradition and the substitution of his
+name for that of the actual king.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Th. G. Pinches, <i>P.S.B.A.</i>, May 1884; H. Winckler, <i>Zetischrift
+für Assyriologie</i>, ii. 2, 3 (1887); <i>Records of the Past</i>, new series,
+i. pp. 22-31 (1888); A.H. Sayce, <i>The Higher Criticism</i>, pp. 497-537
+(1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELT, THOMAS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1832-1878), English geologist and naturalist,
+was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1832, and educated in that
+city. As a youth he became actively interested in natural
+history through the Tyneside Naturalists&rsquo; Field Club. In 1852
+he went to Australia and for about eight years worked at the
+gold-diggings, where he acquired a practical knowledge of ore-deposits.
+In 1860 he proceeded to Nova Scotia to take charge
+of some gold-mines, and there met with a serious injury, which
+led to his return to England. In 1861 he issued a separate work
+entitled <i>Mineral Veins: an Enquiry into their Origin, founded on
+a Study of the Auriferous Quartz Veins of Australia</i>. Later on he was
+engaged for about three years at Dolgelly, another though small
+gold-mining region, and here he carefully investigated the rocks
+and fossils of the Lingula Flags, his observations being published
+in an important and now classic memoir in the <i>Geological Magazine</i>
+for 1867. In the following year he was appointed to take
+charge of some mines in Nicaragua, where he passed four active
+and adventurous years&mdash;the results being given in his <i>Naturalist
+in Nicaragua</i> (1874), a work of high merit. In this volume the
+author expressed his views on the former presence of glaciers in
+that country. In subsequent papers he dealt boldly and suggestively
+with the phenomena of the Glacial period in Britain
+and in various parts of the world. After many further expeditions
+to Russia, Siberia and Colorado, he died at Denver on the
+21st of September 1878.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELT<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger.
+form being <i>balz</i>, from which the Lat. <i>balteus</i> probably derived),
+a flat strap of leather or other material used as a girdle (<i>q.v.</i>),
+especially the <i>cinctura gladii</i> or sword-belt, the chief &ldquo;ornament
+of investiture&rdquo; of an earl or knight; in machinery, a flexible
+strap passing round from one drum, pulley or wheel to another,
+for the purpose of power-transmission (<i>q.v.</i>). The word is applied
+to any broad stripe, to the belts of the planet Jupiter, to the
+armour-belt at the water-line of a warship, or to a tract of
+country, narrow in proportion to its length, with special distinguishing
+characteristics, such as the earthquake-belt across
+a continent.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELTANE,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> <span class="sc">Beltene, Beltine</span>, or <span class="sc">Beal-Tene</span> (Scottish
+Gaelic, <i>bealltain</i>), the Celtic name for May-day, on which also was
+held a festival called by the same name, originally common to
+all the Celtic peoples, of which traces still linger in Ireland, the
+Highlands of Scotland and Brittany. This festival, the most
+important ceremony of which in later centuries was the lighting
+of the bonfires known as &ldquo;beltane fires,&rdquo; is believed to represent
+the Druidical worship of the sun-god. The fuel was piled on a
+hill-top, and at the fire the beltane cake was cooked. This was
+divided into pieces corresponding to the number of those present,
+and one piece was blackened with charcoal. For these pieces
+lots were drawn, and he who had the misfortune to get the black
+bit became <i>cailleach bealtine</i> (the beltane carline)&mdash;a term of
+great reproach. He was pelted with egg-shells, and afterwards
+for some weeks was spoken of as dead. In the north-east of
+Scotland beltane fires were still kindled in the latter half of the
+18th century. There were many superstitions connecting them
+with the belief in witchcraft. According to Cormac, archbishop
+of Cashel about the year 908, who furnishes in his glossary the
+earliest notice of beltane, it was customary to light two fires
+close together, and between these both men and cattle were
+driven, under the belief that health was thereby promoted and
+disease warded off. (See <i>Transactions of the Irish Academy</i>,
+xiv. pp. 100, 122, 123.) The Highlanders have a proverb, &ldquo;he is
+between two beltane fires.&rdquo; The Strathspey Highlanders used
+to make a hoop of rowan wood through which on beltane day
+they drove the sheep and lambs both at dawn and sunset.</p>
+
+<p>As to the derivation of the word beltane there is considerable
+obscurity. Following Cormac, it has been usual to regard it as
+representing a combination of the name of the god Bel or Baal
+or Bil with the Celtic <i>teine</i>, fire. And on this etymology theories
+have been erected of the connexion of the Semitic Baal with
+Celtic mythology, and the identification of the beltane fires with
+the worship of this deity. This etymology is now repudiated
+by scientific philologists, and the <i>New English Dictionary</i> accepts
+Dr Whitley Stokes&rsquo;s view that beltane in its Gaelic form can have
+no connexion with <i>teine</i>, fire. Beltane, as the 1st of May, was
+in ancient Scotland one of the four quarter days, the others being
+Hallowmas, Candlemas, and Lammas.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full description of the beltane celebration in the Highlands
+of Scotland during the 18th century, see John Ramsay, <i>Scotland
+and Scotsmen in the 18th Century</i>, from MSS. edited by A. Allardyce
+(1888); and see further J. Robertson in Sinclair&rsquo;s <i>Statistical Account
+of Scotland</i>, xi. 620; Thomas Pennant, <i>Tour in Scotland</i> (1769-1770);
+W. Gregor, &ldquo;Notes on Beltane Cakes,&rdquo; <i>Folklore</i>, vi. (1895), p. 2;
+and &ldquo;Notes on the Folklore of the North-East of Scotland,&rdquo; p. 167
+(<i>Folklore Soc</i>. vii. 1881); A. Bertrand, <i>La Religion des Gaulois</i> (1897);
+Jamieson, <i>Scottish Dictionary</i> (1808). Cormac&rsquo;s <i>Glossary</i> has been
+edited by O&rsquo;Donovan and Stokes (1862).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELUGA<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>), also called the &ldquo;white
+whale,&rdquo; a cetacean of the family <i>Delphinidae</i>, characterized by
+its rounded head and uniformly light colour. A native of the
+Arctic seas, it extends in the western Atlantic as far south as
+the river St Lawrence, which it ascends for a considerable
+distance. In colour it is almost pure white; the maximum
+length is about twelve feet; and the back-fin is replaced by a
+low ridge. Examples have been taken on the British coasts;
+and individuals have been kept for some time in captivity in
+America and in London. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cetacea</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELVEDERE,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Belvidere</span> (Ital. for &ldquo;fair-view&rdquo;), an
+architectural structure built in the upper part of a building or
+in any elevated position so as to command a fine view. The
+belvedere assumes various forms, such as an angle turret, a cupola,
+a loggia or open gallery. The name is also applied to the whole
+building, as the Belvedere gallery in the Vatican at Rome. For
+Apollo Belvidere see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, Plate II. fig. 55.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELVIDERE,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boone county,
+Illinois, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, on the Kishwaukee
+river, about 78 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 3867; (1900)
+6937 (1018 foreign-born); (1910) 7253. It is served by the
+Chicago &amp; North-Western railway, and by an extensive inter-urban
+electric system. Among its manufactures are sewing
+machines, boilers, automobiles, bicycles, roller-skates, pianos,
+gloves and mittens, corsets, flour and dairy products, Borden&rsquo;s
+condensed milk factory being located there. Belvidere was
+settled in 1836, was incorporated in 1852 and was re-incorporated
+in 1881.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1778-1823), Italian
+explorer of Egyptian antiquities, was born at Padua in 1778.
+His family was from Rome, and in that city he spent his youth.
+He intended taking monastic orders, but in 1798 the occupation
+of the city by the French troops drove him from Rome and
+changed his proposed career. He went back to Padua, where
+he studied hydraulics, removed in 1800 to Holland, and in 1803
+went to England, where he married an Englishwoman. He was
+6 ft. 7 in. in height, broad in proportion, and his wife was of
+equally generous build. They were for some time compelled
+to find subsistence by exhibitions of feats of strength and agility
+at fairs and on the streets of London. Through the kindness
+of Henry Salt, the traveller and antiquarian, who was ever
+afterwards his patron, he was engaged at Astley&rsquo;s amphitheatre,
+and his circumstances soon began to improve. In 1812 he left
+England, and after travelling in Spain and Portugal reached
+Egypt in 1815, where Salt was then British consul-general.
+Belzoni was desirous of laying before Mehemet Ali a hydraulic
+machine of his own invention for raising the waters of the Nile.
+Though the experiment with this engine was successful, the
+design was abandoned by the pasha, and Belzoni resolved to
+continue his travels. On the recommendation of the orientalist,
+J.L. Burckhardt, he was sent at Salt&rsquo;s charges to Thebes, whence
+he removed with great skill the colossal bust of Rameses II.,
+commonly called Young Memnon, which he shipped for England,
+where it is in the British Museum. He also pushed his investigations
+into the great temple of Edfu, visited Elephantine and
+Philae, cleared the great temple at Abu Simbel of sand (1817),
+made excavations at Karnak, and opened up the sepulchre of
+Seti I. (&ldquo;Belzoni&rsquo;s Tomb&rdquo;). He was the first to penetrate into
+the second pyramid of Giza, and the first European in modern
+times to visit the oasis of Baharia, which he supposed to be that
+of Siwa. He also identified the ruins of Berenice on the Red Sea.
+In 1819 he returned to England, and published in the following
+year an account of his travels and discoveries entitled <i>Narrative
+of the Operations and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids,
+Temples, Tombs and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia, &amp;c.</i> He
+also exhibited during 1820-1821 facsimiles of the tomb of Seti I.
+The exhibition was held at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, London.
+In 1822 Belzoni showed his model in Paris. In 1823 he set out
+for West Africa, intending to penetrate to Timbuktu. Having
+been refused permission to pass through Morocco, he chose the
+Guinea Coast route. He reached Benin, but was seized with
+dysentery at a village called Gwato, and died there on the 3rd
+of December 1823. In 1829 his widow published his drawings
+of the royal tombs at Thebes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEM, JOSEF<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1795-1850), Polish soldier, was born at Tarnow
+in Galicia, and was educated at the military school at Warsaw,
+where he especially distinguished himself in mathematics.
+Joining a Polish artillery regiment in the French service, he took
+part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and subsequently so
+brilliantly distinguished himself in the defence of Danzig
+(January-November 1813) that he won the cross of the Legion
+of Honour. On returning to Poland he was for a time in the
+Russian service, but lost his post, and his liberty as well for some
+time, for his outspokenness. In 1825 he migrated to Lemberg,
+where he taught the physical sciences. He was about to write a
+treatise on the steam-engine, when the Polish War of Independence
+summoned him back to Warsaw in November 1830. It was
+his skill as an artillery officer which won for the Polish general
+Skrynecki the battle of Igany (March 8, 1831), and he distinguished
+himself at the indecisive battle of Ostrolenká (May 26).
+He took part in the desperate defence of Warsaw against Prince
+Paskievich (September 6-7, 1831). Then Bem escaped to Paris,
+where he supported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1833
+he went to Portugal to assist the liberal Dom Pedro against the
+reactionary Dom Miguel, but abandoned the idea when it was
+found that a Polish legion could not be formed. A wider field for
+his activity presented itself in 1848. First he attempted to hold
+Vienna against the imperial troops, and, after the capitulation,
+hastened to Pressburg to offer his services to Kossuth, first
+defending himself, in a long memorial, from the accusations
+of treachery to the Polish cause and of aristocratic tendencies
+which the more fanatical section of the Polish emigrant Radicals
+repeatedly brought against him. He was entrusted with the
+defence of Transylvania at the end of 1848, and in 1849, as the
+general of the Szeklers (<i>q.v.</i>), he performed miracles with his little
+army, notably at the bridge of Piski (February 9), where, after
+fighting all day, he drove back an immense force of pursuers.
+After recovering Transylvania he was sent to drive the Austrian
+general Puchner out of the Banat of Temesvár. Bem defeated
+him at Orsova (May 16), but the Russian invasion recalled him
+to Transylvania. From the 12th to 22nd of July he was fighting
+continually, but finally, on the 31st of July, his army was
+annihilated by overwhelming numbers near Segesvár (Schässburg),
+Bem only escaping by feigning death. Yet he fought a
+fresh action at Gross-Scheueren on the 6th of August, and
+contrived to bring off the fragments of his host to Temesvár, to
+aid the hardly-pressed Dembinski. Bem was in command and
+was seriously wounded in the last pitched battle of the war,
+fought there on the 9th of August. On the collapse of the
+rebellion he fled to Turkey, adopted Mahommedanism, and
+under the name of Murad Pasha served as governor of Aleppo,
+at which place, at the risk of his life, he saved the Christian
+population from being massacred by the Moslems. Here he
+died on the 16th of September 1850. The tiny, withered, sickly
+body of Bem was animated by an heroic temper. Few men have
+been so courageous, and his influence was magnetic. Even the
+rough Szeklers, though they did not understand the language
+of their &ldquo;little father,&rdquo; regarded him with superstitious reverence.
+A statue to his honour has been erected at Maros-Vásárhely,
+but he lives still more enduringly in the immortal verses of the
+patriot poet Sandor Petöfi, who fell in the fatal action of the 31st
+of July at Segesvár. As a soldier Bem was remarkable for his
+excellent handling of artillery and the rapidity of his marches.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Johann Czetz, <i>Memoiren über Bems Feldzug</i> (Hamburg, 1850);
+Kálmán Deresényi, <i>General Bem&rsquo;s Winter Campaign in Transylvania,
+1848-1849</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEMA<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="baema">&#946;&#8134;&#956;&#945;</span>), in ecclesiastical architecture, the semicircular
+recess or exedra, in the basilica, where the judges sat,
+and where in after times the altar was placed. It generally is
+roofed with a half dome. The seats, <span class="grk" title="thronoi">&#952;&#961;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span>, of the priests were
+against the wall, looking into the body of the church, that of the
+bishop being in the centre. The bema is generally ascended by
+steps, and railed off. In Greece the bema was the general name
+of any raised platform. Thus the word was applied to the
+tribunal from which orators addressed assemblies of the citizens
+at Athens. That in the Pnyx, where the Ecclesia often met,
+was a stone platform from 10 to 11 ft. in height. Again in the
+Athenian law court counsel addressed the court from such a
+platform: it is not known whether each had a separate bema
+or whether there was only one to which each counsel (? and the
+witnesses) in turn ascended (cf. W. Wyse in his edition of Isaeus,
+p. 440). Another bema was the platform on which stood the
+urns for the reception of the bronze disks (<span class="grk" title="psiaephoi">&#968;&#8134;&#966;&#959;&#953;</span>) by means of
+which at the end of the 4th century the judges recorded their
+decisions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEMBERG, HERMAN<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1861-&emsp;&emsp;), French musical composer,
+was born of French parents at Buenos Aires, and studied at the
+Paris Conservatoire, under Massenet, whose influence, with that
+of Gounod, is strongly marked in his music. As a composer he is
+known by numerous songs and pieces for the piano, as well as by
+his cantata <i>La Mort de Jeanne d&rsquo;Arc</i> (1886), comic opera <i>Le Baiser de Suzon</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span>
+(1888) and grand opera <i>Elaine</i> (produced at Covent
+Garden in 1892). Among his songs the dramatic recitative
+<i>Ballade du Désespéré</i> is well known.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEMBO, PIETRO<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1470-1547), Italian cardinal and scholar,
+was born at Venice on the 20th of May 1470. While still a boy he
+accompanied his father to Florence, and there acquired a love for
+that Tuscan form of speech which he afterwards cultivated in
+preference to the dialect of his native city. Having completed
+his studies, which included two years&rsquo; devotion to Greek under
+Lascaris at Messina, he chose the ecclesiastical profession. After
+a considerable time spent in various cities and courts of Italy,
+where his learning already made him welcome, he accompanied
+Giulio de&rsquo; Medici to Rome, where he was soon after appointed
+secretary to Leo X. On the pontiff&rsquo;s death he retired, with
+impaired health, to Padua, and there lived for a number of years
+engaged in literary labours and amusements. In 1529 he accepted
+the office of historiographer to his native city, and shortly
+afterwards was appointed librarian of St Mark&rsquo;s. The offer of a
+cardinal&rsquo;s hat by Pope Paul III. took him in 1539 again to Rome,
+where he renounced the study of classical literature and devoted
+himself to theology and classical history, receiving before long
+the reward of his conversion in the shape of the bishoprics of
+Gubbio and Bergamo. He died on the 18th of January 1547.
+Bembo, as a writer, is the <i>beau ideal</i> of a purist. The exact
+imitation of the style of the genuine classics was the highest
+perfection at which he aimed. This at once prevented the graces
+of spontaneity and secured the beauties of artistic elaboration.
+One cannot fail to be struck with the Ciceronian cadence that
+guides the movement even of his Italian writings.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works (collected edition, Venice, 1729) include a <i>History of
+Venice</i> (1551) from 1487 to 1513, dialogues, poems, and what we
+would now call essays. Perhaps the most famous are a little treatise
+on Italian prose, and a dialogue entitled <i>Gli Asolani</i>, in which
+Platonic affection is explained and recommended in a rather long-winded
+fashion, to the amusement of the reader who remembers the
+relations of the beautiful Morosina with the author. The edition of
+Petrarch&rsquo;s <i>Italian Poems</i>, published by Aldus in 1501, and the
+<i>Terzerime</i>, which issued from the same press in 1502, were edited
+by Bembo, who was on intimate terms with the great typographer.
+See <i>Opere de P. Bembo</i> (Venice, 1729); Casa, <i>Vita di Bembo</i>, in
+2nd vol. of his works.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEMBRIDGE BEDS,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> in geology, strata forming part of the
+fluvio-marine series of deposits of Oligocene age, in the Isle of
+Wight and Hampshire, England. They lie between the Hamstead
+beds above and the Osborne beds below. The Bembridge
+marls, freshwater, estuarine and marine clays and marls (70-120
+ft.) rest upon the Bembridge limestone, a freshwater pool deposit
+(15-25 ft.), with large land snails (<i>Amphidromus</i> and <i>Helices</i>),
+freshwater snails (<i>Planorbis, Limnaea</i>), and the fruits of <i>Chara</i>.
+The marls contain, besides the freshwater <i>Limnaea</i> and <i>Unio</i>,
+such forms as <i>Meretrix, Ostrea</i> and <i>Melanopsis</i>. A thin calcareous
+sandy layer in this division has yielded the remains of many
+insects and fossil leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Geology of the Isle of Wight,&rdquo; <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>, 2nd ed.
+1889.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1860-&emsp;&emsp;), American economist,
+was born at Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 7th of
+April 1860. He was educated at Amherst and Johns Hopkins
+University. He held the professorship of history and political
+economy in Vanderbilt University from 1887 to 1892, was
+associate professor of political economy in the university of
+Chicago from 1892 to 1895, and assistant statistician to the
+Illinois bureau of labour statistics, 1896. In 1901 he became
+superintendent of the Cleveland water works. He wrote
+much on municipal government, his more important works
+being some chapters in <i>History of Co-operation in the United
+States</i> (1888); <i>Municipal Ownership of Gas in the U.S.</i> (1891);
+<i>Municipal Monopolies</i> (1899).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÉMONT, CHARLES<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), French scholar, was born
+at Paris on the 16th of November 1848. In 1884 he graduated
+with two theses, <i>Simon de Montfort</i> and <i>La Condamnation de
+Jean Sansterre</i> (<i>Revue historique</i>, 1886). His <i>Les Chartes des
+libertés anglaises</i> (1892) has an introduction upon the history of
+Magna Carta, &amp;c., and his <i>History of Europe from 395 to 1270</i>, in
+collaboration with G. Monod, was translated into English. He
+was also responsible for the continuation of the <i>Gascon Rolls</i>,
+the publication of which had been begun by Francisque Michel
+in 1885 (supplement to vol. i., 1896; vol. ii., for the years
+1273-1290, 1900; vol. iii., for the years 1290-1307, 1906). He
+received the honorary degree of Litt. Doc. at Oxford in 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEN<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (from Old Eng. <i>bennan</i>, within), in the Scottish phrase &ldquo;a
+but and a ben,&rdquo; the inner room of a house in which there is only
+one outer door, so that the entrance to the inner room is through
+the outer, the but (Old Eng. <i>butan</i>, without). Hence &ldquo;a but and
+a ben&rdquo; meant originally a living room and sleeping room, and so
+a dwelling or a cottage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENARES,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> the Holy City of the Hindus, which gives its name
+to a district and division in the United Provinces of India. It
+is one of the most ancient cities in the world. The derivation of
+its ancient name <i>Varanasi</i> is not known, nor is that of its alternative
+name <i>Kasi</i>, which is still in common use among Hindus,
+and is popularly explained to mean &ldquo;bright.&rdquo; The original site
+of the city is supposed to have been at Sarnath, 3½ m. north of
+the present city, where ruins of brick and stone buildings, with
+three lofty <i>stupas</i> still standing, cover an area about half a mile
+long by a quarter broad. Sakya Muni, the Buddha, came here
+from Gaya in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (from which time some of the
+remains may date), in order to establish his religion, which shows
+that the place was even then a great centre. Hsüan Tsang, the
+celebrated Chinese pilgrim, visited Benares in the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+and described it as containing 30 Buddhist monasteries, with
+about 3000 monks, and about 100 temples of Hindu gods.
+Hinduism has now supplanted Buddhism, and the Brahman fills
+the place of the monk. The modern temples number upwards
+of 1500. Even after the lapse of so great a time the city is still
+in its glory, and as seen from the river it presents a scene of great
+picturesqueness and grandeur. The Ganges here forms a fine
+sweep of about 4 m. in length, the city being situated on the
+outside of the curve, on the northern bank of the river, which is
+higher than the other. Being thus elevated, and extending
+along the river for some 4 m., the city forms a magnificent
+panorama of buildings in many varieties of oriental architecture.
+The minarets of the mosque of Aurangzeb rise above all. The
+bank of the river is entirely lined with stone, and there are many
+very fine ghats or landing-places built by pious devotees, and
+highly ornamented. These are generally crowded with bathers
+and worshippers, who come to wash away their sins in the sacred
+river Ganges. Near the Manikarnika ghat is the well held to
+have been dug by Vishnu and filled with his sweat; great
+numbers of pilgrims bathe in its venerated water. Shrines and
+temples line the bank of the river. But in spite of its fine
+appearance from the river, the architecture of Benares is not
+distinguished, nor are its buildings of high antiquity. Among
+the most conspicuous of these are the mosque of Aurangzeb,
+built as an intentional insult in the middle of the Hindu quarter;
+the Bisheshwar or Golden Temple, important less through
+architectural beauty than through its rank as the holiest spot
+in the holy city; and the Durga temple, which, like most of the
+other principal temples, is a Mahratta building of the 17th
+century. The temples are mostly small and are placed in the
+angles of the streets, under the shadow of the lofty houses.
+Their forms are not ungraceful, and many of them are covered
+over with beautiful and elaborate carvings of flowers, animals
+and palm branches. The observatory of Raja Jai Singh is a
+notable building of the year 1693. The internal streets of the
+town are so winding and narrow that there is not room for a
+carriage to pass, and it is difficult to penetrate them even on
+horseback. The level of the roadway is considerably lower than
+the ground-floors of the houses, which have generally arched
+rooms in front, with little shops behind them; and above these
+they are richly embellished with verandahs, galleries, projecting
+oriel windows, and very broad overhanging eaves supported by
+carved brackets. The houses are built of <i>chanar</i> stone, and are
+lofty, none being less than two storeys high, most of them three,
+and several of five or six storeys. The Hindus are fond of painting
+the outside of their houses a deep red colour, and of covering
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span>
+the most conspicuous parts with pictures of flowers, men, women,
+bulls, elephants and gods and goddesses in all the many forms
+known in Hindu mythology.</p>
+
+<p>Benares is bounded by a road which, though 50 m. in circuit,
+is never distant from the city more than five kos (7½ m.); hence
+its name, Panch-kos road. All who die within this boundary,
+be they Brahman or low caste, Moslem or Christian, are sure of
+admittance into Siva&rsquo;s heaven. To tread the Panch-kos road is
+one of the great ambitions of a Hindu&rsquo;s life. Even if he be an
+inhabitant of the sacred city he must traverse it once in the
+year to free himself from the impurities and sins contracted
+within the holy precincts. Thousands from all parts of India
+make the pilgrimage every year. Benares, having from time
+immemorial been a holy city, contains a vast number of Brahmans,
+who either subsist by charitable contributions, or are
+supported by endowments in the numerous religious institutions
+of the city. Hindu religious mendicants, with every conceivable
+bodily deformity, line the principal streets on both sides. Some
+have their legs or arms distorted by long continuance in one
+position; others have kept their hands clenched until the finger
+nails have pierced entirely through their hands. But besides an
+immense resort to Benares of poor pilgrims from every part of
+India, as well as from Tibet and Burma, numbers of rich Hindus
+in the decline of life go there for religious salvation. These
+devotees lavish large sums in indiscriminate charity, and it is
+the hope of sharing in such pious distributions that brings
+together the concourse of religious mendicants from all quarters
+of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Benares had a population in 1901 of 209,331.
+The European quarter lies to the west of the native town, on both
+sides of the river Barna. Here is the cantonment of Sikraul, no
+longer of much military importance, and the suburb of Sigra,
+the seat of the chief missionary institutions. The principal
+modern buildings are the Mint, the Prince of Wales&rsquo; hospital
+(commemorating the visit of King Edward VII. to the city in
+1876) and the town hall. The Benares college, including a first-grade
+and a Sanskrit college, was opened in 1791, but its fine
+buildings date from 1852. The Central Hindu College was opened
+in 1898. Benares conducts a flourishing trade by rail and river
+with the surrounding country. It is the junction between the
+Oudh &amp; Rohilkhand and East Indian railways, the Ganges being
+crossed by a steel girder bridge of seven spans, each 350 ft. long.
+The chief manufactures are silk brocades, gold and silver thread,
+gold filigree work, German-silver work, embossed brass vessels
+and lacquered toys; but the brasswork for which Benares used
+to be famous has greatly degenerated.</p>
+
+<p>The Hindu kingdom of Benares is said to have been founded
+by one Kas Raja about 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Subsequently it became part
+of the kingdom of Kanauj, which in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1193 was conquered by
+Mahommed of Ghor. On the downfall of the Pathan dynasty
+of Delhi, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1599, it was incorporated with the Mogul
+empire. On the dismemberment of the Delhi empire, it was
+seized by Safdar Jang, the nawab wazir of Oudh, by whose
+grandson it was ceded to the East India Company by the treaty
+of 1775. The subsequent history of Benares contains two
+important events, the rebellion of Chait Singh in 1781, occasioned
+by the demands of Warren Hastings for money and troops
+to carry on the Mahratta War, and the Mutiny of 1857, when the
+energy and coolness of the European officials, chiefly of General
+Neill, carried the district successfully through the storm.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Benares</span> extends over both sides of the
+Ganges and has an area of 1008 sq. m. The surface of the
+country is remarkably level, with numerous deep ravines in the
+calcareous conglomerate. The soil is a clayey or a sandy loam,
+and very fertile except in the Usar tracts, where there is a saline
+efflorescence. The principal rivers are the Ganges, Karamnasa,
+Gumti and Barna. The principal crops are barley, rice, wheat,
+other food-grains, pulse, sugar-cane and opium. The main line
+of the East Indian railway runs through the southern portion of
+the district, with a branch to Benares city; the Oudh &amp;
+Rohilkhand railway through the northern portion, starting from
+the city; and a branch of the Bengal &amp; North-Western railway
+also terminates at Benares. The climate of Benares is cool in
+winter but very warm in the hot season. The population in
+1901 was 882,084, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade due
+to the effects of famine.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Division of Benares</span> has an area of 10,431 sq. m., and
+comprises the districts of Benares, Mirzapur, Jaunpur, Ghazipur
+and Ballia. In 1901 the population was 5,069,020, showing a
+decrease of 6% in the decade.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E.B. Havell, <i>Benares</i> (1906); M.A. Sherring, <i>The Sacred
+City of the Hindus</i> (1868).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENBOW, JOHN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1653-1702), English admiral, the son of a
+tanner in Shrewsbury, was born in 1653. He went to sea when
+very young, and served in the navy as master&rsquo;s mate and master,
+from 1678 to 1681. When trading to the Mediterranean in 1686 in
+a ship of his own he beat off a Salli pirate. On the accession of
+William III. he re-entered the navy as a lieutenant and was
+rapidly promoted. It is probable that he enjoyed the protection
+of Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, under whom he had
+already served in the Mediterranean. After taking part in the
+bombardment of St Malo (1693), and superintending the blockade
+of Dunkirk (1696), he sailed in 1698 for the West Indies, where he
+compelled the Spaniards to restore two vessels belonging to the
+Scottish colonists at Darien (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paterson, William</a></span>) which they
+had seized. On his return he was appointed vice-admiral, and
+was frequently consulted by the king. In 1701 he was sent again
+to the West Indies as commander-in-chief. On the 19th of
+August 1702, when cruising with a squadron of seven ships, he
+sighted, and chased, four French vessels commanded by M. du
+Casse near Santa Marta. The engagement is the most disgraceful
+episode in English naval history. Benbow&rsquo;s captains were
+mutinous, and he was left unsupported in his flagship the
+&ldquo;Breda.&rdquo; His right leg was shattered by a chain-shot, despite
+which he remained on the quarter-deck till morning, when the
+flagrant disobedience of the captains under him, and the disabled
+condition of his ship, forced him reluctantly to abandon the chase.
+After his return to Jamaica, where his subordinates were tried by
+court-martial, he died of his wounds on the 4th of November
+1702. A great deal of legendary matter has collected round his
+name, and his life is really obscure.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Yonge&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the British Navy</i>, vol. i.; Campbell&rsquo;s <i>British
+Admirals</i>, vol. iii.; also Owen and Blakeway&rsquo;s <i>History of Shrewsbury.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENCE-JONES, HENRY<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1814-1873), English physician and
+chemist, was born at Thorington Hall, Suffolk, in 1814, the
+son of an officer in the dragoon guards. He was educated at
+Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. Subsequently he studied
+medicine at St George&rsquo;s hospital, and chemistry at University
+College, London. In 1841 he went to Giessen in Germany to work
+at chemistry with Liebig. Besides becoming a fellow, and afterwards
+senior censor, of the Royal College of Physicians, and a
+fellow of the Royal Society, he held the post of secretary to the
+Royal Institution for many years. In 1846 he was elected
+physician to St George&rsquo;s hospital. He died in London on the
+20th of April 1873. Dr Bence-Jones was a recognized authority
+on diseases of the stomach and kidneys. He wrote, in addition
+to several scientific books and a number of papers in scientific
+periodicals, <i>The Life and Letters of Faraday</i> (1870).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENCH<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (an O. E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic
+languages, cf. Ger. <i>Bank</i>, Dan. <i>baenk</i> and the Eng. doublet
+&ldquo;bank&rdquo;), a long narrow wooden seat for several persons, with or
+without a back. While the chair was yet a seat of state or dignity
+the bench was ordinarily used by the commonalty. It is still
+extensively employed for other than domestic purposes, as in
+schools, churches and places of amusement. Bench or Banc, in
+law, originally was the seat occupied by judges in court; hence
+the term is used of a tribunal of justice itself, as the King&rsquo;s Bench,
+the Common Bench, and is now applied to judges or magistrates
+collectively as the &ldquo;judicial bench,&rdquo; &ldquo;bench of magistrates.&rdquo;
+The word is also applied to any seat where a number of people sit
+in an official capacity, or as equivalent to the dignity itself, as
+&ldquo;the civic bench,&rdquo; the &ldquo;bench of aldermen,&rdquo; the &ldquo;episcopal
+bench,&rdquo; the &ldquo;front bench,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> that reserved for the leaders of
+either party in the British House of Commons. King&rsquo;s Bench
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span>
+(<i>q.v</i>.) was one of the three superior courts of common law at
+Westminster, the others being the common pleas and the exchequer.
+Under the Judicature Act 1873, the court of king&rsquo;s
+bench became the king&rsquo;s bench division of the High Court of
+Justice. The court of common pleas was sometimes called the
+common bench.</p>
+
+<p>Sittings in bane were formerly the sittings of one of the superior
+courts of Westminster for the hearing of motions, special cases,
+&amp;c., as opposed to the <i>nisi prius</i> sittings for trial of facts, where
+usually only a single judge presided. By the Judicature Act
+1873 the business of courts sitting in bane was transferred to
+divisional courts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENCH-MARK,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> a surveyor&rsquo;s mark cut in stone or some durable
+material, to indicate a point in a line of levels for the determination
+of altitudes over a given district. The name is taken from the
+&ldquo;angle-iron&rdquo; which is inserted in the horizontal incision as a
+&ldquo;bench&rdquo; or support for the levelling staff. The mark of the
+&ldquo;broad-arrow&rdquo; is generally incised with the bench-mark so that
+the horizontal bar passes through its apex.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENCH TABLE<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (Fr. <i>banc</i>; Ital. <i>sedile</i>; Ger. <i>Bank</i>), the
+stone seat which runs round the walls of large churches, and
+sometimes round the piers; it very generally is placed in the
+porches.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEND,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1) (From Old Eng. <i>bendan</i>), a bending or curvature,
+as in &ldquo;the bend of a river,&rdquo; or technically the ribs or &ldquo;wales&rdquo;
+of a ship. (2) (From Old Eng. <i>bindan</i>, to bind), a nautical term
+for a knot, the &ldquo;cable bend,&rdquo; the &ldquo;fisherman&rsquo;s bend.&rdquo; (3)
+(From the Old Fr. <i>bende</i>, a ribbon), a term of heraldry, signifying
+a diagonal band or stripe across a shield from the dexter chief
+to the sinister base; also in tanning, the half of a hide from
+which the thinner parts have been trimmed away, &ldquo;bend-leather&rdquo; being the thickest and best sole-leather.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENDA,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> the name of a family of German musicians, of whom
+the most important is Georg (d. 1795), who was a pupil of his
+elder brother Franz (1709-1786), <i>Concertmeister</i> in Berlin.
+Georg Benda was a famous clavier player and oboist, but his
+chief interest for modern musical history lies in his melodramas.
+Being a far more solid musician than Rousseau he earns the
+title of the musical pioneer of that art-form (<i>i.e.</i> the accompaniment
+of spoken words by illustrative music) in a sense which
+cannot be claimed for Rousseau&rsquo;s earlier <i>Pygmalion</i>. Benda&rsquo;s
+first melodrama, <i>Ariadne auf Naxos</i>, was written in 1774 after
+his return from a visit to Italy. He was a voluminous composer,
+whose works (instrumental and dramatic) were enthusiastically
+taken up by the aristocracy in the time of Mozart. Mozart&rsquo;s
+imagination was much fired by Benda&rsquo;s new vehicle for dramatic
+expression, and in 1778 he wrote to his father with the greatest
+enthusiasm about a project for composing a duodrama on the
+model of Benda&rsquo;s <i>Ariadne auf Naxos</i> and <i>Medea</i>, both of which
+he considered excellent and always carried about with him. He
+concluded at the time that that was the way the problems of
+operatic recitative should be solved, or rather shelved, but the
+only specimen he has himself produced is the wonderful melodrama
+in his unfinished operetta, <i>Zaide</i>, written in 1780.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENDER<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Bendery</span>), a town of Russia, in the
+government of Bessarabia, on the right bank of the Dniester,
+37 m. by rail S.E. of Kishinev. It possesses a tobacco factory,
+candle-works and brick-kilns, and is an important river port,
+vessels discharging here their cargoes of corn, wine, wool, cattle,
+flour and tallow, to be conveyed by land to Odessa and to Yassy
+in Rumania. Timber also is floated down the Dniester. The
+citadel was dismantled in 1897. The town had in 1867 a population
+of 24,443, and in 1900 of 33,741, the greater proportion
+being Jews. As early as the 12th century the Genoese had a
+settlement on the site of Bender. In 1709 Charles XII., after
+the defeat of Poltava, collected his forces here in a camp which
+they called New Stockholm, and continued there till 1713.
+Bender was taken by the Russians in 1770, in 1789 and in 1806,
+but it was not held permanently by Russia till 1812.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENDIGO<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Sandhurst</span>), a city of Bendigo county,
+Victoria, Australia, 101 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop.
+(1901) 31,020. It is the centre of a large gold-field consisting
+of quartz ranges, with some alluvial deposits, and many of the
+mines are deep-level workings. The discovery of alluvial gold
+in 1851 brought many immigrants to the district; but the
+opening up of the quartz reefs in 1872 was the principal factor
+in the importance of Bendigo. It became a municipality in
+1855 and a city in 1871. It is the seat of Anglican and Roman
+Catholic bishops. Besides mining, the local industries are the
+manufacture of Epsom pottery, bricks and tiles, iron-founding,
+stone-cutting, brewing, tanning and coach-building. The surrounding
+district produces quantities of wheat and fruits for
+export, and much excellent wine is made.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENDL, KAREL<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Karl</span> (1838-1897), Bohemian composer,
+was born on the 16th of April 1838 at Prague. He studied at
+the organ school, and in 1858 had already composed a number
+of small choral works. In 1861 his <i>Poletuje holubice</i> won a prize and at once became a favourite with the local choral societies.
+In 1864 Bendl went to Brussels, where for a short time he held
+the post of second conductor of the opera. After visiting
+Amsterdam and Paris he returned to Prague. Here in 1865
+he was appointed conductor of the choral society known as
+<i>Hlahoe</i>, and he held the post until 1879, when Baron Dervies
+engaged his services for his private band. Bendl&rsquo;s first opera
+<i>Lejla</i> was successfully produced in 1868. It was followed by
+<i>Bretislav a Jitka</i> (1870), <i>Stary Zenich</i>, a comic opera (1883),
+<i>Karel Skreta</i> (1883), <i>Dite Tabera</i>, a prize opera (1892), and
+<i>Matki Mila</i> (1891). Other operas by Bendl are <i>Indicka princezna,
+Cernohorci</i>, a prize opera, and the two operas <i>Carovny
+Kvet</i> and <i>Gina</i>. His ballad <i>Svanda dudak</i> acquired much
+popularity; he published a mass in D minor for male voices and
+another mass for a mixed choir; two songs to <i>Ave Maria</i>; a
+violin sonata and a string quartet in F; and a quantity of songs
+and choruses, many of which have come to be regarded as
+national possessions of Bohemia. Bendl died on the 20th of
+September 1897 at Prague.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDEK, LUDWIG,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> <span class="sc">Ritter von</span> (1804-1881), Austrian
+general, was born at Ödenburg in Hungary on the 14th of July
+1804, his father being a doctor. He received his commission in
+the Austrian army as ensign in 1822, becoming lieutenant in 1825,
+first lieutenant in 1831 and captain in 1835. He was employed
+for a considerable time in the general staff, and had risen to the
+rank of colonel, when he won his first laurels in the suppression
+of the rising of 1846 in Galicia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In this
+campaign his bold leadership in the field and his capacity for
+organization were so far conspicuous that he was made a <i>Ritter</i>
+(knight) of the Leopold order by his sovereign, and a freeman
+(<i>Ehrenbürger</i>) by the city of Lemberg. In 1847 he commanded
+a regiment in Italy, and on the outbreak of war with Sardinia he
+was placed in command of a mixed brigade, at the head of which
+he displayed against regular troops the same qualities of unhesitating
+bravery and resolution which had given him the
+victory in many actions with the Galician rebels. His conduct at
+Curtatone won for him the commandership of the Leopold order,
+and shortly afterwards the knighthood of the Maria Theresa
+order. At the action of Mortara his tactical skill and bravery
+were again conspicuous, and Radetzky particularly distinguished
+him in despatches. The archduke Albert, with whom he served,
+is said to have given him the sword of his father, the great
+archduke Charles. He was promoted major-general soon afterwards
+over the heads of several colonels senior to him, and was
+sent as a brigade commander to Hungary. Again he was
+distinguished as a fighting general at Raab, Komorn, Szegedin
+and many other actions, and was three times wounded. Benedek
+then received the cross for military merit, and soon afterwards
+was posted to the staff of the army in Italy. In 1852 he was made
+lieutenant field marshal, and in 1857 commander successively of
+the II., the IV. and the VIII. corps, and also a <i>Geheimrath</i>. In the
+political crisis of 1854 he had command of a corps in the army of
+observation under Hess on the Turkish frontier. In the war of
+1859 in Italy, Benedek commanded the VIII. corps, and at the
+battle of Solferino was in command of the right of the Austrian
+position. That portion of the struggle which was fought out
+between Benedek and the Piedmontese army is sometimes called
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span>
+the battle of San Martino. Benedek, with magnificent gallantry,
+held his own all day, and in the end covered the retreat of the rest
+of the Austrian army to the Mincio. His reward was the commandership
+of the order of Maria Theresa, and Vienna and many
+other cities followed the example of Lemberg in 1846. His
+reputation was now at its highest, and his great popularity was
+enhanced, in the prevailing discontent with the reactionary and
+clerical government of previous years, by the fact that he was a
+Protestant and not of noble birth. He was promoted <i>Feldzeugmeister</i>
+and in 1860 appointed quartermaster-general to the army,
+and soon afterwards governor-general and commander-in-chief
+in Hungary, in succession to the archduke Albert. In 1861 he
+was made commander-in-chief in Venetia and the adjoining
+provinces of the empire, and in the following year he received
+the grand cross of the Leopold order. In 1864 he resigned the
+quartermaster-generalship and devoted himself exclusively to
+the command of the army in Italy. In 1861 he had been made a
+life-member of the house of peers. In 1866 war with Prussia and
+with Italy became imminent. Benedek was appointed to command
+the Army of the North against the Prussians, the control
+of affairs in Italy being taken over by the archduke Albert. For
+the story of the campaign of Königgrätz, in which the Austrians
+under Benedek&rsquo;s command were decisively defeated, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven
+Weeks&rsquo; War</a></span>. Benedek took over his new command as a
+stranger to the country and to the troops. Only the personal
+command of the emperor and the requests of the archduke
+Albert prevailed upon him to &ldquo;sacrifice his honour,&rdquo; as he
+himself said, in a task for which he felt himself ill prepared.
+When he took the field his despondency was increased by the
+passive obstruction which he met with amongst his own officers,
+many of whom resented being placed under a man of the middle
+class instead of the archduke Albert, and by the general state of
+unpreparedness which he found existing at the front. Further,
+his own staff was self-willed to the verge of disloyalty, and his
+assistants, Lieutenant Field Marshal von Henikstein, and Major-General
+Krismanic in particular, endeavoured to control Benedek&rsquo;s
+operations in the spirit of the 18th-century strategists. Under
+these circumstances, and against the superior numbers, <i>moral</i>
+and armament of the Prussians, the Austrians were foredoomed
+to defeat. A series of partial actions convinced Benedek that
+success was unattainable, and he telegraphed to the emperor
+advising him to make peace; the emperor refused on the ground
+that no decisive battle had been fought; Benedek, thereupon,
+instead of retreating across the Elbe, determined to bring on a
+decisive engagement, and took up a position with the whole of
+his forces near Königgrätz with the Elbe in his rear. Here he was
+completely defeated by the Prussians on the 3rd of July, but they
+could not prevent him from making good his retreat over the
+river in magnificent order on the evening of the battle. He conducted
+the operations of his army in retreat up to the great
+concentration at Vienna under the archduke Albert, and was
+then suspended from his command and a court-martial ordered;
+the emperor, however, in December determined that the inquiry
+should be stopped. Benedek from this time lived in absolute
+retirement, and having given his word of honour to the archduke
+Albert that he would not attempt to rehabilitate himself before
+the world, he published no defence of his conduct, and even
+destroyed his papers relating to the campaign of 1866. This
+attitude of self-sacrificing loyalty he maintained even when on
+the 8th of November 1866 the official <i>Wiener Zeitung</i> published
+an article in which he was made responsible for all the disasters
+of the war. The history of the campaign from the Austrian point
+of view as at present known leaves much unexplained, and the
+published material is primarily of a controversial character. The
+official <i>Österreichs Kämpfe</i> speaks of the unfortunate general in
+the following terms: &ldquo;A career full of achievements, distinction
+and fame deserved a less tragic close. A dispassionate judgment
+will not forget the ever fortunate and successful deeds which he
+accomplished earlier in the service of the emperor, and will ensure
+for him, in spite of his last heavy misfortune (<i>Last</i>), an honourable
+memory.&rdquo; Praise of his earlier career could not well be denied,
+and the official history is careful not to extend its eulogy to cover
+the events of 1866; the recognition in these words cannot
+therefore be set against the general opinion of subsequent critics
+that Benedek was the victim of political necessities, perhaps of
+court intrigues. For the rest of his life Benedek lived at Graz,
+where he died on the 27th of April 1881.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Friedjung, <i>Benedeks nachgelassene Papiere</i> (Leipzig, 1901,
+3rd and enlarged ed., 1904), and <i>Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft
+in Deutschland 1859-1866</i> (Stuttgart, 1897, 6th ed., 1904); v.
+Schlichtling, <i>Moltke und Benedek</i> (Berlin, 1900), also therewith
+A. Krauss, <i>Moltke, Benedek und Napoleon</i> (Vienna, 1901); and
+a <i>roman à clé</i> by Gräfin Salburg, entitled <i>Königsglaube</i> (Dresden,
+1906). The brief memoir in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> represents
+the court view of Benedek&rsquo;s case.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDETTI, VINCENT,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1817-1900), French diplomatist,
+was born at Bastia, in the island of Corsica, on the 29th
+of April 1817. In the year 1840 he entered the service of the
+French foreign office, and was appointed to a post under the
+marquis de la Valette, who was consul-general at Cairo. He
+spent eight years in Egypt, being appointed consul in 1845; in
+1848 he was made consul at Palermo, and in 1851 he accompanied
+the marquis, who had been appointed ambassador at Constantinople,
+as first secretary. For fifteen months during the progress
+of the Crimean War he acted as chargé d&rsquo;affaires. In the second
+volume of his essays he gives some recollections of his experiences
+in the East, including an account of Mehemet Ali, and a (not very
+friendly) sketch of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. In 1855, after
+refusing the post of minister at Teheran, he was employed in the
+foreign office at Paris, and acted as secretary to the congress at
+Paris (1855-1856). During the next few years he was chiefly
+occupied with Italian affairs, in which he was much interested,
+and Cavour said of him he was an Italian at heart. He was chosen
+in 1861 to be the first envoy of France to the king of Italy, but he
+resigned his post next year on the retirement of E.A. Thouvenel,
+who had been his patron, when the anti-Italian party began to
+gain the ascendancy at Paris. In 1864 he was appointed
+ambassador at the court of Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>Benedetti remained in Berlin till the outbreak of war in 1870,
+and during these years he played an important part in the
+diplomatic history of Europe. His position was a difficult one,
+for Napoleon did not keep him fully informed as to the course of
+French policy. In 1866, during the critical weeks which followed
+the attempt of Napoleon to intervene between Prussia and
+Austria, he accompanied the Prussian headquarters in the advance
+on Vienna, and during a visit to Vienna he helped to arrange the
+preliminaries of the armistice signed at Nikolsburg. It was after
+this that he was instructed to present to Bismarck French
+demands for &ldquo;compensation,&rdquo; and in August, after his return to
+Berlin, as a result of his discussions with Bismarck a draft treaty
+was drawn up, in which Prussia promised France her support in
+the annexation of Belgium. This treaty was never concluded,
+but the draft, which was in Benedetti&rsquo;s handwriting, was kept by
+Bismarck and, in 1870, a few days after the outbreak of the war,
+was published by him in <i>The Times</i>. During 1867 Benedetti was
+much occupied with the affair of Luxemburg. In July 1870,
+when the candidature of the prince of Hohenzollern for the throne
+of Spain became known, Benedetti was instructed by the duc de
+Gramont to present to the king of Prussia, who was then at Ems,
+the French demands, that the king should order the prince
+to withdraw, and afterwards that the king should promise that
+the candidature would never be renewed. This last demand
+Benedetti submitted to the king in an informal meeting on the
+promenade at Ems, and the misleading reports of the conversation
+which were circulated were the immediate cause of the war
+which followed, for the Germans were led to believe that Benedetti
+had insulted the king, and the French that the king had insulted
+the ambassador. Benedetti was severely attacked in his own
+country for his conduct as ambassador, and the duc de Gramont
+attempted to throw upon him the blame for the failures of French
+diplomacy. He answered the charges brought against him in a
+book, <i>Ma Mission en Prusse</i> (Paris, 1871), which still remains
+one of the most valuable authorities for the study of Bismarck&rsquo;s
+diplomacy. In this Benedetti successfully defends himself, and
+shows that he had kept his government well informed; he had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span>
+even warned them a year before as to the proposed Hohenzollern
+candidature. Even if he had been outwitted by Bismarck in the
+matter of the treaty of 1866, the policy of the treaty was not his,
+but was that of E. Drouyn de Lluys. The idea of the annexation
+of part of Belgium to France had been suggested to him first by
+Bismarck; and the use to which Bismarck put the draft was not
+one which he could be expected to anticipate, for he had carried
+on the negotiations in good faith. After the fall of the Empire he
+retired to Corsica. He lived to see his defence confirmed by later
+publications, which threw more light on the secret history of the
+times. He published in 1895 a volume of <i>Essais diplomatiques</i>,
+containing a full account of his mission to Ems, written in 1873;
+and in 1897 a second series dealing with the Eastern question. He
+died on the 28th of March 1900, while on a visit to Paris. He
+received the title of count from Napoleon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Rothan, <i>La Politique Française en 1866</i> (Paris, 1879); and
+<i>L&rsquo;Affaire de Luxemburg</i> (Paris, 1881); Sorel, <i>Histoire diplomatique</i>
+(Paris, 1875); Sybel, Die Begründung des deutschen Reiches (Munich,
+1889), &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Benedictus</span>), the name taken by fourteen of
+the popes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict I.</span> was pope from 573 to 578. He succeeded
+John III., and occupied the papal chair during the incursions of
+the Lombards, and during the series of plagues and famines which
+followed these invasions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict II.</span> was pope from 684 to 685. He succeeded Leo
+II., but although chosen in 683 he was not ordained till 684,
+because the leave of the emperor Constantine was not obtained
+until some months after the election.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict III.</span> was pope from 855 to 858. He was chosen by
+the clergy and people of Rome, but the election was not confirmed
+by the emperor, Louis II., who appointed an anti-pope, Anastasius
+(the librarian). But the candidature of this person, who had
+been deposed from the presbyterate under Leo IV., was indefensible.
+The imperial government at length recognized
+Benedict and discontinued its opposition, with the result that he
+was at last successful. The mythical pope Joan is usually placed
+between Benedict and his predecessor, Leo IV.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict IV.</span> was pope from 900 to 903.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict V.</span> was pope from 964 to 965. He was elected by
+the Romans on the death of John XII. The emperor Otto I. did
+not approve of the choice, and carried off the pope to Hamburg,
+where he died.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict VI.</span> was pope from 972 to 974. He was chosen with
+great ceremony and installed pope under the protection of the
+emperor, Otto the Great. On the death of the emperor the
+turbulent citizens of Rome renewed their outrages, and the pope
+himself was strangled by order of Crescentius, the son of the
+notorious Theodora, who replaced him by a deacon called Franco.
+This Franco took the name of Boniface VII.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict VII.</span> was pope from 974 to 983. He was elected
+through the intervention of a representative of the emperor, Count
+Sicco, who drove out the intruded Franco (afterwards Pope
+Boniface VII.). Benedict governed Rome quietly for nearly nine
+years, a somewhat rare thing in those days.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict VIII.</span>, pope from 1012 to 1024, was called originally
+Theophylactus. He was a member of the family of the count
+of Tusculum, and was opposed by an anti-pope, Gregory, but
+defeated him with the aid of King Henry II. of Saxony, whom he
+crowned emperor in 1014. In his pontificate the Saracens began
+to attack the southern coasts of Europe, and effected a settlement
+in Sardinia. The Normans also then began to settle in Italy. In
+Italy Benedict supported the policy of the emperor, Henry II.,
+and at the council of Pavia (1022) exerted himself in favour of
+ecclesiastical discipline, then in a state of great decadence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict IX.</span>, pope from 1033 to 1056, son of Alberic, count
+of Tusculum, and nephew of Benedict VIII., was also called
+Theophylactus. He was installed pope at the age of twelve
+through the influence of his father. The disorders of his conduct,
+though tolerated by the emperors, Conrad II. and Henry III.,
+who were then morally responsible for the pontificate, at length
+disgusted the Romans, who drove him out in 1044 and appointed
+Silvester III. his successor. Silvester remained in the papal chair
+but a few weeks, as the people of Tusculum quickly recovered
+their influence and reinstated their pope. Benedict, however,
+was obliged to bow before the execration of the Romans. He sold
+his rights to his godfather, the priest Johannes Gratianus, who
+was installed under the name of Gregory VI. (1045). The
+following year Henry III. obtained at the council of Sutri the
+deposition of the three competing popes, and replaced them by
+Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of Clement II.
+But before the close of 1047 Clement II. died, probably from
+poison administered by Benedict, who was reinstalled for the
+third time. At last, on the 17th of July 1048, the marquis of
+Tuscany drove him from Rome, where he was never seen again.
+He lived several years after his expulsion and appears to have
+died impenitent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict X.</span> (Johannes &ldquo;Mincius,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the lout or dolt,
+bishop of Velletri) was pope from 1058 to 1059. He was elected
+on the death of Stephen IX. through the influence of the Roman
+barons, who, however, had pledged themselves to take no action
+without Hildebrand, who was then absent from Rome. Hildebrand
+did not recognize him, and put forward an opposition
+pope in the person of Gerard, bishop of Florence (pope as
+Nicholas II.), whom he supported against the Roman aristocracy.
+With the help of the Normans, Hildebrand seized the castle of
+Galeria, where Benedict had taken refuge, and degraded him
+to the rank of a simple priest.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict XI.</span> (Niccolo Boccasini), pope from 1303 to 1304,
+the son of a notary, was born in 1240 at Treviso. Entering the
+Dominican order in 1254, he became lector, prior of the convent,
+provincial of his order in Lombardy, and in 1296 its general.
+In 1298 he was created cardinal priest of Santa Sabina, and in
+1300 cardinal bishop of Ostia and Velletri. In 1302 he was
+papal legate in Hungary. On the 22nd of October 1303 he was
+unanimously elected pope. He did much to conciliate the
+enemies made by his predecessor Boniface VIII., notably
+France, the Colonnas and King Frederick II. of Sicily; nevertheless
+on the 7th of June 1304 he excommunicated William
+of Nogaret and all the Italians who had captured Boniface in
+Anagni. Benedict died at Perugia on the 7th of July 1304;
+if he was really poisoned, as report had it, suspicion would fall
+primarily on Nogaret. His successor Clement V. transferred
+the papal residence to Avignon. Among Benedict&rsquo;s works
+are commentaries on part of the Psalms and on the Gospel of
+Matthew. His beatification took place in 1733.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Grandjean, &ldquo;Registres de Benoît XI.&rdquo; (Paris, 1883 ff.),
+<i>Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d&rsquo;Athènes et de Rome.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict XII.</span> (Jacques Fournier), pope from 1334 to 1342,
+the son of a miller, was born at Saverdun on the Arriège. Entering
+the Cistercian cloister Bolbonne, and graduating doctor
+of theology at Paris, he became in 1311 abbot of Fontfroide,
+in 1317 bishop of Pamiers and in 1326 of Mirepoix. Created
+cardinal priest of Santa Prisca in 1327 by his uncle John XXII.
+he was elected his successor on the 20th of December 1334.
+Benedict made appointments carefully, reformed monastic
+orders and consistently opposed nepotism. Unable to remove
+his capital to Rome or to Bologna, he began to erect a great
+palace at Avignon. In 1336 he decided against a pet notion of
+John XXII. by saying that souls of saints may attain the fulness
+of the beatific vision <i>before</i> the last judgment. In 1339 he entered
+upon fruitless negotiations looking toward the reunion of the
+Greek and Roman churches. French influence made futile his
+attempt to come to an understanding with the emperor Louis
+the Bavarian. He died on the 25th of April 1342.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the source publications of G. Daumet (<i>Lettres closes, patentes
+et curiales</i>, ... Paris, 1899 ff.), and J.-M. Vidal (<i>Lettres communes</i>, ...
+Paris, 1903 ff.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict XIII.</span> (Pedro de Luna), (<i>c.</i> 1328-1422 or 1423),
+anti-pope, belonged to one of the most noble families in Aragon.
+His high birth, his legal learning&mdash;he was for a long time professor
+of canon law at Montpellier&mdash;and the irreproachable purity
+of his life, recommended him to Pope Gregory XI, who created
+him cardinal in 1375. He was almost the only one who succeeded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span>
+in making a firm stand in the tumultuous conclave of 1378;
+but the deliberation with which he made up his mind as to the
+validity of the election of Urban VI. was equalled, when he took
+the side of Clement VII., by the ardour and resourcefulness which
+he displayed in defending the cause of the pope of Avignon;
+it was mainly to him that the latter owed his recognition by
+Castile, Aragon and Navarre. When elected pope, or rather
+anti-pope, by the cardinals of Avignon, on the 28th of September
+1394, it was he who by his astuteness, his resolution, and, it
+may be added, by his unswerving faith in the justice of his cause,
+was to succeed in prolonging the lamentable schism of the West
+for thirty years. The hopes he had aroused that, by a voluntary abdication,
+he would restore unity to the church, were vain; though called
+upon by the princes of France to carry out his plan, abandoned
+by his cardinals, besieged and finally kept
+under close observation in the palace of the popes (1398-1403),
+he stood firm, and tired out the fury of his opponents. Escaping
+from Avignon, he again won obedience in France, and his one
+thought was how to triumph over his Italian rival, if necessary,
+by force. He yielded, however, to the instances of the
+government of Charles VI., and pretending that he wished
+to have an interview with Gregory XII., with a view to their
+simultaneous abdication, he advanced to Savona, and then to
+Porto Venere. The failure of these negotiations, for which he
+was only in part responsible, led to the universal movement of
+indignation and impatience, which ended, in France, in the
+declaration of neutrality (1408), and at Pisa, in the decree of
+deposition against the two pontiffs (1409). Benedict XIII.,
+who had on his part tried to call together a council at Perpignan,
+was by this time recognized hardly anywhere but in his native land, in
+Scotland, and in the estates of the countship of Armagnac. He remained
+none the less full of energy and of illusions, repulsed the overtures of
+Sigismund, king of the Romans, who had come to Perpignan to persuade him
+to abdicate, and, abandoned by nearly all his adherents, he took refuge
+in the impregnable castle of Peñiscola, on a rock dominating the
+Mediterranean (1415). The council of Constance then deposed him, as a
+perjurer, an incurable schismatic and a heretic (26th July 1417). After
+struggling with the popes of Rome, Urban VI., Boniface IX., Innocent
+VII. and Gregory XII., and against the popes of Pisa, Alexander V. and
+John XXIII., Pedro de Luna, clinging more than ever to that apostolic
+seat which he still professed not to desire, again took up the struggle
+against Martin V., although the latter was recognized throughout almost
+all Christendom, and, before his death (29th November 1422, or 23rd May
+1423), he nominated four new cardinals in order to carry the schism on
+even after him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Fr. Ehrle, <i>Archiv für Lit. und Kirchengesch.</i> vols. v., vi., vii.;
+N. Valois, <i>La France et le grand schisme d&rsquo;occident</i> (4 vols., Paris,
+1896-1902); Fr. Ehrle, &ldquo;Martin de Alpartils chronica actitatorum
+temporibus domini Benedicti XIII.&rdquo; (<i>Quellen und Forschungen aus
+dem Geb. der Gesch.</i>, Görres-Gesellschaft, Paderborn, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. V.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict XIII.</span> (Piero Francesco Orsini), pope from 1724 to
+1730, at first styled Benedict XIV., was born on the 2nd of
+February 1649, of the ducal family of Orsini-Gravina. In
+1667 he became a Dominican (as Vincentius Maria), studied
+theology and philosophy, was made a cardinal in 1672 and archbishop
+of Benevento in 1686. Elected pope on the 29th of May
+1724, he attempted to reform clerical morals; but neither the
+decrees of the Latin council (1725) nor his personal precepts had
+much effect. He confirmed the bull <i>Unigenitus</i>; but, despite
+the Jesuits, allowed the Dominicans to preach the Augustinian
+doctrine of grace. State affairs he left entirely to the unpopular
+Cardinal Nicolo Coscia. He died on the 21st of February 1730. His works, were published in 3 vols. at Ravenna in 1728.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Benedict XIV.</span> (Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini), pope from
+1740 to 1758, was born at Bologna on the 31st of March 1675.
+At the age of thirteen he entered the Collegium Clementinum
+at Rome. He served the Curia in many and important capacities,
+yet devoted his leisure time to theological and canonistic study.
+Benedict XIII. made him archbishop of Theodosia <i>in partibus</i>,
+then of Ancona (1727), and the next year created him cardinal
+priest. In 1731 Clement XII. translated him to his native city
+of Bologna, where as archbishop he was both efficient and popular.
+He published valuable works, notably <i>De servorum Dei beatificatione
+et canonizatione, De sacrificio missae</i>, as well as a treatise
+on the feasts of Christ and the Virgin and of some saints honoured
+in Bologna. In a conclave which had lasted for months he was elected
+on the 17th of August 1740 the successor of Clement XII.
+Benedict XIV. was not merely earnest and conscientious, but of incisive
+intellect, and unfailingly cheerful and witty. In several respects he
+bettered the economic conditions of the papal states, but was
+disinclined to undertake the needed thorough-going reform of its
+administration. In foreign politics he made important concessions to
+Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, Spain, and was the first pope expressly to
+recognize the king of Prussia as such. In 1741 he issued the bull
+<i>Immensa pastorum principis</i>, demanding more humane treatment for the
+Indians of Brazil and Paraguay, and in the bulls <i>Ex quo singulari</i>
+(1742) and <i>Omnium sollicitudinum</i> (1744) he rebuked the missionary
+methods of the Jesuits in accommodating their message to the heathen
+usages of the Chinese and of the natives of Malabar. In accord with the
+spirit of the age he reduced the number of holy days in several Catholic
+countries. To the end of his life he kept up his studies and his
+intercourse with other scholars, and founded several learned societies.
+His masterpiece, <i>Libri octo de synoda diocesana</i>, begun in Bologna,
+appeared during his pontificate. He died on the 3rd of May 1758.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works, published in twelve quarto volumes at Rome (1747-1751),
+appeared in more nearly complete editions at Venice in 1767
+and at Prato, 1839-1846; also <i>Briefe Benedicts XIV.</i>, ed. F.X.
+Kraus (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1888); <i>Benedicti XIV. Papae opera
+inedita</i>, ed. F. Heiner (Freiburg, 1904). See Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>,
+ii. 572 ff.; Wetzer and Welter, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, ii.
+317 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (d. 1268), Benedictine abbot of
+Notre Dame de la Grasse (1224) and bishop of Marseilles (1229),
+twice visited the Holy Land (1239 and 1260), where he helped
+the Templars build the great castle of Safet. He founded a
+short-lived order, the Brothers of the Virgin, suppressed by the
+council of Lyons (1274), and died a Franciscan. His writings
+include a letter to Innocent IV. and <i>De constructione Castri
+Saphet</i> (Baluze, <i>Miscellanea</i>, ii.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 480-<i>c.</i> 544), the patriarch of Western
+monks. Our only authority for the facts of St Benedict&rsquo;s life is bk. ii
+of St Gregory&rsquo;s <i>Dialogues</i>. St Gregory declares that he obtained his
+information from four of St Benedict&rsquo;s disciples, whom he names; and
+there can be no serious reason for doubting that it is possible to
+reconstruct the outlines of St Benedict&rsquo;s career (see Hodgkin, <i>Italy
+and her Invaders</i>, iv. 412). A precise chronology and a pedigree have
+been supplied for Benedict, according to which he was born in 480, of
+the great family of the Anicii; but all we know is what St Gregory tells
+us, that he was born of good family in Nursia, near Spoleto in Umbria.
+His birth must have occurred within a few years of the date assigned;
+the only fixed chronological point is a visit of the Gothic king Totila
+to him in 543, when Benedict was already established at Monte Cassino
+and advanced in years (<i>Dial</i>. ii. 14, 15). He was sent by his parents
+to frequent the Roman schools, but shocked by the prevailing
+licentiousness he fled away. It has been usual to represent him as a
+mere boy at this time, but of late years various considerations have
+been pointed out which make it more likely that he was a young man. He
+went to the mountainous districts of the Abruzzi, and at last came to
+the ruins of Nero&rsquo;s palace and the artificial lake at Subiaco, 40 m.
+from Rome. Among the rocks on the side of the valley opposite the palace
+he found a cave in which he took up his abode, unknown to all except one
+friend, Romanus, a monk of a neighbouring monastery, who clothed him in
+the monastic habit and secretly supplied him with food. No one who has
+seen the spot will doubt that the Sacro Speco is indeed the cave wherein
+Benedict spent the three years of opening manhood in solitary prayer,
+contemplation and austerity. After this period of formation his fame
+began to spread abroad, and the monks of a neighbouring monastery
+induced him to become their abbot; but their lives were irregular and
+dissolute, and on his trying to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span>
+put down abuses they attempted to poison him. He returned
+to his cave, but disciples flocked to him, and in time he formed
+twelve monasteries in the neighbourhood, placing twelve monks
+in each, and himself retaining a general control over all. In time
+patricians and senators from Rome entrusted their young sons
+to his care, to be brought up as monks; in this manner came to
+him his two best-known disciples, Maurus and Placidus. Driven
+from Subiaco by the jealousy and molestations of a neighbouring
+priest, but leaving behind him communities in his twelve monasteries,
+he himself, accompanied by a small band of disciples,
+journeyed south until he came to Cassino, a town halfway between
+Rome and Naples. Climbing the high mountain that overhangs
+the town, he established on the summit the monastery with which
+his name has ever since been associated, and which for centuries
+was a chief centre of religious life for western Europe. He
+destroyed the remnants of paganism that lingered on here, and by
+his preaching gained the rustic population to Christianity. Few
+other facts of his career are known: there is record of his founding
+a monastery at Terracina; his death must have occurred soon
+after Totila&rsquo;s visit in 543.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rule of St Benedict.</i>&mdash;In order to understand St Benedict&rsquo;s
+character and spirit, and to discover the secret of the success of
+his institute, it is necessary, as St Gregory says, to turn to his
+Rule. St Gregory&rsquo;s characterization of the Rule as &ldquo;conspicuous
+for its discretion&rdquo; touches the most essential quality. The relation
+of St Benedict&rsquo;s Rule to earlier monastic rules, and of his
+institute to the prevailing monachism of his day, is explained in
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>. Here it is enough to say that nowadays
+it is commonly recognized by students that the manner of life
+instituted by St Benedict was not intended to be, and as a matter
+of fact was not, one of any great austerity, when judged by the
+standard of his own day (see E.C. Butler, <i>Lausiac History of
+Palladius</i>, part i. pp. 251-256). His monks were allowed proper
+clothes, sufficient food, ample sleep. The only bodily austerities
+were the abstinence from flesh meat and the unbroken fast till
+mid-day or even 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, but neither would appear so onerous in
+Italy even now, as to us in northern climes. Midnight office was
+no part of St Benedict&rsquo;s Rule: the time for rising for the night
+office varied from 1.30 to 3.0, according to the season, and the
+monks had had unbroken sleep for 7½ or even 8 hours, except in
+the hot weather, when in compensation they were allowed the
+traditional Italian summer siesta after the mid-day meal. The
+canonical office was chanted throughout, but the directly religious
+duties of the day can hardly have taken more than 4 or 5 hours&mdash;perhaps
+8 on Sundays. The remaining hours of the day were
+divided between work and reading, in the proportion (on the
+average of the whole year) of about 6 and 4 hours respectively.
+The &ldquo;reading&rdquo; in St Benedict&rsquo;s time was probably confined to
+the Bible and the Fathers. The &ldquo;work&rdquo; contemplated by St
+Benedict was ordinarily field work, as was natural in view of
+the conditions of the time and best suited to the majority of the
+monks; but the principle laid down is that the monks should do
+whatever work is most useful. There were from the beginning
+young boys in the monastery, who were educated by the monks
+according to the ideas of the time. We have seen St Benedict
+evangelizing the pagan population round Monte Cassino;
+and a considerable time each day is assigned to the reading
+of the Fathers. Thus the germs of all the chief works
+carried on by his monks in later ages were to be found in his
+own monastery.</p>
+
+<p>The Rule consists of a prologue and 73 chapters. Though it has
+resisted all attempts to reduce it to an ordered scheme, and
+probably was not written on any set plan, still it is possible
+roughly to indicate its contents: after the prologue and introductory
+chapter setting forth St Benedict&rsquo;s intention, follow
+instructions to the abbot on the manner in which he should govern
+his monastery (2,3); next comes the ascetical portion of the Rule,
+on the chief monastic virtues (4-7); then the regulations for the
+celebration of the canonical office, which St Benedict calls &ldquo;the
+Work of God&rdquo; or &ldquo;the divine work,&rdquo; his monks&rsquo; first duty, &ldquo;of
+which nothing is to take precedence&rdquo; (8-20); faults and punishments
+(23-30); the cellarer and property of the monastery
+(31, 32); community of goods (33, 34); various officials and daily
+life (21, 22, 35-57); reception of monks (58-61); miscellaneous
+(62-73).</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable chapters, in which St Benedict&rsquo;s wisdom
+stands out most conspicuously, are those on the abbot (2,3, 27,64).
+The abbot is to govern the monastery with full and unquestioned
+patriarchal authority; on important matters he must consult
+the whole community and hear what each one, even the youngest,
+thinks; on matters of less weight he should consult a few of the
+elder monks; but in either case the decision rests entirely with
+him, and all are to acquiesce. He must, however, bear in mind
+that he will have to render an account of all his decisions and to
+answer for the souls of all his monks before the judgment seat of
+God. Moreover, he has to govern in accordance with the Rule,
+and must endeavour, while enforcing discipline and implanting
+virtues, not to sadden or &ldquo;overdrive&rdquo; his monks, or give them
+cause for &ldquo;just murmuring.&rdquo; In these chapters pre-eminently
+appears that element of &ldquo;discretion,&rdquo; as St Gregory calls it, or
+humanism as it would now be termed, which without doubt has
+been a chief cause of the success of the Rule. There is as yet no
+satisfactory text of the Rule, either critical or manual; the best
+manual text is Schmidt&rsquo;s <i>editio minor</i> (Regensburg, 1892). Of
+the many commentaries the most valuable are those of Paulus
+Diaconus (the earliest, <i>c.</i> 800), of Calmet and of Martène (Migne,
+<i>Patrol. Lat.</i> lxvi.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;An old English translation of St Gregory&rsquo;s
+<i>Dialogues</i> is reprinted in the Quarterly Series (Burns &amp; Oates).
+On St Benedict&rsquo;s life and Rule see Montalembert, <i>Monks of the West</i>,
+bk. iv.; Abbate L. Tosti, <i>S. Benedetto</i> (translated 1896); also
+Indexes to standard general histories of the period; Thomas Hodgkin&rsquo;s
+<i>Italy and Her Invaders</i> and Gregorovius&rsquo; <i>History of the City
+of Rome</i> may be specially mentioned. But by far the best summaries
+in English are those contained in the relevant portions of
+F.H. Dudden&rsquo;s <i>Gregory the Great</i> (1905), i. 107-115, ii. 160-169; on
+the recent criticism of the text and contents of the Rule, see Otto
+Zöckler, <i>Askese und Mönchtum</i> (1897), 355-371; and E.C. Butler,
+articles in <i>Downside Review</i>, December 1899, and <i>Journal of Theological
+Studies</i>, April 1902.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1804-1885), musical composer, was
+born in Stuttgart on the 27th of November 1804. He was the
+son of a Jewish banker, and learnt composition from Hummel
+at Weimar and Weber at Dresden; with the latter he enjoyed
+for three years an intimacy like that of a son, and it was Weber
+who introduced him in Vienna to Beethoven on the 5th of October
+1823. In the same year he was appointed Kapellmeister of the
+Kärnthnerthor theatre at Vienna, and two years later (in 1825)
+he became Kapellmeister of the San Carlo theatre at Naples.
+Here his first opera, <i>Giacinta ed Ernesto</i>, was brought out in 1829,
+and another, written for his native city, <i>I Portoghesi in Goa</i>, was
+given there in 1830; neither of these was a great success, and in
+1834 he went to Paris, leaving it in 1835 at the suggestion of
+Malibran for London, where he spent the remainder of his life.
+In 1836 he was given the conductorship of an operatic enterprise
+at the Lyceum Theatre, and brought out a short opera, <i>Un anno
+ed un giorno</i>, previously given in Naples. In 1838 he became
+conductor of the English opera at Drury Lane during the period
+of Balfe&rsquo;s great popularity; his own operas produced there were
+<i>The Gipsy&rsquo;s Warning</i> (1838), <i>The Bride of Venice</i> (1843), and
+<i>The Crusaders</i> (1846). In 1848 he conducted Mendelssohn&rsquo;s
+<i>Elijah</i> at Exeter Hall, for the first appearance of Jenny Lind in
+oratorio, and in 1850 he went to America as the accompanist on
+that singer&rsquo;s tour. On his return in 1852 he became musical
+conductor under Mapleson&rsquo;s management at Her Majesty&rsquo;s
+theatre (and afterwards at Drury Lane), and in the same year
+conductor of the Harmonic Union. Benedict wrote recitatives
+for the production of an Italian version of Weber&rsquo;s <i>Oberon</i> in
+1860. In the same year was produced his beautiful cantata
+<i>Undine</i> at the Norwich festival, in which Clara Novello appeared
+in public for the last time. His best-known opera, <i>The Lily of
+Killarney</i>, written on the subject of Dion Boucicault&rsquo;s play
+<i>Colleen Bawn</i> to a libretto by Oxenford, was produced at Covent
+Garden in 1862. His operetta, <i>The Bride of Song</i>, was brought
+out there in 1864. <i>St Cecilia</i>, an oratorio, was performed at
+the Norwich festival in 1886; <i>St Peter</i> at the Birmingham
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span>
+festival of 1870; <i>Graziella</i>, a cantata, was given at the
+Birmingham festival of 1882, and in August 1883 was produced
+in operatic form at the Crystal Palace. Here also a symphony
+by him was given in 1873. Benedict conducted every Norwich
+festival from 1845 to 1878 inclusive, and the Liverpool Philharmonic
+Society&rsquo;s concerts from 1876 to 1880. He was the
+regular accompanist at the Monday Popular Concerts in London
+from their start, and with few exceptions acted as conductor
+of these concerts. He contributed an interesting life of Weber
+to the series of biographies of &ldquo;Great Musicians.&rdquo; In 1871 he
+was knighted, and in 1874 was made knight commander of the
+orders of Franz Joseph (Austria) and Frederick (Württemberg).
+He died in London on the 5th of June 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT BISCOP<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (628?-690), also known as <span class="sc">Biscop
+Baducing</span>, English churchman, was born of a good Northumbrian
+family and was for a time a thegn of King Oswiu. He then went
+abroad and after a second journey to Rome (he made five
+altogether) lived as a monk at Lerins (665-667). It was under
+his conduct that Theodore of Tarsus came from Rome to Canterbury
+in 669, and in the same year Benedict was appointed abbot
+of St Peter&rsquo;s, Canterbury. Five years later he built the
+monastery of St Peter at Wearmouth, on land granted him by
+Ecgfrith of Northumbria, and endowed it with an excellent
+library. A papal letter in 678 exempted the monastery from
+external control, and in 682 Benedict erected a sister foundation
+(St Paul) at Jarrow. He died on the 12th of January 690,
+leaving a high reputation for piety and culture. Saxon architecture
+owes nearly everything to his initiative, and Bede was
+one of his pupils.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTINE,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a liqueur manufactured at Fécamp, France.
+The composition is a trade secret, but, according to König, the
+following are among the substances used in the manufacture of
+imitations of the genuine article: fresh lemon peel, cardamoms,
+hyssop tops, angelica, peppermint, thyme, cinnamon, nutmegs,
+cloves and arnica flowers. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fécamp</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTINES,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Black Monks</span>, monks living according
+to the Rule of St Benedict (<i>q.v.</i>) of Nursia. Subiaco in the
+Abruzzi was the cradle of the Benedictines, and in that neighbourhood
+St Benedict established twelve monasteries. Afterwards
+giving up the direction of these, he migrated to Monte
+Cassino and there established the monastery which became the
+centre whence his Rule and institute spread. From Monte
+Cassino he founded a monastery at Terracina. These fourteen
+are the only monasteries of which we have any knowledge as
+being founded before St Benedict&rsquo;s death; for the mission of
+St Placidus to Sicily must certainly be regarded as mere romance,
+nor does there seem to be any solid reason for viewing more
+favourably the mission of St Maurus to Gaul. There is some
+ground for believing that it was the third abbot of Monte Cassino
+who began to spread a knowledge of the Rule beyond the circle
+of St Benedict&rsquo;s own foundations. About 580-590 Monte
+Cassino was sacked by the Lombards, and the community came
+to Rome and was established in a monastery attached to the
+Lateran Basilica, in the centre of the ecclesiastical world. It
+is now commonly recognized by scholars that when Gregory the
+Great became a monk and turned his palace on the Caelian Hill
+into a monastery, the monastic life there carried out was fundamentally
+based on the Benedictine Rule (see F.H. Dudden,
+<i>Gregory the Great</i>, i. 108). From this monastery went forth
+St Augustine and his companions on their mission to England in
+596, carrying their monachism with them; thus England was
+the first country out of Italy in which Benedictine life was
+firmly planted. In the course of the 7th century Benedictine
+life was gradually introduced in Gaul, and in the 8th it was carried
+into the Germanic lands from England. It is doubtful whether
+in Spain there were Benedictine monasteries, properly so called,
+until a later period. In many parts the Benedictine Rule met
+the much stricter Irish Rule of Columbanus, introduced by the
+Irish missionaries on the continent, and after brief periods, first
+of conflict and then of fusion, it gradually absorbed and supplanted
+it; thus during the 8th century it became, out of Ireland
+and other purely Celtic lands, the only rule and form of monastic
+life throughout western Europe,&mdash;so completely that Charlemagne
+once asked if there ever had been any other monastic
+rule.</p>
+
+<p>What may be called the inner side of Benedictine life and
+history is treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>; here it is possible
+to deal only with the broad facts of the external history. The
+chief external works achieved for western Europe by the Benedictines
+during the early middle ages may be summed up under
+the following heads.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Conversion of the Teutonic Races.</i>&mdash;The tendency of
+modern historical scholarship justifies the maintenance of the
+tradition that St Augustine and his forty companions were the
+first great Benedictine apostles and missioners. Through their
+efforts Christianity was firmly planted in various parts of
+England; and after the conversion of the country it was English
+Benedictines&mdash;Wilfrid, Willibrord, Swithbert, Willehad&mdash;who
+evangelized Friesland and Holland; and another, Winfrid or
+Boniface, who, with his fellow-monks Willibald and others,
+evangelized the greater part of central Germany and founded and
+organized the German church. It was Anschar, a monk of Corbie,
+who first preached to the Scandinavians, and other Benedictines
+were apostles to Poles, Prussians and other Slavonic peoples.
+The conversion of the Teutonic races may properly be called the
+work of the Benedictines.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Civilization of north-western Europe.</i>&mdash;As the result of
+their missionary enterprises the Benedictines penetrated into all
+these lands and established monasteries, so that by the 10th or
+11th century Benedictine houses existed in great numbers
+throughout the whole of Latin Christendom except Ireland.
+These monasteries became centres of civilizing influences by the
+method of presenting object-lessons in organized work, in
+agriculture, in farming, in the arts and trades, and also in
+well-ordered life. The unconscious method by which such great
+results were brought about has been well described by J.S. Brewer
+(<i>Preface</i> to Works of Giraldus Cambrensis, Rolls Series, iv.) and
+F.A. Gasquet.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Education.</i>&mdash;Boys were educated in Benedictine houses from
+the beginning, but at first they were destined to be monks. The
+monasteries, however, played a great part in the educational side
+of the Carolingian revival; and certainly from that date schools
+for boys destined to live and work in the world were commonly
+attached to Benedictine monasteries. From that day to this
+education has been among the recognized and principal works of
+Benedictines.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Letters and Learning.</i>&mdash;This side of Benedictine life is most
+typically represented by the Venerable Bede, the gentle and
+learned scholar of the early middle ages. In those times the
+monasteries were the only places of security and rest in western
+Europe, the only places where letters could in any measure be
+cultivated. It was in the monasteries that the writings of Latin
+antiquity, both classical and ecclesiastical, were transcribed and
+preserved.</p>
+
+<p>In a gigantic system embracing hundreds of monasteries and
+thousands of monks, and spread over all the countries of western
+Europe, without any organic bond between the different houses,
+and exposed to all the vicissitudes of the wars and conquests of
+those wild times, to say that the monks often fell short of the ideal
+of their state, and sometimes short of the Christian, and even the
+moral standard, is but to say that monks are men. Failures there
+have been many, and scandals not a few in Benedictine history;
+but it may be said with truth that there does not appear to have
+been ever a period of widespread or universal corruption, however
+much at times and in places primitive love may have waxed cold.
+And when such declensions occurred, they soon called forth efforts
+at reform and revival; indeed these constantly recurring reform-movements
+are one of the most striking features of Benedictine
+history, and the great proof of the vitality of the institute throughout
+the ages.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these movements arose during the Carolingian
+revival (<i>c.</i> 800), and is associated with the name of Benedict of
+Aniane. Under the auspices of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious
+he initiated a scheme for federating into one great order, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span>
+himself as abbot general, all the monasteries of Charles&rsquo;s empire,
+and for enforcing throughout a rigid uniformity in observance.
+For this purpose a synod of abbots was assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle
+in 817, and a series of 80 <i>Capitula</i> passed, regulating the
+life of the monasteries. The scheme as a whole was short-lived
+and did not survive its originator; but the <i>Capitula</i> were commonly
+recognized as supplying a useful and much-needed supplement
+to St Benedict&rsquo;s Rule on points not sufficiently provided
+for therein. Accordingly these <i>Capitula</i> exercised a wide influence
+among Benedictines even outside the empire. And Benedict of
+Aniane&rsquo;s ideas of organization found embodiment a century later
+in the order of Cluny (910), which for a time overshadowed the
+great body of mere Benedictines (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cluny</a></span>). Here it will suffice
+to say that the most distinctive features of the Cluny system were
+(1) a notable increase and prolongation of the church services,
+which came to take up the greater part of the working day; (2)
+a strongly centralized government, whereby the houses of the
+order in their hundreds were strictly subject to the abbot of Cluny.</p>
+
+<p>Though forming a distinct and separate organism Cluny claimed
+to be, and was recognized as, a body of Benedictine houses; but
+from that time onwards arose a number of independent bodies, or
+&ldquo;orders,&rdquo; which took the Benedictine Rule as the basis of their
+life. The more important of these were: in the 11th and 12th centuries,
+the orders of Camaldulians, Vallombrosians, Fontevrault
+and the Cistercians, and in the 13th and 14th the Silvestrines,
+Celestines and Olivetans (see separate articles). The general
+tendency of these Benedictine offshoots was in the direction of
+greater austerity of life than was practised by the Black Monks
+or contemplated by St Benedict&rsquo;s Rule&mdash;some of them were
+semi-eremitical; the most important by far were the Cistercians,
+whose ground-idea was to reproduce exactly the life of St
+Benedict&rsquo;s own monastery. These various orders were also
+organized and governed according to the system of centralized
+authority devised by St Pachomius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>) and
+brought into vogue by Cluny in the West. What has here to be
+traced is the history of the great body of Benedictine monasteries
+that held aloof from these separatist movements.</p>
+
+<p>For the first four or five centuries of Benedictine history there
+was no organic bond between any of the monasteries; each house
+formed an independent autonomous family, managing its own
+affairs and subject to no external authority or control except that
+of the bishop of the diocese. But the influence of Cluny, even on
+monasteries that did not enter into its organism, was enormous;
+many adopted Cluny customs and practices and moulded their
+life and spirit after the model it set; and many such monasteries
+became in turn centres of revival and reform in many lands, so
+that during the 10th and 11th centuries arose free unions of
+monasteries based on a common observance derived from a
+central abbey. Fleury and Hirsau are well-known examples.
+Basing themselves on St Gregory&rsquo;s counsel to St Augustine,
+Dunstan, Aethelwold and Oswald adopted from the observance
+of foreign monasteries, and notably Fleury and Ghent, what was
+suitable for the restoration of English monachism, and so produced
+the <i>Concordia Regularis</i>, interesting as the first serious attempt to
+bring about uniformity of observance among the monasteries of
+an entire nation. In the course of the 12th century sporadic and
+limited unions of Black Monk monasteries arose in different parts.
+But notwithstanding all these movements, the majority of the
+great Black Monk abbeys continued to the end of the 12th century
+in their primeval isolation. But in the year 1215, at the fourth
+Lateran council, were made regulations destined profoundly to
+modify Benedictine polity and history. It was decreed that the
+Benedictine houses of each ecclesiastical province should henceforth
+be federated for the purposes of mutual help and the
+maintenance of discipline, and that for these ends the abbots
+should every third year meet in a provincial chapter (or synod),
+in order to pass laws binding on all and to appoint visitors who,
+in addition to the bishops, should canonically visit the monasteries
+and report on their condition in spirituals and temporals to the
+ensuing chapter. The English monks took the lead in carrying
+out this legislation, and in 1218 the first chapter of the province of
+Canterbury was held at Oxford, and up to the dissolution under
+Henry VIII. the triennial chapters took place with wonderful
+regularity. Fitful attempts were made elsewhere to carry out the
+decrees, and in 1336 Benedict XII. by the bull <i>Benedictina</i> tried
+to give further development to the system and to secure its
+general observance. The organization of the Benedictine houses
+into provinces or chapters under this legislation interfered in the
+least possible degree with the Benedictine tradition of mutual
+independence of the houses; the provinces were loose federations
+of autonomous houses, the legislative power of the chapter and
+the canonical visitations being the only forms of external interference.
+The English Benedictines never advanced farther along
+the path of centralization; up to their destruction this polity
+remained in operation among them, and proved itself by its
+results to be well adapted to the conditions of the Benedictine
+Rule and life.</p>
+
+<p>In other lands things did not on the whole go so well, and
+many causes at work during the later middle ages tended
+to bring about relaxation in the Benedictine houses; above all
+the vicious system of commendatory abbots, rife everywhere
+except in England. And so in the period of the reforming
+councils of Constance and Basel the state of the religious orders
+was seriously taken in hand, and in response to the public demand
+for reforming the Church, &ldquo;in head and members,&rdquo; reform
+movements were set on foot, as among others, so among the
+Benedictines of various parts of Europe. These movements
+issued in the congregational system which is the present polity
+among Benedictines. In the German lands, where the most
+typical congregation was the Bursfeld Union (1446), which
+finally embraced over 100 monasteries throughout Germany,
+the system was kept on the lines of the Lateran decree and
+the bull <i>Benedictina</i>, and received only some further developments
+in the direction of greater organization; but in Italy
+the congregation of S. Justina at Padua (1421), afterwards
+called the Cassinese, departed altogether from the old lines,
+setting up a highly centralized government, after the model
+of the Italian republics, whereby the autonomy of the monasteries
+was destroyed, and they were subjected to the authority
+of a central governing board. With various modifications or
+restrictions this latter system was imported into all the Latin
+lands, into Spain and Portugal, and thence into Brazil, and
+into Lorraine and France, where the celebrated congregation
+of St Maur (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maurists</a></span>) was formed early in the 17th century.
+During this century the Benedictine houses in many parts of
+Catholic Europe united themselves into congregations, usually
+characterized by an austerity that was due to the Tridentine
+reform movement.</p>
+
+<p>In England the Benedictines had, from every point of view,
+flourished exceedingly. At the time of the Dissolution there
+were nearly 300 Black Benedictine houses, great and small,
+men and women, including most of the chief religious houses
+of the land (for lists see tables and maps in Gasquet&rsquo;s <i>English
+Monastic Life</i>, and <i>Catholic Dictionary</i>, art. &ldquo;Benedictines&rdquo;).
+It is now hardly necessary to say that the grave charges brought
+against the monks are no longer credited by serious historians
+(Gasquet, <i>Henry VIII. and the Monasteries</i>; J. Gairdner,
+Prefaces to the relevant volumes of <i>Calendars of State Papers
+of Henry VIII.</i>). In Mary&rsquo;s reign some of the surviving monks
+were brought together, and Westminster Abbey was restored.
+Of the monks professed there during this momentary revival,
+one, Sigebert Buckley, lived on into the reign of James I.; and
+being the only survivor of the Benedictines of England, he
+in 1607 invested with the English habit and affiliated to Westminster
+Abbey and to the English congregation two English
+priests, already Benedictines in the Italian congregation. By
+this act the old English Benedictine line was perpetuated;
+and in 1619 a number of English monks professed in Spain were
+aggregated by pontifical act to these representatives of the old
+English Benedictines, and thus was constituted the present
+English Benedictine congregation. Three or four monasteries
+of the revived English Benedictines were established on the
+continent at the beginning of the 17th century, and remained
+there till driven back to England by the French Revolution.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span></p>
+
+<p>The Reformation and the religious wars spread havoc among
+the Benedictines in many parts of northern Europe; and as
+a consequence, in part of the rule of Joseph II. of Austria,
+in part of the French Revolution, nearly every Benedictine
+monastery in Europe was suppressed&mdash;it is said that in the
+early years of the 19th century scarcely thirty in all survived.
+But the latter half of the century witnessed a series of remarkable
+revivals, and first in Bavaria, under the influence of Louis I.
+The French congregation (which does not enjoy continuity with
+the Maurists) was inaugurated by Dom Guéranger in 1833, and
+the German congregation of Beuron in 1863. Two vigorous
+congregations have arisen in the United States. These are
+all new creations since 1830. In Italy, Spain, Portugal and
+Brazil only a few monasteries survive the various revolutions,
+and in a crippled state; but signs are not wanting of renewed
+life: St Benedict&rsquo;s own monasteries of Subiaco and Monte
+Cassino are relatively flourishing. In Austria, Hungary and
+Switzerland there are some thirty great abbeys, most of which
+have had a continued existence since the middle ages. The
+English congregation is composed of three large abbeys (Downside,
+Ampleforth and Woolhampton), a cathedral priory (Hereford)
+and a nunnery (Stanbrook Abbey, Worcester); there
+are besides in England three or four abbeys belonging to foreign
+congregations, and several nunneries subject to the bishops.
+Each congregation has its president, who is merely a president,
+with limited powers, and not a general superior like the
+Provincials of other orders; so that the primitive Benedictine
+principle of each monastery being self-contained and autonomous
+is preserved. Similarly each congregation is independent
+and self-governing, there being no superior-general or central
+authority, as in other orders. Leo XIII. established an international
+Benedictine College in Rome for theological studies,
+and conferred on its abbot the title of &ldquo;Abbot Primate,&rdquo; with
+precedence among Black Monk abbots. He is only <i>primus
+inter pares</i>, and exercises no kind of superiority over the
+other abbots or congregations. Thus the Benedictine polity
+may be described as a number of autonomous federations
+of autonomous monasteries. The individual monks, too, belong
+not to the order or the congregation, but each to the monastery
+in which he became a monk. The chief external work of the
+Benedictines at the present day is secondary education; there
+are 114 secondary schools or <i>gymnasia</i> attached to the abbeys,
+wherein the monks teach over 12,000 boys; and many of
+the nunneries have girls&rsquo; schools. In certain countries (among
+them England) where there is a dearth of secular priests, Benedictines
+undertake parochial work.</p>
+
+<p>The statistics of the order (1905) show that of Black Benedictines
+there are over 4000 choir-monks and nearly 2000
+lay brothers&mdash;figures that have more than doubled since 1880.
+If the Cistercians and lesser offshoots of the order be added,
+the sum total of choir-monks and lay brothers exceeds 11,000.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion a word must be said on the Benedictine nuns.
+From the beginning the number of women living the Benedictine
+life has not fallen far short of that of the men. St Gregory
+describes St Benedict&rsquo;s sister Scholastica as a nun (<i>sanctimonialis</i>),
+and she is looked upon as the foundress of Benedictine nuns.
+As the institute spread to other lands nunneries arose on all
+sides, and nowhere were the Benedictine nuns more numerous
+or more remarkable than in England, from Saxon times to the
+Reformation. A strong type of womanhood is revealed in the
+correspondence of St Boniface with various Saxon Benedictine
+nuns, some in England and some who accompanied him to the
+continent and there established great convents. In the early
+times the Benedictine nuns were not strictly enclosed, and
+could, when occasion called for it, freely go out of their convent
+walls to perform any special work: on the other hand, they did
+not resemble the modern active congregations of women,
+whose ordinary work lies outside the convent. It has to
+be said that in the course of the middle ages, especially the
+later middle ages, grave disorders arose in many convents;
+and this doubtless led, in the reform movements initiated by
+the councils of Constance and Basel, and later of Trent, to the
+introduction of strict enclosure in Benedictine convents, which
+now is the almost universal practice. At the present day
+there are of Black Benedictine nuns 262 convents with 7000
+nuns, the large majority being directly subject to the diocesan
+bishops; if the Cistercians and others be included, there are
+387 convents with nearly 11,000 nuns. In England there are
+a dozen Benedictine nunneries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>&mdash;The chief general authority for Benedictine
+history up to the middle of the 12th century is Mabillon&rsquo;s <i>Annales</i>,
+in 6 vols. folio; for the later period no such general work exists, but
+the various countries, congregations or even abbeys have to be taken
+separately. Montalembert&rsquo;s <i>Monks of the West</i> gives the early
+history very fully; the later history, to the beginning of the 18th
+century, may be found in Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i>, v. and
+vi. (1792). A useful sketch, with references to the best literature,
+is in Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896), i. §§ 17-28;
+see also the article &ldquo;Benedictinerorden&rdquo; in Wetzer u. Welter,
+<i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (2nd ed.), and &ldquo;Benedikt von Nursia und der
+Benediktinerorden,&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.).
+For England see Ethelred Taunton, <i>English Black Monks</i> (1897);
+and for the modern history (19th century) the series entitled
+&ldquo;Succisa Virescit&rdquo; in the <i>Downside Review</i>, 1880 onwards, by
+J.G. Dolan. On the inner spirit and working of the institute see
+F.A. Gasquet, <i>Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History</i> (being the
+preface to the 2nd ed., 1895, of the trans. of Montalembert) and
+<i>English Monastic Life</i> (1904); and Newman&rsquo;s two essays on the
+Benedictines, among the <i>Historical Sketches</i>. On Benedictine
+nuns much will be found in the above-mentioned authorities, and
+also in Lina Eckenstein, <i>Woman in Monasticism</i> (1896). On Benedictines
+and the Arts see F.H. Kraus, <i>Geschichte der christlichen
+Kunst</i> (Freiburg-i-B., 1896-1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTION<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (Lat. <i>benedictio</i>, from <i>benedicere</i>, to bless),
+generally, the utterance of a blessing or of a devout wish for the
+prosperity and happiness of a person or enterprise. In the usage
+of the Catholic Church, both East and West, though the benediction
+as defined above has its place as between one Christian
+and another, it has also a special place in the sacramental system
+in virtue of the special powers of blessing vested in the priesthood.
+Sacerdotal benedictions are not indeed sacraments&mdash;means of
+grace ordained by Christ himself,&mdash;but sacramentals (<i>sacramenta
+minora</i>) ordained by the authority of the Church and
+exercised by the priests, as the plenipotentiaries of God, in virtue
+of the powers conferred on them at their ordination; &ldquo;that
+whatever they bless may be blessed, and whatever they consecrate
+may be consecrated.&rdquo; The power to bless in this
+ecclesiastical sense is reserved to priests alone; the blessing of
+the paschal candle on Holy Saturday by the deacon being the
+one exception that proves the rule, for he uses for the purpose
+grains of incense previously blessed by the priest at the altar.
+But though by some the benediction has thus been brought into
+connexion with the supreme means of grace, the sacrifice of the
+Mass, the blessing does not in itself confer grace and does not act
+on its recipients <i>ex opere operato</i>. It must not be supposed,
+however, that the Catholic idea of a sacerdotal blessing has anything
+of the vague character associated with a benediction by
+Protestants. Both by Catholics and by Protestants blessings may
+be applied to things inanimate as well as animate; but while
+in the reformed Churches this involves no more than an appeal
+to God for a special blessing, or a solemn &ldquo;setting apart&rdquo; of
+persons or objects for sacred purposes, in the Catholic idea it
+implies a special power, conferred by God, of the priests over
+the invisible forces of evil. It thus stands in the closest relation
+to the rite of exorcism, of which it is the complement.</p>
+
+<p>According to Catholic doctrine, the Fall involved the subjection,
+not only of man, but of all things animate and inanimate,
+to the influence of evil spirits; in support of which St Paul&rsquo;s
+epistles to the Romans (viii.) and to Timothy (1 Tim. iv. 4-5)
+are quoted. This belief is, of course, not specifically Christian;
+it has been held at all times and everywhere by men of the most
+various races and creeds; and, if there be any validity in the
+contention that that is true which has been held <i>semper, ubique,
+et ab omnibus</i>, no fact is better established. In general it may
+be said, then, that whereas exorcism is practised in order to
+cast out devils already in possession, benediction is the formula
+by which they are prevented from entering in. Protestants
+have condemned these formulae as so much magic, and in this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span>
+modern science tends to agree with them; but to orthodox
+Protestants at least Catholics have a perfect right to reply that,
+in taking this line, they are but repeating the accusation brought
+by the Pharisees against Christ, viz. that he cast out devils
+&ldquo;by Beelzebub, prince of the devils.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Though, however, the discomfiture of malignant spirits still
+plays an important part in the Catholic doctrine of benedictions,
+this has on the whole tended to become subordinated to other
+benefits. This is but natural; for, though the progress of
+knowledge has not disproved the existence of devils, it has
+greatly limited the supposed range of their activities. According
+to Father Patrick Morrisroe, dean and professor of liturgy at
+Maynooth, the efficacy of benedictions is fourfold: (1) the
+excitation of pious emotions and affections of the heart, and by
+their means the remission of venial sins and of the temporal punishments
+due for these; (2) freedom from the power of evil spirits;
+(3) preservation and restoration of bodily health; (4) various
+other benefits, temporal and spiritual. Benedictions, moreover,
+are twofold: (<i>a</i>) invocative, <i>i.e.</i> those invoking the divine
+benignity for persons and things without changing their condition,
+<i>e.g.</i> children or food; (<i>b</i>) constitutive, <i>i.e.</i> those which
+give to persons or things an indelible religious character, <i>i.e.</i>
+monks and nuns, or the furniture of the altar. The second of
+these brings the act of benediction into contact with the principle
+of consecration (<i>q.v.</i>); for by the formal blessing by the duly
+constituted authority persons, places and things are consecrated,
+<i>i.e.</i> reserved to sacred uses and preserved from the contaminating
+influence of evil spirits. Thus graveyards are consecrated, <i>i.e.</i>
+solemnly blessed in order that the powers of evil may not disturb
+the bodies of the faithful departed; thus, too, the blessing of
+bells gives them a special power against evil demons.</p>
+
+<p>Though the giving of blessings as a sacerdotal function is
+proper to the whole order of priests, particular benedictions
+have, by ecclesiastical authority, been reserved for the bishops,
+who may, however, delegate some of them; <i>i.e.</i> the benediction
+of abbots, of priests at their ordination, of virgins taking the veil,
+of churches, cemeteries, oratories, and of all articles for use in
+connexion with the altar (chalices, patens, vestments, &amp;c.), of
+military colours, of soldiers and of their arms. The holy oil is
+also blessed by bishops in the Roman Catholic Church; in the
+Greek Church, on the other hand, the oil for the chrism at baptism
+is blessed by the priest. To the pope alone is reserved the blessing
+of the pallium, the golden rose, the &ldquo;Agnus-Dei&rdquo; and royal swords;
+he alone, too, can issue blessings that involve some days&rsquo;
+indulgence. The ceremonies prescribed for the various benedictions
+are set forth in the <i>Rituale Romanum</i> (tit. viii.). In general it
+is laid down (cap. i.) that the priest, in benedictions outside the
+Mass, shall be vested in surplice and stole, and shall give the
+blessing standing and bare-headed. Certain prayers are said
+before each benediction, after which he sprinkles the person or
+thing to be blessed with holy water and, where prescribed, censes
+them. He is attended by a minister with a vase of holy water,
+an <i>aspergillum</i> and a copy of the <i>Rituale</i> or missal. In all
+benedictions the sign of the cross is made. In the blessing of the holy
+water (cap. ii.), the essential instrument of all benedictions, the
+object is dearly to establish its potency against evil spirits.
+First the &ldquo;creature of salt&rdquo; is exorcized, &ldquo;that ... thou
+mayest be to all who take thee health of body and soul; that
+wherever thou art sprinkled every phantasy and wickedness and
+wile of diabolic deceit may flee and leave that place, and every
+unclean spirit&rdquo;; a prayer to God for the blessing of the salt
+follows; then the &ldquo;creature of water&rdquo; is exorcized, &ldquo;that thou
+mayest become exorcized water for the purpose of putting to
+flight every power of the enemy, that thou mayest avail to uproot
+and expel this enemy with all his apostate angels, by the virtue
+of the same our Lord Jesus Christ, &amp;c.&rdquo;; and again a prayer
+to God follows that the water may &ldquo;become a creature in the
+service of His mysteries, for the driving out of demons, &amp;c.&rdquo;
+In the formulae of blessings that follow, the special efficacy
+against devils is implied by the aspersion with holy water; the
+benedictions themselves are usually merely invocative of the
+divine protection or assistance, though, <i>e.g.</i>, in the form for
+blessing sick animals the priest prays that &ldquo;all diabolic power in
+them may be destroyed, and that they may be ill no longer.&rdquo; It
+is to be remarked that the &ldquo;laying on of hands,&rdquo; which in the Old
+and the New Testament alike is the usual &ldquo;form&rdquo; of blessing, is not
+used in liturgical benedictions, the priest being directed merely
+to extend his right hand towards the person to be blessed. The
+appendix <i>de Benedictionibus</i> to the <i>Rituale Romanum</i> contains
+formulae, often of much simple beauty, for blessing all manner of
+persons and things, from the congregation as a whole and sick
+men and women, to railways, ships, blast-furnaces, lime-kilns,
+articles of food, medicine and medical bandages and all manner
+of domestic animals.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament</i>, commonly called
+simply &ldquo;Benediction&rdquo; (Fr. <i>salut</i>, Ger. <i>Segen</i>), is one of the
+most popular of the services of the Roman Catholic Church. It
+is usually held in the afternoon or evening, sometimes at the
+conclusion of Vespers, Compline or the Stations of the Cross,
+and consists in the singing of certain hymns and canticles, more
+particularly the <i>O salutaris hostia</i> and the <i>Tantum ergo</i>,
+before the host, which is exposed on the altar in a monstrance and
+surrounded by not less than ten lighted candles. Often litanies
+and hymns to the Virgin are added. At the conclusion the priest,
+his shoulders wrapped in the humeral veil, takes the monstrance
+and with it makes the sign of the cross over the kneeling
+congregation, whence the name Benediction. The service, the details
+of which vary in different countries, is of comparatively modern
+origin. Father Thurston traces it to a combination in the 16th
+and 17th centuries of customs that had their origin in the 13th,
+<i>i.e.</i> certain gild services in honour of the Blessed Virgin, and
+the growing habit, resulting naturally from the doctrine of
+transubstantiation, of ascribing a supreme virtue to the act of
+looking on the Holy Sacrament.</p>
+
+<p>In the reformed Churches the word &ldquo;benediction&rdquo; is technically
+confined to the blessing with which the priest or minister
+dismisses the congregation at the close of the service.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the article &ldquo;Benediktionen,&rdquo; by E.C. Achelis in Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (Leipzig, 1897); <i>The Catholic Encyclopaedia</i>
+(London and New York, 1908) s. &ldquo;Blessing,&rdquo; by P. Morrisroe,
+and &ldquo;Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament,&rdquo; by Herbert Thurston, S.J.;
+in all of which further authorities are cited.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTUS,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> the hymn of Zacharias (Luke i. 68 sqq.), so
+called from the opening word of the Latin version. The hymn
+has been used in Christian worship since at least the 9th century,
+and was adopted into the Anglican Order of Morning Prayer from
+the Roman service of matin-lauds. In the Prayer-Book of 1549
+there was no alternative to the <i>Benedictus</i>; it was to be used
+&ldquo;throughout the whole year.&rdquo; In 1552 the <i>Jubilate</i> was inserted
+without any restriction as to how often it should take the place of
+the <i>Benedictus</i>. Such restriction is clearly implied in the words
+&ldquo;except when that (Benedictus) shall happen to be read in the
+chapter for the day, or for the Gospel on Saint John Baptist&rsquo;s
+day,&rdquo; which were inserted in 1662. The rubric of 1532 had this
+curious wording: &ldquo;And after the Second Lesson shall be used
+and said, Benedictus in English, as followeth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The name is also given to a part of the Roman Catholic mass
+service beginning <i>Benedictus qui venit</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTUS ABBAS<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (d. 1194), abbot of Peterborough, whose
+name is accidentally connected with the <i>Gesta Henrici Regis
+Secundi</i>, one of the most valuable of English 12th-century
+chronicles. He first makes his appearance in 1174, as the
+chancellor of Archbishop Richard, the successor of Becket in
+the primacy. In 1175 Benedictus became prior of Holy Trinity,
+Canterbury; in 1177 he received from Henry II. the abbacy of
+Peterborough, which he held until his death. As abbot he
+distinguished himself by his activity in building, in administering
+the finances of his house and in collecting a library. He is
+described in the <i>Chronicon Petroburgense</i> as &ldquo;blessed both in name
+and deed.&rdquo; He belonged to the circle of Becket&rsquo;s admirers, and
+wrote two works dealing with the martyrdom and the miracles of
+his hero. Fragments of the former work have come down to us
+in the compilation known as the <i>Quadrilogus</i>, which is printed in
+the fourth volume of J.C. Robertson&rsquo;s <i>Materials for the History of Thomas Becket</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span>
+(Rolls series); the miracles are extant in their
+entirety, and are printed in the second volume of the same
+collection. Benedictus has been credited with the authorship
+of the <i>Gesta Henrici</i> on the ground that his name appears in the
+title of the oldest manuscript. We have, however, conclusive
+evidence that Benedictus merely caused this work to be transcribed
+for the Peterborough library. It is only through the force
+of custom that the work is still occasionally cited under the name
+of Benedictus. The question of authorship has been discussed
+by Sir T.D. Hardy, Bishop Stubbs and Professor Liebermann;
+but the results of the discussion are negative. Stubbs conjecturally
+identified the first part of the <i>Gesta</i> (1170-1177) with the
+<i>Liber Tricolumnis</i>, a register of contemporary events kept by
+Richard Fitz Neal (<i>q.v.</i>), the treasurer of Henry II. and author of
+the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i>; the latter part (1177-1192) was by
+the same authority ascribed to Roger of Hoveden, who makes
+large use of the <i>Gesta</i> in his own chronicle, copying them with
+few alterations beyond the addition of some documents. This
+theory, so far as concerns the <i>Liber Tricolumnis</i>, is rejected by
+Liebermann and the most recent editors of the <i>Dialogus</i>
+(A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford, 1902). We can
+only say that the <i>Gesta</i> are the work of a well-informed
+contemporary who appears to have been closely connected with the
+court and is inclined on all occasions to take the side of Henry II.
+The author confines himself to the external history of events, and
+his tone is strictly impersonal. He incorporates some official
+documents, and in many places obviously derives his information
+from others which he does not quote. There is a break in his work
+at the year 1177, where the earliest manuscript ends; but the
+reasons which have been given to prove that the authorship
+changes at this point are inconclusive. The work begins at
+Christmas 1169, and concludes in 1192; it is thus in form a
+fragment, covering portions of the reign of Henry II. and Richard I.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Stubbs&rsquo; <i>Gesta regis Henrici Secundi Benedicti abbatis</i>
+(2 vols., Rolls series, 1867), and particularly the preface to the first
+volume; F. Liebermann in <i>Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario</i>
+(Göttingen, 1875); in <i>Ostenglische Geschichtsquellen</i> (Hanover, 1892);
+and in Pertz&rsquo;s <i>Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores</i>, vol. xxvii.
+pp. 82, 83; also the introduction to the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i> in
+the Oxford edition of 1902.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICH<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1811-1873), German
+dramatist and librettist, was born at Leipzig on the 21st of
+January 1811, and was educated at the Thomasschule at Leipzig.
+He joined the stage in 1831, his first engagement being with the
+travelling company of H.E. Bethmann in Dessau, Cöthen,
+Bernburg and Meiningen. Subsequently he was tenor in several
+theatres in Westphalia and on the Rhine, and became manager
+of the theatre at Wesel, where he produced a comedy, <i>Das
+bemooste Haupt</i> (1841), which met with great success. After an
+engagement in Cologne, he managed the new theatre at Elberfeld
+(1844-1845) and in 1849 was appointed teacher on the staff of
+the Rhenish school of music in Cologne. In 1855 he was
+appointed intendant of the municipal theatre in Frankfort-On-Main,
+but retired in 1861, and died in Leipzig on the 26th of
+September 1873. Benedix&rsquo;s comedies, the scenes of which are
+mostly laid in upper middle-class life, still enjoy some popularity;
+the best-known are: <i>Dr Wespe; Die Hochzeitsreise; Der Vetter;
+Das Gefängnis; Das Lügen; Ein Lustspiel; Der Störenfried;
+Die Dienstboten; Aschenbrödel; Die zärtlichen Verwandten</i>.
+The chief characteristics of his farces are a clear plot and bright,
+easy and natural dialogue. Among his more serious works are:
+<i>Bilder aus dem Schauspielerleben</i> (Leipzig, 1847); <i>Der mündliche
+Vortrag</i> (Leipzig, 1859-1860); <i>Das Wesen des deutschen Rhythmus</i>
+(Leipzig, 1862) and, posthumously, <i>Die Shakespearomanie</i> (1873),
+in which he attacks the extreme adoration of the British poet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Benedix&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte dramatische Werke</i> appeared in 27 vols.
+(Leipzig, 1846-1875); a selection under the title <i>Volkstheater</i> in
+20 vols. (Leipzig, 1882); and a collection of smaller comedies as
+<i>Haustheater</i> in 2 vols. (both ed., Leipzig, 1891); see Benedix&rsquo;s
+autobiography in the <i>Gartenlaube</i> for 1871.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEFICE<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (Lat. <i>beneficium</i>, benefit), a term first applied
+under the Roman empire to portions of land, the usufruct of
+which was granted by the emperors to their soldiers or others
+for life, as a reward or <i>beneficium</i> for past services, and as a
+retainer for future services. A list of all such <i>beneficia</i> was
+recorded in the <i>Book of Benefices</i> (<i>Liber Beneficiorum</i>), which was
+kept by the principal registrar of benefices (<i>Primiscrinius Beneficiorum</i>).
+In imitation of the practice observed under the Roman
+empire, the term came to be applied under the feudal system
+to portions of land granted by a lord to his vassal for the
+maintenance of the latter on condition of his rendering military
+service; and such grants were originally for life only, and the
+land reverted to the lord on the death of the vassal. In a
+similar manner grants of land, or of the profits of land, appear
+to have been made by the bishops to their clergy for life, on the
+ground of some extraordinary merit on the part of the grantee.
+The validity of such grants was first formally recognized by the
+council of Orleans, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 511, which forbade, however, under any
+circumstances, the alienation from the bishoprics of any lands so
+granted. The next following council of Orleans, 533, broke in
+upon this principle, by declaring that a bishop could not reclaim
+from his clergy any grants made to them by his predecessor,
+excepting in cases of misconduct. This innovation on the ancient
+practice was confirmed by the subsequent council of Lyons, 566,
+and from this period these grants ceased to be regarded as
+personal, and their substance became annexed to the churches,&mdash;in
+other words, they were henceforth enjoyed <i>jure tituli</i>, and no
+longer <i>jure personali</i>. How and when the term <i>beneficia</i> came
+to be applied to these episcopal grants is uncertain, but they are
+designated by that term in a canon of the council of Mainz, 813.</p>
+
+<p>The term benefice, according to the canon law, implies always
+an ecclesiastical office, <i>propter quod beneficium datur</i>, but it does
+not always imply a cure of souls. It has been defined to be the
+right which a clerk has to enjoy certain ecclesiastical revenues
+on condition of discharging certain services prescribed by the
+canons, or by usage, or by the conditions under which his office
+has been founded. These services might be those of a secular
+priest with cure of souls, or they might be those of a regular
+priest, a member of a religious order, without cure of souls;
+but in every case a benefice implied three things: (1) An
+obligation to discharge the duties of an office, which is altogether
+spiritual; (2) The right to enjoy the fruits attached to that
+office, which is the benefice itself; (3) The fruits themselves,
+which are the temporalities. By keeping these distinctions in
+view, the right of patronage in the case of secular benefices
+becomes intelligible, being in fact the right, which was originally
+vested in the donor of the temporalities, to present to the bishop
+a clerk to be admitted, if found fit by the bishop, to the office to
+which those temporalities are annexed. Nomination or presentation
+on the part of the patron of the benefice is thus the first
+requisite in order that a clerk should become legally entitled
+to a benefice. The next requisite is that he should be admitted
+by the bishop as a fit person for the spiritual office to which the
+benefice is annexed, and the bishop is the judge of the sufficiency
+of the clerk to be so admitted. By the early constitutions of the
+Church of England a bishop was allowed a space of two months
+to inquire and inform himself of the sufficiency of every presentee,
+but by the ninety-fifth of the canons of 1604 that interval
+has been abridged to twenty-eight days, within which the bishop
+must admit or reject the clerk. If the bishop rejects the clerk
+within that time he is liable to a <i>duplex querela</i> in the
+ecclesiastical courts, or to a <i>quare impedit</i> in the common
+law courts, and the bishop must then certify the reasons of his refusal.
+In cases where the patron is himself a clerk in orders, and wishes
+to be admitted to the benefice, he must proceed by way of petition
+instead of by deed of presentation, reciting that the benefice is
+in his own patronage, and petitioning the bishop to examine
+him and admit him. Upon the bishop having satisfied himself
+of the sufficiency of the clerk, he proceeds to institute him to the
+spiritual office to which the benefice is annexed, but, before such
+institution can take place, the clerk is required to make a declaration
+of assent to the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion and to the
+Book of Common Prayer according to a form prescribed in the
+Clerical Subscription Act 1865, to make a declaration against
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span>
+simony in accordance with that act, and to take and subscribe
+the oath of allegiance according to the form in the Promissory
+Oaths Act 1868. The bishop, by the act of institution, commits
+to the clerk the cure of souls attached to the office to which the
+benefice is annexed. In cases where the bishop himself is patron
+of the benefice, no presentation or petition is required to be
+tendered by the clerk, but the bishop having satisfied himself
+of the sufficiency of the clerk, collates him to the benefice and
+office. It is not necessary that the bishop himself should personally
+institute or collate a clerk; he may issue a fiat to his vicar-general,
+or to a special commissary for that purpose. After the
+bishop or his commissary has instituted the presentee, he issues
+a mandate under seal, addressed to the archdeacon or some
+other neighbouring clergyman, authorizing him to induct the
+clerk into his benefice,&mdash;in other words, to put him into legal
+possession of the temporalities, which is done by some outward
+form, and for the most part by delivery of the bell-rope to
+the clerk, who thereupon tolls the bell. This form of induction
+is required to give the clerk a legal title to his <i>beneficium</i>,
+although his admission to the office by institution is sufficient
+to vacate any other benefice which he may already possess.</p>
+
+<p>By a decree of the Lateran council of 1215, which was enforced
+in England, no clerk can hold two benefices with cure of
+souls, and if a beneficed clerk shall take a second benefice with
+cure of souls, he vacates <i>ipso facto</i> his first benefice. Dispensations,
+however, could be easily obtained from Rome, before the
+reformation of the Church of England, to enable a clerk to hold
+several ecclesiastical dignities or benefices at the same time, and
+by the Peterpence, Dispensations, &amp;c. Act 1534, the power to
+grant such dispensations, which had been exercised previously
+by the court of Rome, was transferred to the archbishop of
+Canterbury, certain ecclesiastical persons having been declared
+by a previous statute (1529) to be entitled to such dispensations.
+The system of pluralities carried with it, as a necessary consequence,
+systematic non-residence on the part of many incumbents,
+and delegation of their spiritual duties in respect of their
+cures of souls to assistant curates. The evils attendant on this
+system were found to be so great that the Pluralities Act 1838
+was passed to abridge the holding of benefices in plurality,
+and it was enacted that no person should hold under any
+circumstances more than two benefices, and this privilege
+was made subject to the restriction that his benefices were
+within ten statute miles of each other. By the Pluralities Act
+1850, the restriction was further narrowed, so that no spiritual
+person could hold two benefices except the churches of such
+benefices were within three miles of each other by the nearest
+road, and the annual value of one of such benefices did not exceed
+£100. By this statute the term benefice is defined to
+mean benefice with cure of souls and no other, and therein to
+comprehend all parishes, perpetual curacies, donatives, endowed
+public chapels, parochial chapelries and chapelries or districts
+belonging or reputed to belong, or annexed or reputed to be
+annexed, to any church or chapel. The Pluralities Acts Amendment
+Act 1885, however, enacted that, by dispensation from the
+archbishop, two benefices could be held together, the churches
+of which are within four miles of each other, and the annual value
+of one of which does not exceed £200.</p>
+
+<p>All benefices except those under the clear annual value of £50
+pay their first fruits (one year&rsquo;s profits) and tenths (of yearly
+profits) to Queen Anne&rsquo;s Bounty for the augmentation of the
+maintenance of the poorer clergy. Their profits during vacation
+belong to the next incumbent. Tithe rent charge attached to a
+benefice is relieved from payment of one-half of the agricultural
+rates assessed thereon. Benefices may be exchanged by agreement
+between incumbents with the consent of the ordinary, and
+they may, with the consent of the patron and ordinary, be united
+or dissolved after being united. They may also be charged with
+the repayment of money laid out for their permanent advantage,
+and be augmented wholly by the medium of Queen Anne&rsquo;s
+Bounty.</p>
+
+<p>A benefice is avoided or vacated&mdash;(1) by death; (2) by resignation,
+if the bishop is willing to accept the resignation: by the Incumbents&rsquo;
+Resignation Act 1871, Amendment Act 1887, any clergyman
+who has been an incumbent of one benefice continuously for
+seven years, and is incapacitated by permanent mental or bodily
+infirmities from fulfilling his duties, may, if the bishop thinks fit,
+have a commission appointed to consider the fitness of his
+resigning; and if the commission report in favour of his resigning,
+he may, with the consent of the patron (or, if that is refused,
+with the consent of the archbishop) resign the cure of souls into
+the bishop&rsquo;s hands, and have assigned to him, out of the benefice,
+a retiring-pension not exceeding one-third of its annual value,
+which is recoverable as a debt from his successor; (3) by cession,
+upon the clerk being instituted to another benefice or some other
+preferment incompatible with it; (4) by deprivation and sentence
+of an ecclesiastical court; under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892,
+an incumbent who has been convicted of offences against the law
+of bastardy, or against whom judgment has been given in a
+divorce or matrimonial cause, is deprived, and on being found
+guilty in the consistory court of immorality or ecclesiastical
+offences (not in respect of doctrine or ritual), he may be deprived
+or suspended or declared incapable of preferment; (5) by act of
+law in consequence of simony; (6) by default of the clerk in
+neglecting to read publicly in the church the Book of Common
+Prayer, and to declare his assent thereto within two months after
+his induction, pursuant to an act of 1662.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Advowson</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glebe</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Incumbent</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vicar</a></span>; also Phillimore,
+<i>Eccles. Law</i>; Cripps, <i>Law of Church and Clergy</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEFICIARY<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>beneficium</i>, a benefit), in law, one
+who holds a benefice; one who is beneficially entitled to, or
+interested in, property, <i>i.e.</i> entitled to it for his own benefit, and
+not merely holding it for others, as does an executor or trustee.
+In this latter sense it is nearly equivalent to <i>cestui que trust</i>, a
+term which it is gradually superseding in modern law.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1798-1854), German
+psychologist, was born at Berlin on the 17th of February 1798,
+studied at the universities of Halle and Berlin, and served as a
+volunteer in the war of 1815. After studying theology under
+Schleiermacher and De Wette, he turned to pure philosophy,
+studying particularly English writers and the German modifiers
+of Kantianism, such as Jacobi, Fries and Schopenhauer. In 1820
+he published his <i>Erkenntnisslehre</i>, his <i>Erfahrungsseelenlehre als
+Grundlage alles Wissens</i>, and his inaugural dissertation <i>De Veris
+Philosophiae Initiis</i>. His marked opposition to the philosophy
+of Hegel, then dominant in Berlin, was shown more clearly in the
+short tract, <i>Neue Grundlegung zur Metaphysik</i> (1822), intended
+to be the programme for his lectures as privat-docent, and in the
+able treatise, <i>Grundlegung zur Physlk der Sitten</i> (1822), written, in
+direct antagonism to Kant&rsquo;s <i>Metaphysic of Ethics</i>, to deduce
+ethical principles from a basis of empirical feeling. In 1822 his
+lectures were prohibited at Berlin, according to his own belief
+through the influence of Hegel with the Prussian authorities, who
+also prevented him from obtaining a chair from the Saxon
+government. He retired to Göttingen, lectured there for some
+years, and was then allowed to return to Berlin. In 1832 he
+received an appointment as <i>professor extraordinarius</i> in the
+university, which he continued to hold till his death. On the 1st
+of March 1854 he disappeared, and more than two years later his
+remains were found in the canal near Charlottenburg. There was
+some suspicion that he had committed suicide in a fit of mental
+depression.</p>
+
+<p>The distinctive peculiarity of Beneke&rsquo;s system consists, first,
+in the firmness with which he maintained that in empirical
+psychology is to be found the basis of all philosophy; and
+secondly, in his rigid treatment of mental phenomena by the
+genetic method. According to him, the perfected mind is a
+development from simple elements, and the first problem of
+philosophy is the determination of these elements and of the
+processes by which the development takes place. In his <i>Neue
+Psychologie</i>, (essays iii., viii. and ix.), he defined his position with
+regard to his predecessors and contemporaries, and both there
+and in the introduction to his <i>Lehrbuch</i> signalized as the two great
+stages in the progress of psychology the negation of innate ideas
+by Locke, and of faculties, in the ordinary acceptation of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span>
+term, by Herbart. The next step was his own; he insisted that
+psychology must be treated as one of the natural sciences. As is
+the case with them, its content is given by experience alone, and
+differs from theirs only in being the object of the internal as
+opposed to the external sense. But by this Beneke in no wise
+meant a psychology founded on physiology. These two sciences,
+in his opinion, had quite distinct provinces and gave no mutual
+assistance. Just as little help is to be expected from the science
+of the body as from mathematics and metaphysics, both of which
+had been pressed by Herbart into the service of psychology. The
+true method of study is that applied with so much success in the
+physical sciences&mdash;critical examination of the given experience,
+and reference of it to ultimate causes, which may not be themselves
+perceived, but are nevertheless hypotheses necessary to account
+for the facts. (See on method, <i>Neue Psych.</i>, essay i.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Starting from the two assumptions that there is nothing, or at
+least no formed product, innate in the mind, and that definite
+faculties do not originally exist, and from the fact that our minds
+nevertheless actually have a definite content and definite modes of
+action, Beneke proceeds to state somewhat dogmatically his
+scientifically verifiable hypotheses as to the primitive condition of
+the soul and the laws according to which it develops. Originally the
+soul is possessed of or is an immense variety of powers, faculties or
+forces (conceptions which Beneke, in opposition to Herbart, holds to
+be metaphysically justifiable), differing from one another only in
+tenacity, vivacity, receptivity and grouping. These primitive
+immaterial forces, so closely united as to form but one being (essence),
+acquire definiteness or form through the action upon them of <i>stimuli</i>
+or excitants from the outer world. This action of external
+impressions which are appropriated by the internal powers is the first
+fundamental process in the genesis of the completed mind. If the
+union of impression and faculty be sufficiently strong, consciousness
+(not <i>self</i>-consciousness) arises, and definite sensations and
+perceptions begin to be formed. These primitive sensations, however,
+are not to be identified with the sensations of the special senses,
+for each of these senses is a system of many powers which have grown
+into a definite unity, have been educated by experience. From ordinary
+experience it must be concluded that a second fundamental process
+is incessantly going on, viz. the formation of new powers, which
+takes place principally during sleep. The third and most important
+process results from the fact that the combination between stimulus
+and power may be weak or strong; if weak, then the two elements
+are said to be movable, and they may flow over from one to another
+of the already formed psychical products. Any formed faculty
+does not cease to exist on the removal of its stimulus; in virtue of
+its fundamental property, <i>tenacity</i>, it sinks back as a trace
+(<i>Spur</i>) into unconsciousness, whence it may be recalled by the
+application to it of another stimulus, or by the attraction towards
+it of some of the movable elements or newly-formed original powers.
+These traces and the flowing over of the movable elements are the most
+important conceptions in Beneke&rsquo;s psychology; by means of them
+he gives a rationale of reproduction and association, and strives to
+show that all the formed faculties are simply developments from
+traces of earlier processes. Lastly, similar forms, according to the
+degree of their similarity, attract one another or tend to form closer
+combinations.</p>
+
+<p>All psychical phenomena are explicable by the relation of impression
+and power, and by the flow of movable elements; the whole
+process of mental development is nothing but the result of the action
+and interaction of the above simple laws. In general this growth
+may be said to take the direction of rendering more and more definite
+by repetition and attraction of like to like the originally indefinite
+activities of the primary faculties. Thus the sensations of the
+special senses are gradually formed from the primary sensuous feelings
+(<i>sinnliche Empfindungen</i>); concepts are formed from intuitions
+of individuals by the attraction of the common elements, and
+the consequent flow towards them of movable forms. Judgment is
+the springing into consciousness of a concept alongside of an
+intuition, or of a higher concept alongside of a lower. Reasoning is
+merely a more complex judgment. Nor are there special faculties
+of judging or reasoning. The understanding is simply the mass of
+concepts lying in the background of unconsciousness, ready to be
+called up and to flow with force towards anything closely connected
+with them. Even memory is not a special faculty; it is simply the
+fundamental property of tenacity possessed by the original faculties.
+The very distinction between the great classes, Knowledge, Feeling
+and Will, may be referred to elementary differences in the original
+relations of faculty and impression.</p>
+
+<p>This is the groundwork of Beneke&rsquo;s philosophy. It should be
+carefully compared with the association psychology of modern
+British thinkers, most of whose results and processes will be found
+there worked into a comprehensive system (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Association of
+Ideas</a></span>). In logic, metaphysics and ethics Beneke&rsquo;s speculations
+are naturally dependent on his psychology.</p>
+
+<p>The special value of Beneke&rsquo;s works, as has been already said,
+consists in the many specimens of acute psychological analysis
+scattered throughout them. As a complete explanation of psychical
+facts, the theory seems defective. The original hypotheses, peculiar
+to Beneke, on which the whole depends, are hastily assumed and
+rest on a clumsy mechanical metaphor. As is the case with all
+empirical theories of mental development, the higher categories
+or notions, which are apparently shown to result from the simple
+elements, are really presupposed at every step. Particularly
+unsatisfactory is the account of consciousness, which is said to arise
+from the union of impression and faculty. The necessity of
+consciousness for any mental action whatsoever is apparently granted,
+but the conditions involved in it are never discussed or mentioned.
+The same defect appears in the account of ethical judgment; no
+amount of empirical fact can ever yield the notion of absolute duty.
+His results have found acceptance mainly with practical teachers.
+Undoubtedly his minute analysis of temperament and careful
+exposition of the means whereby the young, unformed mind may be
+trained are of infinite value; but the truth of many of his doctrines
+on these points lends no support to the fundamental hypotheses,
+from which, indeed, they might be almost entirely severed.</p>
+
+<p>Beneke was a most prolific writer, and besides the works mentioned
+above, published large treatises in the several departments of
+philosophy, both pure and as applied to education and ordinary
+life. A complete list of his writings will be found in the appendix
+to Dressler&rsquo;s edition of the <i>Lehrbuch der Psychologie als
+Naturwissenschaft</i> (1861).
+The chief are:&mdash;<i>Psychologische Skizzen</i> (1825, 1827);
+<i>Lehrbuch der Psychologie</i> (1832);
+<i>Metaphysik und Religionsphilosophie</i> (1840);
+<i>Die neue Psychologie</i> (1845); <i>Pragmatische Psychologie
+oder Seelenlehre in der Anwendung auf das Leben</i> (1832).</p>
+
+<p>Among German writers, who, though not professed followers of
+Beneke, have been largely influenced by him, may be mentioned
+Ueberweg and Karl Fortlage (1806-1881). In England, perhaps,
+the only writer who shows traces of acquaintance with his works
+is J.D. Morell (<i>Introd. to Mental Philosophy</i>). The most eminent
+members of the school are J.G. Dressler (whose <i>Beneke oder
+Seelenlehre als Naturwissenschaft</i> is an admirable exposition),
+Fried. Dittes and G. Raue. The compendium by the last-named author
+passed through four editions in Germany, and has been translated into
+French, Flemish and English. The English translation, <i>Elements
+of Psychology</i> (1871), gives a lucid and succinct view of the whole
+system.</p>
+
+<p>Among more recent works on Beneke are O.E. Hummel, <i>Die
+Unterrichtslehre Benekes</i> (Leipzig, 1885); on his ethical theory,
+C.H.Th. Kühn, <i>Die Sittenlehre F.E. Benekes</i> (1892);
+Joh. Friedrich, <i>F.E. Beneke</i> (Wiesbaden, 1898,
+with biography and list of works);
+Otto Gramzow, <i>F.E. Benekes Leben und Philos.</i> (Bern, 1899,
+with full bibliography); on his theory of knowledge,
+H. Renner, <i>Benekes Erkenninistheorie</i> (Halle, 1902);
+on his metaphysics, <i>Die Metaphysik Benekes</i>,
+by A. Wandschneider (Berlin, 1903);
+Brandt, <i>Beneke, the Man and His Philosophy</i> (New York, 1895);
+Falckenberg, <i>Hist. of Phil.</i> (Eng. trans., 1895);
+and H. Höffding, <i>Hist. of Mod. Phil.</i> vol. ii.
+(Eng. trans., 1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Ad.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENETT, ETHELDRED<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1776-1845), one of the earliest of
+English women geologists, the second daughter of Thomas
+Benett, of Pyt House near Tisbury, was born in 1776. Later
+she resided at Norton House, near Warminster, in Wiltshire,
+and for more than a quarter of a century devoted herself to
+collecting and studying the fossils of her native county. She
+contributed &ldquo;A Catalogue of the Organic Remains of the County of
+Wilts&rdquo; to Sir R.C. Hoare&rsquo;s <i>County History</i>, and a limited
+number of copies of this work were printed as a separate volume (1831)
+and privately distributed. She died on the 11th of January 1845.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEVENTO,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania,
+Italy, capital of the province of Benevento, 60 m. by rail and
+32 m. direct N.E. of Naples, situated on a hill 400 ft. above
+sea-level at the confluence of the Calore and Sabbato. Pop.
+(1901) town, 17,227; commune, 24,137. It occupies the site of
+the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or Maluentum,
+supposed in the imperial period to have been founded by Diomedes.
+It was the chief town of the Samnites, who took refuge
+here after their defeat by the Romans in 314 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It appears not
+to have fallen into the hands of the latter until Pyrrhus&rsquo;s absence
+in Sicily, but served them as a base of operations in the last
+campaign against him in 275 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A Latin colony was planted
+there in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it was then that the name was changed for
+the sake of the omen, and probably then that the Via Appia was
+extended from Capua to Beneventum. It remained in the hands
+of the Romans during both the Punic and the Social Wars, and
+was a fortress of importance to them. The position is strong,
+being protected by the two rivers mentioned, and the medieval
+fortifications, which are nearly 2 m. in length, probably follow
+the ancient line, which was razed to the ground by Totila in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span>
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 542. After the Social War it became a <i>municipium</i> and
+under Augustus a colony. Being a meeting point of six main
+roads,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> it was much visited by travellers. Its importance is
+vouched for by the many remains of antiquity which it possesses,
+of which the most famous is the triumphal arch erected in honour
+of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 114, with
+important reliefs relating to its history (E. Petersen in
+<i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>, 1892, 241; A. von Domaszewzki in
+<i>Jahreshefte des Österreich. archäologischen Instituts</i>, ii., 1899, 173).
+There are also considerable remains of the ancient theatre, a
+large <i>cryptoporticus</i> 197 ft. long known as the ruins of Santi
+Quaranta, and probably an emporium (according to Meomartini,
+the portion preserved is only a fraction of the whole, which once
+measured 1791 ft. in length) and an ancient brick arch (called
+the Arco del Sacramento), while below the town is the Ponte
+Lebroso, a bridge of the Via Appia over the Sabbato, and along
+the road to Avellino are remains of <i>thermae</i>. Many inscriptions
+and ancient fragments may be seen built into the houses; in
+front of the Madonna delle Grazie is a bull in red Egyptian
+granite, and in the Piazza Papiniano the fragments of two
+Egyptian obelisks erected in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 88 in front of the temple of
+Isis in honour of Domitian. In 1903 the foundations of this
+temple were discovered close to the Arch of Trajan, and many
+fragments of fine sculptures in both the Egyptian and the
+Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had
+apparently been used as the foundation of a portion of the city
+wall, reconstructed in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 663 under the fear of an attack by
+Constans, the Byzantine emperor, the temple having been
+destroyed under the influence of the bishop, St Barbatus, to
+provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini, O. Marucchi
+and L. Savignoni in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1904, 107 sqq.). Not
+long after it had been sacked by Totila Benevento became the
+seat of a powerful Lombard duchy and continued to be independent
+until 1053, when the emperor Henry III. ceded it to
+Leo IX. in exchange for the bishopric of Bamberg; and it
+continued to be a papal possession until 1806, when Napoleon
+granted it to Talleyrand with the title of prince. In 1815 it
+returned to the papacy, but was united to Italy in 1860. Manfred
+lost his life in 1266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far from
+the town. Much damage has been done by earthquakes from
+time to time. The church of S. Sofia, a circular edifice of about
+760, now modernized, the roof of which is supported by six
+ancient columns, is a relic of the Lombard period; it has a fine
+cloister of the 12th century constructed in part of fragments of
+earlier buildings; while the cathedral with its fine arcaded
+façade and incomplete square campanile (begun in 1279) dates
+from the 9th century and was rebuilt in 1114. The bronze doors,
+adorned with bas-reliefs, are good; they may belong to the
+beginning of the 13th century. The interior is in the form of a
+basilica, the double aisles being borne by ancient columns, and
+contains <i>ambones</i> and a candelabrum of 1311, the former resting
+on columns supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and
+coloured marble mosaic. The castle at the highest point of the
+town was erected in the 14th century.</p>
+
+<p>Benevento is a station on the railway from Naples to Foggia,
+and has branch lines to Campobasso and to Avellino.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Meomartini, <i>Monumenti e opere d&rsquo;Arte di Benevento</i> (Benevento,
+1899); T. Ashby, <i>Mélanges de l&rsquo;école française</i>, 1903, 416.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These were (1) the prolongation of the Via Appia from Capua,
+(2) its continuation to Tarentum and Brundisium, of which there
+were two different lines between Beneventum and Aquilonia at
+different dates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appia, Via</a></span>), (3) the Via Traiana to Brundisium
+by Herdoniae, (4) the road to Telesia and Aesernia, (5) the road
+to Aesernia by Bovianum, (6) the road to Abellinum and Salernum.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENEVOLENCE<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (Lat. <i>bene</i>, well, and <i>volens</i>, wishing), a term
+for an act of kindness, or a gift of money, or goods, but used in a
+special sense to indicate sums of money, disguised as gifts, which
+were extorted by various English kings from their subjects,
+without consent of parliament. Among the numerous methods
+which have been adopted by sovereigns everywhere to obtain
+support from their people, that of demanding gifts has frequently
+found a place, and consequently it is the word and not the method
+which is peculiar to English history. Edward II. and Richard II.
+had obtained funds by resorting to forced loans, a practice which
+was probably not unusual in earlier times. Edward IV., however,
+discarded even the pretence of repayment, and in 1473 the word
+<i>benevolence</i> was first used with reference to a royal demand for a
+gift. Edward was very successful in these efforts, and as they
+only concerned a limited number of persons he did not incur
+serious unpopularity. But when Richard III. sought to emulate
+his brother&rsquo;s example, protests were made which led to the
+passing of an act of parliament in 1484 abolishing benevolences
+as &ldquo;new and unlawful inventions.&rdquo; About the same time the
+Chronicle of Croyland referred to a benevolence as a &ldquo;nova et
+inaudita impositio muneris ut per benevolentiam quilibet daret
+id quod vellet, immo verius quod nollet.&rdquo; In spite of this act
+Richard demanded a further benevolence; but it was Henry VII.
+who made the most extensive use of this system. In 1491 he sent
+out commissioners to obtain gifts of money, and in 1496 an act
+of parliament enforced payment of the sums promised on this
+occasion under penalty of imprisonment. Henry&rsquo;s chancellor,
+Cardinal Morton, archbishop of Canterbury, was the traditional
+author of a method of raising money by benevolences known as
+&ldquo;Morton&rsquo;s Fork.&rdquo; If a man lived economically, it was reasoned
+he was saving money and could afford a present for the king. If,
+on the contrary, he lived sumptuously, he was evidently wealthy
+and could likewise afford a gift. Henry VII. obtained considerable
+sums of money in this manner; and in 1545 Henry VIII.
+demanded a &ldquo;loving contribution&rdquo; from all who possessed lands
+worth not less than forty shillings a year, or chattels to the value
+of £15; and those who refused to make payment were summoned
+before the privy council and punished. Elizabeth took loans
+which were often repaid; and in 1614 James I. ordered the
+sheriffs and magistrates in each county and borough to collect a
+general benevolence from all persons of ability, and with some
+difficulty about £40,000 was collected. Four counties had, however,
+distinguished themselves by protests against this demand,
+and the act of Richard III. had been cited by various objectors.
+Representatives from the four counties were accordingly called
+before the privy council, where Sir Edward Coke defended the
+action of the king, quoted the Tudor precedents and urged that
+the act of 1484 was to prevent exactions, not voluntary gifts such
+as James had requested. Subsequently Oliver St John was fined
+and imprisoned for making a violent protest against the benevolence,
+and on the occasion of his trial Sir Francis Bacon defended
+the request for money as voluntary. In 1615 an attempt to exact
+a benevolence in Ireland failed, and in 1620 it was decided to
+demand one for the defence of the Palatinate. Circular letters
+were sent out, punishments were inflicted, but many excuses were
+made and only about £34,000 was contributed. In 1621 a further
+attempt was made, judges of assize and others were ordered to
+press for contributions, and wealthy men were called before the
+privy council and asked to name a sum at which to be rated.
+About £88,000 was thus raised, and in 1622 William Fiennes, 1st
+Viscount Saye and Sele, was imprisoned for six months for
+protesting. This was the last time benevolences were actually
+collected, although in 1622 and 1625 it was proposed to raise
+money in this manner. In 1633 Charles I. consented to collect
+a benevolence for the recovery of the Palatinate for Charles
+Louis, the son of his sister Elizabeth, but no further steps were
+taken to carry out the project.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. iii. (Oxford,
+1895); H. Hallam, <i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. i. (London,
+1855); T.P. Taswell-Langmead, <i>English Constitutional History</i>
+(London, 1896); S.R. Gardiner, <i>History of England, passim</i> (London,
+1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENFEY, THEODOR<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1809-1881), German philologist, son of
+a Jewish trader at Nörten, near Göttingen, was born on the 28th
+of January 1809. Although originally designed for the medical
+profession, his taste for philology was awakened by a careful
+instruction in Hebrew which he received from his father. After
+brilliant studies at Göttingen he spent a year at Munich, where
+he was greatly impressed by the lectures of Schelling and Thiersch,
+and afterwards settled as a teacher in Frankfort. His pursuits
+were at first chiefly classical, and his attention was diverted to
+Sanskrit by an accidental wager that he would learn enough of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span>
+the language in a few weeks to be able to review a new book upon
+it. This feat he accomplished, and rivalled in later years when
+he learned Russian in order to translate V.P. Vasilev&rsquo;s work on
+Buddhism. For the time, however, his labours were chiefly in
+classical and Semitic philology. At Göttingen, whither he had
+returned as privat-docent, he wrote a little work on the names of
+the Hebrew months, proving that they were derived from the
+Persian, prepared the great article on India in Ersch and Grüber&rsquo;s
+<i>Encyclopaedia</i>, and published from 1839 to 1842 the <i>Lexicon of
+Greek Roots</i> which gained him the Volney prize of the Institute
+of France. From this time his attention was principally given
+to Sanskrit. He published in 1848 his edition of the <i>S&#257;ma-veda</i>;
+in 1852-1854 his <i>Manual of Sanskrit</i>, comprising a grammar and
+chrestomathy; in 1858 his practical Sanskrit grammar, afterwards
+translated into English; and in 1859 his edition of the
+<i>Pantscha Tantra</i>, with an extensive dissertation on the fables
+and mythologies of primitive nations. All these works had been
+produced under the pressure of poverty, the government,
+whether from parsimony or from prejudice against a Jew,
+refusing to make any substantial addition to his small salary
+as extra-professor at the university. At length, in 1862, the
+growing appreciation of foreign scholars shamed it into making
+him an ordinary professor, and in 1866 Benfey published the
+laborious work by which he is on the whole best known, his
+great <i>Sanskrit-English Dictionary</i>. In 1869 he wrote a history
+of German philological research, especially Oriental, during the
+19th century. In 1878 his jubilee as doctor was celebrated by
+the publication of a volume of philological essays dedicated to
+him and written by the first scholars in Germany. He had
+designed to close his literary labours by a grammar of Vedic
+Sanskrit, and was actively preparing it when he was interrupted
+by illness, which terminated in his death at Göttingen on the
+26th of June 1881.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A collection of his various writings was published in 1890, prefaced
+by a memoir by his son.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENGAL,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> a province of British India, bounded on the E. by
+the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, the boundary line
+being the Madhumati river and the Ganges; on the S. by the
+Bay of Bengal and Madras; on the W. by the Central Provinces
+and United Provinces; and on the N. by Nepal and Sikkim.
+It has an area of 141,580 sq. m. and a population of 54,096,806.
+It consists of the provinces of Behar, Orissa and Chota Nagpur,
+and the western portion of the Ganges valley, but without the
+provinces of Northern and Eastern Bengal; and is divided into
+the six British divisions of the presidency, Bhagalpur, Patna,
+Burdwan, Chota Nagpur and Orissa, and various native states.
+The province was reconstituted in 1905, when the Chittagong,
+Dacca and Rajshahi divisions, the district of Malda and the state
+of Hill Tippera were transferred from Bengal to a new province,
+Eastern Bengal and Assam; the five Hindi-speaking states of
+Chota Nagpur, namely Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur
+and Jashpur, were transferred from Bengal to the Central
+Provinces; and Sambalpur and the five Oriya states of Bamra,
+Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi were transferred from
+the Central Provinces to Bengal. The province of Bengal,
+therefore, now consists of the thirty-three British districts of
+Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli, Howrah,
+Twenty-four Parganas, Calcutta, Nadia, Murshidabad, Jessore,
+Khulna, Patna, Gaya, Shahabad, Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarpur,
+Darbhanga, Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Santal
+Parganas, Cuttack, Balasore, Angul and Khondmals, Puri,
+Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Palamau, Manbhum, Singhbum and
+Sambalpur, and the native states of Sikkim and the tributary
+states of Orissa and Chota Nagpur.</p>
+
+<p>The name Bengal is derived from Sanskrit geography, and
+applies strictly to the country stretching southwards from
+Bhagalpur to the sea. The ancient Banga formed one of the five
+outlying kingdoms of Aryan India, and was practically conterminous
+with the delta of Bengal. It derived its name, according
+to the etymology of the Pundits, from a prince of the Mahabharata,
+to whose portion it fell on the primitive partition of the
+country among the Lunar race of Delhi. But a city called
+Bangala, near Chittagong, which, although now washed away,
+is supposed to have existed in the Mahommedan period, appears
+to have given the name to the European world. The word
+Bangala was first used by the Mussulmans; and under their rule,
+like the Banga of old Sanskrit times, it applied specifically to
+the Gangetic delta, although the later conquests to the east of
+the Brahmaputra were eventually included within it. In their
+distribution of the country for fiscal purposes, it formed the
+central province of a governorship, with Behar on the north-west,
+and Orissa on the south-west, jointly ruled by one deputy of the
+Delhi emperor. Under the English the name has at different
+periods borne very different significations. Francis Fernandez
+applies it to the country from the extreme east of Chittagong
+to Point Palmyras in Orissa, with a coast line which Purchas
+estimates at 600 m., running inland for the same distance and
+watered by the Ganges. This territory would include the
+Mahommedan province of Bengal, with parts of Behar and
+Orissa. The loose idea thus derived from old voyagers became
+stereotyped in the archives of the East India Company. All its
+north-eastern factories, from Balasore, on the Orissa coast, to
+Patna, in the heart of Behar, belonged to the &ldquo;Bengal Establishment,&rdquo;
+and as British conquests crept higher up the rivers,
+the term came to be applied to the whole of northern India.
+The presidency of Bengal, in contradistinction to those of Madras
+and Bombay, eventually included all the British territories
+north of the Central Provinces, from the mouths of the Ganges
+and Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab. In 1831
+the North-Western Provinces were created, which are now
+included with Oudh in the United Provinces; and the whole
+of northern India is now divided into the four lieutenant-governorships
+of the Punjab, the United Provinces, Bengal, and
+Eastern Bengal and Assam, and the North-West Frontier Province
+under a commissioner.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Geography</i>.&mdash;Three sub-provinces of the present
+lieutenant-governorship of Bengal&mdash;namely, Bengal proper,
+Behar and Orissa&mdash;consist of great river valleys; the fourth,
+Chota Nagpur, is a mountainous region which separates them
+from the central India plateau. Orissa embraces the rich deltas
+of the Mahanadi and the neighbouring rivers, bounded by the
+Bay of Bengal on the S.E., and walled in on the N.W. by tributary
+hill states. Proceeding west, the sub-province of Bengal proper
+stretches to the banks of the Ganges and inland from the sea-board
+to the Himalayas. Its southern portion is formed by the
+delta of the Ganges; its northern consists of the Ganges valley.
+Behar lies on the north-west of Bengal proper, and comprises,
+the higher valley of the Ganges from the spot where it issues
+from the United Provinces. Between Behar and Orissa lies the
+province of Chota Nagpur, of which a portion was given in 1905
+to the Central Provinces. The valley of the Ganges, which is
+now divided between Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam,
+is one of the most fertile and densely-populated tracts of country
+in the world. It teems with every product of nature. Tea,
+indigo, turmeric, lac, waving white fields of the opium-poppy,
+wheat and innumerable grains and pulses, pepper, ginger, betel-nut,
+quinine and many costly spices and drugs, oil-seeds of sorts,
+cotton, the silk mulberry, inexhaustible crops of jute and other
+fibres; timber, from the feathery bamboo and coroneted palm
+to the iron-hearted <i>sál</i> tree&mdash;in short, every vegetable product
+which feeds and clothes a people, and enables it to trade with
+foreign nations, abounds. Nor is the country destitute of mineral
+wealth. The districts near the sea consist entirely of alluvial
+formations; and, indeed, it is stated that no substance so coarse
+as gravel occurs throughout the delta, or in the heart of the
+provinces within 400 m. of the river mouths.</p>
+
+<p>The climate varies from the snowy regions of the Himalayas
+to the tropical vapour-bath of the delta and the burning winds
+of Behar. The ordinary range of the thermometer,
+<span class="sidenote">Climate.</span>
+on the plains is from about 52° F. in the coldest
+month to 103° in the shade in summer. A temperature below
+60° is considered very cold, while with care the temperature of
+well-built houses rarely exceeds 95° in the hot weather. The
+rainfall varies from 37 in. in Behar to about 65 in. in the delta.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span></p>
+
+<p>Lower Bengal exhibits the two typical stages in the life of a
+great river. In the northern districts the rivers run along the
+valleys, receive the drainage from the country on
+either side, absorb broad tributaries and rush forward
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+with an ever-increasing volume. But near the centre of the
+provinces the rivers enter upon a new stage of their career.
+Their main channels bifurcate, and each new stream so created
+throws off its own set of distributaries to right and left. The
+country which they thus enclose and intersect forms the delta
+of Bengal. Originally conquered by the fluvial deposits from the
+sea, it now stretches out as a vast dead level, in which the rivers
+find their velocity checked, and their current no longer able to
+carry along the silt which they have brought down from northern
+India. The streams, accordingly, deposit their alluvial burden
+in their channels and upon their banks, so that by degrees their
+beds rise above the level of the surrounding country. In this
+way the rivers in the delta slowly build themselves up into
+canals, which every autumn break through or overflow their
+margins, and leave their silt upon the adjacent flats. Thousands
+of square miles in Lower Bengal annually receive a top-dressing
+of virgin soil from the Himalayas,&mdash;a system of natural manuring
+which renders elaborate tillage a waste of labour, and defies the
+utmost power of over-cropping to exhaust its fertility. As the
+rivers creep farther down the delta, they become more and more
+sluggish, and their bifurcations and interfacings more complicated.
+The last scene of all is a vast amphibious wilderness of swamp
+and forest, amid whose solitudes their network of channels
+insensibly merges into the sea. The rivers, finally checked by
+the sea, deposit their remaining silt, which emerges as banks
+or blunted promontories, or, after a year&rsquo;s battling with the
+tide, adds a few feet or it may be a few inches to the foreshore.</p>
+
+<p>The Ganges gives to the country its peculiar character and
+aspect. About 200 m. from its mouth it spreads out into
+numerous branches, forming a large delta, composed, where it
+borders on the sea, of a labyrinth of creeks and rivers, running
+through the dense forests of the Sundarbans, and exhibiting
+during the annual inundation the appearance of an immense sea.
+At this time the rice fields to the extent of many hundreds of
+square miles are submerged. The scene presents to a European
+eye a panorama of singular novelty and interest&mdash;rice fields
+covered with water to a great depth; the ears of grain floating
+on the surface; the stupendous embankments, which restrain
+without altogether preventing the excesses of the inundations;
+and peasants going out to their daily work with their cattle in
+canoes or on rafts. The navigable streams which fall into the
+Ganges intersect the country in every direction and afford great
+facilities for internal communication. In many parts boats can
+approach by means of lakes, rivulets and water-courses to the
+door of almost every cottage. The lower region of the Ganges
+is the richest and most productive portion of Bengal, abounding
+in valuable produce. The other principal rivers in Bengal are
+the Sone, Gogra, Gandak, Kusi, Tista; the Hugli, formed by the
+junction of the Bhagirathi and Jalangi, and farther to the west,
+the Damodar and Rupnarayan; and in the south-west, the Mahanadi
+or great river of Orissa. In a level country like Bengal, where
+the soil is composed of yielding and loose materials, the courses
+of the rivers are continually shifting from the wearing
+away of their different banks, or from the water being turned
+off by obstacles in its course into a different channel. As this
+channel is gradually widened the old bed of the river is left dry.
+The new channel into which the river flows is of course so much
+land lost, while the old bed constitutes an accession to the
+adjacent estates. Thus, one man&rsquo;s property is diminished,
+while that of another is enlarged or improved; and a distinct
+branch of jurisprudence has grown up, the particular province
+of which is the definition and regulation of the alluvial rights
+alike of private property and of the state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The greater part of Bengal is occupied by the
+alluvial deposits of the Ganges, but in the south-west rises the
+plateau of Chota Nagpur composed chiefly of gneissic rocks.
+The great thickness of the Gangetic alluvium is shown by a
+borehole at Calcutta which was carried to a depth of about
+460 ft. below the present level of the sea without entering any
+marine deposit. Over the surface of the gneissic rocks are
+scattered numerous basins of Gondwana beds. Some of these
+are undoubtedly faulted into their present positions, and to this
+they owe their preservation. In the Rajmahal Hills basaltic
+lava flows are interbedded with the Gondwana deposits, and in
+the Karharbari coalfield the Gondwana beds are traversed by
+dikes of mica-peridotite and basalt, which are supposed to be of
+the same age as the Rajmahal lavas. The Gondwana series is
+economically of great importance. It includes numerous seams
+of coal, many of which are worked on an extensive scale (at
+Giridih, Raniganj, &amp;c.). The quality of the coal is good, but
+unfortunately it contains a large amount of ash, the average
+being as high as 17%.</p>
+
+<p><i>People.</i>&mdash;In the sub-provinces under the lieutenant-governor
+of Bengal dwell a great congeries of peoples, of widely diverse
+origin, speaking different languages and representing far
+separated eras of civilization. The province, in fact, became so
+unwieldy that this was the chief reason for its partition in 1905.
+The people exhibit every stage of human progress, and every
+type of human enlightenment and superstition from the educated
+classes to primitive hill tribes. On the same bench of a Calcutta
+college sit youths trained up in the strictest theism, others
+indoctrinated in the mysteries of the Hindu trinity and pantheon,
+with representatives of every link in the chain of superstition&mdash;from
+the harmless offering of flowers before the family god to
+the cruel rites of Kali, whose altars in the most civilized districts
+of Bengal, as lately as the famine of 1866, were stained with
+human blood. Indeed, the very word Hindu is one of absolutely
+indeterminate meaning. The census officers employ it as a
+convenient generic to include 42 millions of the population of
+Bengal, comprising elements of transparently distinct ethnical
+origin, and separated from each other by their language, customs
+and religious rites. But Hinduism, understood even in this wide
+sense, represents only one of many creeds and races found within
+Bengal. The other great historical cultus, which during the
+last twelve centuries did for the Semitic peoples what
+Christianity accomplished among the European Aryans, has won to
+itself one-fifth of the population of Bengal. The Mahommedans
+number some 9,000,000 in Bengal, but the great bulk of their
+numbers was transferred to Eastern Bengal and Assam. They
+consist largely of the original inhabitants of the country, who
+were proselytized by the successive Pathan and Mogul invasions.
+In the face of great natural catastrophes, such as river inundations,
+famines, tidal waves and cyclones of the lower provinces
+of Bengal, the religious instinct works with a vitality unknown
+in European countries. Until the British government stepped
+in with its police and canals and railroads, between the people
+and what they were accustomed to consider the dealings of
+Providence, scarcely a year passed without some terrible
+manifestation of the power and the wrath of God. Mahratta invasions
+from central India, piratical devastations on the sea-board,
+banditti who marched about the interior in bodies of 50,000 men,
+floods which drowned the harvests of whole districts, and
+droughts in which a third of the population starved to death,
+kept alive a sense of human powerlessness in the presence of an
+omnipotent fate. Under the Mahommedans a pestilence turned
+the capital into a silent wilderness, never again to be re-peopled.
+Under British rule it is estimated that 10 millions perished
+within the Lower Provinces alone in the famine of 1769-1770;
+and the first surveyor-general of Bengal entered on his maps a
+tract of many hundreds of square miles as bare of villages and
+&ldquo;depopulated by the Maghs.&rdquo; But since the advent of British
+administration the history of Bengal has substantially been a
+record of prosperity; the teeming population of its river valleys
+is one of the densest in the world, and the purely agricultural
+districts of Saran and Muzaffarpur in the Patna division support
+over 900 persons to the square mile, a number hardly surpassed
+elsewhere except in urban areas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Language.</i>&mdash;Excluding immigrants the languages spoken by
+the people of Bengal belong to one or other of four linguistic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span>
+families&mdash;Aryan, Dravidian, Munda and Tibeto-Burman. Of
+these the languages of the Aryan family are by far the most
+important, being spoken by no less than 95% of the population
+according to the census of 1901. The Aryan languages are spoken
+in the plains by almost the whole population; the Munda and
+Dravidian in the Chota Nagpur plateau and adjoining tracts;
+and the Tibeto-Burman in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Jalpaiguri.
+The most important Aryan languages are Bengali (<i>q.v.</i>), Bihari,
+Eastern Hindi and Oriya. On the average in the province,
+before partition, out of every 1000 persons 528 spoke Bengali,
+341 Hindi and Bihari, and 79 Oriya. As a rule Bengali is the
+language of Bengal proper, Hindi of Behar and Chota Nagpur,
+and Oriya of Orissa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The staple crop of the province is rice, to which
+about 66% of the cropped area is devoted. There are three
+harvests in the year&mdash;the <i>boro</i>, or spring rice; <i>áus</i>, or autumn
+rice; and <i>áman</i>, or winter rice. Of these the last or winter rice
+is by far the most extensively cultivated, and forms the great
+harvest of the year. The <i>áman</i> crop is grown on low land. In
+May, after the first fall of rain, a nursery ground is ploughed
+three times, and the seed scattered broadcast. When the seedlings
+make their appearance another field is prepared for transplanting.
+By this time the rainy season has thoroughly set in,
+and the field is dammed up so as to retain the water. It is then
+repeatedly ploughed until the water becomes worked into the
+soil, and the whole reduced to thick mud. The young rice is then
+taken from the nursery, and transplanted in rows about 9 in. apart.
+<i>Áman</i> rice is much more extensively cultivated than <i>áus</i>,
+and in favourable years is the most valuable crop, but being
+sown in low lands is liable to be destroyed by excessive rainfall.
+Harvest takes place in December or January. <i>Áus</i> rice is
+generally sown on high ground. The field is ploughed when the
+early rains set in, ten or twelve times over, till the soil is reduced
+nearly to dust, the seed being sown broadcast in April or May.
+As soon as the young plants reach 6 in. in height, the land is
+harrowed for the purpose of thinning the crop and to clear it of
+weeds. The crop is harvested in August or September. <i>Boro</i>, or
+spring rice, is cultivated on low marshy land, being sown in a
+nursery in October, transplanted a month later, and harvested
+in March and April. An indigenous description of rice, called <i>uri</i>
+or <i>jaradhán</i>, grows in certain marshy tracts. The grain is very
+small, and is gathered for consumption only by the poorest.
+Wheat forms an important food staple in Behar, whence there is
+a considerable export to Calcutta. Oil-seeds are very largely
+grown, particularly in Behar. The principal oil-seeds are <i>sarisha</i>
+(mustard), <i>til</i> (sesamum) and <i>lisi</i> or <i>masina</i> (linseed).
+Jute (<i>pat</i> or <i>kosta</i>) forms a very important commercial staple
+of Bengal. The cultivation of this crop has rapidly increased of late years.
+Its principal seat of cultivation, however, is Eastern Bengal,
+where the superior varieties are grown. The crop grows on
+either high or low lands, is sown in April and cut in August.
+Apart from the quantity exported and the quantity made up by
+hand, it supports a prosperous mill industry, chiefly in the
+neighbourhood of Calcutta and Howrah. In 1905 there were thirty-six
+jute mills in the province and 2¼ million acres were cropped.
+The value of jute and of the goods manufactured from it
+represents more than a third of the aggregate value of the trade
+of Calcutta. Indigo used to be an important crop carried on
+with European capital in Behar, but of late years the industry
+has almost been destroyed by the invention of artificial indigo.
+Tea cultivation is the other great industry carried on by European
+capital, but that is chiefly confined to Assam, the industry in
+Darjeeling and the Dwars being on a small scale. Opium is
+grown in Behar with its head station at Patna. The cultivation
+of the cinchona plant in Bengal was introduced as an experiment
+about 1862, and is grown on government plantations in Darjeeling.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mineral Products.</i>&mdash;The chief mineral product in Bengal is coal,
+which disputes with the gold of Mysore for the place of premier
+importance in the mining industries of India. The most important
+mine in point of area, accessibility and output is Raniganj,
+with an area of 500 sq. m. Another of rising importance is that of
+Jherria, with an area of 200 sq. m., which is situated only 16 m. to
+the west of Raniganj; while Daltonganj also has an area of 200
+sq. m. The small coalfield of Karharbari with an area of only
+11 sq. m. yields the best coal in Bengal. Besides these four
+coalfields there are twenty-five others of various sizes, which are
+only in the initial stages of development.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;The sea-borne trade of Bengal is almost entirely
+concentrated at Calcutta (<i>q.v.</i>), which also serves as the chief port
+for Eastern Bengal and Assam, and for the United Provinces.
+The principal imports are cotton piece goods, railway materials,
+metals and machinery, oils, sugar, cotton, twist and salt; and the
+principal exports are jute, tea, hides, opium, rice, oil-seeds, indigo
+and lac. The inter-provincial trade is mostly carried on with
+Eastern Bengal and Assam, the United Provinces and the Central
+Provinces. From the United Provinces come opium, hides, raw
+cotton, wheat, shellac and oil-seeds; and from Assam, tea,
+oil-seeds and jute. The frontier trade of Bengal is registered
+with Nepal, Sikkim, Tibet and Bhutan, but except with Nepal
+the amount is insignificant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways.</i>&mdash;Bengal is well supplied with railways, which
+naturally have the seaport of Calcutta as the centre of the system.
+South of the Ganges, the East Indian follows the river from the
+North-Western Provinces, with its terminus at Howrah on the
+Hugli, opposite Calcutta. A chord line passes by the coalfield of
+Raniganj, which enables this great railway to be worked more
+economically than any other in India. The Bengal-Nagpur,
+from the Central Provinces, also has its terminus at Howrah,
+and the section of this railway through Midnapore carries the East
+Coast line from Madras. North of the Ganges the Eastern
+Bengal runs north to Darjeeling, and maintains a service of river
+steamers on the Brahmaputra. The Bengal Central serves the
+lower Gangetic delta. Both of these have their termini at Sealdah,
+an eastern suburb of Calcutta. Northern Behar is traversed by
+the Bengal &amp; North-Western, with an extension eastwards
+through Tirhoot to join the Eastern Bengal. In addition there
+are a few light lines and steam tramways.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canals and Rivers.</i>&mdash;Rivers and other waterways still carry a
+large part of the traffic of Bengal, especially in the delta. The
+government maintains two channels through the Sundarbans,
+known as the Calcutta and Eastern canals, and likewise does its
+best to keep open the Nadiya rivers, which form the communication
+between the main stream of the Ganges and the Hugli.
+There is further a route by water between Calcutta and Midnapore.
+The most important canals, those in Orissa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahanadi</a></span>) and
+on the Sone river in southern Behar, have been constructed
+primarily for irrigation, though they are also used for navigation.
+Except as a protection against famine, expenditure on irrigation
+is not remunerative in Bengal, on account of the abundance of
+rivers, and the general dampness of the climate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration.</i>&mdash;The administration of Bengal is conducted
+by a lieutenant-governor, with a chief secretary, two secretaries
+and three under-secretaries. There is no executive council, as in
+Madras and Bombay; but there is a board of revenue, consisting
+of two members. For legislative purposes the lieutenant-governor
+has a council of twenty members, of whom not more
+than ten may be officials. Of the remaining members seven are
+nominated on the recommendation of the Calcutta corporation,
+groups of municipalities, groups of district boards, selected public
+associations and the senate of Calcutta university. The number
+of divisions or commissionerships is 6, of which Chota Nagpur
+ranks as &ldquo;non-regulation.&rdquo; The number of districts is 33.</p>
+
+<p><i>Army.</i>&mdash;In Lord Kitchener&rsquo;s reconstitution of the Indian
+army in 1904 the old Bengal command was abolished and its
+place taken by the Eastern army corps, which includes all the
+troops from Meerut to Assam. The boundaries of the 8th
+division include those of the former Oudh, Allahabad, Assam
+and Presidency districts; and the troops now quartered in
+Bengal only consist of the Presidency brigade with its headquarters
+at Fort William.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The history of so large a province as Bengal forms
+an integral part of the general history of India. The northern
+part, Behar (<i>q.v.</i>), constituted the ancient kingdom of Magadha,
+the nucleus of the imperial power of the successive great dynasties
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span>
+of the Mauryas, Andhras and Guptas; and its chief town, Patna,
+is the ancient Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), once
+the capital of India. The Delta or southern part of Bengal lay
+beyond the ancient Sanskrit polity, and was governed by a
+number of local kings belonging to a pre-Aryan stock. The
+Chinese travellers, Fa Hien in the 5th century, and Hsüan
+Tsang in the 7th century, found the Buddhist religion prevailing
+throughout Bengal, but already in a fierce struggle with
+Hinduism&mdash;a struggle which ended about the 9th or 10th century
+in the general establishment of the latter faith. Until the end
+of the 12th century Hindu princes governed in a number of petty
+principalities, till, in 1199, Mahommed Bakhtiyar Khilji was
+appointed to lead the first Mussulman invasion into Bengal.
+The Mahommedan conquest of Behar dates from 1197 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and
+the new power speedily spread southwards into the delta. From
+about this date until 1340 Bengal was ruled by governors
+appointed by the Mahommedan emperors in the north. From
+1340 to 1539 its governors asserted a precarious independence,
+and arrogated the position of sovereigns on their own account.
+From 1540 to 1576 Bengal passed under the rule of the Pathan
+or Afghan dynasty, which commonly bears the name of Sher
+Shah. On the overthrow of this house by the powerful arms of
+Akbar, Bengal was incorporated into the Mogul empire, and
+administered by governors appointed by the Delhi emperor,
+until the treaties of 1765, which placed Bengal, Behar and
+Orissa under the administration of the East India Company.
+The Company formed its earliest settlements in Bengal in the
+first half of the 17th century. These settlements were of a purely
+commercial character. In 1620 one of the Company&rsquo;s factors
+dates from Patna; in 1624-1636 the Company established itself,
+by the favour of the emperor, on the ruins of the ancient Portuguese
+settlement of Pippli, in the north of Orissa; in 1640-1642
+an English surgeon, Gabriel Boughton, obtained establishments
+at Balasore, also in Orissa, and at Hugli, some miles above
+Calcutta. The vexations and extortions to which the Company&rsquo;s
+early agents were subjected more than once almost induced
+them to abandon the trade, and in 1677-1678 they threatened
+to withdraw from Bengal altogether. In 1685, the Bengal
+factors, driven to extremity by the oppression of the Mogul
+governors, threw down the gauntlet; and after various successes
+and hairbreadth escapes, purchased from the grandson of
+Aurangzeb, in 1696, the villages which have since grown up into
+Calcutta, the metropolis of India. During the next fifty years
+the British had a long and hazardous struggle alike with the
+Mogul governors of the province and the Mahratta armies which
+invaded it. In 1756 this struggle culminated in the great outrage
+known as the Black Hole of Calcutta, followed by Clive&rsquo;s battle
+of Plassey and capture of Calcutta, which avenged it. That
+battle, and the subsequent years of confused fighting, established
+British military supremacy in Bengal, and procured the treaties
+of 1765, by which the provinces of Bengal, Behar and Orissa
+passed under British administration. To Warren Hastings
+(1772-1785) belongs the glory of consolidating the British power,
+and converting a military occupation into a stable civil government.
+To another member of the civil service, John Shore,
+afterwards Lord Teignmouth (1786-1793), is due the formation
+of a regular system of Anglo-Indian legislation. Acting through
+Lord Cornwallis, then governor-general, he ascertained and
+defined the rights of the landholders in the soil. These landholders
+under the native system had started, for the most part,
+as collectors of the revenues, and gradually acquired certain
+prescriptive rights as quasi-proprietors of the estates entrusted
+to them by the government. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis declared
+their rights perpetual, and made over the land of Bengal to the
+previous quasi-proprietors or <i>zamíndárs</i>, on condition of the
+payment of a fixed land tax. This piece of legislation is known
+as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. But the
+Cornwallis code, while defining the rights of the proprietors,
+failed to give adequate recognition to the rights of the undertenants
+and the cultivators. His Regulations formally reserved
+the latter class of rights, but did not legally define them, or
+enable the husbandmen to enforce them in the courts. After
+half a century of rural disquiet, the rights of the cultivators
+were at length carefully formulated by Act X. of 1859. This
+measure, now known as the land law of Bengal, effected for the
+rights of the under-holders and cultivators what the Cornwallis
+code in 1793 had effected for those of the superior landholders.
+The status of each class of persons interested in the soil, from
+the government as suzerain, through the <i>zamíndárs</i> or superior
+landholders, the intermediate tenure-holders and the undertenants,
+down to the actual cultivator, is now clearly defined.
+The act dates from the first year after the transfer of India from
+the company to the crown; for the mutiny burst out in 1857.
+The transactions of that revolt chiefly took place in northern
+India, and are narrated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indian Mutiny</a></span>. In
+Bengal the rising began at Barrackpore, was communicated
+to Dacca in Eastern Bengal, and for a time raged in Behar,
+producing the memorable defence of the billiard-room at Arrah
+by a handful of civilians and Sikhs&mdash;one of the most splendid
+pieces of gallantry in the history of the British arms. Since
+1858, when the country passed to the crown, the history of Bengal
+has been one of steady progress. Five great lines of railway
+have been constructed. Trade has enormously expanded; new
+centres of commerce have sprung up in spots which formerly
+were silent jungles; new staples of trade, such as tea and jute,
+have rapidly attained importance; and the coalfields and iron
+ores have opened up prospects of a new and splendid era in the
+internal development of the country.</p>
+
+<p>During the decade 1891-1901 Bengal was fortunate in escaping
+to a great extent the two calamities of famine and plague which
+afflicted central and western India. The drought of 1896-1897
+did indeed extend to Bengal, but not to such an extent as to
+cause actual famine. The distress was most acute in the densely
+populated districts of northern Behar, and in the remote hills
+of Chota Nagpur. Plague first appeared at Calcutta in a sporadic
+form in April 1898, but down to April of the following year the
+total number of deaths ascribed to plague throughout the
+province was less than 1000, compared with 191,000 for Bombay.
+At the beginning of 1900, however, there was a serious recrudescence
+of plague at Calcutta, and a malignant outbreak in the
+district of Patna, which caused 1000 deaths a week. In the
+early months of 1901, plague again appeared in the same regions.
+The number of deaths in 1904 was 75,436, the highest recorded
+up to that date.</p>
+
+<p>The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897, which had its centre
+of disturbance in Assam, was felt throughout eastern and
+northern Bengal. In all the large towns the masonry buildings
+were severely damaged or totally wrecked. The permanent way
+of the railways also suffered. The total number of deaths
+returned was only 135. Far more destructive to life was the
+cyclone and storm-wave that broke over Chittagong district on
+the night of the 24th of October 1897. Apart from damage to
+shipping and buildings, the low-lying lands along the coast were
+completely submerged, and in many villages half the inhabitants
+were drowned. The loss of human lives was reported to be about
+14,000, and the number of cattle drowned about 15,000. As
+usual in such cases, a severe outbreak of cholera followed in the
+track of the storm-wave. Another natural calamity on a large
+scale occurred at Darjeeling in October 1899. Torrential rains
+caused a series of landslips, carrying away houses and breaking
+up the hill railway.</p>
+
+<p>The most notable event, however, of recent times was the
+partition of the province, which was decided upon by Lord
+Curzon, and carried into execution in October 1905. Serious
+popular agitation followed this step, on the ground (<i>inter alia</i>)
+that the Bengali population, the centre of whose interests and
+prosperity was Calcutta, would now be divided under two
+governments, instead of being concentrated and numerically
+dominant under the one; while the bulk would be in the new
+division. In 1906-1909 the unrest developed to a considerable
+extent, requiring special attention from the Indian and home
+governments; but as part of the general history of India the
+movement may be best discussed under that heading (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">India</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Parliamentary Papers relating to the reconstitution of the
+provinces of Bengal and Assam (Cd. 2658 and Cd. 2746, 1905);
+Colonel E.T. Dalton, <i>The Ethnology of Bengal</i> (1872); Sir W.W.
+Hunter, <i>Annals of Rural Bengal</i> (1868), and <i>Orissa</i> (1872); Sir H.H.
+Risley, <i>Tribes and Castes of Bengal</i> (1891); C.E. Buckland, <i>Bengal
+under the Lieutenant-Governors</i> (1901); and Sir James Bourdillon,
+<i>The Partition of Bengal</i> (Society of Arts, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENGAL, BAY OF,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> a portion of the Indian Ocean, resembling
+a triangle in shape, lying between India and Burma. A zone
+50 m. wide extending from the island of Ceylon and the Coromandel
+coast to the head of the bay, and thence southwards
+through a strip embracing the Andaman and Nicobar islands, is
+bounded by the 100 fathom line of sea bottom; some 50 m.
+beyond this lies the 500-fathom limit. Opposite the mouth of the
+Ganges, however, the intervals between these depths are very
+much extended by deltaic influence. The bay receives many
+large rivers, of which the most important are the Ganges and
+Brahmaputra on the north, the Irrawaddy on the east, and the
+Mahanadi, Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery on the west. On the
+west coast it has no harbours, Madras having a mere open
+roadstead, but on the east there are many good ports, such as
+Akyab, Moulmein, Rangoon and Tavoy river. The islands in
+the bay are very numerous, including the Andaman, Nicobar
+and Mergui groups. The group of islands, Cheduba and others,
+in the north-east, off the Burmese coast, are remarkable for a
+chain of mud volcanoes, which are occasionally active. Thus in
+December 1906 a new island of mud was thrown up, and measured
+307 by 217 yds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENGALI,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> with <span class="sc">Oriya</span> and <span class="sc">Assamese</span>, three of the four forms
+of speech which compose the Eastern Group of the Indo-Aryan
+Languages (<i>q.v.</i>). This group includes all the Aryan languages
+spoken in India east of the longitude of Benares, and its members
+are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Number of speakers in<br />British India, 1901.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Bengali</td> <td class="tcr cl">44,624,048</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oriya</td> <td class="tcr">9,687,429</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Assamese</td> <td class="tcr cl">1,350,846</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bihari</td> <td class="tcr">34,579,844</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Total</td> <td class="tcr">90,242,167</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of these Bihari is treated separately. In the present article we
+shall devote ourselves to the examination of Bengali together
+with the two other closely connected languages. The reader is
+throughout assumed to be in possession of the facts described
+under the heads <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Bengali is spoken in the province of Bengal proper, <i>i.e.</i> in, and
+on both sides of the delta of the Ganges, and also in the Eastern
+Bengal portion of the province of Eastern Bengal and
+Assam. The name &ldquo;Bengali&rdquo; is an English word,
+<span class="sidenote">Language.</span>
+derived from the English word &ldquo;Bengal.&rdquo; Natives call the
+language <i>Banga-Bh&#257;&#7779;&#257;</i>, or the language of Banga, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Bengal.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;O&#343;iy&#257;&rdquo; is the native name for the language of &#332;&#7693;ra or Orissa.
+Assamese, again an English word, is spoken in the Assam Valley.
+Its native name is <i>Asamiy&#257;</i>, pronounced <i>Ohåmiy&#257;</i>. All these
+languages have alphabets derived from early forms of the
+well-known Nagari character of northern India. That of
+Bengali dates from about the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It is a cursive
+script which admits of considerable speed in writing. The
+Assamese alphabet is the same as that of Bengali, but has one
+additional character to represent the sound of <i>w</i>, which has to be
+expressed in the former language in a very awkward fashion. In
+Orissa, till lately, writing was done on a talipot palm-leaf, on
+which the letters were scratched with an iron stylus. In such
+circumstances straight lines would tend to split the leaf, and
+accordingly the alphabet received a peculiar curved appearance
+typical of it and of one or two other South Indian methods of
+writing.</p>
+
+<p>The three languages are all the immediate descendants of
+M&#257;gadh&#299; Prakrit (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), the headquarters of which were
+in south Behar, near the modern city of Patna. From here it
+spread in three lines&mdash;southwards, where it developed into
+Oriya; south-eastwards into Bengal proper, where it became
+Bengali; and eastwards, through Northern Bengal, into Assam,
+where it became Assamese. It thus appears that the language of
+Northern Bengal, though usually and conveniently treated as a
+dialect of Bengali, is not so in reality, but is a connecting link
+between Assamese and Bihari, the language of Behar. It is
+noteworthy that Northern Bengali and Assamese often agree in
+their grammar with Oriya, as against standard Bengali.</p>
+
+<p>Omitting border forms of speech, Bengali, as a vernacular,
+has two main dialects, a western and an eastern, the former
+being the standard. The boundary-line between the two may
+be roughly put at the 89th degree of east longitude. The eastern
+dialect has many marked peculiarities, amongst which we may
+mention a tendency to disaspiration, the pronunciation of <i>c</i> as
+<i>ts</i>, of <i>ch</i> as <i>s</i>, and of <i>j</i> as <i>z</i>. In the northern part of the tract a
+medial <i>r</i> is often elided, and in the extreme east there is a broader
+pronunciation of the vowel <i>a</i>, like that in the English word
+&ldquo;ball,&rdquo; <i>k</i> is sounded like the <i>ch</i> in &ldquo;loch,&rdquo; and both <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i>
+are pronounced like <i>s</i>. The letter <i>p</i> is often sounded like <i>w</i>, and
+<i>s</i> like <i>h</i>, which again, when initial, is dropped. The distinction
+between cerebral and dental letters is lost, so that the words
+<i>&#257;&#355;h</i> and <i>s&#257;t</i> are both pronounced <i>&rsquo;&#257;t</i>. In the south-east, near
+Chittagong, corruption has gone even further, and the local
+dialect, which is practically a new language, is unintelligible
+to a man from Western Bengal. Throughout the eastern
+districts there is a strong tendency to epenthesis, <i>e.g. k&#257;li</i> is
+pronounced <i>k&#257;&#301;l</i>. A more important dialectic difference in
+Bengali is that between the literary speech and the vernacular.
+The literary vocabulary is highly Sanskritized, so much so
+that it is not understood by any native of Bengal who has
+not received special instruction in it. Its grammar preserves
+numerous archaic or pseudo-archaic forms, which are invariably
+contracted in the colloquial speech of even the most highly
+educated. For instance, &ldquo;I do&rdquo; is expressed in the literary
+dialect by <i>karit&#275;chi</i>, but in the vernacular by <i>k&#7887;rcci</i> or <i>k&#7887;cci</i>.
+Oriya and Assamese may be said to have no dialects. There
+are a few local variations, but the standard form of speech, as a
+whole, is used everywhere in the respective tracts where the
+languages are spoken.</p>
+
+<p>The three languages, being all children of a common parent,
+present many similar features. Oriya on the whole preserves
+the usual accentuation of the Indo-Aryan Languages (<i>q.v.</i>),
+seldom having the stress syllable farther back than the antepenultimate.
+Bengali, on the other hand, throws the accent
+as far back as possible, and this produces the contracted forms
+which we observe in the colloquial language, the first syllable
+of a word being strongly accented, and the rest being hurried
+over. Literary Bengali preserves the full form of the word, and
+in reading aloud this full form is adhered to. Assamese follows
+Bengali in its accentuation, but the language has never been the
+toy of euphuism. In its literature colloquial words are employed,
+and are written as they are pronounced colloquially.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the following account of the three languages, Bengali, literary
+and colloquial, will be primarily dealt with, and then the points of
+difference between it and the other two will be described. Abbreviations
+used: A. = Assamese, Bg. = Bengali, O. = Oriya, Pr. = Prakrit,
+Mg. Pr. = M&#257;gadhi Prakrit, Skr. = Sanskrit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vocabulary.</i>&mdash;As already said, Literary Bengali abounds in
+<i>tatsamas</i>, or words borrowed in modern times from Sanskrit (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>), and these have also intruded themselves
+into the speech of the educated. So much has the false taste for
+these learned words obtained the mastery that, in the literary language,
+when a genuine Bengali or <i>tadbhava</i> word is used in literature
+it is frequently not put into writing, but the corresponding learned
+<i>tatsama</i> is written in its place, although the <i>tadbhava</i> is read. It is
+as though a French writer wrote <i>sicca</i> when he wished the word
+<i>sèche</i> to be pronounced. Similarly, the Bengali word for the goddess
+of Fortune is <i>Lakkh&#299;</i>, but in books this is always written in the Skr.
+form <i>Lak&#7779;m&#299;</i>, although no Bengali would dream of saying anything
+but <i>Lakkh&#299;</i>, even when reciting a purple passage <i>ore rotunda</i>. In fact,
+the vocal organs of most Bengalis are incapable of uttering the sound
+connoted by the letters <i>Lak&#7779;m&#299;</i>. The result is that the spelling of a
+Bengali word rarely represents its pronunciation. Oriya also borrows
+freely from Sanskrit, but there is no confusion between <i>tatsamas</i>
+and <i>tadbhavas</i>, as in Bengali. Assamese, on the other hand, is remarkably
+free from these parasites, its vocabulary being mainly
+<i>tadbhava</i>. In Eastern Bengal, where Mussulmans predominate,
+there is a free use of words borrowed from Arabic and Persian.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span>
+Owing to geographical and historical circumstances, Oriya is to
+some extent infected by Telugu and Marathi idioms, while the
+Tibeto-Burman dialects and Ahom have left their marks upon Assamese.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phonetics.</i>&mdash;The three forms of speech agree in sounding the vowel
+<i>a</i> like the <i>&#7887;</i> in &ldquo;hot.&rdquo; When writing phonetically, this sound is
+represented in the present article by <i>&#7887;</i>. The pronunciation of this
+frequently recurring vowel gives a tone to the general sound of the
+languages which at once strikes a foreigner. In Bg. and A. a final
+vowel preceded by a single consonant is generally not pronounced.
+In Bg. this is only true for nouns, a final <i>a</i> being freely sounded
+in adjectives and verbs. In O., on the other hand, a final <i>a</i> is always
+pronounced. The sound of such a final <i>a</i> is in all three languages
+the same as that of the <span class="correction" title="amended from seccond">second</span> <i>o</i> in &ldquo;promote&rdquo;; thus, the Bg. <i>bara</i>
+is pronounced <i>b&#7887;&#343;&#333;</i>. In Bg. a medial <i>a</i> sometimes has the sound of
+the first <i>o</i> in &ldquo;promote,&rdquo; as, for instance, in the word <i>ban</i> (<i>bon</i>), a
+forest. In A. and Eastern Bg. a medial <i>a</i> is often sounded like the
+<i>a</i> in &ldquo;ball,&rdquo; and is then transliterated <i>&#7843;</i>. <i>&#256;</i> has preserved as a rule
+its proper sound of <i>a</i> in &ldquo;father.&rdquo; The distinction between <i>i</i> and <i>&#299;</i>
+and between <i>u</i> and <i>&#363;</i> is everywhere lost in pronunciation, although
+in <i>tatsama</i> words the Sanskrit spelling is followed in literature. Thus,
+in Bg., the Skr. <i>vyat&#299;ta</i> is pronounced <i>bétít&#333;</i>, with the accent on the
+first syllable. In A. the distinction between these long and short
+vowels is obliterated more than elsewhere, the reason being, as in
+Bg., the changes of pronunciation due to the shifting back of the
+accent. In O., the Skr. vowel <i>&#343;</i> is pronounced <i>ru</i>. Elsewhere it is
+<i>ri</i>. In O. the vowel <i>&#275;</i> is always long, but in Bg. it may be long or
+short, and in A. it is always short. The syllable <i>ya</i> preceded by a
+consonant has in Bg. the sound of a short <i>e</i>, so that <i>vyakti</i> is pronounced
+<i>bekti</i>. Moreover, in the same language the letter <i>&#275;</i> is often
+pronounced like the <i>a</i> in the German <i>Mann</i>, a sound here phonetically
+represented by <i>a</i>; thus, <i>d&#275;kha</i> is sometimes pronounced <i>dekh&#333;</i>,
+and sometimes <i>d&#7843;kh&#333;</i> or even <i>d&#7843;k&#333;</i>. The syllable <i>y&#257;</i>, when following
+a consonant, also has this <i>&#7843;</i>-sound, so that the English word &ldquo;bank&rdquo;
+is written <i>by&#257;nk</i> in Bengali characters. <i>&#332;</i> in O. is always long.
+In Bg., when it has not got the accent it is shortened to the sound of
+the first <i>o</i> in &ldquo;promote,&rdquo; a sound which, as we have seen, is also
+sometimes taken by a medial <i>a</i>. In A. <i>&#333;</i> approaches the sound of <i>u</i>,
+and it actually becomes <i>u</i> when followed by <i>i</i> in the next syllable.
+The diphthongs <i>&#257;&#299;</i> (in <i>tatsamas</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the Skr. <i>&#257;i</i>) and <i>ai</i> (in <i>tadbhavas</i>)
+are sounded like <i>oi</i> in &ldquo;oil&rdquo; in Bg. and O., while in A. they have the
+sound of <i>oi</i> in &ldquo;going.&rdquo; Similarly, in Bg. and O. the diphthongs
+<i>&#257;&#363;</i> and <i>au</i> are sounded like the <i>au</i> in the German <i>Haus</i>, but in A.
+like <i>au</i> in the French <i>jaune</i>, or the second <i>o</i> in &ldquo;promote.&rdquo; In
+colloquial Bg. the two syllables <i>&#257;i</i> often have the sound of <i>&#275;</i>, as in
+<i>kh&#257;it&#275;</i> (<i>kh&#275;t&#275;</i>), to eat.</p>
+
+<p>In Eastern Bengal <i>k</i> has often the sound of <i>ch</i> in &ldquo;loch.&rdquo; In A.
+the consonants <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i> are both pronounced like <i>s</i>, and <i>j</i> and <i>jh</i>
+become <i>zh</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the <i>s</i> in &ldquo;pleasure&rdquo;) or (when final) <i>z</i>. The same
+tendency is observable in Bg., though it is usually considered vulgar.
+In parts of Eastern Bengal <i>c</i> is pronounced like <i>ts</i>. O. as a rule has
+the proper sound of these letters, but towards the south <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i>
+become <i>ts</i> and <i>tsh</i> when not followed by a palatal letter. The letters
+<i>&#7693;</i> and <i>&#7693;h</i>, when medial, are pronounced as a strongly burred <i>r</i>, and
+are then transliterated <i>&#343;</i> and <i>&#343;h</i> respectively. In A. and Eastern Bg.
+there is a strong tendency to pronounce both dentals and cerebrals
+as semi-cerebrals, as is done by the neighbouring Tibeto-Burmans.
+In A. <i>&#343;</i> and <i>&#343;h</i> become <i>r</i> and <i>rh</i> respectively. In Bg. and A. <i>&#7751;</i> has
+universally become <i>n</i>, but is properly pronounced in O. <i>Y</i> is usually
+pronounced as <i>j</i>, unless it is a merely euphonic bridge to avoid a
+hiatus between two vowels, as in <i>kariy&#257;</i> for <i>kari-&#257;</i>. In A. the resultant
+<i>j</i> has the usual <i>z</i>-sound. When <i>y</i> is the final element of a
+conjunct consonant, in Bg. (except in the south-east) it is very
+faintly pronounced. In compensation the preceding member of the
+conjunct is doubled and the preceding vowel is shortened if possible,
+thus <i>v&#257;kya</i> becomes <i>b&#7843;kk<span class="sp">y</span>&#333;</i>. In A., while the <i>y</i> is usually preserved,
+an <i>i</i> is inserted before the conjunct, so that we have <i>b&#257;iky&#333;</i>. <i>M</i> and
+<i>v</i> when similarly situated are altogether elided in Bg., and this is also
+the case with <i>v</i> in A., in which language <i>m</i> under these circumstances
+becomes <i>w</i>; thus, <i>smara&#7751;a</i> becomes Bg. <i>&#347;&#347;&#7887;r&#7887;n</i>, A. <i>sw&#7887;r&#7887;n</i>, and <i>dv&#257;r&#257;</i>
+becomes Bg. and A. <i>dd&#257;r&#257;</i>. <i>R</i> is generally pronounced correctly,
+except that when a member of a compound it is often not pronounced
+in colloquial Bg.; thus <i>karma</i> (<i>k&#7887;mm&#333;</i>). In North-eastern Bengali
+and in A. a medial <i>r</i> is commonly dropped; thus, Bg. <i>karil&#257;m</i>
+(<i>kaïl&#257;m</i>), A. <i>kari</i> (<i>kaï</i>).<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The vulgar commonly confound <i>n</i> and <i>l</i>.
+O. has retained the old cerebral <i>&#7735;</i> of Pr., which has disappeared in
+Bg. and A. The semi-vowel <i>v</i> (<i>w</i>) becomes <i>b</i> in Bg. and O., but retains
+its proper sound when medial in A. When Bg. wishes to represent
+a <i>w</i>, it has to write <i>&#333;y&#257;</i>; thus, for <i>ch&#257;w&#257;</i> it writes <i>ch&#257;&#333;y&#257;</i>. Similarly
+<i>b&#257;r&#333;</i>, twelve, <span class="su">+</span><i>y&#257;ri</i>, friendship, when compounded together to mean
+&ldquo;a collection of twelve friends,&rdquo; is pronounced <i>b&#257;rw&#257;ri</i>. Bg. pronounces
+all uncompounded sibilants as if they were <i>&#347;</i>, like the
+English <i>sh</i> in &ldquo;shin.&rdquo; This was already the case in Mg. Pr. (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>). O., on the contrary, pronounces all three like the dental
+<i>s</i> in &ldquo;sin,&rdquo; while A. sounds them like a rough <i>h</i>, almost like the <i>ch</i>
+in &ldquo;loch.&rdquo; In Eastern Bg. <i>s</i> becomes frankly <i>h</i>, and is then often
+dropped. The compound <i>k&#7779;</i> is everywhere treated as if it were <i>khy</i>,
+In colloquial Bg. there is a tendency to disaspiration; thus <i>d&#275;kha</i>
+is pronounced <i>d&#7843;k&#333;</i> and the Pr. <i>hattha-</i>, a hand, becomes <i>h&#257;t</i>, not
+<i>h&#257;th</i>. In Eastern Bg. there is a cockney tendency to drop <i>h</i>, so that
+we have <i>&rsquo;&#257;t</i>, a hand, and <i>kaïl&#257;m</i> for <i>kahil&#257;m</i>, I said.</p>
+
+<p>The above remarks show that O. has, on the whole, preserved
+the original sounds of the various letters better than Bg. or A.</p>
+
+<p><i>Declension.</i>&mdash;The distinction of gender has disappeared from all
+three languages. Sex is distinguished either by the use of qualifying
+terms, such as &ldquo;male&rdquo; or &ldquo;female,&rdquo; or by the employment of
+different words, as in the case of our &ldquo;bull&rdquo; and &ldquo;cow.&rdquo;  The
+plural number is almost always denoted by the addition of some
+word meaning &ldquo;many&rdquo; or &ldquo;collection&rdquo; to the singular, although
+we sometimes find a true plural used in the case of nouns denoting
+human beings. Case was originally indicated by postpositions (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>), but in many instances these have been
+joined to the noun, so that they form one word with it. The following
+is the full declension of the singular of the word <i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;</i>, a horse, in
+the three languages:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oriya.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Bengali.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Assamese.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;r&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Acc.-Dat.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;ku</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;k&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;r&#257;k</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Instr.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;r&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;t&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;r&#257;r&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Abl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;ru</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;-haït&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;r&#257;y&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gen.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;ra</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;r</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;r&#257;r</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;r&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>gh&#333;&#343;&#257;te</i> or <i>gh&#333;r&#257;y</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>gh&#333;r&#257;t</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In Bg. and A. a noun often takes <i>&#275;</i> (<i>e</i>) in the nominative singular,
+when it is the subject of a transitive verb; thus Bg. <i>b&#275;de&#275;</i> (from <i>b&#275;d</i>)
+<i>bal&#275;</i>, the Veda says.  In Bg. the nominative plural may, in the case
+of human beings, be formed by adding <i>&#257;</i> to the genitive singular;
+thus, <i>sant&#257;n</i>, a son; gen. sing., <i>sant&#257;n&#275;r</i>; nom. plur., <i>sant&#257;n&#275;ra</i>.
+The same is the case with the pronouns; thus <i>&#257;m&#257;r</i>, of me; <i>&#257;mar&#257;</i>,
+we; <i>t&#257;h&#257;r</i>, his; <i>t&#257;h&#257;r&#257;</i>, they.  In Bihari (<i>q.v.</i>) the pronouns follow
+the same rule, and, as is explained under that head, the nominative
+plural is really an oblique form of the genitive. With this exception,
+the plural in all our three languages is either the same as the singular,
+or (when the idea of plurality has to be emphasized) is formed by the
+addition of nouns of multitude, such as <i>ga&#7751;</i> in Bg., <i>m&#257;na</i> in O., or
+<i>bil&#257;k</i> in A.</p>
+
+<p>We shall see that pronominal suffixes are freely used in all three
+languages in the conjugation of verbs.  In the Outer languages of
+the north-west of India (for the list of these, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan
+Languages</a></span>) pronominal suffixes are also commonly added to nouns
+to signify possession. In most of the languages of the Eastern
+Group such pronominal suffixes added to nouns have fallen into
+disuse, but in A. they are still commonly employed with nouns of
+relationship; thus, <i>b&#257;p</i>, a father; <i>bop&#257;i</i>, my father; <i>b&#257;per</i>, your
+father; <i>b&#257;pek</i>, his father. Their retention in A. is no doubt due
+to the example of the neighbouring Tibeto-Burman languages, in
+which such pronominal <i>prefixes</i> are a common feature.</p>
+
+<p>In all three languages the adjective does not change for gender,
+for number or for case.</p>
+
+<p>The personal pronouns have at the present day lost their old
+nominatives, and have new nominatives formed from the oblique
+base. In the first and second persons the singulars have fallen into
+disuse in polite conversation, and the plurals are used honorifically
+for the singular, as in the case of the English &ldquo;you&rdquo; for &ldquo;thou.&rdquo;
+For the plural, new plurals are formed from the new singular (old
+plural) bases. In A., however, the old singular of the first person is
+retained, and the old plural plays its proper function. The Bg.
+pronouns  are, <i>mui</i> (old), I; <i>&#257;mi</i> (modern), I; <i>tui</i> (old), thou; <i>tumi</i>
+(modern), thou; <i>s&#275;</i>, <i>tini</i>, he; <i>&#275;</i>, <i>ini</i>, this; <i>&#333;</i>, <i>uni</i>, that; <i>j&#275;</i>, <i>jini</i>,
+who; <i>k&#275;</i>, who?; <i>ki</i>, what?; <i>k&#333;n</i>, what (adjective)?; <i>k&#275;ha</i>, anyone;
+<i>kichu</i>, anything; <i>k&#333;na</i>, any. Most of the forms in the other languages
+closely follow these. The words in O. for &ldquo;I&rdquo; and &ldquo;thou&rdquo;
+are <i>ambh&#275;</i> and <i>tumbh&#275;</i> respectively. All these pronouns have plurals
+and oblique forms to which the case suffixes are added. These must
+be learnt from the grammars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conjugation</i>.&mdash;It is in the conjugation of the verb that colloquial
+Bg. differs most from the literary dialect. There is no distinction
+in any of the three languages between singular and plural. Most
+of the old singular forms have survived in a non-honorific sense, but
+they are rarely employed in polite language except in the third
+person. The old plural forms are generally employed for the singular
+also. The usual base for the verb substantive, when employed as an
+auxiliary, is <i>ach</i>, be, derived from the Skr. <i>&#343;cchati</i>. O., however,
+forms its past from the base <i>tha</i> (Skr. <i>sthita-</i>), and in South-western
+Bengal the base <i>&#355;ha</i>, derived from the same original, is used for both
+present and past time. Only two of the old Skr.-Pr. tenses have
+survived in the finite verb, the simple present and the imperative.
+Thus, Bg. <i>kari</i>, I do; <i>kar</i>, do thou. The past is formed by adding
+pronominal suffixes to the old past participle in <i>il</i> (Skr. <i>-illa-</i>, a
+pleonastic suffix, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), and the future by adding them to
+the old future participle in <i>b</i> (Skr. <i>-tavya-</i>, Pr. <i>-avva-</i>). Thus, Bg.
+<i>karil-&#257;m</i>, done + by-me, I did; <i>karib-a</i>, it-is-to-be-done + by-me, I
+shall do. In Bg. there are two modern participles, a present (<i>kar-it&#275;</i>)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span>
+and a past (<i>kar-iy&#257;</i>), and from these there are formed periphrastic
+tenses by suffixing auxiliary verbs. Thus,
+<i>karite-chi</i> (colloquial, <i>k&#7887;rci</i> or <i>k&#7887;cci</i>), I am doing;
+<i>karit&#275;-chil&#257;m</i> (coll. <i>korcilum</i> or <i>k&#7887;ccilum</i>), I was doing;
+<i>kariy&#257;-chi</i> (coll., <i>korsi</i>), I have done;
+<i>kariy&#257;-chil&#257;m</i> (coll., <i>korsilum</i>), I had done.
+A past conditional is formed by adding pronominal suffixes
+to the present participle; thus, <i>karit&#257;m</i> (coll., <i>kortum</i>
+or <i>kottum</i>), (if) I had done. Similar tenses are formed in O. and A.,
+but the periphrastic tenses are formed with verbal nouns and not
+with participles. Thus, O. <i>karu-ach&#299;</i>, A. <i>kari-chõ</i>, I am a-doing,
+I am doing. O. and A. have each a very complete series of gerunds
+or verbal nouns which are fully declined. In Bg. only one gerund,
+that of the genitive, is in common use.</p>
+
+<p>In order to illustrate the conjugation of the verb, we here give
+that of the root <i>kar</i>, do, in its present, past and future tenses.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Oriya.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Literary<br />Bengali.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Colloquial<br />Bengali.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Assamese.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">I do</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karñ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kari</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;ri</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karõ</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Thou doest</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kara</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kara</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;r&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kar&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (non-honorific) does</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kar&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kar&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;r&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kare</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (honorific) does</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karanti</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karen</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;ren</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kare</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">I did</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karil&#363;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karil&#257;m</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;llum, k&#7887;rlum</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårilõ</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Thou didst</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karila</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karil&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;ll&#275;, k&#7887;rl&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kåril&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (non-honorific) did</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karil&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karila</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;ll&#333;, k&#7887;rl&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårile</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (honorific) did</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karil&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karilen</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;llen, k&#7887;rlen</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårile</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">I shall do</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karib&#363;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kariba</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;rb&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårim</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Thou wilt do</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kariba</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karib&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;rb&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårib&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (non-honorific) will do</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kariba</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karibë</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>k&#7887;rb&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kåriba</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">He (honorific) will do</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>karib&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>kariben</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>k&#7887;rben</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>kåriba</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>All the three languages have negative forms of the verb substantive,
+and A. has a complete negative conjugation for all verbs,
+made by prefixing the negative syllable <i>na</i> under certain euphonic
+rules.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Bengali Literature.</i>&mdash;The oldest recognized writer in Bengali
+is the Vaishnava poet Ca&#7751;&#7693;&#299; D&#257;s, who flourished about the
+end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century.
+His language does not differ much from the
+<span class="sidenote">Literature.</span>
+Bengali of to-day. He founded a school of poets who wrote
+hymns in honour of Krishna, many of whom, in later times,
+became connected with the religious revival instituted by
+Caitanya in the early part of the 16th century. In the 15th
+century K&#257;&#347;&#299; R&#257;m translated the <i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i>, and Krttib&#257;s
+Ojh&#257; the <i>R&#257;m&#257;ya&#7751;a</i> into the vernacular. The principal figure
+of the 17th century was Mukunda R&#257;m who has left us two
+really admirable poems entitled <i>Ca&#7751;&#7693;&#299;</i> and <i>&#346;r&#299;manta Saud&#257;gar</i>.
+Parts of the former have been translated by Professor Cowell
+into English verse, and both well deserve putting into an English
+dress. With Bh&#257;rat Candra, whose much admired but artificial
+Bidy&#257; Sundar appeared in the 18th century, the list of old
+Bengali authors may be considered as closed. They wrote in
+genuine nervous Bengali, and the conspicuous success of many
+of them shows how baseless is the contention of some native
+writers of the present day that modern literary Bengali needs
+the help of its huge imported Sanskrit vocabulary to express
+anything but the simplest ideas. This modern literary Bengali
+arose early in the 19th century, as a child of the revival of
+Sanskrit learning in Calcutta, under the influence of the college
+founded by the English in Fort William. Each decade it has
+become more and more the slave of Sanskrit. It has had some
+excellent writers, notably the late Bankim Candra, whose novels
+have received the honour of being translated into several
+languages, including English. Even he, however, sometimes
+laboured under the fetters imposed upon him by a strange
+vocabulary, and all competent European scholars are agreed
+that no work of first-class originality has much chance of arising
+in Bengal till some great genius purges the language of its
+pseudo-classical element.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oriya Literature</i> does not go back beyond the 16th century,
+though examples of the language are found in inscriptions of the
+13th century. Nearly all the works are connected with the
+history of Krishna, and the translation of the <i>Bh&#257;gavata Pur&#257;&#7751;a</i>
+into Oriya in the first half of the 16th century still exercises
+great influence on the masses. D&#299;na K&#343;&#7779;&#7751;a D&#257;s (17th century)
+was the author of another popular work entitled <i>Rasa Kallola</i>,
+or &ldquo;The Waves of Sentiment,&rdquo; which deals with the early life
+of Krishna. Every verse in it begins with the letter <i>k</i>. It is not
+always decent, but is immensely popular. Up&#275;ndra Bhañja, R&#257;j&#257;
+of Gumsur, a petty hill state, is the most famous of Oriya poets,
+and was the most prolific. His work is insipid to a European
+taste, and when not unintelligible is often obscene. Oriya
+poetry, from first to last, has been an artificial production, the
+work of <i>pa&#7751;&#7693;its</i>, who clung to the rules of Sanskrit rhetoric,
+and loaded their verses with so many ideas and words borrowed
+from that language that it is rarely understood, except by the
+learned. The whole literature is, in fact, overshadowed by the
+great temple of Jagann&#257;th (a name of Krishna) at Puri in
+Orissa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Assamese Literature.</i>&mdash;The Assamese are justly proud of their
+national literature. It has an independent growth, and its
+strength lies in history, a branch of letters in which other Indian
+languages are almost entirely wanting. They have chronicles
+going back for the past 600 years, and a knowledge of their
+contents is a necessary part of the education of the upper
+classes of the country. In poetry, the Vaishnava reformer,
+Sankar Deb, who flourished some 450 years ago, was a voluminous
+writer. His best known work is a translation of the
+<i>Bh&#257;gavata Pur&#257;&#7751;a</i>. About the same time Ananta Kandali
+translated the <i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i> and the <i>R&#257;m&#257;ya&#7751;a</i> into his native
+tongue. Medicine was a science much studied, and there are
+translations of all the principal Sanskrit works on the subject.
+Forty or fifty dramatic works in the vernacular are known and are
+still acted. Some of them date back to the time of &#346;ankar D&#275;b.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;There is no work dealing with the three languages
+as a group. Both the <i>Comparative Grammars</i> of Beames and Hoernle
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>) are silent about Assamese. The
+fullest details concerning them all will be found in vol. v. of the
+<i>Linguistic Survey of India</i>, parts i. and ii. (Calcutta, 1903).  In this
+each dialect and subdialect is treated with great minuteness and with
+copious examples.</p>
+
+<p>The first Bengali grammar and dictionary in a European language
+was the <i>Vocabulario em Idioma Bengalla e Portuguez</i> of Manoel da
+Assumpçam (Lisbon, 1743). N.B. Halhed wrote the first Bengali
+grammar in the English language (Hooghly, 1778), but the real
+father of Bengali philology was the great missionary, William Carey
+(<i>Grammar</i>, Serampore, 1801; <i>Dictionary, ib</i>., 1825). W. Yates&rsquo;s
+<i>Grammar</i>, as edited and improved by T. Wenger (Calcutta, 1847)
+and others, is still on sale. It is entirely confined to the literary
+Bengali of the pa&#7751;&#7693;its. Its great rival has been &#346;y&#257;m&#257; Cara&#7751;
+Sark&#257;r&rsquo;s <i>Grammar</i> (Calcutta, 1850), of which there have been
+numerous reprints. In 1894 J. Beames published his <i>Grammar</i>
+(Oxford), now the standard work on the subject. It is largely based
+on &#346;y&#257;m&#257; Cara&#7751;&rsquo;s work, but with much new material, especially
+that dealing with the colloquial side of the language. G.F. Nicholl&rsquo;s
+<i>Grammar</i> (London, 1885) is an independent study of the language,
+in which the vernacular works of the best native grammarians have
+been freely utilized. There is no good Bengali dictionary. G.C.
+Haughton&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary</i> (London, 1833) is perhaps still the best,
+but J. Mendies&rsquo; (Calcutta, about 1870) is also well known, and is the
+parent of countless others which have issued from the Calcutta
+presses. <i>A Small Dictionary of Colloquial Bengali Words</i>, by J.M.C.
+and G.A.C. (Calcutta, 1904), may also be studied with advantage.
+Cf. also &#346;y&#257;m&#257;-cara&#7751; G&#257;&#7751;guli, <i>Bengali Spoken and Written</i> (Calcutta,
+1906). For Bengali literature, see R.C. Dutt, <i>The Literature of
+Bengal</i> (Calcutta and London, 1895), and Hara Pras&#257;d &#346;&#257;str&#299;, <i>The
+Vernacular Literature of Bengal before the Introduction of English
+Education</i> (Calcutta, n.d.). The most complete work is <i>Bangabh&#257;s&#257;
+o S&#257;hitya</i> by D&#299;n&#275;&#347; Candra S&#275;n (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1901) in the
+Bengali language.</p>
+
+<p>For Oriya there are E. Hallam&rsquo;s (Calcutta, 1874), T. Maltby&rsquo;s
+(Calcutta, 1874) and J. Browne&rsquo;s (London, 1882) <i>Grammars</i>. The
+last two are in the Roman character. They are all mere sketches of
+the language. Sutton&rsquo;s (Cuttack, 1841) is still the only <i>Dictionary</i>
+which the present writer has found of any practical use. For Oriya
+literature, see App. IX. of Hunter&rsquo;s <i>Orissa</i> (London, 1872), and
+Monmohan Chakravarti&rsquo;s &ldquo;Notes on the Language and Literature of Orissa&rdquo;
+in the <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, vol. lxvi.
+(1897), part i. pp. 317 ff., and vol. lxvii. (1898), part i. pp. 332 ff.</p>
+
+<p>The first Assamese <i>Grammar</i> was Nathan Brown&rsquo;s (Sibsagar, 1848,
+3rd ed. 1893), and it is still the one usually studied. G.F. Nicholl
+gives an Assamese grammar as a supplement to his Bengali <i>Grammar</i>
+already quoted. Like that work, it is quite independent, and is not
+a revised edition of Brown. M. Bronson&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary</i> (Sibsagar,
+1867) was for long the only vocabulary available, and a very useful
+and practical work it was. It is now superseded by Hem Candra
+Ba&#343;u&#257;&rsquo;s <i>Hema-ko&#7779;a</i> (Shillong, 1900). For Assamese literature, see
+Ananda R&#257;m Dheki&#257;l Phukan&rsquo;s <i>A Few Remarks on the Assamese Language</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span>
+(Sibsagar, 1855), partly reprinted in the <i>Indian Antiquary</i>,
+vol. xxv. (1896), pp. 57 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. A. Gr.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Mg. Pr. every <i>r</i> becomes <i>l</i>. For an explanation of the apparent
+non-observance of this rule in languages of the Eastern Group, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bihari</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENGAZI<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (anc. <i>Hesperides-Berenice</i>), a seaport on the north
+coast of Africa, capital of the sanjak of Bengazi or Barca,
+formerly in the vilayet of Tripoli, but, since 1875, dependent
+directly on the ministry of the interior at Constantinople. It
+is situated on a narrow strip of land between the Gulf of Sidra
+and a salt marsh, in 30° 7&prime; N. lat. and 20° 3&prime; E. long. Though
+for the most part poorly built, it has one or two buildings of
+some pretension&mdash;an ancient castle, a mosque, a Franciscan
+monastery, government buildings and barracks. Senussi
+influence is strong and there is a large <i>zawia</i> (convent). The
+harbour is half silted up with sand and the ruins of fortifications
+and is accessible only to vessels of light draught. A lighthouse
+has been erected at the entrance, but reefs render approach
+difficult, and the outer anchorage is fully exposed to west and
+north and not good holding. The export trade is largely in
+barley, shipped to British and other maltsters. The Sudan
+produce (ivory, ostrich feathers, &amp;c.) formerly brought to
+Bengazi by caravan, has now been almost wholly diverted to
+Tripoli, the eastern tracks from Wadai and Borku by way of
+Kufra to Aujila having become so unsafe that their natural
+difficulties are no longer worth braving. Consular vigilance has
+also killed the once considerable slave trade. Trade in other
+commodities, however, is on the increase, exports now amounting
+to nearly half a million sterling and imports to half that figure.
+The neighbouring coast is frequented by Greek and Italian
+sponge-fishers, the industry being a valuable one. The province
+of Bengazi, being still without telegraphs or roads, is one of
+the most backward in the Ottoman empire.</p>
+
+<p>Founded by the Greeks of Cyrenaica under the name Hesperides,
+the town received from Ptolemy III. the name of
+Berenice in compliment to his wife. The ruins of the ancient
+town, which superseded Cyrene and Barca as chief place in the
+province after the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, are now nearly buried in
+the sand. The modern town lies south-west of the original
+site. Certain large natural pits which are found in the plain
+behind, and have luxuriant gardens at the bottom, are supposed
+to have originated the myth of the Gardens of the Hesperides.
+Ancient tombs are found, which in 1882 yielded fine Greek
+vases to G. Dennis, then British vice-consul. The present name
+is derived from that of a Moslem saint whose tomb, near the
+sea-coast, is an object of veneration. The population, amounting
+to about 25,000, is greatly mixed. Levantines, Maltese, Greeks
+and Jews form the trading community, but since 1895, when a
+branch of the Agenzia Italiana Commerciale was established
+at Bengazi, Italians have exercised an increasing influence on
+Cyrenaic commerce. Turks, Arabs and Berbers are the ruling
+castes, and negroes act as labourers and domestics. Many of
+these found their way to Crete, and becoming porters, &amp;c. in
+Canea and Candia, were notorious for turbulence and fanaticism.
+In 1897 and 1898 the European admirals forcibly deported
+consignments of the worst characters back to Bengazi. In 1858
+and again in 1874 the town was devastated by plague (see also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tripoli</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaica</a></span>).</p>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1687-1752), Lutheran
+divine and scholar, was born at Winnenden in Württemberg,
+on the 24th of June 1687. His father died in 1693, and Bengel
+was educated by a friend, who became a master in the gymnasium
+at Stuttgart. In 1703 Bengel left Stuttgart and entered the
+university of Tübingen, where, in his spare time, he devoted
+himself specially to the works of Aristotle and Spinoza, and in
+theology to those of Philipp Spener, Johann Arndt and August
+Franke. His knowledge of the metaphysics of Spinoza was such
+that he was selected by one of the professors to prepare materials
+for a treatise <i>De Spinosismo</i>, which was afterwards published.
+After taking his degree, Bengel devoted himself to theology.
+Even at this time he had religious doubts; it is interesting in
+view of his later work that one cause of his perplexities was the
+difficulty of ascertaining the true reading of certain passages
+in the Greek New Testament. In 1707 Bengel entered the ministry
+and was appointed to the parochial charge of Metzingen-unter-Urach.
+In the following year he was recalled to Tübingen
+to undertake the office of <i>Repetent</i> or theological tutor. Here he
+remained till 1713, when he was appointed head of a seminary
+recently established at Denkendorf as a preparatory school of
+theology. Before entering on his new duties he travelled
+through the greater part of Germany, studying the systems of
+education which were in use, and visiting the seminaries of the
+Jesuits as well as those of the Lutheran and Reformed churches.
+Among other places he went to Heidelberg and Halle, and had
+his attention directed at Heidelberg to the canons of scripture
+criticism published by Gerhard von Mästricht, and at Halle
+to C. Vitringa&rsquo;s <i>Anacrisis ad Apocalypsin</i>. The influence exerted
+by these upon his theological studies is manifest in some of his
+works. For twenty-eight years&mdash;from 1713 to 1741&mdash;he was
+master (<i>Klosterpräceptor</i>) of the <i>Klosterschule</i> at Denkendorf,
+a seminary for candidates for the ministry established in a former
+monastery of the canons of the Holy Sepulchre. To these years,
+the period of his greatest intellectual activity, belong many of
+his chief works. In 1741 he was appointed prelate (<i>i.e.</i> <i>General
+Superintendent</i>) at Herbrechtingen, where he remained till 1749,
+when he was raised to the dignity of consistorial counsellor and
+prelate of Alpirspach, with a residence in Stuttgart. He now
+devoted himself to the discharge of his duties as a member of
+the consistory. A question of considerable difficulty was at that
+time occupying the attention of the church courts, viz. the
+manner in which those who separated themselves from the church
+were to be dealt with, and the amount of toleration which
+should be accorded to meetings held in private houses for the
+purpose of religious edification. The civil power (the duke of
+Württemberg was a Roman Catholic) was disposed to have
+recourse to measures of repression, while the members of the
+consistory, recognizing the good effects of such meetings, were
+inclined to concede considerable liberty. Bengel exerted himself
+on the side of the members of the consistory. In 1751 the
+university of Tübingen conferred upon him the degree of doctor of
+divinity. He died after a short illness, in 1752.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works on which Bengel&rsquo;s reputation rests as a Biblical scholar
+and critic are his edition of the Greek New Testament, and his
+<i>Gnomon</i> or <i>Exegetical Commentary</i> on the same.</p>
+
+<p>(A.) His edition of the Greek Testament was published at Tübingen
+in 1734, and at Stuttgart in the same year, but without the critical
+apparatus. So early as 1725, in an addition to his edition of Chrysostom&rsquo;s
+<i>De Sacerdotio</i>, he had given an account in his <i>Prodromus
+Novi Testamenti Graeci recte cauteque adornandi</i> of the principles on
+which his intended edition was to be based. In preparation for his
+work Bengel was able to avail himself of the collations of upwards of
+twenty MSS., none of them, however, of great importance, twelve
+of which had been collated by himself. In constituting the text, he
+imposed upon himself the singular restriction of not inserting any
+various reading which had not already been <i>printed</i> in some preceding
+edition of the Greek text. From this rule, however, he deviated
+in the case of the Apocalypse, where, owing to the corrupt state of
+the text, he felt himself at liberty to introduce certain readings on
+manuscript authority. In the lower margin of the page he inserted
+a selection of various readings, the relative importance of which he
+denoted by the first five letters of the Greek alphabet in the following
+manner:&mdash;&alpha; was employed to denote the reading which in his judgment
+was the true one, although he did not venture to place it in the
+text; &beta;, a reading better than that in the text; &gamma;, one equal to the
+textual reading; &delta; and &epsilon;, readings inferior to those in the text.
+R. Étienne&rsquo;s division into verses was retained in the inner margin,
+but the text was divided into paragraphs. The text was followed
+by a critical apparatus, the first part of which consisted of an
+introduction to the criticism of the New Testament, in the thirty-fourth
+section of which he laid down and explained his celebrated canon,
+&ldquo;<i>Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua</i>&rdquo; (&ldquo;The difficult reading is to be
+preferred to that which is easy&rdquo;), the soundness of which, as a
+general principle, has been recognized by succeeding critics. The
+second part of the critical apparatus was devoted to a consideration
+of the various readings, and here Bengel adopted the plan of stating
+the evidence both <i>against</i> and <i>in favour</i> of a particular reading, thus
+placing before the reader the materials for forming a judgment.
+Bengel was the first definitely to propound the theory of families or
+recensions of MSS. His investigations had led him to see that a
+certain affinity or resemblance existed amongst many of the authorities
+for the Greek text&mdash;MSS., versions, and ecclesiastical writers;
+that if a peculiar reading, <i>e.g.</i>, was found in one of these, it was generally
+found also in the other members of the same class; and this
+general relationship seemed to point ultimately to a common origin
+for all the authorities which presented such peculiarities. Although
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span>
+disposed at first to divide the various documents into three classes,
+he finally adopted a classification into two&mdash;the African or older
+family of documents, and the Asiatic, or more recent class, to which
+he attached only a subordinate value. The theory was afterwards
+adopted by J.S. Semler and J.J. Griesbach, and worked up into an
+elaborate system by the latter critic. Bengel&rsquo;s labours on the text
+of the Greek Testament were received with great disfavour in many
+quarters. Like Brian Walton and John Mill before him, he had to
+encounter the opposition of those who believed that the certainty
+of the word of God was endangered by the importance attached to
+the various readings. J.J. Wetstein, on the other hand, accused
+him of excessive caution in not making freer use of his critical
+materials. In answer to these strictures, Bengel published a <i>Defence
+of the Greek Text of His New Testament</i>, which he prefixed to his
+<i>Harmony of the Four Gospels</i>, published in 1736, and which contained
+a sufficient answer to the complaints, especially of Wetstein, which
+had been made against him from so many different quarters.
+The text of Bengel long enjoyed a high reputation among scholars,
+and was frequently reprinted. An enlarged edition of the critical
+apparatus was published by Philip David Burk in 1763.</p>
+
+<p>(B.) The other great work of Bengel, and that on which his reputation
+as an exegete is mainly based, is his <i>Gnomon Novi Testamenti,
+or Exegetical Annotations on the New Testament</i>, published in
+1742. It was the fruit of twenty years&rsquo; labour, and exhibits with a
+brevity of expression, which, it has been said, &ldquo;condenses more
+matter into a line than can be extracted from pages of other writers,&rdquo;
+the results of his study. He modestly entitled his work a <i>Gnomon</i>
+or index, his object being rather to guide the reader to ascertain
+the meaning for himself, than to save him from the trouble of personal
+investigation. The principles of interpretation on which he proceeded
+were, to import nothing <i>into</i> Scripture, but to draw <i>out of</i> it
+everything that it really contained, in conformity with grammatico-historical
+rules; not to be hampered by dogmatical considerations;
+and not to be influenced by the symbolical books. Bengel&rsquo;s hope
+that the <i>Gnomon</i> would help to rekindle a fresh interest in the study
+of the New Testament was fully realized. It has passed through
+many editions, has been translated into German and into English,
+and is still one of the books most valued by expositors of the New
+Testament. John Wesley made great use of it in compiling his
+<i>Expository Notes upon the New Testament</i> (1755).</p>
+
+<p>Besides the two works already described, Bengel was the editor
+or author of many others, classical, patristic, ecclesiastical and
+expository. The more important are: <i>Ordo Temporum</i>, a treatise
+on the chronology of Scripture, in which he enters upon speculations
+regarding the end of the world, and an <i>Exposition of the Apocalypse</i>
+which enjoyed for a time great popularity in Germany, and was
+translated into several languages.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For full details regarding Bengel the reader is
+referred to Oskar Wächter&rsquo;s <i>J.A. Bengels Lebensabriss</i> and to the
+<i>Memoir of His Life and Writings</i> (<i>J.A. Bengels Leben und Wirken</i>),
+by J.C.F. Burk, translated into English by Rev. R.F. Walker
+(London, 1837); see also Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, and
+E. Nestle, <i>Bengel als Gelehrter</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENGUELLA<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (São Felipe de Benguella), a town of Portuguese
+West Africa, capital of Benguella district, on a bay of the same
+name, in 12° 33&prime; S., 13° 25&prime; E. Benguella was founded in 1617 by
+the Portuguese under Manoel Cerveira Pereira. It was long the
+centre of an important trade, especially in slaves to Brazil and
+Cuba, but has now greatly declined. The anchorage, about a mile
+from the town, in 4 to 6 fathoms, is nothing but an open roadstead.
+Besides the churches of S. Felipe and S. Antonio, the
+hospital, and the fortress, there are only a few stone-built houses.
+The white population numbers about 1500. A short way beyond
+Benguella is Bahia Tarta, where salt is manufactured and sulphur
+excavated.</p>
+
+<p>About 20 m. north of Benguella is Lobito Bay, a natural
+harbour chosen (1903) as the starting-point of a railway to
+Katanga. At Lobito steamers can come close inshore and
+discharge cargo direct. Lobito is connected with Benguella by
+a railway which passes about midway through Katumbella, a
+town at the mouth of the river of the same name, and the sea
+terminus of an ancient route from the heart of Central Africa
+through Bihe. Old Benguella is a small town about 120 m. north
+of Lobito Bay.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENÍ,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> a river of Bolivia, a tributary of the Madeira, rising in
+the elevated Cordilleras near the city of La Paz and at first known
+as the Rio de La Paz, and flowing east, and north-east, to a
+junction with the Mamoré at 10° 20&prime; S. lat. to form the Madeira.
+Fully one-half of its length is through the mountainous districts
+of central Bolivia, where it is fed by a large number of rivers and
+streams from the snowclad peaks, and may be described as a
+raging torrent. Below Reyes its course is through the forest-covered
+hills and open plains of northern Bolivia, where some of
+the old Indian missions were located. The lower river is navigable
+for 217 m. from Reyes to the Esperanza rapids, 18 m. above
+its confluence with the Mamoré, where a fall of 20 ft. in a distance
+of 330 yds. obstructs free navigation. Its principal affluent is
+the Madre de Dios, or Mayu-tata, which rises in the eastern
+Cordilleras about 35 m. east of Cuzco, and flows in an east and
+north-east direction through northern Bolivia to a junction with
+the Bení 120 m. above its mouth. The principal tributaries of
+the Madre de Dios are the Inambari and Paucartambo, both large
+rivers, and the Chandless, Marcapata, and Tambopata. In
+length and size of its tributaries the Madre de Dios is a more
+important river than the Bení itself, and is navigable during the
+wet season to the foot of the Andes, 180 m. from Cuzco.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENÍ<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (<span class="sc">El Bení</span>), a department of north-eastern Bolivia,
+bounded N. and E. by Brazil, S. by the departments of
+Santa Cruz and Cochabamba, and W. by La Paz and the
+national territory contiguous to Peru and Brazil. Pop. (est.,
+1900) 32,180, including 6000 wild Indians; area (est., probably
+too high) 102,111 sq. m. The &ldquo;Llanos de Mojos,&rdquo; famous for
+their flourishing Jesuit mission settlements of the 17th and 18th
+centuries, occupy the eastern part of this department and are still
+inhabited by an industrious peaceful native population, devoted
+to cattle raising and primitive methods of agriculture. Cattle
+and forest products, including rubber and coca, are exported to a
+limited extent. The capital, Trinidad (pop. 2556), is situated on
+the Mamoré river in an open fertile country, and was once a
+flourishing Jesuit mission.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENI-AMER<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Amir</span>), a tribe of African &ldquo;Arabs&rdquo; of Hamitic
+stock, ethnologically intermediate between Abyssinians and
+Nubians. They are of the Beja family, and occupy the coast of
+the Red Sea south of Suakin and portions of the adjacent
+coast-country of Eritrea, north of Abyssinia. They are of very
+mixed Beja and Abyssinian blood, and speak a dialect half Beja
+and half Tigré, locally known as <i>Hassa</i>. They marry the women
+of the Bogos and other mountain tribes; but are too proud to let
+their daughters marry Abyssinians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i>, ed. Count Gleichen (London, 1905);
+A.H. Keane, <i>Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan</i> (1884); G. Sergi, <i>Africa:
+Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica</i> (Turin, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENI-ISRAEL<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (&ldquo;Sons of Israel&rdquo;), a colony of Jews settled on
+the Malabar coast in Kolaba district, Bombay presidency,
+chiefly centring in the native state of Janjira. With the Jews
+of Cochin, they represent a very ancient Judaic invasion of India,
+and are to be entirely distinguished from those Jews who have
+come to India in modern days for purposes of trade. Some
+authorities believe that the Beni-Israel settled in Kolaba in the
+15th century, but they themselves have traditions which indicate
+a far longer connexion with India (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: § 3).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENIN,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> the name of a country, city and river of British West
+Africa, west of the main channel of the Niger, forming part of the
+protectorate of Southern Nigeria. The name was formerly applied
+to the coast from the Volta, in 0° 40&prime; E., to the Rio del Rey, in 8°
+40&prime; E., and included the Slave Coast, the whole delta of the Niger
+and a small portion of the country to the eastward. Some trace
+of this earlier application remains in the name &ldquo;Bight of Benin,&rdquo;
+still given to that part of the sea which washes the Slave Coast,
+whilst up to 1894 &ldquo;Benin&rdquo; was used to designate the French
+possessions on the coast now included in Dahomey.</p>
+
+<p>In its restricted sense Benin is the country formerly ruled by
+the king of Benin city. This area, at one time very extensive,
+gradually contracted as subject tribes and towns acquired
+independence. It may be described as bounded W. by Lagos,
+S. by the territory of the Jakri and other tribes of the Niger
+delta, E. by the Niger river, and N. by Yorubaland. The
+coast-line held by Benin had passed out of its sovereignty by the
+middle of the 19th century. In physical characteristics, climate,
+flora and fauna, Benin in no way differs from the rest of the
+southern portion of Nigeria (<i>q.v.</i>). The coast is low, intersected
+by creeks, and forms one huge mangrove swamp; on the rising
+ground inland are dense forests in which the cotton and mahogany
+trees are conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span></p>
+
+<p>Benin river (known also as the Jakri outlet), though linked to
+the Niger system by a network of creeks, is an independent stream.
+It is formed by the junction of two rivers, the Ethiope and the
+Jamieson, which rise (north of 6° N,) on the western side of the
+hills which slope east to the Niger river. They unite about 50 m.
+above the sea. The general course of the Benin is westerly. It
+enters the Atlantic in about 5° 46&prime; N., 5° 3&prime; E., and at its mouth
+is 2 m. wide. It is here obstructed by a sand-bar over which there
+is 12-14 ft. of water at high tide. The river is navigable by small
+steamers up to Sapele, a town on the south bank immediately
+below the junction of the head streams. The Ologi and Gwato
+creeks enter the Benin on the right or north bank, and on the
+same side (8 m. above the mouth of the river) a channel, the Lagos
+creek, 170 m. long, branches off to the north-west, affording a
+waterway to Lagos. From the south or left bank of the Benin
+the Forcados mouth of the Niger can be reached by the Nana
+creek.</p>
+
+<p>The Beni are a pure negro tribe, speaking a distinct language,
+but having many characteristics common to those of the Yoruba-
+and Ewe-speaking tribes. Like the Ashanti and Dahomeyans
+the Beni had a well-organized and powerful government and
+possessed a culture rare among negro races (see below, <i>History</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Benin city is situated in a clearing of the forest, about 25 m.
+from the river-port of Gwato, on Gwato creek. The principal
+building is the British residency, which is constructed of brick
+and timber. A primary school, supported by the native chiefs,
+was opened in 1901, and a meteorological station was established
+in 1902. In 1904 the town was placed in telegraphic communication
+with the rest of the protectorate and with Europe. Of the
+ancient city, whose buildings excited the admiration of travellers
+in the 17th and 18th centuries, scarcely a trace remains. The
+houses are neatly built of clay, coloured with red ochre, and
+frequently ornamented with rudely carved pillars. The port of
+Gwato, which lies about 30 m. north-north-east of the mouth of
+the Benin river, has a special interest as the place where Giovanni
+Belzoni, the explorer of Egyptian antiquities, died in 1823 when
+starting on an expedition to Timbuktu. No trace of his grave can
+now be found. Wari (formerly known also as Owari, Oywheré,
+&amp;c.) is a much-frequented port on a branch of the Niger of the
+same name reached from the Forcados mouth, and is 55 m. south
+of Benin city.</p>
+
+<p>Since the abolition of the slave trade the chief export of the
+country is palm-oil. Other trade products were from time to
+time&mdash;with the desire to preserve the isolation and independence
+of the country&mdash;placed under fetish, <i>i.e.</i> their export was forbidden,
+so that in 1897 the only article in which trade was allowed
+by the king was palm-oil. After the British occupation, an
+extensive trade developed in oil, kernels, timber, ivory, rubber,
+&amp;c. In the rubber and timber industries great strides have been
+made. The chiefs and people have shown considerable aptitude
+in adapting themselves to the new order of things. Among the
+articles prized by the Beni is coral, of which the chiefs wear great
+quantities as ornaments.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Benin was discovered by the Portuguese about the
+year 1485, and they carried on a brisk trade in slaves, who were
+taken to Elmina and sold to the natives of the Gold Coast. At
+that time and for more than two centuries afterwards, Benin
+seems to have been one of the most powerful states of West
+Africa. It was known to Europeans in the 17th century as the
+Great Benin. The towns of Lagos and Badagry were both
+founded by Benin colonists. Benin city was the seat of a
+theocracy of priests, in whose hands the oba or king, nominally
+supreme, appears to have often been a puppet. He was revered
+by his subjects as a species of divinity, and seldom left the
+enclosure surrounding the royal palace. The religion and
+mythology of the Beni, like those of the Yorubas, are based on
+spirit- and ancestor-worship (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Negro</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>: <i>Ethnology</i>);
+the chief spirit or juju was worshipped with human sacrifices to
+an appalling extent, the Benin fetish being considered the most
+powerful in all West Africa. The usual form of sacrifice was
+crucifixion. Many chiefs, in no way politically dependent on
+Benin, used to send annual presents to the juju. The Benin
+people do not appear to have indulged in wanton cruelty, and it is
+stated that they usually stupefied the victims before putting them
+to death. The people were skilled in brass work; their carving
+and design were alike excellent. Carved ivory objects abound,
+and there are many evidences of the skill attained by native
+artists, who perhaps owed something to their contact with the
+Portuguese. The weaving of cloth was also carried on. The Beni
+remained politically and socially almost unaffected by European
+influence until the occupation of their country by the British in
+1897, their connexion with the white men having previously been
+almost confined to matters of trade. The Portuguese withdrew
+from the coast in the 18th century, but one of the most striking
+proofs of their commercial influence is the fact that a corrupt
+Lusitanian dialect was spoken by the older natives up to the last
+quarter of the 19th century. The first English expedition to
+Benin was in 1553; after that time a considerable trade grew up
+between England and that country, ivory, palm-oil and pepper
+being the chief commodities exported from Benin. The Dutch
+afterwards established factories and maintained them for a
+considerable time, chiefly with a view to the slave trade. In
+1788 Captain Landolphe founded a factory called Barodo, near
+the native village of Obobi for the French Compagnie d&rsquo;Oywheré;
+and it lasted till 1792, when it was destroyed by the English. In
+1863 Sir Richard Burton, then British consul at Fernando Po,
+went to Benin to try and put a stop to human sacrifices, an
+attempt in which he did not succeed. At that time the decline
+in power of the kingdom of Benin was obvious, and the city was
+in a decaying condition. In 1885 the coast-line of Benin was
+placed under British protection, and steps were taken to enter
+into friendly relations with the king. Consul G.F.N.B.
+Annesley<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> saw the king in 1890, with the hope of making a treaty,
+but failed in his object. In March 1892 Captain H.L. Gallwey,
+British vice-consul, succeeded in concluding a treaty with the
+king Overami. The treaty, however, proved of no avail, and
+the king kept as aloof as of old from any outside interference.
+In January 1897 J.R. Phillips, acting consul-general, and eight
+Europeans were brutally massacred on the road from Gwato to
+Benin city, whilst on a mission to the king. Phillips had persisted
+in starting for Benin despite the repeated request of the king
+that he should delay his visit until he (the king) had finished the
+celebration of the annual &ldquo;customs.&rdquo; Two Europeans, Captain
+Alan Boisragon and R.F. Locke, alone escaped. A punitive
+expedition was organized under the command of Admiral Sir
+Harry Rawson, the success of which was a remarkable example
+of good organization hastily improvised. The news of the
+massacre of Phillips&rsquo;s party reached Rear-Admiral Rawson, the
+commander-in-chief on the Cape station, on the 4th of January
+1897. The flagship was at Simons Town. The small craft were
+dispersed. Two ships at Malta had been ordered to join the Cape
+command. A transport was chartered in the Thames for the
+purposes of the expedition. In twenty-nine days a force of 1200
+men, coming from three places between 3000 and 4500 m. from
+the Benin river, was landed, organized, equipped and provided
+with transport. Five days later the city of Benin was taken, and
+in twelve days more the men were re-embarked, and the ships
+coaled and ready for any further service. On the 17th of February
+Benin was occupied after considerable fighting. The town, which
+was found to be reeking of human sacrifices, was partly burned,
+and on the 22nd the expedition started on its return. The king
+and chiefs responsible for the massacre were placed on their trial
+by Sir Ralph Moor, high commissioner for Southern Nigeria;
+the king was deposed and deported to Calabar, and the chiefs, six
+in all, were executed. The chief offender was not brought to
+justice until a second punitive expedition in 1899 completed the
+pacification of the country. After the removal of the king in
+September 1897 a council of chiefs was appointed. This council
+carries on the government of the whole Beni country, and is
+presided over by a British resident.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;H.L. Roth, <i>Great Benin, its Customs, Art and
+Horrors</i> (Halifax, 1903), a comprehensive and profusely
+illustrated work, with an annotated bibliography;
+C.H. Read and O.M. Dalton, <i>Antiquities from Benin ... in
+the British Museum</i> (1899);
+Pitt Rivers, <i>Works of Art from Benin</i> (1900);
+R.E. Dennett, <i>At the Back of the Black Man&rsquo;s Mind</i> (London, 1906);
+Sir R. Burton, <i>Wanderings in West Africa</i> (London, 1863);
+H.L. Gallwey, &ldquo;Journeys in the Benin Country,&rdquo; <i>Geog. Jnl.</i>,
+vol. i., London, 1893;
+A. Boisragon, <i>The Benin Massacre</i> (London, 1897);
+R.H. Bacon, <i>Benin, the City of Blood</i> (London, 1898),
+by a member of the punitive expedition of 1897;
+the annual <i>Reports on Southern Nigeria</i>,
+issued by the Colonial Office, London.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mr Annesley (b. 1851), after having served in the Prussian army,
+and in the Turkish army during the war of 1877, was in the British
+consular service from 1879 to 1892. In 1888 he became consul to
+the Congo Free State.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENITOITE,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a mineral discovered in 1907 near the headwaters
+of the San Benito river, San Benito Co., California, and
+described by Prof. G.D. Louderback. It is a titano-silicate of
+barium (BaTiSi<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">9</span>), crystallizing in the hexagonal system,
+with a hardness of 6.5, and specific gravity 3.65. It may be
+colourless or blue, the colour varying sometimes in different
+parts, and passing to a deep sapphire blue. The blue variety is
+cut as a gem stone, and often resembles blue spinel, though its
+softness distinguishes it from spinel and sapphire. It is a
+brilliant stone, with high refractive index, and is strongly
+dichroic, being pale when viewed parallel to the principal axis
+and dark when viewed transversely.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENJAMIN,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> a tribe of Israel, named after the youngest son of
+Jacob and Rachel. As distinct from the others Benjamin was
+born not beyond the Jordan but in Palestine, between Bethel and
+Ephrath. His mother, dying in childbed, gave him the name
+Ben-oni, &ldquo;Son of my sorrow,&rdquo; which was changed by his father
+to Ben-jamin, meaning probably &ldquo;Son of the right hand&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+&ldquo;of prosperity,&rdquo; or, perhaps, &ldquo;son of the south&rdquo;; Gen. xxxv.
+16-18). Of his personal history little is recorded. He was the
+favourite of his father and brothers (with which contrast the
+spirit of the stories in Judg. xix.-xxi.), and the reputation of
+fierceness ascribed to him in the blessing of Jacob (&ldquo;Benjamin
+is a wolf that teareth,&rdquo; Gen. xlix. 27) agrees with what is told of
+the tribe&rsquo;s warriors (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ehud</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saul</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jonathan</a></span>). It is a curious
+feature that its noted slingers were said to be left-handed (Judg.
+xx. 16, cf. iii. 15) and even ambidextrous (1 Chron. xii. 2). The
+late references to this tribe in the Israelite wanderings in the
+wilderness are of little value. On entering Palestine it is allotted
+a portion encompassed by the districts of Ephraim, Dan and
+Judah. In the time of the &ldquo;judges&rdquo; the tribe of Benjamin was
+almost exterminated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Judges, Book of</a></span>), 600 men alone
+escaping (Judges xix. sqq.). The tribe was built up again by the
+rape of the maidens of Shiloh at one of their annual festivals
+(for which cf. Judges ix. 27), but a later narrative gives currency
+to a tradition that 400 virgins were also brought to Shiloh, the
+survivors of a massacre of the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead. At
+all events, Benjamin claimed the honour of providing the great
+king of Israel whose heroic deliverance of Jabesh-Gilead is
+referred to elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saul</a></span>), and it is noteworthy that the
+tribe only now attain historical importance. If the genealogies
+associated it with Joseph the father of Ephraim and Manasseh,
+its fortunes were for a time bound up with the northern kingdom
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">David</a></span>). Although its territory lies open on the west and
+east, its physical features unite it to Judah, and what is known of
+its mixed population<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> makes it difficult to determine how far the
+youngest of the tribes of Israel enjoyed any independent position
+previous to the monarchy. Its neutral position between Judah
+and Ephraim gave it an importance which was religious as well as
+political. Anathoth the home of Abiathar and Jeremiah, Gibeon
+the old Canaanite sanctuary, the royal sanctuary at Bethel, its
+associations with Samuel and the prophetic gilds of the times
+of Elijah and Elisha, and finally Jerusalem itself, the centre of
+worship, give &ldquo;the least of all the tribes&rdquo; a unique value in the
+history of Old Testament religion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H.W. Hogg, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, col. 534 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Jerusalem and its district was Jebusite until its capture by David
+(see 2 Sam. v.); for Beeroth and Gibeon, see 2 Sam. iv. 2 seq.,
+xxi. 2, and note the Benjamite and Judahite names which find
+analogies in the Edomite genealogies. See, on these points,
+S.A. Cook, <i>Jew. Quarterly Review</i> (1906), pp. 528 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENJAMIN OF TUDELA<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (in Navarre), a Jewish rabbi of the
+12th century. He visited Constantinople, Egypt, Assyria and
+Persia, and penetrated to the frontiers of China. His journeys
+occupied him for about thirteen years. He was credulous, but
+his <i>Itinerary</i>, or <i>Massa&rsquo;oth</i>, contains some curious notices of the
+countries he visited and of the condition of the Jews. Thus his
+work is of much value for the Jewish history of the 12th century.
+It is from Benjamin that we know that the Jews of Palestine and
+other parts of the East were noted for the arts of dyeing and
+glass-making.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Itinerary</i> was translated from the Hebrew into Latin by Arias
+Montanus in 1575, and appeared in a French version by Baratier
+in 1734. There have been various English translations. One was
+published by Asher in 1840; another (with critical Hebrew text) by
+M.N. Adler (<i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, vols. xvi.-xviii.; also
+reprinted as a separate volume, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (1811-1884), Anglo-American
+lawyer, of Jewish descent, was born a British subject at St Thomas
+in the West Indies on the 11th of August 1811, and was successively
+an American lawyer, a leading Confederate politician and
+a distinguished English barrister. He eventually died in Paris a
+domiciled Frenchman. After 1818 his parents lived in Charleston,
+South Carolina, and he went to Yale in 1825 for his education, but
+left without taking a degree, and entered an attorney&rsquo;s office in
+New Orleans. He was admitted to the New Orleans bar in 1832.
+He compiled with his friend John Slidell a valuable digest of
+decisions of the superior courts of New Orleans and Louisiana;
+and as a partner in the firm of Slidell, Benjamin &amp; Conrad, he
+enjoyed a good practice. In 1848 he was admitted a councillor
+of the supreme court, and in 1852 he was elected a senator for
+Louisiana, and thereafter he took an active part in politics,
+declining to accept a judgeship of the supreme court. In 1861 he
+withdrew from the Senate, left Washington and actively espoused
+the Confederate cause. He joined Jefferson Davis&rsquo;s provisional
+government as attorney-general, becoming afterwards his
+secretary for war (1861-1862), and chief secretary of state
+(1862-1865). Although at times subject to fierce criticism with
+regard to matters of administration and finance, he was recognized
+as one of the ablest men on the Confederate side, and he
+remained with Jefferson Davis to the last, sharing his flight after
+the surrender at Appomattox, and only leaving him shortly before
+his capture, because he found himself unable to go farther on
+horseback. He escaped from the coast of Florida in an open boat,
+and after many vicissitudes reached England, an exile. In 1866 his
+remaining property was lost in the banking failure of Overend &amp; Gurney.</p>
+
+<p>In London Benjamin was able to earn a little money by
+journalism, and on the 13th of January 1866 he entered Lincoln&rsquo;s
+Inn. He received a hospitable welcome from the legal profession.
+The influence of English judges who knew his abilities and his
+circumstances enabled him to be called to the bar on the 6th of
+June 1866, dispensing with the usual three years as a student,
+and he acquired his first knowledge of the practice and methods
+of English courts as the pupil of Mr C.E. (afterwards Baron)
+Pollock. Pollock fully recognized his abilities and they became
+and remained firm friends. Benjamin was naturally an apt and
+useful pupil; for instance, an opinion of Mr Pollock, which for
+long guided the London police in the exercise of their right to
+search prisoners, is mentioned by him as having been really
+composed by Benjamin while he was still his pupil. Benjamin
+joined the northern circuit, and a large proportion of his early
+practice came from solicitors at Liverpool who had correspondents
+in New Orleans. His business gradually increased, and having
+received a patent of precedence, he was on the 2nd of November
+1872 called within the bar as a queen&rsquo;s counsel. In addition to
+his knowledge of law and of commercial matters he had considerable
+eloquence, and a power of marshalling facts and arguments
+that rendered him extremely effective, particularly before judges.
+He was less successful in addressing juries, and towards the close
+of his career did not take <i>Nisi prius</i> work, but in the court of
+appeal and House of Lords and before the judicial committee of
+the privy council he enjoyed a very large practice, making for
+some time fully £15,000 a year. The question of raising him to
+the bench was seriously considered by Lord Cairns, who, however,
+seems to have thought that the ungrudging hospitality and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span>
+goodwill with which Benjamin had been received by the English
+legal profession had gone far enough. Towards the close of his
+career he was in ill health, and he suffered from the results of a fall
+from a tramcar. He retired in 1882 to a house in Paris which he
+had built and where he had been in the habit of passing his vacations
+with his wife, who was a Frenchwoman. He never returned
+to practice, but came back to London to be entertained by the
+bench and bar of England at a banquet in the Inner Temple Hall
+on the 30th of June 1883. He died at Paris on the 6th of May
+1884.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin was thick-set and stout, with an expression of great
+shrewdness. An early portrait of him is to be found in Jefferson
+Davis&rsquo;s <i>Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government</i>. His political
+history may be traced in that work, and in John W. Draper&rsquo;s
+<i>American Civil War</i> and von Holst&rsquo;s <i>Constitutional History of
+the United States</i>. Many allusions to his English career will be
+found in works describing English lawyers of his period, and there
+are some interesting reminiscences of him by Baron Pollock in the
+<i>Fortnightly Review</i> for March 1898. His <i>Treatise on the Law of
+Sale of Personal Property with References to the American Decisions
+and to the French Code and Civil Law</i>&mdash;a bulky volume known to
+practitioners as <i>Benjamin on Sales</i>&mdash;is the principal text-book
+on its subject, and a fitting monument of the author&rsquo;s career at
+the English bar, of his industry and learning. Many of his
+American speeches have been published.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Judah P. Benjamin</i>, by Pierce Butler (Philadelphia, 1907, with
+a good bibliography).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEN LEDI<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (Gaelic, &ldquo;the hill of God&rdquo;), a mountain of
+Perthshire, Scotland, 2875 ft. high, 5 m. by road N.W. of
+Callander. It is situated close to some of the most romantic
+scenery in the Highlands, and is particularly well known through
+Scott&rsquo;s <i>Lady of the Lake</i>. Its name is supposed to point to the
+time when Beltane rites were observed on its summit. A cairn
+was built on the top in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria&rsquo;s
+jubilee. On one of the sides of the mountain is a tarn which
+bears the name of Lochan nan Corp, &ldquo;the little loch of the dead,&rdquo;
+from an accident to a funeral party by which 200 lives were lost.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSÉ<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1858-&emsp;&emsp;), Spanish painter, was
+born at Valencia, studied painting under Domingo, and showed
+from the first such marked talent that he was sent to the Spanish
+school in Rome. He was one of the select circle pensioned by
+the Spanish government for residence in Italy and executed
+several state orders for the decoration of public buildings; but
+he owes his chief fame to his large historical paintings, notably
+the &ldquo;Vision in the Coliseum.&rdquo; He became the leader of the
+Spanish art colony in Rome, where he practised as painter and
+sculptor.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEN LOMOND,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> a mountain in the north-west of Stirlingshire,
+Scotland. It is situated near the eastern bank of Loch Lomond,
+about 9 m. from the head and about 15 from the foot. It is
+3192 ft. high, and the prevailing rocks are granite, mica schist,
+diorite, porphyry and quartzite, the last, where it crops out on
+the surface, gleaming in the distance like snow. Duchray Water,
+a head-stream of the Forth, rises in the north-east shoulder. The
+hill, which is covered with grass to the top, is a favourite climb,
+being ascended from Rowardennan (the easiest) or Inversnaid
+on the lake, or Aberfoyle 10 m. inland due east. The view from
+the summit extends northward as far as the Grampians, with
+occasional glimpses of Ben Nevis; westward to Jura in the
+Atlantic; south-westward to Arran in the Firth of Clyde;
+southward to Tinto Hill, the Lowthers and Cairnsmore; and
+eastward to Edinburgh Castle and Arthur&rsquo;s Seat.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENLOWES, EDWARD<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1603?-1676), English poet, son of
+Andrew Benlowes of Brent Hall, Essex, was born about 1603.
+He matriculated at St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, in 1620, and
+on leaving the university he made a prolonged tour on the
+continent of Europe. He was a Roman Catholic in middle life,
+but became a convert to Protestantism in his later years. He
+dissipated his fortune by openhanded generosity to his friends
+and relations, and possibly by serving in the Civil War; so that
+he was in great poverty at the time of his death, which occurred
+on the 18th of December 1676. The last eight years of his life
+were passed at Oxford. Many of his writings are in Latin. His
+most important work is <i>Theophila, or Love&rsquo;s Sacrifice, a Divine
+Poem</i> (1652). The poem deals with mystical religion, telling
+how the soul, represented by Theophila, ascends by humility,
+zeal and contemplation, and triumphs over the sins of the senses.
+It is written in a curious stanza of three lines of unequal length
+rhyming together. Until recent times justice has hardly been
+done to Benlowes&rsquo; poetical merits and indisputable piety. Samuel
+Butler, who satirized him in his &ldquo;Character of a Small Poet,&rdquo;
+found abundant matter for ridicule in his eccentricities; and
+Pope and Warburton noted him as a patron of bad poets.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Theophila</i> was reprinted by S.W. Singer; and in <i>Minor Poets
+of the Caroline Period</i>, vol. i. (1905), Mr Saintsbury reprints <i>Theophila</i>
+and two other poems by Benlowes, &ldquo;The Summary of Wisedome,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;A Poetic Descant upon a Private Music-Meeting.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEN MACDHUI,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> more correctly <span class="sc">Ben Muichdhui</span> (Gaelic for
+&ldquo;the mountain of the black pig,&rdquo; in allusion to its shape), the
+second highest mountain (4296 ft.) in Great Britain, one of the
+Cairngorm group, on the confines of south-western Aberdeenshire
+and south-western Banffshire, not far from the eastern boundary
+of Inverness-shire. It is about 11 m. from Castleton of Braemar
+and about 10 from Aviemore. The ascent is usually made from
+Castleton of Braemar, by way of the Linn of Dee, Glen Lui and
+Glen Derry. From the head of Glen Derry, with its blasted
+trees, the picture of desolation, it becomes more toilsome, but is
+partly repaid by the view of the remarkable columnar cliffs of
+Corrie Etchachan. The summit is flat and quite bare of vegetation,
+but the panorama in every direction is extremely grand.
+At the foot of a vast gully, 2500 ft. above the sea, lies Loch Avon
+(or A&rsquo;an), a narrow lake about 1½ m. long, with water of the
+deepest blue and a margin of bright yellow sand. At the western
+end of the lake is the Shelter Stone, an enormous block of granite
+resting upon two other blocks, which can accommodate a dozen
+persons. Beautiful rock crystals occur in veins in the corries.
+The summit of Cairngorm, 3½ m. north of that of Ben Macdhui,
+may be reached from the latter with scarcely any descent, by
+following the rugged ridge flanking the western side of Loch Avon.
+The other great peaks of the group are Braeriach (4248 ft.) and
+Cairntoul (4241 ft.), and 6 m. to the east are the twin masses of
+Ben a Bourd, the northern top of which is 3924 ft. and the southern
+3860 ft. high. Ben A&rsquo;an, an adjoining hill, is 3843 ft. high.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (1858-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+classical scholar, was born on the 6th of April 1858, in
+Providence, Rhode Island. He graduated from Brown University
+in 1878 and also studied at Harvard (1881-1882) and in
+Germany (1882-1884). He taught in secondary schools in
+Florida (1878-1879), New York (1879-1881), and Nebraska
+(1885-1889), and became professor of Latin in the University
+of Wisconsin in 1889, of classical philology at Brown University
+in 1891, and of Latin at Cornell University in 1892. His syntactical
+studies, notably various papers on the subjunctive, are
+based on a statistical examination of Latin texts and are marked
+by a fresh system of nomenclature; he ranks as one of the leaders
+of the &ldquo;New American School&rdquo; of syntacticians, who insist
+on a preliminary re-examination of all available data. Of great
+importance are his advocacy of &ldquo;quantitative&rdquo; reading of Latin
+verse and his <i>Critique of Some Recent Subjunctive Theories</i> in
+vol. ix. (1898) of <i>Cornell Studies in Classical Philology</i>, of which
+he was an editor. Bennett&rsquo;s <i>Latin Grammar</i> (1895) is the first
+successful attempt in America to adopt the method of the brief,
+scholarly <i>Schulgrammatik</i>. Besides the Latin classics commonly
+read in secondary courses and other text-books in &ldquo;Bennett&rsquo;s
+Latin Series,&rdquo; he edited Tacitus&rsquo;s <i>Dialogus de Oratoribus</i> (1894),
+and Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De Senectute</i> (1897) and <i>De Amicitia</i> (1897). He
+wrote, with George P. Bristol, <i>The Teaching of Greek and Latin
+in Secondary Schools</i> (1900), and <i>The Latin Language</i>, (1907),
+and with William Alexander Hammond translated <i>The Characters
+of Theophrastus</i> (1902).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, JAMES GORDON<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (1794-1872), American journalist,
+founder and editor of the New York Herald, was born at
+Newmills in Banffshire, Scotland, in 1794 (not in 1800, as has been
+stated). He was educated for the Roman Catholic priesthood
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span>
+in a seminary at Aberdeen, but in the spring of 1819, giving up
+the career which had been chosen for him, he emigrated to
+America. Landing at Halifax, Nova Scotia, he earned a poor
+living there for a short time by giving lessons in French, Spanish
+and bookkeeping; he passed next to Boston, where starvation
+threatened him until he got employment in a printing-office;
+and in 1822 he went to New York. An engagement as translator
+of Spanish for the <i>Courier</i> of Charleston, South Carolina, took
+him there for a few months in 1823. On his return to New York
+he projected a school, gave lectures on political economy and did
+subordinate work for the journals. During the next ten years
+he was employed on various papers, was the Washington correspondent
+first of the <i>New York Enquirer</i>, and later of the <i>Courier
+and Enquirer</i> in 1827-1832, his letters attracting much attention;
+he founded the short-lived <i>Globe</i> in New York in 1832; and in
+1833-1834 was the chief editor and one of the proprietors of the
+<i>Pennsylvanian</i> at Philadelphia. On the 6th of May 1835 he
+published the first number of a small one-cent paper, bearing
+the title of <i>New York Herald</i>, and issuing from a cellar, in which
+the proprietor and editor played also the part of salesman.
+&ldquo;He started with a disclaimer of all principle, as it is called, all
+party, all politics&rdquo;; and to this he consistently adhered. By
+his industry, sagacity and unscrupulousness, and by the variety
+of his news, the &ldquo;spicy&rdquo; correspondence, and the supply of
+personal gossip and scandal, he made the paper a great commercial
+success. He devoted his attention particularly to the gathering
+of news, and was the first to introduce many of the methods
+of the modern American reporter. He published on the 13th
+of June 1835, the first Wall Street financial article to appear in
+any American newspaper; printed a vivid and detailed account
+of the great fire of December 1835, in New York; was the first,
+in 1846, to obtain the report in full by telegraph of a long political
+speech; and during the Civil War maintained a staff of sixty-three
+war correspondents. Bennett continued to edit the
+Herald almost till his death, at New York, on the 1st of
+June 1872.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Gordon Bennett</span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), took over the
+management of the paper during the last year of its founder&rsquo;s
+life, and succeeded him in its control. It was he who sent
+Henry M. Stanley on his mission to find Livingstone in Central
+Africa, and he fitted out the &ldquo;Jeannette&rdquo; Polar Expedition, and
+in 1883 established (with John W. Mackay) the Commercial
+Cable Company.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, JOHN,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> one of the finest English madrigalists,
+whose first set of madrigals appeared in 1599. In 1614 Ravenscroft,
+in a collection including five of his madrigals, writes a
+eulogy which reads like an obituary notice. The first set of
+madrigals was reprinted in 1845 by the Musical Antiquarian
+Society. Bennett&rsquo;s works consist of this set and several contributions
+to such collections as the <i>Triumphs of Oriana</i>, and to
+various collections of church music.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> (1812-1875), English physician
+and pathologist, was born in London on the 31st of August 1812.
+He was educated at Exeter, and being destined for the medical
+profession was articled to a surgeon in Maidstone. In 1833 he
+began his studies at Edinburgh, and in 1837 graduated with the
+highest honours. During the next four years he studied in Paris
+and Germany, and on his return to Edinburgh in 1841 published
+a <i>Treatise on Cod-liver Oil as a Therapeutic Agent</i>. In the same
+year he began to lecture as an extra-academical teacher on
+histology, drawing attention to the importance of the microscope
+in the investigation of disease; and as physician to the Royal
+Dispensary he instituted courses of &ldquo;polyclinical medicine.&rdquo;
+In 1843 he was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine
+at Edinburgh, and performed the duties of that chair with great
+energy till incapacitated by failing health. He resigned in 1874.
+In August 1875 he was able to be present at the meeting of the
+British Medical Association in Edinburgh, on which occasion he
+received the degree of LL.D., but the fatigue he then underwent
+brought on a relapse, and he was compelled to have the operation
+of lithotomy performed. He sank rapidly and died on the 25th
+of September at Norwich. His publications were very numerous
+including <i>Lectures on Clinical Medicine</i> (1850-1856), which in
+second and subsequent editions were called <i>Clinical Lectures
+on the Principles and Practice of Medicine</i>, and were translated
+into various languages, including Russian and Hindu; <i>Leucocythaemia</i>
+(1852), the first recorded cure of which was published
+by him in 1845; <i>Outlines of Physiology</i> (1858), reprinted from
+the 8th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>; <i>Pathology and
+Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis</i> (1853); <i>Textbook of
+Physiology</i> (1871-1872).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1816-1875), English
+musical composer, the son of Robert Bennett, an organist, was
+born at Sheffield on the 13th of April 1816. Having lost his
+father at an early age, he was brought up at Cambridge by his
+grandfather, from whom he received his first musical education.
+He entered the choir of King&rsquo;s College chapel in 1824. In 1826
+he entered the Royal Academy of Music, and remained a pupil of
+that institution for the next ten years, studying pianoforte under
+W.H. Holmes and Cipriani Potter, and composition under Lucas
+and Dr Crotch. It was during this time that he wrote several of
+his most appreciated works, in which may be traced influences
+of the contemporary movement of music in Germany, which
+country he frequently visited during the years 1836-1842. At
+one of the Rhenish musical festivals in Düsseldorf he made the
+personal acquaintance of Mendelssohn, and soon afterwards
+renewed it at Leipzig, where the talented young Englishman was
+welcomed by the leading musicians of the rising generation. At
+one of the celebrated Gewandhaus concerts he played his third
+pianoforte concerto, which was received enthusiastically. An enthusiastic
+account of the event was written by Robert Schumann,
+who pronounced Bennett to be the most &ldquo;<i>musikalisch</i>&rdquo; of all
+Englishmen, and &ldquo;an angel of a musician&rdquo; (copying Gregory&rsquo;s
+pun on <i>Angli</i> and <i>Angeli</i>). But it was Mendelssohn&rsquo;s influence
+that dominated Bennett&rsquo;s mode of utterance. A good example
+of this may be studied in Bennett&rsquo;s <i>Capriccio in D minor</i>. His
+great success on the continent established his position on his
+return to England. In 1834 he was elected organist of St Anne&rsquo;s
+chapel (now church), Wandsworth. In this year he composed
+his <i>Overture to Parisina</i>, and his Concerto in C minor, modelled
+on Mozart. An unpublished concerto in F minor, and the
+overture to the <i>Naiads</i>, impressed the firm of Broadwood so
+favourably in 1836 that they offered the composer a year in
+Leipzig, where the <i>Naiads</i> overture was performed at a Gewandhaus
+concert on the 13th of February 1837. Bennett visited
+Leipzig a second time in 1840-1841, when he composed his
+<i>Caprice in E</i> for pianoforte and orchestra and his overture <i>The
+Wood Nymphs</i>. He settled in London, devoting himself chiefly
+to practical teaching. In 1844 he married Mary Anne, daughter
+of Captain James Wood, R.N. He was made musical professor
+at Cambridge in 1856, the year in which he was engaged as
+permanent conductor of the Philharmonic Society. This latter
+post he held until 1866, when he became principal of the Royal
+Academy of Music. Owing to his professional duties his latter
+years were not fertile, and what he then wrote was scarcely equal
+to the productions of his youth. The principal charm of Bennett&rsquo;s
+compositions (not to mention his absolute mastery of the musical
+form) consists in the tenderness of their conception, rising
+occasionally to sweetest lyrical intensity. Except the opera,
+Bennett tried his hand at almost all the different forms of vocal
+and instrumental writing. As his best works in various branches
+of art, we may mention, for pianoforte solo, and with accompaniment
+of the orchestra, his three sketches, <i>The Lake, The Millstream</i>
+and <i>The Fountain</i>, and his 3rd pianoforte concerto; for
+the orchestra, his <i>Symphony in G minor</i>, and his overture <i>The
+Naiads</i>; and for voices, his cantata <i>The May Queen</i>, written for
+the Leeds Festival in 1858. For the jubilee of the Philharmonic
+Society he wrote the overture <i>Paradise and the Peri</i> in 1862. He
+also wrote a sacred cantata, <i>The Woman of Samaria</i>, first performed
+at the Birmingham Musical Festival in 1867. In 1870
+the university of Oxford conferred upon him the honorary degree
+of D.C.L. A year later he was knighted, and in 1872 he received
+a public testimonial before a large audience at St James&rsquo;s Hall, the
+money subscribed being devoted to the foundation of a scholarship
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span>
+at the Royal Academy of Music. Shortly before his death he
+produced a sonata called the <i>Maid of Orleans</i>, an elaborate piece
+of programme music based on Schiller&rsquo;s tragedy. He died at his
+house in St John&rsquo;s Wood, London, on the 15th of February 1875.
+See the <i>Life</i>, by his son (1908).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BEN NEVIS,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> the highest mountain in the British Isles, in
+Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is 4406 ft. above the level of the sea,
+and is situated 4½ m. E.S.E. of Fort William, the meridian of 5° W
+passing through it. As viewed from Banavie on the Caledonian
+Canal, it has the appearance of two great masses, one higher
+than the other, and though its bulk is impressive, its outline is
+much less striking than that of many other Highland hills. Its
+summit consists of a plateau 100 acres in area, with a slight slope
+to the south, terminating on its north-eastern side in a sheer fall
+of more than 1500 ft. Snow lies in some of the gorges all the year
+round. The rocks of its lower half are mainly granite and gneiss;
+its upper half is composed of porphyritic greenstone, and a variety
+of minerals occur. Its circumference at the base is about 30 m.
+It may be described as flanked on the west and south by the Glen
+and Water of Nevis, on the east by the river and Glen of Treig,
+and on the north by the river and Glen of Spean. From 1881 till
+1904 meteorological observations were taken from the summit of
+Ben Nevis, the observers at first making the ascent daily for the
+purpose. In 1883, however, an observatory, equipped at a cost
+of £4000 (raised by public subscription), was opened by Mrs
+Cameron Campbell of Monzie, who provided the site. The
+observatory, which was connected by wire with the post office at
+Fort William, was provisioned by the Scottish Meteorological
+Society, to whom it belonged. The burden of maintaining it,
+however, proving too great for the society&rsquo;s means, appeal was
+made in vain to government for national support, and the station
+was closed in 1904. The bridle road up the mountain leaves Glen
+Nevis at Achintee; it has a gradient nowhere exceeding 1 in 5,
+and the ascent is commonly effected in two to three hours.
+There is a small hotel on the summit for the convenience of
+tourists, especially of those anxious to witness sunrise. From
+the summit every considerable peak in Scotland is visible.
+Observations conducted during several months have shown that,
+whilst the mean temperature at Fort William was 57° F., at the
+summit of Ben Nevis it was 41° F., and that though the rainfall
+at the fort amounted to 24 in., it was as much as 43 in. on the top
+of the Ben.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1745-1826),
+Russian general, of Hanoverian family, was born on the 10th of
+February 1745 in Brunswick, and served successively as a page
+at the Hanoverian court and as an officer of foot-guards. He
+retired from the Hanoverian army in 1764, and in 1773 entered
+the Russian service as a field officer. He fought against the
+Turks in 1774 and in 1778, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the
+latter year. In 1787 his conduct at the storming of Oczakov won
+him promotion to the rank of brigadier, and he distinguished
+himself repeatedly in the Polish War of 1793-1794 and in the
+Persian War of 1796. The part played by Bennigsen in the actual
+assassination of the tsar Paul I. is not fully known, but he took a
+most active share in the formation and conduct of the conspiracy.
+Alexander I. made him governor-general of Lithuania in 1801,
+and in 1802 a general of cavalry. In 1806 he was in command of
+one of the Russian armies operating against Napoleon, when he
+fought the battle of Pultusk and met the emperor in person in
+the sanguinary battle of Eylau (8th of February 1807). Here he
+could claim to have inflicted the first reverse suffered by Napoleon,
+but six months later Bennigsen met with the crushing defeat of
+Friedland (14th of June 1807) the direct consequence of which
+was the treaty of Tilsit. Bennigsen now retired for some years,
+but in the campaign of 1812 he reappeared in the army in various
+responsible positions. He was present at Borodino, and defeated
+Murat in the engagement of Tarutino, but on account of a quarrel
+with Marshal Kutusov, the Russian commander-in-chief, he
+was compelled to retire from active military employment. After
+the death of Kutusov he was recalled and placed at the head of an
+army. Bennigsen led one of the columns which made the decisive
+attack on the last day of the battle of Leipzig (16th-19th of
+October 1813). On the same evening he was made a count by
+the emperor Alexander I., and he afterwards commanded the
+forces which operated against Marshal Davout in North Germany.
+After the general peace he held a command from 1815 to 1818,
+when he retired from active service and settled on his Hanoverian
+estate of Banteln near Hildesheim. Count Bennigsen died on the
+3rd of December 1826. His son, <span class="sc">Alexander Levin</span>, count von
+Bennigsen (1809-1893), was a distinguished Hanoverian statesman.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> (1824-1902), German politician,
+was born at Lüneburg on the 10th of July 1824. He was
+descended from an old Hanoverian family, his father, Karl von
+Bennigsen, being an officer in the Hanoverian army, who rose
+to the rank of general and also held diplomatic appointments.
+Bennigsen, having studied at the university of Göttingen,
+entered the Hanoverian civil service. In 1855 he was elected a
+member of the second chamber; and as the government refused
+to allow him leave of absence from his official duties he resigned
+his post in the public service. He at once became the recognized
+leader of the Liberal opposition to the reactionary government,
+but must be distinguished from Count Bennigsen, a member of
+the same family, and son of the distinguished Russian general,
+who was also one of the parliamentary leaders at the time.
+What gave Bennigsen his importance not only in Hanover, but
+throughout the whole of Germany, was the foundation of the
+National Verein, which was due to him, and of which he was
+president. This society, which arose out of the public excitement
+created by the war between France and Austria, had for
+its object the formation of a national party which should strive
+for the unity and the constitutional liberty of the whole
+Fatherland. It united the moderate Liberals throughout Germany, and
+at once became a great political power, notwithstanding all the
+efforts of the governments, and especially of the king of Hanover
+to suppress it. In 1866 Bennigsen used all his influence to keep
+Hanover neutral in the conflict between Prussia and Austria, but
+in vain. He took no part in the war, but his brother, who was
+an officer in the Prussian army, was killed in Bohemia. In May
+of this year he had an important interview with Bismarck, who
+wished to secure his support for the reform of the confederation,
+and after the war was over at once accepted the position of a
+Prussian subject, and took his seat in the diet of the North
+German Confederation and in the Prussian parliament. He
+used his influence to procure as much autonomy as possible for
+the province of Hanover, but was a strong opponent of the
+Guelph party. He was one of the three Hanoverians, Windthorst
+and Miquel being the other two, who at once won for the
+representatives of the conquered province the lead in both the
+Prussian and German parliaments. The National Verein, its
+work being done, was now dissolved; but Bennigsen was chiefly
+instrumental in founding a new political party&mdash;the National
+Liberals,&mdash;who, while they supported Bismarck&rsquo;s national policy,
+hoped to secure the constitutional development of the country.
+For the next thirty years he was president of the party, and was
+the most influential of the parliamentary leaders. It was chiefly
+owing to him that the building up of the internal institutions of
+the empire was carried on without the open breach between
+Bismarck and the parliament, which was often imminent. Many
+amendments suggested by him were introduced in the debates
+on the constitution; in 1870 he undertook a mission to South
+Germany to strengthen the national party there, and was consulted
+by Bismarck while at Versailles. It was he who brought
+about the compromise on the military bill in 1874. In 1877 he
+was offered the post of vice-chancellor with a seat in the Prussian
+ministry, but refused it because Bismarck or the king would not
+agree to his conditions. From this time his relations with the
+government were less friendly, and in 1878 he brought about
+the rejection of the first Socialist Bill. In 1883 he resigned his
+seat in parliament owing to the reactionary measures of the
+government, which made it impossible for him to continue his
+former co-operation with Bismarck, but returned in 1887 to
+support the coalition of national parties. One of the first acts
+of the emperor William II. was to appoint him president of the
+province of Hanover. In 1897 he resigned this post and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span>
+retired from public life. He died on the 7th of August
+1902.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See biographical notices by A. Kiepert (2nd ed., Hanover, 1902),
+and E. Schreck (Hanover, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNINGTON,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> a village and one of the county-seats of
+Bennington county, Vermont, U.S.A., situated in the S.W.
+part of the state, about 30 m. E.N.E. of Troy, New York. Pop.
+(1890) 3971; (1900) 5656 (965 foreign-born); (1910) 6211.
+The township of the same name, in which it is situated, had in
+1910 a population of 8698, living chiefly in the villages of
+Bennington, North Bennington and Bennington Centre, the
+last a summer resort. The village of Bennington is served by
+the Rutland railway, and is connected by electric railway with
+North Adams and Pittsfield, Mass., and Hoosick Falls, N.Y.
+It is picturesquely situated at the foot of the Green Mountains,
+and the summit of the neighbouring Mt. Anthony (2345 ft.)
+commands a magnificent view. The village has woollen mills,
+knitting mills, stereoscope, box, and collar and cuff factories
+and machine shops. There are white clay and yellow ochre
+works in different parts of the township. Bennington is the seat
+of the Vermont state soldiers&rsquo; home. The Bennington Battle
+Monument, a shaft 301 ft. high, is said to be the highest battle
+monument in the world. It commemorates the success gained
+on the 16th of August 1777 by a force of nearly 2000 &ldquo;Green
+Mountain Boys&rdquo; and New Hampshire and Massachusetts
+militia under General John Stark over two detachments of
+General Burgoyne&rsquo;s army, totalling about 1200 men, under
+Col. Friedrich Baum and Col. Breyman. These came up one
+after the other in search of provisions and were practically
+annihilated, Col. Baum being mortally wounded and 700 men
+taken prisoners. The scene of the battle is about 5 m. from the
+village. The victory had an important influence on Burgoyne&rsquo;s
+campaign (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American War of Independence</a></span>), weakening
+Burgoyne and encouraging the American militia to take the
+field against him. Bennington was settled in 1761 and was
+named in honour of Governor Benning Wentworth of New
+Hampshire. The township was organized in 1762. It was one
+of the &ldquo;New Hampshire Grant&rdquo; towns, both New York and
+New Hampshire claiming jurisdiction over it, and, being the
+home of Ethan Alien and Seth Warner, it became the centre
+of activities of the &ldquo;Green Mountain Boys,&rdquo; of whom they were
+leaders. During the fifteen years in which Vermont was an
+independent commonwealth, Bennington was the headquarters
+of the council of safety. In 1828-1829 W.L. Garrison edited
+here a paper called <i>The Journal of the Times</i>. The village of
+Bennington was incorporated in 1849.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Merrill and Merrill, <i>Sketches of Historic Bennington</i> (Cambridge,
+Mass., 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENNO<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (1010-1106), bishop of Meissen, was the son of Werner,
+count of Woldenburg, was educated at Gosslar, and in 1066 was
+nominated by the emperor Henry IV. to the see of Meissen. In
+the troubles between empire and papacy that followed Benno
+took part against the emperor. In 1085 he was deposed by the
+synod of Mainz, but after the death of Pope Gregory VII. he
+submitted, and on the recommendation of the imperialist Pope
+Clement III. was restored to his see, which he held till his death.
+He did much for his diocese, both by ecclesiastical reforms on
+the Hildebrandine model and by material developments. He
+was long reverenced in his own diocese as a saint before, in 1523,
+he was canonized by Pope Adrian VI. His canonization drew
+from Luther a violent brochure &ldquo;against the new false god and
+old devil, who is to be lifted up at Meissen.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For bibliography, see Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist.:
+Bio-bibliographie, s.v.</i> &ldquo;Bennon.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1834-1901), Flemish
+composer, was born on the 17th of August 1834 at Harlebeke
+in Flanders. His father and a local village organist were his
+first teachers. In 1851 Benoit entered the Brussels Conservatoire,
+where he remained till 1855, studying chiefly under F.J.
+Fétis. During this period he composed music to many melodramas,
+and to an opera <i>Le Village dans les montagnes</i> for the
+Park theatre, of which in 1856 he became conductor. He won
+a government prize and a money grant in 1857 by his cantata
+<i>Le Meurtre d&rsquo;Abel</i>, and this enabled him to travel through
+Germany. In course of his journeyings he found time to write
+a considerable amount of music, as well as an essay <i>L&rsquo;École de
+musique flamande et son avenir</i>. Fétis loudly praised his
+<i>Messe solennelle</i>, which Benoit produced at Brussels on his
+return from Germany. In 1861 he visited Paris for the production
+of his opera <i>Le Roi des Aulnes</i> (&ldquo;Erlkönig&rdquo;), which, though
+accepted by the Théâtre Lyrique, was never mounted; while
+there he conducted at the Bouffes-Parisiens. Again returning
+home, he astonished a section of the musical world by the production
+at Antwerp of a sacred tetralogy, consisting of his
+<i>Cantate de Noël</i>, the above-mentioned <i>Mass</i>, a <i>Te Deum</i> and a
+<i>Requiem</i>, in which were embodied to a large extent his theories
+of Flemish music. It was in consequence of his passion for the
+founding of an entirely separate Flemish school that Benoit
+changed his name from Pierre to Peter. By prodigious efforts
+he succeeded in gathering round him a small band of enthusiasts,
+who affected to see with him possibilities in the foundation of
+a school whose music should differ completely from that of the
+French and German schools. In its main features this school
+failed, for its faith was pinned to Benoit&rsquo;s music, which is hardly
+more Flemish than French or German. Benoit&rsquo;s more important
+compositions include the Flemish oratorios <i>De Schelde</i> and
+<i>Lucifer</i>, the latter of which met with complete failure on its
+production in London in 1888; the operas <i>Het Dorp int Gebirgte</i>
+and <i>Isa</i>, the <i>Drama Christi</i>; an enormous mass of songs, choruses,
+small cantatas and motets. Benoit also wrote a great number
+of essays on musical matters. He died at Antwerp on the 8th
+of March 1901.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENOÎT DE SAINTE-MORE,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Sainte-Maure</span>, 12th century
+French <i>trouvère</i>, is supposed to have been a native of Sainte-Maure
+in Touraine. Very little is known of his personal history.
+The <i>maître</i> prefixed to his name implies that he had graduated
+at the university, but there is nothing to show whether he was
+a simple <i>trouvère</i> by profession or belonged to the clergy. He
+was a loyal subject of Henry II. of England, to whose court he
+was attached, and when he speaks of the French, it is as &ldquo;they.&rdquo;
+Wace had begun a history of the dukes of Normandy in his
+<i>Roman du Rou</i>. This he brought down to the reign of Henry I.,
+but here Henry II. seems to have withdrawn his patronage, and
+at the end of his poem Wace refers to a <i>maistre Beneeit</i> who had
+received a similar commission. There is no other contemporary
+poem extant dealing with the subject except the <i>Chronique des
+ducs de Normandie</i>, and it would seem reasonable to assume the
+identity of Wace&rsquo;s rival with Benoît de Sainte-More, whose
+authorship of the chronicle has, nevertheless, been often disputed.
+But a comparison of the <i>Roman de Troie</i>, which is certainly
+Benoît&rsquo;s work, with the <i>Chronique</i>, confirms the supposition that
+they are by the same author. The poem contains over forty
+thousand lines, and relates the history of the Norman dukes
+from Rollo to Henry I., with a preliminary sketch of the Danish
+invasions and the adventures of Hastings and his companions.
+It has no claims to be considered an original authority. Benoît
+drew his information from the <i>De moribus et actis primorum
+Normanniae ducum</i> of Dudon de Saint Quentin as far as 1002,
+following his model very closely. From that time he avails
+himself of the chronicle of William of Jumieges, also of Ordericus
+Vitalis and others. The <i>Chronique</i> probably dates from about
+1172 to 1176. In the <i>Roman de Troie</i>, written about 1160,
+Benoît expressly asserts his authorship. He mentions &ldquo;Omers&rdquo;
+with great respect as <i>li clers merveillos</i>, but his authority for the
+story is naturally not Homer, of whom he could have no first-hand
+knowledge. He follows the apocryphal <i>Historia de excidio
+Trojae</i> of Dares the Phrygian and the <i>Ephemerides belli Trojani</i>
+of Dictys of Crete. The poem runs to about 30,000 lines. The
+personages of the classical story are converted into heroes of
+romance. They have their castles and their abbeys, and act
+in accordance with feudal custom. The supernatural machinery
+of Homer is missing both in Benoît&rsquo;s original and his own
+narrative. The story begins with the capture of the Golden
+Fleece and comes down to the return of the Greek princes after
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span>
+the fall of Troy. Benoît diverges very widely from the classical
+tradition, and M. Léopold Constans sees reason to suppose that
+the <i>trouvère</i> founded his poem on an amplified version of the
+Dares narrative that has not come down to us. In the <i>Roman
+de Troie</i> first appeared the episode of Troïlus and Briseïde, that
+was to be developed later in the <i>Filostrato</i> of Boccaccio, which
+in its turn formed the basis of Chaucer&rsquo;s <i>Troilus and Creseide</i>.
+The Shakespearian play of <i>Troilus and Cressida</i> is also indirectly
+derived from Benoît&rsquo;s story.</p>
+
+<p>On the strength of a certain similarity of treatment Benoît has
+sometimes been credited with the authorship of the anonymous
+<i>Roman d&rsquo;Énéas</i> and of the <i>Roman de Thèbes</i>, a romance derived
+indirectly from the <i>Thebaïs</i> of Statius. M. Constans is inclined
+to negative both these attributions. It is not even certain that
+the Benoît who chronicled the deeds of the Norman dukes for
+Henry II. between 1172 and 1176 was the Benoît de Sainte-More
+of the <i>Roman de Troie</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Chronique des ducs de Normandie</i> was edited by Francisque
+Michel in 1836-1844; the <i>Roman de Troie</i> by A. Joly in 1870-1871;
+the <i>Énéas</i>, by J.J. Salverda de Grave in H. Suchier&rsquo;s <i>Bibliotheca
+Normannica</i> in 1891; the <i>Roman de Thèbes</i> for the <i>Société des
+anciens textes français</i>, by M.L. Constans in 1890. See E.D. Grand in
+<i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>; L. Constans in Petit de Julleville&rsquo;s <i>Hist.
+de la langue et de la litt, française</i> (vol. i. pp. 171-225). where the
+three romances are analysed at length. The prefaces to the editions just
+mentioned discuss the authorship of the romances.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENSERADE, ISAAC DE<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (1613-1691), French poet, was born
+in Paris, and baptized on the 5th of November 1613. His family
+appears to have been connected with Richelieu, who bestowed on
+him a pension of 600 livres. He began his literary career with the
+tragedy of <i>Cléopâtre</i> (1635), which was followed by four other indifferent pieces. On Richelieu&rsquo;s death Benserade lost his pension,
+but became more and more a favourite at court, especially
+with Anne of Austria. He provided the words for the court
+ballets, and was, in 1674, admitted to the Academy, where he
+wielded an influence quite out of proportion to the merit of his
+work. In 1676 the failure of his <i>Métamorphoses d&rsquo;Ovide</i> in the
+form of rondeaux gave a blow to his reputation, but by no means
+destroyed his vogue with his contemporaries. Benserade would
+probably be forgotten but for his sonnet on Job (1651). This
+sonnet, which he sent to a young lady with his paraphrase on Job,
+having been placed in competition with the <i>Urania</i> of Voiture, a
+dispute on their relative merits long divided the whole court and
+the wits into two parties, styled respectively the <i>Jobelins</i> and the
+<i>Uranists</i>. The partisans of Benserade were headed by the prince
+de Conti and Mile de Scudéry, while Mme de Montausier and
+J.G. de Balzac took the side of Voiture.</p>
+
+<p>Some years before his death, on the 19th of October 1691,
+Benserade retired to Chantilly, and devoted himself to a translation
+of the Psalms, which he nearly completed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENSLEY, ROBERT,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> an 18th-century English actor, of whom
+Charles Lamb in the <i>Essays of Elia</i> speaks with special praise.
+His early life is obscure, and he is said to have served in America
+as a lieutenant of marines; but he appeared at Drury Lane in
+1765, and at that house and at Covent Garden, and later at the
+Haymarket, he played important parts up to 1796, when he
+retired from the stage. He appears then to have been given
+a small post under the government, a paymastership, which he
+resigned in 1798. He is stated in various quarters to have died
+in 1817, but Mr Joseph Knight shows in his article in the <i>Dict.
+Nat. Biog.</i> that this is due to a confusion with another man
+named William Bensley, who possibly belonged to the family
+of printers of whom Thomas Bensley (d. 1833) was the chief
+representative. On the stage he was simply &ldquo;Mr Bensley,&rdquo;
+but though he is named William and even Richard in some
+accounts, Mr Knight shows that his name was certainly Robert.
+The actual date of his death is unknown, though it was probably
+later than 1809, when he is said to have inherited a fortune. His
+great character was Malvolio, but Charles Lamb&rsquo;s fervent
+admiration of his acting seems to have outrun the general
+opinion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENSON, EDWARD WHITE<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1829-1896), archbishop of
+Canterbury, was born on the 14th of July 1829, at Birmingham.
+He came of a family of Yorkshire dalesmen, his father, whose
+name was also Edward White Benson, being a manufacturing
+chemist of some note. He was educated at King Edward VI.&rsquo;s
+school, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop
+of Manchester, and amongst his school-fellows were B.F. Westcott
+and J.B. Lightfoot, both of whom preceded him to Trinity
+College, Cambridge, where he was elected a sub-sizar in 1848,
+becoming subsequently sizar and scholar. The death of his
+widowed mother in 1850 left him almost without resources, with
+a family of younger brothers and sisters dependent upon him.
+Relations came to his aid, and presently his anxieties were
+relieved by Francis Martin, bursar of Trinity, who gave him
+liberal help. Benson took his degree in 1852 as a senior optime,
+eighth classic and senior chancellor&rsquo;s medallist, and was elected
+fellow of Trinity in the following year. He became a master at
+Rugby, first under E.M. Goulburn, and then (1857) under
+Frederick Temple, who became his lifelong friend; he was also
+ordained deacon in 1854 and priest in 1856. From Rugby he
+went to be first headmaster of Wellington College, which was
+opened in January 1859; and in the course of the same year he
+married his cousin, Mary Sidgwick. The school flourished under
+his management and also developed his administrative abilities,
+but gradually his thoughts began to turn towards other work.
+In 1868 he became prebendary of Lincoln and examining chaplain
+to Bishop Christopher Wordsworth, an office which he also held
+for a short time in 1870 for Dr Temple, just appointed to the see
+of Exeter. In 1872 his acceptance of the chancellorship of
+Lincoln opened a new period of his life. As chancellor, the
+statutes directed him to study theology, to train others in that
+study and to oversee the educational work of the diocese. To
+such work Benson at once devoted himself; and did more
+perhaps than any other man to reinvigorate cathedral life in
+England. He started a theological college (the <i>Scholae Cancellarii</i>),
+founded night schools, delivered courses of lectures on
+church history, held Bible classes, and was instrumental in
+founding a society of mission preachers for the diocese, the
+&ldquo;Novate Novale.&rdquo; Early in 1877 he was consecrated first
+bishop of Truro, and threw himself with characteristic vigour into
+the work of organizing the new diocese. His knowledge, his
+sympathy, his enthusiasm soon made themselves felt everywhere;
+the ruridecanal conferences of clergy became a real force, and the
+church in Cornwall was inspired with a vitality that had never
+been possible when it was part of the unwieldy diocese of Exeter.
+A chapter was constituted, the bishop being dean; amongst its
+members was a canon missioner (the first to be appointed in
+England), and the <i>Scholae Cancellarii</i> were founded after the
+Lincoln pattern. Moreover, the bishop at once set to work to
+build a cathedral. The foundation-stone was laid on the 20th of
+May 1880, and on the 3rd of November 1887 the building, so
+far as then completed, was consecrated. On the death of Dr
+Tait, Benson was nominated to the see of Canterbury and was
+enthroned on the 29th of March 1883. His primacy was one of
+almost unprecedented activity.</p>
+
+<p>Frequent communications passed between him and the heads
+of the Eastern Churches. With their approval a bishop was again
+consecrated, after six years&rsquo; interval (1881-1887), for the Anglican
+congregations in Jerusalem and the East; and the features which
+had made the plan objectionable to many English churchmen
+were now abolished. In 1886, after much careful investigation,
+he founded the &ldquo;Archbishop&rsquo;s Mission to the Assyrian Christians,&rdquo;
+having for its object the instruction and the strengthening
+from within of the &ldquo;Nestorian&rdquo; churches of the East (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nestorians</a></span>). An interchange of courtesies with the Metropolitan
+of Kiev on the occasion of the 900th anniversary of the conversion
+of Russia (1888), led to further intercourse, which has tended to a
+friendlier feeling between the English and Russian churches. On
+the other hand, with the efforts towards a <i>rapprochement</i> with
+the Church of Rome, to which the visit of the French Abbé
+Portal in 1894 gave some stimulus, the archbishop would have
+nothing to do.</p>
+
+<p>With the other churches of the Anglican Communion the
+archbishop&rsquo;s relations were cordial in the extreme and grew
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span>
+closer as time went on. Particular questions of importance, the
+Jerusalem bishopric, the healing of the Colenso schism in the
+diocese of Natal, the organization of native ministries and the
+like, occupied much of his time; and he did all in his power to
+foster the growth of local churches. But it was the work at home
+which occupied most of his energies. That he in no way slighted
+diocesan work had been shown at Truro. He complained now
+that the bishops were &ldquo;bishops of their dioceses but not bishops
+of England,&rdquo; and did all he could to make the Church a greater
+religious force in English life. He sat on the ecclesiastical courts
+commission (1881-1883) and the sweating commission (1888-1890).
+He brought bills into parliament to reform Church
+patronage and Church discipline, and worked unremittingly for
+years in their behalf. The latter became law in 1892, and the
+former was merged in the Benefices Bill, which passed in 1898,
+after his death. He wrote and spoke vigorously against Welsh
+disestablishment (1893); and in the following year, under his
+guidance, the existing agencies for Church defence were consolidated.
+He was largely instrumental in the inauguration of the
+House of Laymen in the province of Canterbury (1886); he made
+diligent inquiries as to the internal order of the sisterhoods of
+which he was visitor; from 1884 onwards he gave regular Bible
+readings for ladies in Lambeth Palace chapel. But the most
+important ecclesiastical event of his primacy was the judgment
+in the case of the bishop of Lincoln (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lincoln Judgment</a></span>), in
+which the law of the prayer-book is investigated, as it had never
+been before, from the standpoint of the whole history of the
+English Church. In 1896 the archbishop went to Ireland to see the
+working of the sister Church. He was received with enthusiasm,
+but the work which his tour entailed over-fatigued him. On
+Sunday morning the 11th of October, just after his return, whilst
+on a visit to Mr Gladstone, he died in Hawarden parish church of
+heart failure.</p>
+
+<p>Archbishop Benson left numerous writings, including a
+valuable essay on <i>The Cathedral</i> (London, 1878), and various
+charges and volumes of sermons and addresses. But his two
+chief works, posthumously published, are his <i>Cyprian</i> (London,
+1897), a work of great learning, which had occupied him at
+intervals since early manhood; and <i>The Apocalypse, an Introductory
+Study</i> (London, 1900), interesting and beautiful, but
+limited by the fact that the method of study is that of a Greek
+play, not of a Hebrew apocalypse. The archbishop&rsquo;s knowledge
+of the past was both wide and minute, but it was that of an
+antiquary rather than of a historian. &ldquo;I think,&rdquo; writes his
+son, &ldquo;he was more interested in modern movements for their
+resemblance to ancient than vice versa.&rdquo; His sermons are very
+noble though written in a style which is over-compressed and
+often obscure. He wrote some good hymns, including &ldquo;O
+Throned, O Crowned&rdquo; and a beautiful version of <i>Urbs Beata</i>.
+His &ldquo;grandeur in social function&rdquo; was unequalled and his
+interests were very wide. But above all else he was a great
+ecclesiastic. He paid less attention to secular politics than
+Archbishop Tait; but if a man is to be judged by the effect of
+his work, it is Benson and not Tait who should be described as a
+great statesman. His biography, by his son, reveals him as a
+man of devout and holy life, impulsive indeed and masterful,
+but one who learned self-restraint by strenuous endeavour.</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Arthur Christopher Benson</span> (b. 1862), was
+educated at Eton and King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. He became
+fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, and was a master at
+Eton College from 1885 to 1903. His literary capacity was
+early shown in the remarkable fiction of his <i>Memoirs of Arthur
+Hamilton</i> (1886) under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Christopher Carr,&rdquo;
+and his <i>Poems</i> (1893) and <i>Lyrics</i> (1895) established his reputation
+as a writer of verse. Among his works are <i>Fasti Etonenses</i> (1899);
+his father&rsquo;s <i>Life</i> (1899); <i>The Schoolmaster</i> (1902), a commentary
+on the aims and methods of an assistant schoolmaster in a
+public school; a study of Archbishop Laud (1887); monographs
+on D.G. Rossetti (1904), Edward FitzGerald (1905) and
+Walter Pater (1906), in the &ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series;
+<i>Lord Vyet and other Poems</i> (1897), <i>Peace and other Poems</i>
+(1905); <i>The Upton Letters (1905), From a College Window</i>
+(1906), <i>Beside Still Waters</i> (1907). He also collaborated with
+Lord Esher in editing the <i>Correspondence of Queen Victoria</i>
+(1907).</p>
+
+<p>The third son, <span class="sc">Edward Frederick Benson</span> (b. 1867), was
+educated at Marlborough College and King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge.
+He worked at Athens for the British Archaeological Society
+from 1892 to 1895, and subsequently in Egypt for the Hellenic
+Society. In 1893 his society novel, <i>Dodo</i>, brought him to the
+front among the writers of clever fiction; and this was followed
+by other novels, notably <i>The Vintage</i> (1898) and <i>The Capsina</i> (1899).</p>
+
+<p>The fourth son, <span class="sc">Robert Hugh Benson</span> (b. 1871), was educated
+at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. After reading with
+Dean Vaughan at Llandaff he took orders, and in 1898 became
+a member of the Community of the Resurrection at Mirfield.
+In 1903 he became a Roman Catholic, was ordained priest at
+Rome in the following year, and returned to Cambridge as
+assistant priest of the Roman Catholic church there. Among
+his numerous publications are <i>The Light Invisible, By What
+Authority?, The King&rsquo;s Achievement, Richard Raynal, Solitary,
+The Queen&rsquo;s Tragedy, The Sentimentalists, Lord of the World</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.C. Benson, <i>Life of Archbishop Benson</i> (2 vols., London,
+1899); J.H. Bernard, <i>Archbishop Benson in Ireland</i> (1897);
+Sir L.T. Dibdin in <i>The Quarterly Review</i>, October 1897.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (1858-&emsp;&emsp;), English actor, son
+of William Benson of Alresford, Hants, was born at Tunbridge
+Wells on the 4th of November 1858. He came of a talented
+family, his elder brother, W.A.S. Benson (b. 1854), becoming
+well known in the world of art as one of the pioneers in the
+revival of English industrial craftsmanship, especially in the
+field of the metallic arts; and his younger brother, Godfrey
+Benson, being an active Liberal politician. He was educated
+at Winchester and New College, Oxford, and at the university
+was distinguished both as an athlete (winning the Inter-university
+three miles) and as an amateur actor. In the latter respect he
+was notable for producing at Oxford the first performance of a
+Greek play, the <i>Agamemnon</i>, in which many Oxford men who
+afterwards became famous in other fields took part. Mr Benson,
+on leaving Oxford, took to the professional stage, and made
+his first appearance at the Lyceum, under Irving, in <i>Romeo and
+Juliet</i>, as Paris, in 1882. In the next year he went into managership
+with a company of his own, taken over from Walter Bentley,
+and from this time he became gradually more and more prominent,
+both as an actor of leading parts himself and as the organizer
+of practically the only modern &ldquo;stock company&rdquo; touring
+through the provinces. In 1886 he married Gertrude Constance
+Cockburn (Featherstonhaugh), who acted in his company and
+continued to play leading parts with him. Mr Benson&rsquo;s chief
+successes were gained out of London for some years, but in 1890
+he had a season in London at the Globe and in 1900 at the
+Lyceum, and in later years he was seen with his <i>répertoire</i> at the
+Coronet. His company included from time to time many actors
+and actresses who, having been trained under him, became
+prominent on their own account, and both by his organization
+of this regular company and by his foundation of a dramatic
+school of acting in 1901, Mr Benson exercised a most important
+influence on the contemporary stage. From the first he devoted
+himself largely to the production of Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays, reviving
+many which had not been acted for generations, and his services
+to the cause of Shakespeare can hardly be overestimated. From
+1888 onwards he managed the Stratford-on-Avon Shakespearian
+Festival. His romantic and intellectual powers as an actor,
+combined with his athletic and picturesque bearing and fine
+elocution, were conspicuously shown in his own impersonations,
+most remarkable among which were his Hamlet (in 1900 he
+produced this play without cuts in London), his Coriolanus, his
+Richard II., his Lear and his Petruchio.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENSON, FRANK WESTON<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1862-&emsp;&emsp;), American painter,
+was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1862.
+He was a pupil of Boulanger and of Lefebvre in Paris; won
+many distinctions in American exhibitions, and a silver medal
+at the Paris Exhibition of 1900; and became a member of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
+the &ldquo;Ten Americans,&rdquo; and of the National Academy of Design,
+New York. Besides portraits, he painted landscape and still life;
+and he was one of the decorators of the Congressional library,
+Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BENSON, GEORGE<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1699-1762), English dissenting minister,
+was born at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, on the 1st of September
+1699, of a family which had distinguished itself in church
+and state. He studied at a school at Whitehaven and later at the
+university of Glasgow. In 1722, on Calamy&rsquo;s recommendation,
+he was chosen pastor of a congregation of dissenters at Abingdon,
+in Berkshire, where he continued till 1729, when, having embraced
+Arminian views, he became the choice of a congregation
+in Southwark; and in 1740 he was appointed by the congregation
+of Crutched Friars colleague to the learned Dr Nathaniel Lardner,
+whom he succeeded in 1749. His <i>Defence of the Reasonableness of
+Prayer</i> appeared in 1731, and he afterwards published paraphrases
+and notes on the epistles to the Thessalonians, Timothy,
+Titus and Philemon, adding dissertations on several important
+subjects, particularly (as an appendix to 1 Timothy) on inspiration.
+In 1738 he published his <i>History of the First Planting of the
+Christian Religion</i>, in 3 vols. 4to, a work of great learning and
+ability. He also wrote the <i>Reasonableness of the Christian
+Religion</i> (1743), the <i>History of the Life of Jesus Christ</i>, posthumously
+published in 1764, a paraphrase and notes on the
+seven Catholic epistles, and several other works, which gained him
+great reputation as a scholar and theologian even outside his
+own communion and his own country. Owing to his undoubted
+Socinianism his works suffered neglect after his death, which
+occurred on the 6th of April 1762.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 3, Slice 5, by Various
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,18338 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 3, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 5
+       "Bedlam" to "Benson, George"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 1, 2010 [EBook #34533]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BENGALI: "The sound of such a final a is in all three
+      languages the same as that of the second o in 'promote'; thus, the
+      Bg. bara is pronounced boro." 'second' amended from 'seccond'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME III, SLICE V
+
+          Bedlam to Benson, George
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BEDLAM                           BELLENDEN, JOHN
+  BEDLINGTON                       BELLENDEN, WILLIAM
+  BEDLOE, WILLIAM                  BELLEROPHON
+  BEDMAR, ALPHONSO BELLA CUEVA     BELLES-LETTRES
+  BED-MOULD                        BELLEVILLE (Ontario, Canada)
+  BEDOUINS                         BELLEVILLE (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  BEDSORE                          BELLEY
+  BEDWORTH                         BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO
+  BEE                              BELLIGERENCY
+  BEECH                            BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD
+  BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON         BELLINGHAM
+  BEECHER, HENRY WARD              BELLINI
+  BEECHER, LYMAN                   BELLINI, LORENZO
+  BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM       BELLINI, VINCENZO
+  BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM             BELLINZONA
+  BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES          BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL
+  BEECHWORTH                       BELLO, ANDRES
+  BEEF                             BELLO-HORIZONTE
+  BEEFSTEAK CLUB                   BELLONA
+  BEELZEBUB                        BELLOT, JOSEPH RENE
+  BEER                             BELLOWS, ALBERT F.
+  BEERSHEBA                        BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY
+  BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER           BELLOWS and BLOWING MACHINES
+  BEET                             BELLOY, DORMONT DE
+  BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN            BELL or INCHCAPE ROCK
+  BEETLE                           BELLUNO
+  BEETS, NIKOLAAS                  BELMONT, AUGUST
+  BEFANA                           BELOIT
+  BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL    BELOMANCY
+  BEGAS, KARL                      BELON, PIERRE
+  BEGAS, REINHOLD                  BELPER
+  BEGGAR                           BELSHAM, THOMAS
+  BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR              BELSHAZZAR
+  BEGONIA                          BELT, THOMAS
+  BEGUINES                         BELT
+  BEHAIM, MARTIN                   BELTANE
+  BEHAR                            BELUGA
+  BEHA UD-DIN                      BELVEDERE (architectural structure)
+  BEHA UD-DIN ZUHAIR               BELVIDERE (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  BEHBAHAN                         BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
+  BEHEADING                        BEM, JOSEF
+  BEHEMOTH                         BEMA
+  BEHISTUN                         BEMBERG, HERMAN
+  BEHN, APHRA                      BEMBO, PIETRO
+  BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH             BEMBRIDGE BEDS
+  BEIRA (seaport of East Africa)   BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER
+  BEIRA (province of Portugal)     BEMONT, CHARLES
+  BEIRUT                           BEN
+  BEIT, ALFRED                     BENARES
+  BEJA (tribe)                     BENBOW, JOHN
+  BEJA (city)                      BENCE-JONES, HENRY
+  BEJAN                            BENCH
+  BEJART                           BENCH-MARK
+  BEK, ANTONY                      BENCH TABLE
+  BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE           BEND
+  BESKESCSABA                      BENDA
+  BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL          BENDER
+  BEKKER, BALTHASAR                BENDIGO
+  BEKKER, ELIZABETH                BENDL, KAREL
+  BEL                              BENEDEK, LUDWIG
+  BELA III.                        BENEDETTI, VINCENT
+  BELA IV.                         BENEDICT
+  BELA (capital of Las Bela)       BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN
+  BELA (town of India)             BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT
+  BELAY                            BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS
+  BELCHER, SIR EDWARD              BENEDICT BISCOP
+  BELDAM                           BENEDICTINE
+  BELESME, ROBERT OF               BENEDICTINES
+  BELFAST (Ireland)                BENEDICTION
+  BELFAST (Maine, U.S.A.)          BENEDICTUS
+  BELFORT (division of France)     BENEDICTUS ABBAS
+  BELFORT (town of France)         BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICH
+  BELFRY                           BENEFICE
+  BELGAE                           BENEFICIARY
+  BELGARD                          BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD
+  BELGAUM                          BENETT, ETHELDRED
+  BELGIAN CONGO                    BENEVENTO
+  BELGIUM                          BENEVOLENCE
+  BELGRADE                         BENFEY, THEODOR
+  BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN       BENGAL
+  BELISARIUS                       BENGAL, BAY OF
+  BELIT                            BENGALI
+  BELIZE                           BENGAZI
+  BELJAME, ALEXANDRE               BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT
+  BELKNAP, JEREMY                  BENGUELLA
+  BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH           BENI (river of Bolivia)
+  BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM           BENI (department of Bolivia)
+  BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE         BENI-AMER
+  BELL, ANDREW                     BENI-ISRAEL
+  BELL, SIR CHARLES                BENIN
+  BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH              BENITOITE
+  BELL, HENRY                      BENJAMIN
+  BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD            BENJAMIN OF TUDELA
+  BELL, JACOB                      BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP
+  BELL, JOHN (Scottish traveller)  BEN LEDI
+  BELL, JOHN (Scottish anatomist)  BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSE
+  BELL, JOHN (American politician) BEN LOMOND
+  BELL, ROBERT                     BENLOWES, EDWARD
+  BELL                             BEN MACDHUI
+  BELLABELLA                       BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN
+  BELLACOOLA                       BENNETT, JAMES GORDON
+  BELLADONNA                       BENNETT, JOHN
+  BELLAGIO                         BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES
+  BELLAIRE                         BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE
+  BELLAMY, EDWARD                  BEN NEVIS
+  BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE             BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST
+  BELLAMY, JOSEPH                  BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON
+  BELLARMINE, ROBERTO ROMOLO       BENNINGTON
+  BELLARY                          BENNO
+  BELL-COT                         BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD
+  BELLEAU, REMY                    BENOIT DE SAINTE-MORE
+  BELLECOUR                        BENSERADE, ISAAC DE
+  BELLEFONTAINE                    BENSLEY, ROBERT
+  BELLEGARDE                       BENSON, EDWARD WHITE
+  BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOHANNES    BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT
+  BELLE-ILE-EN-MER                 BENSON, FRANK WESTON
+  BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES FOUQUET      BENSON, GEORGE
+  BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF
+
+
+
+
+BEDLAM, or BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL, the first English lunatic asylum,
+originally founded by Simon FitzMary, sheriff of London, in 1247, as a
+priory for the sisters and brethren of the order of the Star of
+Bethlehem. It had as one of its special objects the housing and
+entertainment of the bishop and canons of St Mary of Bethlehem, the
+mother-church, on their visits to England. Its first site was in
+Bishopsgate Street. It is not certain when lunatics were first received
+in Bedlam, but it is mentioned as a hospital in 1330 and some were there
+in 1403. In 1547 it was handed over by Henry VIII. with all its revenues
+to the city of London as a hospital for lunatics. With the exception of
+one such asylum in Granada, Spain, the Bethlehem Hospital was the first
+in Europe. It became famous and afterwards infamous for the brutal
+ill-treatment meted out to the insane (see INSANITY: _Hospital
+Treatment_). In 1675 it was removed to new buildings in Moorfields and
+finally to its present site in St George's Fields, Lambeth. The word
+"Bedlam" has long been used generically for all lunatic asylums.
+
+
+
+
+BEDLINGTON, an urban district of Northumberland, England, within the
+parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 5 m. S.E. of that town on a branch of
+the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 18,766. It lies on high ground
+above the river Blyth, 2-1/2 m. above its mouth. The church of St
+Cuthbert shows good transitional Norman details. Its dedication recalls
+the transportation of the body of the saintly bishop of Lindisfarne from
+its shrine at Durham by the monks of that foundation to Lindisfarne,
+when in fear of attack from William the Conqueror. They rested here with
+the coffin. The modern growth of the town is attributable to the
+valuable collieries of the neighbourhood, and to manufactures of nails
+and chains. It is one of the most populous mining centres in the county.
+On the south bank of the river is the township and urban district of
+Cowpen (pop. 17,879), with collieries and glass works; coal is shipped
+from this point by river.
+
+Bedlington (Betlingtun) and the hamlets belonging to it were bought by
+Cutheard, bishop of Durham, between 900 and 915, and although locally
+situated in the county of Northumberland became part of the county
+palatine of Durham over which Bishop Walcher was granted royal rights by
+William the Conqueror. When these rights were taken from Cuthbert
+Tunstall, bishop of Durham, in 1536, Bedlington among his other property
+lost its special privileges, but was confirmed to him in 1541 with the
+other property of his predecessors. Together with the other lands of the
+see of Durham, Bedlington was made over to the ecclesiastical
+commissioners in 1866. Bedlingtonshire was made part of Northumberland
+for civil purposes by acts of parliament in 1832 and 1844.
+
+
+
+
+BEDLOE, WILLIAM (1650-1680), English informer, was born at Chepstow on
+the 20th of April 1650. He appears to have been well educated; he was
+certainly clever, and after coming to London in 1670 he became
+acquainted with some Jesuits and was occasionally employed by them.
+Calling himself now Captain Williams, now Lord Gerard or Lord Newport or
+Lord Cornwallis, he travelled from one part of Europe to another; he
+underwent imprisonments for crime, and became an expert in all kinds of
+duplicity. Then in 1678, following the lead of Titus Gates, he gave an
+account of a supposed popish plot to the English government, and his
+version of the details of the murder of Sir E.B. Godfrey was rewarded
+with L500. Emboldened by his success he denounced various Roman
+Catholics, married an Irish lady, and having become very popular lived
+in luxurious fashion. Afterwards his fortunes waned, and he died at
+Bristol on the 20th of August 1680. His dying depositions, which were
+taken by Sir Francis North, chief justice of the common pleas, revealed
+nothing of importance. Bedloe wrote a _Narrative and impartial discovery
+of the horrid Popish Plot_ (1679), but all his statements are extremely
+untrustworthy.
+
+  See J. Pollock, _The Popish Plot_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+BEDMAR, ALPHONSO BELLA CUEVA, MARQUIS OF (1572-1655), Spanish
+diplomatist, became ambassador to the republic of Venice in 1667. This
+was a very important position owing to the amount of information
+concerning European affairs which passed through the hands of the
+representative of Spain. When Bedmar took up this appointment, Venice
+had just concluded an alliance with France, Switzerland and the
+Netherlands, to counterbalance the power of Spain, and the ambassador
+was instructed to destroy this league. Assisted by the duke of Ossuna,
+viceroy of Naples, he formed a plan to bring the city into the power of
+Spain, and the scheme was to be carried out on Ascension Day 1618. The
+plot was, however, discovered; and Bedmar, protected by his position
+from arrest, left Venice and went to Flanders as president of the
+council. In 1622 he was made a cardinal, and soon afterwards became
+bishop of Oviedo, a position which he retained until his death, which
+occurred at Oviedo on the 2nd of August 1655. The authorship of an
+anonymous work, _Squitinio della liberta Veneta_, published at Mirandola
+in 1612, has been attributed to him.
+
+Some controversy has arisen over the Spanish plot of 1618, and some
+historians have suggested that it only existed in the minds of the
+Venetian senators, and was a ruse for forcing Bedmar to leave Venice.
+From what is known, however, of the policy of Spain at this time, it is
+by no means unlikely that such a scheme was planned.
+
+  See C.V. de Saint-Real, _OEuvres_, tome iv. (Paris, 1745); P.J.
+  Grosley, _Discussion historique et critique sur la conjuration de
+  Venise_ (Paris, 1756); P.A.N.B. Daru, _Histoire de la republique de
+  Venise_ (Paris, 1853); A. Baschet, _Histoire de la chancellerie
+  secrete a Venise_ (Paris, 1870).
+
+
+
+
+BED-MOULD, in architecture, the congeries of mouldings which is under
+the projecting part of almost every cornice, of which, indeed, it is a
+part.
+
+
+
+
+BEDOUINS (_Ahl Bedu_, "dwellers in the open land," or _Ahl el beit_,
+"people of the tent," as they call themselves), the name given to the
+most important, as it is the best known, division of the Arab race. The
+Bedouins are the descendants of the Arabs of North Arabia whose
+traditions claim Ishmael as their ancestor (see ARABS). The deserts of
+North Arabia seem to have been their earliest home, but even in ancient
+times they had migrated to the lowlands of Egypt and Syria. The Arab
+conquest of northern Africa in the 7th century A.D. caused a wide
+dispersion, so that to-day the Arab element is strongly represented in
+the Nile Valley, Saharan, and Nubian peoples. Among the Hamitic-Negroid
+races the Bedouins have largely lost their nomadic character; but in the
+deserts of the Nile lands they remain much what their ancestors were.
+Thus the name has suffered much ethnic confusion, and is often
+incorrectly reserved to describe such pastoral peoples as the Bisharin,
+the Hadendoa and the Ababda. This article treats solely of the Arabian
+Bedouin, as affording the purest type of the people. They are shepherds
+and herdsmen, reduced to an open-air, roving life, partly by the nature
+of their occupations, partly by the special characteristics of the
+countries in which they dwell. For, while land, unsuited to all purposes
+except pasture, forms an unusually large proportion of the surface in
+the Arabian territory, the prolonged droughts of summer render
+considerable portions of it unfit even for that, and thus continually
+oblige the herdsmen to migrate from one spot to another in search of
+sufficient herbage and water for their beasts. The same causes also
+involve the Bedouins in frequent quarrels with each other regarding the
+use of some particular well or pasture-ground, besides reducing them not
+unfrequently to extreme want, and thus making them plunderers of others
+in self-support. Professionally, the Bedouins are shepherds and
+herdsmen; their raids on each other or their robbery of travellers and
+caravans are but occasional exceptions to the common routine. Their
+intertribal wars (they very rarely venture on a conflict with the
+better-armed and better-organized sedentary population) are rarely
+bloody; cattle-lifting being the usual object. Private feuds exist, but
+are usually limited to two or three individuals at most, one of whom has
+perhaps been ridiculed in satirical verse, to which they are very
+sensitive, or had a relation killed in some previous fray. But bloodshed
+is expensive, as it must be paid for either by more bloodshed or by
+blood-money--the _diya_, which varies, according to the importance of
+the person killed, from ten to fifty camels, or even more. Previous to
+Mahomet's time it was optional for the injured tribe either to accept
+this compensation or to insist on blood for blood; but the Prophet,
+though by his own account despairing of ever reducing the nomad portion
+of his countrymen to law and order, succeeded in establishing among them
+the rule, that a fair _diya_ if offered must be accepted. Instances are,
+however, not wanting in Arab history of fiercer and more general Bedouin
+conflicts, in which the destruction, or at least the complete
+subjugation, of one tribe has been aimed at by another, and when great
+slaughter has taken place. Such were the wars of Pekr and Thagleb in the
+6th century, of Kelb and Howazin in the 8th, of Harb and Ateba in the
+18th.
+
+The Bedouins regard the plundering of caravans or travellers as in lieu
+of the custom dues exacted elsewhere. The land is theirs, they argue,
+and trespassers on it must pay the forfeit. Hence whoever can show
+anything equivalent to a permission of entrance into their territory
+has, in the regular course of things, nothing to fear. This permission
+is obtained by securing the protection of the nearest Bedouin sheik,
+who, for a politely-worded request and a small sum of money, will
+readily grant the pass, in the shape of one or two or more men of his
+tribe, who accompany the wayfarers as far as the next encampment on
+their road, where they hand their charge over to fresh guides, equally
+bound to afford the desired safeguard. In the interior of Arabia the
+passport is given in writing by one of the town governors, and is
+respected by the Bedouins of the district; for, however impudent and
+unamenable to law these nomads may be on the frontiers of the impotent
+Ottoman government in Syria or the Hejaz, they are submissive enough in
+other and Arab-governed regions. But the traveller who ventures on the
+desert strip without such precautions will be robbed and perhaps killed.
+
+Ignorant of writing and unacquainted with books, the Bedouins trust to
+their memory for everything; where memory fails, they readily eke it out
+with imagination. Hence their own assertions regarding the antiquity,
+numbers, strength, &c., of their clans are of little worth; even their
+genealogies, in which they pretend to be eminently versed, are not to be
+much depended on; the more so that their own family names hardly ever
+exceed the limits of a patronymic, whilst the constantly renewed
+subdivisions of a tribe, and the temporary increase of one branch and
+decrease of another, tend to efface the original name of the clan. Few
+tribes now preserve their ancient, or at least their historical titles;
+and the mass of the Bedouin multitude resembles in this respect a
+troubled sea, of which the substance is indeed always the same, but the
+surface is continually shifting and changing. As, however, no social
+basis or ties are acknowledged among them except those of blood and
+race, certain broad divisions are tolerably accurately kept up, the
+wider and more important of which may here be noted. First, the Aneza
+clan, who extend from Syria southward to the limits of Jebel Shammar. It
+is numerous, and, for a Bedouin tribe, well armed. Two-thirds of the
+Arab horse trade, besides a large traffic in sheep, camels, wool, and
+similar articles, are in their hands. Their principal subdivisions are
+the Sebaa on the north, the Walid Ali on the west, and the Ruala on the
+south; these are generally on bad terms with each other. If united, they
+could muster, it is supposed, about 30,000 lances. They claim descent
+from Rabi'a. Second, the Shammar Bedouins, whose pasturages lie
+conterminous to those of the Aneza on the east. Their numbers are about
+the same. Thirdly, in the northern desert, the Huwetat and Sherarat,
+comparatively small and savage tribes. There is also the Solibi clan,
+which, however, is disowned by the Arabs, and seems to be of gipsy
+origin. Next follow, in the western desert, the Beni-Harb, a powerful
+tribe, supposed to muster about 20,000 fighting men. They are often
+troublesome to the Meccan pilgrims. In the eastern desert are the Muter,
+the Beni-Khalid, and the Ajmans, all numerous clans, often at war with
+each other. To the south, in Nejd itself or on its frontiers, are the
+Hodeil, Ateba, and others. These all belong to the "Mustareb," or
+northern Arabs.
+
+The Bedouins of southern or "pure Arab" origin are comparatively few in
+number, and are, with few exceptions, even poorer and more savage than
+their northern brethren. Al-Morrah, on the confines of Oman, Al-Yam and
+Kahtan, near Yemen, and Beni-Yas, between Harik and the Persian Gulf,
+are the best known. The total number of the Bedouin or pastoral
+population throughout Arabia, including men, women, and children,
+appears not to exceed a million and a half, or about one fifth of the
+total population. The only tribal authority is the "elder," or "sheik,"
+a title not necessarily implying advanced age, but given to any one who,
+on account of birth, courage, wealth, liberality or some other quality,
+has been chosen to the leadership. Descent has something to do with
+rank, but not much, as every individual of the tribe considers himself
+equal to the others; nor are the distinctions of relative riches and
+poverty greatly taken into account. To the "sheik" all disputes are
+referred; he is consulted, though not necessarily obeyed, on every
+question which regards the general affairs of the tribe, whether in
+peace or war; there is no other magistrate, and no law except what he
+and the other chief men may consider proper. But in fact, for most
+personal and private affairs, every man does pretty much what is right
+in his own eyes.
+
+All the Bedouins, with the exception of certain tribes in Syria, are
+nominally Mahommedans, but most pay but slight attention to the
+ceremonial precepts of the Koran; the five daily prayers and the annual
+fast of Ramadan are not much in favour among them; and however near a
+tribe may be to Mecca, few of them visit it as pilgrims. The militant
+Wahhabi have, however, from time to time enforced some degree of
+Islamitic observance among the Bedouins of Nejd and the adjoining
+districts: elsewhere Mahommedanism is practically confined to the
+profession of the Divine Unity; among the remoter and wilder tribes
+sun-worship, tree-worship, and no worship at all, are not uncommon. Some
+clans even omit the rite of circumcision altogether; others, like the
+tribe of Hodeil, south of Mecca, perform it after a fashion peculiar to
+themselves.
+
+Though polygamy is not common among Bedouins, marriages are contracted
+without any legal intervention or guarantee; the consent of the parties,
+and the oral testimony of a couple of witnesses, should such be at hand,
+are all that are required; and divorce is equally easy. Nor is mutual
+constancy much expected or observed either by men or women; and the
+husband is rarely strict in exacting from the wife a fidelity that he
+himself has no idea of observing. Jealousy may indeed occasionally bring
+about tragic results, but this rarely occurs except where publicity, to
+which the Bedouins, like all other Arabs, are very sensitive, is
+involved. Burckhardt writes: "The Bedouins are jealous of their women,
+but do not prevent them from laughing and talking with strangers. It
+seldom happens that a Bedouin strikes his wife; if he does so she calls
+loudly on her _wasy_ or protector, who pacifies the husband and makes
+him listen to reason .... The wife and daughters perform all domestic
+business. They grind the wheat in the handmill or pound it in the
+mortar; they prepare the breakfast and dinner; knead and bake the bread;
+make butter, fetch water, work at the loom, mend the tent-covering ...
+while the husband or brother sits before the tent smoking his pipe." A
+maiden's honour is, on the other hand, severely guarded; and even too
+openly avowed a courtship, though with the most honourable intentions,
+is ill looked on. But marriage, if indeed so slight and temporary a
+connexion as it is among Bedouins deserves the name, is often merely a
+passport for mutual licence. In other respects Bedouin morality, like
+that of most half-savage races, depends on custom and public feeling
+rather than on any fixed code or trained conscience, and hence admits of
+the strangest contradictions. Not only are lying and exaggeration no
+reproach in ordinary discourse, but even deliberate perjury and
+violation of the most solemn engagements are frequent occurrences. Not
+less frequent, however, are instances of prolonged fidelity and
+observance of promise carried to the limits of romance. "The wind," "the
+wood," and "the honour of the Arabs" are the most ordinary oaths in
+serious matters; but even these do not give absolute security, while a
+simple verbal engagement will at other times prove an inviolable
+guarantee. Thus, too, the extreme abstemiousness of a Bedouin alternates
+with excessive gorgings; and, while the name and deeds of "robber" are
+hardly a reproach, those of "thief" are marked by abhorrence and
+contempt. In patience, or rather endurance, both physical and moral, few
+Bedouins are deficient; wariness is another quality universally
+developed by their mode of life. And in spite of an excessive coarseness
+of language, and often of action, gross vice, at least of the more
+debasing sorts that dishonour the East, is rare.
+
+Most Bedouins, men and women, are rather undersized; their complexion,
+especially in the south, is dark; their hair coarse, thick and black;
+their eyes dark and oval; the nose is generally aquiline, and the
+features well formed; the beard and moustache are usually scanty. The
+men are active, but not strong; the women are generally plain. The dress
+of the men consists of a long cotton shirt, open at the breast, often
+girt with a leathern girdle; a black or striped cloak of hair is
+sometimes thrown over the shoulders; a handkerchief, folded once, black,
+or striped yellow and red, covers the head, round which it is kept in
+its place by a piece of twine or a twisted hairband. To this costume a
+pair of open sandals is sometimes added. Under the shirt, round the
+naked waist, a thin strip of leather plait is wound several times, not
+for any special object, but merely out of custom. In his hand a Bedouin
+almost always carries a slight crooked wand, commonly of almond-wood.
+Among the Bedouins of the south a light wrapper takes the place of the
+handkerchief on the head, and a loin-cloth that of the shirt. The women
+usually wear wide loose drawers, a long shirt, and over it a wide piece
+of dark blue cloth enveloping the whole figure and head, and trailing on
+the ground behind. Very rarely does a Bedouin woman wear a veil, or even
+cover her face with her overcloak, contenting herself with narrowing the
+folds of the latter over her head on the approach of a stranger. Her
+wrists and ankles are generally adorned with bracelets and rings of blue
+glass or copper or iron, very rarely of silver; her neck with glass
+beads; ear-rings are rare, and nose-rings rarer. Boys, till near
+puberty, usually go stark naked; girls also wear no clothes up to the
+age of six or seven.
+
+On a journey a Bedouin invariably carries with him a light,
+sharp-pointed lance, the stem of which is made of Persian or African
+cane; the manner in which this is carried or trailed often indicates the
+tribe of the owner. The lance is the favourite and characteristic weapon
+of the Arab nomad, and the one in the use of which he shows the greatest
+skill. An antiquated sword, an out-of-date musket, an ornamented dagger
+or knife, a coat of mail, the manufacture of Yemen or Bagdad, and a
+helmet, a mere iron head-piece, without visor or crest, complete his
+military outfit.
+
+A Bedouin's tent consists of a few coverings of the coarsest goat-hair,
+dyed black, and spread over two or more small poles, in height from 8 to
+9 ft., gipsy fashion. If it be the tent of a sheik, its total length may
+be from 30 to 40 ft.; if of an ordinary person, less than 20 ft.
+Sometimes a partition separates the quarters of the women and children;
+sometimes they are housed under a lower and narrower covering. A rough
+carpet or mat is spread on the ground; while camel-saddles, ropes,
+halters, two or three cooking pots, one or two platters, a wooden
+drinking bowl, the master's arms at one side of the tent, and his spear
+stuck in the ground at the door, complete the list of household
+valuables. On striking camp all these are fastened on the backs of
+camels; the men mount their saddles, the women their litters; and in an
+hour the blackened stones that served for a cooking hearth are the only
+sign of the encampment. For food the Bedouin relies on his herds, but
+rice, vegetables, honey, locusts and even lizards are at times eaten.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, _Notes on the Bedouins and
+  Wahabis_ (1831); Karstens Niebuhr, _Travels through Arabia_ (orig.
+  Germ. edit. 1772), translated into English by Robert Heron (2 vols.,
+  Edinburgh, 1792); H.H. Tessup, _Women of the Arabs_ (New York, 1874);
+  W.S. Blunt, _Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates_ (1879); Lady Anne Blunt,
+  _Pilgrimage to Neid_ (1881); Desmoulins, _Les Francais d'aujourd'hui_
+  (Paris, 1898); C.M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ (2 vols., 1888); E.
+  Reclus, _Les Arabes_ (Brussels, 1898); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, _Arabia, the
+  Cradle of Islam_ (1900); W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in
+  Early Arabia_ (Cambridge, 1885); H.C. Trumbull, _The Blood Covenant_
+  (Philadelphia, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+BEDSORE, a form of ulceration or sloughing, occasioned in people who,
+through sickness or old age, are confined to bed, resulting from
+pressure or the irritation of sweat and dirt. Bedsores usually occur
+when there is a low condition of nutrition of the tissues. The more
+helpless the patient the more liable he is to bedsores, and especially
+when he is paralysed, delirious or insane, or when suffering from one of
+the acute specific fevers. They may occur wherever there is a pressure,
+more especially when any moisture is allowed to remain on the bedding;
+and thus lack of cleanliness is an important factor in the production of
+this condition. In large hospitals a bedsore is now a great rarity, and
+this, considering the helplessness of many of the patients treated,
+shows what good nursing can do. The bed must be made with a firm smooth
+mattress; the undersheet and blanket must be changed whenever they
+become soiled; the drawsheet is spread without creases, and changed the
+moment it becomes soiled. Preventive treatment must be followed from the
+first day of the illness. This consists in the most minute attention to
+cleanliness, and constant variation in the position of the patient. All
+parts subjected to pressure or friction must be frequently washed with
+soap and hot water, then thoroughly dried with a warm soft towel. The
+part should next be bathed in a solution of corrosive sublimate in
+spirits of wine, and finally dusted with an oxide of zinc and starch
+powder. This routine should be gone through not less than four times in
+the twenty-four hours in any case of prolonged illness. The pressure may
+be relieved over bony prominences by a water-pillow or by a piece of
+thick felt cut into a ring. Signs of impending bedsores must constantly
+be watched for. Where one threatens, the skin loses its proper colour,
+becoming either a deadly white or a dusky red, and the redness does not
+disappear on pressure. The surrounding tissues become oedematous, and
+pain is often severe, except in a case of paralysis. As the condition
+progresses further the pain ceases. The epidermis now becomes raised as
+in a blister, and finally becomes detached, forming an excoriation and
+exposing the papillae. Even at this late stage an actual ulceration can
+still be prevented if proper care is taken; but failing this, the skin
+sloughs and an ulcer forms. In treating this, the position of the
+patient must be such that no pressure is ever allowed on the sloughing
+tissue. A hot boracic pad under oil-silk should be applied, the affected
+part being first dusted with iodoform. If, however, the slough is very
+large, it is safer to avoid wet applications, and the parts should be
+dusted with animal charcoal and iodoform, and protected with a dry
+dressing. When the slough has separated and the sore is clean, friar's
+balsam will hasten the healing process. In any serious illness the
+formation of a bedsore makes the prognosis far more grave, and may even
+bring about a fatal issue, either directly or indirectly.
+
+
+
+
+BEDWORTH, a manufacturing town in the Nuneaton parliamentary division of
+Warwickshire, England; on the Nuneaton-Coventry branch of the London &
+North Western railway, 100 m. north-west from London. Pop. (1900) 7169.
+A tramway connects with Coventry, and the Coventry canal passes through.
+Coal and ironstone are mined; there are iron-works, and bricks, hats,
+ribbons and tape and silk are made. Similar industries are pursued in
+the populous district (including the villages of Exhall and Foleshill)
+which extends southward towards Coventry.
+
+
+
+
+BEE (Sanskrit _bha_, A S. _beo_, Lat. _apis_), a large and natural
+family of the zoological order _Hymenoptera_, characterized by the
+plumose form of many of their hairs, by the large size of the basal
+segment of the foot, which is always elongate and in the hindmost limb
+sometimes as broad as the shin, and by the development of a "tongue" for
+sucking liquid food; this organ has been variously interpreted as the
+true insectan tongue (hypo-pharynx) or as a ligula formed by fused
+portions of the second maxillae (probably the latter).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Honeybee (_Apis mellifica_). a, male (drone); b,
+queen, c, worker.
+
+(After Benton, _Bull._ 1 (n.s.) _Div. Ent._, U.S. Dept. Agr.).]
+
+Bees are specialized in correspondence with the flowers from which they
+draw the bulk of their food supply, the flexible tongue being used for
+sucking nectar, the plumed hairs and the modified legs (fig. 7) for
+gathering pollen. These floral products which form the food of bees and
+of their larvae, are in most cases collected and stored by the
+industrious insects; but some genera of bees act as inquilines or
+"cuckoo-parasites," laying their eggs in the nests of other bees, so
+that their larvae may feed at the expense of the rightful owners of the
+nest. In a few cases, the parasitic bee-grub devours not only the
+food-supply, but also the larva of its host.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head and Appendages of Honey-bee (Apis),
+
+  a,   Antenna or feeler.
+  g,   Epipharynx.
+  mxp, Maxillary palp.
+  pg,  Opposite to galeae of 2nd maxillae (labium).
+  mx,  1st maxilla.
+  lp,  Labial palp.
+  l,   Ligula or "tongue."
+  b,   Bouton or spoon of the ligula.
+
+(From Frank R. Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.) ]
+
+_Solitary and Social Bees._--Many genera of bees are represented, like
+most other insects, by ordinary males and females, each female
+constructing a nest formed of several chambers ("cells") and storing in
+each chamber a supply of food for the grub to be hatched from the egg
+that she lays therein. Such bees, although a number of individuals often
+make their nests close together, are termed "solitary," their
+communities differing in nature from those of the "social" bees, among
+which there are two kinds of females--the normal fertile females or
+"queens," and those specially modified females with undeveloped ovaries
+(see fig. 6) that are called "workers" (fig. 1). The workers are the
+earliest developed offspring of the queen, and it is their associated
+work which renders possible the rise of an insect state--a state which
+evidently has its origin in the family. It is interesting to trace
+various stages in the elaboration of the bee-society. Among the
+humble-bees (_Bombus_) the workers help the queen, who takes her share
+in the duties of the nest; the distinction between queen and workers is
+therefore less absolute than in the hive-bees (_Apis_), whose queen,
+relieved of all nursing and building cares by the workers, devotes her
+whole energies to egg-laying. The division of labour among the two
+castes of female becomes therefore most complete in the most highly
+organized society.
+
+_Structure._--Details of the structure of bees are given in the article
+HYMENOPTERA. The feelers (fig. 2, a) are divided into "scape" and
+"flagellum" as in the ants, and the mandibles vary greatly in size and
+sharpness in different genera. The proboscis or "tongue" (fig. 2, l)
+is a hollow organ enclosing an outgrowth of the body-cavity which is
+filled with fluid, and with its flexible under-surface capable of
+invagination or protrusion. Along this surface stretches a groove which
+is surrounded by thickened cuticle and practically formed into a tube by
+numerous fine hairs. Along this channel the nectar is drawn into the
+pharynx and passes, mixed with saliva, into the crop or "honey-bag"; the
+action of the saliva changes the saccharose into dextrose and levulose,
+and the nectar becomes honey, which the bee regurgitates for storage in
+the cells or for the feeding of the grubs. The sting (fig. 6, pg, st.)
+of female bees is usually highly specialized, but in a few genera it is
+reduced and useless.
+
+Many modifications in details of structure may be observed within the
+family. The tongue is bifid at the tip in a few genera; usually it is
+pointed and varies greatly in length, being comparatively short in
+_Andrena_, long in the humble-bees (_Bombus_), and longest in
+_Euglossa_, a tropical American genus of solitary bees. The legs, which
+are so highly modified as pollen-carriers in the higher bees, are
+comparatively simple in certain primitive genera. The hairy covering, so
+notable in the hive-bee and especially in humble-bees, is greatly
+reduced among bees that follow a parasitic mode of life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Larva and Pupa of Apis.
+
+  SL,  Spinning larva.
+  N,   Pupa.
+  FL,  Feeding larva.
+  co,  Cocoon.
+  sp,  Spiracles.
+  t,   "Tongue."
+  m,   Mandible.
+  an,  Antenna
+  w,   Wing.
+  ce,  Compound Eye.
+  e,   Excrement.
+  ex,  Exuvium.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.)]
+
+_Early stages._--As is usual where an abundant food supply is provided
+for the young insects, the larvae of bees (fig. 3, SL.) are degraded
+maggots; they have no legs, but possess fairly well-developed heads. The
+successive cuticles that are cast as growth proceeds are delicate in
+texture and sometimes separate from the underlying cuticle without being
+stripped off. The maggots may pass no excrement from the intestine until
+they have eaten all their store of food. When fully grown the final
+larval cuticle is shed, and the "free" pupa (fig. 3, N) revealed. The
+larvae of some bees spin cocoons (fig. 3, _co_) before pupation.
+
+_Nests of Solitary Bees._--Bees of different genera vary considerably in
+the site and arrangement of their nests. Many--like the common
+"solitary" bees _Halictus_ and _Andrena_--burrow in the ground; the
+holes of species of _Andrena_ are commonly seen in springtime opening on
+sandy banks, grassy lawns or gravel paths. Our knowledge of such bees is
+due to the observations of F. Smith, H. Friese, C. Verhoeff and others.
+The nest may be simple, or, more frequently, a complex excavation, cells
+opening off from the entrance or from a main passage. Sometimes the
+passage is the conjoint work of many bees whose cells are grouped along
+it at convenient distances apart. Other bees, the species of _Osmia_ for
+example, choose the hollow stem of a bramble or other shrub, the female
+forming a linear series of cells in each of which an egg is laid and a
+supply of food stored up. J.H. Fabre has found that in the nests of some
+species of _Osmia_ the young bee developed in the first-formed cell, if
+(as often happens) she emerges from her cocoon before the inmates of the
+later cells, will try to work her way round these or to bite a lateral
+hole through the bramble shoot; should she fail to do this, she will
+wait for the emergence of her sisters and not make her escape at the
+price of injury to them. But when Fabre substituted dead individuals of
+her own species or live larvae of another genus, the _Osmia_ had no
+scruple in destroying them, so as to bite her way out to air and
+liberty.
+
+The leaf-cutter bees (_Megachile_)--which differ from _Andrena_ and
+_Halictus_ and agree with _Osmia_, _Apis_ and _Bombus_ in having
+elongate tongues--cut neat circular disks from leaves, using them for
+lining the cells of their underground nests. The carpenter-bees
+(_Xylocopa_ and allied genera), unrepresented in the British Islands,
+though widely distributed in warmer countries, make their nests in dry
+wood. The habits of _X. violacea_, the commonest European species, were
+minutely described in the 18th century in one of R.A.F. de Reaumur's
+memoirs. This bee excavates several parallel galleries to which access
+is gained by a cylindrical hole. In the galleries are situated the
+cells, separated from one another by transverse partitions, which are
+formed of chips of wood, cemented by the saliva of the bee.
+
+Among the solitary bees none has more remarkable nesting habits than the
+mason bee (_Chalicodoma_) represented in the south of France and
+described at length by Fabre. The female constructs on a stone a series
+of cells, built of cement, which she compounds of particles of earth,
+minute stones and her own saliva. Each cell is provided with a store of
+honey and pollen beside which an egg is laid; and after eight or nine
+cells have been successively built and stored, the whole is covered by a
+dome-like mass of cement. Fabre found that a _Chalicodoma_ removed to a
+distance of 4 kilometres from the nest that she was building, found her
+way back without difficulty to the exact spot. But if the nest were
+removed but a few yards from its former position, the bee seemed no
+longer able to recognize it, sometimes passing over it, or even into the
+unfinished cell, and then leaving it to visit again uselessly the place
+whence it had been moved. She would accept willingly, however, another
+nest placed in the exact spot where her own had been. If the unfinished
+cell in the old nest had been only just begun, while that in the
+substituted nest were nearly completed, the bee would add so much
+material as to make the cell much larger than the normal size, her
+instinct evidently being to do a certain amount of building work before
+filling the cell with food. The food, too, is always placed in the cell
+after a fixed routine--first honey disgorged from the mouth, then pollen
+brushed off the hairs beneath the body (fig. 7, c) after which the two
+substances are mixed into a paste.
+
+_Inquilines and Parasites._--The working bees, such as have been
+mentioned, are victimized by bees of other genera, which throw upon the
+industrious the task of providing for the young of the idle. The nests
+of _Andrena_, for example, are haunted by the black and yellow species
+of _Nomada_, whose females lay their eggs in the food provided for the
+larva of the _Andrena_. According to H. Friese, the relations between
+the host and the inquiline are quite friendly, and the insects if they
+meet in the nest-galleries courteously get out of each other's way. D.
+Sharp, in commenting on this strange behaviour, points out that the host
+can have no idea why the inquiline haunts her nest. "Why then should the
+_Andrena_ feel alarm? If the species of _Nomada_ attack the species of
+_Andrena_ too much, it brings about the destruction of its own species
+more certainly than that of the _Andrena_."
+
+More violent in its methods is the larva of a _Stelis_, whose operations
+in the nest of _Osmia leucomelana_ have been studied by Verhoeff. The
+female _Stelis_ lays her eggs earlier than the _Osmia_, and towards the
+bottom of the food-mass; the egg of the _Osmia_ is laid later, and on
+the surface of the food. Hence the two eggs are at opposite ends of the
+food, and both larvae feed for a time without conflict, but the
+_Stelis_, being the older, is the larger of the two. Finally the
+parasitic larva attacks the _Osmia_, and digging its mandibles into its
+victim's head kills and eats it, taking from one to two days for the
+completion of the repast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Under Side of Worker, carrying Wax Scales.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.)]
+
+_Social Bees._--The bees hitherto described are "solitary," all the
+individuals being either males or unmodified females. The most highly
+developed of the long-tongued bees are "social" species, in which the
+females are differentiated into egg-laying queens and (usually)
+infertile "workers" (fig. 6). Verhoeff has discussed the rise of the
+"social" from the "solitary" condition, and points out that for the
+formation of an insect community three conditions are necessary--a nest
+large enough for a number of individuals, a close grouping of the cells,
+and an association between mother and daughters in the winged state. For
+the fulfilment of this last condition, the older insects of the new
+generation must emerge from the cells while the mother is still occupied
+with the younger eggs or larvae. One species of _Halictus_ nearly
+reaches the desired stage; but the first young bees to appear in the
+perfect state are males, and when the females emerge the mother dies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.-Abdominal Plate (worker of _Apis_), under side,
+third segment. W, wax-yielding surface, covering true gland; s, septem,
+or carina; wh, webbed hairs.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.)]
+
+Among the social bees the mother and daughter-insects co-operate, and
+they differ from the "solitary" groups in the nature of their nest, the
+cells (fig. 25) of which are formed of wax secreted by special glands
+(fig. 5) in the bee's abdomen, the wax being pressed out between the
+segmental sclerites in the form of plates (fig. 4), which are worked by
+the legs (fig. 7) and jaws into the requisite shape. In our well-known
+hive-bee (_Apis_) and humble-bees (_Bombus_) the wax glands are ventral
+in position, but in the "stingless" bees of the tropics (_Trigona_ and
+_Melipona_) they are dorsal. A colony of humble-bees is started in
+spring by a female "queen" which has survived the winter. She starts her
+nest underground or in a surface depression, forming a number of waxen
+cells, roughly globular in shape and arranged irregularly. The young
+females ("workers") that develop from the eggs laid in these early cells
+assist the queen by building fresh cells and gathering food for storage
+therein. The queen may be altogether relieved of the work of the nest as
+the season advances, so that she can devote all her energies to
+egg-laying, and the colony grows rapidly. The distinction between queen
+and worker is not always clear among humble-bees, the female insects
+varying in size and in the development of their ovaries. If any mishap
+befall the queen, the workers can sometimes keep the community from
+dying out. In autumn males are produced, as well as young queens. The
+community is broken up on the approach of winter, the males and workers
+perish, and the young queens after hibernation start fresh nests in the
+succeeding year.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Ovaries of Queen and Workers (_Apis_).
+
+  A, Abdomen of queen, under side.
+    P, Petiole.
+    o, o, Ovaries.
+    hs, Position filled by honey-sack.
+    ds, Position through which digestive system passes.
+    od, Oviduct.
+    co.d, Vagina.
+    E, Egg-passing oviduct.
+    s, Spermatheca.
+    i. Intestine.
+    pb, Poison bag.
+    pg, Poison gland.
+    st, Sting.
+    p, "Palps" or "feelers" of sting.
+  B, Rudimentary ovaries of ordinary worker.
+    sp, Rudimentary spermatheca.
+  C, Partially developed ovaries of fertile worker.
+    sp, Rudimentary spermatheca.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_.)]
+
+The appearance of the heavy-bodied hairy _Bombi_ is well known. They are
+closely "mimicked" by bees of the genus _Psithyrus_, which often share
+their nests. These _Psithyri_ have no pollen-carrying structures on the
+legs and their grubs are dependent for their food-supply on the labours
+of the _Bombi_, though, according to E. Hoffer's observations, it seems
+that the female _Psithyrus_ builds her own cells. The colonies of
+_Bombus_ illustrate the rise of the inquiline habit. Many of the species
+are very variable and have been differentiated into races or varieties.
+F.W.L. Sladen states that a queen belonging to the _virginalis_ form of
+_Bombus terrestris_ often invades a nest belonging to the _lucorum_
+form, kills the rightful queen, and takes possession of the nest,
+getting the _lucorum_ workers to rear her young. In the nests of _Bombi_
+are found various beetle larvae that live as inquilines or parasites,
+and also maggots of drone-flies (_Volucella_), which act as scavengers;
+the Volucella-fly is usually a "mimic" of the _Bombus_, whose nest she
+invades.
+
+The "stingless" bees (_Trigona_) of the tropics have the parts of the
+sting reduced and useless for piercing. As though to compensate for the
+loss of this means of defence, the mandibles are very powerful, and some
+of the bees construct tubular entrances to the nest with a series of
+constrictions easy to hold against an enemy. The habits of the Brazilian
+species of these bees have been described in detail by H. von Jhering,
+who points out that their wax glands are dorsal in position, not ventral
+as in _Bombus_ and _Apis_.
+
+With _Apis_, the genus of the hive-bee, we come to the most
+highly-specialized members of the family--better known, perhaps than any
+other insects, on account of the long domestication of many of the
+species or races. In _Apis_ the workers differ structurally from the
+queen, who neither builds cells, gathers food, nor tends brood, and is
+therefore without the special organs adapted for those functions which
+are possessed in perfection by the workers. The differentiation of queen
+and workers is correlated with the habit of storing food supplies, and
+the consequent permanence of the community, which finds relief for its
+surplus population by sending off a swarm, consisting of a queen and a
+number of workers, so that the new community is already specialized both
+for reproduction and for labour.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Modifications in the Legs of Bees.
+
+  A. a-d, Hive-bee (_Apis_).
+  B. f-g, Stingless bee (_Melipona_).
+  C. h-i, Humble-bee (_Bombus_).
+  a, f, h, Outer view of hind-leg.
+  b, g, i, Inner view.
+  d, Fore-leg of _Apis_ showing notch in tarsal segment for cleaning
+       feeler.
+  e, Tip of intermediate shin with spur.
+  c, Feathered hairs with pollen grains, magnified.
+
+(After Riley, _Insect Life_ (U.S. Dept. Agr.), vol. 6.)]
+
+The workers of _Apis_ may be capable (fig. 6, C) of laying
+eggs--necessarily unfertilized--which always give rise to males
+("drones"), and, since the researches of J. Dzierzon (1811-1906) in
+1848, it has been believed that the queen bee lays fertilized eggs in
+cells appropriate for the rearing of queens or workers, and unfertilized
+eggs in "drone-cells," virgin reproduction or parthenogenesis being
+therefore a normal factor in the life of these insects. F. Dickel and
+others have lately claimed that fertilized eggs can give rise to either
+queens, workers or males, according to the food supplied to the larvae
+and the influence of supposed "sex-producing glands" possessed by the
+nurse-workers. Dickel states that a German male bee mated with a female
+of the Italian race transmits distinct paternal characters to hybrid
+male offspring. A. Weismann, however, doubts these conclusions, and
+having found a spermaster in every one of the eggs that he examined from
+worker-cells, and in only one out of 272 eggs taken from drone-cells, he
+supports Dzierzon's view, explaining the single exception mentioned
+above as a mistake of the queen, she having laid inadvertently this
+single fertilized egg in a drone instead of in a worker cell.
+
+The cells of the honeycomb of _Apis_ are usually hexagonal in form, and
+arranged in two series back to back (figs. 3, 25). Some of these cells
+are used for storage, others for the rearing of brood. The cells in
+which workers are reared are smaller than those appropriate for the
+rearing of drones, while the "royal cells," in which the young queens
+are developed, are large in size and of an irregular oval in form (fig.
+25). It is believed that from the nature of the cell in which she is
+ovipositing, the queen derives a reflex impulse to lay the appropriate
+egg--fertilized in the queen or worker cell, unfertilized in the drone
+cell, as previously mentioned. Whether the fertilized egg shall develop
+into a queen or a worker depends upon the nature of the food. All young
+grubs are at first fed with a specially nutritious food, discharged from
+the worker's stomach, to which is added a digestive secretion derived
+from special salivary glands in the worker's head. If this "royal jelly"
+continue to be given to the grub throughout its life, it will grow into
+a queen; if the ordinary mixture of honey and digested pollen be
+substituted, as is usually the case from the fourth day, the grub will
+become a worker. The workers, who control the polity of the hive (the
+"queen" being exceedingly "limited" in her monarchy), arrange if
+possible that young queens shall develop only when the population of the
+hive has become so congested that it is desirable to send off a swarm.
+When a young queen has emerged, she stings her royal sisters (still in
+the pupal stage) to death. Previous to the emergence of the young queen,
+the old queen, prevented by the workers from attacking her daughters,
+has led off a swarm to find a new home elsewhere. The young queen, left
+in the old home, mounts high into the air for her nuptial flight, and
+then returns to the hive and her duties of egg-laying. The number of
+workers increases largely during the summer, and so hard do the insects
+work that the life of an individual may last only a few weeks. On the
+approach of winter the males, having no further function to perform for
+the community, are refused food-supplies by the workers, and are either
+excluded or banished from the hive to perish. Such ruthless habits of
+the bee-commonwealth, no less than the altruistic labours of the
+workers, are adapted for the survival and dominance of the species. The
+struggle for life may deal hardly with the individual, but it
+results--to quote Darwin's well-known title--in "the preservation of
+favoured races."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--More has been written on bees, and especially on the
+  genus _Apis_, than on any other group of insects. The classical
+  observations of Reaumur _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire des
+  insectes_, vols. v., vi. (Paris, 1740-1742) and F. Huber's _Nouvelles
+  observations sur les abeilles_ (Geneve, 1792) will never be forgotten;
+  they have been matched in recent times by J.H. Fabre's _Souvenirs
+  entomologiques_ (Paris, 1879-1891); and M. Maeterlinck's poetic yet
+  scientific _La vie des abeilles_ (Paris, 1901). Among writers on the
+  solitary and parasitic species may be specially mentioned F. Smith,
+  _Hymenoptera in the British Museum_ (London, 1853-1859); H. Friese,
+  _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._, iv. (1891) J. Perez, _Actes Soc. Bordeaux_,
+  xlviii. (1895); and C. Verhoeff, _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._, vi. (1892). For
+  the social species we have valuable papers by E. Hoffer, _Mitt.
+  Naturwissen. Ver. Steiermark_, xxxi. (1881); H. von Jhering, _Zool.
+  Jahrb. Syst._, xix. (1903); and others. For recent controversy on
+  parthenogenesis in the hive bee, see J. Perez, _Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._
+  (6), vii. (1878); F. Dickel, _Zool. Anz._, xxv. (1901), and _Anatom.
+  Anzeiger_, xix. (1902); A. Petrunkevich, _Zoolog. Jahrb. Anat._, xiv.
+  (1901); and A. Weismann, _Anatom. Anzeiger_, xviii. (1901). F.R.
+  Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping_ (London, 1885-1888), and T.W.
+  Cowan's _Honey Bee_ (2nd ed., 1904), are invaluable to the naturalist,
+  and contain extensive bibliographies of _Apis_. D. Sharp's summary in
+  the _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vi., should be consulted for
+  further information on bees generally. British bees are described in
+  the catalogues of Smith, mentioned above, and by E. Saunders, _The
+  Hymenoptera of the British Islands_ (London, 1896).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+BEE-KEEPING
+
+Bee-keeping, or the cultivation of the honey-bee as a source of income
+to those who practise it, is known to have existed from the most ancient
+times. Poets, philosophers, historians and naturalists (among whom may
+be mentioned Virgil, Aristotle, Cicero and Pliny) have eulogized the bee
+as unique among insects, endowed by nature with wondrous gifts
+beneficial to mankind in a greater degree than any other creature of
+the insect world. We are told that some of these ancient scientists
+passed years of their lives studying the wonders of bee-life, and left
+accurate records of their observations, which on many points agree with
+the investigations of later observers. As a forcible illustration of the
+manner in which a colony of bees was recognized as the embodiment of
+government by a chief or ruler, in the earliest times of which there is
+any existing record, it may be mentioned that on the sarcophagus
+containing the mummified remains of Mykerinos (now in the British Museum
+and dating back 3633 years B.C.) will be found a hieroglyphic bee,(fig.
+8) representing the king of Lower Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Sign of the king of Lower Egypt; from the coffin
+of Mykerinos, 3633 B.C. (British Museum).]
+
+
+  Queen-rearing.
+
+In dealing with the practical side of bee-keeping as now understood, it
+may be said that, compared with the methods in vogue during the first
+decade of the 19th century, or even within the memory of men still
+living at the beginning of the 20th, it is as the modern locomotive to
+the stagecoach of a previous generation. Almost everything connected
+with bee-craft has been revolutionized, and apiculture, instead of being
+classed with such homely rural occupations as that of the country
+housewife who carries a few eggs weekly to the market-town in her
+basket, is to-day regarded in many countries as a pursuit of
+considerable importance. Remarkable progress has also been made in the
+art of queen-rearing, and in improving the common or native bee by
+judicious crossing with the best foreign races, selected mainly for
+hardiness, working qualities and the prolific capacity of their queens.
+American bee-breeders are conspicuous in this respect, extensive
+apiaries being exclusively devoted to the business of rearing queens by
+the thousand for sale and export.
+
+On the European continent queen-rearing apiaries are plentiful, but less
+attention is paid there to hybridizing than to keeping the respective
+races pure. In England also, some bee-keepers include queen-rearing as
+part of their business, while one large apiary on the south coast is
+exclusively devoted to the rearing of queen bees on the latest
+scientific system, and to breeding by selection from such races as are
+most suited to the exceptional climatic conditions of the country.
+
+
+  Honey as food.
+
+Extensive apiaries have been established on the American continent, some
+containing from 2000 to 3500 colonies of bees, and in these honey is
+harvested in hundreds of tons yearly. The magnitude of the bee industry
+in the United States may be judged from the fact of a single bee-farmer
+located in California having harvested from 150,000 lb. of honey in one
+year from 2000 stocks of bees, and, as an instance of the enormous
+weight of honey obtainable from good hives in that favoured region, the
+same farmer secured 60,000 lb. of comb-honey in one season from his best
+300 colonies. This is probably the maximum, and the hives were
+necessarily located in separate apiaries some few miles apart in order
+to avoid the evils of overstocking, but all in the midst of thousands of
+acres of honey-yielding flowers. Results like the above compared with
+those of the skeppist bee-keeper of former days, who was well pleased
+with an average of 20 to 25 lb. per hive, may be regarded as wonderful,
+but they are matters of fact. The consumption of honey as an article of
+food has also largely increased of late years; a recent computation
+shows that from 100 to 125 million lb. of honey, representing a money
+value of from eight to ten million dollars, is consumed annually in the
+United States alone. Many of the larger bee-farmers of the United States
+of America and Canada harvest from 50,000 to 60,000 lb. of honey in a
+single season, and some of them sell the whole crop direct to consumers.
+
+
+  State aid for bee-keeping.
+
+It is a notable fact that in the United States, Canada, Australia, New
+Zealand, and indeed all English-speaking countries outside the United
+Kingdom, honey is far more extensively used than it is there as an
+article of daily food. The natural result of this is that the trade in
+honey is conducted, in those countries, on entirely different lines from
+those followed in the British Isles, where honey production as an
+occupation has, until quite recent years, been regarded as too
+insignificant for official notice in any form. The value of the bee
+industry is now recognized, however, by the British government as worthy
+of state aid, in the promotion of technical instruction connected with
+agriculture. On the American continent apiculture is officially
+recognized by the respective states' governments; and by the federal
+government at Washington it is taken into account as a section of the
+Agricultural Department, with fully equipped experimental apiaries and
+qualified professors engaged therein for educational work. In several
+Canadian provinces also, the public funds are used in promoting the bee
+industry in various ways, mainly in combating the bee-disease known as
+"foul brood." In New Zealand the government of the colony has displayed
+the most praiseworthy earnestness and vigour in promoting apiculture.
+State-aided apiaries have been established under the supervision of a
+skilled bee-keeper, who travels over the colony giving instruction in
+practical bee-work at the public schools, and forming classes at various
+centres where pupils are taught bee-keeping in all its branches.
+
+
+  Value of bees as fertilizers.
+
+In Europe similar progress is observable; technical schools, with
+well-equipped apiaries attached, are supported by the state, and in them
+the science and practice of modern bee-keeping is taught free by
+scientists and practical experts. Institutions of this kind have been
+established in Germany, Russia, Switzerland and elsewhere, all tending
+in the same direction, viz. the cultivation of the honey-bee as an
+appreciable source of income to the farmer, the peasant cultivator, and
+dwellers in districts where bee-forage is abundant and, if unvisited by
+the bee, lies wasting its sweetness on the desert air. It may be safely
+said that the value of the bee to the fruit-grower and the
+market-gardener has been proved beyond dispute; and the technical
+instruction now afforded by county councils in the rural districts of
+England has an appreciable effect. In proof thereof, we may quote the
+case of an extensive grower in the midland counties--sending fruit to
+the London market in tons--whose crop of gooseberries increased nearly
+fourfold after establishing a number of stocks of bees in close
+proximity to the gooseberry bushes. The fruit orchards and raspberry
+fields of Kent are also known to be greatly benefited by the numerous
+colonies of bees owned by more than 3000 bee-keepers in the county. The
+important part played by the bee in the economy of nature as a
+fertilizer is shown in fig. 9.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, Raspberry (_Rubus idaeus_, order _Rosaceae_),
+being fertilized. B, Cross section.
+
+  A, Flower.
+    p, p, Petals.
+    a, a, Anthers.
+    s, Stigma.
+    no, Nectary openings.
+    nc, Nectar cells.
+    D, Drupels.
+  B, Section through core, or torus (C) and drupels (D).
+    ud, Unfertilized drupel.
+    ws, Withered stigma.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+
+  Bee-keepers' associations.
+
+  Bee and honey shows.
+
+  Honey labels.
+
+In the United Kingdom the prevailing conditions, climatic and otherwise,
+with regard to apiculture--as well as the lack of sufficient natural
+bee-forage for large apiaries--are such as to preclude the possibility
+of establishing apiaries on a scale comparable with those located in
+less confined lands. On the other hand, even in England the value of
+bee-keeping is worthy of recognition as a minor industry connected with
+such items of agriculture as fruit-growing, market-gardening or
+poultry-raising. The fact that British honey is second to none for
+quality, and that the British market is eagerly sought by the
+bee-keepers of other nationalities, has of late impressed itself on the
+minds of thinking men. Moreover, their views are confirmed by the
+constant references to bees and the profits obtainable from bee-keeping
+in the leading papers on all sides. This newly-aroused interest in the
+subject is no doubt to a large extent fostered by the grants in aid of
+technical instruction afforded by county councils in rural districts.
+The British Bee-keepers' Association (instituted in 1874) has been
+untiring in its efforts to raise the standard of efficiency among those
+who are desirous of qualifying as experts and teachers of bee-keeping on
+modern methods. This body had for its first president the distinguished
+naturalist Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury). Subsequently the baroness
+Burdett-Coutts accepted the office in the year 1878, and was re-elected
+annually until her death in 1906. During this time she presided at its
+meetings and took an active part in its work, until advancing years
+prevented her attendance, but her interest in the welfare of the
+association was maintained to the last. Branch societies of bee-keepers
+were established throughout the English counties, mainly by the efforts
+of the parent body in London, with the object of securing co-operation
+in promoting the sale of honey, and showing the most modern methods of
+producing it in its most attractive form at exhibitions held for the
+purpose. Nearly the whole of these county societies affiliated with the
+central association, paying an affiliation fee yearly, and receiving in
+return the silver medal, bronze medal and certificate of the
+association, to be offered as prizes for competition at the annual
+county shows. Other advantages are given in connexion with the
+qualifying of experts, &c., while nearly all the county associations in
+the United Kingdom employ qualified men who visit members in spring and
+autumn for the purpose of examining hives and giving advice on bee
+management to those needing it. Another advantage of membership is the
+use of a "county label" for affixing to each section of honey in comb,
+or jar of extracted honey, offered for sale by members. These labels are
+numbered consecutively, and thus afford a guarantee of the genuineness
+and quality of the honey, the label enabling purchasers to trace the
+producer if needed. The British Bee-keepers' Association is an entirely
+philanthropic body, the only object of its members being to promote all
+that is good in British bee-keeping, and to "teach humanity to that
+industrious little labourer, the honey-bee." Bee-appliance manufacturers
+are not eligible for membership of its council, nor are those who make
+bee-keeping their main business; thus no professional jealousies can
+possibly arise. In this respect the association appears to stand alone
+among the bee-keepers' societies of the world. There are many equally
+beneficial societies, framed on different lines, existing in Germany,
+France, Russia and Switzerland, but they are mainly co-operative bodies
+instituted for the general benefit of members, who are without exception
+either bee-keepers on a more or less extensive scale, or scientists
+interested in the study of insect life.
+
+The bee-keepers' associations of the United States, Canada and most of
+the British colonies, are--like those last mentioned above--formed for
+the sole and laudable purpose of promoting the business interests of
+their members, the latter being either bee-farmers or bee-appliance
+manufacturers. Thus they make no pretension of any but business
+discussions at their conferences, and much benefit to all concerned
+follows as a matter of course. In fact, we find enthusiastic bee-men and
+women travelling several hundreds of miles and devoting time, money and
+labour in attending conferences of bee-keepers in America, while the
+proceedings usually last for several days and are largely attended. The
+extent of the industry compared with that of Great Britain is so great
+that it fully accounts for the difference in procedure of the respective
+associations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 10.--"1-lb. section" wooden box for holding
+Comb-honey.
+
+(Redrawn from the _A B C of Bee Culture_, published by the A. I. Root
+Co. Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.) ]
+
+
+  The bee-appliance trade.
+
+As a natural consequence of this activity, the trade in bee-appliance
+making has assumed enormous proportions in the United States, where
+extensive factories have been established; one firm--employing over 500
+hands, and using electric-power machinery of the most modern type--being
+devoted entirely to the manufacture of bee-goods and apiarian
+requisites. From this establishment alone the yearly output is about
+25,000 bee-hives, and upwards of 100 millions of the small wooden boxes
+used for holding comb-honey. The most generally approved form of this
+box is known as the "1-lb. section," made from a strip of wood 1/2 in.
+thick, 2 in. wide, and of such length that when folded by joining the
+morticed and tenoned ends A B (fig. 10) it forms the section of box C,
+measuring 4-1/4" X 4-1/2" X 2" when complete, and holds about 1 lb. of
+comb-honey when filled by the bees and ready for table use. The V-shaped
+groove D (cut across and partly through the wood) shows the joint when
+in the flat, and E the same joint when closed for use. All the section
+boxes used in the United Kingdom are made in the U.S.A or in Canada from
+the timber known as basswood, no native wood being suitable for the
+purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.-Straw skep in section, showing arrangement of
+Combs
+
+  A, Vertical section.
+    fb,      Floor board.
+    e,       Entrance.
+    br,      Brood
+    p,       Pollen.
+    h,       Honey.
+    fh,      Feeding hole.
+    bs, bs,  Bee spaces.
+  B, Horizontal section.
+    sk,      Skep-side.
+    c, c,    Combs.
+    sc, sc,  Store combs.
+    bs, bs,  Bee spaces.
+
+(from Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+
+  The straw skep.
+
+  The movable-frame hive.
+
+  Huber's observatory hive.
+
+_Development of the Movable-frame Hive_--The dome-shaped straw skep of
+our forefathers may be regarded as the typical bee-hive of all time and
+of all civilized countries; indeed, it may with truth be said that as a
+healthy and convenient home for the honey-bee it has no equal. A swarm
+of bees hived in a straw skep, the picturesque little domicile known the
+world over as the personification of industry, will furnish their home
+with waxen combs in form and shape so admirably adapted to their
+requirements as to need no improvement by man. Why the circular form was
+chosen for the skep need not be inquired into, beyond saying that its
+shape conforms to that of a swarm, as the bees usually hang clustered on
+the branch of a neighbouring tree or bush after issuing from the parent
+hive. Fig 11 shows a straw skep in section, and explains itself as
+illustrating the admirable way in which the bees furnish their dwelling.
+The vertical section (A) shows the lower portion of the combs devoted to
+brood-rearing, the higher and thicker combs being reserved for honey,
+and midway between the brood and food is stored the pollen required for
+mixing with honey in feeding the larvae. It will be seen how well the
+upper part of the combs are fitted for bearing the weight of stores they
+contain, and how the lower portion allows the bees to cluster around
+the tender larvae and thus maintain the warmth necessary during its
+metamorphosis from the egg to the perfect insect. The horizontal section
+(B) with equal clearness demonstrates the bee's ingenuity in economizing
+space, showing how the outer combs are used exclusively for stores, and,
+as such, may be built of varying thickness as more or less storage room
+is required. The straw skep has, however, the irredeemable fault of
+fixed combs, and the gradual development of the movable-frame hive of
+today may be said to have first appeared in 1789 with the leaf-hive of
+Huber, so called from its opening like the leaves of a book. Prior to
+that date wooden box-hives of various shapes had been adopted by
+advanced bee-masters anxious to increase their output of honey, and by
+enthusiastic naturalists desirous of studying and investigating the
+wonders of bee-life apart from the utilitarian standpoint. Foremost
+among the latter was the distinguished Swiss naturalist and bee-keeper,
+Francois Huber, who was led to construct the leaf-hive bearing his name
+after experimenting with a single comb observatory hive recommended by
+Reaumur. Huber found that although he could induce swarms to occupy the
+glass-sided single frame advised by Reaumur, if the frame was fitted
+with ready-built pieces of comb patched together before hiving the
+swarm, the experiment was successful, while if left to themselves the
+bees built small combs across the space between the sheets of glass, and
+the desired inspection from the outside was thus rendered impossible. He
+also gathered that the abnormal conditions forced upon the bees by a
+ready-built single comb might so turn aside their natural instincts as
+to render his investigations less trustworthy than if conducted under
+perfectly natural conditions; so, in order to remove all doubt, he
+decided to have a series of wooden frames made, measuring 12 in. sq.,
+each of rather more than the ordinary width allowed for brood-combs.
+These frames were numbered consecutively 1 to 12, and hinged together as
+shown in fig. 12 (h, A). In this way the frames of comb could be opened
+for inspection like a book, while when closed the bees clustered
+together as in an ordinary hive. Ten of these frames had a small piece
+of comb fixed to the top-bar in each, supported (temporarily) by a thin
+lath wedged up with pegs at side, the latter being removed when the comb
+had been made secure by the bees. When closed, the ten frames, together
+with the two outside ones (fitted with squares of glass for inspection),
+which represent the covers of the book, were tied together with a couple
+of stout strings. In a subsequent form of the same hive Huber was
+enabled--with the help of very long thumb-screws at each side (fig.
+13)--to raise up any frame between two sheets of glass which confined
+the bees and allowed him to study the process of comb-building better
+than any hive we know of today. By means of the leaf-hive and using the
+entrances (fig. 12, e, e, A) Huber made artificial swarms by dividing
+and the use of division-boards, though not in quite the same fashion as
+is practised at the present day. On the other hand, it must be admitted
+that Huber's hive was defective in many respects; the parting of each
+frame, thus letting loose the whole colony, caused much trouble at
+times, but it remained the only movable-comb hive till 1838, when Dr
+Dzierzon--whose theory of parthenogenesis has made his name
+famous--devised a box-hive with a loose top-bar on which the bees built
+their combs and a movable side or door, by means of which the frames
+could be lifted out for inspection. This improvement was at once
+appreciated, and in the year 1852 Baron Berlepsch added side-bars and a
+bottom-bar, thus completing the movable frame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Huber's book or leaf hive.
+
+  A, Book hive.
+    e, e, Entrances.
+    s, s, Side leaves.
+    h,    Hinges.
+  B, Side view of frame or leaf.
+    tb,   Top-bar
+    c,    Comb.
+    p, p, Pegs.
+  C, Part of bin, cross section, lettering as before.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.-Huber's bar-hive, showing how comb is built, cb,
+Comb bar; g, g, glass sheets; s, s, screws; e, entrance
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.) ]
+
+
+  Laagstroth's hive.
+
+About the same time the Rev. L.L. Langstroth was experimenting on the
+same lines in America, and in 1852 his important invention was made
+known, giving to the world of bee-keepers a movable frame which in its
+most important details will never be excelled. We refer to the respective
+distances left between the side-bars and hive walls on each side, and
+between the lower edge of the bottom-bars and the floor-board.
+Langstroth, in his measurements, hit upon the happy mean which keeps bees
+from propolizing or fastening the frames to the hive body, as they
+assuredly would do if sufficient space had not been allowed for free
+passage round the side-bars; it is equally certain that if too much space
+had been provided, they would fill it with comb and thus render the frame
+immovable. In addition to these benefits, Langstroth's frame and hive
+possessed the enormous advantage over Dzierzon's of being manipulated
+from above, so that any single frame could be raised for inspection
+without disturbing the others. Langstroth's space-measurements have
+remained practically unaltered notwithstanding the many improvements in
+hive-making, and in the various sizes of movable frames, since introduced
+and used in different parts of the world.
+
+
+  Size of frames in the U.S.A.
+
+In the United States of America Langstroth's frame and hive are the
+acknowledged "standards" among the great body of bee-keepers, although
+about a dozen different frames, varying more or less in size, have their
+adherents. Among these may be named the American, Adair, Danzenbaker,
+Gallup, Heddon, Langstroth and Quinby. Three of these, the American,
+Adair and Gallup, may be termed square frames, the others being oblong,
+but the latter shape appears to possess the most all-round advantages to
+the modern bee-keeper. Amid the different climatic conditions of so vast
+a continent as America, variation in size, and in the capacity of frames
+used, is in some measure accounted for.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Standard Frame.]
+
+
+  British "Standard" frame.
+
+In the British Isles, though the conditions are variable enough, they
+are less extreme, and, fortunately for those engaged in the pursuit,
+only one size of frame is acknowledged by the great majority of
+bee-keepers, viz. the British Bee-keepers' Association "Standard" (fig.
+14). This frame, the outside measurement of which is 14 by 8-1/2 in.,
+was the outcome of deliberations extending over a considerable time on
+the part of a committee of well-known bee-keepers, specially appointed
+in 1882 to consider the matter. In this way, whatever type or form of
+hive is used, the frames are interchangeable. Differences in view may,
+and do, exist regarding the thickness of the wood used in frame-making,
+but the _outside_ measurement never varies. Notwithstanding this fact,
+the advancement of apiculture and the continuous development of the
+modern frame-hive and methods of working have proceeded with such
+rapidity, both in England and in America, that hives and appliances used
+prior to 1885 are now obsolete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Langstroth Hive.
+
+(Redrawn from the _A B C of Bee-Culture_, published by the A. I. Root
+Co., Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)]
+
+
+  Winter cellars for bees.
+
+It may, therefore, be useful to compare the progress made in the United
+States of America and in Great Britain in order to show that, while the
+industry is incomparably larger and of more importance in America and
+Canada than in Great Britain, British bee-keepers have been abreast of
+the times in all things apicultural. The original Langstroth hive was
+single-walled, held ten frames (size 17-3/4 by 9 in.), and had a deep
+roof, made to cover a case of small honey boxes like the sections now in
+use; but the cumbersome projecting porch and sides, made to support the
+roof, are now dispensed with, and the number of frames reduced to eight.
+Although various modifications have since been made in minor
+details--all tending to improvement--its main features are unaltered.
+The typical hive of America is the _improved_ Langstroth (fig. 15),
+which has no other covering for the frame tops but a flat roof-board
+allowing 1/4 in. space between the roof and top-bars for bees to pass
+from frame to frame. Consequently, on the roof being raised the bees can
+take wing if not prevented from doing so. This feature finds no favour
+with British bee-keepers, nevertheless the "improved Langstroth" is a
+useful and simple hive, moderate in price, and no doubt efficient, but
+not suitable for bees wintered on their summer stands, as nearly all
+hives are in Great Britain. American bee-keepers, therefore, find it
+necessary to provide underground cellars, into which the bees are
+carried in the fall of each year, remaining there till work begins in
+the following spring. Those among them who cannot, for various reasons,
+adopt the cellar-wintering plan are obliged to provide what are termed
+"chaff-covers" for protecting their bees in winter. Of late years they
+have also introduced, as an improvement, the plan long followed in
+England of using double-walled chaff-packed hives. The difference here
+is that packing is now dispensed with, it being found that bees winter
+equally well with an outer case giving 1-1/2 in. of free space on all
+sides of the hive proper, but with no packing in between. Thus no change
+is needed in winter or summer, the air-space protecting the bees from
+cold in winter and heat in summer. Another point of difference between
+the English and American hive is the roof, which being gable-shaped in
+the former allows warm packing to be placed directly on the frame tops,
+so that the bees are covered in when the roof is removed and may be
+examined or fed with very little disturbance. Again, the American hive
+is, as a general rule, set close down on the ground, while stands or
+short legs are invariably used in Great Britain. One of the best-known
+hives in England is that known as the W.B.C. hive, devised in 1890 by W.
+Broughton Carr.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Exterior, W.B.C. Hive.]
+
+Figs. 16 and 17 explain its construction and, as will be seen, it is
+equally suitable when working for comb or for extracted honey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Interior, W.B.C. Hive.]
+
+
+  Honey extractors.
+
+Various causes have contributed to the development of the modern hive,
+the most important of which are the improvements in methods of
+extracting honey from combs, and in the manufacture of comb-foundation.
+Regarding the first of these, it cannot be said that the honey
+extractor, even in its latest form, differs very much from the original
+machine (fig. 18) invented by Major Hruschka, an officer in the Italian
+army, who in later life became an enthusiastic apiculturist. Hruschka's
+extractor, first brought to public notice in 1865, may be said to have
+revolutionized the bee-industry as a business. It enabled the honey
+producer to increase his output considerably by extracting honey from
+the cells in most cleanly fashion without damaging the combs, and in a
+fraction of the time previously occupied in the draining, heating and
+squeezing process. At the same time the combs were preserved for
+refilling by the bees, in lieu of melting them down for wax. The
+principle of the honey extractor (throwing the liquid honey out of the
+cells by centrifugal force) was discovered quite by accident. Major
+Hruschka's little son chanced to have in his hand a bit of unsealed
+comb-honey in a basket to which was attached a piece of string, and, as
+the boy playfully whirled the basket round in the air, his father
+noticed a few drops of honey, thrown out of the comb by the centrifugal
+force employed to keep the basket suspended. The value of the idea at
+once struck him, he set to work on utilizing the principle involved, and
+ere long had constructed a machine admirably adapted to serve its
+purpose. Since that time changes, of more or less value, have been
+introduced to meet present-day requirements. One of the first to take
+advantage of Hruschka's invention was Mr A. I. Root, who in 1869
+perfected a machine on similar lines to the Hruschka one but embodying
+various improvements. This appliance, known as the "Novice Honey
+Extractor," became very popular in the United States of America, but it
+had the fault of wasting time in removing the combs for reversing after
+one side had been emptied of its contents. A simple form of machine for
+extracting honey by centrifugal force was brought to notice in England
+in 1875, and was soon improved upon, as will be seen in fig. 19, which
+shows a section of one of the best English machines at that time.
+Various plans were tried in America to improve on the "Novice" machine,
+and Mr T.W. Cowan, who was experimenting in the same direction in
+England, invented in the year 1875 a machine called the "Rapid," in
+which, the combs were reversed without removal of the cages (fig. 20).
+The frame-cases--wired on both sides--are hung at the angles of a
+revolving ring of iron, and the reversing process is so simple and
+effective that the "Cowan" reversible frame has been adopted in all the
+best machines both in Great Britain and in America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Hruschka Extractor. (Redrawn from _The A B C of
+Bee Culture_, published by the A. I. Root Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Diagram of the Raynor Extractor.
+
+  A, Section of extractor.
+    fr, Fixing rail
+    ffr, Frame for cage.
+    wb, Metal webbing.
+    wn, Wire netting.
+    co, Comb
+    w, Wire bottom.
+    p, Pivot.
+    c, Stiffening cone.
+    cb, Coned bottom.
+    gt, Gutter.
+    st, Syrup tap.
+  C, Perpendicular section of side of cage enlarged.
+    oc, Outer casing
+    wb, Metal webbing
+    wn, Wire netting
+
+  (From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical._)
+
+The latest form of honey extractor used in America is that known as the
+"Four-frame Cowan." Fig. 21 shows the working part or inside of the
+appliance. In this, and indeed in all extractors used in large apiaries,
+the "Cowan" or reversible frame principle is used. Each of the four
+cages in which the combs are placed is swung on a pivot attached to the
+side, and when the outer faces of the combs are emptied the cages are
+reversed without removal from the machine for emptying the opposite
+sides of combs. The further development of the honey extractor has of
+late been limited to an increase in the size of machine used, in order
+to save time and manual labour, and thus meet the requirements of the
+largest honey producers, who extract honey by the car load. Some of the
+largest machines--propelled by motor power--are capable of taking eight
+or more frames at one time. It may also be claimed for the honey
+extractor that it does away with the objection entertained by many
+persons to the use of honey, by enabling the apiarist to remove his
+produce from the honey-combs in its purest form untainted by crushed
+brood and untouched by hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Cowan's rapid Extractor.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Cowan's four-frame Extractor; interior.
+
+(Redrawn from _The A B C of Bee Culture_, published by the A. I. Root
+Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)]
+
+
+  Comb foundation.
+
+Next in importance, to bee-keepers, is the enormous advance made in late
+years through the invention of a machine for manufacturing the impressed
+wax sheets known as "comb foundation," aptly so named, because upon it
+the bees build the cells wherein they store their food. We need not
+dwell upon the evolution from the crude idea, which first took form in
+the endeavour to compel bees to build straight combs in a given
+direction by offering them a guiding line of wax along the under side of
+each top-bar of the frame in which the combs were built; but we may
+glance at the more important improvements which gradually developed as
+time went on. In 1843 a German bee-keeper, Krechner by name, conceived
+the idea of first dipping fine linen into molten wax, then pressing the
+sheets so made between rollers, and thus forming a waxen midrib on which
+the bees would build their combs. This experiment was partially
+successful, but the instinctive dislike of bees to anything of a fibrous
+nature caused them completely to spoil their work of comb-building in
+the endeavour to tear or gnaw away the linen threads whenever they got
+in touch with them. In 1857 Mehring (also a German) made a further
+advance by the use of wooden moulds for casting sheets of wax impressed
+with the hexagonal form of the bee-cell. These sheets were readily
+accepted by the bees, and afterwards plates cast from metal were
+employed, with so good a result as to give to the bees as perfect a
+midrib as that of natural comb with the deep cell walls cut away. Fig.
+22 shows a portion of one of these metal plates with worker-cells of
+natural size, i.e. five cells to the inch. Thus Mehring is justly
+claimed as the originator of comb-foundation, though the value of his
+invention was less eagerly taken advantage of even in Germany than its
+merits deserved. Probably it was ahead of the times, for not until
+nearly twenty years later was any prominence given to it, when Samuel
+Wagner, founder and editor of the _American Bee Journal_, became
+impressed with Mehring's invention and warmly advocated it in his paper.
+Mr Wagner first conceived the idea of adding slightly raised side walls
+to the hexagonal outlines of the cells, by means of which the bees are
+supplied with the material for building out one-half or more of the
+complete cell walls or sides. The manifest advantage of this was at once
+realized by practical American apiarists as saving labour to the bees
+and money to the bee-keeper. One of the first to recognize its value was
+Mr A I. Root, of Medina, Ohio, who suggested the substitution of
+embossed rollers in lieu of flat plates, in order to increase the output
+of foundation and lessen its cost to the bee-keeper. He lost no time in
+giving practical shape to his views, and mainly through the inventive
+genius of a skilled machinist (Mr A. Washburn) the A. I. Root Co.
+constructed a roller press (fig 23) for producing foundation in sheets.
+This form of machine came into extensive use in the United States of
+America and afterwards in Great Britain. The first roller press was made
+by the A.I. Root Co. and imported by Mr William Raitt, a Scottish
+bee-keeper of repute in Perthshire, N.B. In all roller machines used at
+that time the plain sheets of wax were first made by the "dipping"
+process, i.e. by repeated dippings of damped boards in molten wax (kept
+in liquid condition in tanks immersed in hot water) until the sheet was
+of suitable thickness for the purpose. The prepared sheets were then
+passed through the rollers, and after being cut out and trimmed were
+ready for use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Portion of a type-metal plate--i.e. form of
+Comb Midrib (five cells to the inch). (From Cheshire's _Bees and
+Bee-keeping Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+Owing to the enormous demand for comb-foundation at that time various
+devices were tried with the view of securing (1) more rapid production,
+and (2) a foundation thin enough to be used in surplus chambers when
+working for comb-honey intended for table use. Foremost among the able
+men who experimented in this latter direction was Mr F.B. Weed, a
+skilful American machinist, who, after some years of strenuous effort,
+succeeded in devising and perfecting special rollers and dies, by the
+use of which foundation was produced with a midrib so thin as to compare
+favourably with natural comb built by the bees. "Dipping," however,
+proved not only a stumbling-block to speed but to the production of
+continuous sheets of wax; and in the end Mr Weed, acting in concert with
+Mr A.I. Root (who placed the resources of his enormous factory at his
+disposal), devised and perfected machinery--driven by motor power--for
+manufacturing foundation by what is known as the "Weed" process. By this
+process "dipping" is abolished, and in its latest form sheets of wax of
+any length are produced, passed between engraved rollers 6 in in
+diameter, cut to given lengths, trimmed, counted and paper-tissued ready
+for packing, at a rate of speed previously undreamt of.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Foundation Machine.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+_Practical Management of Bees._--Among the world of insects the
+honey-bee stands pre-eminent as the most serviceable to mankind; from
+the day on which the little labourer leaves its home for the first time
+in search of food, its mission is undoubtedly useful. Launched upon an
+unknown world, and guided by unerring instinct to the very flowers it
+seeks, the bee fertilizes fruit and flowers while winging its happy
+flight among the blossoms, gathering pollen for the nurslings of its own
+home and honey for the use of man. Nothing seems to be lost, nor can any
+part of the bee's work be accounted labour in vain; the very wax from
+which the insect builds the store-combs for its food and the cells in
+which its young are hatched and reared is valuable to mankind in many
+ways, and is regarded today no less than in the past ages as an
+important commercial product. The hive bee is, moreover, the only insect
+known to be capable of domestication, so far as labouring under the
+direct control of the bee-master is concerned, its habits being
+admirably adapted for embodying human methods of working for profit in
+our present-day life.
+
+In dealing with the practical side of apiculture it will not be
+necessary to do more than mention the salient points to be considered by
+those desirous of acquiring more complete knowledge of the subject.
+Authoritative text-books specially written for the guidance of
+bee-keepers are numerous and cheap, and on no account should any one
+engage in an attempt to manage bees on modern lines without a careful
+perusal of one or more of these. Bearing this in mind the reader will
+understand that so much of the natural history of the honey-bee as is
+necessary for elucidating the practical part of our subject may be
+comprised in (1) the life of the insect, (2) its mission in life, and
+(3) utilizing to the utmost the brief period during which it can labour
+before being worn out with toil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.-Hive bee (_Apis mellafica_). a, Worker; b,
+queen; c, drone.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+
+  Sex of bees.
+
+  Loss of queens.
+
+A prosperous bee-colony managed on modern lines will in the height of
+summer consist of three kinds of bees: a queen or mother-bee, a certain
+number of drones, and from 80,000 to 100,000 workers. With regard to
+sex, the queen is a fully-developed female, the drones are males and the
+workers may be termed neuters or partially developed females. These last
+possess ovaries like the queen, but shrunken and aborted so as to render
+the insect normally incapable of egg-production. The relative importance
+of the three kinds of bees, differs greatly in a degree and in somewhat
+curious fashion. For instance, the queen (or "king" of the hives as it
+was termed by our forefathers) is of paramount importance at certain
+seasons, her death or disablement during the period when the male
+element is absent meaning extinction of the whole colony. Fecundation
+would under such conditions be impossible, and without this the eggs of
+a resultant queen will produce nothing but drones. During the summer
+season, however (from May to July), when drones are abundant, the loss
+of a queen is of comparatively little moment, as the workers can
+transform eggs (or young larvae not more than three days old), which
+would in the ordinary course produce worker bees, into fully-developed
+queens, capable of fulfilling all the maternal duties of a mother-bee.
+The value of this wonderful provision of nature to the bee-keeper of
+today may be estimated from the fact that bees managed according to
+modern methods are necessarily subject to so much manipulating or
+handling, that fatal accidents are as likely to happen in bee life as
+among human beings.
+
+Authorities differ with regard to the age during which the queen bee is
+useful to the bee-keeper who works for profit. Under normal conditions
+the insect will live for three, four or sometimes five years, but the
+stimulation given together with the high-pressure system followed in
+modern bee-management, exhausts the period of her greatest fecundity in
+two years, so that queens are usually superseded after their second
+season has expired and egg-production gradually decreases. This can
+hardly cause wonder if it is borne in mind that for many weeks during
+the height of the season a prolific queen will deposit eggs at the rate
+of from two to three thousand every twenty-four hours.
+
+
+  The drone.
+
+Drones (or male bees) are more or less numerous in hives according to
+the skill of the bee-keeper in limiting their production. It is admitted
+by those best able to judge that the proportion of about a hundred
+drones in each hive is conducive to the prosperity of the colony, but
+beyond that number they are worse than useless, being non-producers and
+heavy consumers. Thus in times of scarcity, which are not infrequent
+during the early part of the season, they become a heavy tax upon the
+food-supply of the colony at the critical period when brood-rearing is
+accelerated by an abundance of stores, while shortness of food means a
+falling-off in egg-production. The modern bee-keeper, therefore, allows
+just so much drone comb in the hive as will produce a sufficient number
+of drones to ensure queen-mating, while affording to the bees the
+satisfaction of dwelling in a home equipped according to natural
+conditions, and containing all the elements necessary to bee-life. The
+action of the bees themselves makes this point clear, for when the
+season of mating is past the drone is no longer needed, the providing of
+winter stores taking first place in the economy of the hive. So long as
+honey is being gathered in plenty drones are tolerated, but no sooner
+does the honey harvest show signs of being over than they are
+mercilessly killed and cast out of the hive by the workers, after a
+brief idle life of about four months' duration. Thus the "lazy yawning
+drone," as Shakespeare puts it, has a short shrift when his usefulness
+to the community is ended.
+
+
+  The worker-bee.
+
+  Longevity in bees.
+
+Finally we have the aptly named worker-bee, on whom devolves the entire
+labour of the colony. The worker-bee is incapable of egg-production and
+can therefore take no part in the perpetuation of its species, so that
+individually its value to the community is infinitesimal. Yet it forms
+an item in a commonwealth, the members of which are in all respects
+equally well endowed. They are in turn skilled scientists, architects,
+builders, artisans, labourers and even scavengers; but collectively they
+are the rulers on whom the colony depends for the wonderful condition of
+law and order which has made the bee-community a model of good
+government for all mankind. Then so far as regards longevity, the period
+of a worker-bee's existence is not measured by numbering its days but
+simply by wear and tear, the marvellous intricacy and wonderful
+perfection of its framework being so delicate in construction that after
+six or seven weeks of strenuous toil, such as the bee undergoes in
+summer time, the little creature's labour is ended by a natural death.
+On the other hand, worker-bees hatched in the autumn will seven months
+later be strong with the vigour of lusty youth, able to take their full
+share in the labour of the hive for six weeks or more in the early
+spring, which is the most critical period in the colony's existence;
+hence the value to the apiarist of bees hatched in the autumn.
+
+The mission of the worker-bee is _work_; not so much for itself as for
+the younger members of the community to which it belongs. We cannot
+claim for it the virtue of strict honesty with regard to the stranger,
+but for its own "kith and kin" it is a model of socialism in an ideal
+form, possessing nothing of its own yet toiling unceasingly for the good
+of all. The increasing warmth of each recurring spring finds the bee
+awake, and full of eagerness to be up and doing; its sole mission being
+apparently to accomplish as much work as possible while life lasts. The
+earliest pollen is sought out from far and near, and has its immediate
+effect upon the mother bee of the colony. If healthy and young she
+begins egg-laying at once, and brood-rearing proceeds at an
+ever-increasing rate as each week passes, until the hive is brimming
+over with bees in time for the first honey flow. Then comes the almost
+human foresight with which the bee prevents the inevitable chaos created
+by an overcrowded home. There is no cell-room either for storing the
+abundant supply of food constantly being brought in, or for the
+thousands of eggs which a prolific queen will produce daily as a
+consequence of general prosperity; therefore unless help comes from
+without an exodus is prepared for, and what is known as "swarming" takes
+place.
+
+
+  Swarming.
+
+  Hiving swarms.
+
+It would be difficult to imagine anything more exhilarating to a
+beginner in bee-keeping than the sight of his first hive in the act of
+swarming. The little creatures are seen rushing in frantic haste from
+the hive like a living stream, filling the air with ever-increasing
+thousands of bees on the wing. The incoming workers returning
+pollen-laden from the fields, carried away by the prevailing excitement,
+do not stop to unload their burdens in the old home, but join the
+enthusiastic emigrants, tumbling over each other pell-mell in the
+outrush; among them the queen of the colony will in due course have
+taken her place, bound like her children for a new home. It soon becomes
+apparent to the onlooker when the queen has joined the flying multitude
+of bees in the air, for they are seen to be closing up their ranks, and
+in a few moments begin to form a solid cluster, usually on the branch of
+a small tree or bush close to the ground. When this stage of swarming is
+reached the bee-keeper has but to take his hiving skep, hold it under
+the swarm, and shake the bees into it, preparatory to transferring them
+into a frame-hive already prepared for their reception. The process of
+hiving a swarm is very simple and need not occupy many moments of time
+under ordinary conditions, but so many unlooked-for contingencies may
+arise that the apiarist would do well to prepare himself beforehand by
+carefully reading the directions in his text-book.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Honeycomb, Metamorphoses of the Honey Bee.
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical_.)]
+
+The illustration given in fig. 25 will serve more readily than words to
+enlighten the would-be bee-keeper. It shows a portion of honeycomb
+(natural size) not precisely as it appears when the frame containing it
+is lifted out of the hive, but as would be seen on two or more combs in
+the same hive, namely, the various cells built for--and occupied
+by--queens, drones and workers; also the larvae or grubs in the various
+stages of transformation from egg to perfect insect, with the latter
+biting their way out of sealed cells. It also shows sealed honey and
+pollen in cells, &c. To familiarize himself with the various objects
+depicted, all of which are drawn from nature, will not only help the
+reader to understand the different phases of bee-life during the
+swarming season, but tend to increase the interest of beginners in the
+pursuit. "Early drones, early swarms" was the ancient bee-man's
+favourite adage, and the skilled apiarist of to-day experiences the
+same pleasurable thrill as did the skeppist of old at the sight of the
+first drone of the year, which betokens an early swarm. As the drones
+increase in number queen-cells are formed, unless steps be taken to turn
+aside the swarming impulse by affording additional room beforehand in
+the hive. The above brief outline of the guiding principles of natural
+swarming is merely intended as introductory to the fuller information
+given in a good text-book.
+
+
+  Bee-forage in U.S.A.
+
+_Management of an Apiary._--The main consideration in establishing an
+apiary is to secure a favourable location, which means a place where
+honey of good marketable quality may be gathered from the bee-forage
+growing around without any planting on the part of the bee-keeper
+himself. It is impossible to deal here with the varying conditions under
+which apiculture is carried on in all parts of the world, but, as a
+rule, the same principle applies everywhere. The bee industry prospers
+greatly in America, where amid the vast stretches of mountain and canyon
+in California the bee-forage extends for miles without a break, and the
+climatic conditions are so generally favourable as to reduce to a
+minimum the chances of the honey crop failing through adverse weather.
+
+The bee-keeper's object is to utilize to the utmost the brief space of a
+worker-bee's life in summer, by adopting the best methods in vogue for
+building up stocks to full strength before the honey-gathering time
+begins, and preparing for it by the exercise of skill and intelligence
+in carrying out this work.
+
+
+  Value of pollen.
+
+  The queen of bee-plants.
+
+In the United Kingdom there is a difference of several weeks in the
+honey season between north and south. Swarming usually begins in May in
+the south of England, and in mid-July in the north of Scotland, the
+issue of swarms coinciding with the early part of the main honey flow.
+The weather is naturally more precarious in autumn than earlier in the
+year, and chances of success proportionately smaller for northern
+bee-men, but the disadvantage to the latter is more than compensated for
+by the heather season, which extends well into September. With regard to
+the British bee-keeper located in the south, the early fruit crop is
+what concerns him most, and where pollen (the fertilizing dust of
+flowers) is plentiful his bees will make steady progress. If pollen is
+scarce, a substitute in the form of either pea-meal or wheaten flour
+must be supplied to the bees, as brood-rearing cannot make headway
+without the nitrogenous element indispensable in the food on which the
+young are reared. But the main honey-crop of both north and south is
+gathered from the various trifoliums, among which the white Dutch or
+common clover (_Trifolium repens_) is acknowledged to be the most
+important honey-producing plant wherever it grows. In the United States,
+Canada, Australia, New Zealand and in many other parts of the world
+honey of the finest quality is obtained from this "queen of bee-plants,"
+and in lesser degree from other clovers such as sainfoin, alsike (a
+hybrid clover), trefoil, &c.
+
+
+  British and American methods.
+
+Before undertaking the management of a modern apiary, the bee-keeper
+should possess a certain amount of aptitude for the pursuit, without
+which it is hardly possible to succeed. He must also acquire the ability
+to handle bees judiciously and well under all imaginable conditions. In
+doing this it is needful to remember that bees resent outside
+interference with either their work or their hives, and will resolutely
+defend themselves when aroused even at the cost of life itself.
+Experience has also proved that, when alarmed, bees instinctively begin
+to fill their honey-sacs with food from the nearest store-cells as a
+safeguard against contingencies, and when so provided they are more
+amenable to interference. The bee-keeper, therefore, by the judicious
+application of a little smoke from smouldering fuel, blown into the hive
+by means of an appliance known as a bee-smoker, alarms the bees and is
+thus able to manipulate the frames of comb with ease and almost no
+disturbance. The smoker (fig. 26) devised by T.F. Bingham of Farwell,
+Michigan, U.S.A., is the one most used in America and in the United
+Kingdom. No other protection is needed beyond a bee-veil of fine black
+net, which slipped over a wide-brimmed straw hat protects the face from
+stings when working among bees; as experience is gained the veil is not
+always used. The man who is hasty and nervous in temperament, who fears
+an occasional sting, and resents the same by viciously killing the bee
+that inflicts it will rarely make a good apiarist. The methods of
+handling bees vary in different countries, this being in a great measure
+accounted for by the number of hives kept. Very few apiaries in the
+United Kingdom contain more than a hundred hives; consequently the
+British bee-keeper has no need for employing the forceful or "hustling"
+methods found necessary in America, where the honey-crop is gathered in
+car-loads and the hives numbered by thousands. It naturally follows that
+bee-life is there regarded very slightly by comparison, and the
+bee-garden in England becomes the "bee-yard" in America, where the
+apiarist when at work must thoroughly protect himself from being stung,
+and, safe in his immunity from damage, cares little for bee-life in
+getting through his task, the loss of a few hundred bees being
+considered of no account. There are, however, other reasons, apart from
+humanity, to account for the difference in handling bees as advocated in
+the United Kingdom. The great majority of apiaries owned by British
+bee-keepers are located in close proximity to neighbours; consequently a
+serious upset among the bees would in many cases involve an amount of
+trouble which should if possible be avoided; therefore quietness and the
+exercise of care when manipulating are always recommended by teachers,
+and practised by those who wisely take their lessons to heart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Bee-Smoker.
+
+(Redrawn from the _A B C of Bee-Culture_, published by the A.I. Root Co,
+Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)
+
+
+  Chosing a location.
+
+  Bee-keeping for profit.
+
+Having made himself proficient in practical bee-work and chosen a
+suitable location for his apiary, the bee-keeper should carefully select
+the particular type of hive most suited to his means and requirements.
+This point settled, uniformity is secured, and all loose parts of the
+hives being interchangeable time will be saved during the busy season
+when time means money. Beginning with not too many stocks he can test
+the capabilities of his location before investing much capital in the
+undertaking, so that by utilizing the information already given and
+adopting the wise adage "make haste slowly" he will realize in good time
+whether it will pay best to work for honey in comb or extracted honey in
+bulk; not only so, but the knowledge gained will enable him to select
+such appliances as are suited to his needs. As a rule, it may be said
+that the man content to start with an apiary of moderate size--say fifty
+stocks--may realize a fair profit from comb-honey only; but so limited a
+venture would need to be supplemented by some other means before an
+adequate income could be secured. On the other hand, the owner of one or
+two hundred colonies would find it more lucrative to work for extracted
+honey and send it out to wholesale buyers in that form. By so doing a
+far greater weight of surplus per hive may be secured, and extracted
+honey will keep in good condition for years, while comb-honey must be
+sold before granulation sets in. At the same time it is but fair to say
+that bee-culture in the United Kingdom, if limited to honey-production
+alone, is not sufficiently safe for entire reliance to be placed on it
+for obtaining a livelihood. The uncertain climate renders it necessary
+to include either other branches of the craft less dependent on warmth
+and sunshine, or to combine it with fruit-growing, poultry-rearing, &c.
+Under such conditions the bees will usually occupy a good position in
+the balance-sheet.
+
+
+  Need of forethought.
+
+Another indispensable feature of good bee-management is "forethought,"
+coupled with order and neatness; the rule of "a place for everything
+and everything in its place" prepares the bee-keeper for any emergency;
+constant watchfulness is also necessary, not only to guard against
+disease in his hives, but to overlook nothing that tends to be of
+advantage to the bees at all seasons. Among the many ways of saving time
+nothing is more useful than a carefully-kept note-book, wherein are
+recorded brief memoranda regarding such items as condition of each stock
+when packed for winter, amount of stores, age and prolific capacity of
+queen, strength of colony, healthiness or otherwise, &c., all of which
+particulars should be noted and the hives to which they refer plainly
+numbered. It also enables the bee-keeper to arrange his day's work
+indoors while avoiding disturbance to such colonies as do not need
+interference. In the early spring stores must be seen to and replenished
+where required; breeding stimulated when pollen begins to be gathered,
+and appliances cleaned and prepared for use during the busy season.
+
+
+  Length of bee season.
+
+  Swarm prevention.
+
+The main honey-gathering time (lasting about six or seven weeks) is so
+brief that in no pursuit is it more important to "make hay while the sun
+shines," and if the bee-keeper needs a reminder of this truism he surely
+has it in the example set by his bees. As the season advances and the
+flowers yield nectar more freely, visible signs of comb-building will be
+observed in the whitened edges of empty cells in the brood-chambers; the
+thoughtful workers are lengthening out the cells for honey-storing, and
+the bee-master takes the hint by giving room in advance, thus lessening
+the chance of undesired swarms. In other words, order and method,
+combined with the habit of taking time by the forelock, are absolutely
+necessary to the bee-keeper, seeing that the enormous army of workers
+under his control is multiplying daily by scores of thousands. As spring
+merges into summer, sunny days become more frequent; the ever-increasing
+breadth of bee-forage yields still more abundantly, and the excitement
+among the labourers crowding the hives increases, rendering room in
+advance, shade and ventilation, a _sine qua non_. It requires a level
+head to keep cool amongst a couple of hundred strong stocks of bees on a
+hot summer's day in a good honey season. Moreover, it will be too late
+to think of giving ventilation at noontide, when the temperature has
+risen to 80 deg. F. in the shade; the necessary precautions for swarm
+prevention must therefore be taken in advance, for when what is known as
+the "swarming fever" once starts it is most difficult to overcome.
+
+The well-read and intelligent bee-keeper, content to work on orthodox
+lines, will be able to manage an apiary--large or small--by guiding and
+controlling the countless army he commands in a way that will yield him
+both pleasure and profit. All he needs is good bee weather and an apiary
+free from disease to make him appreciate bee-craft as one of the most
+remunerative of rural industries; affording a wholesome open-air life
+conducive to good health and yielding an abundance of contentment.
+
+_Diseases of Bees._--It is quite natural that bees living in colonies
+should be subject to diseases, and only since the introduction of
+movable-comb hives has it been possible to learn something about these
+ailments. The most serious disease with which the bee-keeper has to
+contend is that commonly known as "bee-pest" or "foul brood," so called
+because of the young brood dying and rotting in the cells. This disease
+has been known from the earliest ages, and is probably the same as that
+designated by Pliny as _blapsigonia (Natural History_, bk. xi. ch. xx.).
+Coming to later times, Della Rocca minutely describes a disease to which
+bees were subject in the island of Syra, between the years 1777 and
+1780, and through which nearly every colony in the island perished. From
+the description given it was undoubtedly foul brood, and the bee-keepers
+of the island became convinced, after bitter experience, that it was
+extremely contagious. Schirach also mentioned and described the disease
+in 1769, and was the first to give it the name of "foul brood." Still
+later, in 1874, Dr Cohn, after the most exhaustive experiments and
+bacteriological research, realized that the disease was caused by a
+bacillus, and--nine years later--the name _Bacillus alvei_ was given to
+it by Cheyne and Cheshire, whose views were in agreement with those of
+Dr Cohn.
+
+The illustration (fig. 27) shows a portion of comb affected with foul
+brood in its worst form. The sealed cells are dark-coloured and sunken,
+pierced with irregular holes, and the larvae in all stages from the
+crescent-shaped healthy condition to that in which the dead larvae are
+seen lying at the bottom of the cells, flaccid and shapeless. The
+remains then change to buff colour, afterwards turning brown, when
+decomposition sets in, and as the bacilli present in the dead larvae
+increase and the nutrient matter is consumed, the mass in some cases
+becomes sticky and ropy in character, making its removal impossible by
+the bees. In course of time it dries up, leaving nothing but a brown
+scale adhering to the bottom or side of the cell. In the worst cases the
+larvae even die after the cells are sealed over; a strong characteristic
+and offensive odour being developed in some phases of the disease,
+noticeable at times some distance away from the hive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Foul Brood (_Bacillus alvei_).
+
+(From Cheshire's _Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical._)]
+
+Two forms of foul brood have been long known, one foul smelling, the
+other odourless; and investigations made during 1906 and 1907 showed that
+the etiology of the disease is not by any means simple, but that it is
+produced by different microbes, two others in addition to _Bacillus
+alvei_ playing an important part. These are _Bacillus brandenburgiensis_,
+Maassen (syn. _B. burri_, Burri: _B. larvae_, white), and _Streptococcus
+apis_, Maassen (syn. _B. Guntheri_, Burri). The first two are found in
+both forms of foul brood, whereas the last is only present with _B.
+alvei_ in the strong-smelling form of the disease, in which the larvae
+are attacked prior to the cells being sealed over.
+
+The brood of bees, when healthy, lies in the combs in compact masses,
+the larvae being plump and of a pearly whiteness, and when quite young
+curled up on their sides at the base of the cells. When attacked by the
+disease, the larva moves uneasily, stretches itself out lengthwise in
+the cell, and finally becomes loose and flabby, an appearance which
+plainly indicates death.
+
+When the disease attacks the larvae before they are sealed over
+_Bacillus alvei_ is present, usually associated with _Streptococcus
+apis_, which latter imparts a sour smell to the dead brood. In cases
+where the disease is odourless the larvae are attacked after the cells
+are sealed over, and just before they change to pupae, when they become
+slimy, sputum-like masses, difficult to remove from the cells. Under
+these conditions _Bacillus brandenburgiensis_ is found, although
+_Bacillus alvei_ may also be present. The two bacilli are antagonistic,
+each striving for supremacy, first one then the other predominating.
+Various other microbes are also present in large numbers, but are not
+believed to be pathogenic or disease-producing in character.
+
+It is, therefore, seen that at least three different microbes play an
+important part in the same disease. The danger of contagion lies in the
+wonderful vitality of the spores, and their great resistance to heat and
+cold. Dr Maassen records a case where he had no difficulty in obtaining
+cultures from spores removed from combs after being kept dry for twenty
+years. It should be borne in mind that the disease is much easier to
+cure in the earlier stages while the bacilli are still rod-shaped than
+when the rods have turned to spores.
+
+Since the bacterial origin of foul brood has been established, the
+efforts of some bacteriologists have been employed in finding a simple
+remedy by means of which the disease may be checked in its earliest
+stages, and in this an appreciable amount of success has been attained.
+Nor has foul brood in its more advanced forms been neglected, all
+directions for treatment being found in text-books written by
+distinguished writers on apiculture in the United Kingdom, America and
+throughout the European continent.
+
+The only other disease to which reference need be made here is
+dysentery, which sometimes breaks out after the long confinement bees
+are compelled to undergo during severe winters. This trouble may be
+guarded against by feeding the bees in the early autumn with good food
+made from cane sugar, and housing them in well-ventilated hives kept
+warm and dry by suitable coverings. When bees are wintered on thin,
+watery food not sealed over, and are unable for months to take cleansing
+flights, they become weak and involuntarily discharge their excrement
+over the combs and hive, a state of things never seen in a healthy
+colony under normal conditions. The stocks of bee-keepers who attend to
+the instructions given in text-books are rarely visited by this disease.
+
+The above embraces all that is necessary to be said in relation to
+diseases, though bees have been subject to other ailments such as
+paralysis, constipation, &c.
+
+In the Isle of Wight a serious epidemic broke out in 1906 which caused
+great destruction to bee-life in the following year. The malady was of
+an obscure character, but its cause has been under investigation by the
+British Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, and by European
+bacteriologists in 1908.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Though in modern times a great deal has appeared in the
+  daily newspapers on the subject, it is a notable fact that not a tithe
+  of the wonderful things published in such articles about bees and
+  bee-keeping is worthy of credence or possesses any real value. Indeed,
+  a pressman possessing any technical knowledge of the subject--beyond
+  that obtainable from books--would be a _rara avis_. The account given
+  above is the result of forty years' practical experience with bees in
+  England, the writer having for a great portion of the time been
+  connected editorially with the only two papers in that country
+  entirely devoted to bees and bee-keeping, _The British Bee Journal_
+  (weekly, founded 1873), and _Bee-keepers' Record_ (monthly, founded
+  1882), the former being the only weekly journal in the world. The
+  following books on the subject may be consulted for further
+  details:--Francois Huber, _New Observations on the Natural History of
+  Bees_; T.W. Cowan, _British Bee-keepers' Guide-Book, The Honey Bee,
+  its Natural History, Anatomy and Physiology; Langstroth on the Honey
+  Bee_, revised by C. Dadant & Son; A.I. Root, _A B C and X Y Z of
+  Bee-culture_; F.R. Cheshire, _Bees and Bee-keeping_; Dr Dzierzon,
+  _Rational Bee-keeping_; E. Bertrand, _Conduite du rucher_; A.J. Cook,
+  _Manual of the Apiary_; Dr C.C. Miller, _Forty Years among the Bees_;
+  F.W.L. Sladen, _Queen-rearing in England_; S. Simmins, _A Modern Bee
+  Farm_.     (W. B. Ca.)
+
+
+
+
+BEECH, a well-known tree, _Fagus sylvatica_, a member of the order
+Fagaceae to which belong the sweet-chestnut (_Castanea_) and oak. The
+name beech is from the Anglo-Saxon _boc, bece_ or _beoce_ (Ger. _Buche_,
+Swedish, _bok_), words meaning at once a book and a beech-tree. The
+connexion of the beech with the graphic arts is supposed to have
+originated in the fact that the ancient Runic tablets were formed of
+thin boards of beech-wood. "The origin of the word," says Prior
+(_Popular Names of British Plants_), "is identical with that of the
+Sanskrit _boko_, letter, _bokos_, writings; and this correspondence of
+the Indian and our own is interesting as evidence of two things, viz.
+that the Brahmins had the art of writing before they detached themselves
+from the common stock of the Indo-European race in Upper Asia, and that
+we and other Germans have received alphabetic signs from the East by a
+northern route and not by the Mediterranean." Beech-mast, the fruit of
+the beech-tree, was formerly known in England as buck; and the county of
+Buckingham is so named from its fame as a beech-growing country.
+Buckwheat (_Bucheweizen_) derives its name from the similarity of its
+angular seeds to beech-mast. The generic name Fagus is derived from
+[Greek: phagein] to eat; but the [Greek: phaegos] of Theophrastus was
+probably the sweet chestnut (_Aesculus_) of the Romans. Beech-mast has
+been used as food in times of distress and famine; and in autumn it
+yields an abundant supply of food to park-deer and other game, and to
+pigs, which are turned into beech-woods in order to utilize the fallen
+mast. In France it is used for feeding pheasants and domestic poultry.
+Well-ripened beech-mast yields from 17 to 20% of non-drying oil,
+suitable for illumination, and said to be used in some parts of France
+and other European countries in cooking, and as a substitute for butter.
+
+The beech is one of the largest British trees, particularly on chalky or
+sandy soils, native in England from Yorkshire southwards, and planted in
+Scotland and Ireland. It is one of the common forest trees of temperate
+Europe, spreading from southern Norway and Sweden to the Mediterranean.
+It is found on the Swiss Alps to about 5000 ft. above sea-level, and in
+southern Europe is usually confined to high mountain slopes; it is
+plentiful in southern Russia, and is widely distributed in Asia Minor
+and the northern provinces of Persia.
+
+It is characterized by its sturdy pillar-like stem, often from 15 to 20
+ft. in girth, and smooth olive-grey bark. The main branches rise
+vertically, while the subsidiary branches spread outwards and give the
+whole tree a rounded outline. The slender brown pointed buds give place
+in April to clear green leaves fringed with delicate silky hairs. The
+flowers which appear in May are inconspicuous and, as usual with our
+forest trees, of two kinds; the male, in long-stalked globular clusters,
+hang from the axils of the lower leaves of a shoot, while the female,
+each of two or three flowers in a tiny cup (cupule of bracts), stand
+erect nearer the top of the shoot. In the ripe fruit or mast the
+four-sided cupule, which has become much enlarged, brown and tough,
+encloses two or three three-sided rich chestnut-brown fruits, each
+containing a single seed. It is readily propagated by its seeds. It is a
+handsome tree in every stage of its growth, but is more injurious to
+plants under its drip than other trees, so that shade-bearing trees, as
+holly, yew and thuja, suffer. Its leaves, however, enrich the soil. The
+beech has a remarkable power of holding the ground where the soil is
+congenial, and the deep shade prevents the growth of other trees. It is
+often and most usefully mixed with oak and Scotch fir. The timber is not
+remarkable for either strength or durability. It was formerly much used
+in mill-work and turnery; but its principal use at present is in the
+manufacture of chairs, bedsteads and a variety of minor articles. It
+makes excellent fuel and charcoal. The copper-beech is a variety with
+copper-coloured leaves, due to the presence of a red colouring-matter in
+the sap. There is also a weeping or pendulous-branched variety; and
+several varieties with more or less cut leaves, are known in
+cultivation.
+
+The genus _Fagus_ is widely spread in temperate regions, and contains in
+addition to our native beech, about 15 other species. A variety (_F.
+sylvatica_ var. _Sieboldi_) is a native of Japan, where it is one of the
+finest and most abundant of the deciduous-leaved forest trees. _Fagus
+americana_ is one of the most beautiful and widely-distributed trees of
+the forests of eastern North America. It was confounded by early
+European travellers with _F. sylvatica_, from which it is distinguished
+by its paler bark and lighter green, more sharply-toothed leaves.
+Several species are found in Australia and New Zealand, and in the
+forests of southern Chile and Patagonia. The dense forests which cover
+the shore of the Straits of Magellan and the mountain-slopes of Tierra
+del Fuego consist largely of two beeches--one evergreen, _Fagus
+betuloides_, and one with deciduous leaves, _F. antarctica_.
+
+
+
+
+BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON (1856-1904), American palaeontologist, was born
+at Dunkirk, New York, on the 9th of October 1856. He graduated at the
+university of Michigan in 1878, and then became assistant to James Hall
+in the state museum at Albany. Ten years later he was appointed to the
+charge of the invertebrate fossils in the Peabody Museum, New Haven,
+under O.C. Marsh, whom he succeeded in 1899 as curator. Meanwhile in
+1889 he received the degree of Ph.D. from Yale University for his memoir
+on the _Brachiospongidae_, a remarkable group of Silurian sponges;
+later on he did good work among the fossil corals, and other groups,
+being ultimately regarded as a leading authority on fossil crustacea and
+brachiopoda; his researches on the development of the brachiopoda, and
+on the Trilobites _Triarthrus_ and _Trinudeus_, were especially
+noteworthy. In 1892 he was appointed professor of palaeontology in Yale
+University. He died on the 14th of February 1904.
+
+  Memoir by C. Schuchert in _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xvii., June
+  1904 (with portrait and bibliography).
+
+
+
+
+BEECHER, HENRY WARD (1813-1887), American preacher and reformer, was
+born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 24th of June 1813. He was the
+eighth child of Lyman and Roxana Foote Beecher, and brother of Harriet
+Beecher Stowe. Entering Amherst College in 1830, and graduating four
+years later, he gave more attention to his own courses of reading than
+to college studies, and was more popular with his fellows than with the
+faculty. With a patience foreign to his impulsive nature, he submitted
+to minute drill in elocution, and became a fluent extemporaneous
+speaker. Reared in a Puritan atmosphere, he has graphically described
+the mystical experience which, coming to him in his early youth, changed
+his whole conception of theology and determined his choice of the
+ministry. "I think," he says, "that when I stand in Zion and before God,
+the highest thing that I shall look back upon will be that blessed
+morning of May when it pleased God to reveal to my wondering soul the
+idea that it was His nature to love a man in his sins for the sake of
+helping him out of them." In 1837 he graduated from Lane Theological
+Seminary in Ohio, of which his father was president, and entered upon
+his work as pastor of a missionary Presbyterian church at Lawrenceburg,
+Indiana, a village on the Ohio, about 20 m. below Cincinnati. The
+membership numbered nineteen women and one man. Beecher was sexton as
+well as preacher. Two years later he accepted a call to Indianapolis.
+His unconventional preaching shocked the more staid members of the
+flock, but filled the church to overflowing with people unaccustomed to
+churchgoing. He studied men rather than books; became acquainted with
+the vices in what was then a pioneer town; and in his _Seven Lectures to
+Young Men_ (1844) treated these with genuine power of realistic
+description and with youthful and exuberant rhetoric. Eight years later
+(1847) he accepted a call to the pastorate of Plymouth Church
+(Congregational), then newly organized in Brooklyn, New York. The
+situation of the church, within five minutes' walk of the chief ferry to
+New York, the stalwart character of the man who had organized it, and
+the peculiar eloquence of Beecher, combined to make the pulpit a
+national platform. The audience-room of the church, capable of seating
+2000 or 2500 people, frequently contained 500 or 1000 more.
+
+Beecher at once became a recognized leader. On the all-absorbing
+question of slavery he took a middle ground between the pro-slavery or
+peace party, and abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell
+Phillips, believing, with such statesmen as W.H. Seward, Salmon P.
+Chase, and Abraham Lincoln, that slavery was to be overthrown under the
+constitution and in the Union, by forbidding its growth and trusting to
+an awakened conscience, enforced by an enlightened self-interest. He was
+always an anti-slavery man, but never technically an abolitionist, and
+he joined the Republican party soon after its organization. In the
+earlier days of the agitation, he challenged the hostility which often
+mobbed the anti-slavery gatherings; in the later days he consulted with
+the political leaders, inspiring the patriotism of the North, and
+sedulously setting himself to create a public opinion which should
+confirm and ratify the emancipation proclamation whenever the president
+should issue it. When danger of foreign intervention cast its
+threatening shadow across the national path, he went to England, and by
+his famous addresses did what probably no other American could have done
+to strengthen the spirit in England favourable to the United States, and
+to convert that which was doubtful and hostile. In 1861-1863 he was the
+editor-in-chief of the _Independent_, then a Congregational journal; and
+in his editorials, copied far and wide, produced a profound impression
+on the public mind by clarifying and defining the issue. Later (in
+1870), he founded and became editor-in-chief of the _Christian Union_,
+afterwards the _Outlook_, a religious undenominational weekly. His
+lectures and addresses had the spirit if not the form of his sermons,
+just as his sermons were singularly free from the homiletical tone. Yet
+his work as a reformer was subsidiary to his work as a preacher. He was
+not indeed a parish pastor; he inspired church activities which grew to
+large proportions, but trusted the organization of them to laymen of
+organizing abilities in the church; and for acquaintance with his people
+he depended on such social occasions as were furnished in the free
+atmosphere of this essentially New England church at the close of every
+service. But during his pastorate the church grew to be probably the
+largest in membership in the United States.
+
+It was in the pulpit that Beecher was seen at his best. His mastery of
+the English tongue, his dramatic power, his instinctive art of
+impersonation, which had become a second nature, his vivid imagination,
+his breadth of intellectual view, the catholicity of his sympathies, his
+passionate enthusiasm, which made for the moment his immediate theme
+seem to him the one theme of transcendent importance, his quaint humour
+alternating with genuine pathos, and above all his simple and singularly
+unaffected devotional nature, made him as a preacher without a peer in
+his own time and country. His favourite theme was love: love to man was
+to him the fulfilment of all law; love of God was the essence of all
+Christianity. Retaining to the day of his death the forms and phrases of
+the New England theology in which he had been reared, he poured into
+them a new meaning and gave to them a new significance. He probably did
+more than any other man in America to lead the Puritan churches from a
+faith which regarded God as a moral governor, the Bible as a book of
+laws, and religion as obedience to a conscience to a faith which regards
+God as a father, the Bible as a book of counsels, and religion as a life
+of liberty in love. The later years of his life were darkened by a
+scandal which Beecher's personal, political and theological enemies used
+for a time effectively to shadow a reputation previously above reproach,
+he being charged by Theodore Tilton, whom he had befriended, with having
+had improper relations with his (Tilton's) wife. But in the midst of
+these accusations (February 1876), the largest and most representative
+Congregational council ever held in the United States gave expression to
+a vote of confidence in him, which time has absolutely justified. Not a
+student of books nor a technical scholar in any department, Beecher's
+knowledge was as wide as his interests were varied. He was early
+familiar with the works of Matthew Arnold, Charles Darwin and Herbert
+Spencer; he preached his _Bible Studies_ sermons in 1878, when the
+higher criticism was wholly unknown to most evangelical ministers or
+known only to be dreaded; and his sermons on _Evolution and Religion_ in
+1885, when many of the ministry were denouncing evolution as atheistic.
+He was stricken with apoplexy while still active in the ministry, and
+died at Brooklyn on the 8th of March 1887, in the seventy-fourth year of
+his age.
+
+  The principal books by Beecher, besides his published sermons, are:
+  _Seven Lectures to Young Men_ (1844); _Plymouth Collection of Hymns
+  and Tunes_ (1855); _Star Papers, Experiences of Art and Nature_
+  (1855); _Life Thoughts_ (1858); _New Star Papers; or Views and
+  Experiences of Religious Subjects_ (1859); _Plain and Pleasant Talks
+  about Fruits, Flowers, and Farming_ (1859); _American Rebellion,
+  Report of Speeches delivered in England at Public Meetings in
+  Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and London_ (1864);
+  _Prayers from Plymouth Pulpit_ (1867); _Norwood: A Tale of Village
+  Life in New England_ (1867); _The Life of Jesus the Christ_ (1871),
+  completed in 2 vols. by his sons (1891); and _Yale Lectures on
+  Preaching_ (3 vols., 1872-1874).
+
+  The prinipal lives are: Noyes L. Thompson, _The History of Plymouth
+  Church_ (1847-1872); Thomas W. Knox, _The Life and Work of Henry Ward
+  Beecher_ (Hartford, Conn., 1887); Frank S. Child, _The Boyhood of
+  Henry Ward Beecher_ (Pamphlet, New Creston, Conn., 1887); Joseph
+  Howard, Jr., _Life of Henry Ward Beecher_ (Philadelphia, 1887); T.W.
+  Hanford, _Beecher: Christian Philosopher, Pulpit Orator, Patriot and
+  Philanthropist_ (Chicago, 1887); Lyman Abbott and S.B. Halliday,
+  _Henry Ward Beecher: A Sketch of his Career_ (New York, 1887); William
+  C. Beecher, Rev. Samuel Scoville and Mrs. H.W. Beecher, _A Biography
+  of Henry Ward Beecher_ (New York, 1888); John R. Howard, _Henry Ward
+  Beecher: A Study_ (1891); John Henry Barrows, _Henry Ward Beecher_
+  (New York, 1893); and Lyman Abbott, _Henry Ward Beecher_ (Boston,
+  1903).     (L. A.)
+
+
+
+
+BEECHER, LYMAN (1775-1863), American clergyman, was born at New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 12th of October 1775. He was a descendant of one of
+the founders of the New Haven colony, worked as a boy in an uncle's
+blacksmith shop and on his farm, and in 1797 graduated from Yale, having
+studied theology under Timothy Dwight. He preached in the Presbyterian
+church at East Hampton, Long Island (1798-1810, being ordained in 1799);
+in the Congregational church at Litchfield, Connecticut (1810-1826), in
+the Hanover Street church of Boston (1826-1832), and in the Second
+Presbyterian church of Cincinnati, Ohio (1833-1843); was president of
+the newly established Lane Theological Seminary at Walnut Hills,
+Cincinnati, and was professor of didactic and polemic theology there
+(1832-1850), being professor emeritus until his death. At Litchfield and
+in Boston he was a prominent opponent of the growing "heresy" of
+Unitarianism, though as early as 1836 he was accused of being a
+"moderate Calvinist" and was tried for heresy, but was acquitted. Upon
+his resignation from Lane Theological Seminary he lived in Boston for a
+short time, devoting himself to literature; but he broke down, and the
+last ten years of his life were spent at the home of his son, Henry Ward
+Beecher, in Brooklyn, New York, where he died on the both of January
+1863. Magnetic in personality, incisive and powerful in manner of
+expression, he was in his prime one of the most eloquent of American
+pulpit orators. In 1806 he preached a widely circulated sermon on
+duelling, and about 1814 a series of six sermons on intemperance, which
+were reprinted frequently and greatly aided temperance reform. Thrice
+married, he had a large family, his seven sons becoming Congregational
+clergymen, and his daughters, Harriet Beecher Stowe (q.v.) and Catherine
+Esther Beecher, attaining literary distinction.
+
+  Lyman Beecher's published works include: _A Plea for the West_ (1835),
+  _Views in Theology_ (1836), and various sermons; his _Collected Works_
+  were published at Boston in 1852 in 3 vols. Consult his _Autobiography
+  and Correspondence_ (2 vols., New York, 1863-1864), edited by his son
+  Charles; D.H. Alien, _Life and Services of Lyman Beecher_ (Cincinnati,
+  1863); and James C. White, _Personal Reminiscences of Lyman Beecher_
+  (New York, 1882).
+
+His daughter, CATHERINE ESTHER (1800-1878), was born at East Hampton,
+Long Island, on the 6th of September 1800. She was educated at
+Litchfield Seminary, and from 1822 to 1832 conducted a school for girls
+at Hartford, Connecticut, with her sister Harriet's assistance, and from
+1832 to 1834 conducted a similar school in Cincinnati. She wrote and
+lectured on women's education and in behalf of better primary schools,
+and radically opposed woman suffrage and college education for women,
+holding woman's sphere to be domestic. The National Board of Popular
+Education, a charitable society which she founded, sent hundreds of
+women as teachers into the South and West. She died on the 12th of May
+1878 in Elmira, New York. She published _An Essay on Slavery and
+Abolition with Reference to the Duty of American Females_ (1837), _A
+Treatise on Domestic Economy_ (1842), _The True Remedy for the Wrongs of
+Women_ (1851), _Letters to the People on Health and Happiness_ (1855),
+_The Religious Training of Children_ (1864), and _Woman's Profession as
+Mother and Educator_ (1871).
+
+His son, EDWARD BEECHER (1803-1895), was born at East Hampton, Long
+Island, on the 27th of August 1803, graduated at Yale in 1822, studied
+theology at Andover, and in 1826 became pastor of the Park Street church
+in Boston. From 1830 to 1844 he was president of Illinois College,
+Jacksonville, Illinois, and subsequently filled pastorates at the Salem
+Street church, Boston (1844-1855), and the Congregational church at
+Galesburg, Illinois (1855-1871). He was senior editor of the
+_Congregationalist_ (1849-1855), and an associate editor of the
+_Christian Union_ from 1870. In 1872 he settled in Brooklyn, New York,
+where in 1885-1889 he was pastor of the Parkville church and where he
+died on the 28th of July 1895. He wrote _Addresses on the Kingdom of
+God_ (1827), _History of the Alton Riots_ (1837), _Statement of
+Anti-Slavery Principles_ (1837), _Baptism, its Import and Modes_ (1850),
+_The Conflict of Ages_ (1853), _The Papal Conspiracy Exposed_ (1855),
+_The Concord of Ages_ (1860), and _History of Opinions on the Scriptural
+Doctrine of Future Retribution_ (1878).
+
+CHARLES BEECHER (1815-1900), another of Lyman's sons, was born at
+Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 7th of October 1815. He graduated at
+Bowdoin College in 1834, and subsequently held pastorates at Newark, New
+Jersey (1851-1857), and Georgetown, Massachusetts; and from 1870 to 1877
+lived in Florida, where he was state superintendent of public
+instruction in 1871-1873. He died at Georgetown, Massachusetts, on the
+21st of April 1900. He was an accomplished musician, and assisted in the
+selection and arrangement of music in the _Plymouth Collection of Hymns
+and Tunes_. He wrote _David and His Throne_ (1855), _Pen Pictures of the
+Bible_ (1855), _Redeemer and Redeemed_ (1864), and _Spiritual
+Manifestations_ (1879).
+
+THOMAS KINNICUTT BEECHER (1824-1900), another son, born at Litchfield,
+Connecticut, on the 10th of February 1824, was pastor of the Independent
+Congregational church (now the Park church), at Elmira, New York, one of
+the first institutional churches in the country, from 1854 until his
+death at Elmira on the 14th of March 1900. He wrote Our _Seven Churches_
+(1870).
+
+
+
+
+BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1796-1856), English naval officer and
+geographer, son of Sir William Beechey, R.A., was born in London on the
+17th of February 1796. In 1806 he entered the navy, and saw active
+service during the wars with France and America. In 1818 he served under
+Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) John Franklin in Buchan's Arctic expedition,
+of which at a later period he published a narrative; and in the
+following year he accompanied Lieutenant W.E. Parry in the "Hecla." In
+1821 he took part in the survey of the Mediterranean coast of Africa
+under the direction of Captain, afterwards Admiral, William Henry Smyth.
+He and his brother Henry William Beechey, made an overland survey of
+this coast, and published a full account of their work in 1828 under the
+title of _Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of
+Africa from Tripoly Eastward in 1821-1822_. In 1825 Beechey was
+appointed to command the "Blossom," which was intended to explore Bering
+Strait, in concert with Franklin and Parry operating from the east. He
+passed the strait and penetrated as far as 71 deg. 23' 31" N., and 156
+deg. 21' 30" W., reaching a point only 146 m. west of that reached by
+Franklin's expedition from the Mackenzie river. The whole voyage lasted
+more than three years; and in the course of it Beechey discovered
+several islands in the Pacific, and an excellent harbour near Cape
+Prince of Wales. In 1831 there appeared his _Narrative of a Voyage to
+the Pacific and Bering's Strait to Co-operate with the Polar
+Expeditions, 1825-1828_. In 1835 and the following year Captain Beechey
+was employed on the coast survey of South America, and from 1837 to 1847
+carried on the same work along the Irish coasts. He was appointed in
+1850 to preside over the Marine Department of the Board of Trade. In
+1854 he was made rear-admiral, and in the following year was elected
+president of the Royal Geographical Society. He died on the 29th of
+November 1856.
+
+
+
+
+BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM (1753-1839), English portrait-painter, was born at
+Burford. He was originally meant for a conveyancer, but a strong love
+for painting induced him to become a pupil at the Royal Academy in 1772.
+Some of his smaller portraits gained him considerable reputation; he
+began to be employed by the nobility, and in 1793 became associate of
+the Academy. In the same year he was made portrait-painter to Queen
+Charlotte. He painted the portraits of the members of the royal family,
+and of nearly all the most famous or fashionable persons of the time.
+What is considered his finest production is a review of cavalry, a large
+composition, in the foreground of which he introduced portraits of
+George III., the prince of Wales and the duke of York, surrounded by a
+brilliant staff on horseback. It was painted in 1798, and obtained for
+the artist the honour of knighthood, and his election as R.A.
+
+
+
+
+BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES (1859-   ), English clergyman and author, was
+born on the 15th of May 1859, and educated at the City of London school
+and at Balliol College, Oxford. He took holy orders in 1882, and after
+three years in a Liverpool curacy he was for fifteen years rector of
+Yattendon, Berkshire. From 1900 to 1903 he lectured on pastoral and
+liturgical theology at King's College, London, and was chaplain of
+Lincoln's Inn, where he became preacher in 1903. He became a canon of
+Westminster in 1902, and examining chaplain to the bishop of Carlisle in
+1905. As a poet he is best known by his share in two volumes--_Love in
+Idleness_ (1883) and _Love's Looking Glass_ (1891)--which contained also
+poems by J.W. Mackail and J. Bowyer Nichols. He was a sympathetic editor
+and critic of the works of many 16th and 17th century poets, of Richard
+Crashaw (1905), of Herrick (1907), of John Milton (1900), of Henry
+Vaughan (1896). Under the pseudonym of "Urbanus Sylvan" he published two
+successful volumes of essays, _Pages from a Private Diary_ (1898) and
+_Provincial Letters and other Papers_ (1906). His works also include
+numerous volumes of sermons and essays on theological subjects.
+
+
+
+
+BEECHWORTH, a town of Bogong county, Victoria, Australia, 172 m. by rail
+N.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 7359. The town is the centre of the Ovens
+goldfields, and the district is mainly devoted to mining with both
+alluvial and reef working, but much of the land is under cultivation,
+yielding grain and fruit. The water supply is derived from Lake Kerferd
+in the vicinity, which is a favourite resort of visitors; the scenery
+near the town, which lies at an elevation of 1805 ft. among the May Day
+Hills, being singularly beautiful. The industries of Beechworth include
+tanning, ironfounding and coach-building.
+
+
+
+
+BEEF (through O. Fr. _boef_, mod. _boeuf_, from Lat. _bos, bovis_, ox,
+Gr. [Greek: bous], which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit
+_go, gaus_, ox, and thus with "cow"), the flesh of the ox, cow or bull,
+as used for food. The use of the French word for the meat, while the
+Saxon name was retained for the animal, has been often noticed, and
+paralleled with the use of veal, mutton and pork. "Beef" is also used,
+especially in the plural "beeves," for the ox itself, but usually in an
+archaic way. "Corned" or "corn" beef is the flesh cured by salting, i.e.
+sprinkling with "corns" or granulated particles of salt. "Collared" beef
+is so called from the roll or collar into which the meat is pressed,
+after extracting the bones. "Jerked" beef, i.e. meat cut into long thin
+slices and dried in the sun, like "biltong" (q.v.), comes through the
+Spanish-American _charque_, from _echarqui_, the Peruvian word for this
+species of preserved meat. For "Beefeater" see YEOMEN OF THE GUARD.
+
+
+
+
+BEEFSTEAK CLUB, the name of several clubs formed in London during the
+18th and 19th centuries. The first seems to have been that founded in
+1709 with Richard Estcourt, the actor, as steward. Of this the chief
+wits and great men of the nation were members and its badge was a
+gridiron. Its fame was, however, entirely eclipsed in 1735 when "The
+Sublime Society of Steaks" was established by John Rich at Covent Garden
+theatre, of which he was then manager. It is said that Lord Peterborough
+supping one night with Rich in his private room, was so delighted with
+the steak the latter grilled him that he suggested a repetition of the
+meal the next week. From this started the Club, the members of which
+delighted to call themselves "The Steaks." Among them were Hogarth,
+Garrick, Wilkes, Bubb Doddington and many other celebrities. The
+rendezvous was the theatre till the fire in 1808, when the club moved
+first to the Bedford Coffee House, and the next year to the Old Lyceum.
+In 1785 the prince of Wales joined, and later his brothers the dukes of
+Clarence and Sussex became members. On the burning of the Lyceum, "The
+Steaks" met again in the Bedford Coffee House till 1838, when the New
+Lyceum was opened, and a large room there was allotted the club. These
+meetings were held till the club ceased to exist in 1867. Thomas
+Sheridan founded a Beefsteak Club in Dublin at the Theatre Royal in
+1749, and of this Peg Woffington was president. The modern Beefsteak
+Club was founded by J.L. Toole, the actor, in 1876.
+
+  See J. Timbs, _Clubs and Club Life in London_ (1873); Walter Arnold,
+  _Life and Death of the Sublime Society of Steaks_ (1871).
+
+
+
+
+BEELZEBUB, BEELZEBUL, BAALZEBUB. In 2 Kings i. we read that Ahaziah ben
+Ahab, king of Israel, fell sick, and sent to inquire of Baalzebub, the
+god of the Philistine city Ekron, whether he should recover. There is no
+other mention of this god in the Old Testament. _Baal_, "lord," is the
+ordinary title or word for a deity, especially a local deity, cf. such
+place names as Baal Hazor (2 Sam. xiii. 23), Baal Hermon (Judges iii.
+3), which are probably contractions of fuller forms, like Beth Baal Meon
+(Josh. xiii. 17), the House or Temple of the Baal of Meon. According to
+these analogies we should expect _Zebub_ to be a place. No place
+_Zebub_, however, is known; and it has been objected that the Baal of
+some other place would hardly be the god of Ekron. These objections are
+hardly conclusive.
+
+Usually _Zebub_ is identified with a Hebrew common noun _zebub_ =
+flies,[1] occurring twice in the Old Testament,[2] so that Baalzebub "is
+the Baal to whom flies belong or are holy. As children of the summer
+they are symbols of the warmth of the sun, to which ... Baal stands in
+close relation. Divination by means of flies was known at Babylon."[3]
+There are other cases of names compounded of Baal and an element
+equivalent to a descriptive epithet, e.g. Baalgad, the Baal of
+Fortune.[4] For the "Fly-god," sometimes interpreted as the "averter of
+insects," cf [Greek: Zeus apomouios, muiagros], and the Hercules [Greek:
+muiagros]. Clemens Alexander speaks of a Hercules [Greek: apomuios] as
+worshipped at Rome. It has been suggested that Baalzebub was the
+dung-beetle, _Scarabaeus pillularius_, worshipped in Egypt.
+
+A name of a deity on an Assyrian inscription of the 12th century B.C.
+has been read as _Baal-zabubi_, but this reading has now been abandoned
+in favour of _Baal-sapunu_ (Baal-Zephon).[5] Cheyne considers that
+Baalzebub is a "contemptuous uneuphonic Jewish modification of the true
+name Baalzebul."[6]
+
+In the New Testament we meet with Beelzebul,[7] which some of the
+versions, especially the Vulgate and Syriac, followed by the Authorized
+Version, have changed to Beelzebub, under the influence of 2 Kings. In
+Matt. x. 25, Christ speaks of men calling the master of the house, i.e.
+Himself, Beelzebul.[8] In Mark iii 22-27,[9] the scribes explain that
+Jesus is possessed by Beelzebul[10] and is thus enabled to cast out
+devils. The passage speaks of Beelzebul as Satan and as the prince of
+the demons.
+
+The origin of the name Beelzebul is variously explained. (a) It is "a
+phonetic corruption, perhaps a softening of the original word"; as
+Bab-el-mandel is a corruption of Bab-el-mandeb. (b) _Zebul_ is from
+_zebel_, a word found in the Targums in the sense of "dung," so that
+Beelzebul would mean "Lord of Dung," a term of contempt. The further
+suggestion has been made that _zebul_ itself in the sense of "dung" is a
+term for a heathen deity, cf. the Old Testament use of "abomination" &c.
+for heathen deities, so that Beelzebul would mean "Chief of false gods,"
+and so arch-fiend. (c) _Zebul_ is found in 1 Kings viii. 13 in the sense
+of "height," _beth-sebul_--lofty house, and in Rabbinical writings in
+the sense of "house" or "temple," or "the fourth heaven";[11] and
+Beelzebul may equal "Lord of the High House" or "Lord of Heaven." This
+view is perhaps favoured by Matt. x. 25, "if they have called the lord
+of the house Beelzebul." It appears, however, that Rabbinical writings
+use _yom_ (day-of) _zebul_ for the festival of a heathen deity; and
+Jastrow connects this usage with the meaning "house" or "temple," so
+that the meaning "Lord of the False Gods" might be arrived at in a
+different way.
+
+The names _Zebulun, 'Izebel_ (Jezebel), suggest that _Zebul_ may be an
+ancient name of a deity; cf. the names [Hebrew: baal ezebel] (B'L 'ZBL),
+[Hebrew: shemzebel] (ShMZBL) in Punic and Phoenician inscriptions.[12]
+The substitution of Beelzebub for Beelzebul by the Syriac, Vulgate and
+other versions implies the identification of the New Testament
+arch-fiend with the god of Ekron; this substitution, however, may be due
+to the influence of the Aramaic _B'el-debaba_, "adversary," sometimes
+held to be the original of these names.
+
+There is no trace of Beelzebul or Beelzebub outside of the Biblical
+passages mentioned, and the literature dependent on them. If we assume a
+connexion between the two names, there is nothing to show how the god
+became in later times the devil.
+
+In _Paradise Lost_, Book ii., Beelzebub appears as second only to Satan
+himself.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lightfoot, _Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae_, Works, vol.
+  ii. pp. 188 f., 429, ed. Strype (1684); Baethgen, _Beitrage zur
+  semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, pp. 25, 65, 261. Commentaries on the
+  Biblical passages especially Burney and Skinner on _Kings_, Meyer and
+  A.B. Bruce on the _Synoptic Gospels_, and Swete on _Mark_. Articles on
+  "Baal," "Baalzebub," "Beelzebub," "Beelzebul," in Hastings' _Bible
+  Dict._, Black and Cheyne's _Encycl. Bibl._, and Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopadie_; on [Hebrew: baal zebub] in Clarendon Press _Hebr.
+  Lex._; and on [Hebrew: zebel] and [Hebrew: zebul] in Jastrow's _Dict.
+  of the Targumim, &c._     (W. H. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] So Clarendon Press, _Hebrew Lexicon_, p. 127, with LXX.
+
+  [2] Eccl. x. 1; Isaiah vii. 18.
+
+  [3] Baethgen, _Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, p. 25,
+    cf. pp. 65, 261.
+
+  [4] Josh, xii. 7.
+
+  [5] Art. "Baalzebub," Black and Cheyne's _Ency. Bibl._
+
+  [6] With various spellings (e.g. Belzebul, and in XB, Beezebul), all
+    variants of Beelzebul. Cf. Deissmann, _Bible Studies_, 332.
+
+  [7] There is a variation of reading, which has been held to support
+    the view that the passage means that men reproached Jesus with His
+    supposed connexion with Beelzebul; cf. A.B. Bruce, _in loco_.
+
+  [8] And in the parallel passages, Matt. xii. 22-29; Luke xi. 14-22.
+
+  [9] Cf. John vii. 20, viii. 48, 52, x. 20.
+
+  [10] Swete, _in loco_.
+
+  [11] Jastrow, _Dict. of the Targumim._ &c., sub voce.
+
+  [12] Lidzbarski, _Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik_, i. pp.
+    240, 377.
+
+
+
+
+BEER, a beverage obtained by a process of alcoholic fermentation mainly
+from cereals (chiefly malted barley), hops and water. The history of
+beer extends over several thousand years. According to Dr Bush, a beer
+made from malt or red barley is mentioned in Egyptian writings as early
+as the fourth dynasty. It was called [Hieroglyph] or _heqa_. Papyri of
+the time of Seti I. (1300 B.C.) allude to a person inebriated from
+over-indulgence in beer. In the second book (c. 77) of Herodotus (450
+B.C.) we are told that the Egyptians, being without vines, made wine
+from barley (cf. Aesch. _Suppl._ 954); but as the grape is mentioned so
+frequently in Scripture and elsewhere as being most abundant there, and
+no record exists of the vine being destroyed, we must conclude that the
+historian was only partially acquainted with the productions of that
+most fertile country. Pliny (_Natural History_, xxii. 82) informs us
+that the Egyptians made wine from corn, and gives it the name of
+_sythum_, which, in the Greek, means drink from barley. The Greeks
+obtained their knowledge of the art of preparing beer from the
+Egyptians. The writings of Archilochus, the Parian poet and satirist who
+flourished about 650 B.C., contain evidence that the Greeks of his day
+were acquainted with the process of brewing. There is, in fact, little
+doubt that the discovery of beer and its use as an exhilarating beverage
+were nearly as early as those of the grape itself, though both the
+Greeks and the Romans despised it as a barbarian drink. Dioscorides
+mentions two kinds of beer, namely [Greek: zythos] and [Greek: kourmi],
+but he does not describe them sufficiently to enable us to distinguish
+them. Sophocles and other Greek writers, again, styled it [Greek:
+bryton]. In the time of Tacitus (1st century after Christ), according to
+him, beer was the usual drink of the Germans, and there can be little
+doubt that the method of malting barley was then known to them. Pliny
+(_Nat. Hist._ xxii. 82) mentions the use of beer in Spain under the name
+of _celia_ and _ceria_ and in Gaul under that of _cerevisia_; and
+elsewhere (xiv. 29) he says:--"The natives who inhabit the west of
+Europe have a liquid with which they intoxicate themselves, made from
+corn and water. The manner of making this liquid is somewhat different
+in Gaul, Spain and other countries, and it is called by different names,
+but its nature and properties are everywhere the same. The people in
+Spain in particular brew this liquid so well that it will keep good a
+long time. So exquisite is the cunning of mankind in gratifying their
+vicious appetites that they have thus invented a method to make water
+itself produce intoxication."
+
+The knowledge of the preparation of a fermented beverage from cereals in
+early times was not confined to Europe. Thus, according to Dr H.H. Mann,
+the Kaffir races of South Africa have made for ages--and still make--a
+kind of beer from millet, and similarly the natives of Nubia, Abyssinia
+and other parts of Africa prepare an intoxicating beverage, generally
+called _bousa_, from a variety of cereal grains. The Russian _quass_,
+made from barley and rye, the Chinese _samshu_, made from rice, and the
+Japanese _sake_ (q.v.) are all of ancient origin. Roman historians
+mention the fact that the Britons in the south of England at the time of
+the Roman invasion brewed a species of ale from barley and wheat. The
+Romans much improved the methods of brewing in vogue among the Britons,
+and the Saxons--among whom ale had long been a common beverage--in their
+turn profited much by the instruction given to the original inhabitants
+of Great Britain by the Romans. We are informed by William of Malmesbury
+that in the reign of Henry II. the English were greatly addicted to
+drinking, and by that time the monasteries were already famous, both in
+England and on the continent, for the excellence of their ales. The
+waters of Burton-on-Trent began to be famous in the 13th century. The
+secret of their being so especially adapted for brewing was first
+discovered by some monks, who held land in the adjacent neighbourhood of
+Wetmore. There is a document dated 1295 in which it is stated that
+Matilda, daughter of Nicholas de Shoben, had re-leased to the abbot and
+convent of Burton-on-Trent certain tenements within and without the
+town; for which re-lease they granted her, daily for life, two white
+loaves from the monastery, two gallons of conventual beer, and one
+penny, besides seven gallons of beer for the men. The abbots of Burton
+apparently made their own malt, for it was a common covenant in leases
+of mills belonging to the abbey that the malt of the lords of the manor,
+both spiritual and temporal, should be ground free of charge. Robert
+Plot, in his _Natural History of Staffordshire_ (1686), refers to the
+peculiar properties of the Burton waters, from which, he says, "by an
+art well known in this country good ale is made, in the management of
+which they have a knack of fining it in three days to that degree that
+it shall not only be potable, but is clear and palatable as we could
+desire any drink of this kind to be." In 1630 Burton beer began to be
+known in London, being sold at "Ye Peacocke" in Gray's Inn Lane, and
+according to the _Spectator_ was in great demand amongst the visitors in
+Vauxhall. Until tea and coffee were introduced, beer and ale (see ALE)
+were, practically speaking, the only popular beverages accessible to the
+general body of consumers. Since the advent of tea, coffee, cocoa and
+mineral waters, the character of British beers has undergone a gradual
+modification, the strongly alcoholic, heavily hopped liquids consumed by
+the previous generation slowly giving place to the lighter beverages in
+vogue at the present time. The old "stock bitter" has given way to the
+"light dinner ale," and "porter" (so called from the fact that it was
+the popular drink amongst the market porters of the 18th century) has
+been largely replaced by "mild ale." A certain quantity of strong
+beer--such as heavy stouts and "stock" and "Scotch" ales--is still
+brewed nowadays, but it is not an increasing one. The demand is almost
+entirely for medium beers such as mild ale, light stout, and the better
+class of "bitter" beers, and light beers such as the light "family
+ales," "dinner ales" and lager.
+
+The general run of beers contain from 3 to 6% of alcohol and 4 to 7% of
+solids, the remainder being water and certain flavouring and
+preservative matters derived from the malt, hops and other materials
+employed in their manufacture. The solid, i.e. non-volatile, matter
+contained in solution in beer consists mainly of maltose or malt sugar,
+of several varieties of dextrin (see BREWING), of substances which stand
+in an intermediate position between the sugars and the dextrins proper,
+and of a number of bodies containing nitrogen, such as the
+non-coagulable proteids, peptones, &c. In addition there is an
+appreciable quantity of mineral matter, chiefly phosphates and potash.
+Dietetically regarded, therefore, beer possesses considerable food
+value, and, moreover, the nutritious matter in beer is present in a
+readily assimilable form.
+
+It is probable that the average adult member of the British working
+classes consumes not less than two pints of beer daily. A reasonable
+calculation places the total proteids and carbohydrates consumed by the
+average worker at 140 and 400 grammes respectively. Taking the proteid
+content of the average beer at 0.4% and the carbohydrate content at 4%,
+a simple calculation shows that about 3% of the total proteid and 11% of
+the total carbohydrate food of the average worker will be consumed in
+the shape of beer.
+
+The chemical composition of beers of different types will be gathered
+from the following tables.
+
+
+A. ENGLISH BEERS.
+
+  (Analyses by J.L. Baker, Hulton & P. Schidrowitz.)
+
+    I. _Mild Ales._
+
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  Number.| Original Gravity.| Alcohol %.| Extractives (Solids) %.|
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  1.[1]  |     1055.13      |   4.17    |          6.1           |
+  |  2.[1]  |     1055.64      |   4.47    |          5.7           |
+  |  3.[2]  |     1071.78      |   5.57    |          7.3           |
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+
+    II. _Light Bitters and Ales._
+
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  Number.| Original Gravity.| Alcohol %.| Extractives (Solids) %.|
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |    1.   |     1046.81      |    4.15   |          4.0           |
+  |    2.   |     1047.69      |    4.23   |          4.1           |
+  |    3.   |     1047.79      |    4.61   |          3.2           |
+  |    4.   |     1050.30      |    4.53   |          4.2           |
+  |    5.   |     1038.31      |    3.81   |          3.5           |
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+
+    III. _Pale and Stock Ales._
+
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  Number.| Original Gravity.| Alcohol %.| Extractives (Solids) %.|
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  1.[3]  |      1059.01     |    4.77   |          5.8           |
+  |  2.[4]  |      1068.58     |    5.48   |          7.1           |
+  |  3.[4]  |      1076.80     |    6.68   |          5.9           |
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+
+    IV. _Stouts and Porter._
+
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  Number.| Original Gravity.| Alcohol %.| Extractives (Solids) %.|
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+  |  1.[5]  |      1072.92     |    6.14   |          6.3           |
+  |  2.[6]  |      1054.26     |    4.73   |          4.5           |
+  |  3.[6]  |      1081.62     |    6.02   |          8.8           |
+  |  4.[7]  |      1054.11     |    3.90   |          6.5           |
+  +---------+------------------+-----------+------------------------+
+
+The figures in the above tables are very fairly representative of
+different classes of British and Irish beers. It will be noticed that
+the _Mild Ales_ are of medium original gravity[8] and alcoholic
+strength, but contain a relatively large proportion of solid matter. The
+_Light Bitters and Ales_ are of a low original gravity, but compared
+with the Mild Ales the proportion of alcohol to solids is higher. The
+_Pale and Stock Ales_, which represent the more expensive bottle beers,
+are analytically of much the same character as the Light Bitters, except
+that the figures all round are much higher. The _Stouts_, as a rule, are
+characterized by a high gravity, and contain relatively more solids (as
+compared with alcohol) than do the heavy beers of light colour. With
+regard to the proportions of the various matters constituting the
+extractives (solids) in English beers, roughly 20-30% consists of
+maltose and 20-50% of dextrinous matter. In mild ales the proportion of
+maltose to dextrin is high (roughly 1:1), thus accounting for the full
+sweet taste of these beers. Pale and stock ales, on the other hand,
+which are of a "dry" character, contain relatively more dextrin, the
+general ratio being about 1:1-1/2 or 1:2. The mineral matter ("ash") of
+beers is generally in the neighbourhood of 0.2 to 0.3%, of which about
+one-fourth is phosphoric acid. The proteid ("nitrogenous matters")
+content of beers varies very widely according to character and strength,
+the usual limits being 0.3 to 0.8%, with an average of roughly 0.4%.
+
+
+B. CONTINENTAL BEERS.
+
+  (Analyses by A. Doemens.)
+
+  +----------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  |                      | Original |            | Extractives |
+  |     Description.     | Gravity. | Alcohol %. | (Solids) %. |
+  +----------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  | Munich Draught Dark  |  1056.4  |    3.76    |    6.58     |
+  |    "      "     "    |  1052.6  |    3.38    |    6.45     |
+  |    "      "    Light |  1048.0  |    3.18    |    5.55     |
+  |    "      "     "    |  1048.1  |    4.05    |    3.92     |
+  |    "   Export        |  1054.3  |    3.68    |    6.32     |
+  |    "      "          |  1059.5  |    4.15    |    7.48     |
+  |    "   Bock Beer[9]  |  1076.6  |    4.53    |   10.05     |
+  | Pilsener Bottle      |  1047.7  |    3.47    |    4.90     |
+  |     "    Draught     |  1044.3  |    3.25    |    4.58     |
+  | Berlin Dark          |  1055.2  |    3.82    |    6.17     |
+  |    "   Light         |  1056.5  |    4.36    |    5.46     |
+  |    "   Weissbier     |  1033.1  |    2.644   |    3.01     |
+  +----------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+
+It will be seen that, broadly speaking, the original gravity of German
+and Austrian beers is lower than that of English beers, and this also
+applies to the alcohol. On the other hand, the foreign beers are
+relatively very rich in solids, and the extractives: alcohol ratio is
+high. (See BREWING.)
+
+
+C. AMERICAN BEERS AND ALES.
+
+  (Analyses by M. Wallerstein.)
+
+  +------------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  |                        | Original |            | Extractives |
+  |      Description.      | Gravity. | Alcohol %. | (Solids) %. |
+  +------------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  |    Bottom        \  1. |  1046.7  |    3.48    |    5.08     |
+  | Fermentation      | 2. |  1055.6  |    3.56    |    6.50     |
+  |    Beers          | 3. |  1063.4  |    4.12    |    7.43     |
+  | (Lager Type).    /  4. |  1046.0  |    2.68    |    5.96     |
+  |                     5. |  1051.7  |    3.42    |    5.86     |
+  +------------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+  | Top Fermentation \  1. |  1084.2  |    5.89    |    8.60     |
+  |       Ales        | 2. |  1073.5  |    6.46    |    5.69     |
+  |  (British Type)  /  3. |  1068.0  |    5.50    |    5.53     |
+  +------------------------+----------+------------+-------------+
+
+It will be noted that the American _beers_ (i.e. bottom fermentation
+products of the lager type) are very similar in composition to the
+German beers, but that the ales are very much heavier than the general
+run of the corresponding British products.
+
+_Production and Consumption._--(For manufacture of beer, see BREWING.)
+Germany is the greatest beer-producing nation, if liquid bulk be taken
+as a criterion; the United States comes next, and the United Kingdom
+occupies the third place in this regard. The consumption per head,
+however, is slightly greater in the United Kingdom than in Germany, and
+very much greater than is the case in the United States. The 1905
+figures with regard to the total production and consumption of the three
+great beer-producing countries, together with those for 1885, are as
+under:--
+
+  +----------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+  |                |                                |   Consumption per   |
+  |    Country.    |   Total Production (Gallons).  | Head of Population  |
+  |                |                                |      (Gallons)      |
+  +----------------+------------------+-------------+----------+----------+
+  |                |       1905.      |    1885.    |   1905.  |   1885   |
+  |                +------------------+-------------+----------+----------+
+  | German Empire  | 1,538,240,000    | 932,228,000 | 23.3     |   19.8   |
+  | United States  | 1,434,114,180    | 494,854,000 | 19.9     |    8.8   |
+  | United Kingdom | 1,227,933,468[10]| 993,759,000 | 27.90[10]|   27.1   |
+  +----------------+------------------+-------------+----------+----------+
+
+The chief point of interest in the preceding table is the enormous
+increase in the United States. In considering the figures, the character
+of the beer produced must be taken into consideration. Thus, although
+Germany produces roughly 25% more beer in liquid measurement than the
+United Kingdom, the latter actually uses about 50% more malt than is the
+case in the German breweries. According to a Viennese technical journal,
+the quantities of malt employed for the production of one hectolitre (22
+gallons) of beer in the respective countries is 0.40 cwt. in the German
+empire, 0.72 cwt. in the United States, and 0.81 cwt. in the United
+Kingdom. In a sense, therefore, England may still claim pre-eminence as
+a beer-producing nation. Large as the _per capita_ consumption in the
+United Kingdom may seem, it is considerably less than is the case in
+Bavaria, which stands at the head of the list with over 50 gallons, and
+in Belgium, which comes second with 47.7 gallons. In the city of Munich
+the consumption is actually over 70 gallons, that is to say, about 1-1/2
+pints a day for every man, woman and child. It is curious to note that
+in Germany, which is usually regarded as a beer-drinking country _par
+excellence_, the consumption per head of this article is slightly less
+than in England, and that inversely the average German consumes more
+alcohol in the shape of spirits than does the inhabitant of the British
+Islands (consumption of spirits per head: Germany, 1.76 gallons; United
+Kingdom, 0.99 gallons). This is accounted for by the fact that the
+peasantry of the northern and eastern portions of the German empire
+consume spirits almost exclusively. In the British colonies beer is
+generally one of the staple drinks, but if we except Western Australia,
+where about 25 gallons per head of population are consumed, the demand
+is much smaller than in the United Kingdom. In Australia generally, the
+_per capita_ consumption amounts to about 12 gallons, in New Zealand to
+10 gallons, and in Canada to 5 gallons.     (P. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] London Ales.
+
+  [2] Strong Burton Mild Ale.
+
+  [3] Fairly representative of "Pale Ales."
+
+  [4] Heavy Stock Ales.
+
+  [5] Irish Stout.
+
+  [6] Nos. 2 and 3 are respectively "single" and "double" London Stouts
+    from the same brewery.
+
+  [7] London Porter or Cooper.
+
+  [8] The specific gravity, or "gravity" as it is always termed in the
+    industry, of the brewer is 1000 times the specific gravity of the
+    physicist. This is purely a matter of convention and convenience.
+    Thus when a brewer speaks of a wort of a "gravity" of 1045
+    (ten-forty-five) he means a wort having a specific gravity of 1.045.
+    Each unit in the brewer's scale of specific gravity is termed a
+    "degree of gravity." The wort referred to above, therefore, possesses
+    forty-five _degrees_ of gravity. The "original gravity," it may here
+    be mentioned, represents the specific gravity of the wort (see
+    BREWING) before fermentation. The solids in the original wort may be
+    ascertained by dividing the excess of the gravity over 1000 by 3.86.
+    Thus in the case of Mild Ale No. 1 the excess of the original gravity
+    over 1000 is 1055.13 - 1000 = 55.13. Dividing this by 3.86 we get
+    14.28, which indicates that the wort from which the beer was
+    manufactured contained 14.28% of solids. In the trade the gravity of
+    a beer (or rather of the wort from which it is derived) is generally
+    expressed in pounds per barrel. This means the excess in weight of a
+    barrel of the wort over the weight of a barrel of water. The weight
+    of a barrel (36 gallons) of water is 360 lb.; in the above example
+    the weight of a barrel of the beer wort is 360 X 1.05513 = 379.8. The
+    gravity of the wort in lb. is therefore 379.8 - 360 = 19.8. The beer
+    which is made from this wort would also be called a 19.8 lb. beer,
+    the reference in all cases being to the original wort.
+
+  [9] A particularly heavy beer, only brewed at certain times in the
+    year.
+
+  [10] The maxima of production and consumption were reached in
+    1899/1900, when the production amounted to 1,337,509,116 gallons (at
+    the standard gravity) and consumption to 32.28 gallons per head.
+
+
+
+
+BEERSHEBA, a place midway between Gaza and Hebron (28 m. from each),
+frequently referred to in the Bible as the southern limit of Palestine
+("Dan to Beersheba," Judg. xx. i, &c.) Its foundation is variously
+ascribed to Abraham and Isaac, and different etymologies for its name
+are suggested, in the fundamental documents of Genesis (xxi. 22, xxvi.
+26). It was an important holy place, where Abraham planted a sacred tree
+(Gen. xxi. 23), and where divine manifestations were vouchsafed to Hagar
+(Gen. xxi. 17), Isaac (xxvi. 24), Jacob (xlvi. 2) and Elijah (1 Kings
+xix. 5). Amos mentions it in connexion with the shrines of Bethel and
+Gilgal (Amos v. 5) and denounces oaths by its _numen_ (viii. 14). The
+most probable meaning of the name is "seven wells," despite the
+non-Semitic construction involved in this interpretation. Seven ancient
+wells still exist here, though two are stopped up. Eusebius and Jerome
+mention the place in the 4th century as a large village and the seat of
+a Roman garrison. Extensive remains of this village exist, though they
+are being rapidly quarried away for building; some inscriptions of great
+importance have been found here. Later it appears to have been the site
+of a bishopric; remains of its churches were still standing in the 14th
+century. Some fine mosaics have been here unearthed and immediately
+destroyed, in sheer wantonness, by the natives quarrying building-stone.
+The Biblical Beersheba probably exists at Bir es-Seba', 2 m. distant.
+
+
+
+
+BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER (1831-   ), English historian and positivist, son
+of the Rev. James Beesly, was born at Feckenham, Worcestershire, on the
+23rd of January 1831. He was educated at Wadham College, Oxford, which
+may be regarded as the original centre of the English positivist
+movement. Richard Congreve (q.v.) was tutor at Wadham from 1849 to 1854,
+and three men of that time, Frederic Harrison (q.v.), Beesly and John
+Henry Bridges (1832-1906), became the leaders of Comtism in England.
+Beesly left Oxford in 1854 to become assistant-master at Marlborough
+College. In 1859 he was appointed professor of history at University
+College, London, and of Latin at Bedford College, London, in 1860. He
+resigned these appointments in 1893 and 1889, and in 1893 became the
+editor of the newly-established _Positivist Review_. He collaborated in
+the translation of Comte's system of _Positive Polity_ (4 vols.,
+1875-1879), translated his _Discourse on the Positive Spirit_ (1903),
+and wrote a biography of Comte for a translation of the first two
+chapters of his _Cours de philosophie positive_, entitled _Fundamental
+Principles of Positive Philosophy_ (1905). Professor Beesly stood
+unsuccessfully as Liberal candidate for Westminster in 1885 and for
+Marylebone in 1886, and is the author of numerous review articles on
+social and political topics, treated from the positivist standpoint,
+especially on the Irish question. His works also include a series of
+lectures on Roman history, entitled _Catiline, Clodius, Tiberius_
+(1878), in which he rehabilitates in some degree the character of each
+of his subjects, and _Queen Elizabeth_ (1892), in the "Twelve English
+Statesmen" series.
+
+
+
+
+BEET, a cultivated form of the plant _Beta vulgaris_ (natural order
+Chenopodiaceae), which grows wild on the coasts of Europe, North Africa
+and Asia as far as India. It is a biennial, producing, like the carrot,
+a thick, fleshy tap-root during the first year and a branched, leafy,
+flowering stem in the following season. The small, green flowers are
+borne in clusters. A considerable number of varieties are cultivated for
+use on account of their large fleshy roots, under the names of
+mangel-wurzel or mangold, field-beet and garden-beet. The cultivation of
+beet in relation to the production of sugar, for which purpose certain
+varieties of beet stand next in importance to the sugar cane, is dealt
+with under SUGAR. The garden-beet has been cultivated from very remote
+times as a salad plant, and for general use as a table vegetable. The
+variety most generally grown has long, tapering, carrot-shaped roots,
+the "flesh" of which is of a uniform deep red colour throughout, and the
+leaves brownish red. It is boiled and cut into slices for being eaten
+cold; and it is also prepared as a pickle, as well as in various other
+forms. Beet is in much more common use on the continent of Europe as a
+culinary vegetable than in Great Britain, where it has, however, been
+cultivated for upwards of two centuries. The white beet, _Beta cicla_,
+is cultivated for the leaves, which are used as spinach. The midribs and
+stalks of the leaves are also stewed and eaten as sea-kale, under the
+name of Swiss chard. _B. cicla_ is also largely used as a decorative
+plant for its large, handsome leaves, blood red or variegated in colour.
+
+The beet prospers in a rich deep soil, well pulverized by the spade. If
+manure is required, it should be deposited at the bottom of the trench
+in preparing the ground. The seeds should be sown in drills 15 ins.
+asunder, in April or early in May, and the plants are afterwards to be
+thinned to about 8 in. apart in the lines, but not more, as
+moderate-sized roots are preferable. The plants should grow on till the
+end of October or later, when a portion should be taken up for use, and
+the rest laid in in a sheltered corner, and covered up from frost. The
+roots must not be bruised and the leaves must be twisted off--not
+closely cut, as they are then liable to bleed. In the north the crop may
+be wholly taken up in autumn, and stored in a pit or cellar, beyond
+reach of frost. If it is desired to have fresh roots early, the seeds
+should be sown at the end of February or beginning of March; and if a
+succession is required, a few more may be sown by the end of March.
+
+
+
+
+BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN (1770-1827), German musical composer, was baptized
+(probably, as was usual, the day after birth) on the 17th of December
+1770 at Bonn. His family is traceable to a village near Louvain, in
+Belgium, in the 17th century. In 1650 a lineal ancestor of the composer
+settled in Antwerp. Beethoven's grandfather, Louis, quarrelled with his
+family, came to Bonn in 1732, and became one of the court musicians of
+the archbishop-elector of Cologne. He was a genial man of estimable
+character, and though Ludwig van Beethoven was only four years old when
+his grandfather died, he never forgot him, but cherished his portrait to
+the end of his life. Beethoven's father, a tenor singer at the
+archbishop-elector's court, was of a rough and violent temper, not
+improved by his passion for drink, nor by the dire poverty under which
+the family laboured. He married Magdelina Leim or Laym, the widow of a
+_valet-de-chambre_ of the elector of Trier and daughter of the chief
+cook at Ehrenbreitstein. Beethoven's father wished to profit as early as
+possible by his son's talent, and accordingly began to give him a
+severe musical training, especially on the violin, when he was only five
+years old, at about which time they left the house in which he was born
+(515 Bonngasse, now preserved as a Beethoven museum, with a magnificent
+collection of manuscripts and relics). By the time Beethoven was nine
+his father had no more to teach him, and he entered upon a perhaps
+healthier course of clavier lessons under a singer named Pfeiffer. A
+little general education was also edged in by a certain Zambona. Van den
+Eeden, the court organist, and an old friend of his grandfather, taught
+him the organ and the pianoforte, and so rapid was Beethoven's progress
+that when C.G. Neefe succeeded to Van den Eeden's post in 1781, he was
+soon able to allow the boy to act as his deputy. With his permission
+Beethoven published in 1783 his earliest extant composition, a set of
+variations on a march by Dressler. The title-page states that they were
+written in 1780 _"par un jeune amateur Louis van Beethoven age de dix
+ans_." Beethoven's father was very clumsy in his unnecessary attempts to
+make an infant prodigy of his son; for the ante-dating of this
+composition, implying the correct date of birth, contradicts the
+post-dating of the date of birth by which he tried to make out that the
+three sonatas Beethoven wrote in the same year were by a boy of eleven.
+(Beethoven for a long time believed that he was born in 1772, and the
+certificate of his baptism hardly convinced him, because he knew that he
+had an elder brother named Ludwig who died in infancy.) In the same
+year, 1783, Beethoven was given the post of cembalist in the Bonn
+theatre, and in 1784 his position of assistant to Neefe became official.
+In a _catalogue raisonne_ of the new archbishop Max Franz's court
+musicians we find "No. 14, Ludwig Beethoven" described "as of good
+capacity, still young, of good, quiet behaviour and poor," while his
+father (No. 8) "has a completely worn-out voice, has long been in
+service, is very poor, of fairly good behaviour, and married."
+
+In the spring of 1787 Beethoven paid a short visit to Vienna, where he
+astonished Mozart by his extemporizations and had a few lessons from
+him. How he was enabled to afford this visit is not clear. After three
+months the illness of his mother, to whom he was devoted, brought him
+back. She died in July, leaving a baby girl, one year old, who died in
+November. For five more years Beethoven remained at Bonn supporting his
+family, of which he had been since the age of fifteen practically the
+head, as his father's bad habits steadily increased until in 1789 Ludwig
+was officially entrusted with his father's salary. He had already made
+several lifelong friends at Bonn, of whom the chief were Count Waldstein
+and Stephan Breuning; and his prospects brightened as the
+archbishop-elector, in imitation of his brother the emperor Joseph II.,
+enlarged the scale of his artistic munificence. By 1792 the
+archbishop-elector's attention was thoroughly aroused to Beethoven's
+power, and he provided for Beethoven's second visit to Vienna. The
+introductions he and Count Waldstein gave to Beethoven, the prefix "van"
+in Beethoven's name (which looked well though it was not really a title
+of nobility), and above all the unequalled impressiveness of his playing
+and extemporization, quickly secured his footing with the exceptionally
+intelligent and musical aristocracy of Vienna, who to the end of his
+life treated him with genuine affection and respect, bearing with all
+the roughness of his manners and temper, not as with the eccentricities
+of a fashionable genius, but as with signs of the sufferings of a
+passionate and noble nature.
+
+Beethoven's life, though outwardly uneventful, was one of the most
+pathetic of tragedies. His character has had the same fascination for
+his biographers as it had for his friends, and there is probably hardly
+any great man in history of whom more is known and of whom so much of
+what is known is interesting. Yet it is all too much a matter of detail
+and anecdote to admit of chronological summarizing here, and for the
+disentangling of its actual incidents we must refer the reader to Sir
+George Grove's long and graphic article, "Beethoven," in the _Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians_, and to the monumental biography of Thayer, who
+devoted his whole life to collecting materials. These two biographical
+works, read in the spirit in which their authors conceived them, will
+reveal, beneath a mass of distressing, grotesque and sometimes sordid
+detail, a nobility of character and unswerving devotion to the highest
+moral ideas throughout every distress and temptation to which a
+passionate and totally unpractical temper and the growing shadow of a
+terrible misfortune could expose a man.
+
+The man is surpassed only by his works, for in them he had that mastery
+which was denied to him in what he himself calls his attempt to "grapple
+with fate." Such of his difficulties as lay in his own character already
+showed themselves in his studies with Haydn. Haydn, who seems to have
+heard of him on his first visit to Vienna in 1787, passed through Bonn
+in July 1792, and was so much struck by Beethoven that it was very
+likely at his instigation that the archbishop sent Beethoven to Vienna
+to study under him. But Beethoven did not get on well with him, and
+found him perfunctory in correcting his exercises. Haydn appreciated
+neither his manners nor the audacity of his free compositions, and
+abandoned whatever intentions he may have had of taking Beethoven with
+him to England in 1794. Beethoven could do without sympathy, but a
+grounding in strict counterpoint he felt to be a dire necessity, so he
+continued his studies with Albrechtsberger, a mere grammarian who had
+the poorest opinion of him, but who could, at all events, be depended on
+to attend to his work. Almost every comment has been made upon the
+relations between Haydn and Beethoven, except the perfectly obvious one
+that Mozart died at the age of thirty-six, just at the time Beethoven
+came to Vienna, and that Haydn, as is perfectly well known, was
+profoundly shocked by the untimely loss of the greatest musician he had
+ever known. At such a time the undeniable clumsiness of Beethoven's
+efforts at academic exercises would combine with his general
+tactlessness to confirm Haydn in the belief that the sun had set for
+ever in the musical world, and would incline him to view with disfavour
+those bold features of style and form which the whole of his own
+artistic development should naturally have predisposed him to welcome.
+It is at least significant that those early works of Beethoven in which
+Mozart's influence is most evident, such as the Septet, aroused Haydn's
+open admiration, whereas he hardly approved of the compositions like the
+sonatas, _op._ 2 (dedicated to him), in which his own influence is
+stronger. Neither he nor Beethoven was skilful in expressing himself
+except in music, and it is impossible to tell what Haydn meant, or what
+Beethoven thought he meant, in advising him not to publish the last and
+finest of the three trios, _op._ 1. But even if he did not mean that it
+was too daring for the public, it can hardly be expected that he never
+contrasted the meteoric career of Mozart, who after a miraculous boyhood
+had produced at the age of twenty-five some of the greatest music Haydn
+had ever seen, with the slow and painful development of his uncouth
+pupil, who at the same age had hardly a dozen presentable works to his
+credit. It is not clear that Haydn ever came to understand Beethoven,
+and many years passed before Beethoven realized the greatness of the
+master whose teaching had so disappointed him.
+
+From the time Beethoven settled permanently in Vienna, which he was soon
+induced to do by the kindness of his aristocratic friends, the only
+noteworthy external features of his career are the productions of his
+compositions. In spite of the usual hostile criticism for obscurity,
+exaggeration and unpopularity, his reputation became world-wide and by
+degrees actually popular; nor did it ever decline, for as his later
+works became notorious for their extravagance and unintelligibility his
+earlier works became better understood. He was no man of business, but,
+in a thoroughly unpractical way, he was suspicious and exacting in money
+matters, which in his later years frequently turned up in his
+conversation as a grievance, and at times, especially during the
+depreciation of the Austrian currency between 1808 and 1815, were a real
+anxiety to him. Nevertheless, with a little more skill his external
+prosperity would have been great. He was always a personage of
+importance, as is testified by more than one amusing anecdote, like
+those of his walks with Goethe and his half-ironical comments on the
+hats which flew off more for him than for Goethe; and in 1815 it seemed
+as if the summit of his fame was reached when his 7th symphony was
+performed, together with a hastily-written cantata, _Der glorreiche
+Augenblick_ and the blazing piece of descriptive fireworks entitled
+_Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria_, once popular in
+England as the _Battle Symphony_. The occasion for this performance was
+the congress of Vienna; and the government placed the two halls of the
+Redouten-Saal at his disposal for two nights, while he himself was
+allowed to invite all the sovereigns of Europe. In the same year he
+received the freedom of the city, an honour much valued by him. After
+that time his immediate popularity, as far as new works were concerned,
+became less eminent, as that of his more easy-going contemporaries began
+to increase. Yet there was, not only in the emotional power of his
+earlier works, but also in the known cause of his increasing inability
+to appear in public, something that awakened the best popular
+sensibilities; and when his two greatest and most difficult works, the
+9th symphony and parts of the _Missa Solemnis_, were produced at a
+memorable concert in 1824, the storm of applause was overwhelming, and
+the composer, who was on the platform in order to give the time to the
+conductor, had to be turned round by one of the singers in order to
+_see_ it.
+
+Signs of deafness had given him grave anxiety as early as 1708. For a
+long time he successfully concealed it from all but his most intimate
+friends, while he consulted physicians and quacks with eagerness; but
+neither quackery nor the best skill of his time availed him, and it has
+been pointed out that the root of the evil lay deeper than could have
+been supposed during his lifetime. Although his constitution was
+magnificently strong and his health was preserved by his passion for
+outdoor life, a post-mortem examination revealed a very complicated
+state of disorder, evidently dating almost from childhood (if not
+inherited) and aggravated by lack of care and good food. The touching
+document addressed to his brothers in 1802, and known as his "will,"
+should be read in its entirety, as given by Thayer (iv. 4). No verbal
+quotation short of the whole will do justice to the overpowering
+outburst which runs almost in one long unpunctuated sentence through the
+whole tragedy of Beethoven's life, as he knew it then and foresaw it. He
+reproaches men for their injustice in thinking and calling him
+pugnacious, stubborn and misanthropical when they do not know that for
+six years he has suffered from an incurable condition, aggravated by
+incompetent doctors. He dwells upon his delight in human society, from
+which he has had so early to isolate himself, but the thought of which
+now fills him with dread as it makes him realize his loss, not only in
+music but in all finer interchange of ideas, and terrifies him lest the
+cause of his distress should appear. He declares that, when those near
+him had heard a flute or a singing shepherd while he heard nothing, he
+was only prevented from taking his life by the thought of his art, but
+it seemed impossible for him to leave the world until he had brought out
+all that he felt to be in his power. He requests that after his death
+his present doctor, if surviving, shall be asked to describe his illness
+and to append it to this document in order that at least then the world
+may be as far as possible reconciled with him. He leaves his brothers
+his property, such as it is, and in terms not less touching, if more
+conventional than the rest of the document, he declares that his
+experience shows that only virtue has preserved his life and his courage
+through all his misery.
+
+And, indeed, his art and his courage rose far above any level attainable
+by those artists who are slaves to the "personal note," for his chief
+occupation at the time of this document was his 2nd symphony, the most
+brilliant and triumphant piece that had ever been written up to that
+time. On a smaller scale, in which mastery was the more easily
+attainable as experiment was more readily tested, Beethoven was sooner
+able to strike a tragic note, and hence the process of growth in his
+style is more readily traceable in the pianoforte works than in the
+larger compositions which naturally represent a series of crowning
+results. Only in his last period does the pianoforte cease to be
+Beethoven's normal means of expression. Accordingly, if in the
+discussion of Beethoven's works, with which we close this article, we
+dwell rather more on the pianoforte sonatas than on his greater works,
+it is not only because they are more easily referred to by the general
+reader, but because they are actually a key to his intellectual
+development, such as is afforded neither by his life nor by the great
+works which are themselves the crowning mystery and wonder of musical
+art.
+
+Deafness causes inconvenience in conversation long before it is
+noticeable in music, and in 1806 Beethoven could still conduct his opera
+_Fidelio_ and be much annoyed at the inattention to his nuances; and his
+last appearance as a player was not until 1814, when he made a great
+impression with his B flat trio, _op._ 97. At the end of November 1822
+an attempt to conduct proved disastrous. The touching incident in 1824
+has been described, but up to the last Beethoven seems to have found or
+imagined that ear-trumpets (of which a collection is now preserved at
+Bonn) were of use to him in playing to himself, though his friends were
+often pained when the pianoforte was badly out of tune, and were
+overcome when Beethoven in soft passages did not make the notes sound at
+all. The instrument sent him by Broadwood in 1817-1818 gave him great
+pleasure and he answered it with a characteristically cordial and quaint
+letter in the best of bad French. His fame in England was often a source
+of great comfort to him, especially in his last illness, when the London
+Philharmonic Society, for which the 9th symphony was written and a 10th
+symphony projected, sent him L100 in advance of the proceeds of a
+benefit concert which he had begged them to give, being in very
+straitened circumstances, as he would make no use of the money he had
+deposited in the bank for his nephew.
+
+This nephew was the cause of most of his anxiety and distress in the
+last twelve years of his life. His brother, Kaspar Karl, had often given
+him trouble; for example, by obtaining and publishing some of
+Beethoven's early indiscretions, such as the trio-variations, _op._ 44,
+the sonatas, _op._ 49, and other trifles, of which the late _opus_
+number is thus explained. In 1815, after Beethoven had quarrelled with
+his oldest friend, Stephan Breuning, for warning him against trusting
+his brother in money matters, Kaspar died, leaving a widow of whom
+Beethoven strongly disapproved, and a son, nine years old, for the
+guardianship of whom Beethoven fought the widow through all the law
+courts. The boy turned out utterly unworthy of his uncle's persistent
+devotion, and gave him every cause for anxiety. He failed in all his
+examinations, including an attempt to learn some trade in the
+polytechnic school, whereupon he fell into the hands of the police for
+attempting suicide, and, after being expelled from Vienna, joined the
+army. Beethoven's utterly simple nature could neither educate nor
+understand a human being who was not possessed by the wish to do his
+best. His nature was passionately affectionate, and he had suffered all
+his life from the want of a natural outlet for it. He had often been
+deeply in love and made no secret of it; but Robert Browning had not a
+more intense dislike of "the artistic temperament" in morals, and though
+Beethoven's attachments were almost all hopelessly above him in rank,
+there is not one that was not honourable and respected by society as
+showing the truthfulness and self-control of a great man. Beethoven's
+orthodoxy in such matters has provoked the smiles of Philistines,
+especially when it showed itself in his objections to Mozart's _Don
+Giovanni_, and his grounds for selecting the subject of _Fidelio_ for
+his own opera. The last thing that Philistines will ever understand is
+that genius is far too independent of convention to abuse it; and
+Beethoven's life, with all its mistakes, its grotesqueness and its
+pathos, is as far beyond the shafts of Philistine wit as his art.
+
+At the beginning of 1827 Beethoven had projects for a 10th symphony,
+music to Goethe's _Faust_, and (under the stimulus of his newly acquired
+collection of Handel's works) any amount of choral music, compared to
+which all his previous compositions would have seemed but a prelude. But
+he was in bad health; his brother Johann, with whom he had been staying,
+had not allowed him a fire in his bedroom, and had sent him back to
+Vienna in an open chaise in vile weather; and the chill which resulted
+ended in a fatal illness. Within a week of his death Beethoven was
+still full of his projects. Three days before the end he added a codicil
+to his will, and saw Schubert, whose music had aroused his keen
+interest, but was not able to speak to him, though he afterwards spoke
+of the Philharmonic Society and the English, almost his last words being
+"God bless them." On the 26th of March 1827, during a fierce
+thunderstorm, he died.
+
+_Beethoven's Music._--The division of Beethoven's work into three styles
+has become proverbial, and is based on obvious facts. The styles,
+however, are not rigidly separated, either in themselves or in
+chronology. Nor can the popular description of Beethoven's first manner
+as "Mozartesque" be accepted as doing justice to a style which differs
+more radically from Mozart's than Mozart's differs from Haydn's. The
+style of Beethoven's third period is no longer regarded as "showing an
+obscurity traceable to his deafness," but we have, perhaps, only
+recently outgrown the belief that his later treatment of form is
+revolutionary. The peculiar interest and difficulty in tracing
+Beethoven's artistic development is that the changes in the materials
+and range of his art were as great as those in the form, so that he
+appears in the light of a pioneer, while the art with which he started
+was nevertheless already a perfectly mature and highly organized thing.
+And he is perhaps unique among artists in this, that his power of
+constructing perfect works of art never deserted him while he
+revolutionized his means of expression. No doubt this is in a measure
+true of all the greatest artists, but it is seldom obvious. In mature
+art vital differences in works of similar form are generally more likely
+to be overlooked than to force themselves on the critic's attention. And
+when they become so great as to make a new epoch it is generally at the
+cost of a period of experiment too heterogeneous and insecure for works
+of art to attain great permanent value. But in Beethoven's case, as we
+have said, the process of development is so smooth that it is impossible
+to separate the periods clearly, although the ground covered is, as
+regards emotional range, at least as great as that between Bach and
+Mozart. No artist has ever left more authoritative documentary evidence
+as to the steps of his development than Beethoven. In boyhood he seems
+to have acquired the habit of noting down all his musical ideas exactly
+as they first struck him. It is easy to see why in later years he
+referred to this as a "bad habit," for it must often take longer to jot
+down a crude idea than to reject it; and by the time the habit was
+formed Beethoven's powers of self-criticism were unparalleled, and he
+must often have felt hampered by the habit of writing down what he knew
+to be too crude to be even an aid to memory. Such first intuitions, if
+not written down, would no doubt be forgotten; but the poetic mood, the
+_Stimmung_, they attempt to indicate, would remain until a better
+expression was forthcoming. Beethoven had acquired the habit of
+recording them, and thereby he has, perhaps, misled some critics into
+over-emphasizing the contrast between his "tentative" self-critical
+methods and the quasi-extempore outpourings of Mozart. This contrast is
+probably not very radical; indeed, we may doubt whether in every
+thoughtful mind any apparently sudden inspiration is not preceded by
+some anticipatory mood in which the idea was sought and its first faint
+indications tested and rejected so instantaneously as to leave no
+impression on the memory.
+
+The number and triviality of Beethoven's preliminary sketches should
+not, then, be taken as evidence of a timid or vacillating spirit. But if
+we regard his sketches as his diary their significance becomes
+inestimable. They cover every period of Beethoven's career, and
+represent every stage of nearly all his important works, as well as of
+innumerable trifles, including ideas that did not survive to be worked
+out. And the type of self-criticism is the same from beginning to end.
+There is no tendency in the middle or last period, any more than in the
+first, to "subordinate form to expression," nor do the sketches of the
+first period show any lack of attention to elements that seem more
+characteristic of the third. The difference between Beethoven's three
+styles appears first in its full proportions when we realize this
+complete continuity of his method and art. We have ventured to cast
+doubts upon the Mozartesque character of his early style, because that
+is chiefly a question of perspective. While he was handling a range of
+ideas not, in a modern view, glaringly different from Mozart's, he had
+no reason to use a glaringly different language. His contemporaries,
+however, found it more difficult to see the resemblance; and, though
+their criticism was often violently hostile, they saw with prejudice a
+daring originality which we may as well learn to appreciate with study.
+Beethoven himself in later years partly affected and partly felt a lack
+of sympathy with his own early style. But he had other things to do than
+to criticize it. Modern prejudice has not his excuse, and the neglect of
+Beethoven's early works is no less than the neglect of the key to the
+understanding of his later. It is also the neglect of a mass of mature
+art that already places Beethoven on the same plane as Mozart, and
+contains perhaps the only traces in all his work of a real struggle
+between the forces of progress and those of construction. We will
+therefore give special attention to this subject here.
+
+The truth is that there are several styles in Beethoven's first period,
+in the centre of which, "proving all things," is the true and mature
+Beethoven, however wider may be the scope of his later maturity. And he
+did not, as is often alleged, fail to show early promise. The pianoforte
+quartets he wrote at the age of fifteen are, no doubt, clumsy and
+childish in execution to a degree that contrasts remarkably with the
+works of Mozart's, Mendelssohn's or Schubert's boyhood; yet they contain
+material actually used in the sonatas, _op._ 2, No. 1, and _op._ 2, No.
+3. And the passage in _op._ 2, No. 3, is that immediately after the
+first subject, where, as Beethoven then states it, it embodies one of
+his most epoch-making discoveries, namely, the art of organizing a long
+series of apparently free modulations by means of a systematic
+progression in the bass. In the childish quartet the principle is only
+dimly felt, but it is nevertheless there as a subconscious source of
+inspiration; and it afterwards gives inevitable dramatic truth to such
+passages as the climax of the development in the sonata, _op._ 57
+(commonly called _Appassionata_), and throughout the chaos of the
+mysterious introduction to the C major string-quartet, _op._ 59, No. 3,
+prepares us for the world of loveliness that arises from it.
+
+Although with Beethoven the desire to express new thoughts was thus
+invariably both stimulated and satisfied by the discovery of the
+necessary new means of expression, he felt deeply the danger of spoiling
+great ideas by inadequate execution; and his first work in a new form or
+medium is, even if as late as the Mass in C, _op._ 89, almost always
+unambitious. His teachers had found him sceptical of authority, and
+never convinced of the practical convenience of a rule until he had too
+successfully courted disaster. But he appreciated the experience, though
+he may have found it expensive, and traces of crudeness in such early
+works as he did not disown are as rare as plagiarisms. The first three
+pianoforte sonatas, _op._ 2. show the different elements in Beethoven's
+early style as clearly as possible. Sir Hubert Parry has aptly compared
+the opening of the sonata, _op._ 2, No. 1, with that of the finale of
+Mozart's G minor symphony, to show how much closer Beethoven's texture
+is. The slow movement well illustrates the rare cases in which Beethoven
+imitates Mozart to the detriment of his own proper richness of tone and
+thought, while the finale in its central episode brings a misapplied and
+somewhat diffuse structure in Mozart's style into direct conflict with
+themes as "Beethovenish" in their terseness as in their sombre passion.
+The second sonata is flawless in execution, and entirely beyond the
+range of Haydn and Mozart in harmonic and dramatic thought, except in
+the finale. And it is just in the adoption of the luxurious Mozartesque
+rondo form as the crown of this work that Beethoven shows his true
+independence. He adopts the form, not because it is Mozart's, but
+because it is right and because he can master it. The opening of the
+second subject in the first movement is a wonderful application of the
+harmonic principle already mentioned in connexion with the early piano
+quartets. In all music nothing equally dramatic can be found before the
+D minor sonata, _op._ 31, No. 2, which is rightly regarded as marking
+the beginning of Beethoven's second period. The slow movement, like
+those of _op._ 7 and a few other early works, shows a thrilling
+solemnity that immediately proves the identity of the pupil of Haydn
+with the creator of the 9th symphony. The little _scherzo_ no less
+clearly foreshadows the new era in music by the fact that in so small
+and light a movement a modulation from A to G sharp minor can occur too
+naturally to excite surprise. If the later work of Beethoven were
+unknown there would be very little evidence that this sonata was by a
+young man, except, perhaps, in the remarkable abruptness of style in the
+first movement, an abruptness which is characteristic, not of
+immaturity, but of art in which problems are successfully solved for the
+first time. This abruptness is, however, in a few of Beethoven's early
+works carried appreciably too far. In the sonata in C minor, _op._ 10,
+No. 1, for example, the more vigorous parts of the first movement lose
+in breadth from it, while the finale is almost stunted.
+
+But Beethoven was not content to express his individuality only in an
+abrupt epigrammatic style. From the outset breadth was also his aim, and
+while he occasionally attempted to attain a greater breadth than his
+resources would properly allow (as in the first movement of the sonata,
+_op._ 2, No. 3, and that of the violoncello sonata, _op._ 5, No. 1, in
+both of which cases a kind of extempore outburst in the coda conceals
+the collapse of his peroration), there are many early works in which he
+shows neither abruptness of style nor any tendency to confine himself
+within the limits of previous art. The C minor trio, _op._ 1, No. 3, is
+not more remarkable for the boldness of thought that made Haydn doubtful
+as to the advisability of publishing it, than for the perfect smoothness
+and spaciousness of its style. These qualities Beethoven at first
+naturally found easier to retain with less dramatic material, as in the
+other trios in the same _opus_, but the C minor trio does not stand
+alone. It represents, perhaps, the most numerous, as certainly the
+noblest, class of Beethoven's early works. Certainly the smallest class
+is that in which there is unmistakable imitation of Mozart, and it is
+significant that almost all examples of this class are works for wind
+instruments, where the technical limitations narrowly determine the
+style and discourage the composer from taking things seriously. Such
+works are the beautiful and popular septet, the quintet for pianoforte
+and wind instruments (modelled superficially, yet closely and with a
+kind of modest ambition, on Mozart's wonderful work for the same
+combination) and, on a somewhat higher level, the trio for pianoforte,
+clarinet and violoncello, _op._ 11.
+
+It is futile to discuss the point at which Beethoven's second manner may
+be said to begin, but he has himself given us excellent evidence as to
+when and how his first manner (as far as that is a single thing) became
+impossible to him. Through quite a large number of works, beginning
+perhaps with the great string quintet, _op._ 29, new types of harmonic
+and emotional expression had been assimilated into a style at least
+intelligible from Mozart's point of view. Indeed, Beethoven's favourite
+way of enlarging his range of expression often seems to consist in
+allowing the Titanic force of his new inventions and the formal beauty
+of the old art to indicate by their contrast a new world grander and
+lovelier than either. Sometimes, as in the C major quintet, the new
+elements are too perfectly assimilated for the contrast to appear. The
+range of key and depth of thought is beyond that of Beethoven's first
+manner, but the smoothness is that of Mozart. In the three pianoforte
+sonatas, _op._ 31, the struggle of the transition is as manifest as its
+accomplishment is triumphant. The first movement of the first sonata (in
+G major) deals with widely separated keys on new principles. These are
+embodied in a style which for abruptness and jocular paradox is hardly
+surpassed by Beethoven's most nervous early works. The exceptionally
+ornate and dilatory slow movement reads almost like a protest; while the
+finale begins as if to show that humour should be beautiful, and ends by
+making fun of the beauty. The second sonata (in D minor) is the greatest
+work Beethoven had as yet written. Its first movement, already cited
+above in connexion with the dramatic sequences in _op._ 2, No. 2, is,
+like that of the _Sonata Appassionata_, a _locus classicus_ for such
+powerful means of expression. And it is worth noting that the only
+sketch known of this movement is a sketch in which nothing but its
+sequential plan is indicated. In the third sonata Beethoven enjoys on a
+higher plane an experience he had often indulged in before, the
+attainment of smoothness and breadth by means of a delicately humorous
+calm which gives scope to the finer subtleties of his new thoughts.
+
+Beethoven himself wrote to his publisher that these three sonatas
+represented a new phase in his style; but when we realize his artistic
+conscientiousness it is not surprising that they should be contemporary
+with larger works like the 2nd symphony, which are far more
+characteristic of his first manner. His whole development is entirely
+ruled by his determination to let nothing pass until it has been
+completely mastered, and long before this his sketch-books show that he
+had many ambitious ideas for a 1st symphony, and that it was a
+deliberate process that made his ambitions dwindle into something that
+could be safely realized in the masterly little comedy with which he
+began his orchestral career. The easy breadth and power of the 2nd
+symphony represents an amply sufficient advance, and leaves his forces
+free to develop in less expensive forms those vast energies for which
+afterwards the orchestra and the string-quartet were to become the
+natural field.
+
+In the "Waldstein" sonata, _op._ 53, we see Beethoven's second manner
+literally displacing his first; that is to say, we reach a state of
+things at which the two can no longer form an artistic contrast. The
+work, as we know it, is not only perfect, but has all the qualities of
+art in which the newest elements have long been familiar. The opening is
+on the same harmonic train of thought as that of the sonata, _op._ 31,
+No. 1, but there is no longer the slightest need for a paradoxical or
+jocular manner. On the contrary, the harmonies are held together by an
+orderly sequence in the bass, and the onrush is that of some calm
+diurnal energy of nature. The short introduction to the finale is
+harmonically and emotionally the most profound thing in the sonata,
+while the finale itself uses every new resource in the triumphant
+attainment of a leisure more splendid than any conceivable in the most
+spacious of Mozart's rondos. Yet it is well known that Beethoven
+originally intended the beautiful _andante_ in F, afterwards published
+separately, to be the slow movement of this sonata. That andante is,
+like the finale, a spacious and gorgeous rondo, which probably Beethoven
+himself could not have written at an earlier period. The modulation to D
+flat in its principal theme, and that to G flat near the end, are its
+chief harmonic effects and stand out in beautiful relief within its
+limits. After the first movement of the Waldstein sonata they would be
+flat and colourless. The sketch-books show that Beethoven, when he first
+planned the sonata, was by no means inattentive to the balance of
+harmonic colour in the whole scheme, but that at first he did not
+realize how far that scheme was going to carry him. He originally
+thought of the slow movement as in E major, a remote key to which,
+however, he soon assigned the more intimate position of complementary
+key in the first movement. He then worked at the slow movement in F with
+such zest that he did not discover until the whole sonata was finished
+that he had raised the first and last movements to an altogether higher
+plane of thought, though the redundancy of the two rondos in
+juxtaposition and the unusual length of the sonata were so obvious that
+his friends ventured to point them out. Beethoven's revision of his
+earliest works is now known to have been extensive and drastic; but this
+is the first instance, and _Fidelio_ and the quartet in B flat, _op._
+131, are the only other instances, of any later work needing important
+alteration after it was completely executed. From this point up to _op._
+101 we may study Beethoven's second manner entirely free from any
+survivals of his first, even as a legitimate contrast; though it is as
+impossible to fix a point before which his third manner cannot be traced
+as it is to ignore the premonitions of his second manner in his early
+works. The distinguishing features in Beethoven's second style are the
+result of a condition of art in which enormous new possibilities have
+become so well known that there is no need for stating them abruptly,
+paradoxically or emphatically, but also no need for working them out to
+remote conclusions. Hence these works have become for most people the
+best-known and best-loved type of classical music. In their perfect
+fusion of untranslatable dramatic emotion with every beauty of musical
+design and tone they have never been equalled, nor is it probable that
+any other art can show a wider range of thought embodied in a more
+perfect form. In music itself there is nothing else of so wide a range
+without grave artistic defects from which Beethoven is entirely free.
+Wagnerian opera aims at an ideal as truly artistic, and in so far of
+wider range than Beethoven's that it passes beyond the bounds of pure
+music altogether. Within those bounds Beethoven remained, and even the
+apparent exceptions (such as _Fidelio_ and his two great examples of
+"programme music," the _Pastoral Symphony_ and the sonata, _Les Adieux_)
+only show how universal his conception of pure music is. Extraneous
+ideas had here struck him as magnificent material for instrumental
+music, and he never troubled to argue whether instrumental music is the
+better or worse for expressing extraneous ideas. To describe the works
+of Beethoven's second period here would be to describe a library of
+well-known classics, and we must refer the reader for further details to
+the articles on SONATA FORMS, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS, HARMONY and
+INSTRUMENTATION. It remains for us to attempt to indicate the essential
+features of his third style, and to conclude with a survey of his
+influence on the history of music.
+
+Beethoven's third style arose imperceptibly from his second. His
+deafness had very little to do with it, for all his epoch-making
+discoveries in orchestral effect date from the time when he was already
+far too much inconvenienced to test them in a way which would satisfy
+any one who depended more upon his ear than upon his imagination. It is
+indeed highly probable that there are no important features in
+Beethoven's latest style that may not be paralleled by the tendencies of
+all great artists who have handled their material until it contains
+nothing that has not been long familiar with them. Such tendencies lead
+to an extreme simplicity of form, underlying an elaboration of detail
+which may at first seem bewildering until we realize that it is purely
+the working out to its logical conclusions of some idea as simple and
+natural as the form itself. The form, however, will be not merely
+simple, but individual. Different works will show such striking external
+differences of form that a criticism which applies merely _a priori_ or
+historic standards will be tempted by the fallacy that there is less
+form in a number of such markedly different works than in a number of
+works that have one scheme in common. All this is eminently the case
+with Beethoven's last works. The extreme simplicity of the themes of the
+first two movements of the quartet in B flat, _op._ 131, and the
+tremendous complexity of the texture into which they are woven, at first
+impress us as something mysterious and intangible rather than
+astonishing. The boldness with which the slow introduction is blended in
+broad statement and counter-statement with the _allegro_, is directly
+impressive, as is also the entry of the second subject with its dark
+harmony and tone, but the work needs long familiarity before its vast
+mass of thought reveals itself to us in its true lucidity. Such works
+are "dark with excessive bright." When we enter into them they are
+transparent as far as our vision extends, and their darkness is that of
+a depth that shines as we penetrate it. In all probability only a veil
+of familiarity prevents our finding the same kind of difficulty in
+Beethoven's earlier works. What is undoubtedly newest in the last works
+is the enormous development of those polyphonic elements which are
+always essential to the life of a composition, but which have very
+different functions and degrees of prominence in different forms and
+stages of the art. Polyphony inevitably draws attention to detail, and
+thus Beethoven in his middle period found its more obvious
+manifestations but little conducive to the breadth of designs which were
+not as yet sufficiently familiar to take any but the foremost place.
+Hence, among other interesting features of that second period, his
+marked preference for themes founded on rhythmic figures of one note,
+e.g. the famous "four taps" in the C minor symphony; an identical rhythm
+in a melodious theme of very different character in the G major
+concerto; a similar figure in the _Sonata Appassionata_; the first theme
+of the _scherzo_ of the F major quartet, _op._ 59, No. 1, and the
+drum-beats in the violin concerto. Such rhythms give thematic life to an
+inner part without causing it to assume such melodic interest as might
+distract the attention from the flow of the surface. But in proportion
+as polyphony loses its danger so does the prominence of such rhythmic
+figures decrease, until in Beethoven's last works they are no more
+noticeable than other kinds of simplicity. The impression of crowded
+detail is naturally more prominent the smaller the means with which
+Beethoven works and the less outwardly dramatic his thought. Thus those
+most gigantic of all musical designs, the 9th symphony, and the Mass in
+D, are, but for the mechanical difficulties of the choral writing,
+almost like works of the second period as far as direct impressiveness
+is concerned; and in the same way the enormous pianoforte sonata, _op._
+106, is in its first three movements easier to follow than the extremely
+terse and subtle works on a smaller scale that preceded it (sonata in A
+major, 101, and the two sonatas for violoncello, _op._ 102).
+
+His enormous development of polyphonic interest soon led Beethoven to
+employ the fugue, not only, as in previous works, by way of episodic
+contrast to passages and designs in which the form and not the texture
+is the main object of interest, but as the culminating expression of a
+condition or art in which the unity of form and texture is so perfect
+that the mind is free to concentrate itself on the texture alone. This
+union was not effected without a struggle, the traces of which present a
+close parallel to that abrupt emphasis which we noticed in some of
+Beethoven's early works. In his fugue-writing the notion that the chief
+interest lies in the texture is as yet so difficult to hold together
+with the perception that these fugues are based on a modern firmness and
+range of form, that the texture is forced upon the listener's attention
+by a continual series of ruthlessly logical bold strokes of harmony.
+From this and from the notorious violence of Beethoven's choral writing,
+and also from his well-known technical struggles in his years of
+pupilage, the easy inference has been drawn that Beethoven never was a
+great master of counterpoint, an inference that is absolutely
+irreconcilable with such plain facts as, to take but one early example,
+the brilliant piece of triple counterpoint in the _andante_ of the
+string quartet in C minor, _op._ 18, No. 4, and the complete absence of
+anything like crudeness in his handling of harmonics, basses or inner
+parts at any period of his career. Beethoven may have mastered some
+things with difficulty, but he mastered nothing incompletely; and where
+he is not orthodox it is safest to conclude that orthodoxy is wrong. Had
+he lived for another ten years he would certainly have produced an
+immense amount of choral work, and with it many other great instrumental
+works in which this last remaining element of conflict between texture
+and form would have dwindled away. But while this would doubtless result
+in such work being easier to follow and might even have given us a
+version of the great fugue, _op._ 133 (discarded from the
+string-quartet, _op._ 131), that did not surpass the bounds of practical
+performance, it would yet be no sound criterion by which to stigmatize
+as an immaturity the roughness of the polyphonic works that we know.
+That roughness is, like the abrupt epigrammatic manner of some of his
+early works, the necessary condition in which such material realizes
+mature expression. Without it that material could receive but the
+academic handling of a dead language. And by it was created that
+permanent reconciliation of polyphony and form from which has arisen
+almost all that is true in "Romantic" music, all that is peculiar to the
+thematic technique of Wagnerian opera, and all the perfect smoothness of
+Brahms's polyphony.
+
+The incalculable depth of thought and closeness of texture in
+Beethoven's later works are, of course, the embodiment of a no less
+incalculable emotional power. If we at times feel that the last quartets
+are more introspective than dramatic, that is only because Beethoven's
+dramatic sense is higher than we can realize. The subject is too large
+and too subtle for dogmatism to be profitable; and we cannot in
+Beethoven's case, as we can in Bach's, cite a complete series of
+illustrations of his musical ideas from his treatment in choral music
+of words which themselves interpret the intention of the composer. There
+is so little but the music itself by which one can express Beethoven's
+thought, that the utmost we can do here is to refer the reader, as
+before, to the articles on SONATA FORMS, HARMONY, INSTRUMENTATION, OPERA
+and MUSIC, where he will find further attempts to indicate in what sense
+pure music can be described as dramatic and expressive of emotion.
+
+As our range of investigation widens, and thoroughness of analysis and
+study increases, so we shall surely find in ourselves an ever-deepening
+conviction that Beethoven, whether in range, depth and truth of thought,
+perfect sense of beauty, or absolute conscientiousness of execution, is
+the greatest musician, perhaps the greatest artist, that ever lived.
+There is no means of measuring Beethoven's influence upon subsequent
+music. Every composer of every school claims it. The immense changes he
+brought about in the range of music have their most obvious effect in
+the possibilities of emotional expression; and so any outbreak of
+vulgarity or sentimentality can with impunity claim descent from
+Beethoven, though its ancestry may be no higher than Meyerbeer. Again,
+we have already referred to that confusion of thought which regards a
+series of works markedly different in form as containing less form than
+any number of works cast in one mould. Hence the works of Beethoven's
+third period have been cited in defence of more than one "revolution,"
+attempted in a form which never existed in any true classic, for the
+purpose of setting up something the revolutionist has not yet succeeded
+in inventing. To measure Beethoven's influence is like measuring
+Shakespeare's. It is an influence either too vaguely universal to name
+or too profoundly artistic to analyse. Perhaps the truest account of it
+would be that which ignored its presence in the works of ill-balanced
+artists, or even in the works of those who profited merely by an
+increase of technical and harmonic resource which, though effected by
+Beethoven, would, after the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars,
+almost certainly have to some extent arisen from sheer necessity of
+finding expression for the new experience of humanity, if Beethoven had
+never existed. Setting aside, then, all instances of mere domination,
+and of a permanently established new world of musical thought, and
+omitting Schubert and Weber as contemporaries, the one attracted and the
+other partly repelled, we may, perhaps, take three later composers,
+Schumann, Wagner and Brahms, as the leading examples of the way in which
+Beethoven's influence is definitely traceable as a creative force. The
+depth and solemnity of Beethoven's melody and later polyphonic richness
+is a leading source of Schumann's inspiration, though Schumann's
+artistic schemes exclude any high degree of formal organization on a
+large scale. Beethoven's late polyphony is carried on by Brahms to the
+point at which perfect smoothness of style is once more possible, and
+there is no aspect of his form which Brahms neglects or fails to realize
+with that complete originality which has nothing to fear from its
+ancestry. Wagner does not handle the same art-forms; his task is
+different, but Beethoven was the inspiring source, not only of his
+purely musical sense, but also of his whole sense of dramatic contrast
+and fitness. When he had shaken off the influence of Meyerbeer, which
+has so often been confused with that of Beethoven, there remained to
+him, pre-eminently in his music and more imperfectly realized in his
+drama, a power of combining contrasted emotions such as is the privilege
+of only the very greatest dramatic artists. Bach and Beethoven are the
+sources of the polyphonic means of expression by which he attains this.
+Beethoven alone is the extraneous source of his knowledge that it was
+possible. And it is as certain as anything in the history of art that
+there will never be a time when Beethoven's work does not occupy the
+central place in a sound musical mind.
+
+
+ANNOTATED LIST OF BEETHOVEN'S WORKS
+
+  Up to 1823 we give in most cases the dates of publication, the date of
+  composition being generally from one to three years earlier. Beethoven
+  seldom had less than a dozen projects in hand at once, and their
+  immediate chronology is inextricable; whereas publication generally
+  means final revision. This list is purposely incomplete in order that
+  unimportant works may not distract attention, even when they are late
+  and on a large scale.
+
+  Sonata = Pianoforte sonata.
+  Violin or violoncello sonata = for pianoforte, V. or Vc.
+  Pianoforte trio = Pfte., V., Vc.
+  Pianoforte quartet = Pfte., V., viola and Vc.
+  String trio = V., Va., Vc.
+  String quartet = VV., Va. and Vc.
+  Pianoforte or violin concerto = Concerto with orchestra.
+
+  1785. 3 pfte. quartets, of which the third contains important
+    material for the sonatas, _op._ 2, Nos. 1 and 3. (Thayer's attribution
+    of the masterly bagatelles, _op._ 33, published 1803, to this period
+    can only be rationalized by some similar rough first idea.)
+
+  1790. 24 variations on an air by Righini (published 1801). A very
+    remarkable work, anticipating Schumann's _Papillons_ in its humorous
+    close. It was Beethoven's chief early _tour-de-force_ in pianoforte
+    playing.
+
+  1795. 3 pfte. trios, _op._ 1 (E-flat, G, C minor).
+
+  1796. 3 pfte. sonatas, _op._ 2 (F minor, A and C, dedicated to Haydn).
+
+  1797. String trio, _op._ 3, 2 violoncello sonatas, _op._ 5, F and G
+    mi., sonata, _op._ 7, E-flat.
+
+  1798. 3 string trios, _op._ 9; G, D, C mi., 3 sonatas, _op._ 10 (C mi.,
+    F, D). Trio for pfte., clarinet and violoncello in B-flat, _op._ 11.
+
+  1799. 3 violin sonatas (D, A, E-flat), _op._ 12. Pfte. sonata
+    (_Pathetique_ not Beethoven's title) C mi., _op._ 13, 2 pfte.
+    sonatas, _op._ 14, E, G (the first arranged by the composer as a
+    string quartet in F).
+
+  1801. Pianoforte concertos, _op._ 15 in C, _op._ 19 in B-flat (the
+    latter composed first). Quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments,
+    _op._ 16 (also arranged, with new details, as quartet for pianoforte
+    and strings), composed 1797. 6 string quartets, _op._ 18 (F, G, D, C
+    mi., A, B-flat). 1st symphony (C), _op._ 21. 2 violin sonatas, A mi.,
+    _op._ 23; F ma., _op._ 24 (made into two opus-numbers by an accident
+    in the _format_ of the volumes).
+
+  1802. Pianoforte score of the _Prometheus_ ballet, _op._ 24 (ousted
+    by the F ma. violin sonata, and reissued as _op._ 43). Sonata in
+    B-flat, _op._ 22. Sonata in A-flat, _op._ 26 (with the funeral march).
+    2 sonatas ("quasi fantasia"), _op._ 27, E-flat, C-sharp mi. Sonata in
+    D, _op._ 28 (_Pastorale_ not Beethoven's title). String quintet in C,
+    _op._ 29.
+
+  1803. 3 violin sonatas, _op._ 30 (A, C mi., G). 3 sonatas, _op._ 31,
+    G, D mi., E-flat (the last appearing in 1804). Variations, _op._ 34.
+    15 variations and fugue on theme from _Prometheus_, _op._ 35.
+
+  1804. 2nd symphony (D), _op._ 36 (1802). 3rd pfte. concerto (C mi.),
+    _op._ 37 (1800).
+
+  1805. The "Kreutzer" sonata, _op._ 47, for pfte. and violin (A) (finale
+    at first intended for _op._ 30, No. 1). "Waldstein" sonata for pfte.,
+    _op._ 53 (C). First version of opera _Leonore_ in three acts (with
+    overture "No. 2").
+
+  1806. Sonata in F, _op._ 54. _Eroica Symphony_, No. 3, _op._ 55
+    (E-flat), written in 1804 in honour of Napoleon Bonaparte. It was
+    just finished when news arrived that Napoleon had made himself
+    emperor, and Beethoven was with difficulty restrained from destroying
+    the score. It is still the longest extant perfect design in
+    instrumental music. The finale glorifies the material (and much of
+    the form) of the variations, _op._ 35. The _scherzo_ is the first
+    full-sized example of Beethoven's special type. _Leonore_ reproduced
+    in two acts with overture No. 3. 32 variations in C mi. (no
+    opus-number, but a very important work on the lines of a modernized
+    _chaconne_).
+
+  1807. Triple concerto (pfte., V. and Vc.), _op._ 56, chiefly
+    interesting as a study for the true concerto-form which had given
+    Beethoven difficulty. Sonata, _op._ 57 (F mi., _Appassionata_, not
+    Beethoven's title). New overture, _Leonore_, "No. 1," composed for
+    projected performance of the opera at Prague (posthumously published
+    as _op._ 138).
+
+  1808. 4th pfte. concerto, _op._ 58 (G). 3 string quartets, _op._ 59,
+    F, E mi., C (dedicated to Count Rasoumovsky, in compliment to whom
+    Russian tunes appear in the finale of No. 1 and the _scherzo_ of No.
+    2). Overture to _Coriolanus_, _op._ 62.
+
+  1809. 4th symphony, _op._ 60 (B-flat). Violin concerto (D), _op._ 61
+    (also arranged by the composer for pianoforte). 5th symphony, _op._
+    67 (C mi.) (1806), the first in which trombones appear. 6th symphony
+    (Pastorale), _op._ 68; violoncello sonata, _op._ 69 (A). 2 pianoforte
+    trios, _op._ 70 (D, E-flat).
+
+  1810. Pianoforte score of _Leonore_ (2nd version) published. String
+    quartet, _op._ 74 (E-flat, called "Harp" because of _pizzicato_
+    passages in first movement). Fantasia, _op._ 77, interesting as
+    consisting of a long and capricious series of dramatic beginnings and
+    breakings off of themes, as if in search for a firm idea, which is at
+    last found and developed as a set of variations. This scheme thus
+    foreshadows the choral finale of the 9th symphony even more
+    significantly than the Choral Fantasia.
+
+    Sonata, _op._ 78, F-sharp (extremely terse and subtle, and a great
+    favourite with Beethoven, who preferred it to the C-sharp mi.).
+
+  1811. 5th pfte. concerto, _op._ 73, E-flat (_The Emperor_ not
+    Beethoven's title). Fantasia for pfte., orchestra and chorus, _op._
+    80. Sonata, _op._ 81a (_Les Adieux, l'absence, et le retour_), first
+    movement written when the archduke Rudolph had to leave Vienna (4th
+    May 1809), and the rest on his return on the 30th of January 1810. It
+    was an anxious time both for Beethoven and his excellent royal
+    friend, for whom he had great affection. (Battle of Wagram, 6th July
+    1809.) (We may here note that _op._ 81b is an unimportant and very
+    early sextet.) The overture to _Egmont_, _op._ 84; _Christus am
+    Oelberge_ (the Mount of Olives), _op._ 85, oratorio (probably
+    composed between 1800 and its first performance in 1803).
+
+  1812. The rest of the _Egmont_ music, _op._ 84. 1st mass, _op._ 87 (C)
+    (first performance, 1807).
+
+  1814. Final version of _Leonore_, performed as _Fidelio_ with great
+    alterations, skilful revision of the libretto, very important new
+    material in the music and a new overture.
+
+  1815. Sonata, _op._ 90 (E mi.).
+
+  1816. 7th symphony, _op._ 92 (A); 8th symphony, _op._ 93 (F)
+    (Beethoven was planning a group of three of which the last was to be
+    in D mi., which we shall find significant). String quartet, _op._ 95
+    (F mi.). Violin sonata, _op._ 96 (G). Pianoforte trio, _op._ 97
+    (B-flat); _Liederkreis_, _op._ 98.
+
+  1817. Sonata, _op._ 101 (the first indisputably in Beethoven's "third
+    manner"). 2 violoncello sonatas, _op._ 102 (C, D, the second
+    containing Beethoven's first modern instrumental strict fugue).
+
+  1819. Arrangement for string quintet, _op._ 104, of C mi. trio, _op._
+    1, No. 3 (a wonderful study in translation, comparable only to Bach's
+    arrangements and very unlike Beethoven's former essays of the kind).
+    Sonata, _op._ 106 (B-flat), the largest and most symphonic pianoforte
+    work extant, surpassed in length only by Bach's _Goldberg_ variations
+    and Beethoven's 33 variations on Diabelli's waltz.
+
+  1821. 25 Scotch songs accompanied by pfte., V. and Vc., _op._ 108
+    (the first set of a large and much neglected collection, mostly
+    posthumous, many of great interest and beauty and very Beethovenish,
+    which has shocked persons who expect sympathetic insight into
+    folk-music to prevail over Beethoven's artistic impulse). Sonata,
+    _op._ 109 (E).
+
+  1822. Sonata, _op._ 110 (A-flat). Overture, _Die Weihe des Hauses_,
+    _op._ 124 (C), a magnificent essay in orchestral free fugue,
+    published 1825.
+
+  1823. Sonata, _op._ 111 (C mi., the last pianoforte sonata). 33
+    variations on a waltz by Diabelli, who sent his waltz round to
+    fifty-one musicians in Austria asking each to contribute a variation;
+    the whole to be published for the benefit of the widows and orphans
+    left by the war. Beethoven answered with the greatest set ever
+    written, and it was published in a separate volume. Among the other
+    fifty composers were Schubert and an infant prodigy of eleven, Franz
+    Liszt! The mass in D (_Missa Solemnis_), _op._ 123, begun in 1818 for
+    the installation of the archduke Rudolph as archbishop of Olmutz, was
+    not finished until 1826, two years after the installation. The 9th
+    symphony, _op._ 125 D mi. (see note on 7th and 8th symphonies);
+    sketches begun 1817; project of setting Schiller's _Freude_ already
+    in Beethoven's mind before he left Bonn. 6 bagatelles, _op._ 126,
+    Beethoven's last pianoforte work a very remarkable and unaccountably
+    neglected group of carefully contrasted lyric pieces.
+
+  1824. String quartet, _op._ 127 (E-flat, published 1826).
+
+  1825. String quartet, _op._ 130 (B-flat), with finale, _op._ 133
+    (grand fugue); string quartet, _op._ 132 (A mi., with slow movement
+    in Lydian mode, a _Heiliger Dankgesang_ on recovery from illness.
+    Theme of finale first thought of as for instrumental finale to 9th
+    symphony).
+
+  1826. String quartet, _op._ 131 (C-sharp, mi.). String quartet, op.
+    135 (F). New finale to _op._ 130, Beethoven's last composition.
+         (D. F. T.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A.W. Thayer, _Beethovens Leben_ (1866-1879); L. Nohl,
+  _Life of Beethoven_ (Eng. trans., 1884), and _Letters_ (Eng. trans.,
+  1866); Sir G. Grove, _Beethoven and his Symphonies_ (1896), and in
+  Grove's _Dictionary of Music_.
+
+
+
+
+BEETLE (O. Eng. _bityl_; connected with "bite"), a name commonly applied
+to those insects which possess horny wing-cases; it is used to denote
+the cockroaches (q.v.) (black beetles), as well as the true beetles or
+_Coleoptera_ (q.v.), the two belonging to different orders of _Insecta_.
+
+The adjective "beetle-browed," and similarly "beetling" (of a cliff),
+are derived from the name of the insect. From another word (O. Eng.
+_betel_, connected with "beat") comes "beetle" in the sense of a mallet,
+and the "beetling-machine," which subjects fabrics to a hammering
+process.
+
+
+
+
+BEETS, NIKOLAAS (1814-1903), Dutch poet, was born at Haarlem on the 13th
+of September 1814; constant references in his poems and sketches show
+how deeply the beauty of that town and its neighbourhood impressed his
+imagination. He studied theology in Leiden, but gave himself early to
+the cultivation of poetry. In his youth Beets was entirely carried away
+on the tide of Byronism which was then sweeping over Europe, and his
+early works--_Jose_ (1834), _Kuser_ (1835) and _Guy de Vlaming_
+(1837)--are gloomy romances of the most impassioned type. But at the
+very same time he was beginning in prose the composite work of humour
+and observation which has made him famous, and which certainly had
+nothing that was in the least Byronic about it. This was the celebrated
+_Camera Obscura_ (1839), the most successful imaginative work which any
+Dutchman of the 18th century produced. This work, published under the
+pseudonym of "Hildebrand," goes back in its earliest inception to the
+year 1835, when Beets was only twenty-one. It consists of complete short
+stories, descriptive sketches, studies of peasant life--all instinct
+with humour and pathos, and written in a style of great charm; it has
+been reprinted in countless editions. Beets became a professor at the
+university of Leiden, and the pastor of a congregation in that city. In
+middle life he published further collections of verse--_Cornflowers_
+(1853) and _New Poems_ (1857)--in which the romantic melancholy was
+found to have disappeared, and to have left in its place a gentle
+sentiment and a depth of religious feeling. In 1873-1875 Beets collected
+his works in three volumes. In April 1883 the honorary degree of LL.D.
+Edin. was conferred upon him. He died at Utrecht on the 13th of March
+1903.
+
+
+
+
+BEFANA (Ital., corrupted from _Epifania_, Epiphany), the Italian female
+counterpart of Santa Claus, the Christmas benefactor (St Nicholas). On
+Epiphany, or Twelfth Night, she plays the fairy godmother to the
+children, filling their stockings with presents. Tradition relates that
+she was too busy with house duties to come to the window to see the
+Three Wise Men of the East pass on their journey to pay adoration to the
+Saviour, excusing herself on the ground that she could see them on their
+return. They went back another way, and Befana is alleged to have been
+punished by being obliged to look for them for ever. Her legends seem to
+be rather mixed, for in spite of her Santa Claus character, her name is
+used by Italian mothers as a bogey to frighten the babies. It was the
+custom to carry her effigy through Italian towns on the eve of the
+Epiphany.
+
+
+
+
+BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL (1757-1811), French dramatist and man of
+letters, was born at Laon on the 6th of November 1757. Under the name of
+"Cousin Jacques" he founded a periodical called _Les Lunes_ (1785-1787).
+The _Courrier des planetes ou Correspondance du Cousin Jacques avec le
+firmament_ (1788-1792) followed. _Nicodeme dans la lune, ou la
+revolution pacifique_ (1790) a three-act farce, is said to have had more
+than four hundred representations. In spite of his protests against the
+evils of the Revolution he escaped interference through the influence of
+his brother, Louis Etienne Beffroy, who was a member of the Convention.
+Of _La Petite Nanette_ (1795) and several other operas he wrote both the
+words and the music. His _Dictionnaire neologique_ (3 vols., 1795-1800)
+of the chief actors and events in the Revolution was interdicted by the
+police and remained incomplete. Beffroy spent his last years in
+retirement, dying in Paris on the 17th of December 1811.
+
+
+
+
+BEGAS, KARL (1794-1854), German historical painter, was born at
+Heinsberg near Aix-la-Chapelle. His father, a retired judge, destined
+him for the legal profession, but the boy's tastes pointed definitely in
+another direction. Even at school he was remarked for his wonderful
+skill in drawing and painting, and in 1812 he was permitted to visit
+Paris in order to perfect himself in his art. He studied for eighteen
+months in the atelier of Gros and then began to work independently. In
+1814 his copy of the Madonna della Sedia was bought by the king of
+Prussia, who was attracted by the young artist and did much to advance
+him. He was engaged to paint several large Biblical pictures, and in
+1825, after his return from Italy, continued to produce paintings which
+were placed in the churches of Berlin and Potsdam. Some of these were
+historical pieces, but the majority were representations of Scriptural
+incidents. Begas was also celebrated as a portrait-painter, and supplied
+to the royal gallery a long series of portraits of eminent Prussian men
+of letters. At his death he held the post of court painter at Berlin.
+His son OSKAR (1828-1883) was also a painter and professor of painting
+at Berlin. REINHOLD, the sculptor, is noticed below.
+
+
+
+
+BEGAS, REINHOLD (1831-   ), German sculptor, younger son of Karl Begas,
+the painter, was born at Berlin on the 15th of July 1831. He received
+his early education (1846-1851) in the ateliers of C.D. Rauch and L.
+Wichmann. During a period of study in Italy, from 1856 to 1858, he was
+influenced by Bocklin and Lenbach in the direction of a naturalistic
+style in sculpture. This tendency was marked in the group "Borussia,"
+executed for the facade of the exchange in Berlin, which first brought
+him into general notice. In 1861 he was appointed professor at the art
+school at Weimar, but retained the appointment only a few months. That
+he was chosen, after competition, to execute the statue of Schiller for
+the Gendarmen Markt in Berlin, was a high tribute to the fame he had
+already acquired; and the result, one of the finest statues in the
+German metropolis, entirely justified his selection. Since the year
+1870, Begas has entirely dominated the plastic art in Prussia, but
+especially in Berlin. Among his chief works during this period are the
+colossal statue of Borussia for the Hall of Glory; the Neptune fountain
+in bronze on the Schlossplatz; the statue of Alexander von Humboldt, all
+in Berlin; the sarcophagus of the emperor Frederick III. in the
+mausoleum of the Friedenskirche at Potsdam; and, lastly, the national
+monument to the emperor William (see BERLIN), the statue of Bismarck
+before the Reichstag building, and several of the statues in the
+Siegesallee. He was also entrusted with the execution of the sarcophagus
+of the empress Frederick.
+
+  See A.G. Meyer, "Reinhold Begas" in _Kunstler-Monographien_, ed. H.
+  Knackfuss, Heft xx. (Bielefeld, 1897; new ed., 1901).
+
+
+
+
+BEGGAR, one who begs, particularly one who gains his living by asking
+the charitable contributions of others. The word, with the verbal form
+"to beg," in Middle English _beggen_, is of obscure history. The words
+appear first in English in the 13th century, and were early connected
+with "bag," with reference to the receptacle for alms carried by the
+beggars. The most probable derivation of the word, and that now
+generally accepted, is that it is a corruption of the name of the lay
+communities known as Beguines and Beghards, which, shortly after their
+establishment, followed the friars in the practice of mendicancy (see
+BEGUINES). It has been suggested, however, that the origin of "beg" and
+"beggars" is to be found in a rare Old English word, _bedecian_, of the
+same meaning, which is apparently connected with the Gothic _bidjan_,
+cf. German _betteln_; but between the occurrence of _bedecian_ at the
+end of the 9th century and the appearance of "beggar" and "beg" in the
+13th, there is a blank, and no explanation can be given of the great
+change in form. For the English law relating to begging and its history,
+see CHARITY, POOR LAW and VAGRANCY.
+
+
+
+
+BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR, a simple card-game. An ordinary pack is divided
+equally between two players, and the cards are held with the backs
+upwards. The first player lays down his top card face up, and the
+opponent plays his top card on it, and this goes on alternately as long
+as no court-card appears; but if either player turns up a court-card,
+his opponent has to play four ordinary cards to an ace, three to a king,
+two to a queen, one to a knave, and when he has done so the other player
+takes all the cards on the table and places them under his pack; if,
+however, in the course of this playing to a court-card, another
+court-card turns up, the adversary has in turn to play to this, and as
+long as neither has played a full number of ordinary cards to any
+court-card the trick continues. The player who gets all the cards into
+his hand is the winner.
+
+
+
+
+BEGONIA (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany), a large genus
+(natural order, Begoniaceae) of succulent herbs or undershrubs, with
+about three hundred and fifty species in tropical moist climates,
+especially South America and India. About one hundred and fifty species
+are known in cultivation, and innumerable varieties and hybrid forms.
+Many are tuberous. The flowers are usually showy and large, white, rose,
+scarlet or yellow in colour; they are unisexual, the male containing
+numerous stamens, the female having a large inferior ovary and two to
+four branched or twisted stigmas. The fruit is a winged capsule
+containing numerous minute seeds. The leaves, which are often large and
+variegated, are unequal-sided.
+
+Cuttings from flowering begonias root freely in sandy soil, if placed in
+heat at any season when moderately firm; as soon as rooted, they should
+be potted singly into 3-in. pots, in sandy loam mixed with leaf-mould
+and sand. They should be stopped to keep them bushy, placed in a light
+situation, and thinly shaded in the middle of very bright days. In a few
+weeks they will require another shift. They should not be overpotted,
+but instead assisted by manure water. The pots should be placed in a
+light pit near the roof glass. The summer-flowering kinds will soon
+begin blooming, but the autumn and winter flowering sorts should be kept
+growing on in a temperature of from 55 deg. to 60 deg. by night, with a
+few degrees more in the day. The tuberous-rooted sorts require to be
+kept at rest in winter, in a medium temperature, almost but not quite
+dry. In February they should be potted in a compost of sandy loam and
+leaf-mould, and placed in a temperate pit until May or June, when they
+may be moved to the greenhouse for flowering. If they afterwards get at
+all pot-bound, weak manure should be applied. After blooming, the supply
+of water must be again slackened; in winter the plants should be stored
+in a dry place secure from frost; they are increased by late summer and
+autumn cuttings, after being partially cut down.
+
+
+
+
+BEGUINES (Fr. _beguine_, Med. Lat. _beguina, begina, beghina_), at the
+present time the name of the members of certain lay sisterhoods
+established in the Netherlands and Germany, the enclosed district within
+which they live being known as a beguinage (Lat. _beginagium_). The
+equivalent male communities, called also Beguines (Fr. _beguins_, Lat.
+_beguini_), but more usually Beghards (Lat. _baghardi, beggardi,
+begehardi_, &c., O. Fr. _begard-i_, Flem. _beggaert_), have long ceased
+to exist. The origin of the names Beguine and Beghard has been the
+subject of much controversy. In the 15th century a legend arose that
+both name and organization were traceable to St Begga, daughter of
+Pippin of Landen, who consequently in 1630 was chosen by the Beguines as
+the patron saint of their association. In 1630 a professor of Louvain,
+Erycius Puteanus (van Putte), published a treatise, _De Begginarum apud
+Belgas instituto et nomine suffragium_, in which he produced three
+documents purporting to date from the 11th and 12th centuries, which
+seemed conclusively to prove that the Beguines existed long before
+Lambert le Begue. For two centuries these were accepted as genuine and
+are admitted as such even in the monumental work of Mosheim. In 1843,
+however, they were conclusively proved by the German scholar Hallmann,
+from internal evidence, to be forgeries of the 14th and 15th centuries.
+It is now universally admitted that both the institution and the name of
+the Beguines are derived from Lambert le Begue, who died about the year
+1187. The confusion caused by the spurious documents of Puteanus,
+however, led, even when the legend of St Begga was rejected, to other
+suggestions for the derivation of the name, e.g. from an imaginary old
+Saxon word _beggen_, "to beg" or "pray," an explanation adopted even by
+Mosheim, or from _begue_, "stammering," a French word of unknown origin,
+which only brings us back to Lambert again, whose name of Le Begue, as
+the chronicler Aegidius, a monk of Orval (Aureae Vallis), tells us,
+simply means "the stammerer," _quia balbus erat_ (_Gesta pontificum
+Leodiensium, c_. A.D. 1251). Doubtless this coincidence gave a ready
+handle to the scoffing wits of the time, and among the numerous popular
+names given to the Beghards--_bons garcons, boni pueri, boni valeti_ and
+the like--we find also that of Lollards (from Flemish _lollen_, "to
+stammer").
+
+About the year 1170 Lambert le Begue, a priest of Liege, who had devoted
+his fortune to founding the hospital and church of St Christopher for
+the widows and children of crusaders, conceived the idea of establishing
+an association of women, who, without taking the monastic vows, should
+devote themselves to a life of religion. The effect of his preaching was
+immense, and large numbers of women, many of them left desolate by the
+loss of their husbands on crusade, came under the influence of a
+movement which was attended with all the manifestations of what is now
+called a "revival." About the year 1180 Lambert gathered some of these
+women, who had been ironically styled "Beguines" by his opponents, into
+a semi-conventual community, which he established in a quarter of the
+city belonging to him around his church of St Christopher. The district
+was surrounded by a wall within which the Beguines lived in separate
+small houses, subject to no rule save the obligation of good works, and
+of chastity so long as they remained members of the community. After
+Lambert's death (c. 1187?) the movement rapidly spread, first in the
+Netherlands and afterwards in France--where it was encouraged by the
+saintly Louis IX.--Germany, Switzerland and the countries beyond.
+Everywhere the community was modelled on the type established at Liege.
+It constituted a little city within the city, with separate houses, and
+usually a church, hospital and guest-house, the whole being under the
+government of a mistress (_magistra_). Women of all classes were
+admitted; and, though there was no rule of poverty, many wealthy women
+devoted their riches to the common cause. The Beguines did not beg; and,
+when the endowments of the community were not sufficient, the poorer
+members had to support themselves by manual work, sick-nursing and the
+like.
+
+The Beguine communities were fruitful soil for the missionary enterprise
+of the friars, and in the course of the 13th century the communities in
+France, Germany and upper Italy had fallen under the influence of the
+Dominicans and Franciscans to such an extent that in the Latin-speaking
+countries the tertiaries of these orders were commonly called _beguini_
+and _beguinae_. The very looseness of their organization, indeed, made
+it inevitable that the Beguine associations should follow very diverse
+developments. Some of them retained their original character; others
+fell completely under the dominion of the friars, and were ultimately
+converted into houses of Dominican, Franciscan or Augustinian
+tertiaries; others again fell under the influence of the mystic
+movements of the 13th century, turned in increasing numbers from work to
+mendicancy (as being nearer the Christ-life), practised the most cruel
+self-tortures, and lapsed into extravagant heresies that called down
+upon them the condemnation of popes and councils.[1] All this tended to
+lower the reputation of the Beguines. During the 14th century, indeed,
+numerous new beguinages were established; but ladies of rank and wealth
+ceased to enter them, and they tended to become more and more mere
+almshouses for poor women. By the 15th century in many cases they had
+utterly sunk in reputation, their obligation to nurse the sick was quite
+neglected, and they had, rightly or wrongly, acquired the reputation of
+being mere nests of beggars and women of ill fame. At the Reformation
+the communities were suppressed in Protestant countries, but in some
+Catholic countries they still survive. The beguinages found here and
+there in Germany are now simply almshouses for poor spinsters, those in
+Holland (e.g. at Amsterdam and Breda) and Belgium preserve more
+faithfully the characteristics of earlier days. The beguinage of St
+Elizabeth at Ghent has some thousand sisters, and occupies quite a
+distinct quarter of the city, being surrounded by a wall and moat. The
+Beguines wear the old Flemish head-dress and a dark costume, and are
+conspicuous for their kindness among the poor and their sick nursing.
+
+It is uncertain whether the parallel communities of men originated also
+with Lambert le Begue. The first records are of communities at Louvain
+in 1220 and at Antwerp in 1228. The history of the male communities is
+to a certain extent parallel with the female, but they were never so
+numerous and their degeneration was far more rapid. The earliest Flemish
+Beghard communities were associations mainly of artisans who earned
+their living by weaving and the like, and appear to have been in
+intimate connexion with the craft-gilds; but under the influence of the
+mendicant movement of the 13th century these tended to break up, and,
+though certain of the male beguinages survived or were incorporated as
+tertiaries in the orders of friars, the name of Beghard became
+associated with groups of wandering mendicants who made religion a cloak
+for living on charity; _beguigner_ becoming in the French language of
+the time synonymous with "to beg," and _beghard_ with "beggar," a word
+which, according to the latest authorities, was probably imported into
+England in the 13th century from this source (see BEGGAR). More serious
+still, from the point of view of the Church, was the association of
+these wandering mendicants with the mystic heresies of the Fraticelli,
+the Apostolici and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit. The
+situation was embittered by the hatred of the secular clergy for the
+friars, with whom the Beguines were associated. Restrictions were placed
+upon them by the synod of Fritzlar (1269), by that of Mainz (1281) and
+Eichstatt (1281). and by the synod of Beziers (1299) they were
+absolutely forbidden. They were again condemned by a synod held at
+Cologne in 1306; and at the synod of Trier in 1310 a decree was passed
+against those "who under a pretext of feigned religion call themselves
+Beghards ... and, hating manual labour, go about begging, holding
+conventicles and posing among simple people as interpreters of the
+Scriptures." Matters came to a climax at the council of Vienne in 1311
+under Pope Clement V., where the "sect of Beguines and Beghards" were
+accused of being the main instruments of the spread of heresy, and
+decrees were passed suppressing their organization and demanding their
+severe punishment. The decrees were put into execution by Pope John
+XXII., and a persecution raged in which, though the pope expressly
+protected the female Beguine communities of the Netherlands, there was
+little discrimination between the orthodox and unorthodox Beguines. This
+led to the utmost confusion, the laity in many cases taking the part of
+the Beguine communities, and the Church being thus brought into conflict
+with the secular authorities. In these circumstances the persecution
+died down; it was, however, again resumed between 1366 and 1378 by Popes
+Urban V. and Gregory XI., and the Beguines were not formally reinstated
+until the pontificate of Eugenius IV. (1431-1447). The male communities
+did not survive the 14th century, even in the Netherlands, where they
+had maintained their original character least impaired.
+
+  See J.L. von Mosheirn, _De beghardis et beguinabus commentarius_
+  (Leipzig, 1790); E. Hallmann, _Die Geschichte des Ursprungs der
+  belgischen Beghinen_ (Berlin, 1843); J.C.L. Giesclcr, _Eccles. Hist._
+  (vol. iii., Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853), with useful excerpts from
+  documents; Du Cange, _Glossarium_; Herzog-Haurk, _Realencyklopadie_
+  (3rd ed., 1897) s. "Beginen," by Herman Haupt, where numerous further
+  authorities are cited.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the year 1287 the council of Liege decreed that "all Beguinae
+    desiring to enjoy the Beguine privileges shall enter a Beguinage, and
+    we order that all who remain outside the Beguinage shall wear a dress
+    to distinguish them from the Beguinae."
+
+
+
+
+BEHAIM (or BEHEM), MARTIN (1436?-1507), a navigator and geographer of
+great pretensions, was born at Nuremberg, according to one tradition,
+about 1436; according to Ghillany, as late as 1459. He was drawn to
+Portugal by participation in Flanders trade, and acquired a scientific
+reputation at the court of John II. As a pupil, real or supposed, of the
+astronomer "Regiomontanus" (i.e. Johann Muller of Konigsberg in
+Franconia) he became (c. 1480) a member of a council appointed by King
+John for the furtherance of navigation. His alleged introduction of the
+cross-staff into Portugal (an invention described by the Spanish Jew,
+Levi ben Gerson, in the 14th century) is a matter of controversy; his
+improvements in the astrolabe were perhaps limited to the introduction
+of handy brass instruments in place of cumbrous wooden ones; it seems
+likely that he helped to prepare better navigation tables than had yet
+been known in the Peninsula. In 1484-1485 he claimed to have accompanied
+Diogo Cao in his second expedition to West Africa, really undertaken in
+1485-86, reaching Cabo Negro in 15 deg. 40' S. and Cabo Ledo still
+farther on. It is now disputed whether Behaim's pretensions here deserve
+any belief; and it is suggested that instead of sharing in this great
+voyage of discovery, the Nuremberger only sailed to the nearer coasts of
+Guinea, perhaps as far as the Bight of Benin, and possibly with Jose
+Visinho the astronomer and with Joao Affonso d'Aveiro, in 1484-86.
+Martin's later history, as traditionally recorded, was as follows. On
+his return from his West African exploration to Lisbon he was knighted
+by King John, who afterwards employed him in various capacities; but,
+from the time of his marriage in 1486, he usually resided at Fayal in
+the Azores, where his father-in-law, Jobst van Huerter, was governor of
+a Flemish colony. On a visit to his native city in 1492, he constructed
+his famous terrestrial globe, still preserved in Nuremberg, and often
+reproduced, in which the influence of Ptolemy is strongly apparent, but
+wherein some attempt is also made to incorporate the discoveries of the
+later middle ages (Marco Polo, &c.). The antiquity of this globe and the
+year of its execution, on the eve of the discovery of America, are
+noteworthy; but as a scientific work it is unimportant, ranking far
+below the _portolani_ charts of the 14th century. Its West Africa is
+marvellously incorrect; the Cape Verde archipelago lies hundreds of
+miles out of its proper place; and the Atlantic is filled with fabulous
+islands. Blunders of 16 deg. are found in the localization of places the
+author claims to have visited: contemporary maps, at least in regard to
+continental features, seldom went wrong beyond 1 deg. It is generally
+agreed that Behaim had no share in Transatlantic discovery; and though
+Columbus and he were apparently in Portugal at the same time, no
+connexion between the two has been established. He died at Lisbon in
+1507.
+
+  See C.G. von Murr, _Diplomatische Geschichte des beruhmten Ritters
+  Behaim_ (1778); A. von Humboldt, _Kritische Untersuchungen_ (1836);
+  F.W. Ghillany, _Geschichte des Seefahrers Martin Behaim_ (1853); O.
+  Peschel, _Geschichte der Erdkunde_, 214-215, 226, 251, and _Zeitalter
+  der Entdeckungen_, esp. p. 90; Breusing, _Zur Geschichte der
+  Geographie_ (1869); Eugen Gelcich in the _Mittheilungen_ of the Vienna
+  Geographical Society, vol. xxxvi. pp. 100, &c.; E.G. Ravenstein,
+  _Martin de Bohemia_, (Lisbon, 1900), _Martin Behaim, His Life and His
+  Globe_ (London, 1909), and _Voyages of Diogo Cao and Bartholomeu
+  Dias_, 1482-1488, in _Geographical Journal_, Dec. 1900; see also
+  _Geog. Journal_, Aug. 1893, p. 175, Nov. 1901, p. 509; Jules Mees in
+  _Bull. Soc. Geog._, Antwerp, 1902, pp. 182-204; A. Ferreira de Serpa
+  in _Bull. Soc. Geog._, Lisbon, 1904, pp. 297-307.     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BEHAR, or BIHAR, a town of British India, in the Patna district of
+Bengal, which gives its name to an old province, situated on the right
+bank of the river Panchana. Pop. (1901) 45,063. There are still some
+manufactures of silk and muslin, but trade has deserted Behar in favour
+of Patna and other places more favourably situated on the river Ganges
+and the railway, while the indigo industry has been ruined by the
+synthetic products of the German chemist, and the English colony of
+indigo planters has been scattered abroad.
+
+The old province, stretching widely across the valley of the Ganges from
+the frontier of Nepal to the hills of Chota Nagpur, corresponds to the
+two administrative divisions of Patna and Bhagalpur, with a total area
+of 44,197 sq. m. and a population of 24,241,305. It is the most densely
+populated tract in India, and therefore always liable to famine; but it
+is now well protected almost everywhere by railways. It is a country of
+large landholders and formerly of indigo planters. The vernacular
+language is not Bengali, but a dialect of Hindu; and the people likewise
+resemble those of Upper India. The general aspect of the country is
+flat, except in the district of Monghyr, where detached hills occur, and
+in the south-east of the province, where the Rajmahal and Santal ranges
+abut upon the plains.
+
+Behar abounds in great rivers, such as the Ganges, with its tributaries,
+the Ghagra, Gandak, Kusi, Mahananda and Sone. The Ganges enters the
+province near the town of Buxar, flows eastward and, passing the towns
+of Dinajpur, Patna, Monghyr and Colgong, leaves the province at
+Rajmahal. It divides the province into two almost equal portions; north
+of the river lie the districts of Saran, Champaran, Tirhoot, Purnea, and
+part of Monghyr and Bhagalpur, and south of it are Shahabad, Patna,
+Gaya, the Santal parganas, and the rest of Monghyr and Bhagalpur. The
+Ganges and its northern tributaries are navigable by country boats of
+large burden all the year round. The cultivation of opium is a
+government monopoly, and no person is allowed to grow the poppy except
+on account of government. The Behar Opium Agency has its headquarters at
+the town of Patna. Annual engagements are entered into by the
+cultivators, under a system of pecuniary advances, to sow a certain
+quantity of land with poppy, and the whole produce in the form of opium
+is delivered to government at a fixed rate.
+
+Saltpetre is largely refined in Tirhoot, Saran and Champaran, and is
+exported both by rail and river to Calcutta. The manufactures of less
+importance are tussore-silk, paper, blankets, brass utensils, firearms,
+carpets, coarse cutlery and hardware, leather, ornaments of gold and
+silver, &c. Of minerals--lead, silver and copper exist in the Bhagalpur
+division, but the mines are not worked. One coal-mine is worked in the
+parganas. Before the construction of railways in India, the Ganges and
+the Grand Trunk road afforded the sole means of communication from
+Calcutta to the North-Western Provinces. But now the railroad is the
+great highway which connects Upper India with Lower Bengal. The East
+Indian railway runs throughout the length of the province. The climate
+of Behar is very hot from the middle of March to the end of June, when
+the rains set in, which continue till the end of September. The cold
+season, from October to the first half of March, is the pleasantest time
+of the year.
+
+_History._--The province of Behar corresponds to the ancient kingdom of
+Magadha, which comprised the country now included in the districts of
+Patna, Gaya and Shahabad, south of the Ganges. The origin of this
+kingdom, famous alike in the political and religious history of India,
+is lost in the mists of antiquity; and though the Brahmanical _Puranas_
+give lists of its rulers extending back to remote ages before the
+Christian era, the first authentic dynasty is that of the Saisunaga,
+founded by Sisunaga (c. 600 B.C.), whose capital was at Rajagaha
+(Rajgir) in the hills near Gaya; and the first king of this dynasty of
+whom anything is known was Bimbisara (c. 528 B.C.), who by conquests and
+matrimonial alliances laid the foundations of the greatness of the
+kingdom. It was in the reign of Bimbisara that Vardhamana Mahavira, the
+founder of Jainism, and Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, preached in
+Magadha, and Buddhist missionaries issued thence to the conversion of
+China, Ceylon, Tibet and Tatary. Even to this day Behar, where there are
+extensive remains of Buddhist buildings, remains a sacred spot in the
+eyes of the Chinese and other Buddhist nations.
+
+Bimbisara was murdered by his son Ajatasatru, who succeeded him, and
+whose bloodthirsty policy reduced the whole country between the
+Himalayas and the Ganges under the suzerainty of Magadha. According to
+tradition, it was his grandson, Udaya, who founded the city of
+Pataliputra (Patna) on the Ganges, which under the Maurya dynasty became
+the capital not only of Magadha but of India. The remaining history of
+the dynasty is obscure; according to Mr Vincent Smith, its last
+representative was Mahanandin (417 B.C.), after whose death the throne
+was usurped, under obscure circumstances, by Mahapadma Nanda, a man of
+low caste (_Early Hist. of India_, p. 36). It was a son of this usurper
+who was reigning at the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great; and
+the conqueror, when his advance was arrested at the Hyphasis (326 B.C.),
+meditating an attack on Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), was
+informed that the king of Magadha could oppose him with a force of
+20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2000 chariots, and 3000 or 4000
+elephants. The Nanda dynasty seems to have survived only for two
+generations, when (321 B.C.) Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the
+great Maurya dynasty, seized the throne. This dynasty, of which the
+history belongs to that of India (q.v.), occupied the throne for 137
+years. After the death of the great Buddhist king, Asoka (c. 231), the
+Maurya empire began to break up, and it was finally destroyed about
+fifty years later when Pushyamitra Sunga murdered the Maurya king
+Brihadratha and founded the Sunga dynasty. Descendants of Asoka
+continued, however, to subsist in Magadha as subordinate rajas for many
+centuries; and as late as the 8th century A.D. petty Maurya dynasties
+are mentioned as ruling in Konkan. The reign of Pushyamitra, who held
+his own against Menander and succeeded in establishing his claim to be
+lord paramount of northern India, is mainly remarkable as marking the
+beginning of the Brahmanical reaction and the decline of Buddhism;
+according to certain Buddhist writers the king, besides reviving Hindu
+rites, indulged in a savage persecution of the monks. The Sunga dynasty,
+which lasted 112 years, was succeeded by the Kanva dynasty, which after
+45 years was overthrown (c. 27 B.C.) by the Andhras or Satavahanas. In
+A.D. 236 the Andhras were overthrown, and, after a confused and obscure
+period of about a century, Chandragupta I. established his power at
+Pataliputra (A.D. 320) and founded the famous Gupta empire (see GUPTA),
+which survived till it was overthrown by the Ephthalites (q.v.), or
+White Huns, at the close of the 5th century. In Magadha itself the
+Guptas continued to rule as tributary princes for some centuries longer.
+About the middle of the 8th century Magadha was conquered by Gopala, who
+had made himself master in Bengal, and founded the imperial dynasty
+known as the Palas of Bengal. They were zealous Buddhists, and under
+their rule Magadha became once more an active centre of Buddhist
+influence. Gopala himself built a great monastery at Udandapura, or
+Otantapuri, which has been identified by Sir Alexander Cunningham with
+the city of Behar, where the later Pala kings established their capital.
+Under Mahipala (c. 1026), the ninth of his line, and his successor
+Nayapala, missionaries from Magadha succeeded in firmly re-establishing
+Buddhism in Tibet.
+
+In the 11th century the Pala empire, which, according to the Tibetan
+historian Taranath, extended in the 9th century from the Bay of Bengal
+to Delhi and Jalandhar (Jullundur) in the north and the Vindhyan range
+in the south, was partly dismembered by the rise of the "Sena" dynasty
+in Bengal; and at the close of the 12th century both Palas and Senas
+were swept away by the Mahommedan conquerors, the city of Behar itself
+being captured by the Turki free-lance Mahommed-i-Bakhtyar Khilji in
+1193, by surprise, with a party of 200 horsemen. "It was discovered,"
+says a contemporary Arab historian, "that the whole of that fortress and
+city was a college, and in the Hindi tongue they call a college Bihar."
+Most of the monks were massacred in the first heat of the assault; those
+who survived fled to Tibet, Nepal and the south. Buddhism in Magadha
+never recovered from this blow; it lingered in obscurity for a while and
+then vanished.
+
+Behar now came under the rule of the Mahommedan governors of Bengal.
+About 1330 the southern part was annexed to Delhi, while north Behar
+remained for some time longer subject to Bengal. In 1397 the whole of
+Behar became part of the kingdom of Jaunpur; but a hundred years later
+it was annexed by the Delhi emperors, by whom--save for a short
+period--it continued to be held. The capital of the province was
+established under the Moguls at the city of Behar, which gave its name
+to the province. From the middle of the 14th to the middle of the 16th
+century a large part of Behar was ruled by a line of Brahman tributary
+kings; and in the 15th century another Hindu dynasty ruled in Champaran
+and Gorakhpur. Behar came into the possession of the East India Company
+with the acquisition of the Diwani in 1765, when the province was united
+with Bengal. In 1857 two zemindars, Umar Singh and Kumar Singh, rebelled
+against the British government, and for some months held the ruinous
+fort of Rohtas against the British.
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), _s.v._ "Bihar" and
+  "Bengal"; V.A. Smith, _Early History of India_ (2nd ed., Oxford,
+  1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEHA UD-DIN [ABU-L-MAHASIN YUSUF IBN RAFI' IBN SHADDAD BEHA UD DIN]
+(1145-1234), Arabian writer and statesman, was born in Mosul and early
+became famous for his knowledge of the Koran and of jurisprudence.
+Before the age of thirty he became teacher in the great college at
+Bagdad known as the Nizamiyya, and soon after became professor at Mosul.
+In 1187, after making the pilgrimage to Mecca, he visited Damascus.
+Saladin, who was at the time besieging Kaukab (a few miles south of
+Tiberias), sent for him and became his friend. Beha ud-Din observed that
+the whole soul of the monarch was engrossed by the war which he was then
+engaged in waging against the enemies of the faith, and saw that the
+only mode of acquiring his favour was by urging him to its vigorous
+prosecution. With this view he composed a treatise on _The Laws and
+Discipline of Sacred War_, which he presented to Saladin, who received
+it with peculiar favour. From this time he remained constantly attached
+to the person of the sultan, and was employed on various embassies and
+in departments of the civil government. He was appointed judge of the
+army and judge of Jerusalem. After Saladin's death Beha-ud-Din remained
+the friend of his son Malik uz-Zahir, who appointed him judge of Aleppo.
+Here he employed some of his wealth in the foundation of colleges. When
+Malik uz-Zahir died, his son Malik ul-'Aziz was a minor, and Beha ud-Din
+had the chief power in the regency. This power he used largely for the
+patronage of learning. After the abdication of Malik ul-'Aziz, he fell
+from favour and lived in retirement until his death in 1234. Beha
+ud-Din's chief work is his _Life of Saladin_ (published at Leiden with
+Latin translation by A. Schultens in 1732 and 1755). An English
+translation was published by the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society,
+London, 1897.
+
+  For list of other extant works see C. Brockelmann, _Geschichte der
+  arabischen Litteratur_ (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 316 f.
+       (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+BEHA UD-DIN ZUHAIR (ABU-L FADL ZUHAIR IBN MAHOMMED AL-MUHALLABI)
+(1186-1258), Arabian poet, was born at or near Mecca, and became
+celebrated as the best writer of prose and verse and the best
+calligraphist of his time. He entered the service of Malik us-Salih Najm
+ud-Din in Mesopotamia, and was with him at Damascus until he was
+betrayed and imprisoned. Beha ud-Din then retired to Nablus (Shechem)
+where he remained until Najm ud-Din escaped and obtained possession of
+Egypt, whither he accompanied him in 1240. There he remained as the
+sultan's confidential secretary until his death, due to an epidemic, in
+1258. His poetry consists mostly of panegyric and brilliant occasional
+verse distinguished for its elegance. It has been published with English
+metrical translation by E.H. Palmer (2 vols., Cambridge, 1877).
+
+  His life was written by his contemporary Ibn Khallikan (see M'G. de
+  Slane's trans. of his _Biographical Dictionary_, vol. i. pp. 542-545).
+       (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+BEHBAHAN, a walled town of Persia in the province of Fars, pleasantly
+situated in the midst of a highly cultivated plain, 128 m. W.N.W. of
+Shiraz and 3 m. from the left bank of the river Tab, here called
+Kurdistan river. It is the capital of the Kuhgilu-Behbahan sub-province
+of Fars and has a population of about 10,000. The walls are about 3 m.
+in circumference and a Narinj Kalah (citadel) stands in the south-east
+corner. At a short distance north-west of the city are the ruins of
+Arrajan, the old capital of the province.
+
+
+
+
+BEHEADING, a mode of executing capital punishment (q.v.). It was in use
+among the Greeks and Romans, and the former, as Xenophon says at the end
+of the second book of the _Anabasis_, regarded it as a most honourable
+form of death. So did the Romans, by whom it was known as _decollatio_
+or _capitis amputatio_. The head was laid on a block placed in a pit dug
+for the purpose,--in the case of a military offender, outside the
+intrenchments, in civil cases outside the city walls, near the _porta
+decumana_. Before execution the criminal was tied to a stake and whipped
+with rods. In earlier years an axe was used; afterwards a sword, which
+was considered a more honourable instrument of death, and was used in
+the case of citizens (_Dig._ 48, 19, 28). It was with a sword that
+Cicero's head was struck off by a common soldier. The beheading of John
+the Baptist proves that the tetrarch Herod had adopted from his suzerain
+the Roman mode of execution. Suetonius (_Calig. c_. 32) states that
+Caligula kept a soldier, an artist in beheading, who in his presence
+decapitated prisoners fetched indiscriminately for that purpose from the
+gaols.
+
+Beheading is said to have been introduced into England from Normandy by
+William the Conqueror. The first person to suffer was Waltheof, earl of
+Northumberland, in 1076. An ancient MS. relating to the earls of Chester
+states that the serjeants or bailiffs of the earls had power to behead
+any malefactor or thief, and gives an account of the presenting of
+several heads of felons at the castle of Chester by the earl's
+serjeant. It appears that the custom also attached to the barony of
+Malpas. In a roll of 3 Edward II., beheading is called the "custom of
+Cheshire" (Lysons' _Cheshire_, p. 299, from Harl. MS. 2009 fol. 34b).
+The liberty of Hardwick, in Yorkshire, was granted the privilege of
+beheading thieves. (See GUILLOTINE.)
+
+But with the exceptions above stated beheading was usually reserved as
+the mode of executing offenders of high rank. From the 15th century
+onward the victims of the axe include some of the highest personages in
+the kingdom: Archbishop Scrope (1405); duke of Buckingham (1483);
+Catherine Howard (1542); earl of Surrey (1547); duke of Somerset (1552);
+duke of Northumberland (1553); Lady Jane Grey (1554), Lord Guildford
+Dudley (1554); Mary queen of Scots (1587); earl of Essex (1601); Sir
+Walter Raleigh (1618); earl of Strafford (1641); Charles I. (1649); Lord
+William Russell (1683); duke of Monmouth (1685); earl of Derwentwater
+(1716); earl of Kenmure (1716); earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmerino
+(1746); and the list closes with Simon, Lord Lovat, who (9th of April
+1747) was the last person beheaded in England. The execution of Anne
+Boleyn was carried out not with the axe, but with a sword, and by a
+French headsman specially brought over from Calais. In 1644 Archbishop
+Laud was condemned to be hanged, and the only favour granted him, and
+that reluctantly, was that his sentence should be changed to beheading.
+In the case of the 4th Earl Ferrers (1760) his petition to be beheaded
+was refused and he was hanged.
+
+Executions by beheading usually took place on Tower Hill, London, where
+the scaffold stood permanently during the 15th and 16th centuries. In
+the case of certain state prisoners, e.g. Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane
+Grey, the sentence was carried out within the Tower on the green by St
+Peter's chapel.
+
+Beheading was only a part of the common-law method of punishing male
+traitors, which was ferocious in the extreme. According to Walcot's case
+(1696), 1 _Eng. Rep._ 89, the proper sentence was "quod ... ibidem super
+bigam (herdillum) ponatur et abinde usque ad furcas de [Tyburn]
+trahatur, et ibidem per collum suspendatur et vivus ad terram
+prosternatur et quod secreta membra ejus amputentur, et interiora sua
+intra ventrem suum capiantur et in ignem ponantur et ibidem _ipso
+vivente_ comburantur, et quod caput ejus amputetur, quodque corpus ejus
+in quatuor partes dividatur et illo ponantur ubi dominus rex eas
+assignare voluit." There is a tradition that Harrison the regicide after
+being disembowelled rose and boxed the ears of the executioner.
+
+In Townley's case (18 Howell, _State Trials_, 350, 351) there is a
+ghastly account of the mode of executing the sentence; and in that case
+the executioner cut the traitor's throat. In the case of the Cato Street
+conspiracy (1820, 33 Howell, _State Trials_, 1566), after the traitors
+had been hanged as directed by the act of 1814, their heads were cut off
+by a man in a mask whose dexterity led to the belief that he was a
+surgeon.
+
+Female traitors were until 1790 liable to be drawn to execution and
+burnt alive. In that year hanging was substituted for burning.
+
+In 1814 so much of the sentence as related to disembowelling and burning
+the bowels was abolished and the king was empowered by royal warrant to
+substitute decapitation for hanging, which was made by that act the
+ordinary mode of executing traitors. But it was not till 1870 that the
+portions of the sentence as to drawing and quartering were abolished
+(Forfeiture Act 1870).
+
+The more barbarous features of the execution were remitted in the case
+of traitors of high rank, and the offender was simply decapitated.
+
+The block usually employed is believed to have been a low one such as
+would be used for beheading a corpse. C.H. Firth and S.R. Gardiner
+incline to the view that such a block was the one used at Charles I.'s
+execution. The more general custom, however, seems to have been to have
+a high block over which the victim knelt. Such is the form of that
+preserved in the armoury of the Tower of London. This is undoubtedly the
+block upon which Lord Lovat suffered, but, in spite of several axe-cuts
+on it, probably not one in early use. The axe which stands beside it was
+used to behead him and the other Jacobite lords, but no certainty exists
+as to its having been previously employed. On the ground floor of the
+King's House, at the Tower, is preserved the processional axe which
+figured in the journeys of state prisoners to and from their trials, the
+edge turned from them as they went, but almost invariably turned towards
+them as they returned to the Tower. The axe's head is peculiar in form,
+1 ft. 8 in. high by 10 in. wide, and is fastened into a wooden handle 5
+ft. 4 in. long. The handle is ornamented by four rows of burnished brass
+nails.
+
+In Scotland they did not behead with the axe, nor with the sword, as
+under the Roman law, and formerly in Holland and France, but with the
+maiden (q.v.).
+
+Capital punishment is executed by beheading in France, and in Belgium by
+means of the guillotine.
+
+In Germany the instrument used varies in different states: in the old
+provinces of Prussia the axe, in Saxony and Rhenish Prussia the
+guillotine. Until 1851 executions were public. They now take place
+within a prison in the presence of certain specified officials.
+
+Beheading is also the mode of executing capital punishment in Denmark
+and Sweden. The axe is used. In Sweden the execution takes place on the
+order of the king within a prison in the presence of certain specified
+officials and, if desired, of twelve representatives of the commune
+within which the prison is situate (Code 1864, s. 2, Royal Ordinance
+1877).
+
+In the Chinese empire decapitation is the usual mode of execution. By an
+imperial edict (24th of April 1905) certain attendant barbarities have
+been suppressed: viz. slicing, cutting up the body, and exhibiting the
+head to public view (32 Clunet, 1175).
+
+
+
+
+BEHEMOTH (the intensive plural of the Hebrew _b'hemah_, a beast), the
+animal mentioned in the book of Job (ch. xl. 15), probably the
+hippopotamus, which in ancient times was found in Egypt below the
+cataracts of Syene. The word may be used in Job as typical of the
+primeval king of land animals, as leviathan of the water animals. The
+modern use expresses the idea of a very large and strong animal.
+
+
+
+
+BEHISTUN, or BISITUN, now pronounced _Bisutum_, a little village at the
+foot of a precipitous rock, 1700 ft. high, in the centre of the Zagros
+range in Persia on the right bank of the Samas-Ab, the principal
+tributary of the Kerkha (Choaspes). The original form of the name,
+Bagistana, "place of the gods" or "of God" has been preserved by the
+Greek authors Stephanus of Byzantium, and Diodorus (ii. 13), the latter
+of whom says that the place was sacred to Zeus, i.e. Ahuramazda
+(Ormuzd). At its foot passes the great road which leads from Babylonia
+(Bagdad) to the highlands of Media (Ecbatana, Hamadan). On the steep
+face of the rock, some 500 ft. above the plain, Darius I., king of
+Persia, had engraved a great cuneiform inscription (11 or 12 ft. high),
+which recounts the way in which, after the death of Cambyses, he killed
+the usurper Gaumata (in Justin Gometes, the pseudo-Smerdis), defeated
+the numerous rebels, and restored the kingdom of the Achaemenidae. Above
+the inscription the picture of the king himself is graven, with a bow in
+his hand, putting his left foot on the body of Gaumata. Nine rebel
+chiefs are led before him, their hands bound behind them, and a rope
+round their necks: the ninth is Skunka, the chief of the Scythians
+(Sacae) whom he defeated. Behind the king stand his bow-bearer and his
+lance-bearer; in the air appears the figure of the great god Ahuramazda,
+whose protection led him to victory.[1] The inscriptions are composed in
+the three languages which are written with cuneiform signs, and were
+used in all official inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings: the chief
+place is of course given to the Persian language (in four columns); the
+three Susian (Elamitic) columns lie to the left, and the Babylonian text
+is on a slanting boulder above them; a part of the Babylonian has been
+destroyed by a torrent, which has made its way over it. In former times
+the second language has often been called Scythian, Turanian or Median;
+but we now know from numerous inscriptions of Susa that it is the
+language of Elam which was spoken in Susa, the capital of the Persian
+empire.
+
+In 1835 the difficult and almost inaccessible cliff was first climbed by
+Sir Henry Rawlinson, who copied and deciphered the inscriptions
+(1835-1845), and thus completed the reading of the old cuneiform text
+and laid the foundation of the science of Assyriology. Diodorus ii. 13
+(cf. xvii. 110), probably following a later author who wrote the history
+of Alexander's campaigns, mentions the sculptures and inscriptions, but
+attributes them to Semiramis. At the foot of the rock are the remainders
+of some other sculptures (quite destroyed), the fragments of a Greek
+inscription of the Parthian prince Gotarzes (A.D. 40; text in
+Dittenberger, _Orientis graeci inscr. selectae_, no. 431), and of an
+Arabic inscription.
+
+  See Sir Henry Rawlinson in the _Journ. R. Geog. Soc._ ix., 1839; _J.R.
+  Asiatic Soc._ x. 1866, xiv., 1853, xv., 1855; _Archaeologia_, xxxiv.,
+  1852; Sir R. Ker Porter, _Travels_, ii. 149 ff.; Flandin and Coste,
+  _Voyage en Perse_, i. pl. 16; and the modern editions of the
+  inscriptions, the best of which, up to the end of the 19th century,
+  were: Weissbach and Bang, _Die altpersischen Keilinschriften_ (1893);
+  Weissbach, _Die Achaemenideninschriften zweiter Art_ (1890); Bezold,
+  _Die (babylonischen) Achaemenideninschriften_ (1882). A description of
+  the locality, with comments on the present state of the inscriptions
+  and doubtful passages of the Persian text, was given by Dr A.V.
+  Williams Jackson in the _Journal of the American Oriental Society_,
+  xxiv., 1903, and in his _Persia, Past and Present_ (1906). Dr Jackson
+  in 1903 climbed to the ledge of the rock and was able to collate the
+  lower part of the four large Persian columns; he thus convinced
+  himself that Foy's conjecture of _arstam_ ("righteousness") for
+  Rawlinson's _abistam_ or _abastam_ was correct. A later investigation
+  was carried out in 1904 on the instructions of the British Museum
+  Trustees by Messrs. L.W. King and R.C. Thompson, who published their
+  results in 1907 under the title, _The Inscription of Darius the Great
+  at Behistun_, including a full illustrated account of the sculptures
+  and the inscription, and a complete collation of the text.
+       (Ed. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A passage in the inscription runs:--"Thus saith Darius the king:
+    That which I have done I have done altogether by the grace of
+    Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda, and the other gods that be, brought aid to
+    me. For this reason did Ahuramazda, and the other gods that be, bring
+    aid to me, because I was not hostile, nor a liar, nor a wrongdoer,
+    neither I nor my family, but according to Rectitude (_arstam_) have I
+    ruled." (A.V. Williams Jackson, _Persia, Past and Present_)
+
+
+
+
+BEHN, APHRA (otherwise AFRA, APHARA or AYFARA) (1640-1689), British
+dramatist and novelist, was baptized at Wye, Kent, in 1640. Her father,
+John Johnson, was a barber. While still a child she was taken out to
+Surinam, then an English possession, from which she returned to England
+in 1658, when it was handed over to the Dutch. In Surinam Aphra learned
+the history, and acquired a personal knowledge of the African prince
+Oroonoko and his beloved Imoinda, whose adventures she has related in
+her novel, _Oroonoko_. On her return she married Mr Behn, a London
+merchant of Dutch extraction. The wit and abilities of Mrs Behn brought
+her into high estimation at court, and--her husband having died by this
+time--Charles II. employed her on secret service in the Netherlands
+during the Dutch war. At Antwerp she successfully accomplished the
+objects of her mission; and in the latter end of 1666 she wormed out of
+one Van der Aalbert the design formed by De Ruyter, in conjunction with
+the DeWitts, of sailing up the Thames and burning the English ships in
+their harbours. This she communicated to the English court, but although
+the event proved her intelligence to have been well founded, it was at
+the time disregarded. Disgusted with political service, she returned to
+England, and from this period she appears to have supported herself by
+her writings. Among her numerous plays are _The Forced Marriage, or the
+Jealous Bridegroom_ (1671); _The Amorous Prince_ (1671); _The Town Fop_
+(1677); and _The Rover, or the Banished Cavalier_ (in two parts, 1677
+and 1681); and _The Roundheads_ (1682). The coarseness that disfigures
+her plays was the fault of her time; she possessed great ingenuity, and
+showed an admirable comprehension of stage business, while her wit and
+vivacity were unfailing. Of her short tales, or novelettes, the best is
+the story of _Oroonoko_, which was made the basis of Thomas Southerne's
+popular tragedy. Mrs Behn died on the 16th of April 1689, and was buried
+in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
+
+  See _Plays written by the Late Ingenious Mrs Behn_ (1702; reprinted,
+  1871); also "Aphra Behn's Gedichte und Prosawerke," by P. Siegel in
+  _Anglia_ (Halle, vol. xxv., 1902, pp. 86-128,329-385); and A.C.
+  Swinburne's essay on "Social Verse" in _Studies in Prose and Poetry_
+  (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1775-1851), German publicist and writer, was born
+at Salzheim on the 26th of August 1775. He studied law at Wurzburg and
+Gottingen, became professor of public law in the university of Wurzburg
+in 1799, and in 1819 was sent as a deputy to the _Landtag_ of Bavaria.
+Having associated himself with the party of reform, he was regarded with
+suspicion by the Bavarian king Maximilian I. and the court party,
+although favoured for a time by Maximilian's son, the future King Louis
+I. In 1821 he was compelled to give up his professorship, but he
+continued to agitate for reform, and in 1831 the king refused to
+recognize his election to the _Landtag_. A speech delivered by Behr in
+1832 was regarded as seditious, and he was arrested. In spite of his
+assertion of loyalty to the principle of monarchy he was detained in
+custody, and in 1836 was found guilty of seeking to injure the king. He
+then admitted his offence; but he was not released from prison until
+1839, and the next nine years of his life were passed under police
+supervision at Passau and Regensburg. In 1848 he obtained a free pardon
+and a sum of money as compensation, and was sent to the German national
+assembly which met at Frankfort in May of that year. He passed his
+remaining days at Bamberg, where he died on the 1st of August 1851.
+Behr's chief writings are: _Darstellung der Bedurfnisse, Wunsche und
+Hoffnungen deutscher Nation_ (Aschaffenburg, 1816); _Die Verfassung und
+Verwaltung des Staates_ (Nuremberg, 1811-1812); _Von den rechtlichen
+Grenzen der Einwirkung des Deutschen Bundes auf die Verfassung,
+Gesetzgebung, und Rechtspflege seiner Gliederstaaten_ (Stuttgart, 1820).
+
+
+
+
+BEIRA, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa, at the mouth of the Pungwe
+river, in 19 deg. 50' S., 34 deg. 50' E., 488 m. N. of Delagoa Bay, in
+communication by railway with Cape Town via Umtali, Salisbury and
+Bulawayo. Pop. about 4000, of whom a third are Europeans, and some 300
+Indians. The town is built on a tongue of sand extending into the river,
+and is comparatively healthy. The sea front is protected by a masonry
+wall, and there are over 13,000 ft. of wharfage. Vessels drawing 24 ft.
+can enter the port at high tide. Between the customs house and the
+railway terminus is the mouth of a small river, the Chiveve, crossed by
+a steel bridge, the centre span revolving and giving two passages each
+of 40 ft. The town is without any architectural pretensions, but
+possesses fine public gardens. It is the headquarters of the Companhai
+de Mocambique, which administers the Beira district under charter from
+the Portuguese crown. The business community is largely British.
+
+Beira occupies the site of a forgotten Arab settlement. The present port
+sprang into being as the result of a clause in the Anglo-Portuguese
+agreement of 1891 providing for the construction of a railway between
+Rhodesia and the navigable waters of the Pungwe. The railway at first
+began at Fontesvilla, about 50 m. by river above Beira, but was
+subsequently brought down to Beira. The completion in 1902 of the line
+connecting Salisbury with Cape Town adversely affected the port of
+Beira, the long railway route from the Cape being increasingly employed
+by travellers to and from Mashonaland. Moreover, the high freights on
+goods by the Beira route enabled Port Elizabeth to compete successfully
+for the trade of Rhodesia. In October 1905 a considerable reduction was
+made in railway rates and in port dues and customs, with the object of
+re-attracting to the port the transit trade of the interior, and in 1907
+a branch of the Rhodesian customs was opened in the town. In that year
+goods valued at L647,000 passed through the port to Rhodesia. Efforts
+were also made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources of the
+Beira district itself. The principal exports are rubber, sugar,
+ground-nuts and oil seeds, beeswax, chromite (from Rhodesia), and gold
+(from Manica). The imports are chiefly rice (from India) and cotton
+goods for local use, and food stuffs, machinery, hardware and
+manufactured goods for Rhodesia. For the three years, 1905-1907, the
+average annual value of the imports and exports, excluding the transit
+trade with Rhodesia, was, imports L200,000, exports L90,000. Direct
+steamship communication with Europe is maintained by German and British
+lines.
+
+  See PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA; also the reports issued yearly by the
+  British Foreign Office on the trade of Beira.
+
+
+
+
+BEIRA, an ancient principality and province of northern and central
+Portugal; bounded on the N. by Entre Minho e Douro and by Traz os
+Montes, E. by the Spanish provinces of Leon and Estremadura, S. by
+Alemtejo and Portuguese Estremadura, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop.
+(1900) 1,515,834; area, 9208 sq. m. Beira is administratively divided
+into the districts of Aveiro, Coimbra, Vizeu, Guarda and Castello
+Branco, while it is popularly regarded as consisting of the three
+sections--Beira Alta or Upper Beira (Vizeu), north and west of the Serra
+da Estrella; Beira Baixa or Lower Beira (Guarda and Castello Branco),
+south and east of that range; and Beira Mar or Maritime Beira (Aveiro
+and Coimbra), coinciding with the former coastal province of Douro. The
+coast line, about 72 m. long, is uniformly flat, with long stretches of
+sandy pine forest, heath or marshland bordered by a wide and fertile
+plain. Its most conspicuous features are the lagoon of Aveiro (q.v.) and
+the bold headland of Cape Mondego; in the south Aveiro, Murtosa, Ovar
+and Figueira da Foz are small seaports. Except along the coast, the
+surface is for the most part mountainous,--the highest point in the
+Serra da Estrella, which extends from north-east to south-west through
+the centre of the province, being 6532 ft. The northern and
+south-eastern frontiers are respectively marked by the two great rivers
+Douro and Tagus, which rise in Spain and flow to the Atlantic. The
+Agueda and Coa, tributaries of the Douro, drain the eastern plateaus of
+Beira; the Vouga rises in the Serra da Lapa, and forms the lagoon of
+Aveiro at its mouth; the Mondego springs from the Serra da Estrella,
+passes through Coimbra, and enters the sea at Figueira da Foz; and the
+Zezere, a tributary of the Tagus, rises north-north-east of Covilha and
+flows south-west and south.
+
+Beira has a warm and equable climate, except in the mountains, where the
+snowfall is often heavy. The soil, except in the valleys, is dry and
+rocky, and large stretches are covered with heath. The principal
+agricultural products are maize, wheat, garden vegetables and fruit. The
+olive is largely cultivated, the oil forming one of the chief articles
+of export; good wine is also produced. In the flat country between
+Coimbra and Aveiro the marshy land is laid out in rice-fields or in
+pastures for herds of cattle and horses. Sheep farming is an important
+industry in the highlands of Upper Beira; while near Lamego swine are
+reared in considerable numbers, and furnish the well-known Lisbon hams.
+Iron, lead, copper, coal and marble are worked to a small extent, and
+millstones are quarried in some places. Salt is obtained in considerable
+quantities from the lagoons along the coast. There are few manufactures
+except the production of woollen cloth, which occupies a large part of
+the population in the district of Castello Branco. Three important lines
+of railway, the Salamanca-Oporto, Salamanca-Lisbon and Lisbon-Oporto,
+traverse parts of Beira; the two last named are also connected by the
+Guarda-Figueira da Foz railway, which has a short branch line going
+northwards to Vizeu. The chief towns, Aveiro (pop. 1900, 9979), Castello
+Branco (7288), Coimbra (18,144), Covilha (15,469), Figueira da Foz
+(6221), Guarda (6124), Ilhavo (12,617), Lamego (9471), Murtosa (9737),
+Ovar (10,462) and Vizeu (8057), with the frontier fortress of Almeida
+(2330), are described in separate articles. There is a striking
+difference of character between the inhabitants of the highlands, who
+are grave and reserved, hardy and industrious, and those of the
+lowlands, who are more sociable and courteous, but less energetic. The
+heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal has the title of prince of
+Beira.
+
+
+
+
+BEIRUT or BEYROUT. (1) A vilayet of Syria, constituted as recently as
+1888, which stretches along the sea-coast from Jebel el-Akra, south of
+the Orontes, to the Nahr Zerka, south of Mount Carmel, and towards the
+south extends from the Mediterranean to the Jordan. It includes five
+_sanjaks_, Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Buka'a. (2) The chief town
+of the vilayet (anc. _Berytus_), the most important seaport town in
+Syria, situated on the south side of St George's Bay, on rising ground
+at the foot of Lebanon. Pop. 120,000 (Moslems, 36,000; Christians,
+77,000; Jews, 2500; Druses, 400; foreigners, 4100). Berytus, whether it
+is to be identified with Hebrew _Berothai_ or not (2 Sam. viii. 8; Ezek.
+xlvii. 16), was one of the most ancient settlements on the Phoenician
+coast; but nothing more than the name is known of it till B.C. 140, when
+the town was taken and destroyed by Tryphon in his contest with
+Antiochus VII. for the throne of the Seleucids. It duly passed under
+Rome, was much favoured by the Herods and became a _colonia_. It was
+famous for its schools, especially that of law, from the 4th century
+A.D. onwards. Justinian recognized it as one of the three official law
+schools of the empire (A.D. 533), but within a few years, as the result
+of a disastrous earthquake (551), the students were transferred to
+Sidon. In the following century it passed to the Arabs (635), and was
+not again a Christian city till 1111, when Baldwin captured it. Saladin
+retook it in 1187, and thenceforward, for six centuries and a half,
+whoever its nominal lords may have been, Saracen, Crusader, Mameluke or
+(from the 16th century) Turk, the Druse emirs of Lebanon dominated it
+(see DRUSES). One of these, Fakr ed-Din Maan II., fortified it early in
+the 17th century; but the Turks asserted themselves in 1763 and occupied
+the place. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion at Acre under Jezzar
+and Abdullah pashas, Beirut declined to a small town of about 10,000
+souls, in dispute between the Druses, the Turks and the pashas,--a state
+of things which lasted till Ibrahim Pasha captured Acre in 1832. When
+the powers moved against the Egyptians in 1840, Beirut had recently been
+occupied in force by Ibrahim as a menace to the Druses; but he was
+easily driven out after a destructive bombardment by Admiral Sir Robert
+Stopford (1768-1847). Since the pacification of the Lebanon after the
+massacre of the Christians in 1860 (for later history, see LEBANON),
+Beirut has greatly increased in extent, and has become the centre of the
+transit trade for all southern Syria. In 1894 a harbour, constructed by
+a French company, was opened, but the insecurity of the outer roadstead
+militates against its success. Nevertheless trade is on the increase. In
+1895 a French company completed a railway across the Lebanon to
+Damascus, and connected it with Mezerib in the Hauran, whence now starts
+the line to the Hejaz. Since 1907 it has also had railway communication
+with Aleppo; and a narrow-gauge line runs up the coast to Tripoli. The
+steepness of the Lebanon railway, and the break of gauge at Rayak, the
+junction for Aleppo, have prevented the diversion of much of the trade
+of North Syria to Beirut. The town has been supplied with water, since
+1875, by an English company, and with gas, since 1888, by a French
+company. There are many American and European institutions in the city:
+the American Presbyterian mission, with a girls' school and a printing
+office, which published the Arabic translation of the Bible, and now
+issues a weekly paper and standard works in Arabic; the Syrian
+Protestant college with its theological seminary, medical faculty,
+training college and astronomical observatory; the Scottish mission, and
+St George's institute for Moslem and Druse girls; the British Syrian
+mission schools; the German hospital, orphanage and boarding school; the
+French hospital and schools, and the Jesuit "Universite de St Joseph"
+with a printing office. In summer most of the richer residents reside on
+the Lebanon, and in winter the governor of the Lebanon and many Lebanon
+notables inhabit houses in Beirut. The town has many fine houses, but
+the streets are unpaved and the bazaars mean. The Moslem inhabitants,
+being in a minority, have often shown themselves fanatical and
+turbulent. There are several fairly good hotels for tourists.
+     (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BEIT, ALFRED (1853-1906), British South African financier, was the son
+of a well-to-do merchant of Hamburg, Germany, and in 1875, after a
+commercial education at home, was sent out to Kimberley, South Africa,
+to investigate the diamond prospects. He had relatives, the Lipperts,
+out there in business, and in conjunction with Mr (afterwards Sir)
+Julius Wernher (b. 1850) he rapidly acquired a leading position on the
+diamond fields, and became closely allied with the ideals of Cecil
+Rhodes (q.v.). In 1889 Rhodes and Beit effected the amalgamation of
+various interests in the De Beers Consolidated Mines Limited. It was
+largely owing to the capital and enterprise of Beit that the deep-level
+mining in the Witwatersrand district of the Transvaal was started, and
+he had a large share in the principal company, the Rand Mines Limited.
+The firm of Wernher, Beit & Co. gradually transferred the centre of
+their financial operations to London, where they became the leading
+house in the dealings in South African mines. The rapid progress made in
+developing the diamond and gold output made Beit a man of enormous
+wealth, and he utilized it lavishly in pursuit of Rhodes's South African
+policy. He was one of the original directors of the British South Africa
+company, and was included with Rhodes in the censure passed by the House
+of Commons Commission of Inquiry on the Jameson Raid (1896). He was
+subsequently one of Rhodes's trustees. Personally of a modest, gentle,
+generous and retiring disposition, and strongly imbued with Rhodes's
+ideas of British imperialism, he was one of the South African
+millionaires of German birth against whom the anti-imperialist section
+in England were never tired of employing their sarcastic invective. But
+though shrinking from ostentation in any form, his purse was continually
+opened for public objects, notably his support of the Imperial Light
+Horse and Imperial Yeomanry in the South African War of 1899-1902, and
+his endowment of the professorship of colonial history at Oxford (1905).
+He gave L100,000 to establish a university in his native city of Hamburg
+and L200,000 for a university in Johannesburg. He built a fine house in
+Park Lane, London, but was never prominent in social life. He died,
+unmarried, on the 16th of July 1906.
+
+
+
+
+BEJA (or BIJA), the name under which is comprised a widespread family of
+tribes, usually classed as Hamitic. They may, however, represent very
+early Semitic immigrants (see HAMITIC RACES). When first recorded the
+Beja occupied the whole region between the Nile and the Red Sea from the
+border of Upper Egypt to the foot of the Abyssinian plateau. They were
+known to the ancient Egyptians, upon whose monuments they are
+represented. They are the Blemmyes of Strabo (xvii. 53), and have also
+been identified with the Macrobii of Herodotus, "tallest and finest of
+men" (iii. 17). It has been suggested, though on insufficient grounds,
+that the Beja, rather than the Abyssinians, are the "Ethiopians" of
+Herodotus, the civilized people who built the city of Meroe and its
+pyramids. During the Roman period the Beja were much what they are
+to-day, nomadic and aggressive, and were constantly at war. In 216 A.H.
+(A.D. 832) the Moslem governor of Assuan made a treaty with the Beja
+chief, by which the latter undertook to guard the road to Aidhab and pay
+an annual tribute of one hundred camels. This is the earliest record of
+a government engagement with the northern section of the Beja, now the
+Ababda. Ibn Batuta, early in the 14th century, mentions a king of Beja,
+El Hadrabi, who received two-thirds of the revenue of Aidhab, the other
+third going to the king of Egypt. The Beja territory contained gold and
+emerald mines. The tribesmen were the usual escort for pilgrims to Mecca
+from Kus to Aidhab. According to Leo Africanus, at the close of the 14th
+or very early in the 15th century their rich town of Zibid (Aidhab?) on
+the Red Sea was destroyed. This seems to have broken up the tribal
+cohesion. Leo Africanus describes the Beja as "most base, miserable and
+living only on milk and camels' flesh." In the middle ages the Beja,
+partially at any rate, were Christians. The kingdom of Meroo was
+succeeded by that of "Aloa," the capital of which, Soba, was on the Blue
+Nile, about 13 m. above Khartum. The country was conquered by the Funj
+(q.v.), a negroid people who subsequently became Mahommedan and
+compelled the Beja to adopt that religion. Until the invasion of the
+Egyptians, under Ismail, son of Mehemet Ali (1820), the Funj remained in
+possession.
+
+All the Beja are now Mahommedans, but generally only so in name, though
+some of the tribes enthusiastically fought for Mahdiism (1883-99). As a
+race the Beja are remarkable for physical beauty, with a colour more red
+than black, and of a distinctly Caucasic type of face. The chiefs are,
+as a rule, of much fairer complexion than the tribesmen. In spite of
+their claim to Arab origin, the tribes have preserved many negro customs
+in the matter of costume and scarring the body. Their hair-dressing is
+very characteristic. The hair, worn thick as a protection against the
+sun, is parted in a circle round the head on a level with the eyes,
+above which the hair, saturated with mutton fat or butter, is trained
+straight up like a mop, with separate tufts at sides and back. Most of
+the tribes are nomadic shepherds, driving their cattle from pasture to
+pasture; some few are occupied in agriculture.
+
+They are polygynous, but, unlike the Arabs, great independence is
+granted their women. Among most of the Beja peoples the wife can return
+to her mother's tent whenever she likes, and after a birth of a child
+she can repudiate the husband, who must make a present to be
+re-accepted. Cases are said to have occurred where the woman has thus
+obtained all her husband's possessions. The whole social position of the
+Beja women points, indeed, to an earlier matriarchal system. Among some
+of the tribes the custom of the "fourth day free" is observed, by which
+the women are only considered married for so many days a week, forming
+what liaisons they please on the odd day. The chief Beja tribes are the
+Ababda, Bisharin, Hadendoa, Beni-Amer, Amarar, Shukuria, Hallenga and
+Hamran.
+
+
+
+
+BEJA (probably the ancient _Pax Julia_), the capital of an
+administrative district formerly included in the province of Alemtejo,
+Portugal; situated 95 m. S.S.E. of Lisbon by the Lisbon-Faro railway,
+and at the head of a branch line to Pias e Orada (3855), 26 m. E. Pop.
+(1900) 8885. Beja is an episcopal city, built on an isolated hill, and
+partly enclosed by walls of Roman origin; on the south it has a fine
+Roman gateway. Its cathedral is modern, but the citadel, with its
+beautiful Gothic tower of white marble, was founded by King Diniz
+(1279-1325). The city is surrounded by far-reaching plains, known as the
+Campo de Beja, and devoted partly to the cultivation of grain and fruit,
+partly to the breeding of cattle and pigs; copper, iron and manganese
+are also mined to a small extent, and Beja is the central market for all
+these products. Cloth, pottery and olive oil are manufactured in the
+city.
+
+The administrative district of Beja, the largest and most
+thinly-populated district in Portugal, coincides with the southern part
+of Alemtejo (q.v.); pop. (1900) 163,612; area, 3958 sq. m.; 41.3
+inhabitants per sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+BEJAN (Fr. _bejaune_, from _bec jaune_, "yellow beak," in allusion to
+unfledged birds; the equivalent to Ger. _Gelbschnabel_, Fr. _blanc-bec_,
+a greenhorn), a term for freshmen, or undergraduates of the first year,
+in the Scottish universities. The phrase was introduced from the French
+universities, where the levying of _bejaunium_ "footing-money" had been
+prohibited by the statutes of the university of Orleans in 1365 and by
+those of Toulouse in 1401. In 1493 the election of an _Abbas
+Bejanorum_ (Abbot of the Freshmen) was forbidden in the university of
+Paris. In the German and Austrian universities the freshman was called
+_beanus_. In Germany the freshman was anciently called a _Pennal_ (from
+Med. Lat. _pennale_, a box for pens), in allusion to the fact that the
+newly-arrived student had to carry such for the older pupils. Afterwards
+_Fuchs_ (fox) was substituted for _Pennal_, and then _Goldfuchs_ because
+he is supposed still to have a few gold coins from home.
+
+
+
+
+BEJART, the name of several French actors, children of Marie Herve and
+Joseph Bejart (d. 1643), the holder of a small government post. The
+family--there were eleven children--was very poor and lived in the
+Marais, then the theatrical quarter of Paris. One of the sons, JOSEPH
+BEJART (c. 1617-1659), was a strolling player and later a member of
+Moliere's first company (l'Illustre Theatre), accompanied him in his
+theatrical wanderings, and was with him when he returned permanently to
+Paris, dying soon after. He created the parts of Lelie in _L'Etourdie_,
+and Eraste in _Le Depit amoureux_. His brother Louis BEJART (c.
+1630-1678) was also in Moliere's company during the last years of its
+travels. He created many parts in his brother-in-law's plays--Valere in
+_Le Depit amoureux_, Dubois in _Le Misanthrope_, Alcantor in _Le Mariage
+force_, and Don Luis in _Le Festin de Pierre_--and was an actor of
+varied talents. In consequence of a wound received when interfering in a
+street brawl, he became lame and retired with a pension--the first ever
+granted by the company to a comedian--in 1670.
+
+The more famous members of the family were two sisters.
+
+MADELEINE BEJART (1618-1672) was at the head of the travelling company
+to which her sister Genevieve (1631-1675)--who played as Mlle Herve--and
+her brothers belonged, before they joined Moliere in forming l'Illustre
+Theatre (1643). With Moliere she remained until her death on the 17th of
+February 1672. She had had an illegitimate daughter (1638) by an Italian
+count, and her conduct on her early travels had not been exemplary, but
+whatever her private relations with Moliere may have been, however
+acrimonious and violent her temper, she and her family remained faithful
+to his fortunes. She was a tall, handsome blonde, and an excellent
+actress, particularly in soubrette parts, a number of which Moliere
+wrote for her. Among her creations were Marotte in _Les Precieuses
+ridicules_, Lisette in _L'Ecole des maris_, Dorine in _Tartuffe_.
+
+Her sister, ARMANDE GRESINDE CLAIRE ELIZABETH BEJART (1645-1700), seems
+first to have joined the company at Lyons in 1653. Moliere directed her
+education and she grew up under his eye. In 1662, he being then forty
+and she seventeen, they were married. Neither was happy; the wife was a
+flirt, the husband jealous. On the strength of a scurrilous anonymous
+pamphlet, _La Fameuse Comedienne, ou histoire de la Guerin_ (1688), her
+character has been held perhaps unduly low. She was certainly guilty of
+indifference and ingratitude, possibly of infidelity; they separated
+after the birth of a daughter in 1665 and met only at the theatre until
+1671. But the charm and grace which fascinated others, Moliere too could
+not resist, and they were reconciled. Her portrait is given in a
+well-known scene (Act iii., sc. 9) in _Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_. Mme
+Moliere's first appearance on the stage was in 1663, as Elise in the
+_Critique de l'ecole des femmes_. She was out of the cast for a short
+time in 1664, when she bore Moliere a son--Louis XIV. and Henrietta of
+England standing sponsors. But in the spring, beginning with the fetes
+given at Versailles by the king to Anne of Austria and Maria Theresa,
+she started her long list of important roles. She was at her best as
+Celimene--really her own highly-finished portrait--in _Le Misanthrope_,
+and hardly less admirable as Angelique in _Le Malade imaginaire_. She
+was the Elmire at the first performance of _Tartuffe_, and the Lucile of
+_Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_. All these parts were written by her husband
+to display her talents to the best advantage and she made the most of
+her opportunities. The death of Moliere, the secession of Baron and
+several other actors, the rivalry of the Hotel de Bourgogne and the
+development of the Palais Royal, by royal patent, into the home of
+French opera, brought matters to a crisis with the _comediens du roi_.
+Well advised by La Grange (Charles Varlet, 1639-1692), Armande leased
+the Theatre Guenegaud, and by royal ordinance the residue of her company
+were combined with the players from the Theatre du Marais, the fortunes
+of which were at low ebb. The combination, known as the _troupe du roi_,
+at first was unfortunate, but in 1679 they secured Mlle du Champmesle,
+later absorbed the company of the Hotel de Bourgogne, and in 1680 the
+Comedie Francaise was born. Mme Moliere in 1677 had married Eustache
+Francois Guerin (1636-1728), an actor, and by him she had one son
+(1678-1708). She continued her successes at the theatre until she
+retired in 1694, and she died on the 30th of November 1700.
+
+
+
+
+BEK, ANTONY (d. 1311), bishop of Durham, belonged to a Lincolnshire
+family, and, having entered the church, received several benefices and
+soon attracted the attention of Edward I., who secured his election as
+bishop of Durham in 1283. When, after the death of King Alexander III.
+in 1285, Edward interfered in the affairs of Scotland, he employed Bek
+on this business, and in 1294 he sent him on a diplomatic errand to the
+German king, Adolph of Nassau. Taking part in Edward's campaigns in
+Scotland, the bishop received the surrender of John de Baliol at Brechin
+in 1296, and led one division of the English army at the battle of
+Falkirk in 1298. Soon after his return to England he became involved in
+a quarrel with Richard de Hoton, prior of Durham. Deposed and
+excommunicated by Bek, the prior secured the king's support; but the
+bishop, against whom other complaints were preferred, refused to give
+way, and by his obstinacy incurred the lasting enmity of Edward. In
+1302, in obedience to the command of Pope Boniface VIII., he visited
+Rome on this matter, and during his absence the king seized and
+administered his lands, which, however, he recovered when he returned
+and submitted to Edward. He continued, however, to pursue Richard with
+unrelenting hostility, and was in his turn seriously harassed by the
+king. Having been restored to the royal favour by Edward II. who made
+him lord of the Isle of Man, the bishop died at Eltham on the 3rd of
+March 1311. A man of great courage and energy, chaste and generous, Bek
+was remarkable for his haughtiness and ostentation. Both as a bishop and
+as a private individual he was very wealthy, and his household and
+retinue were among the most magnificent in the land. He was a soldier
+and a hunter rather than a bishop, and built castles at Eltham and
+elsewhere.
+
+Bek's elder brother, THOMAS BEK (d. 1293), bishop of St David's, was a
+trusted servant of Edward I. He obtained many important and wealthy
+ecclesiastical positions, was made treasurer of England in 1279, and
+became bishop of St David's in 1280. He was a benefactor to his diocese
+and died on the 12th of May 1293.
+
+Another THOMAS BEK (1282-1347), who was bishop of Lincoln from 1341
+until his death on the 2nd of February 1347, was a member of the same
+family.
+
+Antony Bek must not be confused with his kinsman and namesake, ANTONY
+BEK (1279-1343), who was chancellor and dean of Lincoln cathedral, and
+became bishop of Norwich after a disputed election in 1337. He was a
+quarrelsome man, and after a stormy episcopate, died on the 19th of
+December 1343.
+
+  See Robert of Graystanes, _Historia de statu ecclesiae Dunelmensis_,
+  edited by J. Raine in his _Historiae Dunelmensis scriptores_ (London,
+  1839); W. Hutchinson, _History of Durham_ (Newcastle, 1785-1794); J.L.
+  Low, _Diocesan History of Durham_ (London, 1881); and M. Creighton in
+  the _Dictionary of National Biography_, vol. iv. (London, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE (1800-1874), English traveller, geographer and
+Biblical critic, was born in Stepney, Middlesex, on the 10th of October
+1800. His father was a merchant in London, and Beke engaged for a few
+years in mercantile pursuits. He afterwards studied law at Lincoln's
+Inn, and for a time practised at the bar, but finally devoted himself to
+the study of historical, geographical and ethnographical subjects. The
+first-fruits of his researches appeared in his work entitled _Origines
+Biblicae, or Researches in Primeval History_, published in 1834. An
+attempt to reconstruct the early history of the human race from
+geological data, it raised a storm of opposition on the part of
+defenders of the traditional readings of the book of Genesis; but in
+recognition of the value of the work the university of Tubingen
+conferred upon him the degree of Ph.D. For about two years (1837-1838)
+Beke held the post of acting British consul in Saxony. From that time
+till his death his attention was largely given to geographical studies,
+chiefly of the Nile valley. Aided by private friends, he visited
+Abyssinia in connexion with the mission to Shoa sent by the Indian
+government under the leadership of Major (afterwards Sir) William
+Cornwallis Harris, and explored Gojam and more southern regions up to
+that time unknown to Europeans. Among other achievements, Beke was the
+first to determine, with any approach to scientific accuracy, the course
+of the Abai (Blue Nile). The valuable results of this journey, which
+occupied him from 1840 to 1843, he gave to the world in a number of
+papers in scientific publications, chiefly in the _Journal_ of the Royal
+Geographical Society. On his return to London, Beke re-engaged in
+commerce, but devoted all his leisure to geographical and kindred
+studies. In 1848 he planned an expedition from the mainland opposite
+Zanzibar to discover the sources of the Nile. A start was made, but the
+expedition accomplished little. Beke's belief that the White Nile was
+the main stream was, however, shown to be accurate by subsequent
+exploration. In 1856 he endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to establish
+commercial relations with Abyssinia through Massawa. In 1861-1862 he and
+his wife travelled in Syria and Palestine, and went to Egypt with the
+object of promoting trade with Central Africa and the growth of cotton
+in the Sudan. In 1865 he again went to Abyssinia, for the purpose of
+obtaining from King Theodore the release of the British captives. On
+learning that the captives had been released, Beke turned back, but
+Theodore afterwards re-arrested the party. To the military expedition
+sent to effect their release Beke furnished much valuable information,
+and his various services to the government and to geographical research
+were acknowledged by the award of L500 in 1868 by the secretary for
+India, and by the grant of a civil list pension of L100 in 1870. In his
+seventy-fourth year he undertook a journey to Egypt for the purpose of
+determining the real position of Mount Sinai. He conceived that it was
+on the eastern side of the Gulf of Akaba, and his journey convinced him
+that his view was right. It has not, however, commended itself to
+general acceptance. Beke died at Bromley, in Kent, on the 31st of July
+1874.
+
+Beke's writings are very numerous. Among the more important, besides
+those already named, are: _An Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries_
+(1847), _The Sources of the Nile_ (1860), and _The British Captives in
+Abyssinia_ (1865). He was a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society,
+and for his contributions to the knowledge of Abyssinia received its
+gold medal, and also that of the Geographical Society of France. As a
+result of a controversy over the statements of another Abyssinian
+explorer, Antoine Abbadie, Beke returned the medal awarded him by the
+French Society.
+
+  See _Summary of the late Dr Beke's published works and ... public
+  services_, by his widow (Tunbridge Wells, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BESKESCSABA, a market-town of Hungary, 123 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail.
+Pop. (1900) 37,108, mostly Slovaks and Lutherans, who form the largest
+Lutheran community in Hungary. The town is situated near the White
+Koros, with which it is connected by a canal, and is an important
+railway-junction in central Hungary. Bekescsaba possesses several large
+milling establishments, while the weaving of hemp and the production of
+hemp-linen is largely pursued as a home industry. The town carries on an
+active trade in cereals, wines and cattle.
+
+
+
+
+BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL (1785-1871), German philologist and critic, was
+born on the 21st of May 1785. He completed his classical education at
+the university of Halle under F.A. Wolf, who considered him as his most
+promising pupil. In 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the
+university of Berlin. For several years, between 1810 and 1821, he
+travelled in France, Italy, England and parts of Germany, examining
+classical manuscripts and gathering materials for his great editorial
+labours. He died at Berlin on the 7th of June 1871. Some detached fruits
+of his researches were given in the _Anecdota Graeca_, 1814-1821; but
+the full result of his unwearied industry and ability is to be found in
+the enormous array of classical authors edited by him. Anything like a
+complete list of his works would occupy too much space, but it may be
+said that his industry extended to nearly the whole of Greek literature
+with the exception of the tragedians and lyric poets. His best known
+editions are: Plato (1816-1823), Oratores Attici (1823-1824), Aristotle
+(1831-1836), Aristophanes (1829), and twenty-five volumes of the Corpus
+Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. The only Latin authors edited by him
+were Livy (1829-1830) and Tacitus (1831). Bekker confined himself
+entirely to textual recension and criticism, in which he relied solely
+upon the MSS., and contributed little to the extension of general
+scholarship.
+
+  See Sauppe, _Zur Erinnerung an Meineke und Bekker_ (1872); Haupt,
+  "Gedachtnisrede auf Meineke und Bekker," in his _Opuscula_, iii.; E.I.
+  Bekker, "Zur Erinnerung an meinen Vater," in the _Preussisches
+  Jahrbuch_, xxix.
+
+
+
+
+BEKKER, BALTHASAR (1634-1698), Dutch divine, was born in Friesland in
+1634, and educated at Groningen, under Jacob Alting, and at Franeker. He
+was pastor at Franeker, and from 1679, at Amsterdam. An enthusiastic
+disciple of Descartes, he wrote several works in philosophy and
+theology, which by their freedom of thought aroused considerable
+hostility. His best known work _Die Betooverde Wereld_ (1691), or _The
+World Bewitched_ (1695; one volume of an English translation from a
+French copy), in which he examined critically the phenomena generally
+ascribed to spiritual agency, and attacked the belief in sorcery and
+"possession" by the devil, whose very existence he questioned. The book
+is interesting as an early study in comparative religion, but its
+publication in 1692 led to Bekker's deposition from the ministry. He
+died at Amsterdam.
+
+
+
+
+BEKKER (or WOLFF), ELIZABETH (1738-1804), Dutch novelist, was married to
+Adrian Wolff, a Reformed clergyman, but is always known under her maiden
+name. After the death of her husband in 1777, she resided for some time
+in France, with her close friend, Agatha Deken. She was exposed to some
+of the dangers of the French Revolution, and, it is said, escaped the
+guillotine only by her great presence of mind. In 1795 she returned to
+Holland, and resided at the Hague till her death. Her novels were
+written in conjunction with Agatha Deken, and it is somewhat difficult
+to determine the exact qualities contributed by each. The _Historie van
+William Levend_ (1785), _Historie van Sara Burgerhart_ (1790), _Abraham
+Blankaart_ (1787), _Cornelie Wildschut_ (1793-1796), were extremely
+popular.
+
+
+
+
+BEL, the name of a chief deity in Babylonian religion, the counterpart
+of the Phoenician Baal (q.v.) ideographically written as En-lil. Since
+Bel signifies the "lord" or "master" _par excellence_, it is, therefore,
+a title rather than a genuine name, and must have been given to a deity
+who had acquired a position at the head of a pantheon. The real name is
+accordingly to be sought in En-lil, of which the first element again has
+the force of "lord" and the second presumably "might," "power," and the
+like, though this cannot be regarded as certain. En-lil is associated
+with the ancient city of Nippur, and since En-lil with the determinative
+for "land" or "district" is a common method of writing the name of the
+city, it follows, apart from other evidence, that En-lil was originally
+the patron deity of Nippur. At a very early period--prior to 3000
+B.C.--Nippur had become the centre of a political district of
+considerable extent, and it is to this early period that the designation
+of En-lil as Bel or "the lord" reverts. Inscriptions found at Nippur,
+where extensive excavations were carried on during 1888-1900 by Messrs
+Peters and Haynes, under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania,
+show that Bel of Nippur was in fact regarded as the head of an extensive
+pantheon. Among the titles accorded to him are "king of lands," "king of
+heaven and earth" and "father of the gods." His chief temple at Nippur
+was known as E-Kur, signifying "mountain house," and such was the
+sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and Assyrian rulers,
+down to the latest days, vied with one another in embellishing and
+restoring Bel's seat of worship, and the name itself became the
+designation of a temple in general. Grouped around the main sanctuary
+there arose temples and chapels to the gods and goddesses who formed his
+court, so that E-Kur became the name for an entire sacred precinct in
+the city of Nippur. The name "mountain house" suggests a lofty structure
+and was perhaps the designation originally of the staged tower at
+Nippur, built in imitation of a mountain, with the sacred shrine of the
+god on the top. The tower, however, also had its special designation of
+"Im-Khar-sag," the elements of which, signifying "storm" and "mountain,"
+confirm the conclusion drawn from other evidence that En-lil was
+originally a storm-god having his seat on the top of a mountain. Since
+the Euphrates valley has no mountains, En-lil would appear to be a god
+whose worship was carried into Babylonia by a wave of migration from a
+mountainous country--in all probability from Elam to the east.
+
+When, with the political rise of Babylon as the centre of a great
+empire, Nippur yielded its prerogatives to the city over which Marduk
+presided, the attributes and the titles of En-lil were transferred to
+Marduk, who becomes the "lord" or Bel of later days. The older Bel did
+not, however, entirely lose his standing. Nippur continued to be a
+sacred city after it ceased to have any considerable political
+importance, while in addition the rise of the doctrine of a triad of
+gods symbolizing the three divisions--heavens, earth and water--assured
+to Bel, to whom the earth was assigned as his province, his place in the
+religious system. The disassociation from his local origin involved in
+this doctrine of the triad gave to Bel a rank independent of political
+changes, and we, accordingly, find Bel as a factor in the religion of
+Babylonia and Assyria to the latest days. It was no doubt owing to his
+position as the second figure of the triad that enabled him to survive
+the political eclipse of Nippur and made his sanctuary a place of
+pilgrimage to which Assyrian kings down to the days of Assur-baui-pal
+paid their homage equally with Babylonian rulers.
+
+  See also BELIT and BAAL. For the apocryphal book of the Bible, _Bel
+  and the Dragon_, see DANIEL: _Additions to Daniel_.     (M. Ja.)
+
+
+
+
+BELA III. (d. 1196), king of Hungary, was the second son of King Geza
+II. Educated at the Byzantine court, where he had been compelled to seek
+refuge, he was fortunate enough to win the friendship of the brilliant
+emperor Manuel who, before the birth of his own son Alexius, intended to
+make Bela his successor and betrothed him to his daughter. Subsequently,
+however, he married the handsome and promising youth to Agnes of
+Chatilion, duchess of Antioch, and in 1173 placed him, by force of arms,
+on the Hungarian throne, first expelling Bela's younger brother Geza,
+who was supported by the Catholic party. Initiated from childhood in all
+the arts of diplomacy at what was then the focus of civilization, and as
+much a warrior by nature as his imperial kinsman Manuel, Bela showed
+himself from the first fully equal to all the difficulties of his
+peculiar position. He began by adopting Catholicism and boldly seeking
+the assistance of Rome. He then made what had hitherto been an elective
+a hereditary throne by crowning his infant son Emerich his successor. In
+the beginning of his reign he adopted a prudent policy of amity with his
+two most powerful neighbours, the emperors of the East and West, but the
+death of Manuel in 1180 gave Hungary once more a free hand in the
+affairs of the Balkan Peninsula, her natural sphere of influence. The
+attempt to recover Dalmatia, which involved Bela in two bloody wars with
+Venice (1181-88 and 1190-91), was only partially successful. But he
+assisted the Rascians or Serbs (see HUNGARY: _History_) to throw off the
+Greek yoke and establish a native dynasty, and attempted to made Galicia
+an appanage of his younger son Andrew. It was in Bela's reign that the
+emperor Frederick I., in the spring of 1189, traversed Hungary with
+100,000 crusaders, on which occasion the country was so well policed
+that no harm was done to it and the inhabitants profited largely from
+their commerce with the German host. In his last years Bela assisted the
+Greek emperor Isaac II. Angelus against the Bulgarians. His first wife
+bore Bela two sons, Emerich and Andrew. On her death he married Margaret
+of France, sister of King Philip Augustus. Bela was in every sense of
+the word a great statesman, and his court was accounted one of the most
+brilliant in Europe.
+
+  For an account of his internal reforms see HUNGARY. Though the poet
+  Ede Szigligeti has immortalized his memory in the play _Bela III_., we
+  have no historical monograph of him, but in Ignacz Acsady, _History of
+  the Hungarian Realm_ (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest, 1903), there is an
+  excellent account of his reign.     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BELA IV. (1206-1270), king of Hungary, was the son of Andrew II., whom
+he succeeded in 1235. During his father's lifetime he had greatly
+distinguished himself by his administration of Transylvania, then a
+wilderness, which, with incredible patience and energy, he colonized and
+christianized. He repaired as far as possible the ruinous effects of his
+father's wastefulness, but on his accession found everything in the
+utmost confusion, "the great lords," to cite the old chronicler Rogerius
+(c. 1223-1266), "having so greatly enriched themselves that the king was
+brought to naught." The whole land was full of violence, the very
+bishops storming rich monasteries at the head of armed retainers. Bela
+resolutely put down all disorder. He increased the dignity of the crown
+by introducing a stricter court etiquette, and its wealth by recovering
+those of the royal domains which the magnates had appropriated during
+the troubles of the last reign. The pope, naturally on the side of
+order, staunchly supported this regenerator of the realm, and in his own
+brother Coloman, who administered the district of the Drave, Bela also
+found a loyal and intelligent co-operator. He also largely employed Jews
+and Ishmaelites,[1] the financial specialists of the day, whom he
+rewarded with lands and titles. The salient event of Bela's reign was
+the terrible Tatar invasion which reduced three-quarters of Hungary to
+ashes. The terror of their name had long preceded them, and Bela, in
+1235 or 1236, sent the Dominican monk Julian, by way of Constantinople,
+to Russia, to collect information about them from the "ancient Magyars"
+settled there, possibly the Volgan Bulgarians. He returned to Hungary
+with the tidings that the Tatars contemplated the immediate conquest of
+Europe. Bela did his utmost to place his kingdom in a state of defence,
+and appealed betimes to the pope, the duke of Austria and the emperor
+for assistance; but in February and March 1241 the Tatars burst through
+the Carpathian passes; in April Bela himself, after a gallant stand, was
+routed on the banks of the Sajo and fled to the islands of Dalmatia; and
+for the next twelve months the kingdom of Hungary was merely a
+geographical expression. The last twenty-eight years of Bela's reign
+were mainly devoted to the reconstruction of his realm, which he
+accomplished with a single-minded thoroughness which has covered his
+name with glory. (See HUNGARY: _History_.)
+
+Perhaps the most difficult part of his task was the recovery of the
+western portions of the kingdom (which had suffered least) from the
+hands of Frederick of Austria, who had seized them as the price of
+assistance which had been promised but never given. First Bela solicited
+the aid of the pope, but was compelled finally to resort to arms, and
+crossing the Leitha on the 15th of June 1246, routed Frederick, who was
+seriously wounded and trampled to death by his own horsemen. With him
+was extinguished the male line of the house of Babenberg. In the south
+Bela was less successful. In 1243 he was obliged to cede to Venice,
+Zara, a perpetual apple of discord between the two states; but he kept
+his hold upon Spalato and his other Dalmatian possessions, and his wise
+policy of religious tolerance in Bosnia enabled Hungary to rule that
+province peaceably for many years. The new Servian kingdom of the
+Nemanides, on the other hand, gave him much trouble and was the occasion
+of many bloody wars. In 1261 the Tatars under Nogai Khan invaded Hungary
+for the second time, but were defeated by Bela and lost 50,000 men. Bela
+reached the apogee of his political greatness in 1264 when, shortly
+after his crushing defeat of the Servian king, Stephen Urosh, he
+entertained at his court, at Kalocsa, the ambassadors of the newly
+restored Greek emperor, of the kings of France, Bulgaria and Bohemia and
+three Tatar _mirzas_. For a time Bela was equally fortunate in the
+north-west, where the ambitious and enterprising Poemyslidae had erected
+a new Bohemian empire which absorbed the territories of the old
+Babenbergers and was very menacing to Hungary. With Ottakar II. in
+particular, Bela was almost constantly at war for the possession of
+Styria, which ultimately fell to the Bohemians. The last years of Bela's
+life were embittered by the ingratitude of his son Stephen, who rebelled
+continuously against his father and ultimately compelled him to divide
+the kingdom with him, the younger prince setting up a capital of his own
+at Sarospatak, and following a foreign policy directly contrary to that
+of his father. Bela died on the 3rd of May 1270 in his sixty-fourth
+year. With the people at large he was popular to the last; his services
+to his country had been inestimable. He married, while still
+crown-prince, Maria, daughter of the Nicaean emperor, Theodore Lascaris,
+whom his own father brought home with him from his crusade. She bore
+him, besides his two sons Stephen and Bela, seven daughters, of whom St
+Margaret was the most famous.
+
+  No special monograph for the whole reign exists. For the Tatar
+  invasion see the contemporary Rogerius, _Epistolae super destructione
+  Regni Hungarias per Tartaros facta_ (Budapest, 1885). A vivid but
+  somewhat chauvinistic history of Bela's reign will be found in
+  Acsady's _History of the Hungarian Realm_ (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest,
+  1903).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Mahommedan itinerant chapmen, from the Volga.
+
+
+
+
+BELA, LAS BELA, or LUS BEYLA, situated in 26 deg. 27' 30" N. lat. and 66
+deg. 45' 0" E. long., 350 ft. above sea level, capital of the small
+independent state of Las Bela to the south of Kalat (Baluchistan), ruled
+by the Jam (or Cham), who occupies the position of a protected chief
+under the British Raj. To the east lies Sind, and to the west Makran,
+and from time immemorial the great trading route between Sind and Persia
+has passed through Las Bela. The area of Las Bela is 6357 sq. m., and
+its population in 1901 was 56,109, of which 54,040 were Mussulmans. The
+low-lying, alluvial, hot and malarial plains of Las Bela, occupying
+about 6000 sq. m. on the north-east corner of the Arabian Sea, are
+highly irrigated and fertile--two rivers from the north, the Purali and
+the Kud, uniting to provide a plentiful water supply. The bay of
+Sonmiani once extended over most of these plains, where the Purali delta
+is now growing with measurable strides. The hill ranges to the east,
+parting the plains from Sind (generally known locally as the Mor and the
+Kirthar), between which lies the long narrow line of the Hab valley,
+strike nearly north and south, diminishing in height as they approach
+the sea and allowing of a route skirting the coast between Karachi and
+Bela. To the west they are broken into an infinity of minor ridges
+massing themselves in parallel formation with a strike which curves from
+south to west till they form the coast barrier of Makran. The Persian
+route from India, curving somewhat to the north, traverses this waste of
+barren ridges almost at right angles, but on dropping into the Kolwah
+valley its difficulty ceases. It then becomes an open road to Kej and
+Persia, with an easy gradient. This was undoubtedly one of the greatest
+trade routes of the medieval days of Arab ascendancy in Sind, and it is
+to this route that Bela owes a place in history which its modern
+appearance and dimensions hardly seem to justify. Bela is itself rather
+prettily situated on a rocky site above the banks of the Purali. About
+four miles to the south are the well-kept gardens which surround the
+tomb of Sir Robert Sandeman; which is probably destined to become a
+"ziarat," or place of pilgrimage, of even greater sanctity than that of
+General Jacob at Jacobabad. The population of the town numbers about
+5000. The Jam's retinue consists of about 300 infantry, 50 cavalry, and
+4 guns. Liability to assist on active service is the only acknowledgment
+of the suzerainty which is paid by the Jam to the Khan of Kalat. The
+Jam, Mir Kamal Khan, succeeded his father, Sir Mir Khan, in 1895, and
+was formally invested with powers in 1902.
+
+From very early times this remote corner of Baluchistan has held a
+distinct place in history. There are traces of ancient Arab (possibly
+Himyaritic) occupation to be found in certain stone ruins at Gondakeha
+on the Kud river, 10 m. to the north-west of Bela, whilst the Greek name
+"Arabis" for the Purali is itself indicative of an early prehistoric
+connexion with races of Asiatic Ethiopians referred to by Herodotus. On
+the coast, near the village of Sonmiani (a station of the Indo-Persian
+telegraph line) may be traced the indentation which once formed the bay
+of Morontobara, noted in the voyage of Nearchus; and it was on the
+borders of Makran that the Turanian town of Rhambakia was situated,
+which was once the centre of the trade in "bdellium." In the 7th century
+A.D. Las Bela was governed by a Buddhist priest, at which time all the
+province of Gandava was Buddhist, and Sind was ruled by the Brahman,
+Chach. Buddhist caves are to be found excavated in the conglomerate
+cliffs near Gondakeha, at a place called Gondrani, or Shahr-i-Rogan.
+With the influx of Arabs into Makran, Bela, under the name of Armel (or
+Armabel), rose to importance as a link in the great chain of trading
+towns between Persia and Sind; and then there existed in the delta such
+places as Yusli (near the modern Uthal) and Kambali (which may possibly
+be recognized in the ruins at Khairokot), and many smaller towns, each
+of which possessed its citadel, its caravanserai and bazaar, which are
+not only recorded but actually mapped by one of the medieval Arab
+geographers, Ibn Haukal. It is probable that Karia Pir, 1-1/2 m. to the
+east of the modern city, represents the site of the Armabel which was
+destroyed by Mahommed Kasim in his victorious march to Sind in 710.
+There is another old site 5 m. to the west of the modern town. The ruins
+at Karia Pir, like those of Tijarra Pir and Khairokot, contain Arab
+pottery, seals, and other medieval relics. The Lumris, or Lasis, who
+originate the name Las as a prefix to that of Bela, are the dominant
+tribe in the province. They are comparatively recent arrivals who
+displaced the earlier Tajik and Brahui occupants. It is probable that
+this influx of Rajput population was coincident with the displacement of
+the Arab dynasties in Sind by the Mahommedan Rajputs in the 11th century
+A.D. Some authorities connect the Lumris with the Sumras.
+
+  There are no published accounts of Bela, excepting those of the Indian
+  government reports and gazetteers. This article is compiled from
+  unpublished notes by the author and by Mr Wainwright, of the Indian
+  Survey department.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+BELA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of the
+Partabgarh district of the United Provinces, with a railway station 80
+m. from Benares. Pop. (1901) 8041. It adjoins the village of Partabgarh
+proper, and the civil station sometimes known as Andrewganj. Bela, which
+was founded in 1802 as a cantonment, became a district headquarters
+after the mutiny. It has trade in agricultural produce. There is a
+well-known hospital for women here.
+
+
+
+
+BELAY (from the same O. Eng. origin as "lay"; cf. Dutch _beleggen_), a
+nautical term for making ropes fast round a pin. In earlier days the
+word was synonymous with "waylay" or "surround."
+
+
+
+
+BELCHER, SIR EDWARD (1799-1877), British naval officer, entered the navy
+in 1812. In 1825 he accompanied Frederick William Beechey's expedition
+to the Pacific and Bering Strait, as a surveyor. He subsequently
+commanded a surveying ship on the north and west coasts of Africa and in
+the British seas, and in 1836 took up the work which Beechey left
+unfinished on the Pacific coast of South America. This was on board the
+"Sulphur," which was ordered to return to England in 1839 by the
+Trans-Pacific route. Belcher made various observations at a number of
+islands which he visited, was delayed by being despatched to take part
+in the war in China in 1840-1841, and reached home only in 1842. In 1843
+he was knighted, and was now engaged in the "Samarang," in surveying
+work in the East Indies, the Philippines, &c., until 1847. In 1852 he
+was given command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Sir
+John Franklin. This was unsuccessful; Belcher's inability to render
+himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly unfortunate in an
+Arctic voyage, and he was not wholly suited to command vessels among
+ice. This was his last active service, but he became K.C.B. in 1867 and
+an admiral in 1872. He published a _Treatise on Nautical Surveying_
+(1835), _Narrative of a Voyage round the World performed in H.M.S.
+"Sulphur," 1836-1842_ (1843), _Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S.
+"Samarang" during 1843-1846_ (1848; the _Zoology of the Voyage_ was
+separately dealt with by some of his colleagues, 1850), and _The Last of
+the Arctic Voyages_ (1855); besides minor works, including a novel,
+_Horatio Howard Brenton_ (1856), a story of the navy. He died in London
+on the 18th of March 1877.
+
+
+
+
+BELDAM (like "belsire," grandfather, from the Fr. _bel_, good,
+expressing relationship; cf. the Fr. _belle-mere_, mother-in-law, and
+_dame_, in Eng. form "dam," mother), strictly a grandmother or remote
+ancestress, and so an old woman; generally used contemptuously as
+meaning an old hag.
+
+
+
+
+BELESME, ROBERT OF (fl. 1100), earl of Shrewsbury. From his mother Mabel
+Talvas he inherited the fief of Belesme, and from his father, the
+Conqueror's companion, that of Shrewsbury. Both were march-fiefs, the
+one guarding Normandy from Maine, and the other England from the Welsh;
+consequently their lord was peculiarly powerful and independent. Robert
+is the typical feudal noble of the time, circumspect and politic,
+persuasive and eloquent, impetuous and daring in battle, and an able
+military engineer; in person, tall and strong; greedy for land, an
+oppressor of the weak, a systematic rebel and traitor, and savagely
+cruel. He first appears as a supporter of Robert's rebellion against the
+Conqueror (1077); then as an accomplice in the English conspiracy of
+1088 against Rufus. Later he served Rufus in Normandy, and was allowed
+to succeed his brother Hugh in the earldom of Shrewsbury (1098). But at
+the height of his power, he revolted against Henry I (1102). He was
+banished and deprived of his English estate; for sometime after he
+remained at large in Normandy, defying the authority of Robert and Henry
+alike. He betrayed Robert's cause at Tinchebrai; but in 1112 was
+imprisoned for life by Henry I.
+
+  See E.A. Freeman's _William Rufus_ and his _Norman Conquest_, vol.
+  iv.; and J.M. Lappenberg's _History of England under the Norman
+  Kings_, trans. B. Thorpe (1857).
+
+
+
+
+BELFAST, a city, county and parliamentary borough, the capital of the
+province of Ulster, and county town of county Antrim, Ireland. Pop.
+(1901) 349,180. It is a seaport of the first rank, situated at the
+entrance of the river Lagan into Belfast Lough, 112-3/4 m. north of
+Dublin by rail, on the north-east coast of the island. It is an
+important railway centre, with terminal stations of the Great Northern,
+Northern Counties (Midland of England), and Belfast & County Down
+railways, and has regular passenger communication by sea with Liverpool,
+Fleetwood, Heysham, Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. It is
+built on alluvial deposit and reclaimed land, mostly not exceeding 6 ft.
+above high water mark, and was thus for a long period subject to
+inundation and epidemics, and only careful drainage rendered the site
+healthy. The appearance of the city plainly demonstrates the modern
+growth of its importance, and evidence is not wanting that for a
+considerable period architectural improvement was unable to keep pace
+with commercial development. Many squalid districts, however, have been
+improved away to make room for new thoroughfares and handsome buildings.
+One thoroughfare thus constructed at the close of the 19th century is
+the finest in Belfast--Royal Avenue. It contains, among several notable
+buildings, the post office, and the free public library, opened in 1888
+and comprising a collection of over 40,000 volumes, as well as an art
+gallery and a museum of antiquities especially rich in remains of the
+Neolithic period. The architect was Mr W.H. Lynn. The magnificent city
+hall, from designs of Mr (afterwards Sir) Brumwell Thomas, was opened in
+1906. The principal streets, such as York Street, Donegall Street, North
+Street, High Street, are traversed by tramways. Four bridges cross the
+Lagan; the Queen's Bridge (1844, widened in 1886) is the finest, while
+the Albert Bridge (1889) replaces a former one which collapsed. Other
+principal public buildings, nearly all to be included in modern schemes
+of development, are the city hall, occupying the site of the old Linen
+Hall, in Donegall Square, estimated to cost L300,000; the commercial
+buildings (1820) in Waring Street, the customhouse and inland revenue
+office on Donegall Quay, the architect of which, as of the court house,
+was Sir Charles Lanyon, and some of the numerous banks, especially the
+Ulster Bank. The Campbell College in the suburb of Belmont was founded
+in 1892 in accordance with the will of Mr W.J. Campbell, a Belfast
+merchant, who left L200,000 for the building and endowment of a public
+school. Other educational establishments are Queen's University,
+replacing the old Queen's College (1849) under the Irish Universities
+Act 1908; the Presbyterian and the Methodist Colleges, occupying
+neighbouring sites close to the extensive botanical gardens, the Royal
+Academical Institution, and the Municipal Technical Institute. In 1897
+the sum of L100,000 was subscribed by citizens to found a hospital
+(1903) to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and named
+after her. It took the place of an institution which, under various
+names, had existed since 1797. Public monuments are few, but include a
+statue of Queen Victoria (1903) and a South African War memorial (1905)
+in front of the city hall; the Albert Memorial (1870), in the form of a
+clock-tower, in Queen Street; a monument to the same prince in High
+Street; and a statue in Wellington Place to Dr Henry Cooke, a prominent
+Presbyterian minister who died in 1868. The corporation controls the gas
+and electric and similar undertakings. The water supply, under the
+control of the City and District Water Commissioners (incorporated
+1840), has its sources in the Mourne Mountains, Co. Down, 40 m. distant,
+with a service reservoir at Knockbreckan; also in the hilly district
+near Carrickfergus. There are several public parks, of which the
+principal are the Ormeau Park (1870), the Victoria, Alexandra, and Falls
+Road parks. There is a Theatre Royal in Arthur Square. There are also
+several excellent clubs and societies, social, political, scientific,
+and sporting; including among the last the famous Royal Ulster Yacht
+Club.
+
+In 1899 was laid the foundation stone of the Protestant cathedral in
+Donegall Street, designed by Sir Thomas Drew and Mr W.H. Lynn to seat
+3000 worshippers, occupying the site of the old St Anne's parish church,
+part of the fabric of which the new building incorporates. The diocese
+is that of Down, Connor, and Dromore. The first portion (the nave) was
+consecrated on the 2nd of June 1904. The plan is a Latin cross, the west
+front rising to a height of 105 ft., while the central tower is 175 ft.
+The pulpit was formerly used in the nave of Westminster Abbey, being
+presented to Belfast cathedral by the dean and chapter of that
+foundation.
+
+Most of the older churches are classical in design, and the most notable
+are St George's, in High Street, and the Memorial church of Dr Cooke in
+May Street. For the more modern churches the Gothic style has frequently
+been used. Amongst these are St James, Antrim Road; St Peter's Roman
+Catholic chapel, with its Florentine spire; Presbyterian churches in
+Fitzroy Avenue, and Elmwood Avenue, and the Methodist chapel, Carlisle
+Circus. The Presbyterians and Protestant Episcopalians each outnumber
+the Roman Catholics in Belfast, and these three are the chief religious
+divisions.
+
+_Environs._--The country surrounding Belfast is agreeable and
+picturesque, whether along the shores of the Lough or towards the girdle
+of hills to the west; and is well wooded and studded with country seats
+and villas. In the immediate vicinity of the city are several points of
+historic interest and natural beauty. The Cave Hill, though exceeded in
+height by Mount Divis, Squire's Hill, and other summits, is of greatest
+interest for its caves, in the chalk, from which early weapons and other
+objects have been recovered. The battle in 1408, which was fought along
+the base of the cliffs here between the Savages of the Ards and the
+Irish, is described in Sir Samuel Ferguson's "Hibernian Nights
+Entertainment." Here also are McArt's Fort and other earthworks, and
+from here the importance of the physical position of Belfast may be
+appreciated to the full. At Newtonbreda, overlooking the Lagan, was the
+palace of Con O'Neill, whose sept was exterminated by Deputy Mountjoy in
+the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Belfast Lough is of great though quiet
+beauty; and the city itself is seen at its best from its seaward
+approach, with its girdle of hills in the background. On the shores of
+the lough several villages have grown into residential towns for the
+wealthier classes, whose work lies in the city. Of these Whitehouse and
+White Abbey are the principal on the western shore, and on the eastern,
+Holywood, which ranks practically as a suburb of Belfast, and, at the
+entrance to the lough, Bangor.
+
+_Harbour and Trade._--The harbour and docks of Belfast are managed by a
+board of harbour commissioners, elected by the ratepayers and the
+shipowners. The outer harbour is one of the safest in the kingdom. By
+the Belfast Harbour Acts the commissioners were empowered to borrow more
+than L2,500,000 in order to carry out several new works and improvements
+in the port. Under the powers of these acts a new channel, called the
+Victoria Channel, several miles in length, was cut about 1840 leading in
+a direct line from the quays to the sea. This channel affords 20 ft. of
+water at low tide, and 28 ft. at full tide, the width of the channel
+being 300 ft. The Alexandra Dock, which is 852 ft. long and 31 ft. deep,
+was opened in 1889, and the extensive improvements (including the York
+Dock, where vessels carrying 10,000 tons can discharge in four to six
+days) have been effected from time to time, making the harbour one of
+the most commodious in the United Kingdom. The provision of a new
+graving dock adjoining the Alexandra was delayed in October 1905 by a
+subsidence of the ground during its construction. Parliamentary powers
+were obtained to construct a graving dock capable of accommodating the
+largest class of warships. The growth and development of the
+shipbuilding industry has been immense, the firm of Harland & Wolff
+being amongst the first in the trade, and some of the largest vessels in
+the world come from their yards. The vast increase of the foreign trade
+of Belfast marks its development, like Liverpool, as a great
+distributing port. The chief exports are linen, whisky, aerated waters,
+iron ore and cattle.
+
+Belfast is the centre of the Irish linen industry, machinery for which
+was introduced by T. & A. Mulholland in 1830, a rapid extension of the
+industry at once resulting. It is also the headquarters and business
+centre for the entire flax-spinning and weaving industry of the country.
+Distilling is extensively carried on. Several firms are engaged in the
+manufacture of mineral waters, for which the water of the Cromac Springs
+is peculiarly adapted. Belfast also has some of the largest tobacco
+works and rope works in the world.
+
+_Administration._--In conformity with the passing of the Municipal
+Corporations Act of 1840 the constitution of the corporation was made to
+consist of ten aldermen and thirty councillors, under the style and
+title of "The Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of the Borough of Belfast."
+In 1888 the rank of a city was conferred by royal charter upon Belfast,
+with the incidental rank, liberties, privileges, and immunities. In 1892
+Queen Victoria conferred upon the mayor of the city the title of lord
+mayor, and upon the corporation the name and description of "The Lord
+Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of the city of Belfast." By the passing of
+the Belfast Corporation Act of 1896, the boundary of the city was
+extended, and the corporation made to consist of fifteen aldermen and
+forty-five councillors, and the number of wards was increased from five
+to fifteen. By virtue of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898,
+Belfast became a county borough on the 1st of April 1899. By the Local
+Government (Ireland) Act 1898, Belfast became for assize purposes "the
+county of the city of Belfast," with a high sheriff. It is divided into
+four parliamentary divisions north, south, east and west, each returning
+one member. The total area is 16,594 acres.
+
+_History._--The etymology of the name (for which several derivations
+have been proposed) and the origin of the town are equally uncertain,
+and there is not a single monument of antiquarian interest upon which to
+found a conjecture. About 1177 a castle is said to have been built by
+John de Courcy, to be destroyed by Edward Bruce in 1316. It may be noted
+here that Belfast Castle was finally burnt in 1708; but a modern
+mansion, on Cave Hill, outside the city, bears that name. About the
+beginning of the 16th century, Belfast is described as a town and
+fortress, but it was in reality a mere fishing village in the hands of
+the house of O'Neill. In the course of the wars of Gerald Fitzgerald,
+8th earl of Kildare, Belfast was twice attacked by him, in 1503 and
+1512. The O'Neills, always opposed to the English, had forfeited every
+baronial right; but in 1552 Hugh O'Neill of Clandeboye promised
+allegiance to the reigning monarch, and obtained the castle of
+Carrickfergus, the town and fortress of Belfast, and all the surrounding
+lands. Belfast was then restored from the half ruined state into which
+it had fallen, and the castle was garrisoned. The turbulent successors
+of O'Neill having been routed by the English, the town and fortress were
+obtained by grant dated the 16th of November 1571 by Sir Thomas Smith, a
+favourite of Queen Elizabeth, but were afterwards forfeited by him to
+the lord deputy Sir Arthur Chichester, who, in 1612, was created Baron
+Chichester of Belfast. At this time the town consisted of about 120
+houses, mostly built of mud and covered with thatch, while the castle, a
+two-storeyed building, was roofed with shingles. A charter was now
+granted to the town by James I. (April 27, 1613) constituting it a
+corporation with a chief magistrate and 12 burgesses and commonalty,
+with the right of sending two members to parliament. In 1632 Thomas
+Wentworth, Earl Strafford, was appointed first lord deputy of Ireland,
+and Belfast soon shared largely in the benefits of his enlightened
+policy, receiving, among other favours, certain fiscal rights which his
+lordship had purchased from the corporation of Carrickfergus. Two years
+after the rebellion of 1641 a rampart was raised round the town, pierced
+by four gates on the land side. In 1662, as appears by a map still
+extant, there were 150 houses within the wall, forming five streets and
+as many lanes; and the upland districts around were one dense forest of
+giant oaks and sycamores, yielding an unfailing supply of timber to the
+woodmen of Carrickfergus.
+
+Throughout the succeeding fifty years the progress of Belfast surpassed
+that of most other towns in Ireland. Its merchants in 1686 owned forty
+ships, of a total carrying power of 3300 tons, and the customs collected
+were close upon L20,000. The old charter was annulled by James II. and a
+new one issued in 1688, but the old was restored in 1690 by William III.
+When the king arrived at Belfast in that year there were only two places
+of worship in the town, the old corporation church in the High Street,
+and the Presbyterian meeting-house in Rosemary Lane, the Roman Catholics
+not being permitted to build their chapels within the walls of corporate
+towns.
+
+At the beginning of the 18th century Belfast had become known as a place
+of considerable trade, and was then thought a handsome, thriving and
+well-peopled town, with many new houses and good shops. During the civil
+commotions which so long afflicted the country, it suffered less than
+most other places; and it soon afterwards attained the rank of the
+richest commercial town in the north of Ireland. James Blow and Co.
+introduced letterpress printing in 1696, and in 1704 issued the first
+copy of the Bible produced in the island. In September 1737, Henry and
+Robert Joy started the _Belfast News Letter_. Twenty years afterwards
+the town contained 1800 houses and 8549 inhabitants, 556 of whom were
+members of the Church of Rome. It was not, however, till 1789 that
+Belfast obtained the regular communication, which towns of less
+importance already enjoyed, with Dublin by stage coach, a fact which is
+to be explained by the badness of the roads and the steepness of the
+hills between Newry and Belfast.
+
+The increased freedom of trade with which Ireland was favoured, the
+introduction of the cotton manufacture by Robert Joy and Thomas M'Cabe
+in 1777, the establishment in 1791 of shipbuilding on an extensive scale
+by William Ritchie, an energetic Scotsman, combined with the rope and
+canvas manufacture already existing, supplied the inhabitants with
+employments and increased the demand for skilled labour. The population
+now made rapid strides as well by ordinary extension as by immigration
+from the rural districts. Owing to the close proximity of powerful
+opposed religious sects, the modern history of the city is not without
+its record of riot and bloodshed, as in 1880 and 1886, and in August
+1907 serious rioting followed upon a strike of carters; but the
+prosperity of the city has been happily unaffected.
+
+  See George Benn, _History of Belfast_ (Belfast, 1877); Robert M.
+  Young, _Historical Notices of Old Belfast_ (Belfast, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BELFAST, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Waldo county,
+Maine, U.S.A., on Belfast Bay (an arm of the Penobscot), and about 32 m.
+south-south-west of Bangor. Pop. (1890) 5294; (1910) 4618. It is served
+by the Belfast branch of the Maine Central railway (connecting with the
+main line at Burnham Junction, 33 m. distant), and by the coasting
+steamers (from Boston) of the Eastern Steamship Co. The city, a summer
+resort, lies on an undulating hillside, which rises from the water's
+edge to a height of more than 150 ft., and commands extensive views of
+the picturesque islands, headlands, and mountains of the Maine coast. It
+has a public library. Among the industries of Belfast are trade with the
+surrounding country, the manufacture of shoes, leather boards, axes, and
+sashes, doors and blinds, and the building and repairing of boats. Its
+exports in 1908 were valued at $285,913 and its imports at $10,313.
+Belfast was first settled (by Scottish-Irish) in 1769, and in 1773 was
+incorporated as a town under its present name (from Belfast, Ireland).
+The town was almost completely destroyed by the British in 1779, but its
+rebuilding was begun in the next year. It was held by a British force
+for five days in September 1814. Belfast was chartered as a city in
+1850.
+
+
+
+
+BELFORT, TERRITORY OF, administrative division of eastern France, formed
+from the southern portion of the department of Haut-Rhin, the rest of
+which was ceded to Germany by the treaty of Frankfort (1871). It is
+bounded on the N.E. and E. by German Alsace, on the S.E. and S. by
+Switzerland, on the S.W. by the department of Doubs, on the W. by that
+of Haute-Saone, on the N. by that of Vosges. Pop. (1906), 95,421.
+
+With an area of only 235 sq. m., it is, next to that of Seine, the
+smallest department of France. The northern part is occupied by the
+southern offshoots of the Vosges, the southern part by the northern
+outposts of the Jura. Between these two highlands stretches the Trouee
+(depression) de Belfort, 18-1/2 m. broad, joining the basins of the
+Rhine and the Rhone, traversed by the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine
+and by several railways. A part of the natural highway open from
+Frankfort to the Mediterranean, the Trouee has from earliest times
+provided the route for the migration from north to south, and is still
+of great commercial and strategical value. The northern part, occupied
+by the Vosges, rises to 4126 ft. in the Ballon d'Alsace, the northern
+termination and the culminating point of the department; to 3773 ft. in
+the Planche des Belles-Filles; to 3579 ft. in the Signal des Plaines; to
+3534 ft. in the Barenkopf; and to numerous other lesser heights. South
+of the Trouee de Belfort, there rise near Delle limestone hills, in part
+wooded, on the frontiers of France, Alsace, and Switzerland, attaining
+1680 ft. in the Foret de Florimont. The territory between
+Lachapelle-sous-Rougemont (in the north-east), Belfort and Delle does
+not rise above 1300 ft. The line of lowest altitude follows the river St
+Nicolas and the Rhone-Rhine canal. The chief rivers are the Savoureuse,
+24 m. long, running straight south from the Ballon d'Alsace, and
+emptying into the Allaine; the Allaine, from Switzerland, entering the
+territory a little to the south of Delle, and leaving it a little to the
+west of Morvillars; the St Nicolas, 24 m. long, from the Barenkopf,
+running southwards and then south-west into the Allaine. The climate to
+the north of the town of Belfort is marked by long and rigorous winters,
+sudden changes of temperature, and an annual rainfall of 31 in. to 39
+in. retained by an impervious subsoil; farther south it is milder and
+more equable with a rainfall of 23 in. to 31 in., quickly absorbed by
+the soil or evaporated by the sun. About one-third of the total area is
+arable land; wheat, oats and rye are the chief cereals; potatoes come
+next in importance. Forest covers another third of the surface; the
+chief trees are firs, pines, oak and beech; cherries are largely grown
+for the distillation of kirsch. Pasture and forage crops cover the
+remaining third of the Territory; only horned cattle are raised to any
+extent. There is an unworked concession of copper, silver and lead at
+Giromagny; and there are also quarries of stone. The Territory is an
+active industrial region. The two main branches of manufacture are the
+spinning and weaving of cotton and wool, and the production of iron and
+iron-goods (wire, railings, nails, files, &c.) and machinery. Belfort
+has important locomotive and engineering works. Hoisery is manufactured
+at Delle, watches, clocks, agricultural machinery, petrol motors,
+ironware and electrical apparatus at the flourishing centre of
+Beaucourt, and there are numerous saw-mills, tile and brick works and
+breweries. Imports consist of raw materials for the industries,
+dyestuffs, coal, wine, &c., and the exports of manufactured goods.
+
+Belfort is the capital of the Territory, which comprises one
+arrondissement, 6 cantons and 106 communes, and falls within the
+circumscriptions of the archbishopric, the court of appeal and the
+academie (educational division) of Besancon. It forms the 7th
+subdivision of the VII. army corps. Both the Eastern and the
+Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railways traverse the Territory, and the canal
+from the Rhone to the Rhine accompanies the river St Nicolas for about 6
+m.
+
+
+
+
+BELFORT, a town of eastern France, capital of the Territory of Belfort,
+275 m. E.S.E. of Paris, on the main line of the Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1906), town, 27,805; commune, 34,649. It is situated among wooded hills
+on the Savoureuse at the intersection of the roads and railway lines
+from Paris to Basel and from Lyons to Mulhausen and Strassburg, by which
+it maintains considerable trade with Germany and Switzerland. The town
+is divided by the Savoureuse into a new quarter, in which is the railway
+station on the right bank, and the old fortified quarter, with the
+castle, the public buildings and monuments, on the left bank. The church
+of St Denis, a building in the classical style, erected from 1727 to
+1750, and the hotel de ville (1721-1724) both stand in the Place d'Armes
+opposite the castle. The two chief monuments commemorate the defence of
+Belfort in the war of 1870-1871. "The Lion of Belfort," a colossal
+figure 78 ft. long and 52 ft. high, the work of F.A. Bartholdi, stands
+in front of the castle; and in the Place d'Armes is the bronze group
+"Quand Meme" by Antonin Mercie, in memory of Thiers and of Colonel
+Pierre Marie Aristide Denfert-Rochereau (1823-1878), commandant of the
+place during the siege. Other objects of interest are the Tour de la
+Miotte, of unknown origin and date, which stands on the hill of La
+Miotte to the N.E. of Belfort, and the Port de Brisach, a gateway built
+by Vauban in 1687. Belfort is the seat of a prefect; its public
+institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
+chamber of commerce, a lycee, a training-college and a branch of the
+Bank of France. The construction of locomotives and machinery, carried
+on by the Societe Alsacienne, wire-drawing, and the spinning and weaving
+of cotton are included among its industries, which together with the
+population increased greatly owing to the Alsacian immigration after
+1871. Its trade is in the wines of Alsace, brandy and cereals. The town
+derives its chief importance from its value as a military position.
+
+After the war of 1870-1871, Belfort, which after a diplomatic struggle
+remained in French hands, became a frontier fortress of the greatest
+value, and the old works which underwent the siege of 1870-1871 (see
+below) were promptly increased and re-modelled. In front of the Perches
+redoubts, the Bosmont, whence the Prussian engineers began their attack,
+is now heavily fortified with continuous lines called the _Organisation
+defensive de Bosmont_. The old Bellevue redoubt (now Fort
+Denfert-Rochereau) is covered by a new work situated likewise on the
+ground occupied by the siege trenches in the war. Perouse, hastily
+entrenched in 1870, now possesses a permanent fort. The old entrenched
+camp enclosed by the castle, Fort La Miotte, and Fort Justice, is still
+maintained, and part even of the enceinte built by Vauban is used for
+defensive purposes. Outside this improved inner line, which includes the
+whole area of the attack and defence of 1870, lies a complete circle of
+detached forts and batteries of modern construction. To the north, Forts
+Salbert and Roppe form the salients of a long defensive line on high
+ground, at the centre of which, where the Savoureuse river divides it, a
+new work was added later. Two works near Giromagny, about 8 m. from
+Belfort itself, connect the fortress with the right of the defensive
+line of the Moselle (Fort Ballon d'Alsace). In the eastern sector of the
+defences (from Roppe to the Savoureuse below Belfort) the forts are
+about 3 m. from the centre, the works near the Belfort-Mulhausen railway
+being somewhat more advanced, and in the western (from Salbert to Fort
+Bois d'Oye on the lower Savoureuse) they are advanced to about the same
+distance. The fort of Mont Vaudois, the westernmost, overlooks Hericourt
+and the battlefield of the Lisaine: farther to the south Montbeliard is
+also fortified. The perimeter of the Belfort defences is nearly 25 m.
+
+_History._--Gallo-Roman remains have been discovered in the vicinity of
+Belfort, but the place is first heard of in the early part of the 13th
+century, when it was in the possession of the counts of Montbeliard.
+From them it passed by marriage to the counts of Ferrette and afterwards
+to the archdukes of Austria. By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the town
+was ceded to Louis XIV. who gave it to Cardinal Mazarin.
+
+In the Thirty Years' War Belfort was twice besieged, 1633 and 1634, and
+in 1635 there was a battle here between the duke of Lorraine and the
+allied French and Swedes under Marshal de la Force. The fortifications
+of Vauban were begun in 1686. Belfort was besieged in 1814 by the troops
+of the allies and in 1815 by the Austrians.
+
+The most famous episode of the town's history is its gallant and
+successful defence in the war of 1870-1871.
+
+The events which led up to the siege are described under FRANCO-GERMAN
+WAR. Even before the investment Belfort was cut off from the interior of
+France, and the German corps of von Werder was, throughout the siege,
+between the fortress and the forces which might attempt its relief. The
+siege corps was commanded by General von Tresckow and numbered at first
+10,000 men with twenty-four field guns--a force which appeared adequate
+for the reduction of the antiquated works of Vaubau. Colonel
+Denfert-Rochereau was, however, a scientific engineer of advanced ideas
+as well as a veteran soldier of the Crimea and Algeria, and he had been
+stationed at Belfort for six years. He was therefore eminently fitted
+for the command of the fortress. He had as a nucleus but few regular
+troops, but the energy of the military and civil authorities enabled his
+force to be augmented by national guards, &c., to 17,600 men. The
+artillery was very numerous, but skilled gunners were not available in
+any great strength and ammunition was scarce. Perhaps the most
+favourable circumstance from a technical point of view was the
+bomb-proof accommodation of the enceinte.
+
+[Illustration: Siege of BELFORT 1870-71.]
+
+The old fortress consisted of the town enceinte, the castle (situated on
+high ground and fortified by several concentric envelopes), and the
+entrenched camp, a hollow enclosed by continuous lines, the salients of
+which were the castle, Fort La Justice and Fort La Miotte. These were
+planned in the days of short-range guns, and were therefore in 1870 open
+to an overwhelming bombardment by the rifled cannon of the attack.
+Denfert-Rochereau, however, understood better than other engineers of
+the day the power of modern artillery, and his plan was to utilize the
+old works as a keep and an artillery position. The Perches ridge, whence
+the town and suburbs could be bombarded, he fortified with all possible
+speed. On the right bank of the Savoureuse he constructed two new forts,
+Bellevue in the south-west and Des Barres to the west, and, further, he
+prepared the suburb on this side for a hand-to-hand defence. His general
+plan was to maintain as advanced a line as possible, to manoeuvre
+against the investing troops, and to support his own by the long range
+fire of his rifled guns. With this object he fortified the outlying
+villages, and when the Germans (chiefly Landwehr) began the investment
+on the 3rd of November 1870, they encountered everywhere a most
+strenuous resistance. Throughout the month the garrison made repeated
+sorties, and the Germans were on several occasions forced by the long
+range fire of the fortress to evacuate villages which they had taken.
+Under these circumstances, and also because of their numerical weakness
+and the rigour of the weather, the Germans advanced but slowly. On the
+2nd of December, when at last von Tresckow broke ground for the
+construction of his batteries, the French still held Danjoutin, Bosmont,
+Perouse and the adjacent woods, and, to the northward (on this side the
+siege was not pressed) La Forge. Thus the first attack of the siege
+artillery was confined to the western side of the river between Essert
+and Bavillers. From this position the bombardment opened on the 3rd of
+December. Some damage was done to the houses of Belfort, but the
+garrison was not intimidated, and their artillery replied with such
+spirit that after some days the German commander gave up the
+bombardment. On this occasion the distant forts La Miotte and La Justice
+fired with effect at a range of 4700 yds., affording a conspicuous
+illustration of the changed conditions of siege-craft. The German
+batteries, as more guns arrived, were extended from left to right, and
+on the 13th of December the Bosmont was captured, ground being also
+gained in front of Bellevue. The difficulties under which the siege
+corps laboured were very great, and it was not until the 7th of January
+1871 that the rightmost battery opened fire. The formal siege of the
+Perches redoubts had now been decided upon, and as an essential
+preliminary to further operations, Danjoutin, now isolated, was stormed
+by the Landwehr on the night of the 7th-8th January. In the meanwhile
+typhus and smallpox had broken out amongst the French, many of the
+national guards were impatient of control, and the German trenches, in
+spite of difficulties of ground and weather, made steady progress
+towards the Perches. A week after the fall of Danjoutin the victory of
+von Werder and the XIV. army corps at the Lisaine, in which a part of
+the siege corps bore a share, put an end to the attempt to relieve
+Belfort, and the siege corps was promptly increased to a strength of
+17,600 infantry, 4700 artillery and 1100 engineers, with thirty-four
+field-guns besides the guns and howitzers of the siege train. The
+investment was now more strictly maintained even on the north side. On
+the night of the 20th of January the French lines about Perouse were
+carried by assault, and, both flanks being now cleared, the formal siege
+of the Perches forts was opened, the first parallel extending from
+Danjoutin to Haut Taillis. In the early morning of the 27th a determined
+but premature attempt was made to storm the Perches redoubts, which cost
+the besiegers nearly 500 men. After this failure Tresckow once more
+resorted to the regular method of siege approaches, and on the 2nd of
+February the second parallel was thrown up. La Justice was now bombarded
+by two new batteries near Perouse, the Perches were of course subjected
+to an "artillery attack," and henceforward the besiegers fired 1500
+shells a day into the works of the French. But the besiegers were still
+weak in numbers and their labours were very exhausting. Bellevue and Des
+Barres became very active in hindering the advance of the siege works,
+and the German battalions were so far depleted by losses and sickness
+that they could often muster but 300 men for duty. Still, the guns of
+the attack were now steadily gaining the upper hand, and at last on the
+8th of February the Germans entered the two Perches redoubts. This
+success, and the arrival of German reinforcements, decided the siege.
+The Perches ridge was crowned with a parallel and numerous batteries,
+which in the end mounted ninety-seven guns. The attack on the castle now
+opened, but operations were soon afterwards suspended by the news that
+Belfort was now included in the general armistice (February 15th). A
+little later Denfert-Rochereau received a direct order from his own
+government to surrender the fortress, and the garrison, being granted
+free withdrawal, marched out with its arms and trains. "The town had
+suffered terribly ... nearly all the buildings were damaged ... the guns
+in the upper batteries could only be reached by ladders. The garrison,
+of its original strength of 17,700 officers and men, had lost 4750,
+besides 336 citizens. The place was no longer tenable" (Moltke,
+_Franco-German War_). Nevertheless, "the defence was by no means at its
+last stage" at the time of the formal surrender (British _Text-Book of
+Fortification_, 1893). The total loss of the besiegers was about 2000
+men.
+
+  See J. Liblin, _Belfort et son territoire_ (Mulhausen, 1887).
+
+
+
+
+BELFRY (Mid. Eng. _berfrey_, through Med. Lat. _berefredus_, from Teut.
+_bergfrid_ or _bercvrit_, which, according to the _New Eng. Dict._, is a
+combination of _bergen_, to protect, and _frida_, safety or peace; the
+word thus meaning a shelter; the change from r to l,--cf. _almery_ for
+_armarium_,--wrongly associated the origin of the word with "bell," and
+aided the restriction in meaning), a word in medieval siege-craft for a
+movable wooden tower of several stages, protected with raw hides, used
+for purposes of attack; also a watch-tower, particularly one with an
+alarm bell; hence any detached tower or campanile containing bells, as
+at Evesham, but more generally the ringing room or loft of the tower of
+a church (see TOWER).
+
+
+
+
+BELGAE, a Celtic people first mentioned by Caesar, who states that they
+formed the third part of Gaul, and were separated from the Celtae by the
+Sequana (Seine) and Matrona (Marne). On the east and north their
+boundary was the lower Rhine, on the west the ocean. Whether Caesar
+means to include the Leuci, Treviri and Mediomatrici among the Belgian
+tribes is uncertain. According to the statement of the deputation from
+the Remi to Caesar (_Bell. Gall._ ii. 4), the Belgae were a people of
+German origin, who had crossed the Rhine in early times and driven out
+the Galli. But Caesar's own statement (_B.G._ i. 1) that the Belgae
+differed from the Celtae in language, institutions and laws, is too
+sweeping (see Strabo iv. p. 176), at least as regards language, for many
+words and names are common to both. In any case, only the eastern
+districts would have been affected by invaders from over the Rhine, the
+chief seat of the Belgae proper being in the west, the country occupied
+by the Bellovaci, Ambiani and Atrebates, to which it is probable
+(although the reading is uncertain) that Caesar gives the distinctive
+name Belgium (corresponding to the old provinces of Picardy and Artois).
+The question is fully discussed by T.R. Holmes (_Caesar's Conquest of
+Gaul_, 1899), who comes to the conclusion that "when the Reman delegates
+told Caesar that the Belgae were descended from the Germans, they
+probably only meant that the ancestors of the Belgic conquerors had
+formerly dwelt in Germany, and this is equally true of the ancestors of
+the Gauls who gave their name to the Celtae; but, on the other hand, it
+is quite possible that in the veins of some of the Belgae flowed the
+blood of genuine German forefathers." W. Ridgeway (_Early Age of Greece,
+1901_) considers that the Belgic tribes were Cimbri, "who had moved
+directly across the Rhine into north-eastern Gaul." No definite number
+of Belgian tribes is given by Caesar; according to Strabo (iv. p. 196)
+they were fifteen in all. The Belgae had also made their way over to
+Britain in Caesar's time (_B.G._ ii. 4, v. 12), and settled in some of
+the southern counties (Wilts, Hants and Somerset). Among their towns
+were _Magnus Portus_ (Portsmouth) and _Venta Belgarum_ (Winchester).
+
+In 57 B.C., after the defeat of Ariovistus, the Belgae formed a
+coalition against Caesar, and in 52 took part in the general rising
+under Vercingetorix. After their final subjugation, Caesar combined the
+territory of the Belgae, Celtae and Aquitani into a single province
+(Gallia Comata). Augustus, however, finding it too unwieldy, again
+divided it into three provinces, one of which was Belgica, bounded on
+the west by the Seine and the Arar (Saone); on the north by the North
+Sea; on the east by the Rhine from its mouth to the Lacus Brigantinus
+(Lake Constance). Its southernmost district embraced the west of
+Switzerland. The capital and residence of the governor of the province
+was Durocortorum Remorum (Reims). Under Diocletian, Belgica Prima
+(capital, Augusta Trevirorum, Trier) and Secunda (capital, Reims) formed
+part of the "diocese" of Gaul.
+
+  See A.G.B. Schayes, _La Belgique et les Pays-Bas avant et pendant la
+  domination romaine_ (2nd ed., Brussels, 1877); H.G. Moke, _La Belgique
+  ancienne_ (Ghent, 1855); A. Desjardins, _Geographie historique de la
+  Gaule_, ii. (1878); T.R. Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899);
+  M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. pt. 1 (1897); J.
+  Jung, "Geographie von Italien und dem Orbis romanus" (2nd ed., 1897)
+  in I. Muller's _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_.
+
+
+
+
+BELGARD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, at
+the junction of the rivers Leitznitz and Persante, 22 m. S.E. of Kolberg
+by rail. Pop. (1900) 8047. Its industries consist of iron founding and
+cloth weaving, and there are considerable horse and cattle markets.
+
+
+
+
+BELGAUM, a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town is situated nearly 2500 ft. above sea-level; it has
+a station on the Southern Mahratta railway, 245 m. S. of Poona. It has
+an ancient fortress, dating apparently from 1519, covering about 100
+acres, and surrounded by a ditch; within it are two interesting Jain
+temples. Belgaum contains a cantonment which is the headquarters of a
+brigade in the 6th division of the western army corps. It is also a
+considerable centre of trade and of cotton weaving. There are cotton
+mills. Pop. (1901) 36,878.
+
+The district of Belgaum has an area of 4649 sq. m. To the north and east
+the country is open and well cultivated, but to the south it is
+intersected by spurs of the Sahyadri range, thickly covered in some
+places with forest. In 1901 the population was 993,976, showing a
+decrease of 2% compared with an increase of 17% in the preceding decade.
+The principal crops are millet, rice, wheat, other food-grains, pulse,
+oil-seeds, cotton, sugar-cane, spices and tobacco. There are
+considerable manufactures of cotton-cloth. The town of Gokak is known
+for its dyes, its paper and its wooden and earthenware toys. The West
+Deccan line of the Southern Mahratta railway runs through the district
+from north to south. Two high schools at Belgaum town are maintained by
+government and by the London Mission. The Kurirs, a wandering and
+thieving tribe, the Kamais, professional burglars, and the Baruds,
+cattle-stealers and highwaymen, are notorious among the criminal
+classes.
+
+_History._--The ancient name of the town of Belgaum was Venugrama, which
+is said to be derived from the bamboos that are characteristic of its
+neighbourhood. The most ancient place in the district is Halsi; and
+this, according to inscriptions on copper plates discovered in its
+neighbourhood, was once the capital of a dynasty of nine Kadamba kings.
+It appears that from the middle of the 6th century A.D. to about 760 the
+country was held by the Chalukyas, who were succeeded by the
+Rashtrakutas. After the break-up of the Rashtrakuta power a portion of
+it survived in the Rattas (875-1250), who from 1210 onward made
+Venugrama their capital. Inscriptions give evidence of a long struggle
+between the Rattas and the Kadambas of Goa, who succeeded in the latter
+years of the 12th century in acquiring and holding part of the district.
+By 1208, however, the Kadambas had been overthrown by the Rattas, who in
+their turn succumbed to the Yadavas of Devagiri in 1250. After the
+overthrow of the Yadavas by the Delhi emperor (1320), Belgaum was for a
+short time under the rule of the latter; but only a few years later the
+part south of the Ghatprabha was subject to the Hindu rajas of
+Vijayanagar. In 1347 the northern part was conquered by the Bahmani
+dynasty, which in 1473 took the town of Belgaum and conquered the
+southern part also. When Aurungzeb overthrew the Bijapur sultans in
+1686, Belgaum passed to the Moguls. In 1776 the country was overrun by
+Hyder Ali, but was retaken by the Peshwa with British assistance. In
+1818 it was handed over to the East India Company and was made part of
+the district of Dharwar. In 1836 this was divided into two parts, the
+southern district continuing to be known as Dharwar, the northern as
+Belgaum.
+
+  See _Imp. Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, ed. 1908), s.v.
+
+
+
+
+BELGIAN CONGO, a Belgian colony in Equatorial Africa occupying the
+greater part of the basin of the Congo river. Formerly the Independent
+State of the Congo, it was annexed to Belgium in 1908. (See CONGO FREE
+STATE.)
+
+
+
+
+BELGIUM (Fr. _Belgique_; Flem. _Belgie_), an independent, constitutional
+and neutral state occupying an important position in north-west Europe.
+It was formerly part of the Low Countries or Netherlands (q.v.).
+Although the name Belgium only came into general use with the foundation
+of the modern kingdom in 1830, its derivation from ancient times is
+clear and incontrovertible. Beginning with the Belgae and the Gallia
+Belgica of the Romans, the use of the adjective to distinguish the
+inhabitants of the south Netherlands can be traced through all stages of
+subsequent history. During the Crusades, and in the middle ages, the
+term _Belgicae principes_ is of frequent occurrence, and when in 1790
+the Walloons rose against Austria during what was called the Brabant
+revolution, their leaders proposed to give the country the name of
+Belgique. Again in 1814, on the expulsion of the French, when there was
+much talk of founding an independent state, the same name was suggested
+for it. It was not till sixteen years later, on the collapse of the
+united kingdom of the Netherlands, that the occasion presented itself
+for giving effect to this proposal. For the explanation of the English
+form of the name it may be mentioned that Belgium was a canton of what
+had been the Nervian country in the time of the Roman occupation.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Belgium and Luxemburg.]
+
+_Topography, &c._--Belgium lies between 49 deg. 30' and 51 deg. 30' N.,
+and 2 deg. 32' and 6 deg. 7' E., and on the land side is bounded by
+Holland on the N. and N.E., by Prussia and the grand duchy of Luxemburg
+on the E. and S.E., and by France on the S. Its land frontiers measure
+793 m., divided as follows:--with Holland 269 m., with Prussia 60 m.,
+with the grand duchy 80 m. and with France 384 m. In addition it has a
+sea-coast of 42 m. The western portion of Belgium, consisting of the two
+Flanders, Antwerp and parts of Brabant and Hainaut, is flat, being
+little above the level of the sea; and indeed at one point near Furnes
+it is 7 ft. below it. The same description applies more or less to the
+north-east, but in the south of Hainaut and the greater part of Brabant
+the general level of the country is about 300 ft. above the sea, with
+altitudes rising to more than 600 ft. South of the Meuse, and in the
+district distinguished by the appellation "Between Sambre and Meuse,"
+the level is still greater, and the whole of the province of Luxemburg
+is above 500 ft., with altitudes up to 1650 ft. In the south-eastern
+part of the province of Liege there are several points exceeding 2000
+ft. The highest of these is the Baraque de Michel close to the Prussian
+frontier, with an altitude of 2190 ft. The Baraque de Fraiture,
+north-east of La Roche, is over 2000 ft. While the greater part of
+western and northern Belgium is devoid of the picturesque, the Ardennes
+and the Fagnes districts of "Between Sambre and Meuse" and Liege contain
+much pleasant and some romantic scenery. The principal charm of this
+region is derived from its fine and extensive woods, of which that
+called St Hubert is the best known. There are no lakes in Belgium, but
+otherwise it is exceedingly well watered, being traversed by the Meuse
+for the greater part of its course, as well as by the Scheldt and the
+Sambre. The numerous affluents of these rivers, such as the Lys, Dyle,
+Dender, Ourthe, Ambleve, Vesdre, Lesse and Semois, provide a system of
+waterways almost unique in Europe. The canals of Belgium are scarcely
+less numerous or important than those of Holland, especially in
+Flanders, where they give a distinctive character to the country. But
+the most striking feature in Belgium, where so much is modern,
+utilitarian and ugly, is found in the older cities with their relics of
+medieval greatness, and their record of ancient fame. These, in their
+order of interest, are Bruges, Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Ghent, Ypres,
+Courtrai, Tournai, Furnes, Oudenarde and Liege. It is to them rather
+than to the sylvan scenes of the Ardennes that travellers and tourists
+flock.
+
+The climate may be described as temperate and approximating to that of
+southern England, but it is somewhat hotter in summer and a little
+colder in winter. In the Ardennes, owing to the greater elevation, the
+winters are more severe.
+
+_Geology._--Belgium lies upon the northern side of an ancient mountain
+chain which has long been worn down to a low level and the remnants of
+which rise to the surface in the Ardennes, and extend eastward into
+Germany, forming the Eifel and Westerwald, the Hunsruck and the Taunus.
+Westward the chain lies buried beneath the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of
+Belgium and the north of France, but it reappears in the west of England
+and Ireland. It is the "Hercynian chain" of Marcel Bertrand, and is
+composed entirely of Palaeozoic rocks. Upon its northern margin lie the
+nearly undisturbed Cretaceous and Tertiary beds which cover the greater
+part of Belgium. The latest beds which are involved in the folds of this
+mountain range belong to the Coal Measures, and the final elevation must
+have taken place towards the close of the Carboniferous period. The fact
+that in Belgium Jurassic beds are found upon the southern and not upon
+the northern margin indicates that in this region the chain was still a
+ridge in Jurassic times. In the Ardennes the rocks which constitute the
+ancient mountain chain belong chiefly to the Devonian System, but
+Cambrian beds rise through the Devonian strata, forming the masses of
+Rocroi, Stavelot, &c., which appear to have been islands in the Devonian
+sea. The Ordovician and Silurian are absent here, and the Devonian rests
+unconformably upon the Cambrian; but along the northern margin of the
+Palaeozoic area, Ordovician and Silurian rocks appear, and beds of
+similar age are also exposed farther north where the rivers have cut
+through the overlying Tertiary deposits. Carboniferous beds occur in the
+north of the Palaeozoic area. Near Dinant they are folded amongst the
+Devonian beds, but the most important band runs along the northern
+border of the Ardennes. In this band lie the coalfields of Liege, and of
+Mons and Charleroi. It is a long and narrow trough, which is separated
+from the older rocks of the Ardennes by a great reversed fault, the
+_faille du midi_. In the southern half of the trough the folding of the
+Coal Measures is intense; in the northern half it is much less violent.
+The structure is complicated by a thrust-plane which brings a mass of
+older beds upon the Coal Measures in the middle of the trough. Except
+along the southern border of the Ardennes, and at one or two points in
+the middle of the Palaeozoic massif, Triassic and Jurassic beds are
+unknown in Belgium, and the Palaeozoic rocks are directly and
+unconformably overlaid by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. The
+Cretaceous beds are not extensive, but the Wealden deposits of
+Bernissart, with their numerous remains of Iguanodon, and the chalk of
+the district about the Dutch frontier near Maastricht, with its very
+late Cretaceous fauna, are of special interest.
+
+Exclusive of the Ardennes the greater part of Belgium is covered by
+Tertiary deposits. The Eocene, consisting chiefly of sands and marls,
+occupies the whole of the west of the country. The Oligocene forms a
+band stretching from Antwerp to Maastricht, and this is followed towards
+the north by a discontinuous strip of Miocene and a fairly extensive
+area of Pliocene. The Tertiary deposits are similar in general character
+to those of the north of France and the south of England. Coal and iron
+are by far the most important mineral productions of Belgium. Zinc, lead
+and copper are also extensively worked in the Palaeozoic rocks of the
+Ardennes.
+
+_Area and Population._--The area comprises 2,945,503 hectares, or about
+11,373 English sq. m., and the total population in December 1904 was
+7,074,910, giving an average of 600 per sq. m.
+
+
+  +-------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+  |   The Nine  |    Area in     | Population at | Population per |
+  |  Provinces. | English sq. m. |  end of 1904. |  sq. m. 1904.  |
+  +-------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+  | Antwerp     |      1093      |     888,980   |     813.3      |
+  | Brabant     |      1268      |   1,366,389   |    1077.59     |
+  | Flanders E. |      1158      |   1,078,507   |     931.35     |
+  | Flanders W. |      1249      |     845,732   |     677.8      |
+  | Hainaut     |      1437      |   1,192,967   |     830.18     |
+  | Liege       |      1117      |     863,254   |     772.8      |
+  | Limburg     |       931      |     255,359   |     274.28     |
+  | Luxemburg   |      1706      |     225,963   |     132.45     |
+  | Namur       |      1414      |     357,759   |     253        |
+  +-------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+  |    Total    |    11,373      |   7,074,910   |     622        |
+  +-------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+
+The population was made up of 3,514,491 males and 3,560,419 females. The
+rate at which the population has increased is shown as follows:--From
+1880 to 1890 the increase was at the rate annually of 54,931, from 1890
+to 1900 at the rate of 62,421, and for the five years from 1900 to 1904
+at the rate of 66,200. In 1831 the population of Belgium was 3,785,814,
+so that in 75 years it had not quite doubled. The following table gives
+the total births and deaths in certain years since 1880:--
+
+
+  +-------+---------------+---------------+-------------------+
+  | Year. | Total births. | Total deaths. | Excess of births. |
+  +-------+---------------+---------------+-------------------+
+  | 1880  |    171,864    |    123,323    |       48,541      |
+  | 1895  |    183,015    |    125,148    |       57,867      |
+  | 1900  |    193,789    |    129,046    |       64,743      |
+  | 1904  |    191,721    |    119,506    |       72,215      |
+  +-------+---------------+---------------+-------------------+
+
+These figures show that the births were 23,674 more in 1904 than in
+1880, while the deaths were nearly 4000 fewer, with a population that
+had increased from 5-1/2 to 7 millions. Of 191,721 births in 1904,
+12,887 or 6.7% were illegitimate. Statistics of recent years show a
+slight increase in legitimate and a slight decrease in illegitimate
+births.
+
+The emigration of Belgians from their country is small and reveals
+little variation. In 1900, 13,492 emigrated, and in 1904 the total rose
+only to 14,752. Of Belgians living abroad it is estimated that 400,000
+reside in France, 15,000 in Holland, 12,000 in Germany and 4600 in Great
+Britain. The number of Belgians in the Congo State in 1904 was 1505. The
+number of foreigners resident in Belgium in 1900 with their
+nationalities were Germans, 42,079; English, 5096; French, 85,735;
+Dutch, 54,491; Luxemburgers, 9762; and all other nationalities, 14,411.
+
+With regard to the languages spoken by the people of Belgium the
+following comparative table gives the return for the three censuses of
+1880, 1890 and 1900:--
+
+
+  +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                     |   1880.   |   1890.   |   1900.   |
+  +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | French only         | 2,230,316 | 2,485,072 | 2,574,805 |
+  | Flemish only        | 2,485,384 | 2,744,271 | 2,822,005 |
+  | German only         |    39,550 |    32,206 |    28,314 |
+  | French and Flemish  |   423,752 |   700,997 |   801,587 |
+  | French and German   |    35,250 |    58,590 |    66,447 |
+  | Flemish and German  |     2,956 |     7,028 |     7,238 |
+  | The three languages |    13,331 |    13,185 |    42,885 |
+  +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+_Constitution and Government._--The Belgian constitution, drafted by the
+national assembly in 1830-1831 after the provisional government had
+announced that "the Belgian provinces detached by force from Holland
+shall form an independent state," was published on the 7th of February
+1831, and the modifications introduced into it subsequently, apart from
+the composition of the electorate, have been few and unimportant. The
+constitution originally contained one hundred and thirty-nine articles,
+and decreed in the first place that the government was to be "a
+constitutional, representative and hereditary monarchy." Having decided
+in favour of a monarchy, the provisional government first offered the
+throne to the due de Nemours, son of Louis-Philippe, but this offer was
+promptly withdrawn on the discovery that Europe would not endorse it. It
+was then offered to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, widower of the
+princess Charlotte of England, and accepted by him. The prince was
+proclaimed on the 4th of June 1831 as Leopold I., king of the Belgians,
+and on the 21st of July 1831 he was solemnly inaugurated in Brussels.
+The succession is vested in the heirs male of Leopold I., and should
+they ever make complete default the throne will be declared vacant, and
+a national assembly composed of the two chambers elected in double
+strength will make a fresh nomination. In 1894 a new article numbered 61
+was inserted in the constitution providing that "in default of male
+heirs the king can nominate his successor with the assent of the two
+chambers, and if no such nomination has been made the throne shall be
+vacant," when the original procedure of the constitution would be
+followed. The Belgian national assembly assumed that its constitution
+would extend over the whole of the Belgic or south Netherlands, but the
+powers decreed otherwise. The limits of Belgium are fixed by the London
+protocol of the 15th of October 1831--also called the twenty-four
+articles--which cut off what is now termed the grand duchy of Luxemburg,
+and also a good portion of the duchy of Limburg. These losses of
+territory held by a brother people are still felt as a grievance by many
+Belgians. The Belgian constitution stipulates for "freedom of
+conscience, of education, of the press and also of the right of
+meeting," but the sovereign must be a member of the Church of Rome. The
+government was to consist of the king, the senate and the chamber of
+representatives. The functions of the king are those that appertain
+everywhere to the sovereign of a constitutional state. He is the head of
+the army and has the exclusive right of dissolving the chambers as
+preliminary to an appeal to the country.
+
+The senate is composed of seventy-six elected members and twenty-six
+members nominated by the provincial councils. A senator sits for eight
+years unless a dissolution is ordered, and no one is eligible until he
+is forty years of age. Half the seventy-six elected senators retire for
+re-election every four years. There is no payment or other privilege,
+except a pass on the state railways, attached to the rank of senator.
+The chamber of representatives contained one hundred and fifty-two
+members until 1899, when the number was increased to one hundred and
+sixty-six. Deputies are elected for four years, but half the house is
+re-elected every two years. A deputy must be twenty-five years of age,
+and the members of both houses must be of Belgian nationality, born or
+naturalized. A deputy receives an annual honorarium of 4000 francs and a
+railway pass. Down to 1893 the electorate was exceedingly small.
+Property and other qualifications kept the voting power in the hands of
+a limited class. This may be judged from the fact that in the year named
+there were only 137,772 voters out of a population of 65 millions. In
+April 1894 the new electoral law altered the whole system. The property
+qualification was removed and every Belgian was given one vote on
+attaining twenty-five years of age and after one year's residence in his
+commune. At the same time the principle of multiple votes for certain
+qualifications was introduced. The Belgian citizen on reaching the age
+of thirty-five, providing he is married or is a widower with legitimate
+offspring and pays five francs of direct taxes, gets a second vote. Two
+extra votes are given for qualifications of property, official status or
+university diplomas. The maximum voting power of any individual is three
+votes. In 1904 there were 1,581,649 voters, possessing 2,467,966 votes.
+This system of plural voting has proved a success. It does not, however,
+satisfy the Socialists, whose formula is one man, one vote. The final
+change in the system of parliamentary elections was made in 1899-1900,
+when proportional representation was introduced. Proportional
+representation aims at the protection of minorities, and its working out
+is a little intricate, or at all events difficult to describe. The
+following has been accepted as a clear definition of what proportional
+representation is:--electoral district has the number of its members
+apportioned in accordance with the total strength of each party or
+political programme in that district. As a rule there are only the three
+chief parties, viz. Catholic, Liberal and Socialist, but the presence of
+Catholic-Democrats or some other new faction may increase the total to
+four or even five. The number of seats to be filled is divided by the
+number of parties or candidates, and then they are distributed in the
+proportion of the total followers or voters of each. The smallest
+minority is thus sure of one seat." An illustration may make this
+clearer. In an electoral district with 32,000 votes which returns eight
+deputies, four parties send up candidates, let us say, eight Catholics,
+eight Liberals, eight Socialists and one Catholic-Democrat. The result
+of the voting is, 16,000 Catholic votes, 9000 Liberal, 4500 Socialist,
+and 2500 Catholic-Democrat. The seats would, therefore, be apportioned
+as follows: four Catholic, two Liberal, one Socialist and one
+Catholic-Democrat.
+
+
+  Administration.
+
+The king has one right which other constitutional rulers do not possess.
+He can initiate proposals for new laws (_projets de loi_). He is also
+charged with the executive power which he delegates to a cabinet
+composed of ministers chosen from the party representing the majority in
+the chamber. Down to 1884 the Liberal party had held power with very few
+intervals since 1840. The Catholic party succeeded to office in 1884.
+The ministers represent departments for finance, foreign affairs,
+colonies, justice, the interior, science and arts, war, railways, posts
+and telegraphs, agriculture, public works, and industry and labour. The
+minister for war is generally a soldier, the others are civilians.
+Ministers may be members of either chamber and enjoy the privilege of
+being allowed to speak in both. Sometimes one minister will hold several
+portfolios at the same time, but such cases are rare.
+
+
+  Provinces and communes.
+
+The kingdom is divided into nine provinces which are subdivided into 342
+cantons and 2623 communes. The provinces are governed by a governor
+nominated by the king, the canton is a judicial division for marking the
+limit of the jurisdiction of each _juge de paix_, and the commune is the
+administrative unit, possessing self-government in all local matters.
+For each commune of 5000 inhabitants or over, a burgomaster is appointed
+by the communal council which is chosen by the electors of the commune.
+As three years' residence is required these electors are fewer in number
+than those for the legislature. In 1902 there were 1,146,482 voters with
+2,007,704 votes, the principles of multiple votes, with, however, a
+maximum of four votes and proportional representation, being in force
+for communal as for legislative elections.
+
+_Religion._--The constitution provides for absolute liberty of
+conscience and there is no state religion, but the people are almost to
+a man Roman Catholics. It is computed that there are 10,000 Protestants
+(half English) and 5000 Jews, and that all the rest are Catholics. The
+government in 1904 voted nearly 7,000,000 francs in aid of the religious
+establishments of, and the benevolent institutions kept up by, the Roman
+Church. The grant to other cults amounted to 118,000 francs, but small
+as this sum may appear it is in due proportion to the relative numbers
+of each creed. The hierarchy of the Church of Rome in Belgium is
+composed of the archbishop of Malines, and the bishops of Liege, Ghent,
+Bruges, Tournai and Namur. The archbishop receives L800, and the bishops
+L600 apiece from the state yearly. The pay of the village _cure_
+averages L80 a year and a house. Besides the regular clergy there are
+the members of the numerous monastic and conventual houses established
+in Belgium. They are engaged principally in educational and eleemosynary
+work, and the development in such institutions is considerable.
+
+_Education._--Education, though not obligatory, is free for those who
+cannot pay for it. In the primary schools instruction in reading,
+writing, arithmetic, history and geography is obligatory. In 1904 there
+were 7092 primary schools with 859,436 pupils of both sexes. Of these
+807,383 did not pay. Primary education is supposed to continue till the
+age of fourteen, but in practice it stops at twelve for all who do not
+intend to pass through the middle schools, which is essential for all
+persons seeking state employment of any kind. The middle schools have
+one privilege. They can give a certificate qualifying scholars for a
+mastership in the primary schools, which are under the full control of
+the communes. These appointments are always bestowed on local
+favourites. The pay of a schoolmaster in a small commune is only L48,
+and in a large town L96, with a maximum ranging from L80 to L152 after
+twenty-four years' service. It is therefore clear that no very high
+qualifications could be expected from such a staff. The control of the
+state comes in to the extent of providing district inspectors who visit
+the schools once a year, and hold a meeting of the teachers in their
+district once a quarter. In each province there is a chief inspector who
+is bound to visit each school once in two years, and reports direct to
+the minister of public instruction. With regard to the middle schools,
+the government has reserved the right to appoint the teaching staff, and
+to prescribe the books that are to be used. The results of the middle
+schools are fairly satisfactory. Still better are the Athenees Royaux,
+twenty in number, which are quite independent of the commune and subject
+to official control under the superior direction of the king.
+Mathematics and classics are taught in them and the masters are allowed
+to take boarders. The expenditure of the state on education amounts to
+about a million sterling. In 1860 the grants were only for little over
+one-eighth of the total in 1903. In 1900 31.94% of the toal population
+was illiterate. Considerable progress in the education of the people is
+made visible by a comparison of the figures of three decennial censuses.
+In 1880 the illiterate were 42.25% and in 1890 37.63, so that there was
+a further marked improvement by 1900. Among the provinces Walloon
+Belgium is better instructed than Flemish, Luxemburg coming first,
+followed by Namur, Liege and Brabant in their order.
+
+Higher instruction is given at the universities and in the schools
+attached thereto. Those at Ghent and Liege are state universities; the
+two others at Brussels and Louvain are free. At Louvain alone is there a
+faculty of theology. The number of students inscribed for the academical
+year 1904-1905 at each university was Ghent 899, Liege 1983, Brussels
+1082, and Louvain 2134, or a grand total of 6098. Liege is specially
+famed for the technical schools attached to it. There are also a large
+number of state-aided schools for special purposes; (1) for military
+instruction, there are the _Ecole Militaire_ at Brussels, the school of
+cadets at Namur, and army schools at different stations, e.g. Bouillon,
+&c. For officers in the army, there are the _Ecole de Guerre_ or staff
+college at Brussels with an average attendance of twenty, a riding
+school at Ypres where a course is obligatory for the cavalry and horse
+artillery, and for soldiers in the army there are regimental schools and
+evening classes for illiterate soldiers. (2) For education in the arts,
+there is the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, and besides this
+famous school of painting there are eighty-four academies for teaching
+drawing throughout the kingdom. In music, there are royal conservatoires
+at Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, and Liege. Besides these there are
+sixty-nine minor conservatoires. (3) For commercial and professional
+education, there are 181 schools. The Commercial Institute of Antwerp
+deserves special notice as an excellent school for clerks. (4) Among
+special schools may be named the three schools of navigation at Antwerp,
+Ostend and Nieuport. Since the wreck of the training-ship "Comte de Smet
+de Naeyer" in 1906, it has been decided that a stationary training-ship
+shall be placed in the Scheldt like the "Worcester" on the Thames. Among
+the numerous learned societies may be mentioned the Belgian Royal
+Academy founded in 1769 and revived in 1818. For the encouragement of
+research and literary style the government awards periodical prizes
+which are very keenly contested.
+
+_Justice._--The administration of justice is very fully organized, and
+in the Code Belge, which was carefully compiled between 1831 and 1836
+from the old laws of the nine provinces leavened by the Code Napoleon
+and modern exigencies, the Belgians claim that they possess an almost
+perfect statute-book. The courts of law in their order are _Cour de
+Cassation_, _Cour d'Appel_, _Cour de Premiere Instance_, and the _Juge
+de Paix_ courts, one for each of the 342 cantons. The _Cour de
+Cassation_ has a peculiar judicial sphere. It works automatically,
+examining every judgment to see if it is in strict accord with the code,
+and where it is not the decision or verdict is simply annulled. There is
+only one judge in this court, but he has the assistance of a large staff
+of revisers. The _Cour de Cassation_ never tries a case itself except
+when a minister of state is the accused. The president of this tribunal
+is the highest legal functionary in Belgium. There are three courts of
+appeal, viz. at Brussels, Ghent and Liege. At Brussels there are four
+separate chambers or tribunals in the appeal court. Judges of appeal are
+appointed by the king for life from lists of eligible barristers
+prepared by the senate and the courts. Judges can only be removed by the
+unanimous vote of their brother judges. There are twenty-six courts of
+first instance distributed among the principal towns of the kingdom, and
+in Antwerp, Ghent and Liege there are besides special tribunals for the
+settlement of commercial cases. Of course there is the right of appeal
+from the decisions of these tribunals as well as of the regular courts.
+Finally the 342 _Juge de Paix_ courts resemble British county courts.
+Criminal cases are tried by (1) the _Tribunaux de Police_, (2)
+_Tribunaux Correctionnels_, (3) and the _Cours d'Assises_. The last are
+held as the length of the calendar requires. Capital punishment is
+retained on the statute, but is never enforced, the prisoner on whom
+sentence of death is passed in due form in open court being relegated to
+imprisonment for life in solitary confinement and perpetual silence. The
+chief prisons are at Louvain, Ghent and St Gilles (Brussels), and the
+last named serves as a house of detention. At Merxplas, near the Dutch
+frontier, is the agricultural criminal colony at which an average number
+of two thousand prisoners are kept employed in comparative liberty
+within the radius of the convict settlement.
+
+_Pauperism._--For the relief of pauperism there are a limited number of
+houses of mendicity, in which inmates are received, and houses of
+refuge for night shelter. At the _beguinages_ of Ghent and Bruges women
+and girls able to contribute a specified sum towards their support are
+given a home.
+
+_National Finance._--The budget is submitted to the chambers by the
+minister of finance and passed by them. The revenue and expenditure were
+in the years stated as follows:--
+
+
+  +-------+----------------------+---------------------+
+  | Year. |      Revenue.        |    Expenditure.     |
+  +-------+----------------------+---------------------+
+  | 1880  |  394,215,932 francs  |  382,908,429 francs |
+  | 1895  |  395,730,445    "    |  410,383,402    "   |
+  | 1903  |  632,416,810    "    |  627,975,568    "   |
+  +-------+----------------------+---------------------+
+
+The revenue is made up from taxes, including customs, tolls, including
+returns from railway traffic, &c., and the balance comes from various
+revenues, return of capital, loans, &c. The following are the principal
+items of expenditure (1903):--
+
+  Service of debt                     143,065,352 francs
+  Sovereign, senate, chamber, &c.       5,289,087    "
+  Departments, foreign office           3,751,636    "
+       "       agriculture             12,253,957    "
+       "       railways               165,086,019    "
+       "       finance                 34,479,674    "
+       "       industry                19,905,589    "
+       "       war                     63,972,473    "
+       "       public instruction      31,799,105    "
+       "       justice                 27,168,032    "
+  Minor items                           4,179,046    "
+                                      -----------
+                  Total               510,949,970    "
+                                      ===========
+
+The difference is made up of "special expenditure." The total debt in
+English money may be put at 126 millions sterling, which requires for
+interest, sinking fund and service about 5-3/4 millions sterling
+annually. The rate of interest on all the loans extant is 3%, except on
+one loan of 219,959,632 francs, which pays only 2-1/2%.
+
+_Army and National Defence._--The army is divided into the regular army,
+the gendarmerie, and the _garde civique_. The Belgian regular army is
+thus composed: infantry, one regiment of carabiniers, one of grenadiers,
+three of _chasseurs a pied_, and fourteen of the line, all these
+regiments having 3 or 4 active and 3 or 4 reserve battalions apiece;
+cavalry, two regiments of guides, two of _chasseurs a cheval_, and four
+of lancers, all light cavalry; artillery, four horse, thirty field, and
+seventy siege batteries on active service; engineers, 140 officers and
+2000 men. The train or commissariat has only 30 officers and 600 men on
+the permanent establishment. Belgium retains the older form of
+conscription, and has not adopted the system of "universal service." The
+annual levy is small and substitution is permitted. In 1904 the number
+inscribed for service was 64,042. Of these only 12,525 were enrolled in
+the army, and of that number 1421 were volunteers, who took an
+engagement on receipt of a premium. The effective strength of the army
+in 1904 with the colours was 3406 officers and 40,382 men. To this total
+has to be added the men on the active list, but either absent on leave
+or allowed to return to civil life, numbering 70,043. It is assumed that
+on mobilization these men are immediately available. The reserve
+consists of 181 officers and 58,014 men, so that the total strength of
+the Belgian army is 3587 officers and 168,439 men. The field force in
+war is organized in four infantry and two cavalry divisions, the total
+strength being about 100,000. The peace effective has not varied much
+since 1870, but the total paper strength is 75,000 more than in that
+year. In the years 1900-1904 it increased by 8000 men. The gendarmerie
+is a mounted force composed of men picked for their physique and divided
+into three divisions. It numbers 67 officers and 3079 men, but has no
+reserve. It is in every sense a _corps d'elite_, and may be classed as
+first-rate heavy cavalry. The total strength of the _garde civique_ in
+1905 was 35,102, to which have to be added 8532 volunteers belonging to
+the corps of older formation, service in which counts on a par with the
+_garde civique_. Some of the latter regiments, especially the artillery,
+would rank with British volunteers, but the mass of the _garde civique_
+does not pretend to possess military value. It is a defence against
+sedition and socialism. The defence of Belgium depends on five fortified
+positions. The fortified position and camp of Antwerp represents the
+true base of the national defence. Its detached forts shelter the city
+from bombardment, and so long as sea communication is open with England,
+Antwerp would be practically impregnable. Liege with twelve forts and
+Namur with nine forts are the fortified _tetes de pont_ protecting the
+two most important passages of the Meuse. The forts are constructed in
+concrete with armoured cupolas. Termonde on the Scheldt and Diest on the
+Dender are retained as nominally fortified positions, but neither, could
+resist a regular bombardment for more than a few hours, as their
+casemates are not bomb-proof.
+
+The training camp of the Belgian army is at Beverloo in the province of
+Limburg, and at Braschaet not far from Antwerp are ranges for artillery
+as well as rifle practice. The Belgian officer is technically as well
+trained and educated as any in Europe, but he lacks practical experience
+in military service.
+
+_Mines and Industry._--The principal mineral produced in Belgium is
+coal. This is found in the Borinage district near Mons and in the
+neighbourhood of Liege, but the working of an entirely new coal-field,
+which promises to attain vast dimensions, was commenced in 1906 in the
+Campine district of the province of Limburg. The coal mines of Belgium
+give employment to nearly 150,000 persons, and for some years the
+average output has exceeded 22,000,000 tons. Other minerals are iron,
+manganese, lead and zinc. The iron mines produce much less than
+formerly, and the want of iron is a grave defect in Belgian prosperity,
+as about L5,000,000 sterling worth of iron has to be imported annually,
+chiefly from French Lorraine. The chief metal industry of the country is
+represented by the iron and steel works of Charleroi and Liege. Belgium
+is particularly rich in quarries of marble, granite and slate. Ghent is
+the capital of the textile industry, and all the towns of Flanders are
+actively engaged in producing woollen and cotton materials and in lace
+manufacture. The bulk of the population is, however, engaged in
+agriculture, and the extent of land under cultivation of all kinds is
+about 6-1/2 million acres.
+
+_Commerce._--The trade returns for 1904 were as follows:--
+
+    _Imports--_
+  General Commerce                                 4,426,400,000 francs
+  Special Commerce (included in General Commerce)  2,782,200,000    "
+
+    _Exports--_
+  General Commerce                                 3,849,100,000    "
+  Special Commerce (included in General Commerce)  2,183,300,000    "
+
+The general commerce includes goods in transit across Belgium, the
+special commerce takes into account only the produce and the consumption
+of Belgium itself. The trade of Belgium has more than trebled as regards
+both imports and exports since 1870. The following table shows the
+amount of exports and imports between Belgium and the more important
+foreign states:--
+
+
+  +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |               |      Imports.      |      Exports.      |
+  +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  | France        | 465,684,000 francs | 346,670,000 francs |
+  | Germany       | 351,025,000   "    | 505,473,000   "    |
+  | England       | 335,404,000   "    | 392,324,000   "    |
+  | Holland       | 240,873,000   "    | 268,781,000   "    |
+  | United States | 222,301,000   "    |  86,324,000   "    |
+  | Russia        | 212,119,000   "    |  26,671,000   "    |
+  | Argentina     | 198,913,000   "    |  41,508,000   "    |
+  | British India | 141,669,000   "    |  25,860,000   "    |
+  | Rumania       | 102,174,000   "    |   3,949,000   "    |
+  | Australia     |  58,190,000   "    |  12,087,000   "    |
+  | Congo State   |  53,100,000   "    |  14,049,000   "    |
+  | China         |   8,770,000   "    |  25,546,000   "    |
+  +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+
+In the relative magnitude of the annual value of its commerce, excluding
+that in transit, Belgium stands sixth among the nations of the world,
+following Great Britain, the United States, Germany, France and Holland.
+The principal imports are food supplies and raw material such as cotton,
+wool, silk, flax, hemp and jute. Among minerals, iron ore, sulphur,
+copper, coal, tin, lead and diamonds are the most imported. The exports
+of greatest value are textiles, lace, coal, coke, briquettes, glass,
+machinery, railway material and fire arms.
+
+_Shipping and Navigation._--Belgium has no state navy, although various
+proposals have been made from time to time to establish an armed
+flotilla in connexion with the defence of Antwerp. The state, however,
+possesses a certain number of steamers. In 1904 they numbered sixty-five
+of 99,893 tons. These steamers are chiefly employed on the passenger
+route between Ostend and Dover. The total number of vessels entering the
+only two ports of Belgium which carry on ocean commerce, namely Antwerp
+and Ostend, in 1904 was 7650 of a tonnage of 10,330,127. Among inland
+ports that of Ghent is the most important, 1127 ships of a tonnage of
+786,362 having entered the port in 1904. The corresponding figures for
+ships sailing from the two ports first named were in the same year 7642
+and tonnage 10,298,405. The figures from Ghent were 1128 and 787,173
+tons. Whereas the lines of steamers from Ostend are chiefly with Dover
+and London, those from Antwerp proceed to all parts of the world. A
+steam service was established in 1906 from Hull to Bruges by Zeebrugge
+and the ship canal.
+
+_Internal Communications._--The internal communications of Belgium of
+every kind are excellent. The roads outside the province of Luxemburg
+and Namur are generally paved. In the provinces named, or in other
+words, in the region south of the Meuse, the roads are macadamized. The
+total length of roads is about 6000 m. When Belgium became a separate
+state in 1830 they were less than one-third of this total. There are
+about 2900 m. of railways, of which upwards of 2500 m. are state
+railways. It is of interest to note that the state railways derived a
+revenue of 249,355 francs (or nearly L10,000) from the penny tickets for
+the admission of non-travellers to railway stations. Besides the main
+railways there are numerous light railways (_chemins de fer vicinaux_),
+of a total length approaching 2500 m. There are also electric and steam
+tramways in all the principal cities. The total of navigable waterways
+is given as 1360 m. Posts, telegraphs and telephones are exclusively
+under state management and form a government department.
+
+_Banks and Money._--The principal banking institution is the Banque
+Nationale which issues the bank-notes in current use. In 1904 the
+average value of notes in circulation was 645,989,100 francs. The rate
+of discount was 3% throughout the whole of the year.
+
+The mintage of Belgian money is carried out by a _directeur de la
+fabrication_ who is nominated by and responsible to the government. The
+gold coins are for 10 and 20 francs, silver for half francs, francs, 2
+francs and 5 francs. Nickel money is for 5, 10 and 20 centimes, and the
+copper coinage has been withdrawn from circulation.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Annuaire statistique de la Belgique_ (1905); Beltjens
+  and Godenne, _La Constitution belge_ (Brussels, 1880); _La Belgique
+  illustree_ (Brussels, 1878-1882); _Les Pandectes belges_ (Brussels,
+  1898); _Annales du parlement belge_ for each year; _Belgian Life in
+  Town and Country_, "Our Neighbours" Series (London, 1904). For geology
+  see C. Dewalque, _Prodrome d'une description geologique de la
+  Belgique_ (Brussels, 1880); M. Mourlon, _Geologie de la Belgique_
+  (Brussels, 1880-1881); F.L. Cornet and A. Briart, "Sur le relief du
+  sol en Belgique apres les temps paleozoques," _Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg._
+  vol. iv., 1877, pp. 71-115, pls. v.-xi. (see also other papers by the
+  same authors in the same journal); J. Gosselet, _L'Ardenne_ (Paris,
+  1888); M. Bertrand, "Etudes sur le bassin houiller du nord et sur le
+  Boulonnais," _Ann. des mines_, ser. ix. vol. vi. (Mem.), pp. 569-635,
+  1894; C. Malaise, "Etat actuel de nos connaissances sur le silurien de
+  la Belgique," _Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg._ vol. xxv, 1900-1901, pp.
+  179-221; H. Forir, "Bibliographie des etages laekenien, ledien,
+  wemmelien, asschien, tongrien, rupelien et bolderien et des depets
+  tertiaires de la haute et moyenne Belgique," _ibid._ pp. 223 seq.
+       (D. C. B.)
+
+
+HISTORY[1]
+
+  Final separation of the northern and southern Netherlands.
+
+  Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, governor-general.
+
+  Successes of Parma.
+
+  Albert and Isabel, sovereigns of the Netherlands.
+
+  The twelve years' truce.
+
+  The rule of the archdukes.
+
+  Reversion of the southern Netherlands to Spain, 1633.
+
+The political severance of the northern and southern Netherlands may be
+conveniently dated from the opening of the year 1579. By the signing of
+the league of Arras (5th of January) the Walloon "Malcontents" declared
+their adherence to the cause of Catholicism and their loyalty to the
+Spanish king, and broke away definitely from the northern provinces, who
+bound themselves by the union of Utrecht (29th of January) to defend
+their rights and liberties, political and religious, against all foreign
+potentates. Brabant and Flanders were still indeed under the control of
+the prince of Orange and through his influence accepted in 1582 the duke
+of Anjou as their sovereign. The French prince was actually inaugurated
+duke of Brabant at Antwerp (February 1582) and count of Flanders at
+Bruges (July), but his misconduct speedily led to his withdrawal from
+the Netherlands, and even before the assassination of Orange (July 1584)
+the authority of Philip had been practically restored throughout the two
+provinces. This had been achieved by the military skill and
+statesmanlike abilities of Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, appointed
+governor-general on the death of Don John of Austria, on the 1st of
+October 1578. Farnese first won by promises and blandishments the
+confidence of the Walloons, always jealous of the predominance of the
+"Flemish" provinces, and then proceeded to make himself master of
+Brabant and Flanders by force of arms. In succession Ypres, Mechlin,
+Ghent, Brussels, and finally Antwerp (17th of August 1585) fell into his
+hands. Philip had in the southern Netherlands attained his object, and
+Belgium was henceforth Catholic and Spanish, but at the expense of its
+progress and prosperity. Thousands of its inhabitants, and those the
+most enterprising and intelligent, fled from the Inquisition, and made
+their homes in the Dutch republic or in England. All commerce and
+industry was at a standstill; grass grew in the streets of Bruges and
+Ghent; and the trade of Antwerp was transferred to Amsterdam. On Parma's
+death (3rd of December 1592) the archduke Ernest of Austria was
+appointed governor-general, but he died after a short tenure of office
+(20th of February 1595) and was at the beginning of 1596 succeeded by
+his younger brother the cardinal archduke Albert. Philip was now nearing
+his end, and in 1598 he gave his eldest daughter Isabel in marriage to
+her cousin the archduke Albert, and erected the Netherlands into a
+sovereign state under their joint rule. The advent of the new
+sovereigns, officially known as "the archdukes," though greeted with
+enthusiasm in the Belgic provinces, was looked upon with suspicion by
+the Dutch, who were as firmly resolved as ever to uphold their
+independence. The chief military event of the early years of their reign
+was the battle of Nieuport (2nd of July 1600), in which Maurice of
+Nassau defeated the archduke Albert, and the siege of Ostend, which
+after a three years' heroic defence was surrendered (20th of September
+1604) to the archduke's general, Spinola. The Dutch, however, being
+masters of the sea, kept the coast closely blockaded, and through sheer
+exhaustion the king of Spain and the archdukes were compelled to agree
+to a truce for twelve years (9th of April 1609) with the United
+Provinces "in the capacity of free states over which Albert and Isabel
+made no pretensions." During the period of the truce the archdukes, who
+were wise and statesmanlike rulers, did their utmost to restore
+prosperity to their country and to improve its internal condition.
+Unfortunately they were childless, and the instrument of cession of 1598
+provided that in case they should die without issue, the Netherlands
+should revert to the crown of Spain. This reversion actually took place.
+Albert died in 1621, just before the renewal of the war with the Dutch,
+and Isabel in 1633. The Belgic provinces therefore passed under the rule
+of Philip IV., and were henceforth known as the Spanish Netherlands.
+
+
+  Peace of Munster.
+
+  Ruinous consequences of the closing of the Scheldt.
+
+  Successive cession of Belgian territory to France.
+
+This connexion with the declining fortunes of Spain was disastrous to
+the well-being of the Belgian people, for during many years a close
+alliance bound together France and the United Provinces, and the
+Southern Netherlands were exposed to attack from both sides, and
+constantly suffered from the ravages of hostile armies. The cardinal
+archduke Ferdinand, governor-general from 1634-1641, was a capable
+ruler, and by his military skill prevented in a succession of campaigns
+the forces of the enemy from overrunning the country. On the 30th of
+January 1648, Spain concluded a separate peace at Munster with the
+Dutch, by which Philip IV. finally renounced all his claims and rights
+over the United Provinces, and made many concessions to them. Among
+these was the closing of the Scheldt to all ships, a clause which was
+ruinous to the commerce of the Belgic provinces, by cutting them off
+from their only access to the ocean. Thus they remained for a long
+course of years without a sea-port, and in the many wars that broke out
+between Spain and France were constantly exposed, as an outlying Spanish
+dependency, to the first attack, and peace when it came was usually
+purchased at the cost of some part of Belgian territory. By the treaty
+of the Pyrenees (1659) Artois (except St Omer and Aire) and a number of
+towns in Flanders, Hainaut, and Luxemburg were ceded to France.
+Subsequent French conquests, confirmed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(1668), took away Lille, Douai, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Coutrai and
+Tournai. These were, indeed, partly restored to Belgium by the peace of
+Nijmwegen (1679); but on the other hand it lost Valenciennes, Nieuport,
+St Omer, Ypres and Charlemont, which were only in part recovered by the
+peace of Ryswick (1697).
+
+
+  Efforts of the elector of Bavaria to promote trade.
+
+  The Spanish succession.
+
+  The Grand Alliance.
+
+The internal history of the Belgic provinces has little to record during
+this long period in which the ambition of Louis XIV. to possess himself
+of the Netherlands, in right of his wife the infanta Maria Theresa (see
+SPANISH SUCCESSION), led to a series of invasions and desolating wars.
+The French king managed to incorporate a large slice of territory upon
+his northern frontier, but his main object was baffled by the steady
+resistance and able statesmanship of William III. of England and
+Holland. Meanwhile from 1692 onwards brighter prospects were opened out
+to the unfortunate Belgians by the nomination by the Spanish king of
+Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, to be governor-general with
+well-nigh sovereign powers. The elector had himself a claim to the
+inheritance as the husband of an Austrian archduchess, whose mother, the
+infanta Margaret, was the younger sister of the French queen. Maximilian
+Emanuel was an able man, who did his utmost to improve the condition of
+the country. He attempted to promote trade and restore prosperity to the
+impoverished land by the introduction of new customs laws and other
+measures, and particularly by the construction of canals to counteract
+the damage done to Belgian commerce by the closing of the Scheldt. The
+position of the elector was greatly strengthened by the partition treaty
+of the 19th of August 1698. Under this instrument the signatory
+powers--England, France and Holland--agreed that on the demise of
+Charles II. the crown prince of Bavaria under his father's guardianship
+should be sovereign of Spain, Belgium and Spanish America. Charles II.
+himself shortly afterwards by will appointed the Bavarian prince heir to
+all his dominions. The death of the infant heir a few months later (6th
+of February 1699) unfortunately destroyed any prospects of a peaceable
+settlement of the Spanish Succession. Charles II. was persuaded to name
+as his sole successor, Philip duke of Anjou, the second son of the
+dauphin, and on his death (on the 1st November 1700) Louis XIV. took
+immediate steps to support his grandson's claims, in spite of his formal
+renunciation of such claims under the treaty of the Pyrenees. England
+and Holland were determined to prevent, however, at all costs the
+acquisition of Belgium by a French prince, and a coalition, known as the
+Grand Alliance, was formed between these two powers and the empire to
+uphold the claims of the archduke Charles, second son of the emperor.
+
+
+  Marlborough's successes.
+
+  Peace of Utrecht.
+
+  The Austrian Netherlands.
+
+  Marquis de Prie in Belgium.
+
+  Execution of Francis Anneesens.
+
+  Chartered Company of Ostend.
+
+One of the first steps of Louis was to take possession of the
+Netherlands. The hereditary feud between the houses of Austria and
+Bavaria induced the elector to take the side of France, and he was
+nominated by Philip V. vicar-general of the Netherlands. The unhappy
+Belgic provinces were again doomed for a number of years to be the
+battle-ground of the contending forces, and it was on Belgic soil that
+Marlborough won the great victories of Ramillies (1706) and of Oudenarde
+(1708), by which he was enabled to drive the French armies out of the
+Netherlands and to carry the war into French territory. At the general
+peace concluded at Utrecht (11th of April 1713) the long connexion
+between Belgium and Spain was severed, and this portion of the
+Burgundian inheritance of Charles V. placed under the sovereignty of the
+Habsburg claimant, who had, by the death of his brother, become the
+emperor Charles VI. The Belgic provinces now came for a full century to
+be known as the Austrian Netherlands. Yet such was the dread of France
+and the enfeebled state of the country that Holland retained the
+privilege, which had been conceded to her during the war, of garrisoning
+the principal fortresses or Barrier towns, on the French frontier, and
+her right to close the navigation on the Scheldt was again ratified by a
+European treaty. The beginnings of Austrian sovereignty were marked by
+many collisions between the representatives of the new rulers and the
+States General, and provincial "states." Despite their troubled history
+and long subjection, the Belgic provinces still retained to an unusual
+degree their local liberties and privileges, and more especially the
+right of not being taxed, except by the express consent of the states.
+The marquis de Prie, who (as deputy for Prince Eugene) was the imperial
+governor from 1719 to 1726, encountered on the part of local authorities
+and town gilds vigorous resistance to his attempt to rule the
+Netherlands as an Austrian dependency, and he was driven to take strong
+measures to assert his authority. He selected as his victim a powerful
+popular leader at Brussels, Francis Anneesens, syndic of the gild of St
+Nicholas, who was beheaded on the 19th of September 1719. His name is
+remembered in Belgian annals as a patriot martyr to the cause of
+liberty. The administration of de Prie was not, however, without its
+redeeming features. He endeavoured to create at Ostend a seaport,
+capable in some measure to take the place of Antwerp, and in 1722 a
+Chartered Company of Ostend was erected for the purpose of trading in
+the East and West Indies (see OSTEND). The determined hostility of the
+Dutch rendered the promising scheme futile, and after a precarious
+struggle for existence, Charles VI., in order to gain the assent of the
+United Provinces and Great Britain to the Pragmatic Sanction (q.v.),
+suppressed the Company in 1731.
+
+
+  Archduchess Mary Elizabeth.
+
+  Charles of Lorraine.
+
+For sixteen years (1725-1741) the archduchess Mary Elizabeth, sister of
+the emperor, filled the post of governor-general. Her rule was marked by
+the restoration of the old form of administration under the three
+councils, and was a period of general tranquillity. She died (1741) in
+the Netherlands, and the empress-queen, Maria Theresa, who had succeeded
+under the Pragmatic Sanction to the Burgundian domains of her father
+about a year before, appointed her brother-in-law, Charles of Lorraine,
+to be governor-general in her aunt's place, and he retained that post,
+to the great advantage of Belgium, for nearly forty years. He was
+deservedly known as the "Good Governor." The first years of his
+administration were stormy. During the Austrian War of Succession the
+country was conquered by the French, and for two years Marshal Saxe bore
+the title of governor-general, but it was restored to Austria by the
+peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Belgium was undisturbed by the Seven
+Years' War (1756-1763), and during the long peace which followed enjoyed
+considerable prosperity. Charles of Lorraine thoroughly identified
+himself with the best interests of the country, and was the champion of
+its liberties, and though he had at times to make a stand against the
+imperialistic tendencies of the chancellor Kaunitz, he was able to rely
+on the steady support of the empress, who appreciated the wise and
+liberal policy of her brother-in-law. Although the Scheldt was still
+closed, Charles endeavoured by a large extension of the canal system to
+facilitate commercial intercourse, he encouraged agriculture, and was
+successful in restoring the prosperity of the country. He also did much
+for the advancement of learning, founding, among other institutions,
+the Academy of Science, and he consistently restrained the undue
+intervention of the church in secular affairs, and placed restrictions
+upon the accumulation of property in the hands of religious bodies.
+
+
+  Reforming zeal of Joseph II.
+
+  The Brabancon revolt.
+
+The death of Charles of Lorraine preceded only by a few months that of
+Maria Theresa, whose son Joseph II. not only appointed his sister, the
+archduchess Maria Christine, governor-general, but visited Belgium in
+person and showed a great and active interest in its affairs. Here as
+elsewhere in his dominions his intentions were excellent, but his
+reforming zeal outran discretion, and his hasty and self-opinionated
+interferences with treaty rights and traditional privileges ended in
+provoking opposition and disaster. Finding the United Provinces hampered
+by a war with England, he seized the opportunity to try to get rid of
+the impediments placed upon Belgian development by the Barrier and other
+treaties with Holland. He was able to compel the Dutch to withdraw their
+garrisons from the Barrier towns, but was wholly unsuccessful in his
+high-handed attempt to free the navigation of the Scheldt. These efforts
+to coerce the Dutch, though marred by partial failure, were, however,
+calculated to win for Joseph II. popularity with his Belgian subjects;
+but it was far otherwise with his policy of internal reform. He offended
+the states by seeking to sweep away many of their inherited privileges
+and to change the time-honoured, if somewhat obsolete, system of civil
+government. He further excited the religious feelings of the people
+against him, by his edict of Tolerance (1780), and his later attempts at
+the reform of clerical abuses, which were pronounced to be an infraction
+of the Joyous Entry (see JOYEUSE ENTREE). Fierce opposition was aroused.
+Numbers of malcontents left the country and organized themselves as a
+military force in Holland. As the discontent became more general, the
+insurgents returned, took several forts, defeated the Austrians at
+Turnhout, and overran the country. On the 11th of December 1789, the
+people of Brussels rose against the Austrian garrison, and compelled it
+to capitulate, and, on the 27th, the states of Brabant declared their
+independence. The other provinces followed and, on the 11th of January
+1790, the whole formed themselves into an independent state, under the
+name of the "Belgian United States." A few weeks later, on the 20th of
+February, Joseph II. died, his end hastened by chagrin at the utter
+failure of his well-meant efforts, and was succeeded by Leopold II.
+
+
+  Leopold II. pacifies the country.
+
+  Conquest of Belgium by the French.
+
+  Union of Holland and Belgium under William I.
+
+The new emperor at once took steps to re-assert, if possible, his
+authority in Belgium without having recourse to armed force. He offered
+the states, if the people would return to their allegiance, the
+restoration of their ancient constitution and a general amnesty. This,
+however, did not suit views of the popular party, who, under the
+leadership of an advocate named Van der Noot, had possession of the
+reins of power, and were uplifted by their success. The terms offered in
+an imperial proclamation were rejected, and preparations were made to
+resist coercion by the _levee en masse_ of a national army. When,
+however, in November 1790, a powerful Austrian force entered the
+country, there was practically little opposition to its advance. The
+popular leaders fled, the form of government, as it existed at the end
+of the reign of Maria Theresa, and an amnesty for past offences was
+proclaimed; a superficial pacification of the revolted provinces was
+effected, and Austrian rule re-established. It was destined to be
+short-lived. In 1792 the armies of revolutionary France assailed Austria
+at her weakest point by an invasion of Belgium. The battle of Jemappes
+(7th of November) made the French masters of the southern portion of the
+Austrian Netherlands; the battle of Fleurus (26th of June 1794) put an
+end to the rule of the Habsburgs over the Belgic provinces. The treaty
+of Campo Formio (1797) and the subsequent treaty of Luneville (1801)
+confirmed the conquerors in the possession of the country, and Belgium
+became an integral part of France, being governed on the same footing,
+receiving the _Code Napoleon_, and sharing in the fortunes of the
+Republic and the Empire. After the fall of Napoleon and the conclusion
+of the first peace of Paris (30th of May 1814) Belgium was indeed for
+some months placed under the administration of an Austrian
+governor-general, but it was shortly afterwards united with Holland to
+form the kingdom of the Netherlands. The sovereignty of the newly formed
+state was given to the prince of Orange, who mounted the throne (23rd of
+March 1815) under the title of William I. The congress of Vienna (31st
+of May 1815) determined the relations and fixed the boundaries of the
+kingdom; and the new constitution was promulgated on the 24th of August
+following, the king taking the oath at Brussels on the 27th of
+September.
+
+
+  1814-1830.
+
+  Causes of disagreement between Holland and Belgium.
+
+  Attitude of the king.
+
+  Language question.
+
+  Belgian prosperity during the union.
+
+From this date until the Belgian revolt of 1830, the history of Holland
+and Belgium is that of two portions of one political entity, but in the
+relations of those two portions were to be found from the very outset
+fundamental causes tending to disagreement and separation. The Dutch and
+Belgian provinces of the Netherlands had for one hundred and thirty
+years passed through totally different experiences, and had drifted
+farther and farther apart from one another in character, in habits, in
+ideas and above all in religion. In the south the policy of Alva and
+Philip II. had been wholly successful, and the Belgian people, Flemings
+and Walloons alike, were perhaps more devoted to the Catholic faith than
+any other in Europe. On the other hand the incorporation of the country
+for two decades in the French republic and empire had left deep traces
+on a considerable section of the population, the French language was
+commonly spoken and was exclusively used in the law courts and in all
+public proceedings, and French political theories had made many
+converts. The Fundamental Law promulgated by William I. aroused strong
+opposition among both the Catholic and Liberal parties in Belgium. The
+large powers granted to the king under the new constitution displeased
+the Liberals, who saw in its provision only a disguised form of personal
+government. The principle of liberty of worship and of the press, which
+it laid down, was so offensive to the Catholics that the bishops
+condemned it publicly, and in the Doctrinal Judgment actually forbade
+their flocks to take the oath. The "close and complete union," which was
+stipulated under the treaty of 1814, began under unfavourable auspices.
+Nevertheless the difficulties might have been smoothed away in the
+course of time, had the Belgians felt that the Dutch were treating them
+in a fair and conciliatory spirit. This, despite the undoubtedly good
+intentions of the king, was far from being the case. Belgium was
+regarded too much in the light of an annexed territory, handed over to
+Holland as compensation for the losses sustained by the Dutch in the
+revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. The idea that Holland was the
+predominant partner in the kingdom of the Netherlands was firmly rooted
+in the north and naturally provoked in the south the feeling that
+Belgium was being exploited for the benefit of the Dutch. The grievances
+of the Belgians were indeed very substantial. The seat of government was
+in Holland, the king was a Dutchman by birth and training, and a
+Calvinistic protestant by religion. Though the population of Belgium was
+3,400,000 and that of Holland only a little more than 2,000,000 the two
+countries had equal representation in the second chamber of the
+states-general. Practically in all important legislative measures
+affecting the interests of the two countries the Dutch government were
+able to command a small but permanent majority. The use of the term "the
+Dutch Government" is strictly accurate, for the great majority of the
+public offices were filled by northerners. In 1830, of the seven members
+of the ministry only one was a Belgian; in the home department out of
+117 officials 11 only were Belgians; in the ministry of war 3 were
+Belgians out of 102; of the officers of the army 288 out of 1967. All
+the public establishments, the Bank, the military schools, were Dutch.
+That such was the case must not be entirely charged to partiality, still
+less to deliberate unfairness on the part of William I. The conduct of
+the king proves that he had a most sincere regard for the welfare of his
+Belgian subjects, and in his choice of measures and men his aim was to
+secure the prosperity of his new kingdom by a policy of unification.
+This was the object he had in view in his attempt to make Dutch, except
+in the Walloon districts, the official language for all public and
+judicial acts, and a knowledge of Dutch a necessary qualification for
+every person entering the public service. That the fierce opposition
+which this attempt aroused in the Flemish-speaking provinces was
+ill-considered and unwise, is shown by the fact that in recent years
+there has been a patriotic movement in these same provinces which has
+been successful in forcing the Belgian government to adopt Flemish (i.e.
+Dutch) as well as French for official usage. This Flemish movement is
+all in favour of establishing close relations with the sister people of
+the north. Moreover it cannot be gainsaid that Belgium during her union
+with Holland enjoyed a degree of prosperity that was quite remarkable.
+The mineral wealth of the country was largely developed, the iron
+manufactures of Liege made rapid advance, the woollen manufactures of
+Verviers received a similar impulse, and many large establishments were
+formed at Ghent and other places, where cotton goods were produced which
+rivalled those of England and surpassed those of France. The extensive
+colonial and foreign trade of the Dutch furnished them with markets,
+while the opening of the navigation of the Scheldt raised Antwerp once
+more to a place of high commercial importance. The government also did
+much in the way of improving the internal communications of the country,
+in repairing the roads and canals, in forming new ones, in deepening and
+widening rivers, and the like. Nor was the social and intellectual
+improvement of the people by any means neglected. A new university was
+formed at Liege, normal schools for the instruction of teachers were
+instituted, and numerous elementary schools and schools for higher
+instruction were established over the country. These measures for the
+furthering of education among the people on the part of a government
+mainly composed of Protestants were received with suspicion and
+disfavour by the priests, and still more the attempts subsequently made
+to regulate the education of the priests themselves. The establishment
+under the auspices of the king in 1825 of the Philosophical College at
+Louvain, and the requirement that every priest before ordination should
+spend two years in study there, gave great offence to the clerical
+party, and some of the bishops were prosecuted for the violence of their
+denunciations at this intrusion of the secular arm into the religious
+domain. With the view of terminating these differences the king in 1827
+entered into a _concordat_ with the pope, and an agreement was reached
+with regard to nominations to bishoprics, clerical education and other
+questions, which should have satisfied all reasonable men. But in 1828
+the two extreme parties, the Catholic Ultramontanes and the
+revolutionary Liberals, in their common hatred to the Dutch regime,
+formed an alliance, the _union_, for the overthrow of the government.
+Petitions were sent in setting forth the Belgian grievances, demanding a
+separate administration for Belgium and a full concession of the
+liberties guaranteed by the constitution.
+
+
+  Brussels outbreak of 1830.
+
+Matters were in this state when the news of the success of the July
+revolution of 1830 at Paris reached Brussels, at this time a city of
+refuge for the intriguing and discontented of almost every country of
+Europe. The first outbreak took place on the 25th of August, the
+anniversary of the king's accession. An opera called _La Muette_, which
+abounds in appeals to liberty, was played, and the audience were so
+excited that they rushed out into the street crying, "Imitons les
+Parisiens!" A mob speedily gathered together, who proceeded to destroy
+or damage a number of public buildings and the private residences of
+unpopular officials. The troops were few in number and offered no
+opposition to the mob, but a burgher guard was enrolled among the
+influential and middle-class citizens for the protection of life and
+property. The intelligence of these events in the capital soon spread
+through the provinces; and in most of the large towns similar scenes
+were enacted, beginning with plunderings and outrages, followed by the
+institution of burgher guards for the maintenance of peace. The leading
+men of Brussels were most anxious not to push matters to extremities.
+They demanded the dismissal of the specially obnoxious minister, Van
+Maanen, and a separate administration for Belgium. The government,
+however, could not make up their minds what course to pursue, and by
+allowing things to drift ended by converting a popular riot into a
+national revolt. The heir apparent, the prince of Orange (see WILLIAM
+II. of the Netherlands), was sent on a peaceful mission to Brussels, but
+furnished with such limited powers, as under the circumstances were
+utterly inadequate. He did his best to get at the real facts, and after
+a number of conferences with the leaders became so convinced that
+nothing but a separate administration of the two countries would restore
+tranquillity that he promised to use his influence with his father to
+bring about that object--on receiving assurances that the personal union
+under the house of Orange would be maintained. The king summoned an
+extraordinary session of the states-general, which met at the Hague on
+the 13th of September and was opened by a speech from the throne, which
+was firm and temperate, but by no means definite. The proceedings were
+dilatory, and the attitude of the Dutch deputies exceedingly
+exasperating. The result was that the moderate party in Belgium quickly
+lost their influence, and those in favour of violent measures prevailed.
+Meanwhile although the states were still sitting at the Hague, an army
+of 14,000 troops under the command of Prince Frederick, second son of
+the king, was gradually approaching Brussels. It was hoped that the
+inhabitants would welcome the prince and that a display of armed force
+would speedily restore order. After much unnecessary delay, at a time
+when prompt action was required, the prince on the 23rd of September
+entered Brussels and, with little opposition, occupied the upper or
+court portion of it, but when they attempted to advance into the lower
+town the troops found the streets barricaded and defended by citizens in
+arms. Desultory fighting between the soldiers and the insurgents
+continued for three days until, finding that he was making no headway,
+the prince ordered a retreat. The news spread like wildfire through the
+country, and the principal towns declared for separation. A provisional
+government was formed at Brussels, which declared Belgium to be an
+independent state, and summoned a national congress to establish a
+system of government. King William now did his utmost to avoid a
+rupture, and sent the prince of Orange to Antwerp to promise that
+Belgium should have a separate administration; but it was too late.
+Antwerp was the only important place that remained in the hands of the
+Dutch, and the army on retreating from Brussels had fallen back on this
+town. At the end of October an insurgent army had arrived before the
+gates, which were opened by the populace to receive them, and the
+troops, under General Chasse, retired within the citadel. The general
+ordered a bombardment of the town for two days, destroying a number of
+houses and large quantities of merchandize. This act served still
+further to inflame the minds of the Belgians against the Dutch.
+
+
+  Meeting of the National Congress.
+
+  The new constitution.
+
+  Leopold I., king of the Belgians.
+
+A convention of the representatives of the five great powers met in
+London in the beginning of November, at the request of the king of the
+Netherlands, and both sides were brought to consent to a cessation of
+hostilities. On the 10th of November the National Congress, consisting
+of 200 deputies, met at Brussels and came to three important decisions:
+(1) the independence of the country--carried unanimously; (2) a
+constitutional hereditary monarchy--174 votes against 13; (3) the
+perpetual exclusion of the Orange-Nassau family--161 votes against 28.
+On the 20th of December the conference of London proclaimed the
+dissolution of the kingdom of the Netherlands, but claimed the right of
+regulating the conditions under which it should take place. On the 28th
+of January 1831, the congress proceeded to the election of a king, and
+out of a number of candidates the choice fell on the duke of Nemours,
+second son of Louis Philippe, but he declined the office. The congress
+then elected Baron Surlet de Chokier to the temporary post of regent,
+and proceeded to draw up a constitution on the British parliamentary
+pattern. The constitution expressly declared that the king has no powers
+except those formally assigned to him. Ministers were to be appointed by
+him, but be responsible to the chambers. The legislature was composed of
+two chambers--the senate and the chamber of deputies. Both chambers were
+elected by the same voters, but senators required a property
+qualification,--the payment of at least 2000 florins in taxes. Senators
+and deputies received salaries. The franchise was for that time a low
+one--every one who paid at least 20 florins in taxes had a vote. The
+choice of a king was more difficult than that of drawing up a
+constitution. It was desirable that the new sovereign should be able to
+count upon the friendly support of the great powers, and yet not be
+actually a member of their reigning dynasties. It was from fear of
+arousing the susceptibilities of neighbouring states, especially Great
+Britain, that Louis Philippe had refused to sanction the election of his
+son. It was for this reason that the name of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the
+widower of Princess Charlotte of England, had not been placed among the
+candidates in January. Overtures were, however, made to him, as soon as
+it was understood that, as the result of private negotiations at the
+London conference, the selection of this prince would be favourably
+received both by Great Britain and France. Leopold signified his
+readiness to accept the crown after having first ascertained that he
+would have the support of the great powers in bringing about a
+satisfactory settlement with Holland on those points which he considered
+essential to the security and welfare of the new kingdom. The election
+took place on the 4th of June, when 152 votes out of 196, four being
+absent, determined that Leopold should be proclaimed king of the
+Belgians, under the express condition that he "would accept the
+constitution and swear to maintain the national independence and
+territorial integrity." Leopold made his public entry into Brussels, on
+the 21st, and subsequently visited other parts of the kingdom, and was
+everywhere received with demonstrations of loyalty and respect.
+
+At this juncture news suddenly arrived that the Dutch were preparing to
+invade the country with a large army. It comprised 45,000 infantry and
+6000 cavalry with 72 pieces of artillery, while Leopold could scarcely
+bring forward 25,000 men to oppose it. On the 2nd of August the whole of
+the Dutch army had crossed the frontier; Leopold collected his forces,
+such as they were, near Louvain in order to cover his capital. The two
+armies met on the 9th of August. The undisciplined Belgians, despite the
+personal efforts of their king, were speedily routed, and Leopold and
+his staff narrowly escaped capture. He, however, made good his retreat
+to the capital, and, on the advance of a French army, the prince of
+Orange did not deem it prudent to push on farther. A convention was
+concluded between him and the French general, in consequence of which he
+returned to Holland and the French likewise recrossed the frontier.
+Leopold now proceeded with vigour to strengthen his position and to
+restore order and confidence. French officers were selected for the
+training and disciplining of the army, the civil list was arranged with
+economy and order, and reforms were introduced into the public service
+and system of administration. He kept on the best of terms, though a
+Protestant, with the Roman Catholic clergy and nobility, and his
+subsequent marriage with the daughter of the French king (9th of August
+1832), and the contract that the children of the marriage should be
+brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, did much to inspire confidence
+in his good intentions.
+
+
+  The treaty of separation.
+
+Meanwhile the conference in London had drawn up the project of a treaty
+for the separation of Holland and Belgium, which was declared "to be
+final and irrevocable." The conditions were far less favourable to
+Belgium than had been hoped, and it was not without much heart-burning
+and considerable opposition, that the senate and chamber of deputies
+gave their assent to them. The treaty, which contained 24 articles, was
+signed on the 15th of November 1831. By these articles the grand-duchy
+of Luxemburg was divided, but the king of Holland retained possession of
+the fortress of Luxemburg, and also received a portion of Limburg to
+compensate him for the part of Luxemburg assigned to Belgium. The
+district of Maestricht was likewise partitioned, but the fortress
+remained Dutch. The Scheldt was declared open to the commerce of both
+countries. The national debt was divided. The powers recognized the
+independence of Belgium, "as a neutral state."
+
+
+  The French besiege Antwerp.
+
+  The Luxemburg question.
+
+  Final settlement between Holland and Belgium.
+
+This agreement was ratified by the Belgian and French sovereigns on the
+20th and 24th of November, by the British on the 6th of December, but
+the Austrian and Prussian and Russian governments, whose sympathies were
+with the "legitimate" King William rather than with a prince who owed
+his crown to a revolution, did not give their ratification till some
+five months later. Even then King William remained obdurate, refused to
+sign and continued to keep possession of Antwerp. After fruitless
+efforts on the part of the great powers to obtain his acquiescence,
+France and Great Britain resolved to have recourse to force. On the 5th
+of November their combined fleets sailed for the coast of Holland, and,
+on the 18th, a French army of 60,000 men, under the command of Marshal
+Gerard, crossed the Belgian frontier to besiege Antwerp. The Dutch
+garrison capitulated on the 23rd of December, and on the 31st the town
+was handed over to the Belgians, and the French troops withdrew across
+the frontier. The Dutch, however, still held two forts, which enabled
+them to command the navigation of the Scheldt, and these they stubbornly
+refused to yield. Belgium therefore kept possession of Limburg and
+Luxemburg, except the fortress of Luxemburg, which as a fortress of the
+German confederation was, under the terms of the treaty of Vienna,
+garrisoned by Prussian troops. These territories were treated in every
+way as a part of Belgium, and sent representatives to the chambers.
+Great indignation was therefore felt at the idea of giving them up, when
+Holland (14th of March 1838) signified its readiness to accept the
+conditions of the treaty. The chambers argued that Belgium had been
+induced to agree to the twenty-four articles in 1832 in the hope of
+thereby at once terminating all harassing disputes, but as Holland
+refused then to accept them, the conditions were no longer binding and
+the circumstances were now quite changed. They urged that Luxemburg in
+fact formed an integral part of Belgium and that the people were totally
+opposed to a union with Holland. They offered to pay for the territory
+in dispute, but the treaty gave them no right of purchase, and the
+proposal was not entertained. Addresses were unanimously voted urging
+the king to resist separation, great excitement was aroused throughout
+the country and preparations were made for war. But the firmness of the
+allied powers and their determination to uphold the condtions of the
+treaty compelled the king most reluctantly to submit to the inevitable.
+The treaty was signed in London on the 19th of April 1839. It saddled
+Belgium with a portion of Holland's debt, and a severe financial crisis
+followed.
+
+
+  Struggle between the Catholics and Liberals.
+
+  Electoral reform.
+
+The Belgian revolution owed its success to the union of the Catholic and
+Liberal parties; and the king had been very careful to maintain the
+alliance between them. This continued to be the character of the
+government till 1840, but by degrees it had been growing more and more
+conservative, and was giving rise to dissatisfaction. A ministry was
+formed on more liberal principles, but it clashed with the Catholic
+aristocracy, who had the majority in the senate. A neutral ministry
+under M. Charles Nothomb was then formed. In 1842 it carried a new law
+of primary instruction, which aroused the dislike of the anti-clerical
+Liberals. The Nothomb ministry retired in 1845. In March 1846 the king
+formed a purely Catholic ministry, but it was fiercely attacked by the
+Liberals, who had for several years been steadily organizing. A congress
+was summoned to meet at Brussels (14th of June 1846) composed of
+delegates from the different Liberal associations throughout the
+country. Three hundred and twenty delegates met and drew up an Act of
+Federation and a programme of reforms. The election of 1847 gave a
+majority to the Liberals and a purely Liberal ministry was formed, and
+from this date onwards it has been the constitutional practice in
+Belgium to choose a homogeneous ministry from the party which possesses
+a working majority in the chamber. In 1848 a new electoral law was
+passed, which lowered the franchise to 20 florins' worth of property and
+doubled the number of electors. Hence it came to pass that Belgium
+passed safely through the crisis of the French revolution of 1848. The
+extreme democratic and socialistic party made with French aid some
+spasmodic efforts to stir up a revolutionary movement, but they met with
+no popular sympathy; the throne of Leopold stood firmly based upon the
+trust and respect of the Belgian nation for the wisdom and moderation of
+their king.
+
+The attention of the government was now largely directed to the
+stimulating of private industry and the carrying out of public works of
+great practical utility, such as the extension of railways and the
+opening up of other internal means of communication. Commercial treaties
+were also entered into with various countries with the view of providing
+additional outlets for industrial products. The king also sought as much
+as possible to remove from the domain of politics every irritating
+question, believing that a union of the different parties was most for
+the advantage of the state. In 1850 the question of middle-class
+education was settled. In 1852 the Liberal cabinet was overthrown and a
+ministry of conciliation was formed. A bill was passed authorizing the
+army to be raised to 100,000 men including reserve. The elections of
+1854 modified the parliamentary situation by increasing the strength of
+the Conservatives; the ministry resigned and a new one was formed, under
+Pierre de Decker, of moderate Catholics and Progressives. In 1857 the
+government of M. de Decker brought in a bill to establish "the liberty
+of charity," but in reality to place the administration of charities in
+the hands of the priesthood. This led to a violent agitation throughout
+the kingdom and the military had to be called out. Eventually the bill
+was withdrawn, the ministers resigned and a Liberal ministry was formed
+under M. Charles Rogier. In 1860 the communal _octrois_ or duties on
+articles of food brought into the towns was abolished; in 1863 the
+navigation of the Scheldt was made free, and a treaty of commerce
+established with England. The elections of July 1864 gave a majority to
+the Liberals, and M. Rogier continued in office.
+
+
+  Accession of Leopold II.
+
+On the 10th of December 1865, King Leopold died, after a reign of
+thirty-four years. He was greatly beloved by his people, and to him
+Belgium owed much, for in difficult circumstances and critical times he
+had managed its affairs with great tact and judgment. He was succeeded
+by his eldest son Leopold II., who was immediately proclaimed king and
+took the oath to the constitution on the 17th of December. On the
+outbreak of war between France and Germany in 1870, Belgium saw the
+difficulty and danger of her position, and lost no time in providing for
+contingencies. A large war credit was voted, the strength of the army
+was raised and strong bodies of troops were moved to the frontier. The
+feeling of danger to Belgium also caused great excitement in England.
+The British government declared its intention to maintain the integrity
+of Belgium in accordance with the treaty of 1839, and it induced the two
+belligerent powers to agree not to violate the neutrality of Belgian
+territory. A considerable portion of the French army routed at Sedan did
+indeed seek refuge across the frontier; but they laid down their arms
+according to convention, and were duly "interned."
+
+
+  The Flemish Movement.
+
+In 1870 the Liberal party, which had been in power for thirteen years,
+was overthrown by a union of the Catholics with a number of Liberal
+dissentients to whom the policy of the government had given offence, and
+a Catholic cabinet, at the head of which was Baron Jules Joseph
+d'Anethan, took office. At the election of August 1870, the Catholics
+obtained a majority in both chambers. They increased their power
+considerably by reducing the voting qualification for electors to
+provincial councils to 20 frs., and to communal councils to 10 frs., and
+also by recognizing the importance of what was styled "the Flemish
+Movement." Hitherto French had been the official language of the states.
+The use of Flemish in public documents, in judicial procedure and in
+official correspondence was hereafter required in the Flemish provinces,
+and Belgium became officially bi-lingual. It was, as has been already
+pointed out, a reversion to the policy of the Dutch king, which in 1830
+had been so strongly denounced by the leaders of the Belgian revolution,
+and its object was the same, i.e. to prevent _frenchification_ of a
+population that was Teutonic by race and speech. In 1871 M. Malou had
+become the head of a cabinet of moderate Catholics, and he retained
+office till 1878. This was the period of the struggle between the pope
+and the Italian government, and the German _Kulturkampf_. The Belgian
+Ultramontanes agitated strongly in favour of the re-establishment of the
+temporal power and against the policy of Bismarck. Though
+discountenanced by the ministry, the violence of the Ultra-clericals
+compassed its downfall. They passed a law adopting the ballot in 1877,
+but at the election of the following year a Liberal majority was
+returned.
+
+
+  School law of 1879.
+
+The new cabinet, under M. Frere-Orban, devoted itself solely to the
+settlement of the educational system. Hitherto since 1842 in all primary
+schools instruction by the clergy in the Catholic faith was obligatory,
+children belonging to other persuasions being dispensed from attendance.
+In 1879 a bill was passed for the secularization of primary education;
+but an attempt was made to conciliate the clergy by Art. 4, which
+enacted--"religious instruction is relegated to the care of families and
+the clergy of the various creeds. A place in the school may be put at
+their disposal where the children may receive religious instruction," at
+hours other than those set apart for regular education. The bill
+likewise provided for a rigorous inspection of the communal schools. The
+passing of this law was met by the clergy by uncompromising resistance.
+The bishops ordered that absolution be refused to teachers in the
+schools "sans Dieu," and to the parents who sent their children to them,
+and urged the establishment of private Catholic schools. All over
+Belgium the agitation spread, and the clergy, who were practically
+independent of state control, gained the victory. In November 1879 it
+was calculated that there were but 240,000 scholars in the secularized
+schools against 370,000 in the Catholic schools. In Flanders over 80% of
+the children attended the Catholic schools. The government appealed to
+the pope, but the Holy See declined to take any action, and so great was
+the embitterment that the Belgian minister at the Vatican and the papal
+nuncio at Brussels were recalled, and in 1880 the clergy refused to
+associate themselves with the fetes of the national jubilee. In order to
+emerge victorious in such a struggle the Liberal party had need of all
+their strength, but a split took place between the sections known as the
+_doctrinaires_ and the _progressists_, on the question of an extension
+of the franchise, and at the election of 1884 the Catholics carried all
+before them at the polls. From 1884 up to the present time the clerical
+party have maintained their supremacy.
+
+
+  Social outbreak in 1886.
+
+  Agitation for a revision of the constitution.
+
+  The Nyssens compromise.
+
+A Catholic administration under M. Malou at once took in hand the
+schools question. A law was passed, despite violent protests from the
+Liberals, which enacted that the communes might maintain the private
+Catholic schools established since 1879 and suppress unsectarian schools
+at their pleasure. They might retain at least one unsectarian or adopt
+one Catholic school, where 25 heads of families demanded it. The state
+subsidized all the communal schools, Catholic and unsectarian alike.
+Under this law in all districts under clerical control the unsectarian
+schools were abolished. In October 1884, M. Beernaert replaced M. Malou
+as prime minister, and retained that post for the following ten years.
+He had in 1886 a troublous and dangerous situation to deal with.
+Socialism had become a political force in the land. Socialism of a
+German type had taken deep root among the working men of the Flemish
+towns, especially at Ghent and Brussels; socialism of a French
+revolutionary type among the Walloon miners and factory hands. On the
+18th of March 1886, a socialist rising suddenly burst out at Liege, on
+the occasion of the anniversary of the Paris Commune, and rapidly
+spread in other industrial centres of the Walloon districts. Thousands
+of workmen went on strike, demanding better wages and the suffrage. The
+ministry acted promptly and with vigour, the outbreak was suppressed by
+the employment of the military and order was restored. But as soon as
+this was accomplished the government opened a comprehensive enquiry into
+the causes of dissatisfaction, which served as the basis of numerous
+social laws, and led eventually to the establishment of universal
+suffrage and the substitution in Belgium of a democratic for a
+middle-class regime. It was not effected till several years had been
+spent in long parliamentary discussions, by demonstrations on the part
+of the supporters of franchise revision and by strikes of a political
+tendency. At last the senate and chamber declared, May 1892, that the
+time for a revision of certain articles of the constitution had come. As
+prescribed by the constitution, a dissolution took place and two new
+chambers were elected. The Catholics had a majority in both, but not
+enough to enable them to dispense with the assistance of the Liberals,
+the constitution requiring for every revision a two-thirds majority. The
+bills proposed for extending the franchise were all rejected (April 11th
+and 12th). Thereupon the council of the Labour party proclaimed a
+general strike. Fifty thousand workmen struck, in Brussels there were
+violent demonstrations, and the agitation assumed generally a dangerous
+aspect. Both the government and the opposition in the chambers saw that
+delay vas impossible, and that revision must be carried out. Agreement
+was reached by the acceptance of a compromise proposed by M. Albert
+Nyssens, Catholic deputy and professor of penal procedure and commercial
+law at the university of Louvain, and on the 18th of April the chamber
+adopted an electoral system until then unknown--_le suffrage universel
+plural_. The citizen in order to possess a vote for the election of
+representatives to the chambers was to be of a _minimum_ age of
+twenty-five years, and of thirty years for the election of senators and
+provincial and communal councillors. For the four categories of
+elections a supplementary vote was given to (a) citizens who having
+attained the age of thirty-five years, and being married or widowers
+with children, paid at least 5 f. income tax, and (b) to citizens of the
+age of twenty-five years possessing real estate to the value of 2000 f.
+or Belgian state securities yielding an income of at least 100 f. Two
+supplementary votes were bestowed upon citizens having certain
+educational certificates, or discharging functions or following
+professions implying their possession. This elaborate system was only
+carried into law after considerable and violent opposition in the
+sessions of 1894 and 1895. It was chiefly the work of the ministry of M.
+de Burlet, who succeeded to the place of M. Beernaert in March 1894.
+
+
+  Catholic majority of 1894.
+
+  Proportional representation.
+
+The composition of the elected bodies for the years 1894-1895 was:--for
+the chamber of representatives 1,354,891 electors with 2,085,605 votes,
+for the senate and provincial councils 1,148,433 electors with 1,856,838
+votes. The result of the first election in October 1894 was to give the
+Catholic party an overwhelming majority. The old Liberal party almost
+disappeared, while the Walloon provinces returned a number of
+Socialists. In February 1896 M. de Burlet, being in bad health,
+transferred the direction of the government to M. Smet de Naeyer. The
+election of 1894 had given the Liberals a much smaller number of seats
+than they ought to have had according to the number of votes they
+polled, and a cry arose for the establishment of proportional
+representation. Both sides felt that reform was again necessary, but the
+Catholic majority disagreed among themselves as to the form it should
+take. In 1899 M. Smet de Naeyer gave place as head of the ministry to M.
+van den Peereboom. But the proposals of the latter met with organized
+obstruction on the part of the Socialist deputies, and after a few
+months' tenure of office he gave way to M. Smet de Naeyer once more. The
+new cabinet at once (August 1899) introduced a bill giving complete
+proportional representation in parliamentary elections to all the
+arrondissements, and it was passed despite the defection of a number of
+Catholic deputies led by M. Woeste. The election in May 1900 resulted in
+the return of a substantial (though reduced) Catholic majority in both
+chambers.
+
+
+  Social legislation.
+
+During this period of Catholic ascendancy social legislation was not
+neglected. Among the enactments the following are the most
+important:--the institution of industrial and labour councils, composed
+of employers and employes, and of a superior council, formed of
+officials, workmen and employers (1887); laws assisting the erection of
+workmen's dwellings and supervising the labour of women and children
+(1889); laws for ameliorating the system of Friendly Societies (1890);
+laws regulating workshops (1896); conferring corporate rights on trades'
+unions (1898); guaranteeing the security and health of working men
+during hours of labour (1899). In 1900 laws were passed regulating the
+contract of labour, placing the workman on a footing of perfect equality
+with his employer, assuring the married woman free control of her
+savings, and organizing a system of old-age pensions. Primary education
+was dealt with in 1895 by a law, which made religious instruction
+obligatory, and extended state support to all schools that satisfied
+certain conditions. In 1899 there were in Belgium 6674 subsidized
+schools, having 775,000 scholars out of a total of 950,000 children of
+school age. Only 68,000 did not receive religious instruction. The
+Catholic party also strove to mitigate the principle of obligatory
+military service by encouraging the system of volunteering and by a
+reduction of the time of active service and of the number with the
+colours.
+
+
+  Politics in 1905.
+
+In 1905 the 75th anniversary of Belgian independence was celebrated, and
+there was a great manifestation of loyalty to King Leopold II. for the
+wisdom and prudence shown by him during his long reign. Owing to
+dissensions among the Catholic and Conservative party on the subject of
+military service and the fortification of Antwerp, their majority in the
+chamber in 1904 fell from 26 to 20, that in the senate from 16 to 12.
+The partial election in 1906 reduced the majority in the chamber to 12,
+while the partial election in 1908 brought the majority down to 8. The
+Smet de Naeyer ministry which had held office since 1900 was defeated in
+April 1907 in a debate on the mining law over the proposal concerning
+the length of the working day. A new cabinet was formed on the 2nd of
+May following under the presidency of M. de Trooz, who had been minister
+of the interior under M. Smet de Naeyer, and who retained that portfolio
+in conjunction with the premiership. M. de Trooz died on the 31st of
+December 1907, and was succeeded by M. Schollaert, president of the
+chamber. The count of Flanders, brother of the king, died on the 17th of
+November 1905, leaving his son Albert heir to the throne.
+
+
+  Belgium and the Congo.
+
+The Congo question had meanwhile become an acute one in Belgium. The
+personal interest taken by Leopold II. in the exploration and commercial
+development of the equatorial regions of Africa had led, in the creation
+of the Congo Free State, to results which had originally not been
+anticipated. The _Comite des Etudes du Haut Congo_, formed in 1878 at
+the instance of the king and mainly financed by him had developed into
+the International Association of the Congo, of which a Belgian officer,
+Colonel M. Strauch, was president. Through the efforts in Africa of H.M.
+Stanley a rudimentary state was created, and through the efforts of King
+Leopold in Europe the International Association was recognized during
+1884-1885 by the powers as an independent state. Declarations to this
+effect were exchanged between the Belgian government and the Association
+on the 23rd of February 1885. In April of the same year the Belgian
+chambers authorized the king to be the chief of the state founded by the
+Association, which had already taken the name of _Etat Independent du
+Congo_. The union between Belgium and the new state was declared to be
+purely personal, but its European headquarters were in Brussels, its
+officials, in the course of time, became almost exclusively Belgian, and
+financially and commercially the connexion between the two countries
+became increasingly close. In 1889 King Leopold announced that he had
+by his will bequeathed the Congo state to Belgium, and in 1890 the
+Belgian government, in return for financial help, acquired the right of
+annexing the country under certain conditions. At later dates definite
+proposals for immediate annexation were considered but not adopted, the
+king showing a strong disinclination to cede the state, while among the
+mass of the Belgians the disinclination to annex was equally strong. It
+was not until terrible reports as to the misgovernment of the Congo
+created a strong agitation for reform in Great Britain, America and
+other countries responsible for having aided in the creation of the
+state, that public opinion in Belgium seriously concerned itself with
+the subject. The result was that in November 1907 a new treaty of
+cession was presented to the Belgian chambers, while in March 1908 an
+additional act modified one of the most objectionable features of the
+treaty--a clause by which the king retained control of the revenue of a
+vast territory within the Congo which he had declared to be his private
+property. A colonial law, also submitted to the chambers, secured for
+Belgium in case of annexation complete parliamentary control over the
+Congo state, and the bill for annexation was finally passed in September
+1908.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Th. Juste, _Histoire de la Belgique_ (2 vols., 1853);
+  _La Revolution belge de 1830_ (2 vols., 1872); _Congres national de
+  Belgique_ (2 vols., 1880); _Memoirs of Leopold I._ (2 vols., 1868); De
+  Gerlache, _Histoire du royaume des Pays-Bas_ (3 vols., 1859); D.C.
+  Boulger, _The History of Belgium_, part i. (1900); C. White, _The
+  Belgic Revolution of 1830_ (2 vols., 1835); Moke and Hubert, _Histoire
+  de Belgique_ (_jusque 1885_) (1892); L. Hymans, _Histoire
+  parlementaire de la Belgique_ (1830-1899); _Cinquante ans de liberte_
+  (4 vols., 1881); J.J. Thonissen _La Belgique sous le regne de Leopold
+  I^{er}_ (4 vols., 1855-1858); De Laveleye, _Le Parti clerical en
+  Belgique_ (1874); Vandervelde and Destree, _Le Socialisme belge_
+  (1898); C. Woeste, _Vingt ans de polemique_ (1890); Hamelius, _Le
+  Mouvement flamand_ (1894).     (G. E.)
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+Belgian literature, taken in the widest sense of the term, falls into
+three groups, consisting of works written respectively in Flemish,
+Walloon and French. The earlier Flemish authors are treated under DUTCH
+LITERATURE; the revival of Flemish Literature (q.v.) since the
+separation of Belgium from the Netherlands in 1830, and Walloon
+Literature (q.v.), are each separately noticed. The earlier French
+writers born on what is now Belgian territory--e.g. Adenes le Rois, Jean
+Froissart, Jean Lemaire des Belges and others--are included in the
+general history of French Literature (q.v.). It remains to consider the
+literature written by Belgians in French during the 19th century, and
+its rapid development since the revolution of 1831.
+
+Belgian writers were commonly charged with provincialism, but the
+prejudice against them has been destroyed by the brilliant writers of
+1870-1880. It was also asserted that Belgian French literature lacked a
+national basis, and was merely a reflection of Parisian models. The most
+important section of it, however, has a distinctive quality of its own.
+Many of its most distinguished exponents are Flemings by birth, and
+their writings reflect the characteristic Flemish scenery; they have the
+sensuousness, the colour and the realism of Flemish art; and on the
+other hand the tendency to mysticism, to abstraction, is far removed
+from the lucidity and definiteness associated with French literature
+properly so-called. This profoundly national character disengaged itself
+gradually, and has been more strikingly evident since 1870. The earlier
+writers of the century were content to follow French tradition.
+
+The events of 1830-1831 gave a great stimulus to Belgian letters, but
+the country possessed writers of considerable merit before that date.
+Adolphe Mathieu (1802-1876) belongs to the earlier half of the century,
+although the tenth and last volume of his _Oeuvres en vers_ was only
+printed in 1870. His later works show the influence of the Romantic
+revival. Auguste Clavareau (1787-1864), a mediocre poet, an imitator of
+the French and Dutch, produced some successful comedies, but he ceased
+to write plays before 1830. Edouard Smits (1789-1852) showed romantic
+tendencies in his tragedies of _Marie de Bourgogne_ (1823), _Elfrida_
+(1825), and _Jeanne de Flandre_ (1828). The first of these had a great
+success, partly no doubt because of its patriotic subject. For four
+years before 1830 Andre van Hasselt (q.v.) had been publishing his
+verses in the _Sentinelle des Pays-Bas_, and from 1829 onwards he was an
+ardent romanticist. A burst of literary and artistic activity followed
+the Revolution; and van Hasselt's house became a centre of poets,
+artists and musicians of the romantic school. The best work of the
+Belgian romanticists is in the rich and picturesque prose of the 16th
+century romance of Charles de Coster (see DE COSTER), and in the
+melancholy and semi-philosophical writings of the moralist Octave Pirmez
+(q.v.). The _Poesies_ (1841) and the _Chansons_ (1866) of Antoine Clesse
+(1816-1889), have been compared with the work of Beranger; and the
+Catholic party found a champion against the liberals and revolutionists
+in the satirical poet, Benoit Quinet (b. 1819). Among the famous
+dramatic pieces of this epoch was the _Andre Chenier_ (1843) of Edouard
+Wacken (1819-1861), who was a lyric rather than a dramatic poet; also
+the comedies of Louis Labarre (1810-1892) and of Henri Delmotte
+(1822-1884). Charles Potvin (1818-1902), a poet and a dramatist, is best
+known by a patriotic _Histoire des lettres en Belgique_, forming vol.
+iv. of the Belgian compilation, _Cinquante ans de liberte_ (1882), and
+by his essays in literary history. Eugene van Bemmel (1824-1880)
+established an excellent historical tradition in his _Histoire de la
+Belgique_ (1880), reproducing textually the original authorities, and
+also edited a Belgian Encyclopaedia (1873-1875), the _Patria Belgica_.
+Baron E.C. de Gerlache (1785-1871) wrote the history of the Netherlands
+from the ultramontane standpoint. The romanticists were attacked in an
+amusing satire, _Les Voyages et aventures de M. Alfred Nicolas_ (1835),
+by Francois Grandgagnage (1797-1877), who was a nationalist in the
+narrowest sense, and regarded the movement as an indefensible invasion
+of foreign ideas. The best of the novelists of this period, excluding
+Charles de Coster, was perhaps Estelle Ruelens (_nee_ Crevecoeur;
+1821-1878); she wrote under the pseudonym of "Caroline Graviere." Her
+tales were collected by the bibliophile "P.L. Jacob" (Paris, 1873-1874).
+
+The whole of this literature derived more or less from foreign sources,
+and, with the exception of Charles de Coster and Octave Pirmez, produced
+no striking figures. De Coster died in 1879, and Pirmez in 1883, and the
+new movement in Belgian literature dates from the banquet given in the
+latter year to Camille Lemonnier (q.v.) whose powerful personality did
+much to turn "Young Belgium" into a national channel. Lemonnier himself
+cannot be exclusively claimed by any of the conflicting schools of young
+writers. He was by turns naturalist, lyrist and symbolist; and it has
+been claimed that the germs of all the later developments in Belgian
+letters may be traced in his work. The quinquennial prize of literature
+had been refused to his _Un male_, and the younger generation of artists
+and men of letters gave him a banquet which was recognized as a protest
+against the official literature, represented by Louis Hymans
+(1829-1884), Gustave Frederix (b. 1834), the literary critic of
+_L'Independance belge_, and others. The centres around which the young
+writers were grouped were two reviews, _L'Art moderne_ and _La Jeune
+Belgique_. _L'Art moderne_ was founded in 1882 by Edmond Picard, who had
+as his chief supporters Victor Arnould and Octave Maus. The first editor
+of _La Jeune Belgique_ was M. Warlomont (1860-1889), known under the
+pen-name of "Max Waller." This review, which owed much of its success to
+Waller's energy, defended the intense preoccupation of the new writers
+with questions of style, and became the depository of the Parnassian
+tradition in Belgium. It had among its early contributors Georges
+Eekhoud, Albert Giraud, Iwan Gilkin and Georges Rodenbach. Edmond Picard
+(b. 1836) was one of the foremost in the battle. He was well known as an
+advocate in Brussels, and made a considerable contribution to
+jurisprudence as the chief writer of the _Pandectes belges_ (1886-1890).
+His _Pro arte_ (1886) was a kind of literary code for the young Belgian
+writers. His novels, of which _La Forge Roussel_ (1881) is a good
+example, were succeeded in 1902-1903 by two plays, _Jericho_ and
+_Fatigue de vivre_.
+
+Georges Eekhoud, born at Antwerp on the 27th of May 1854, was in some
+ways the most passionately Flemish of the whole group. He described the
+life of the peasants of his native Flanders with a bold realism, making
+himself the apologist of the vagabond and the outcast in a series of
+tragic stories:--_Kees Doorik_ (1883), _Kermesses_ (1883), _Nouvelles
+Kermesses_ (1887), _Le Cycle patibulaire_ (1892), _Mes Communions_
+(1895), _Escal Vigor_ (1899) and _La Faneuse d'amour_ (1900), &c.
+_Nouvelle Carthage_ (1888) deals with modern Antwerp. In 1892 he
+produced a striking book on English literature entitled _Au siecle de
+Shakespeare_, and has written French versions of Beaumont and Fletcher's
+_Philaster_ (1895) and of Marlow's _Edward II._ (1896).
+
+The earlier work of "Young Belgium" in poetry was experimental in
+character, and was marked by extravagances of style and a general
+exuberance which provoked much hostile criticism. The young writers of
+1870 to 1880 had not long to wait, however, for recognition both at home
+and in Paris, where many of them found hospitality in the pages of the
+_Mercure de France_ from 1890 onwards. They divided their allegiance
+between the leaders of the French Parnassus and the Symbolists.
+
+The most powerful of the Belgian poets, Emile Verhaeren (q.v.), is the
+most daring in his technical methods of expressing bizarre sensation,
+and has been called the "poet of paroxysm." His reputation extends far
+beyond the limits of his own country.
+
+Many of the Belgian poets adhere to the classical form. Albert Giraud
+(born at Louvain in 1860) was faithful to the Parnassian tradition in
+his _Pierrot lunaire_ (1884), _Pierrot narcisse_ (1891) and _Hors du
+siecle_ (1886). In the earlier works of Iwan Gilkin (born at Brussels in
+1858) the influence of Charles Baudelaire is predominant. He wrote
+_Damnation de l'artiste_ (1890), _Tenebres_ (1892), _Stances dorees_
+(1893), _La Nuit_ (1897) and _Promethee_ (1899). The poems of Valere
+Gille (born at Brussels in 1867), whose _Cithare_ was crowned by the
+French Academy in 1898, belong to the same group. Emile van Arenberghe
+(born at Louvain in 1854) is the author of some exquisite sonnets.
+Fernand Severin (b. 1867) in his _Poemes ingenus_ (1900) aims at
+simplicity of form, and seems to have learnt the art of his musical
+verse direct from Racine. With Severin is closely associated Georges
+Marlow (b. 1872), author of _L'Ame en exil_ (1895).
+
+Georges Rodenbach (1855-1898) spent most of his life in Paris and was an
+intimate of Edmond de Goncourt. He produced some Parisian and purely
+imitative work; but the best part of his production is the outcome of a
+passionate idealism of the quiet Flemish towns in which he had passed
+his childhood and early youth. In his best known work, _Bruges la Morte_
+(1892), he explains that his aim is to evoke the town as a living being,
+associated with the moods of the spirit, counselling, dissuading from
+and prompting action.
+
+The most famous of all modern Belgian writers, Maurice Maeterlinck
+(q.v.), made his debut in a Parisian journal, the _Pleiade_, in 1886. He
+succeeded more nearly than any of his predecessors in expressing or
+suggesting ideas and emotions which might have been supposed to be
+capable of translation only in terms of music. "The unconscious self, or
+rather the sub-conscious self," says Emile Verhaeren, "recognized in the
+verse and prose of Maeterlinck its language or rather its stammering
+attempt at language." Maeterlinck was a native of Ghent, and the first
+poems of two of his fellow-townsmen also appeared in the _Pleiade_.
+These were Gregoire le Roy (b. 1862), author of _La Chanson d'un soir_
+(1886), and _Mon Coeur pleure d'autrefois_ (1889); and Charles van
+Lerberghe (b. 1861), author of a play, _Les Flaireurs_ (1890) and a
+collection of _Poemes_ (1897).
+
+Max Elskamp (born at Antwerp in 1862) is the author of some volumes of
+religious poetry--_Dominical_ (1892), _Salutations, dont d'angeliques_
+(1893), _En symbole vers l'apostolat_ (1895)--for which he has devised
+as background an imaginary city. Eugene Demolder (b.1862) also created a
+mythical city as a setting for his prose _contes_ in the _Legende
+d'Yperdamme_ (1897).
+
+Belgian literary activity extends also to historical research. Baron
+Kervyn de Lettenhove (1817-1891) wrote a _Histoire de Flandre_ (7 vols.,
+1847-1855), and a number of monographs on separate points in Flemish and
+English history. Though an accurate historian, he allowed himself lo be
+prejudiced by his extreme Catholic views. He was a vehement defender of
+Mary Stuart. Louis Gachard (1800-1885) wrote many valuable works on 16th
+century history; Mgr. Nameche (1810-1893) completed the 29th volume of
+his _Cours d'histoire nationale_ before his death; Charles Piot (b.
+1812) edited the correspondence of Cardinal de Granvelle; Alphonse
+Wauters (1818-1898), archivist of Brussels, published many
+archaeological works; and Charles Rahlenbeck (1823-1903) wrote
+enthusiastically of the history of Protestantism in Belgium. One of the
+most masterly writers of French in Belgium was the economist Emile de
+Laveleye (q.v.). In aesthetics should be noted the historian of music,
+Francois Joseph Fetis (1784-1871); F.A. Gevaert (1828-1908), author of
+_Histoire et theorie de la musique d'antiquite_ (2 vols., 1875-1881);
+and Victor Mahillon (b. 1841) for his work in acoustics and his
+descriptive catalogue (1893-1900) of the museum of musical instruments
+belonging to the Brussels conservatoire. In psychology Joseph Delboeuf
+(1831-1896) enjoyed a great reputation outside Belgium; Elisee Reclus
+(b. 1830), though a Frenchman by birth, completed his _Geographie
+universelle_ (1875-1894) in exile at Brussels; and Ernest Nys has
+written many standard works on international law. In the history of
+literature an important work is compiled by Ferdinand van der Haeghen
+and others in the _Bibliotheca Belgica_ (1880, &c.), comprising a
+description of all the books printed in the Netherlands in the 15th and
+16th centuries. The vicomte de Spoelberch de Lovenjoul (1836-1907) was
+well known in France as the author of _Sainte-Beuve inconnu_ (1901), _La
+Genese d'un roman de Balzac_ (1901), _Une Page perdue de H. de Balzac_
+(1903), and of numerous bibliographical works.
+
+  See F.V. Goethals, _Histoire des lettres, des sciences et des arts en
+  Belgique_ (4 vols., 1840-1844); Fr. Masoin, _Histoire de la
+  litterature francaise en Belgique de 1815 a 1830_ (1903); F. Nautet,
+  _Histoire des lettres belges d'expression francaise_ (3 vols., 1892 et
+  seq.), written from the point of view of young Belgium, and by no
+  means impartial; A. de Koninck, _Bibliographie nationale_ brought down
+  to 1880; _Biographie nationale de Belgique_ (1866, &c.) in progress;
+  see also articles by Emile Verhaeren in the _Revue des revues_ (15th
+  June 1896), by Albert Mockel in the _Revue encyclopedique_ (24th July
+  1897); a collection of criticisms chiefly on Belgian writers by Eugene
+  Gilbert, _France et Belgique; etudes litteraires_ (1905); Frederic
+  Faber, _Histoire du theatre francais en Belgique_ (5 vols.,
+  1878-1880). An excellent anthology of Belgian poets was published by
+  K. Pol de Mont with the title of _Modernites_ (1898).     (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See for earlier history NETHERLANDS, FLANDERS, BRABANT, LIEGE, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BELGRADE (Servian, _Biograd_ or _Beograd_, i.e. "White Castle"), the
+capital of Servia. Pop. (1900) 69,097. Belgrade occupies a triangular
+ridge or foreland, washed on the north-west by the Save, and on the
+north-east by the Danube; these rivers flowing respectively from the
+south-west and north-west. The sides of the triangle slope down abruptly
+towards the west, more gradually towards the east; at the base stands
+the cone of Avala Hill, the last outpost of the Rudnik Mountains, which
+extend far away to the south; and, at the apex, a cliff of Tertiary
+chalk, 200 ft. high, overlooks the confluence of the two rivers, the
+large, flat island of Veliki Voyn and several smaller islets. This cliff
+is crowned by the walls and towers of the citadel, once white, but now
+maroon with age, and, though useful as a prison and barracks, no longer
+of any military value. Behind the citadel, and along its _glacis_ on the
+southern side, are the gardens of Kalemegdan, commanding a famous view
+across the river; behind Kalemegdan comes Belgrade itself, a city of
+white houses, among which a few great public buildings, like the high
+school, national bank, national theatre and the so-called New Palace,
+stand forth prominently. The town was formerly divided into three parts,
+namely, the Old town, the Russian town (_Sava-Makhala_ or Save
+district), and the Turkish town (_Dorcol_, or Cross-road). A great
+change, however, took place in the course of the 19th century, and the
+old divisions are only partially applicable, while there has to be added
+the Tirazia, an important suburban extension along the line of the
+aqueduct or _Tirazi_. A few old Turkish houses, built of plaster, with
+red-tiled roofs, are left among the ill-paved and insanitary districts
+bordering upon the rivers, but as the royal residence, the seat of
+government, and the centre of the import trade, Belgrade was, after
+1869, rapidly transformed into a modern European town, with wide
+streets, electric tramways and electric lighting. Only the multitude of
+small gardens, planted with limes, acacias and lilacs, and the bright
+costumes of the Servian or Hungarian peasants, remain to distinguish it
+from a western capital. For a town of such importance, which is also the
+seat of the metropolitan of Servia, Belgrade has very few churches, and
+these are of a somewhat modest type. There were, in 1900, four Servian
+Orthodox churches, including the cathedral, one Roman Catholic chapel,
+one Evangelical chapel (German), two synagogues and one mosque. This
+last is kept up entirely at the expense of the Servian government.
+
+The highest educational establishments are to be found in Belgrade: the
+_Velika Shkola_ (a small university with three faculties), the military
+academy, the theological seminary, the high school for girls, a
+commercial academy, and several schools for secondary education on
+German models. A commercial tribunal, a court of appeal and the court of
+cassation are also in Belgrade. There is a fine monument to Prince
+Michael (1860-1868) who succeeded in removing the Turkish garrison from
+the Belgrade citadel and obtaining other Turkish fortresses in Servia by
+skilful diplomacy. There are also an interesting national museum, with
+Roman antiquities and numismatic collections, a national library with a
+wealth of old Servian MSS. among its 40,000 volumes, and a botanical
+garden, rich in specimens of the Balkan flora. To promote commerce there
+are a stock and produce exchange (_Berza_), a national bank, privileged
+to issue notes, and several other banking establishments. The insurance
+work is done by foreign companies.
+
+The bulk of the foreign trade of Servia passes through Belgrade, but the
+industrial output of the city itself is not large, owing to the scarcity
+both of labour and capital. The principal industries are brewing,
+iron-founding and the manufacture of cloth, boots, leather, cigarettes,
+matches, pottery, preserved meat and confectionery. The railway from
+Budapest to Constantinople crosses the Save by a fine bridge on the
+south-west, above the landing-place for steamers. Farther south is the
+park of _Topchider_, with an old Turkish kiosk built for Prince Milosh
+(1818-1839) in the beautifully laid-out grounds. In the adjoining forest
+of lime-trees, called _Koshutnyak_ or the "deer-park," Prince Michael
+was assassinated in 1868. Just opposite the citadel, in a north-westerly
+direction, half-an-hour by steamer across the Danube, lies the Hungarian
+town of Semlin. For administrative purposes, Belgrade forms a separate
+department of the kingdom.
+
+The first fortification of the rock, at the confluence of the Save and
+the Danube, was made by the Celts in the 3rd century B.C. They gave it
+the name of _Singidunum_, by which Belgrade was known until the 7th
+century A.D. The Romans took it from the Celts, and replaced their fort
+by a regular Roman _castrum_, placing in it a strong garrison. Roman
+bricks, dug up in the fortress, bear the inscription, _Legio IV. Flavia
+Felix_. From the 4th to the beginning of the 6th century A.D. it often
+changed its masters (Huns, Sarmatians, Goths, Gepids); then the emperor
+Justinian brought it once more under Roman rule and fortified and
+embellished it. Towards the end of the 8th century it was taken by the
+Franks of Charlemagne. In the 9th century it was captured by the
+Bulgarians, and held by them until the beginning of the 11th century,
+when the Byzantine emperor Basil II. reconquered it for the Greek
+empire. The Hungarians, under king Stephen, took it from the Greeks in
+1124. From that time it was constantly changing hands--Greeks,
+Bulgarians, Hungarians, replacing each other in turn. The city was
+considered to be the key of Hungary, and its possession was believed to
+secure possession of Servia, besides giving command of the traffic
+between the Upper and the Lower Danube. It has, in consequence, seen
+more battles under its walls than most fortresses in Europe. The Turks
+used to call it _Darol-i-Jehad_, "the home of wars for faith." During
+the 14th century it was in the hands of the Servian kings. The Servian
+prince George Brankovich ceded it to the Hungarians in 1427. The Turkish
+forces unsuccessfully besieged the city in 1444 and 1456, on which last
+occasion a glorious victory was obtained by the Christian garrison, led
+by the famous John Hunyady and the enthusiastic monk John Capistran. In
+1521 Sultan Suleiman took it from the Hungarians, and from that year it
+remained in Turkish possession until 1688, when the Austrians captured
+it, only to lose it again in 1690. In 1717 Prince Eugene of Savoy
+conquered it for Austria, which kept it until 1739, improving the
+fortifications and giving great impulse to the commercial development of
+the town. From 1739 to 1789 the Turks were again its masters, when, in
+that last year, the Austrians under General Laudon carried it by
+assault, only to lose it again in 1792. In 1807 the Servians, having
+risen for their independence, forced the Turkish garrison to capitulate,
+and became masters of Belgrade, which they kept until the end of
+September 1813, when they abandoned it to the Turks. Up to the year 1862
+not only was the fortress of Belgrade garrisoned by Turkish troops, but
+the Danubian slope of the town was inhabited by Turks, living under a
+special Turkish administration, while the modern part of the town (the
+plateau of the ridge and the western slope) was inhabited by Servians
+living under their own authorities. This dual government was a constant
+cause of friction between the Servians and the Turks, and on the
+occasion of one conflict between the two parties the Turkish commander
+of the fortress bombarded the Servian part of the town (June 1862). The
+indirect consequence of this incident was that in 1866, on the categoric
+demand of Prince Michael of Servia, and under the diplomatic pressure of
+the great powers, the sultan withdrew the Turkish garrison from the
+citadel and delivered it to the Servians.     (C. Mi.)
+
+
+
+
+BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN HAMILTON, 2ND BARON (1656-1708), was the
+eldest son of Robert Hamilton, Lord Presmennan (d. 1696), and was born
+on the 5th of July 1656. Having married Margaret, granddaughter of John
+Hamilton, 1st Baron Belhaven and Stenton, who had been made a peer by
+Charles I. in 1647, he succeeded to this title in 1679. In 1681 he was
+imprisoned for opposing the government and for speaking slightingly of
+James, duke of York, afterwards James II., in parliament, and in 1689 he
+was among those who asked William of Orange to undertake the government
+of Scotland. Belhaven was at the battle of Killiecrankie; he was a
+member of the Scottish privy council, and he was a director of the
+Scottish Trading Company, which was formed in 1695 and was responsible
+for the Darien expedition. He favoured the agitation for securing
+greater liberty for his country, an agitation which culminated in the
+passing of the Act of Security in 1705, and he greatly disliked the
+union of the parliaments, a speech which he delivered against this
+proposal in November 1706 attracting much notice and a certain amount of
+ridicule. Later he was imprisoned, ostensibly for favouring a projected
+French invasion, and he died in London on the 21st of June 1708.
+Belhaven is chiefly famous as an orator, and two of his speeches, one of
+them the famous one of November 1706, were printed by D. Defoe in an
+appendix to his _History of the Union_ (1786).
+
+Belhaven's son, John, who fought on the English side at Sheriffmuir,
+became the 3rd baron on his father's death. He was drowned in November
+1721, whilst proceeding to take up his duties as governor of Barbados,
+and was succeeded by his son John (d. 1764). After the death of John's
+brother James in 1777 the title was for a time dormant; then in 1799 the
+House of Lords declared that William Hamilton (1765-1814), a descendant
+of John Hamilton, the paternal great-grandfather of the 2nd baron, was
+entitled to the dignity. William, who became the 7th baron, was
+succeeded by his son Robert (1793-1868), who was created a peer of the
+United Kingdom as Baron Hamilton of Wishaw in 1831. He died without
+issue in December 1868, when the barony of Hamilton became extinct; in
+1875 the House of Lords declared that his cousin, James Hamilton
+(1822-1893) was rightfully Baron Belhaven and Stenton, and the title
+descended to his kinsman, Alexander Charles (b. 1840), the 10th baron.
+
+
+
+
+BELISARIUS (c. 505-565), one of the most famous generals of the later
+Roman empire, was born about A.D. 505, in "Germania," a district on the
+borders of Thrace and Macedonia. His name is supposed to be Slavonic. As
+a youth he served in the bodyguard of Justinian, who appointed him
+commander of the Eastern army. He won a signal victory over the Persians
+in 530, and successfully conducted a campaign against them, until
+forced, by the rashness of his soldiers, to join battle and suffer
+defeat in the following year. Recalled to Constantinople, he married
+Antonina, a clever, intriguing woman, and a favourite of the empress
+Theodora. During the sedition of the "green" and "blue" parties of the
+circus (known as the Nika sedition, 532) he did Justinian good service,
+effectually crushing the rebels who had proclaimed Hypatius emperor. In
+533 the command of the expedition against the Vandal kingdom in Africa,
+a perilous office, which the rest of the imperial generals shunned, was
+conferred on Belisarius. With 15,000 mercenaries, whom he had to train
+into Roman discipline, he took Carthage, defeated Gelimer the Vandal
+king, and carried him captive, in 534, to grace the first triumph
+witnessed in Constantinople. In reward for these services Belisarius was
+invested with the consular dignity, and medals were struck in his
+honour. At this time the Ostrogothic kingdom, founded in Italy by
+Theodoric the Great, was shaken by internal dissensions, of which
+Justinian resolved to avail himself. Accordingly, Belisarius invaded
+Sicily; and, after storming Naples and defending Rome for a year against
+almost the entire strength of the Goths in Italy, he concluded the war
+by the capture of Ravenna, and with it of the Gothic king Vitiges. So
+conspicuous were Belisarius's heroism and military skill that the
+Ostrogoths offered to acknowledge him emperor of the West. But his
+loyalty did not waver; he rejected the proposal and returned to
+Constantinople in 540. Next year he was sent to check the Persian king
+Chosroes (Anushirvan); but, thwarted by the turbulence of his troops, he
+achieved no decisive result. On his return to Constantinople he lived
+under a cloud for some time, but was pardoned through the influence Of
+Antonina with the empress. The Goths having meanwhile reconquered Italy,
+Belisarius was despatched with utterly inadequate forces to oppose them.
+Nevertheless, during five campaigns he held his enemies at bay, until he
+was removed from the command, and the conclusion of the war was
+entrusted to the eunuch Narses. Belisarius remained at Constantinople in
+tranquil retirement until 559, when an incursion of Bulgarian savages
+spread a panic through the metropolis, and men's eyes were once more
+turned towards the neglected veteran, who placed himself at the head of
+a mixed multitude of peasants and soldiers, and repelled the barbarians
+with his wonted courage and adroitness. But this, like his former
+victories, stimulated Justinian's envy. The saviour of his country was
+coldly received and left unrewarded by his suspicious sovereign. Shortly
+afterwards Belisarius was accused of complicity in a conspiracy against
+the emperor (562); his fortune was confiscated, and he was confined as a
+prisoner in his palace. He was liberated and restored to favour in 563,
+and died in 565.
+
+The fiction of Belisarius wandering as a blind beggar through the
+streets of Constantinople, which has been adopted by Marmontel in his
+_Belisaire_, and by various painters and poets, is first heard of in the
+10th century. Gibbon justly calls Belisarius the Africanus of New Rome.
+He was merciful as a conqueror, stern as a disciplinarian, enterprising
+and wary as a general; while his courage, loyalty and forbearance seem
+to have been almost unsullied. He was the idol of his soldiers, a good
+tactician, but not a great strategist.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Procopius, _De Bellis_ and _Historia Arcana_ (best
+  edition by J. Haury, 1905, 1907); see Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_ (ed.
+  Bury, vol. 4); T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (vol. 4); J.B.
+  Bury, _Later Roman Empire_, vol. i.; Diehl, _Justinien_ (Paris, 1901).
+       (J. B. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BELIT (signifying the "lady," _par excellence_), in the Babylonian
+religion, the designation of the consort of Bel (q.v.). Her real name
+was Nin-lil, i.e. the "lady of power," if the explanation suggested in
+BEL for the second element is correct. She is also designated as
+Nin-Khar-sag, "Lady of the mountain," which name stands in some
+relationship to Im-Khar-sag, "storm mountain"--the name of the staged
+tower or sacred edifice to Bel at Nippur. As the consort of En-lil, the
+goddess Nin-lil or Belit belongs to Nippur and her titles as "ruler of
+heaven and earth," and "mother of the gods" are all due to her position
+as the wife of Bel. While recognized by a temple of her own in Nippur
+and honoured by rulers at various times by having votive offerings made
+in her honour and fortresses dedicated in her name, she, as all other
+goddesses in Babylonia and Assyria with the single exception of Ishtar,
+is overshadowed by her male consort. The title Belit was naturally
+transferred to the great mother-goddess Ishtar after the decline of the
+cult at Nippur, and we also find the consort of Marduk, known as
+Sarpanit, designated as Belit, for the sufficient reason that Marduk,
+after the rise of the city of Babylon as the seat of his cult, becomes
+the Bel or "lord" of later days. (M. Ja.)
+
+
+
+
+BELIZE, or BALIZE, the capital and principal seaport of British
+Honduras, on the Caribbean Sea, in 17 deg. 29' N. and 88 deg. 11' W.
+Pop. (1904) 9969. Belize occupies both banks of the river Belize, at its
+mouth. Its houses are generally built of wood, with high roofs and wide
+verandahs shaded by cocoanut or cabbage palms. The principal buildings
+are the court house, in the centre of the town, government house, at the
+southern end, Fort George, towards the north, the British bank of
+Honduras, the hospital, the Roman Catholic convent, and the Wesleyan
+church, which is the largest and handsomest of all. Mangrove swamps
+surround the town and epidemics of cholera, yellow fever and other
+tropical diseases have been frequent; but the unhealthiness of the
+climate is mitigated to some extent by the high tides which cover the
+marshes, and the invigorating breezes which blow in from the sea. Belize
+is connected by telegraph and telephone with the other chief towns of
+British Honduras, but there is no railway, and communication even by
+road is defective. The exports are mahogany, rosewood, cedar, logwood
+and other cabinet-woods and dye-woods, with cocoanuts, sugar,
+sarsaparilla, tortoiseshell, deerskins, turtles and fruit, especially
+bananas. Breadstuffs, cotton fabrics and hardware are imported.
+
+Belize probably derives its name from the French _balise_, "a beacon,"
+as no doubt some signal or light was raised here for the guidance of the
+buccaneers who once infested this region. Local tradition connects the
+name with that of Wallis or Wallace, a Scottish buccaneer, who, in 1638,
+settled, with a party of logwood cutters, on St George's Cay, a small
+island off the town. In the 18th century the names Wallis and Belize
+were used interchangeably for the town, the river and the whole country.
+The history of Belize is inextricably bound up with that of the rest of
+British Honduras (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+BELJAME, ALEXANDRE (1842-1906), French writer, was born at
+Villiers-le-Bel, Seine-et-Oise, on the 26th of November 1842. He spent
+part of his childhood in England and was a frequent visitor in London.
+His lectures on English literature at the Sorbonne, where a chair was
+created expressly for him, did much to promote the study of English in
+France. In 1905-1906 he was Clark lecturer on English literature at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. He died at Domont (Seine-et-Oise) on the
+19th of September 1906. His best known book was a masterly study of the
+conditions of literary life in England in the 18th century illustrated
+by the lives of Dryden, Addison and Pope. This book, _Le Public et les
+hommes de lettres en Angleterre au XVIII^e siecle_ (1881), was crowned
+by the French Academy on the appearance of the second edition in 1897.
+He was a good Shakespearian scholar, and his editions of Macbeth,
+Othello and Julius Caesar also received an academic prize in 1902.
+
+
+
+
+BELKNAP, JEREMY (1744-1798), American author and clergyman, was born at
+Boston on the 4th of June 1744, and was educated at Harvard College,
+where he graduated in 1762. In 1767 he became minister of a
+Congregational church at Dover, New Hampshire, remaining there until
+1787, when he removed to Federal Street church, Boston. He is recognized
+as the founder of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and in 1792
+became an overseer of Harvard. He died at Boston on the 20th of June
+1798. Belknap's chief works are: _History of New Hampshire_ (1784-1792);
+_An Historical Account of those persons who have been distinguished in
+America_, generally known as _American Biography_ (1792-1794); _The
+Foresters_ (1792), &c.
+
+
+
+
+BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH (1820-1890), American soldier and politician, was
+born at Newburgh, N.Y., on the 22nd of September 1829. Entering the
+Union army in 1861, he took part in the battles of Shiloh, Corinth and
+Vicksburg, as major of the 15th Iowa volunteers. In the Atlanta campaign
+under Sherman he gained considerable distinction, rising successively to
+the rank of brigadier-general in 1864 and major-general in 1865. During
+the four years that followed he was collector of internal revenue for
+Iowa, leaving that post in 1869 to become secretary of war. In 1876, in
+consequence of unproved accusations of corruption, he resigned. He died
+at Washington, D.C., on the 13th of October 1890.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM (1847-   ), American inventor and physicist, son
+of Alexander Melville Bell, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 3rd
+of March 1847. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh and the
+university of London, and removed with his father to Canada in 1870. In
+1872 he became professor of vocal physiology in Boston University. In
+1876 he exhibited an apparatus embodying the results of his studies in
+the transmission of sound by electricity, and this invention, with
+improvements and modifications, constitutes the modern commercial
+telephone. He was the inventor also of the photophone, an instrument for
+transmitting sound by variations in a beam of light, and of phonographic
+apparatus. Later, he interested himself in the problem of mechanical
+flight. He published many scientific monographs, including a memoir on
+the formation of a deaf variety in the human race.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819-1905), American educationalist, was born
+at Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 1st of March 1819. He studied under and
+became the principal assistant of his father, Alexander Bell, an
+authority on phonetics and defective speech. From 1843 to 1865 he
+lectured on elocution at the university of Edinburgh, and from 1865 to
+1870 at the university of London. In 1868, and again in 1870 and 1871,
+he lectured in the Lowell Institute course in Boston. In 1870 he became
+a lecturer on philology at Queen's College, Kingston, Ontario; and in
+1881 he removed to Washington, D.C., where he devoted himself to the
+education of deaf mutes by the "visible speech" method of orthoepy, in
+which the alphabetical characters of his own invention were graphic
+diagrams of positions and motions of the organs of speech. He held high
+rank as an authority on physiological phonetics (q.v.) and was the
+author of numerous works on orthoepy, elocution and education, including
+_Steno-Phonography_ (1852); _Letters and Sounds_ (1858); _The Standard
+Elocutionist_ (1860); _Principles of Speech and Dictionary of Sounds_
+(1863); _Visible Speech: The Science of Universal Alphabetics_ (1867);
+_Sounds and their Relations_ (1881); _Lectures on Phonetics_ (1885); _A
+Popular Manual of Visible Speech and Vocal Physiology_ (1889); _World
+English: the Universal Language_ (1888); _The Science of Speech_ (1897);
+_The Fundamentals of Elocution_ (1899).
+
+  See John Hitz, _Alexander Melville Bell_ (Washington, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+BELL, ANDREW (1753-1832), British divine and educationalist, was born at
+St Andrews on the 27th of March 1753. He graduated at the university
+there, and afterwards spent some years as a tutor in Virginia, U.S.A. On
+his return he took orders, and in 1787 sailed for India, where he held
+eight army chaplaincies at the same time. In 1789 he became
+superintendent of the male orphan asylum at Madras, and having been
+obliged from scarcity of teachers to introduce the system of mutual
+tuition by the pupils, found the scheme answer so well that he became
+convinced of its universal applicability. In 1797, after his return to
+London, he published a small pamphlet explaining his views on education.
+Little public attention was drawn towards the "monitorial" plan till
+Joseph Lancaster (q.v.), the Quaker, opened a school in Southwark,
+conducting it in accordance with Bell's principles, and improving on his
+system. The success of the method, and the strong support given to
+Lancaster by the whole body of Nonconformists gave immense impetus to
+the movement. Similar schools were established in great numbers; and the
+members of the Church of England, becoming alarmed at the patronage of
+such schools resting entirely in the hands of dissenters, resolved to
+set up similar institutions in which their own principles should be
+inculcated. In 1807 Bell was called from his rectory of Swanage in
+Dorset to organize a system of schools in accordance with these views,
+and in 1811 became superintendent of the newly formed "National Society
+for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the
+Established Church." For his valuable services he was in some degree
+recompensed by his preferment to a prebend of Westminster, and to the
+mastership of Sherburn hospital, Durham. He tried, but without success,
+to plant his system in Scotland and on the continent. He died on the
+27th of January 1832, at Cheltenham, and was buried in Westminster
+Abbey. His great fortune was bequeathed almost entirely for educational
+purposes. Of the L120,000 given in trust to the provost of St Andrews,
+two city ministers and the professor of Greek in the university, half
+was devoted to the founding of the important school, called the Madras
+College, at St Andrews; L10,000 was left to each of the large cities,
+Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leith, Inverness and Aberdeen, for school purposes;
+and L10,000 was also given to the Royal Naval School.
+
+  Southey's _Life of Dr Bell_ (3 vols.) is very tedious; J.D.
+  Meiklejohn's _An Old Educational Reformer_ is concise and accurate.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774-1842), Scottish anatomist, was born at Edinburgh
+in November 1774, the youngest son of the Rev. William Bell, a clergyman
+of the Episcopal Church of Scotland; among his brothers were the
+anatomist, John Bell, and the jurist, G.J. Bell. After attending the
+high school and the university of Edinburgh, he embraced the profession
+of medicine, and devoted himself chiefly to the study of anatomy, under
+the direction of his brother John. His first work, entitled _A System of
+Dissections, explaining the anatomy of the human body, the manner of
+displaying the parts, and their varieties in disease_, was published in
+Edinburgh in 1798, while he was still a pupil, and for many years was
+considered to be a valuable guide to the student of practical anatomy.
+In 1802 he published a series of engravings of original drawings,
+showing the anatomy of the brain and nervous system. These drawings,
+which are remarkable for artistic skill and finish, were taken from
+dissections made by Bell for the lectures or demonstrations he gave on
+the nervous system as part of the course of anatomical instruction of
+his brother. In 1804 he wrote the third volume, containing the anatomy
+of the nervous system and of the organs of special sense, of _The
+Anatomy of the Human Body_, by John and Charles Bell. In November of the
+same year he migrated to London, and from that date, for nearly forty
+years, he kept up a regular correspondence with his brother George, much
+of which was published in the _Letters of Sir Charles Bell_, &c., 1870.
+The earlier letters of this correspondence show how rapidly he rose to
+distinction in a field where success was difficult, as it was already
+occupied by such men as John Abernethy, Sir Astley Cooper and Henry
+Cline. Before leaving Edinburgh, he had written his work on the _Anatomy
+of Expression_, which was published in London soon after his arrival and
+at once attracted attention. His practical knowledge of anatomy and his
+skill as an artist qualified him in an exceptional manner for such a
+work. The object of this treatise was to describe the arrangements by
+which the influence of the mind is propagated to the muscular frame, and
+to give a rational explanation of the muscular movements which usually
+accompany the various emotions and passions. One special feature was the
+importance attributed to the respiratory arrangements as a source of
+expression, and it was shown how the physician and surgeon might derive
+information regarding the nature and extent of important diseases by
+observing the expression of bodily suffering. This work, apart from its
+value to artists and psychologists, is of interest historically, as
+there is no doubt the investigations of the author into the nervous
+supply of the muscles of expression induced him to prosecute inquiries
+which led to his great discoveries in the physiology of the nervous
+system.
+
+In 1811 Bell published his _New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain_, in
+which he announced the discovery of the different functions of the
+nerves corresponding with their relations to different parts of the
+brain; his latest researches were described in _The Nervous System of
+the Human Body_ (1830), a collection of papers read by him before the
+Royal Society. He discovered that in the nervous trunks there are
+special sensory filaments, the office of which is to transmit
+impressions from the periphery of the body to the sensorium, and special
+motor filaments which convey motor impressions from the brain or other
+nerve centre to the muscles. He also showed that some nerves consist
+entirely of sensory filaments and are therefore sensory nerves, that
+others are composed of motor filaments and are therefore motor nerves,
+whilst a third variety contains both kinds of filaments and are
+therefore to be regarded as sensory-motor. Furthermore, he indicated
+that the brain and spinal cord may be divided into separate parts, each
+part having a special function--one part ministering to motion, the
+other to sensation, and that the origin of the nerves from one or other
+or both of those sources endows them with the peculiar property of the
+division whence they spring. He also demonstrated that no motor nerve
+ever passes through a ganglion. Lastly, he showed, both from theoretical
+considerations and from the result of actual experiment on the living
+animal, that the anterior roots of the spinal nerves are _motor_, while
+the posterior are _sensory_. These discoveries as a whole must be
+regarded as the greatest in physiology since that of the circulation of
+the blood by William Harvey. They were not only a distinct and definite
+advance in scientific knowledge, but from them flowed many practical
+results of much importance in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. It
+is not surprising that Bell should have viewed his results with
+exultation. On the 26th of November 1807, he wrote to his brother
+George:--"I have done a more interesting _nova anatomia cerebri humani_
+than it is possible to conceive. I lectured it yesterday. I prosecuted
+it last night till one o'clock; and I am sure it will be well received."
+On the 31st of the same month he wrote:--"I really think this new
+anatomy of the brain will strike more than the discovery of the
+lymphatics being absorbents."
+
+In 1807 he produced a _System of Comparative Surgery_, in which surgery
+is regarded almost wholly from an anatomical and operative point of
+view, and there is little or no mention of the use of medicinal
+substances. It placed him, however, in the highest rank of English
+writers on surgery. In 1809 he relinquished his professional work in
+London, and rendered meritorious services to the wounded from Coruna,
+who were brought to the Haslar hospital at Portsmouth. In 1810 he
+published a series of _Letters concerning the Diseases of the Urethra_,
+in which he treated of stricture from an anatomical and pathological
+point of view. In 1812 he was appointed surgeon to the Middlesex
+hospital, a post he retained for twenty-four years. He was also
+professor of anatomy, physiology and surgery to the College of Surgeons
+of London, and for many years teacher of anatomy in the school which
+used to exist in Great Windmill Street. In 1815 he went to Brussels to
+treat the wounded of the battle of Waterloo. In 1816, 1817 and 1818, he
+published a series of _Quarterly Reports of Cases in Surgery_; in 1821 a
+volume of coloured plates with descriptive letterpress, entitled
+_Illustrations of the great operations of Surgery, Trepan, Hernia,
+Amputation and Lithotomy_, and in 1824 _Observations on Injuries of the
+Spine and of the Thigh Bone_. On the formation of University College,
+Gower Street, he was for a short time head of the medical department. In
+1832 he wrote a paper for the Royal Society of London on the "Organs of
+the Human Voice," in which he gave many illustrations of the
+physiological action of these parts, and in 1833 a Bridgewater treatise,
+_The Hand: its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design_. Along
+with Lord Brougham he annotated and illustrated an edition of Paley's
+_Natural Theology_, published in 1836. The Royal Society of London
+awarded to him in 1829 the first annual medal of that year given by
+George IV. for discoveries in science; and when William IV. ascended the
+throne, Charles Bell received the honour of knighthood along with a few
+other men distinguished in science and literature.
+
+In 1836 the chair of surgery in the university of Edinburgh was offered
+to him. He was then one of the foremost scientific men in London, and he
+had a large surgical practice. But his opinion was "London is a place to
+live in, but not to die in"; and he accepted the appointment. In
+Edinburgh he did not earn great local professional success; and, it must
+be confessed, he was not appreciated as he deserved. But honours came
+thick upon him. On the continent of Europe he was spoken of as greater
+than Harvey. It is narrated that one day P.J. Roux, a celebrated French
+physiologist, dismissed his class without a lecture, saying "_C'est
+assez, messieurs, vous avez vu Charles Bell._" During his professorship
+he published the _Institutes of Surgery, arranged in the order of the
+lectures delivered in the university of Edinburgh_ (1838); and in 1841
+he wrote a volume of _Practical Essays_, two of which, "On Squinting,"
+and "On the action of purgatives," are of great value. He died at Hallow
+Park near Worcester on the 28th of April 1842.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843), Scottish jurist, was born at Edinburgh
+on the 20th of March 1770. He was an elder brother of Sir Charles Bell.
+At the age of eight he entered the high school, but he received no
+university education further than attending the lectures of A.F. Tytler,
+Dugald Stewart and Hume. He became a member of the Faculty of Advocates
+in 1791, and was one of the earliest and most attached friends of
+Francis Jeffrey. In 1804 he published a _Treatise on the Law of
+Bankruptcy_ in Scotland, which he subsequently enlarged and published in
+1826 under the title of _Commentaries on the Law of Scotland and on the
+principles of Mercantile Jurisprudence--_ an institutional work of the
+very highest excellence, which has had its value acknowledged by such
+eminent jurists as Joseph Story and James Kent. In 1821 Bell was elected
+professor of the law of Scotland in the university of Edinburgh; and in
+1831 he was appointed to one of the principal clerkships in the supreme
+court. He was placed at the head of a commission in 1833 to inquire into
+the Scottish bankruptcy law; and in consequence of the reports of the
+commissioners, chiefly drawn up by himself, many beneficial alterations
+were made. He died on the 23rd of September 1843. Bell's smaller
+treatise, _Principles of the Law of Scotland_, became a standard
+text-book for law students. The _Illustrations of the Principles_ is
+also a work of high value.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, HENRY (1767-1830), Scottish engineer, was born at Torphichen,
+Linlithgowshire, in 1767. Having received the ordinary education of a
+parish school, he was apprenticed to his uncle, a millwright, and, after
+qualifying himself as a ship-modeller at Bo'ness, went to London, where
+he found employment under John Rennie, the celebrated engineer.
+Returning to Scotland in 1790, he first settled as a carpenter at
+Glasgow and afterwards removed to Helensburgh, on the Firth of Clyde
+where he pursued his mechanical projects, and also found occasional
+employment as an engineer. In January 1812 he placed on the Clyde a
+steamboat (which he named the "Comet") of about 25 tons, propelled by an
+engine of three horse power, at a speed of 7 m. an hour. Although the
+honour of priority is admitted to belong to the American engineer Robert
+Fulton, there appears to be no doubt that Fulton had received very
+material assistance in the construction of his vessel from Bell and
+others in Great Britain. A handsome sum was raised for Bell by
+subscription among the citizens of Glasgow; and he also received from
+the trustees of the river Clyde a pension of L100 a year. He died at
+Helensburgh on the 14th of November 1830. A monument to his memory
+stands on the banks of the Clyde, at Dunglass, near Bowling.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874), a Scottish lawyer and man of letters,
+was born at Glasgow on the 8th of November 1803. He received his
+education at the Glasgow high school and at Edinburgh University. He
+became intimate with "Delta" Moir, James Hogg, John Wilson (Christopher
+North), and others of the brilliant staff of _Blackwood's Magazine_, to
+which he was drawn by his political sympathies. In 1828 he became editor
+of the _Edinburgh Literary Journal_, which was eventually incorporated
+in the _Edinburgh Weekly Chronicle_. He was admitted to the bar in
+1832. In 1839 he was appointed sheriff-substitute of Lanarkshire, and in
+1867 he succeeded Sir Archibald Alison in the post of sheriff-principal
+of the county, an office which he filled with distinguished success. In
+1831 he published _Summer and Winter Hours_, a volume of poems, of which
+the best known is that on Mary, queen of Scots. He further defended the
+cause of the unfortunate queen in a prose _Life_ (2 vols., 1828-1831).
+Among his other works may be mentioned a preface which he wrote to Bell
+and Bains's edition (1865) of the works of Shakespeare, and _Romances
+and Minor Poems_ (1866). He figures in the society of the _Noctes
+Ambrosianae_ as "Tallboys." He died on the 7th of January 1874.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, JACOB (1810-1859), British pharmaceutical chemist, was born in
+London on the 5th of March 1810. On the completion of his education, he
+joined his father in business as a chemist in Oxford Street, and at the
+same time attended the chemistry lectures at the Royal Institution, and
+those on medicine at King's College. Always keenly alive to the
+interests of chemists in general, Bell conceived the idea of a society
+which should at once protect the interests of the trade, and improve its
+status, and at a public meeting held on the 15th of April 1841, it was
+resolved to found the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Bell
+carried his scheme through in the face of many difficulties, and further
+advanced the cause of pharmacy by establishing the _Pharmaceutical
+Journal_, and superintending its publication for eighteen years. The
+Pharmaceutical Society was incorporated by royal charter in 1843. One of
+the first abuses to engage the attention of the new body was the
+practice of pharmacy by unqualified persons, and in 1845 Bell drew up
+the draft of a bill to deal with the matter, one of the provisions of
+which was the recognition of the Pharmaceutical Society as the governing
+body in all questions connected with pharmacy. For some time after this
+the question of pharmaceutical legislation was widely discussed. In 1850
+Bell successfully contested the borough of St Albans in order that he
+might be able to advocate his proposals for reform more effectually in
+parliament. In 1851 he brought forward a bill embodying these proposals.
+It passed its second reading, but was considerably whittled down in
+committee, and when eventually it became law it only partially
+represented its sponsor's intentions. Bell was the author of an
+_Historical Sketch of the Progress of Pharmacy in Great Britain_. He
+died on the 12th of June 1859.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, JOHN (1691-1780), Scottish traveller, was born at Antermony in
+Scotland in 1691, and educated for the medical profession, in which he
+took the degree of M.D. In 1714 he set out for St Petersburg, where,
+through the introduction of a countryman, he was nominated medical
+attendant to Valensky, recently appointed to the Persian embassy, with
+whom he travelled from 1715 to 1718. The next four years he spent in an
+embassy to China, passing through Siberia and the great Tatar deserts.
+He had scarcely rested from this last journey when he was summoned to
+attend Peter the Great in his perilous expedition to Derbend and the
+Caspian Gates. The narrative of this journey he enriched with
+interesting particulars of the public and private life of that
+remarkable prince. In 1738 he was sent by the Russian government on a
+mission to Constantinople, to which, accompanied by a single attendant
+who spoke Turkish, he proceeded in the midst of winter and all the
+horrors of war, returning in May to St Petersburg. It appears that after
+this he was for several years established as a merchant at
+Constantinople, where he married in 1746. In the following year he
+retired to his estate of Antermony, where he spent the remainder of his
+life. He died in 1780. His travels, published at Glasgow in 1763, were
+speedily translated into French, and widely circulated in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, JOHN (1763-1820), Scottish anatomist and surgeon, an elder brother
+of Sir Charles Bell, was born at Edinburgh on the 12th of May 1763.
+After completing his professional education at Edinburgh, he carried on
+from 1790 in Surgeons' Square an anatomical lecture-theatre, where, in
+spite of much opposition, due partly to the unconservative character of
+his teaching, he attracted large audiences by his lectures, in which he
+was for a time assisted by his younger brother Charles. In 1793-1795 he
+published _Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds_, and in 1800 he
+became involved in an unfortunate controversy with James Gregory
+(1753-1821), the professor of medicine at Edinburgh. Gregory in 1800
+attacked the system whereby the fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons
+of Edinburgh acted in rotation as surgeons at the Royal Infirmary, with
+the result that the younger fellows were excluded. Bell, who was among
+the number, composed an _Answer for the Junior Members_ (1800), and ten
+years later published a collection of _Letters on Professional Character
+and Manners_, which he had addressed to Gregory. After his exclusion
+from the infirmary he ceased to lecture and devoted himself to study and
+practice. In 1816 he was injured by a fall from his horse and in the
+following year went to Italy for the benefit of his health. He died at
+Rome on the 15th of April 1820. His works also included _Principles of
+Surgery_ (1801), _Anatomy of the Human Body_, which went through several
+editions and was translated into German, and _Observations on Italy_,
+published by his widow in 1825.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, JOHN (1797-1869), American political leader, was born near
+Nashville, Tennessee, on the 15th of February 1797. He graduated at the
+university of Nashville in 1814, and in 1817 was elected to the state
+senate, but retiring after one term, he devoted himself for ten years to
+the study and the practice of the law. From 1827 until 1841 he was a
+member of the national House of Representatives, of which from June 1834
+to March 1835 he was the speaker, and in which he was conspicuous as a
+debater and a conservative leader. Though he entered political life as a
+Democrat, he became estranged from his party's leader, President
+Jackson, also a Tennessean, and after 1835 was one of the leaders of the
+Whig party in the South. In March 1841 he became the secretary of war in
+President Harrison's cabinet, but in September, after the death of
+Harrison and the rupture between the Whig leaders and President Tyler,
+he resigned this position. From 1847 until 1859 he was a member of the
+United States Senate, and attracted attention by his ability in debate
+and his political independence, being one of two Southern senators to
+vote against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854 and against the admission
+of Kansas with the Lecompton or pro-slavery constitution in 1858.
+Strongly conservative by temperament and devoted to the Union, he
+ardently desired to prevent the threatened secession of the Southern
+states in 1860, and was the candidate, for the presidency, of the
+Constitutional Union Party, often called from the names of its
+candidates for the presidency and the vice-presidency (Edward Everett)
+the "Bell and Everett Party," which was made up largely of former Whigs
+and Southern "Know-Nothings," opposed sectionalism, and strove to
+prevent the disruption of the union. The party adopted no platform, and
+discarding all other issues, resolved that "it is both the part of
+patriotism and of duty to recognize no political principle other than
+the constitution of the country, the union of the states, and the
+enforcement of the laws." Bell was defeated, but received a popular vote
+of 587,830 (mostly cast in the Southern states), and obtained the
+electoral votes of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee--39 altogether, out
+of a total of 303. Bell tried earnestly to prevent the secession of his
+own state, but after the issue of President Lincoln's proclamation of
+the 15th of April 1861 calling on the various states for volunteers, his
+efforts were unavailing, and when Tennessee joined the Confederacy Bell
+"went with his state." He took no part in the Civil War, and died on the
+10th of September 1869.
+
+
+
+
+BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867), Irish man of letters, was born at Cork on the
+16th of January 1800. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where
+he was one of the founders of the Dublin Historical Society. In 1828 he
+settled in London, where he edited a weekly paper, the _Atlas_, and
+until 1841 was engaged in journalism; and afterwards in miscellaneous
+literary work. He died on the 12th of April 1867. His most important
+work is his annotated edition of the _English Poets_ (24 vols.,
+1854-1857; new ed., 29 vols., 1866), the works of each poet being
+prefaced by a memoir. For Lardner's _Cabinet Cyclopaedia_ he wrote:
+_History of Russia_ (3 vols., 1836-1838); _Lives of English Poets_ (2
+vols., 1839); a continuation, with W. Wallace, of Sir James
+Mackintosh's _History of England_ (vols. iv.-x., 1830-1840); and the
+fifth volume (1840) of the _Lives of the British Admirals_, begun by R.
+Southey. He was a director of the Royal Literary Fund, and well known
+for his open-hearted generosity to fellow men of letters.
+
+
+
+
+BELL a hollow metallic vessel used for making a more or less loud noise
+(A.S. _bellan_, to bellow; Mid. Eng. "to bell"; cf. "As loud as belleth,
+winde in helle," in Chaucer, _House of Fame_, iii. 713). Bells are
+usually cup-like in shape, and are constructed so as to give one
+fundamental note when struck. The term does not strictly include gongs,
+cymbals, metal plates, resonant bars of metal or wood, or tinkling
+ornaments, such as e.g. the "bells" upon the Jewish high priest's dress
+(Exodus xxviii. 32); nor is it necessary here to deal with the common
+useful varieties of sheep or cow bells, or bells on sledges or harness.
+For house bells see the end of this article. A "diving-bell" (see
+DIVERS) is only so called from the analogy of its shape.
+
+The main interest of bells and bell-ringing has reference to church or
+tower bells, their history, construction and uses.
+
+_Early Bells._--Of bells before the Christian era there is no
+trustworthy evidence. The instruments which summoned the Romans to
+public baths or processions, or that which Lucian (A.D. 180) describes
+as set in motion by a water-clock (_clepsydra_) to measure time, were
+probably cymbals or resonant plates of metal, like the timbrels
+(_corybantia aera_, Virg. _Aen._ iii. 111) used in the worship of
+Cybele, or the Egyptian _sistrum_, which seems to have been a sort of
+rattle. The earliest Latin word for a bell (_campana_) is late Latin of
+the 4th or 5th century A.D.; and the first application of bells to
+churches has been ascribed to Paulinus, bishop of Nola in Campania about
+A.D. 400. There is, however, no confirmation of this story, which may
+have arisen from the words _campana_ and _nola_ (a small bell); and in a
+letter from Paulinus to the emperor Severus, describing very fully the
+decoration of his church, the bishop makes no mention of bells. It has
+been maintained with somewhat more reason that Pope Sabinianus (604)
+first used church bells; but it seems clear that they were introduced
+into France as early as 550. In the 7th century Bede mentions a bell
+brought from Italy by Benedict Biscop for his abbey at Wearmouth, and
+speaks of the sound of a bell being well known at Whitby Abbey at the
+time of St Hilda's death (680). St Dunstan hung many in the 10th
+century; and in the 11th they were not uncommon in Switzerland and
+Germany. It is said that the Greek Christians were unacquainted with
+bells till the 9th century; but it is known that for political reasons,
+after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, their use was
+forbidden lest they should provide a popular signal for revolt.
+
+Several old bells are extant in Scotland, Ireland and Wales; the oldest
+are often quadrangular, made of thin iron plates hammered and riveted
+together. A well-known specimen is St Patrick's bell preserved at
+Belfast, called _Clog an eadhachta Phatraic_, "the bell of St Patrick's
+will." It is 6 in. high, 5 broad, 4 deep, adorned with gems and gold and
+silver filigree-work; it is inscribed 1091 and 1105, but it is probably
+alluded to in Ulster annals in 552. (For Scottish bells, see
+_Illustrated Catalogue of Archaeological Museum_, Edinburgh, for 1856.)
+
+The four-sided bell of the Irish missionary St Gall (646) is preserved
+at the monastery of St Gall, Switzerland. In these early times bells
+were usually small; even in the 11th century a bell presented to the
+church at Orleans weighing 2600 lb. was thought large. In the 13th
+century larger bells were cast. The bell Jacqueline of Paris, cast in
+1400, weighed 15,000 lb.; another Paris bell of 1472, 25,000 lb.; and
+the famous Amboise bell at Rouen (1501) 36,364 lb.
+
+To these scanty records of the early history of bells may be added the
+enumeration of different kinds of bells by Hieronymus Magius, in his
+work _De Tintinnabulis:--1. Tintinnabulum_, a little bell, otherwise
+called _tinniolum_, for refectory or dormitory, according to Joannes
+Belethus, but Guillaume Durand names _squilla_ for the refectory; 2.
+_Petasius_, or larger "broad-brimmed hat" bell; 3. _Codon_, orifice of
+trumpet, a Greek hand-bell; 4. _Nola_, a very small bell, used in the
+choir, according to Durand; 5. _Campana_, a large bell, first used in
+the Latin churches in the steeple (Durand), in the tower (Belethus); 6.
+_Squilla_, a shrill little bell. We read of _cymbalum_ for the cloister
+(Durand) or _campanella_ for the cloister (Belethus); _nolula_ or
+_dupla_ in the clock; _signum_ in the tower (e.g. in the _Excerptions_
+of St Egbert, 750); the Portuguese still call a bell _sino._
+
+_Bell-founding._--The earliest bells were probably not cast, but made of
+plates riveted together, like the bells of St Gall or Belfast above
+mentioned. The bell-founder's art, originally practised in the
+monasteries, passed gradually into the hands of a professional class, by
+whom, in England and the Low Countries especially, were gradually worked
+out the principles of construction, mixture of metals, lines and
+proportions, now generally accepted as necessary for a good bell. In
+England some of the early founders were peripatetic artificers, who
+travelled about the country, setting up a temporary foundry to cast
+bells wherever they were wanted. Miles Graye (c. 1650), a celebrated
+East Anglian founder, carried on his work in this fashion, and in old
+churchwardens' accounts are sometimes found notices of payment for the
+casting of bells at places where no regular foundry is known to have
+existed. The chief centres of the art in medieval times were London,
+York, Gloucester and Nottingham; and bells by e.g. "John of York" (14th
+century), Samuel Smith, father and son, of York (1680-1730), Abraham
+Rudhall and his descendants of Gloucester (1684-1774), Mot (16th
+century), Lester and Pack (1750), Christopher Hodson of London (who cast
+"Great Tom" of Oxford, 1681) and Richard Phelps (1716) are still in high
+repute. The Whitechapel Bell Foundry (now Mears and Stainbank),
+established by Robert Mot in 1570, incorporated the business of the
+Rudhalls, Lester and Pack, Phelps, Briant and others, and is now one of
+the leading firms of bell-founders; others being Warner and Sons of
+Spitalfields and Taylor & Co., Loughborough, the founders of "Great
+Paul" for St Paul's cathedral (1881). Of Dutch and Flemish founders the
+firms of van den Gheyn (1550), Hemony (1650), Aerschodt & Wagheven at
+Louvain and others have a great reputation in the Low Countries,
+especially for "carillons," such as those at Antwerp or Bruges, a form
+of bell-music which has not taken much root in England, despite the
+advocacy of the Rev. H.R. Haweis, who proclaimed its superiority to
+English change-ringing.
+
+Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tin in the proportion of 4 to 1.
+In Henry III.'s reign it was 2 to 1. In Layard's Nineveh bronze bells,
+it was 10 to 1. Zinc and lead are used in small bells. The thickness of
+the bell's edge is about one-tenth of its diameter, and its height is
+twelve times its thickness.
+
+Bells, like viols, have been made of every conceivable shape within
+certain limits. The long narrow bell, the quadrangular, and the
+mitre-shaped in Europe at least indicate antiquity, and the graceful
+curved-inwardly-midway and full trumpet-mouthed bell indicates an age
+not earlier than the 16th century.
+
+The bell is first designed on paper according to the scale of
+measurement. Then the crook is made, which is a kind of double wooden
+compass, the legs of which are respectively curved to the shape of the
+inner and outer sides of the bell, a space of the exact form and
+thickness of the bell being left betwixt them. The compass is pivoted on
+a stake driven into the bottom of the casting-pit. A stuffing of
+brickwork is built round the stake, leaving room for a fire to be
+lighted inside it. The outside of this stuffing is then padded with fine
+soft clay, well mixed and bound together with calves' hair, and the
+inner leg of the compass run round it, bringing it to the exact shape of
+the inside of the bell. Upon this _core_, well smeared with grease, is
+fashioned the false clay bell, the outside of which is defined by the
+outer leg of the compass. Inscriptions are now moulded in wax on the
+outside of the clay-bell; these are carefully smeared with grease, then
+lightly covered with the finest clay, and then with coarser clay, until
+a solid mantle is thickened over the outside of the clay bell. A fire is
+now lighted, and the whole baked hard; the grease and wax inscriptions
+steam out through holes at the top, leaving the sham clay bell baked
+hard and tolerably loose, between the _core_ and the _cope_ or
+_mantle_. The cope is then lifted, the clay bell broken up, the _cope_
+let down again, enclosing now between itself and the _core_ the exact
+shape of the bell. The metal is then boiled and run molten into the
+mould. A large bell will take several weeks to cool. When extricated it
+ought to be scarcely touched and should hardly require tuning. This is
+called its maiden state, and it used to be so sought after that many
+bells were left rough and out of tune in order to claim it.
+
+_Bell Tones and Tuning._--A good bell, fairly struck, should give out
+three distinct notes--a "fundamental" note or "tonic"; the octave above,
+or "nominal"; and the octave below, or "hum-note." (It also gives out
+the "third" and "fifth" above the fundamental; but of these it is less
+necessary to take notice.) Very few bells, however, have any two of
+these notes, and hardly any all three, in unison--the "hum-notes" being
+generally a little sharper, and the "fundamentals" a little flatter,
+than their respective "nominals." In tuning a "ring" or series of bells,
+the practice of founders has hitherto been to take one set of notes (in
+England usually the nominals, on the continent the fundamentals) and put
+these into tune, leaving the other tones to take care of themselves. But
+in different circumstances different tones assert themselves. Thus, when
+bells are struck at considerable intervals, the fundamental notes being
+fuller and more persistent are more prominent; but when struck in rapid
+succession (as in English change-ringing or with the higher bells of a
+Belgian "carillon," which take the "air") the higher tone of the
+"nominal" is more perceptible. The inharmonious character of many
+Belgian carillons, and of certain Belgian and French rings in England,
+is ascribed by Canon A.B. Simpson (in his pamphlet, _Why Bells sound out
+of Tune_, 1897) to neglect of the "nominals," the fundamentals only
+being tuned to each other. To tune a series of bells properly, the
+fundamental tone of each bell must be brought into true octave with its
+nominal, and the whole series of bells, thus rectified, put into tune
+with each other. The "hum-note" of each, which is the tone of the whole
+mass of metal, should also be in tune with the others. If flatter than
+the nominal, it cannot be sharpened; but if sharper (as is more usual),
+it may be flattened by thinning the metal near the crown of the bell.
+The great bell ("Great Paul") cast by Messrs Taylor for St Paul's
+cathedral, London, has all its tones in true harmony, except that the
+tone next above the fundamental (E-flat) is a "fourth" (A-flat) instead
+of a "third" (G or G-flat). The great bell cast by the same founders for
+Beverley Minster is in perfect tune; and with the improved machinery now
+in use, there is no reason why this should not henceforth be the case
+with all church bells.
+
+The quality of a bell depends not only on the casting and the fineness
+and mixture of metals, but upon the due proportion of metal to the
+calibre of the bell. The larger the bell the lower the tone; but if we
+try to make a large E bell with metal only enough for a smaller F bell,
+the E bell will be puny and poor. It has been calculated that for a peal
+of bells to give the pure chord of the ground tone or key-note, third,
+fifth and octave, the diameters are required to be as thirty,
+twenty-four, twenty, fifteen, and the weights as eighty, forty-one,
+twenty-four and ten.
+
+_History and Uses of Bells._--The history of bells is full of romantic
+interest. In civilized times they have been intimately associated, not
+only with all kinds of religious and social uses, but with almost every
+important historical event. Their influence upon architecture is not
+less remarkable, for to them indirectly we probably owe most of the
+famous towers in the world. Church towers at first, perhaps, scarcely
+rose above the roof, being intended as lanterns for the admission of
+light, and addition to their height was in all likelihood suggested by
+the more common use of bells.
+
+Bells early summoned soldiers to arms, as well as Christians to church.
+They sounded the alarm in fire or tumult; and the rights of the burghers
+in their bells were jealously guarded. Thus the chief bell in the
+cathedral often belonged to the town, not to the cathedral chapter. The
+curfew, the Carolus and St Mary's bell in the Antwerp tower all belong
+to the town; the rest are the property of the chapter. He who commanded
+the bell commanded the town; for by that sound, at a moment's notice, he
+could rally and concentrate his adherents. Hence a conqueror commonly
+acknowledged the political importance of bells by melting them down; and
+the cannon of the conquered was in turn melted up to supply the garrison
+with bells to be used in the suppression of revolts. Many a bloody
+chapter in history has been rung in and out by bells.
+
+On the third day of Easter 1282, at the ringing of the Sicilian vespers
+(which have given their name to the affair), 8000 French were massacred
+in cold blood by John of Procida, who had thus planned to free Sicily
+from Charles of Anjou. On the 24th of August, St Bartholomew's day,
+1571, bells ushered in the massacre of the Huguenots in France, to the
+number, it is said, of 100,000. Bells have rung alike over slaughtered
+and ransomed cities; and far and wide throughout Europe in the hour of
+victory or irreparable loss. At the news of Nelson's triumph and death
+at Trafalgar, the bells of Chester rang a merry peal alternated with one
+deep toll, and similar incidents could be multiplied.
+
+There are many old customs connected with the use of church bells, some
+of which have died out, while others remain here and there. The best
+known and perhaps oldest of these is the "Curfew" (_couvre-feu_), first
+enforced (though not perhaps introduced) by William the Conqueror in
+England as a signal for all lights and fires to be extinguished at 8
+P.M.--probably to prevent nocturnal gatherings of disaffected subjects.
+In many towns it survived into the 19th century as a signal for closing
+shops at 8 or 9; and it is still kept up in various places as an old
+custom; thus at Oxford the familiar boom of "Tom's" 101 strokes is still
+the signal for closing college gates at 9. The largest and heaviest
+bells were used for the Curfew, to carry the sound as far as possible,
+as it did to Milton's ear, suggesting the descriptive lines in _Il
+Penseroso_ (74-75):--
+
+  "Oft, on a plot of rising ground,
+   I hear the far-off curfew sound
+   Over some wide-watered shore,
+   Swinging slow with sullen roar."
+
+Gray's allusion in the _Elegy_ is well known; as also are those of
+Shakespeare to the elves "that rejoice to hear the solemn curfew"
+(_Tempest_), or the fiend that "begins at curfew and walks till the
+first cock" (_King Lear_); or Milton's in _Comus_ to the ghost "that
+breaks his magic chains at curfew time."
+
+Among secular uses connected with church bells are the "Mote" or
+"Common" bell, summoning to municipal or other meetings, as e.g. the 7th
+at St Mary's, Stamford, tolled for quarter sessions, or the bell at St
+Mary's, Oxford, for meetings of Convocation. In some places one of the
+bells is known as the "Vestry Bell." The "Pancake Bell," still rung here
+and there on Shrove Tuesday, was originally a summons to confession
+before Lent; the "Harvest Bell" and "Seeding Bell" called labourers to
+their work; while the "Gleaning Bell" fixed the hours for beginning or
+leaving off gleaning, so that everyone might start fair and have an even
+chance. The "Oven Bell" gave notice when the lord of the manor's oven
+was ready for his tenants to bake their bread; the "Market Bell" was a
+signal for selling to begin; and in some country districts a church bell
+is still rung at dinner time. The general diffusion of clocks and
+watches has rendered bells less necessary for marking the events of
+daily life; and most of these old customs have either disappeared or are
+fast disappearing. At Strassburg a large bell of eight tons weight,
+known as the "Holy Ghost Bell," is only rung when two fires are seen in
+the town at once; a "storm-bell" warns travellers in the plain of storms
+approaching from the mountains, and the "Thor Glocke" (gate bell) gives
+the signal for opening or shutting the city gates. On the European
+continent, especially in countries which, like Belgium and Holland, were
+distracted by constant war, bells acquired great public importance. They
+were formally baptized with religious ceremonies (as also in England in
+pre-Reformation days), the notabilities of a town or church standing as
+sponsors; and they were very generally supposed to have the power of
+scaring away evil spirits.
+
+Other old customs are naturally connected with the ecclesiastical uses
+of bells. The "Passing Bell," rung for the dying, is now generally rung
+after death; the ancient mode of indicating the sex of the deceased,
+viz. two pulls for a woman and three for a man being still very common,
+with many varying customs as regards the interval after death or the
+bell to be used, e.g. smaller bells for children and females, and larger
+ones for aged men; the tenor bell being sometimes reserved for the death
+of the incumbent, or of a bishop or member of the royal family. "Burial
+Peals," once common at or after funerals to scare away the evil spirits
+from the soul of the departed, though discouraged by bishops as early as
+the 14th century, were kept alive by popular superstition, and only
+finally checked in Puritan times; but they have been revived, since the
+spread of change-ringing, in the "muffled peals" now frequently rung as
+a mark of respect to deceased persons of public or local importance, or
+the short "touches" on hand-bells sometimes rung at the grave by the
+comrades of a deceased ringer. The "Sermon-Bell," rung in
+pre-Reformation times to give notice that a sermon was to be preached
+(cf. Shakespeare, _Henry IV._, Pt. II. iv. 2. 4-7), survives in some
+places in a custom of ringing the tenor bell before a service with a
+sermon; and a similar custom before a celebration of the Holy Communion
+preserves the memory of the "Sacrament Bell." The ancient "Sanctus" or
+"Sance" bell, hung on the rood-screen or in a small bell cot on the
+chancel gable, and sounded three times when the priest said the
+_Tersanctus_ (Holy, Holy, Holy) in the office of mass, was specially
+obnoxious to Puritan zeal, and few of them survived the Reformation. An
+early morning bell, rung in many places for no apparent reason, is
+probably a relic of the _Ave Maria_ or _Angelus_ bell. The inscription
+on some old bells, _Lectum fuge, discute somnum_ ("Away from bed, shake
+off sleep"), points to this use, as also does the name "Gabriel" applied
+to the bell used for ringing the Angelus. In old times bells were
+generally named at their baptism, after the Virgin Mary or saints, or
+their donors; thus the bells at Oseney Abbey in the 13th century were
+called Hautclere, Doucement, Austyn, Marie, Gabriel and John; sometimes
+they were known by mere nicknames, such as "Great (or "Mighty") Tom" at
+Oxford, or "Big Ben," "Great Paul," &c., in recent times.
+
+_Bell Inscriptions._--The names of bells were often stamped upon them in
+the casting; whence arose inscriptions upon church bells, giving in
+monkish Latin the name of some saint, a prayer to the Virgin, or for the
+soul of the donor, or a distich upon the function of the bell itself;
+e.g.--
+
+  "Funera plango, fulgura frango, Sabbata pango,
+    Excito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos."
+    (I mourn for death, I break the lightning, I fix the Sabbath, I rouse
+       the lazy, I scatter the winds, I appease the cruel.)
+
+The character of the lettering and the foundry marks upon old bells, are
+of great assistance in determining their date. Sometimes a set of bells
+has each a separate verse, e.g. on a ring of five in Bedfordshire:--
+
+  1st. "Hoc signum Petri pulsatum nomine Christi."
+    (This emblem of Peter is struck in the name of Christ.)
+
+  2nd. "Nomen Magdalene campana sonat melode."
+    (This bell named Magdalen sounds melodiously.)
+
+  3rd. "Sit nomen Domini benedictum semper in eum."
+    (May the name of the Lord always be blessed upon him, i.e. on
+    the bell when struck.)
+
+  4th. "Musa Raphaelis sonat auribus Immanuelis."
+    (The music of Raphael sounds in the ear of Immanuel.)
+
+  5th. "Sum Rosa pulsata mundique Maria vocata."
+    (I, Maria, am struck and called the Rose of the world.)
+
+The names of these five bells were thus:--Peter, Magdalen, (?) Jesus,
+Raphael and Mary.
+
+Other inscriptions take the form of an invocation or prayer for the bell
+itself, its donor or those who hear it, e.g.--
+
+  "Augustine tuam campanam protege sanam."
+     (Augustine, protect thy bell and keep it sound.)
+
+  "Sancte Johannes, ora pro animabus Johannis Pudsey, militis, et Mariae,
+      consortae suae."
+     (St John, pray for the souls of John Pudsey, knight, and Mary his
+      wife.)
+
+  "Protege pura via quos convoco virgo Maria."
+     (Guard in the way those whom I pure Virgin Mary call.)
+
+The "Mittags Glocke" (mid-day bell) at Strassburg, taken down at the
+time of the French Revolution, bore the legend:
+
+  "Vox ego sum vitae; voco vos; orate venite."
+     (I am the voice of life: I call you: come and pray.)
+
+A bell in Rouen cathedral, melted down in 1793, was inscribed:
+
+  "Je suis George d'Ambois,
+   Qui trente cinque mille pois;
+   Mais lui qui me pesera
+   Trente six mille me trouvera."
+     (I am George d'Ambois, weighing 35,000 lb.; but he who weighs me
+        will find me 36,000.)
+
+A similar inscription is said to have been cast on the largest of the
+bells placed by Edward III. in a "clocher" or bell hut in the Little
+Cloisters at Westminster:
+
+  "King Edward made mee thirty thousand weight and three,
+   Take mee down and wey mee and more you shall find mee."
+
+On the "Thor Glocke" at Strassburg above mentioned are the words:--
+
+  "Dieses Thor Glocke das erst mal schallt
+   Als man 1618 sahlt
+   Dass Mgte jahr regnet man
+   Nach doctor Luther Jubal jahr
+   Das Bos hinaus das Gut hinein
+   Zu lauten soll igr arbeit seyn."
+
+The reference is to the year 1517, when Luther began his crusade, and
+the verse may be Englished as follows:--
+
+   When first ringeth this Gate Bell
+   1618 years we tell.
+   We reckon this a year to be
+   From Dr Luther's jubilee.
+   To ring out ill, the good ring in,
+   Its daily task shall now begin.
+
+_Large Bells._--There are a few bells of world-wide renown, and several
+others more or less celebrated. The great bell at Moscow, "Tsar
+Kolokol," which, according to the inscription, was cast in 1733, was in
+the earth 103 years and was raised by the emperor Nicholas in 1836. The
+present bell seems never to have been actually hung or rung, having been
+cracked in the furnace; and it now stands on a raised platform in the
+middle of a square. It is used as a chapel. It weighs about 180 tons,
+height 19 ft. 3 in., circumference 60 ft. 9 in., thickness 2 ft., weight
+of broken piece 11 tons. The second Moscow bell, the largest in the
+world in actual use, weighs 128 tons. In a pagoda in Upper Burma hangs a
+bell 16 ft. in diameter, weighing about 80 tons. The great bell at
+Peking weighs 53 tons; Nanking, 22 tons; Olmutz, 17 tons; Vienna (1711),
+17 tons; Notre Dame (1680), 17 tons; Erfurt, 13 tons; Great Peter, York
+Minster, recast in 1845, 12-1/2 tons; Great Paul, at St Paul's
+cathedral, 16-3/4 tons; Great Tom at Oxford, 7-1/2 tons; Great Tom at
+Lincoln, 5-1/2 tons. Big Ben of the Westminster Clock Tower weighs
+13-1/2 tons; it was cast by George Mears under the direction of the
+first Lord Grimthorpe (E. Beckett Denison) in 1858. Its four quarters
+were cast by Warner in 1856. The "Kaiserglocke" of Cologne cathedral,
+recast in 1875, with metal from French cannon captured in 1870-1871,
+weighs 27-1/2 tons.
+
+These large bells are either not moved at all, or only slightly swung to
+enable the clapper to touch their side; in some cases they are struck by
+a hammer or beam from outside. The heaviest _ringing_ peals in England
+are those at Exeter and St Paul's cathedrals, tenors 72 cwt. and 62 cwt.
+respectively.
+
+_Bell-ringing._--The science and art of bell-ringing, as practised upon
+church and tower bells, falls under two main heads:--(1) Mechanical
+ringing, in connexion with the machinery of a clock or "carillon"; (2)
+Ringing by hand, by means of ropes attached to the fittings of the
+bells, whereby the bell itself is either moved as it hangs mouth
+downwards sufficiently for the clapper just to touch its side (called
+technically "chiming"); or is swung round nearly full circle with its
+mouth uppermost (technically "ringing"), in which case the impact of
+the clapper is much heavier, and the sound produced is consequently
+louder and more far-reaching. Mechanical ringing is more common on the
+continent of Europe, especially in Belgium and Flanders; ringing by hand
+is more common in England, where the development of change-ringing (see
+below) has brought it into prominence.
+
+(1) Mechanical ringing is effected by a system of wires connected with
+small hammers striking the bells, usually on their outside, and worked
+either by connexion with the machinery of a clock, so as to play tunes
+or artificially arranged chimes at definite intervals; or with a
+key-board resembling that of an organ. The first of these methods is
+familiar in the chimes (Cambridge, Westminster, &c.) heard from many
+towers at the striking of the hours and quarters; or in hymn tunes
+played at intervals (e.g. of three hours) upon the church bells. The
+second method is peculiar to the "carillon" (q.v.), as found everywhere
+in Belgium, where with a set of from 20 or 30 to 60 or 70 bells a much
+wider scope for tunes and harmonies is provided than in English
+belfries, few of which have more than one octave of bells in one key
+only and none more than 12 bells. The carillons at Louvain and Bruges
+contain 40 bells, and that of Mechlin 44, while in the tower of Antwerp
+cathedral there are upwards of 90 bells, for the largest of which, cast
+in 1507, Charles V. stood sponsor at its consecration.
+
+(2) _Ringing by Hand._--Church bells may be "chimed" or "rung" (see
+above). One man can, as a rule, chime three bells, with a rope in each
+hand and one foot in the loop of another; but by the use of an
+"Ellacombe" or other chiming apparatus one man can work six, eight or
+ten bells. Some prefer the quieter sound of chiming as an introduction
+to divine service, but where a band of ringers is available and
+change-ringing is practised the bells as a rule are rung. The practice
+of "clocking" a bell, in which the clapper, by means of a cord attached
+to it and pulled from below, is allowed to swing against the bell at
+rest, is often employed to save trouble; but the jar is very likely to
+crack the bell. In ringing, or in true chiming, the bell is in motion
+when struck.
+
+For ringing, a bell is pulled up and "set" mouth uppermost. She (to
+ringers a bell is feminine) is then pulled off, first at "handstroke"
+(i.e. with the hands on the "sally" or tufted portion of the rope, a few
+feet from its lower end) and then at "back-stroke" in the reverse
+direction (with the hands nearer the lower end, the rope having at the
+previous pull coiled round three-quarters of the wheel's circumference),
+describing at each pull almost a full circle till she comes back to the
+upright position. At each revolution the swing is chiefly done by the
+weight of the bell, the ringer giving a pull of just sufficient strength
+to bring the bell back into the upright position; otherwise its swing
+would become gradually shorter till it remained at rest mouth downwards.
+
+_Change-ringing._--When a given number of bells are rung over and over
+again in the same order, from the highest note, or "treble," to the
+lowest, or "tenor"--1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7--they are said to be rung in
+"rounds." "Changes" are variations of this order--e.g. 2 1 3 5 4 7 6, 2
+3 1 4 5 6 7; and "change-ringing" is the art of ringing bells in
+"changes," so that a different "change" or rearrangement of order is
+produced at each pull of the bell-ropes, until, without any repetition
+of the same change, the bells come back into "rounds." The general
+principle of all methods of change-ringing is that each bell, after
+striking in the first place or "lead," works gradually "up" to the last
+place or "behind," and "down" again to the first, and that no bell ever
+shifts more than one place in each change. Thus the ringer of any bell
+knows that whatever his position in one change, his place in the next
+will be either the same, or the place before or the place after. He does
+not have to learn by heart the different changes or variations of order;
+nor need he, unless he is the "conductor," know the exact order of any
+one change. He has to bear in mind, first, which way his bell is
+working, viz. whether "up" from first to last place, or "down" from last
+to first; secondly, in what place his bell is striking; thirdly, what
+bell or bells are striking immediately before or after him--this being
+ascertained chiefly by "rope-sight," i.e. the knack, acquired by
+practice, of seeing which rope is being pulled immediately before and
+after his own. He must also remember and apply the rules of the
+particular "method" which is being rung. The following table
+representing the first twenty changes of a "plain course" of "Grandsire
+Triples" (for these terms, see below) illustrates the subject-matter of
+this section:--
+
+  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Rounds."       7 5 6 1 4 2 3 (10th change.)
+  2 1 3 5 4 7 6 (1st change.)   5 7 1 6 2 4 3
+  2 3 1 4 5 6 7                 5 1 7 2 6 3 4
+  3 2 4 1 6 5 7                 1 5 2 7 3 6 4
+  3 4 2 6 1 7 5                 1 2 5 3 7 4 6
+  4 3 6 2 7 1 5 (5th change.)   2 1 5 7 3 6 4 (15th change.)
+  4 6 3 7 2 5 1                 2 5 1 3 7 4 6
+  6 4 7 3 5 2 1                 5 2 3 1 4 7 6
+  6 7 4 5 3 1 2                 5 3 2 4 1 6 7
+  7 6 5 4 1 3 2                 3 5 4 2 6 1 7
+                                3 4 5 6 2 7 1 (20th change.)
+
+It will be observed that at the 1st change the third bell and at the
+15th the fifth bell, according to the rule of this "method," strikes a
+second blow in the third place ("makes third's place"). This stops the
+regular work of the bells which at the previous change were in the 4th,
+5th, 6th and 7th places ("in 4, 5, 6, 7"), causing them to take a step
+backwards in their course "up" or "down," or as it is technically
+called, to "dodge." Were it not for this, the bells would come back into
+"rounds" at the 14th change. It is by the use of "place-making" and
+"dodging," according to the rules of various "methods," that the
+required number of changes, upon any number of bells, can be produced.
+But in order that this may be done, without the bells coming back into
+"rounds" (as, e.g. in the "plain course" of Grandsire Triples, above
+given, they will do in seventy changes), further modifications of the
+"coursing order," called technically "Bobs" and "Singles," must be
+introduced. In ringing, notice of these alterations as they occur is
+given by one of the ringers, who acts as "conductor," calling out "Bob"
+or "Single" at the right moment to warn the ringers of certain bells to
+make the requisite alteration in the regular work of their bells.
+(Hence, in ringing language, to "call" a peal or touch = to conduct it.)
+Particulars of these, as of other details of change-ringing, may be
+gathered from books dealing with the technique of the art; but they are
+best mastered in actual practice. The term "single," applied to
+five-bell ringing meant that, as the first three bells remained
+unchanged, only a single pair of bells changed places, e.g. 1 5 4 3 2, 1
+5 4 2 3. On larger numbers of bells it loses this meaning; but the
+effect of this "call" is that the "coursing order" of a single pair of
+bells is inverted. The origin of "Bob" is unknown. As a "call" it was
+perhaps adopted as a short, sharp sound, easily uttered and easily heard
+by the ringers. As applied to a "method" or system of ringing it may
+refer to the evolution of "dodging," e.g. in "Treble Bob" to the zigzag
+"dodging" path of the treble bell; but none of the old writers attempts
+to explain it.
+
+The number of _possible_ "changes" on any given series of bells may be
+ascertained, according to the mathematical formula of "permutations," by
+multiplying the number of the bells together. Thus on three bells, only
+6 changes or variations of order (1 X 2 X 3) can be produced; on four
+bells, 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 = 24; on five, 24 X 5 = 120; on six, 120 X 6 = 720;
+on seven, 720 X 7 = 5040. A "peal" on any such number of bells is in
+ordinary language the ringing of all the possible changes. But
+technically, only the full extent of changes upon seven bells, usually
+rung with a "tenor behind," is called a "peal"; a shorter performance
+upon seven or more bells, or the full extent upon less than seven,
+being, in ringing parlance, a "touch." On six bells the full extent of
+changes must be repeated continuously seven times (720 X 7 = 5040), and
+on five bells forty-two times (l20 X 42 = 5040) to rank as a "peal." On
+eight or more bells 5000 changes in round numbers is accepted as the
+_minimum_ standard for a peal; and on such numbers of bells up to twelve
+(the largest number used in change-ringing), peals are so arranged that
+the bells come into rounds at, or at some point beyond, 5000 changes.
+As many as 16,000 changes, occupying from nine to ten hours, have been
+rung upon church bells. But the great physical strain upon the
+ringers--to say nothing of the effect upon those who are within
+hearing--makes such performances exceptional. The word "peal" is often,
+though incorrectly, used (1) for a set of church bells ("a peal of six,"
+"a peal of eight"), for which the correct term is "a ring" of bells; (2)
+for any shorter performance than a full peal (e.g. "wedding-peal,"
+"muffled peal," &c.), called in ringing language a "touch." Its use as
+equivalent for "method," found in old campanological works, is now
+obsolete.
+
+Change-ringing upon five bells is called "Doubles," upon seven bells
+"Triples," upon nine "Caters" (Fr. _quatre_), and upon eleven "Cinques,"
+from the fact that at each change two, three, four or five pairs of
+bells change places with each other. "Doubles" can be and are rung when
+there are only five bells; but as a rule these "odd-bell" systems are
+rung with a "tenor behind," i.e. struck at the end of each change; the
+number of bells in a tower being usually an even number--six, eight, ten
+or twelve. In "even-bell" systems the tenor is "rung in" or "turned in,"
+i.e. changes with the other bells, and a different terminology is
+employed; change-ringing on six bells being called "Minor"; on eight
+bells, "Major"; on ten bells, "Royal"; and on twelve, "Maximus." The
+principal "methods" of change-ringing, each of which has its special
+rules, are--(1) "Grandsire"; (2) "Plain Bob"; (3) "Treble Bob"; (4)
+"Stedman," from the name of its inventor, Fabian Stedman, about 1670. In
+"Grandsire" the treble and one other bell, in "Plain Bob" the treble
+alone, has a "plain hunt," i.e. works from the first place, or "lead,"
+to the last place, or "behind," and back again, without any dodging; in
+"Treble Bob" the treble has a uniform but zigzag course, dodging in each
+place on its way up and down. This is called a "Treble Bob hunt"; and
+under these two heads, according to the work of the treble, are
+classified a variety of "plain methods" and "Treble Bob methods," among
+the latter being the so-called "Surprise" methods, the most complicated
+and difficult of all. "Stedman's principle," which is _sui generis_,
+consists in the three front bells ringing their six possible changes,
+while the remaining pair or pairs of bells dodge. It is thus an
+"odd-bell" method adapted to five, seven, nine or eleven bells; as also
+is "Grandsire," though occasionally rung on even numbers of bells.
+"Treble Bob" is always, and "Plain Bob" generally, rung on even
+numbers--six, eight, ten or twelve. In ringing, whenever the treble has
+a uniform course, unaffected by "Bobs" or "Singles," it serves as a
+guide to the other changing bells, according to the place in which they
+meet and cross its path from "behind" to the "lead." The order in which
+the different dodges occur, and the "course bell," i.e. the bell which
+he follows from behind to lead, are also useful, and on large numbers of
+bells indispensable, guides to the ringer.
+
+Quite distinct from the art of change-ringing is the science of
+"composing," i.e. arranging and uniting by the proper "calls," subject
+to certain fixed laws and conditions, a number of groups of changes, so
+that no one change, or series of changes represented in those groups,
+shall be repeated. A composition, long or short, is said to be "true" if
+it is free from, "false" if it involves, such repetition; and the body
+of ascertained laws and conditions governing true composition in any
+method constitutes the test or "proof" to be applied to a composition in
+that method to demonstrate its truth or falseness. Many practical
+ringers know little or nothing of the principles of composition, and are
+content with performing compositions received from composers, or
+published in ringing books and periodicals. An elaborate statement of
+the principles of composition in the "Grandsire" method may be found in
+an appendix to Snowdon's _Grandsire_ (1888), by the Rev. C.D.P. Davies.
+Those which apply to "Treble Bob" are explained in Snowdon's _Treatise
+on Treble Bob_, Part I. But, so far as can be ascertained, there is no
+treatise dealing with the science of composition as a whole; nor is it
+possible here to attempt a popular exposition of its principles.
+
+One of the objects kept in view by composers is musical effect. Certain
+sequences or contrasts of notes strike the ear as more musical than
+others; and an arrangement which brings up the more musical changes in
+quicker succession improves the musical effect of the "peal" or "touch."
+On seven bells all the possible changes must be inserted in a true peal;
+but on larger numbers of bells, where the choice is from an immense
+number of possible changes, the composer is free to select those which
+are most musical. Unless, however, the bells of any given "ring" are in
+perfect tune and harmony with each other, their musical effect must be
+impaired, however well they are rung. This gives importance to the
+science and art of bell-tuning, in which great progress has been made
+(see above).
+
+The art of scientific change-ringing, peculiar to England, does not seem
+to have been evolved before the middle of the 17th century. Societies or
+gilds of ringers, however, existed much earlier. A patent roll of 39
+Henry III. (1255) confirms the "Brethren of the Guild of Westminster,
+who are appointed to ring the great bells there," in the enjoyment of
+the "privileges and free customs which they have enjoyed from the time
+of Edward the Confessor." In 1602 (as appears from a MS. in the library
+of All Souls' College, Oxford) was founded a society called the
+"Scholars of Cheapside." In 1637 began the "Ancient Society of College
+Youths," so called from their meeting to practise on the six bells at St
+Martin's, College Hill, a church destroyed in the Great Fire of London,
+1666. At first only "rounds" and "call-changes" were rung, till about
+1642, when 120 "Bob Doubles" were achieved; but slow progress was made
+till 1677, when Fabian Stedman of Cambridge published his
+_Campanologia_, dedicating it to this society, his method being first
+rung about this time by some of its members. Before the end of the 17th
+century was founded the "Society of London Scholars," the name of which
+was changed in 1746 to "Cumberland Youths" in compliment to the victor
+of Culloden. These two metropolitan societies still exist, and include
+in their membership most of the leading change-ringers of England: one
+of the oldest provincial societies being that of Saffron Walden in
+Essex, founded in 1623, and still holding an annual ringing festival. In
+the latter half of the 18th and first half of the 19th century
+change-ringing, which at first seems to have been an aristocratic
+pastime, degenerated in social repute. Church bells and their ringers,
+neglected by church authorities, became associated with the lower and
+least reputable phases of parochial life; and belfries were too often an
+adjunct to the pothouse. In the last half of the 19th century there was
+a great revival of change-ringing, leading to improvements in belfries
+and in ringers, and to their gradual recognition as church workers.
+Diocesan or county associations for the promotion of change-ringing and
+of belfry reform spread knowledge of the art and aroused church
+officials to greater interest in and care for their bells. A Central
+Council of Church Bell Ringers, consisting of delegates from these
+various societies, meets annually in London or at some provincial centre
+to discuss ringing matters, and to collect and formulate useful
+knowledge upon practical questions--e.g. the proper care of bells and
+the means of preventing annoyance from their use in the neighbourhood of
+houses, rules for the conduct of belfries, &c. It is now less likely
+than ever that the Belgian carillons will be preferred in England to the
+peculiarly English system of ringing bells in peal; by which, whatever
+its difficulties, the musical sound of bells is most fully brought out,
+and their scientific construction best stimulated.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The literature of bell-lore (or campanology) consists
+  chiefly of scattered treatises or pamphlets upon the technique of
+  different methods of change-ringing, or upon the bells of particular
+  counties or districts. The earliest that deal with the science and art
+  of change-ringing are _Campanologia or the Art of Ringing Improved_
+  (1677), and a chapter of "Advice to a Ringer" in the _School of
+  Recreations, or Gentleman's Tutor_ (1684), showing that in its early
+  days bell-ringing was a fashionable pastime. Then follow
+  _Campanologia, or the Art of Ringing made Easy_ (1766), _Clavis
+  Campanologia, a Key to Ringing_ (1788), and Shipway's _Campanologia_
+  (1816). The revival of change-ringing in recent years has produced
+  many manuals: e.g. Snowdon's _Rope-Sight_ (explaining the "Plain Bob"
+  method), _Grandsire, Treatise on Treble Bob, Double Norwich Court Bob
+  Major_, and _Standard Methods_ (with a book of diagrams); Troyte on
+  _Change-Ringing; The Duffield Method_, by Sir A.P. Heywood, Bart., its
+  inventor. Somewhat prior to these are various works by the Rev. H.T.
+  Ellacombe, inventor of a chiming apparatus which bears his name, and a
+  pioneer in belfry reform. Among these are accounts of the church bells
+  of Devon, Somerset and Gloucester, and pamphlets on _Belfries and
+  Ringers, Chiming, &c._; much of their contents being summarized in
+  _The Ringer's Guide to the Church Bells of Devon_, by C. Pearson
+  (1888). A _Glossary of Technical Terms_ used in connexion with church
+  bells and change-ringing was published (1901) under the auspices of
+  the Central Council of Church Bell Ringers. On the history of church
+  bells and customs connected with them much curious information is
+  given in North's _English Bells and Bell Lore_ (1888). By the same
+  author are monographs on the church bells of Leicestershire,
+  Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire and Hertfordshire. There are similar
+  works on the church bells of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire, by Dr Raven;
+  of Huntingdonshire, by the Rev. T.M.N. Owen; and on the church bells
+  of Essex, by the Rev. C. Deedes. A compilation and summary of many
+  data of bell-lore will be found in _A Book about Bells_, by the Rev.
+  G.S. Tyack; and in a volume by Dr Raven in the "Antiquary's Books"
+  series (Methuen, 1906), entitled _The Bells of England_, which deals
+  with the antiquarian side of bell-lore. See also _Quarterly Review_,
+  No. cxc. (September 1854); _Windsor Magazine_ (December 1896); Lord
+  Rayleigh's paper "On the Tones of Bells" in the _Phil. Mag._ for
+  January 1890; and a series of articles from the _Guardian_, reprinted
+  as a pamphlet under the title, _Church Bells and Bell-ringing_.
+       (T. L. P.)
+
+_House Bells._--Buildings are commonly provided with bells, conveniently
+arranged so as to enable attendants to be summoned to the different
+rooms. In the old system, which has been largely superseded by pneumatic
+and still more by electric bells, the bells themselves are of the
+ordinary conical shape and are provided with clappers hung loosely
+inside them. Being supported on springs they continue to swing, and
+therefore to give out sound as the clapper knocks against the sides, for
+some time after they have been set in motion by means of the strings or
+wires by which each is connected to a bell-pull in the rooms. These
+wires are generally placed out of sight inside the walls, and
+bell-cranks are employed to take them round corners and to change the
+direction of motion as required. A lightly poised pendulum is often
+attached to each bell, to show by its motion when it has been rung. In
+pneumatic bells the wires are replaced by pipes of narrow bore, and the
+current of air which is caused to flow along these by the pressing of a
+push-button actuates a small hammer which impinges rapidly against a
+bell or gong. An electric bell consists of a small electro-magnet acting
+on a soft iron armature which is supported in such a way that normally
+it stands away from the magnet. When the latter is energized by the
+passage of an electric current, the armature is attracted towards it,
+and a small hammer attached to it strikes a blow on the bell or gong.
+This "single stroke" type of bell is largely used in railway signalling
+instruments. For domestic purposes, however, the bells are arranged so
+that the hammer strikes a series of strokes, continuing so long as the
+push-button which closes the electric circuit is pressed. A light spring
+is provided against which the armature rests when it is not attracted by
+the electro-magnet, and the current is arranged to pass through this
+spring and the armature on its way to the magnet. When the armature is
+attracted by the magnet it breaks contact with this spring, the current
+is interrupted, and the magnet being no longer energized allows the
+armature to fall back on the spring and thus restore the circuit. In
+this way a rapid to and fro motion is imparted to the hammer. The
+electric current is supplied by a battery, usually either of Leclanche
+or of dry cells. One bell will serve for all the rooms of a house, an
+"indicator" being provided to show from which it has been rung. Such
+indicators are of two main types: the current either sets in motion a
+pendulum, or causes a disk bearing the name or number of the room
+concerned to come into view. Each push must have one wire appropriated
+to itself leading from the battery through the indicator to the bell,
+but the return wire from the bell to the battery may be common to all
+the pushes. Bells of this kind cease to ring whenever the electrical
+continuity of any of these wires is interrupted, but in some cases, as
+in connexion with burglar-alarms, it is desirable that the bell, once
+set in action, shall continue to ring even though the wires are cut. For
+this purpose, in "continuous ringing" bells, the current, started by the
+push or alarm apparatus, instead of working the bell, is made to operate
+a relay-switch and thus to bring into circuit a second battery which
+continues to ring the bell, no matter what happens to the first circuit.
+     (H. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLABELLA, the common name (popularized from the Indian corruption of
+Milbank) for a tribe of Kwakiutl Indians at Milbank, British Columbia,
+including the subtribes Kokaitk, Oetlitk and Ocalitk. They were
+converted to Christianity by Protestant missionaries, and number about
+300.
+
+
+
+
+BELLACOOLA or BILQULA, a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan
+stock, inhabiting the coast of British Columbia. They number some 300.
+
+
+
+
+BELLADONNA (from the Ital. _bella donna_, "beautiful lady," the berries
+having been used as a cosmetic), the roots and leaves of _Atropa
+belladonna_, or deadly nightshade (q.v.), widely used in medicine on
+account of the alkaloids which they contain. Of these the more important
+are atropine (or atropia), hyoscyamine, hyoscine and belladonine;
+atropine is the most important, occurring as the malate to the extent of
+about 0.47% in the leaves, and from 0.6 to 0.25% in the roots.
+
+Atropine, C17H23NO3, was discovered in 1833 by P.L. Geiger and Hesse and
+by Mein in the tissues of _Atropa belladonna_, from which it may be
+extracted by means of chloroform. By crystallization from alcohol it is
+obtained as colourless needles, melting at 115 deg. Hydrolysis with
+hydrochloric acid or baryta water gives tropic acid and tropine; on the
+other hand, by boiling equimolecular quantities of these substances with
+dilute hydrochloric acid, atropine is reformed. Since both these
+substances have been synthesized (see TROPINE), the artificial formation
+of atropine is accomplished. Atropine is optically inactive;
+hyoscyamine, possibly a physical isomer, which yields atropine when
+heated to 108.6 deg., is laevorotatory.
+
+_Medicine._--The official doses of atropine are from 1/200 to 1/100
+grain, and the sulphate, which is in general use in medicine, has a
+similar dose. It is highly important to observe that the official doses
+of the various pharmacopoeias may with safety be greatly exceeded in
+practice. They are based on the experimental _toxic_, as distinguished
+from _lethal_ dose. A toxic dose causes unpleasant symptoms, but in
+certain cases, such as this, it may require very many times a toxic dose
+to produce the lethal effect. In other words, whilst one-fiftieth of a
+grain may cause unpleasant symptoms, it may need more than a grain to
+kill. So valuable are certain of the properties of atropine that it is
+often desirable to give doses of one-twentieth or one-tenth of a grain;
+but these will never be ventured upon by the practitioner who is
+ignorant of the great interval between the minimum toxic and the minimum
+lethal dose. It actually needs twenty to thirty grains of atropine to
+kill a rabbit: the animal is, however, somewhat exceptional in this
+regard. The most valuable preparations of this potent drug are the
+_liquor atropinae sulphatis_, which is a 1% solution, and the
+_lamella_--for insertion within the conjunctival sac--which contains one
+five-thousandth part of a grain of the alkaloid.
+
+_Pharmacology._--When rubbed into the skin with such substances as
+alcohol or glycerine, which are absorbed, atropine is carried through
+the epidermis with them, and in this manner--or when simply applied to a
+raw surface--it paralyses the terminals of the pain-conducting sensory
+nerves. It acts similarly, though less markedly, upon the nerves which
+determine the secretion of the perspiration, and is therefore a local
+anaesthetic or anodyne and an anhidrotic. Being rapidly absorbed into
+the blood, it exercises a long and highly important series of actions on
+nearly every part and function of the nervous system. Perhaps its most
+remarkable action is that upon the terminals of nearly all the secretory
+nerves in the body. This causes the entire skin to become dry--as in the
+case of the local action above mentioned; and it arrests the secretion
+of saliva and mucus in the mouth and throat, causing these parts to
+become very dry and to feel very uncomfortable. This latter result is
+due to paralysis of the _chorda tympani_ nerve, which is mainly
+responsible for the salivary secretion. Certain nerve fibres from the
+sympathetic nervous system, which can also cause the secretion of a
+(specially viscous) saliva, are entirely unaffected by atropine. A
+curious parallel to this occurs in its action on the eye. There is much
+uncertainty as to the influence of atropine on the secretions of the
+stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas and kidneys, and it is not possible
+to make any definite statement, save that in all probability the
+activities of the nerves innervating the gland-cells in these organs are
+reduced, though they are certainly not arrested, as in the other cases.
+The secretion of mucus by the bronchi and trachea is greatly reduced and
+their muscular tissue is paralysed--a fact of which much use is made in
+practical medicine. The secretion of milk, if occurring in the mammary
+gland, is much diminished or entirely arrested. Given internally,
+atropine does not exert any appreciable sedative action upon the nerves
+of pain.
+
+The action of atropine on the motor nerves is equally important. Those
+that go to the voluntary muscles are depressed only by very large and
+dangerous doses. The drug appears to have no influence upon the
+contractile cells that constitute muscle-fibre, any more than it has
+directly upon the secretory cells that constitute any gland. But
+moderate doses of atropine markedly paralyse the terminals of the nerves
+that go to involuntary muscles, whether the action of those nerves be
+motor or inhibitory. In the intestine, for instance, are layers of
+muscle-fibre which are constantly being inhibited or kept under check by
+the splanchnic nerves. These are paralysed by atropine, and intestinal
+peristalsis is consequently made more active, the muscles being released
+from nervous control. The motor nerves of the arteries, of the bladder
+and rectal sphincters, and also of the bronchi, are paralysed by
+atropine, but the nervous arrangements of those organs are highly
+complex and until they are further unravelled by physiologists,
+pharmacology will be unable to give much information which might be of
+great value in the employment of atropine. The action upon the
+vaso-motor system is, however, fairly clear. Whether effected entirely
+by action on the nerve terminals, or by an additional influence upon the
+vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata, atropine certainly causes
+extreme dilatation of the blood-vessels, so much so that the skin
+becomes flushed and there may appear, after large doses, an erythematous
+rash, which must be carefully distinguished, in cases of supposed
+belladonna poisoning, from that of scarlet fever: more especially as the
+temperature may be elevated and the pulse is very rapid in both
+conditions. But whilst the characteristic action of atropine is to
+dilate the blood-vessels, its first action is to stimulate the
+vaso-motor centre--thereby causing temporary contraction of the
+vessels--and to increase the rapidity of the heart's action, so that the
+blood-pressure rapidly rises. Though transient, this action is so
+certain, marked and rapid, as to make the subcutaneous injection of
+atropine invaluable in certain conditions. The respiratory centre is
+similarly stimulated, so that atropine must be regarded as a temporary
+but efficient respiratory and cardiac stimulant.
+
+Toxic doses of atropine--and therefore of belladonna--raise the
+temperature several degrees. The action is probably nervous, but in the
+present state of our knowledge regarding the control of the temperature
+by the nervous system, it cannot be further defined. In small
+therapeutic and in small toxic doses atropine stimulates the motor
+apparatus of the spinal cord, just as it stimulates the centres in the
+medulla oblongata. This is indeed, as Sir Thomas Fraser has pointed out,
+"a strychnine action." In large toxic and in lethal doses the activity
+of the spinal cord is lowered.
+
+No less important than any of the above is the action of atropine on the
+cerebrum. This has long been a debated matter, but it may now be stated,
+with considerable certainty, that the higher centres are incoordinately
+stimulated, a state closely resembling that of delirium tremens being
+induced. In cases of poisoning the delirium may last for many hours or
+even days. Thereafter a more or less sleepy state supervenes, but it is
+not the case that atropine ever causes genuine coma. The stuporose
+condition is the result of exhaustion after the long period of cerebral
+excitement. It is to be noted that children, who are particularly
+susceptible to the influence of certain of the other potent alkaloids,
+such as morphine and strychnine, will take relatively large doses of
+atropine without ill-effect.
+
+The action of atropine on the eye is of high theoretical and practical
+importance. The drug affects only the involuntary muscles of the eye,
+just as it affects only the involuntary or non-striated portion of the
+oesophagus. The result of its instillation into the eye--and the same
+occurs when the atropine has been absorbed elsewhere--is rapidly to
+cause wide dilatation of the pupil. This can be experimentally shown--by
+the method of exclusion--to be caused by a paralysis of the terminals of
+the third cranial nerve in the _sphincter pupillae_ of the iris. The
+action of atropine in dilating the pupil is also aided by a stimulation
+of the fibres from the sympathetic nervous system, which innervate the
+remaining muscle of the iris--the _dilator pupillae_. As a result of the
+extreme pupillary dilatation, the tension of the eyeball is greatly
+raised. The sight of many an eye has been destroyed by the use of
+atropine--in ignorance of this action on the intra-ocular tension--in
+cases of incipient glaucoma. The use of atropine is absolutely
+contra-indicated in any case where the intra-ocular tension already is,
+or threatens to become, unduly high. This warning applies notably to
+those--usually women--who are accustomed indiscriminately to use
+belladonna or atropine in order to give greater brilliancy to their
+eyes. The fourth ocular result of administering atropine is the
+production of a slight but definite degree of local anaesthesia of the
+eyeball. It follows from the above that a patient who is definitely
+under the influence of atropine will display rapid pulse, dilated
+pupils, a dry skin and a sense of discomfort, due to dryness of the
+mouth and throat.
+
+_Therapeutics._--The external uses of the drug are mainly analgesic. The
+liniment or plaster of belladonna will relieve many forms of local pain.
+Generally speaking, it may be laid down that atropine is more likely
+than iodine to relieve a pain of quite superficial origin; and
+conversely. Totally to be reprobated is the use, in order to relieve
+pain, of belladonna or any other application which affects the skin, in
+cases where the surgeon may later be required to operate. In such cases,
+it is necessary to use such anodyne measures as will not interfere with
+the subsequent demands that may be made of the skin, i.e. that it be
+aseptic and in a condition so sound that it is able to undertake the
+process of healing itself after the operation has been performed.
+Atropine is universally and constantly used in ophthalmic practice in
+order to dilate the pupil for examination of the retina by the
+ophthalmoscope, or in cases where the inflamed iris threatens to form
+adhesions to neighbouring parts. The drug is often replaced in
+ophthalmology by homatropine--an alkaloid prepared from tropine--which
+acts similarly to atropine but has the advantage of allowing the ocular
+changes to pass away in a much shorter time. The anhidrotic action of
+atropine is largely employed in controlling the night-sweats so
+characteristic of pulmonary tuberculosis, small doses of the solution of
+the sulphate being given at night.
+
+The uses of atropine in cardiac affections are still obscure and
+dubious. It can only be laid down that the drug is a valuable though
+temporary stimulant in emergencies, and that its use as a plaster or
+internally often relieves cardiac pain. Recollection of the
+extraordinary complexity of the problems which are involved in the whole
+question of pain of cardiac origin will emphasize the extreme vagueness
+of the above assertion. Professor Schafer recommended the use of
+atropine prior to the administration of a general anaesthetic, in cases
+where the action of the vagus nerve upon the heart is to be dreaded; and
+there is little doubt of the value of this precaution, which has no
+attendant disadvantages, in all such cases. Atropine is often of value
+as an antidote, as in poisoning by pilocarpine, muscarine (mushroom
+poisoning), prussic acid, &c.
+
+Omitting numerous minor applications of this drug, we may pass to two
+therapeutic uses which are of unquestionable utility. In cases of
+whooping-cough or any other condition in which there is spasmodic action
+of the muscular fibre in the bronchi--a definition which includes nearly
+every form of asthma and many cases of bronchitis--atropine is an almost
+invaluable drug. Not only does it relieve the spasm, but it lessens the
+amount of secretion--often dangerously excessive--which is often
+associated with it. The relief of symptoms in whooping-cough is sharply
+to be distinguished from any influence on the course of the disease,
+since the drug does not abbreviate its duration by a single day. In
+treating an actual and present attack of asthma, it is advisable to give
+the standardized tincture of belladonna--unless expense is no
+consideration, in which case atropine may itself be used--in doses of
+twenty minims every quarter of an hour as long as no evil effects
+appear. Relief is thereby constantly obtained. Smaller doses of the drug
+should be given three times a day between the attacks.
+
+The nocturnal enuresis or urinary incontinence of children and of adults
+is frequently relieved by this drug. The excellent toleration of
+atropine displayed by children must be remembered, and if its use is
+"pushed" a cure may almost always be expected.
+
+_Toxicology._--The symptoms of poisoning by belladonna or atropine are
+dealt with above. The essential point here to be added is that death
+takes place from combined cardiac and respiratory failure. This fact is,
+of course, the key to treatment. This consists in the use of emetics or
+the stomach-pump, with lime-water, which decomposes the alkaloid. These
+measures are, however, usually rendered nugatory by the very rapid
+absorption of the alkaloid. Death is to be averted by such measures as
+will keep the heart and lungs in action until the drug has been excreted
+by the kidneys. Inject stimulants subcutaneously; give coffee--hot and
+strong--by the mouth and rectum, or use large doses of caffeine citrate;
+and employ artificial respiration. Do not employ such physiological
+antagonists as pilocarpine or morphine, for the lethal actions of all
+these drugs exhibit not mutual antagonism but coincidence.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAGIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Como, about 15
+m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of Como, situated on the promontory
+which divides the two southern arms of the Lake of Como. Pop. (1901)
+3536. It is chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and is a
+very favourite resort in the spring and autumn. Some of the gardens of
+its villas are remarkably fine. The manufacture of silks and carving in
+olive wood are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAIRE, a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, 5
+m. S. of Wheeling, West Virginia. Pop. (1890) 9934; (1900) 9912 (1159
+foreign-born); (1910) 12,946. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the
+Pennsylvania, and the Ohio River & Western railways. Bellaire is the
+shipping centre of the Belmont county coalfield which in 1907 produced
+19.3% of the total output of coal for the state. Iron, limestone and
+fireclay are found in the vicinity; among the manufactures are iron and
+steel, glass, galvanized and enamelled ware, agricultural implements and
+stoves. The value of the city's factory products increased from
+$8,837,646 in 1900 to $10,712,438 in 1905, or 21.2%. Bellaire was
+settled about 1795, was laid out in 1836, was incorporated as a village
+in 1858, and was chartered as a city in 1874.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAMY, EDWARD (1850-1898), American author and social reformer, was
+born at Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, on the 25th of March 1850. He
+studied for a time at Union College, Schenectady, New York, and in
+Germany; was admitted to the bar in 1871; but soon engaged in newspaper
+work, first as an associate editor of the _Springfield Union_, Mass.,
+and then as an editorial writer for the _New York Evening Post_. After
+publishing three novelettes (_Six to One, Dr Heidenhoff's Process_ and
+_Miss Ludington's Sister_), pleasantly written and showing some
+inventiveness in situation, but attracting no special notice, in 1888 he
+caught the public attention with _Looking Backward, 2000-1887_. in which
+he set forth ideas of co-operative or semi-socialistic life in village
+or city communities. The book was widely circulated in America and
+Europe, and was translated into several foreign languages. It was at
+first judged merely as a romance, but was soon accepted as a statement
+of the deliberate wishes and methods of its author, who devoted the
+remainder of his life as editor, author, lecturer and politician, to the
+promotion of the communistic theories of _Looking Backward_, which he
+called "nationalism"; a Nationalist party (the main points of whose
+immediate programme, according to Bellamy, were embodied in the platform
+of the People's party of 1892) was organized, but obtained no political
+hold. In 1897 Bellamy published _Equality_, a sequel to _Looking
+Backward_. He died at Chicopee Falls on the 22nd of May 1898.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE (1727-1788), English actress, born at Fingal,
+Ireland, by her own account, on the 23rd of April 1733, but more
+probably in 1727, was the illegitimate daughter of Lord Tyrawley,
+British ambassador at Lisbon. Her mother married there a Captain
+Bellamy, and the child received the name George Anne, by mistake for
+Georgiana. Lord Tyrawley acknowledged the child, had her educated in a
+convent in Boulogne, and through him she came to know a number of
+notable people in London. On his appointment as ambassador to Russia,
+she went to live with her mother in London, made the acquaintance of Mrs
+Woffington and Garrick, and adopted the theatrical profession. Her first
+engagement was at Covent Garden as Monimia in the _Orphan_ in 1744.
+Owing to her personal charms and the social patronage extended to her,
+her success was immediate, and till 1770 she acted in London, Edinburgh
+and Dublin, in all the principal tragic roles. She played Juliet to
+Garrick's Romeo at Drury Lane at the time that Spranger Barry (q.v.) was
+giving the rival performances at Covent Garden, and was considered the
+better of the Juliets. Her last years were unhappy, and passed in
+poverty and ill-health. She died on the 16th of February 1788.
+
+  Her _Apology_ (6 vols., 1785) gives an account of her long career and
+  of her private life, the extravagance and licence of which were
+  notorious.
+
+
+
+
+BELLAMY, JOSEPH (1719-1790), American theologian, was born in Cheshire,
+Connecticut, on the 20th of February 1719. He graduated from Yale in
+1735, studied theology for a time under Jonathan Edwards, was licensed
+to preach when scarcely eighteen years old, and from 1740 until his
+death, on the 6th of March 1790, was pastor of the Congregational church
+at Bethlehem, Connecticut. The publication of his best-known work, _True
+Religion Delineated_ (1750), won for him a high reputation as a
+theologian, and the book was several times reprinted both in England and
+in America. Despite the fact that with the exception of the period of
+the "Great Awakening" (1740-1742), when he preached as an itinerant in
+several neighbouring colonies, his active labours were confined to his
+own parish, his influence on the religious thought of his time in
+America was probably surpassed only by that of his old friend and
+teacher Jonathan Edwards. This influence was due not only to his
+publications, but also to the "school" or classes for the training of
+clergymen which he conducted for many years at his home and from which
+went forth scores of preachers to every part of New England and the
+middle colonies (states). Bellamy's "system" of divinity was in general
+similar to that of Edwards. During the War of Independence he was loyal
+to the American cause. The university of Aberdeen conferred upon him the
+honorary degree of D.D. in 1768. He was a powerful and dramatic
+preacher. His published works, in addition to that above mentioned,
+include _The Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin_ (1758), his most
+characteristic work; _Theron, Paulinus and Aspasio; or Letters and
+Dialogues upon the Nature of Love to God, Faith in Christ, and Assurance
+of a Title to Eternal Life_ (1759); _The Nature and Glory of the Gospel_
+(1762); _A Blow at the Root of Antinomianism_ (1763); _There is but One
+Covenant_ (1769); _Four Dialogues on the Half-Way Covenant_ (1769); and
+_A Careful and Strict Examination of the External Covenant_ (1769).
+
+  His collected _Works_ were published in 3 vols. (New York, 1811-1812),
+  and were republished with a _Memoir_ by Rev. Tryon Edwards (2 vols.,
+  Boston, 1850).
+
+
+
+
+BELLARMINE (Ital. _Bellarmino_), ROBERTO FRANCESCO ROMOLO (1542-1621),
+Italian cardinal and theologian, was born at Monte Pulciano, in Tuscany,
+on the 4th of October 1542. He was destined by his father to a political
+career, but feeling a call to the priesthood he entered the Society of
+Jesus in 1560 After spending three years at Rome, he was sent to the
+Jesuit settlement at Mondovi in Piedmont, where he studied and at the
+same time taught Greek, and, though not yet in orders, gained some
+reputation as a preacher. In 1567 and 1568 he was at Padua, studying
+theology under a master who belonged to the school of St Thomas Aquinas.
+In 1569 he was sent by the general of his order to Louvain, and in 1570,
+after being ordained priest, began to lecture on theology at the
+university. His seven years' residence in the Low Countries brought him
+into close relations with modes of thought differing essentially from
+his own; and, though he was neither by temperament nor training inclined
+to be affected by the prevailing Augustinian doctrines of grace and
+free-will, the controversy into which he fell on these questions
+compelled him to define his theological principles more clearly. On his
+return to Rome in 1576 he was chosen by Gregory XIII. to lecture on
+controversial theology in the newly-founded Roman College. The result of
+these labours appeared some years afterwards in the far-famed
+_Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei adversus hujus
+temporis Haereticos_ (3 vols., 1581, 1582, 1593). These volumes, which
+called forth a multitude of answers on the Protestant side, exhaust the
+controversy as it was carried on in those days, and contain a lucid and
+uncompromising statement of Roman Catholic doctrine. For many years
+afterwards, Bellarmine was held by Protestant advocates as the champion
+of the papacy, and a vindication of Protestantism generally took the
+form of an answer to his works. In 1589 he was selected by Sixtus V. to
+accompany, in the capacity of theologian, the papal legation sent to
+France soon after the murder of Henry III. He was created cardinal in
+1599 by Clement VIII., and two years later was made archbishop of Capua.
+His efforts on behalf of the clergy were untiring, and his ideal of the
+bishop's office may be read in his address to his nephew, Angelo della
+Ciaia, who had been raised to the episcopate (_Admonitio ad episcopum
+Theanensem, nepotem suum_, Rome, 1612). Being detained in Rome by the
+desire of the newly-elected pope, Paul V., he resigned his archbishopric
+in 1605. He supported the church in its conflicts with the civil powers
+in Venice, France and England, and sharply criticized James I. for the
+severe legislation against the Roman Catholics that followed the
+discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. When health failed him, he retired to
+Monte Pulciano, where from 1607 to 1611 he acted as bishop. In 1610 he
+published his _De Potestate summi Pontificis in rebus temporalibus_
+directed against the posthumous work of William Barclay of Aberdeen,
+which denied the temporal power of the pope. Bellarmine trod here on
+difficult ground, for, although maintaining that the pope had the
+indirect right to depose unworthy rulers, he gave offence to Paul V. in
+not asserting more strongly the direct papal claim, whilst many French
+theologians, and especially Bossuet, condemned him for his defence of
+ultramontanism. As a _consultor_ of the Sacred Office, Bellarmine took a
+prominent part in the first examination of Galileo's writings. His
+conduct in this matter has been constantly misrepresented. He had
+followed with interest Galileo's scientific discoveries and a respectful
+admiration grew up between them. Bellarmine did not proscribe the
+Copernican system, as has been maintained by Reusch (_Der Process
+Galilei's und die Jesuiten_, Bonn, 1879, p. 125); all he claimed was
+that it should be presented as an hypothesis until it should receive
+scientific demonstration. When Galileo visited Rome in December 1615 he
+was warmly received by Bellarmine, and the high regard in which he was
+held is clearly testified in Bellarmine's letters and in Galileo's
+dedication to the cardinal of his discourse on "flying bodies." The last
+years of Bellarmine's life were mainly devoted to the composition of
+devotional works and to securing the papal approbation of the new order
+of the Visitation, founded by his friend St Francis de Sales, and the
+beatification of St Philip Neri. He died in Rome on the 17th of
+September 1621. Bellarmine, whose life was a model of Christian virtue,
+is the greatest of modern Roman Catholic controversialists, but the
+value of his theological works is seriously impaired by a very defective
+exegesis and a too frequent use of "forced" conclusions. His devotional
+treatises were very popular among English Roman Catholics in the penal
+days.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the older editions of Bellarmine's complete works
+  the best is that in 7 vols. published at Cologne (1617-1620); modern
+  editions appeared in 8 vols. at Naples (1856-1862, reprinted 1872),
+  and in 12 vols. at Paris (1870-1874). For complete bibliography of all
+  works of Bellarmine, of translations and controversial writings
+  against him, see C. Sommervogel, _Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de
+  Jesus_ (Brussels and Paris, 1890 et seq.), vol. i. cols. 1151-1254;
+  _id., Addenda_, pp. x.-xi. vol. viii., cols. 1797-1807. The main
+  source for the life of Bellarmine is his Latin _Autobiography_ (Rome,
+  1675; Louvain, 1753), which was reprinted with original text and
+  German translation in the work of Dollinger and Reusch entitled _Die
+  Selbst-biographie des Cardinals Bellarmin_ (Bonn, 1887). The
+  _Epistolae Familiares_, a very incomplete collection of letters, was
+  published by J. Fuligatti (Rome, 1650), who is also the author of
+  _Vita del cardinale Bellarmino della Compagnia di Giesu_ (Rome, 1624).
+  Cf. D. Bartoli, _Della vita di Roberto cardinal Bellarmino_ (Rome,
+  1678), and M. Cervin, _Imago virtutum Roberti card. Bellarmini
+  Politiani_ (Siena, 1622), All these are panegyrics of small historical
+  value. The best modern studies are J.B. Couderc's _Le Venerable
+  Cardinal Bellarmin_ (2 vols., Paris, 1893), and X. le Bachelet's
+  article in A. Vacant's _Dict. de theol, cat._ cols. 560-599, with
+  exhaustive bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+BELLARY, or BALLARI, a city and district of British India, in the Madras
+presidency. The city is 305 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901) 58,247.
+The fort rises from a huge mass of granite rock, which with a
+circumference of nearly 2 m., juts up abruptly to a height of 450 ft.
+above the plain. The length of this rock from north-east to south-west
+is about 1150 ft. To the E. and S. lies an irregular heap of boulders,
+but to the W. is an unbroken precipice, and the N. is walled by bare
+rugged ridges. It is defended by two distinct lines of works. The upper
+fort is a quadrangular building on the summit, with only one approach,
+and was deemed impregnable by the Mysore princes. But as it has no
+accommodation for a garrison, it is now only occupied by a small guard
+of British troops in charge of prisoners. The ex-nawab of Kurnool was
+confined in it for forty years for the murder of his wife. It contains
+several cisterns, excavated in the rock. Outside the turreted rampart
+are a ditch and covered way. The lower fort lies at the eastern base of
+the rock and measures about half a mile in diameter. It contains the
+barracks and the commissariat stores, the Protestant church, orphanage,
+Masonic lodge, post-office and numerous private dwellings. The fort of
+Bellary was originally built by Hanumapa, in the 16th century. It was
+first dependent on the kingdom of Vijayanagar, afterwards on Bijapur,
+and subsequently subject to the nizam and Hyder Ali. The latter erected
+the present fortifications according to tradition with the assistance of
+a French engineer in his service, whom he afterwards hanged for not
+building the fort on a higher rock adjacent to it. Bellary is an
+important cantonment and the headquarters of a military division. There
+is a considerable trade in cotton, in connexion with which there are
+large steam presses, and some manufacture of cotton cloth. There is a
+cotton spinning mill. In 1901 Bellary was chosen as one of the places of
+detention in India for Boer prisoners of war.
+
+The district of BELLARY has an area of 5714 sq. m. It consists chiefly
+of an extensive plateau between the Eastern and Western Ghats, of a
+height varying from 800 to 1000 ft. above the sea. The most elevated
+tracts are on the west, where the surface rises towards the culminating
+range of hills, and on the south, where it rises to the elevated
+tableland of Mysore. Towards the centre the almost treeless plain
+presents a monotonous aspect, broken only by a few rocky elevations that
+rise abruptly from the black soil. The hill ranges in Bellary are those
+of Sandur and Kampli to the west, the Lanka Malla to the east and the
+Copper Mountain (3148 ft.) to the south-west. The district is watered by
+five rivers: the Tungabhadra, formed by the junction of two streams,
+Tunga and Bhadra, the Haggari, Hindri, Chitravati and Pennar, the last
+considered sacred by the natives. None of the rivers is navigable and
+all are fordable during the dry season. The climate of Bellary is
+characterized by extreme dryness, due to the passing of the air over a
+great extent of heated plains, and it has a smaller rainfall than any
+other district in south India. The average daily variation of the
+thermometer is from 67 deg. to 83 deg. F. The prevailing diseases are
+cholera, fever, small-pox, ophthalmia, dysentery and those of the skin
+among the lower classes. Bellary is subject to disastrous storms and
+hurricanes, and to famines arising from a series of bad seasons. There
+were memorable famines in 1751, 1793, 1803, 1833, 1854, 1866, 1877 and
+1896.
+
+In 1901 the population was 947,214, showing an increase of 8% in the
+decade. The principal crops are millet, other food-grains, pulse,
+oil-seeds and cotton. There are considerable manufactures of cotton and
+woollen goods, and cotton is largely exported. The district is traversed
+by the Madras and Southern Mahratta railways, meeting on the eastern
+border at Guntakal junction, where another line branches off to Bezwada.
+
+Little is known of the early history of the district. It contains the
+ruined capital of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, and on the
+overthrow of that state by the Mahommedans, in 1564, the tract now
+forming the district of Bellary was split up into a number of military
+holdings, held by chiefs called poligars. In 1635 the Carnatic was
+annexed to the Bijapur dominions, from which again it was wrested in
+1680 by Sivaji, the founder of the Mahratta power. It was then included
+in the dominions of Nizam-ul-mulk, the nominal viceroy of the great
+Mogul in the Deccan, from whom again it was subsequently conquered by
+Hyder Ali of Mysore. At the close of the war with Tippoo Sultan in 1792,
+these territories fell to the share of the nizam of Hyderabad, by whom
+they were ceded to the British in 1800, in return for protection by a
+force of British troops to be stationed at his capital. In 1808 the
+"Ceded Districts," as they were called, were split into two districts,
+Cuddapah and Bellary. In 1882 the district of Anantapur, which had
+hitherto formed part of Bellary, was formed into a separate
+collectorate.
+
+  See _Bellary Gazetteer_, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BELL-COT, BELL-GABLE, or BELL-TURRET, the place where one or more bells
+are hung in chapels or small churches which have no towers. Bell-cots
+are sometimes double, as at Northborough and Coxwell; a very common form
+in France and Switzerland admits of three bells. In these countries also
+they are frequently of wood and attached to the ridge. In later times
+bell-turrets were much ornamented; on the continent of Europe they run
+up into a sort of small, slender spire, called _fleche_ in France, and
+_guglio_ in Italy. A bell-cot, gable or turret often holds the
+"Sanctus-bell," rung at the saying of the "Sanctus" at the beginning of
+the canon of the Mass, and at the consecration and elevation of the
+Elements in the Roman Church. This differs but little from the common
+bell-cot, except that it is generally on the top of the arch dividing
+the nave from the chancel. At Cleeve, however, the bell seems to have
+been placed in a cot outside the wall. Sanctus-bells have also been
+placed over the gables of porches.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEAU, REMY (c. 1527-1577), French poet, and member of the Pleiade
+(see DAURAT), was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou about 1527. He studied with
+Ronsard and others under Jean Daurat at the College de Coqueret. He was
+attached to Rene de Lorraine, marquis d'Elboeuf, in the expedition
+against Naples in 1557, where he did good military service. On his
+return he was made tutor to the young Charles, marquis d'Elboeuf, who,
+under Belleau's training became a great patron of the muses. Belleau was
+an enthusiast for the new learning and joined the group of young poets
+with ardour. In 1556 he published the first translation of Anacreon
+which had appeared in French. In the next year he published his first
+collection of poems, the _Petites inventions_, in which he describes
+stones, insects and flowers. The _Amours et nouveaux echanges des
+pierres precieuses_ ... (1576) contains perhaps his most characteristic
+work. Its title is quoted in the lines of Ronsard's epitaph on his
+tomb:--
+
+  "Luy mesme a basti son tombeau
+   Dedans ses Pierres Precieuses."
+
+He wrote commentaries to Ronsard's _Amours_ in 1560, notes which evinced
+delicate taste and prodigious learning. Like Ronsard and Joachim Du
+Bellay, he was extremely deaf. His days passed peacefully in the midst
+of his books and friends, and he died on the 6th of March 1577. He was
+buried in the nave of the Grands Augustins at Paris, and was borne to
+the tomb on the pious shoulders of four poets, Ronsard, J.A. de Baif,
+Philippe Desportes and Amadis Jamyn. His most considerable work is _La
+Bergerie_ (1565-1572), a pastoral in prose and verse, written in
+imitation of Sannazaro. The lines on April in the _Bergerie_ are well
+known to all readers of French poetry. Belleau was the French Herrick,
+full of picturesqueness, warmth and colour. His skies drop flowers and
+all his air is perfumed, and this voluptuous sweetness degenerates
+sometimes into licence. Extremely popular in his own age, he shared the
+fate of his friends, and was undeservedly forgotten in the next. Regnier
+said: "Belleau ne parle pas comme on parle a la ville"; and his lyrical
+beauty was lost on the trim 17th century. His complete works were
+collected in 1578, and contain, besides the works already mentioned, a
+comedy entitled _La Reconnue_, in short rhymed lines, which is not
+without humour and life, and a comic masterpiece, a macaronic poem on
+the religious wars, _Dictamen metrificum de bello huguenotico et
+reistrorum[1] piglamine ad sodales_ (Paris, no date).
+
+  The _Oeuvres completes_ (3 vols., 1867) of Remy Belleau were edited by
+  A. Gouverneui; and his _OEuvres poetiques_ (2 vols., 1879) by M. Ch.
+  Marty-Laveaux in his _Pleiade francaise_; see also C.A. Sainte-Beuve,
+  _Tableau historique et critique de la poesie francaise au XVI^e
+  siecle_ (ed. 1876), i. pp. 155-160, and ii. pp. 296 seq.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _reitres_, German soldiers of fortune.
+
+
+
+
+BELLECOUR (1725-1778), French actor, whose real name was JEAN CLAUDE
+GILLES COLSON, was born on the 16th of January 1725, the son of a
+portrait-painter. He showed decided artistic talent, but soon deserted
+the brush for the stage under the name of Bellecour. After playing in
+the provinces he was called to the Comedie Francaise, but his _debut_,
+on the 21st of December 1750, as Achilles in _Iphigenie_ was not a great
+success. He soon turned to more congenial comedy roles, which for thirty
+years he filled with great credit. He was a very natural player, and his
+willingness to give others on the stage an opportunity to show their
+talents made him extremely popular. He wrote a successful play, _Fausses
+apparences_ (1761), and was very useful to the Comedie Francaise in
+editing and adapting the plays of others. He died on the 19th of
+November 1778.
+
+His wife, ROSE PERRINE LE ROY DE LA CORBINAYE, was born at Lamballe on
+the 20th of December 1730, the daughter of an artillery officer. Under
+the stage name of Beaumenard she made her first Paris appearance in 1743
+as Gogo in Favart's _Le Coq du village_. After a year at the Opera
+Comique she played in several companies, including that of Marshal Saxe,
+who is said to have been not insensible to her charms. In 1749 she made
+her _debut_ at the Comedie Francaise as Dorine in _Tartuffe_, and her
+success was immediate. She retired in 1756, but after an absence of five
+years, during which she married, she reappeared as Madame Bellecour, and
+continued her successes in soubrette parts in the plays of Moliere and
+de Regnard. She retired finally at the age of sixty, but troublous times
+had put an end to the pension which she received from Louis XVI. and
+from the theatre, and she died in abject poverty on the 5th of August
+1799. There is a charming portrait of her owned by the Theatre Francais.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEFONTAINE, a city and the county-seat of Logan county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
+about 45 m. N.W. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 4245; (1900) 6649 (267
+foreign-born); (1910) 8238. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
+Chicago & St Louis (which has large shops here) and the Ohio Central
+railways; also by the Dayton, Springfield & Urbana electric railway. It
+is built on the south-west slope of a hill having an elevation of about
+1500 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of which are several springs of
+clear water which suggested the city's name. Among the city's
+manufactures are iron bridges, carriage-bodies, flour and cement. The
+municipality owns and operates its water-works system and its gas and
+electric-lighting plants. Bellefontaine was first settled about 1818,
+was laid out as a town and made the county-seat in 1820 and was
+incorporated in 1835.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEGARDE, the name of an important French family. Roger de Saint-Lary,
+baron of Bellegarde, served with distinction in the wars against the
+French Protestants. He showed much devotion to Henry III., who loaded
+him with favours and made him marshal of France. He eventually fell into
+disgrace, however, and died by poisoning in 1579. His nephew, Roger de
+Saint-Lary de Termes, a favourite with Henry III., Henry IV. and Louis
+XIII., was royal master of the horse and governor of Burgundy. His
+estate of Seurre in Burgundy was created a duchy in the peerage of
+France (_duche-pairie_) in his favour under the name of Bellegarde, in
+1619. In 1645 the title of this duchy was transferred to the estate of
+Choisy-aux-Loges in Gatinais, and was borne later by the family of
+Pardaillan de Gondrin, heirs of the house of Saint-Lary-Bellegarde. When
+Seurre passed into the possession of the princes of Conde they in the
+same way acquired the title of dukes of Bellegarde. (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOSEPH JOHANNES, COUNT VON (1756-1845), Austrian
+soldier and statesman, was born at Dresden on the 29th of August 1756,
+and for a short time served in the Saxon army. Transferring his services
+to Austria in 1771 he distinguished himself greatly as colonel of
+dragoons in the Turkish War of 1788-1789, and served as a major-general
+in the Netherlands campaigns of 1793-1794. In the campaign of 1796 in
+Germany, as a lieutenant field marshal, he served on the staff of the
+archduke Charles, whom he accompanied to Italy in the following year. He
+was also employed in the congress of Rastatt. In 1799 he commanded a
+corps in eastern Switzerland, connecting the armies of the archduke and
+Suvarov, and finally joined the latter in north Italy. He conducted the
+siege of the citadel of Alessandria, and was present at the decisive
+battle of Novi. He served again in the latter part of the Marengo
+campaign of 1800 in the rank of general of cavalry. In 1805, when the
+archduke Charles left to take command in Italy, Bellegarde became
+president _ad interim_ of the council of war. He was, however, soon
+employed in the field, and at the sanguinary battle of Caldiero he
+commanded the Austrian right. In the war of 1809 he commanded the
+extreme right wing of the main army (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). Cut off
+from Charles as the result of the battle of Eckmuhl, he retreated into
+Bohemia, but managed to rejoin before the great battles near Vienna
+(Aspern and Wagram). From 1809 to 1813 Bellegarde, now field marshal,
+was governor-general of Galicia, but was often called to preside over
+the meetings of the Aulic Council, especially in 1810 in connexion with
+the reorganization of the Austrian army. In 1813, 1814 and 1815 he led
+the Austrian armies in Italy. His successes in these campaigns were
+diplomatic as well as military, and he ended them by crushing the last
+attempt of Murat in 1815. From 1816 to 1825 (when he had to retire owing
+to failing eyesight) he held various distinguished civil and military
+posts. He died in 1845.
+
+  See Smola, _Das Leben des F.M. van Bellegarde_ (Vienna, 1847).
+
+
+
+
+BELLE-ILE-EN-MER, an island off the W. coast of France, forming a canton
+of the department of Morbihan, 8 m. S. by W. of the peninsula of
+Quiberon. Pop. (1906) 9703. Area, 33 sq. m. The island is divided into
+the four communes of Le Palais, Bangor, Sauzon and Locmaria. It forms a
+treeless plateau with an average height of 130 ft. above sea-level,
+largely covered with moors and bordered by a rugged and broken coast.
+The climate is mild, the fig-tree and myrtle growing in sheltered spots
+and the soil, where cultivated, is productive. The inhabitants are
+principally engaged in agriculture and the fisheries, and in the
+preservation of sardines, anchovies, &c. The breed of draught horses in
+the island is highly prized. The chief town, Le Palais (pop. 2637), has
+an old citadel and fortifications, and possesses a port which is
+accessible to vessels drawing 13 ft. of water. Belle-Ile must have been
+inhabited from a very early period, as it possesses several stone
+monuments of the class usually called Druidic.
+
+The Roman name of the island seems to have been _Vindilis_, which in the
+middle ages became corrupted to Guedel. In 1572 the monks of the abbey
+of Ste Croix at Quimperle ceded the island to the Retz family, in whose
+favour it was raised to a marquisate in the following year. It
+subsequently came into the hands of the family of Fouquet, and was ceded
+by the latter to the crown in 1718. It was held by English troops from
+1761 to 1763 when the French got it in exchange for Nova Scotia. A few
+of the inhabitants of the latter territory migrated to Belle-Ile, which
+is partly peopled by their descendants. In the state prison of Nouvelle
+Force at Le Palais political prisoners have at various times been
+confined.
+
+
+
+
+BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET, COMTE, and later DUC, DE
+(1684-1761), French soldier and statesman, was the grandson of Nicholas
+Fouquet, superintendent of finances under Louis XIV., and was born at
+Villefranche de Rouergue. Although his family was in disgrace, he
+entered the army at an early age and was made proprietary colonel of a
+dragoon regiment in 1708. He rose during the War of the Spanish
+Succession to the rank of brigadier, and in March 1718 to that of
+_marechal de camp_. In the Spanish War of 1718-1719 he was present at
+the capture of Fontarabia in 1718 and at that of St Sebastian in 1719.
+When the duke of Bourbon became prime minister, Belle-Isle was
+imprisoned in the Bastille, and then relegated to his estates, but with
+the advent of Cardinal Fleury to power he regained some measure of
+favour and was made a lieutenant-general. In the War of the Polish
+Succession he commanded a corps under the orders of Marshal Berwick,
+captured Trier and Trarbach and took part in the siege of Philippsburg
+(1734). When peace was made in 1736 the king, in recognition both of his
+military services and of the part he had taken in the negotiations for
+the cession of Lorraine, gave him the government of the three important
+fortresses of Metz, Toul and Verdun--an office which he kept till his
+death. His military and political reputation was now at its height, and
+he was one of the principal advisers of the government in military and
+diplomatic affairs. In 1741 he was sent to Germany as French
+plenipotentiary to carry out, in the interests of France, a grand scheme
+of political reorganization in the moribund empire, and especially to
+obtain the election of Charles, elector of Bavaria, as emperor. His
+diplomacy was thus the mainspring of the War of the Austrian Succession
+(q.v.), and his military command in south Germany was full of incidents
+and vicissitudes. He had been named marshal of France in 1741, and
+received a large army, with which it is said that he promised to make
+peace in three months under the walls of Vienna. The truth of this story
+is open to question, for no one knew better than Belle-Isle the
+limitations imposed upon commanders by the military and political
+circumstances of the times. These circumstances in fact rendered his
+efforts, both as a general and as a statesman, unavailing, and the one
+redeeming feature in the general failure was his heroic retreat from
+Prague. In ten days he led 14,000 men into and across the Bohemian
+Forest, suffering great privations and harassed by the enemy, but never
+allowing himself to be cut off, and his subordinate Chevert defended
+Prague so well that the Austrians were glad to allow him to rejoin his
+chief. The campaign, however, had discredited Belle-Isle; he was
+ridiculed at Paris by the wits and the populace, even Fleury is said to
+have turned against him, and, to complete his misfortunes, he was taken
+prisoner by the English in going from Cassel to Berlin through Hanover.
+He remained a year in England, in spite of the demands of Louis XV. and
+of the emperor Charles VII. During the campaign of 1746 he was in
+command of the "Army of Piedmont" on the Alpine frontier, and although
+he began his work with a demoralized and inferior army, he managed not
+only to repel the invasion of the Spanish and Italian forces but also to
+carry the war back into the plain of Lombardy. At the peace, having thus
+retrieved his military reputation, he was created duke and peer of
+France (1748). In 1757 his credit at court was considerable, and the
+king named him secretary for war. During his three years' ministry he
+undertook many reforms, such as the development of the military school
+for officers, and the suppression of the proprietary colonelcies of
+nobles who were too young to command; and he instituted the Order of
+Merit. But the Seven Years' War was by that time in progress and his
+efforts had no immediate effect. He died at Versailles on the 26th of
+January 1761. Belle-Isle interested himself in literature; was elected a
+member of the French Academy in 1740, and founded the Academy of Metz in
+1760. The dukedom ended with his death, his only son having been killed
+in 1758 at the battle of Crefeld.
+
+His brother, LOUIS CHARLES ARMAND FOUQUET, known as the Chevalier de
+Belle-Isle (1693-1746), was also a soldier and a diplomatist. He served
+as a junior officer in the War of the Spanish Succession and as
+brigadier in the campaign of 1734 on the Rhine and Moselle, where he won
+the grade of _marechal de camp_. He was employed under his brother in
+political missions in Bavaria and in Swabia in 1741-1742, became a
+lieutenant-general, fought in Bohemia, Bavaria and the Rhine countries
+in 1742-1743, and was arrested and sent to England with the marshal in
+1744. On his release he was given a command in the Army of Piedmont. He
+fell a victim to his romantic bravery at the action of Exilles (Col de
+l'Assiette) on the 19th of July 1746.
+
+  See Jean de Maugre, _Oraison funebre du marechal de Belleisle_
+  (Montmedy, 1762); R.P. de Neuville, _Memoires du marechal duc de
+  Belleisle_ (Paris, 1761); D.C. (Chevrier), _La Vie politigue et
+  militaire du marechal duc de Belleisle_ (London, 1760), and _Testament
+  politique du marechal duc de Belleisle_ (Hague, 1762); _Le Codicille
+  et l'esprit ou commentaire des maximes du marechal duc de Belleisle_
+  (Amsterdam, 1761); F.M. Chayert, _Notice sur le marechal de Belleisle_
+  (Metz, 1856); L. Leclerc, _Eloge du marechal de Belleisle_ (Metz,
+  1862); E. Michel, _Eloge du marechal de Belleisle_ (Paris, 1862); and
+  Jobez, _La France sous Louis XV_ (6 vols., Paris, 1868-1874).
+
+
+
+
+BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF, the more northern of the two channels connecting
+the Gulf of St Lawrence with the Atlantic Ocean. It separates northern
+Newfoundland from Labrador, and extends N.E. and S.W. for 35 m., with a
+breadth of 10 to 15 m. It derives its name from a precipitous granite
+island, 700 ft. in height, at its Atlantic entrance. On this lighthouses
+are maintained by the government of Canada and constant communication
+with the mainland is kept up by wireless telegraphy. The strait is in
+the most direct route from Europe to the St Lawrence, but is open only
+from June till the end of November, and even during this period
+navigation is often rendered dangerous by floating ice and fogs. Through
+it Jacques Cartier sailed in 1534. The southern or Cabot Strait, between
+Cape Ray in Newfoundland and Cape North in Cape Breton, was discovered
+later, and the expansion below Belle Isle was long known as _La Grande
+Baie_. Cabot Strait is open all the year, save for occasional
+inconvenience from drift ice.
+
+
+
+
+BELLENDEN (BALLANTYNE or BANNATYNE), JOHN (fl. 1533-1587), Scottish
+writer, was born about the end of the 15th century, in the south-east of
+Scotland, perhaps in East Lothian. He appears to have been educated,
+first at the university of St Andrews and then at that of Paris, where
+he took, the degree of doctor. From his own statement, in one of his
+poems, we learn that he had been in the service of James V. from the
+king's earliest years, and that the post he held was clerk of accounts.
+At the request of James he undertook translations of Boece's _Historia
+Scotorum_, which had appeared at Paris in 1527, and the first five books
+of Livy. As a reward for his versions, which he finished in 1533, he was
+appointed archdeacon of Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a strenuous
+opponent of the Reformation and was compelled to go into exile. He is
+said by some authorities to have died at Rome in 1550; by others to have
+been still living in 1587. His translation of Boece, entitled _The
+History and Chronicles of Scotland_, is a remarkable specimen of
+Scottish prose, distinguished by its freedom and vigour of expression.
+It was published in 1536; and was reprinted in 2 vols., edited by
+Maitland, in 1821. The translation of Livy was not printed till 1822
+(also in 2 vols.). Two MSS. of the latter are extant, one, the older, in
+the Advocates' library, Edinburgh (which was the basis of the normalized
+text of 1822), the other (c. 1550) in the possession of Mr Ogilvie
+Forbes of Boyndlie. An edition of the work was edited for the Scottish
+Text Society by Mr W.A. Craigie (2 vols. 1901, 1903). The second volume
+of this edition contains also a complete reprint of the portions of the
+holograph first draft which were discovered in the British Museum in
+1902. Two poems by Bellenden--_The Proheme to the Cosmographe_ and the
+_Proheme of the History_--appeared in the 1536 edition of the _History
+of Scotland_. Others, bearing his name in the well-known Bannatyne MS.
+collection, made by his namesake George Bannatyne (q.v.), may or may not
+be his. Sir David Lyndsay, in his prologue to the _Papyngo_, speaks
+vaguely of:
+
+  "Ane cunnyng Clark quhilk wrythith craftelie
+   Ane plant of poetis callit Ballendyne,
+   Quhose ornat workis my wit can nocht defyne."
+
+  The chief sources of information regarding Belleriden's life are the
+  _Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland_, his own works and
+  the ecclesiastical records.
+
+
+
+
+BELLENDEN, WILLIAM, Scottish classical scholar. Hardly anything is known
+of him. He lived in the reign of James I. (VI. of Scotland), who
+appointed him _magister libellorum supplicum_ or master of requests.
+King James is also said to have provided Bellenden with the means of
+living independently at Paris, where he became professor at the
+university, and advocate in the parliament. The date of his birth cannot
+be fixed, and it can only be said that he died later than 1625. The
+first of the works by which he is known was published anonymously in
+1608, with the title _Ciceronis Princeps_, a laborious compilation of
+all Cicero's remarks on the origin and principles of regal government,
+digested and systematically arranged. In 1612 there appeared a similar
+work, devoted to the consideration of consular authority and the Roman
+senate, _Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senatusque Romanus_. His third work,
+_De Statu Prisci Orbls_, 1615, is a good outline of general history. All
+three works were combined in a single large volume, entitled _De Statu
+Libri Tres_, 1615, which was first brought into due notice by Dr Samuel
+Parr, who, in 1787, published an edition with a preface, famous for the
+elegance of its Latinity, in which he eulogized Burke, Fox and Lord
+North as the "three English luminaries." The greatest of Bellenden's
+works is the extensive treatise _De Tribus Luminibus Romanorum_, printed
+and published posthumously at Paris in 1633. The book is unfinished, and
+treats only of the first luminary, Cicero; the others intended were
+apparently Seneca and Pliny. It contains a most elaborate history of
+Rome and its institutions, drawn from Cicero, and thus forms a
+storehouse of all the historical notices contained in that voluminous
+author. It is said that nearly all the copies were lost on the passage
+to England. One of the few that survived was placed in the university
+library at Cambridge, and freely drawn upon by Conyers Middieton, the
+librarian, in his _History of the Life of Cicero_. Both Joseph Warton
+and Dr Parr accused Middleton of deliberate plagiarism, which was the
+more likely to have escaped detection owing to the small number of
+existing copies of Bellenden's work.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEROPHON, or BELLEROPHONTES, in Greek legend, son of Glaucus or
+Poseidon, grandson of Sisyphus and local hero of Corinth. Having slain
+by accident the Corinthian hero Bellerus (or, according to others, his
+own brother) he fled to Tiryns, where his kinsman Proetus, king of
+Argos, received him hospitably and purged him of his guilt. But Anteia
+(or Stheneboea), wife of Proetus, became enamoured of Bellerophon, and,
+when he refused her advances, charged him with an attempt upon her
+virtue. Proetus thereupon sent him to Iobates, his wife's father, king
+of Lycia, with a letter or sealed tablet, in which were instructions,
+apparently given by means of signs, to take the life of the bearer.
+Arriving in Lycia, he was received as a guest and entertained for nine
+days. On the tenth, being asked the object of his visit, he handed the
+letter to the king, whose first plan for complying with it was to send
+him to slay the Chimaera, a monster which was devastating the country.
+Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus (q.v.), kept up in the air out of the
+way of the Chimaera, but yet near enough to kill it with his spear, or,
+as he is at other times represented, with his sword or with a bow. He
+was next ordered out against the Solymi, a hostile tribe, and afterwards
+against the Amazons, from both of which expeditions he not only returned
+victorious, but also on his way back slew an ambush of chosen warriors
+whom Iobates had placed to intercept him. His divine origin was now
+proved; the king gave him his daughter in marriage; and the Lycians
+presented him with a large and fertile estate on which he lived
+(Apollodorus, ii. 3; Homer, _Iliad_, vi. 155). Bellerophon is said to
+have returned to Tiryns and avenged himself on Anteia: he persuaded her
+to fly with him on his winged horse, and then flung her into the sea
+near the island of Melos (Schol. Aristoph., _Pax_, 140). His ambitious
+attempt to ascend to the heavens on Pegasus brought upon him the wrath
+of the gods. His son was smitten by Ares in battle; his daughter
+Laodameia was slain by Artemis; he himself, flung from his horse, lamed
+or blinded, became a wanderer over the face of the earth until his death
+(Pindar, _Isthmia_, vi. [vii.], 44; Horace, _Odes_, iv. 11, 26).
+Bellerophon was honoured as a hero at Corinth and in Lycia. His story
+formed the subject of the _Debates_ of Sophocles, and of the
+_Bellerophontes_ and _Stheneboea_ of Euripides. It has been suggested
+that Perseus, the local hero of Argos, and Bellerophon were originally
+one and the same, the difference in their exploits being the result of
+the rivalry of Argos and Corinth. Both are connected with the sun-god
+Helios and with the sea-god Poseidon, the symbol of the union being the
+winged horse Pegasus. Bellerophon has been explained as a hero of the
+storm, of which his conflict with the Chimaera is symbolical. The most
+frequent representations of Bellerophon in ancient art are (1) slaying
+the Chimaera, (2) departing from Argos with the letter, (3) leading
+Pegasus to drink. Among the first is to be noted a terra-cotta relief
+from Melos in the British Museum, where also, on a vase of black ware,
+is what seems to be a representation of his escape from Stheneboea.
+
+  See H.A. Fischer, _Bellerophon_ (1851); R. Engelmann, _Annali_ of the
+  Archaeological Institute at Rome (1874); O. Treuber, _Gechichte der
+  Lykier_ (1887); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopadie_, W.H.
+  Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, Daremberg and Saglio's
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_.
+
+
+
+
+BELLES-LETTRES (Fr. for "fine literature"), a term used to designate the
+more artistic and imaginative forms of literature, as poetry or romance,
+as opposed to more pedestrian and exact studies. The term appears to
+have been first used in English by Swift (1710).
+
+
+
+
+BELLEVILLE, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of
+Hastings county, 106 m. E.N.E. of Toronto, on Bay of Quinte and the
+Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 9117. Communication is maintained with
+Lake Ontario and St Lawrence ports by several lines of steamers. It is
+the commercial centre of a fine agricultural district, and has a large
+export trade in cheese and farm produce. The principal industries are
+planing mills and cement works, cheese factories and distilleries. There
+are several educational institutions, including a business college, a
+convent, and a government institute for the deaf and dumb. Albert
+College, under the control of the Methodist church, was formerly a
+university, but now confines itself to secondary education.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of St Clair county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state 14 m. S.E. of St Louis, Missouri.
+Pop. (1890) 15,361; (1900) 17,484, of whom 2750 were foreign-born;
+(1910) 21,122. Belleville is served by the Illinois Central, the
+Louisville & Nashville, and the Southern railways, also by extensive
+interurban electric systems; and a belt line to O'Fallon, Illinois,
+connects Belleville with the Baltimore & Ohio South Western railway. A
+large element of the population is of German descent or German birth,
+and two newspapers are published in German, besides three dailies, three
+weeklies and a semi-weekly in English. Among the industrial
+establishments of the city are stove and range factories, flour mills,
+rolling mills, distilleries, breweries, shoe factories, copper refining
+works, nail and tack factories, glass works and agricultural implement
+factories. The value of the city's factory products increased from
+$2,873,334 in 1900 to $4,356,615 in 1905 or 51.6%. Belleville is in a
+rich agricultural region, and in the vicinity there are valuable coal
+mines, the first of which was sunk in 1852; from this dates the
+industrial development of the city. Belleville was first settled in
+1813, was incorporated as a city in 1850, and was re-incorporated in
+1876.
+
+
+
+
+BELLEY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Ain, 52 m. S.E. of Bourg by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop.
+(1906), town, 3709; commune, 5707. It is situated on vine-covered hills
+at the southern extremity of the Jura, 3 m. from the right bank of the
+Rhone. Apart from the cathedral of St Jean, which, with the exception of
+the choir of 1413, is a modern building, there is little of
+architectural interest in the town. Belley is the seat of a bishopric
+and a prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance. The manufacture of
+morocco leather goods and the quarrying of the lithographic stone of the
+vicinity are carried on, and there is trade in cattle, grain, wine,
+truffles and dressed pork. Belley is of Roman origin, and in the 5th
+century became an episcopal see. It was the capital of the province of
+Bugey, which was a dependency of Savoy till 1601, when it was ceded to
+France. In 1385 the town was almost entirely destroyed by an act of
+incendiarism, but was subsequently rebuilt by the dukes of Savoy, who
+surrounded it with ramparts of which little is left.
+
+
+
+
+BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO (1791-1863), Italian poet, was born at Rome,
+and after a period of literary employment in poor circumstances was
+enabled by marriage with a lady of means to follow his own special bent.
+He is remembered for his vivid popular poetry in the Roman dialect, a
+number of satirical sonnets which in their own way are unique.
+
+  See Morandi's edition, _I sonetti romaneschi_ (1886-1889).
+
+
+
+
+BELLIGERENCY, the state of carrying on war (Lat. _bellum_, war, and
+_gerere_, to wage) in accordance with the law of nations. Insurgents are
+not as such excluded from recognition as belligerents, and, even where
+not recognized as belligerents by the government against which they have
+rebelled, they may be so recognized by a neutral state, as in the case
+of the American Civil War, when the Southern states were recognized as
+belligerents by Great Britain, though regarded as rebels by the Northern
+states. The recognition by a neutral state of belligerency does not,
+however, imply recognition of independent political existence. The
+regulations annexed to the Hague Convention, relating to the laws and
+customs of war (29th of July 1899), contain a section entitled
+"Belligerents" which is divided into three chapters, dealing
+respectively with (i.) The Qualifications of Belligerents; (ii.)
+Prisoners of War; (iii.) The Sick and Wounded. To entitle troops to the
+special privileges attaching to belligerency, chapter i. provides that
+all regular, militia or volunteer forces shall alike be commanded by
+persons responsible for the acts of their men, that all such shall carry
+distinctive emblems, recognizable at a distance, that arms shall be
+carried openly and operations conducted in accordance with the usages of
+war observed among civilized mankind. It provides, nevertheless, for the
+emergency of the population of a territory, which has not already been
+occupied by the invader, spontaneously taking up arms to resist the
+invading forces, without having had time to comply with the above
+requirements; they, too, are to be treated as belligerents "if they
+respect the laws and customs of war." In naval war, privateering having
+been finally abolished as among the parties to it by the declaration of
+Paris, a privateer is not entitled, as between such parties, to the
+rights of belligerency. As between states, one of whom is not a party to
+the Declaration, the right to grant letters of marque would remain
+intact for both parties, and the privateer, _as between them_, would be
+a belligerent; as regards neutrals, the situation would be complicated
+(see PRIVATEER). On prisoners of war and sick and wounded, see WAR.
+     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD (d. 1549), lord deputy of Ireland, was a son of
+Edward Bellingham of Erringham, Sussex, his mother being a member of the
+Shelley family. As a soldier he fought in France and elsewhere, then
+became an English member of parliament and a member of the privy
+council, and in 1547 took part in some military operations in Ireland.
+In May 1548 he was sent to that country as lord deputy. Ireland was then
+in a very disturbed condition, but the new governor crushed a rebellion
+of the O'Connors in Leinster, freed the Pale from rebels, built forts,
+and made the English power respected in Munster and Connaught.
+Bellingham, however, was a headstrong man and was constantly quarrelling
+with his council; but one of his opponents admitted that he was "the
+best man of war that ever he had seen in Ireland." His short but
+successful term of office was ended by his recall in 1549.
+
+  See R. Bagwell, _Ireland Under the Tudors_, vol. i. (1885).
+
+
+
+
+BELLINGHAM, a city of Whatcom county, Washington, U.S.A., on the E. side
+of Bellingham Bay, 96 m. N. of Seattle. Pop. (1900) 11,062; (1905, state
+est.) 26,000; (1910, U.S. census) 24,298. Area about 23 sq. m. It is
+served by the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Canadian
+Pacific, and the Bellingham Bay & British Columbia railways--being a
+terminus of the last named, which operates only 62 m. of line and
+connects with the Mt. Baker goldfields and the Nooksack valley farm and
+orchard region. A suburban electric line was projected in 1907. About
+2-1/2 m. south-east of the city is the main body of Lake Whatcom, 13 m.
+long, 1-1/4 m. wide, and 318 ft. higher than the city and the source of
+its water-supply, a gravity system which cost $1,000,000, being owned by
+the city. Bellingham has two Carnegie libraries. Among the principal
+buildings are the county court-house, the city hall, the Young Men's
+Christian Association building, and Beck's theatre, with a seating
+capacity of 2200. The largest of the state's normal colleges is situated
+here; in 1907 it had a faculty of 25 and 350 students; there are two
+high schools, two business colleges, and one industrial school also in
+the city. The excellent harbour, and the fact that Bellingham is nearer
+to the great markets of Alaska than any other city in the states, make
+the port an important shipping centre. In the value of manufactured
+product the city was fourth in the state in 1905 (being passed only by
+Tacoma, Seattle and Spokane), with a value of $3,293,988; according to a
+census taken by the local chamber of commerce the value of the product
+in 1906 was $7,751,464. The principal industrial establishments are
+shingle (especially cedar) and saw-mills, salmon canneries and factories
+for the manufacture of tin cans, and machinery used in the canning of
+salmon. Motive and electric lighting power is brought 52 m. from the
+falls of the north fork of the Nooksack river, where there is a power
+plant which furnishes 3500 horsepower. There are deposits of clay and
+limestone in the surrounding country, and cement is manufactured in the
+vicinity of the city. The blue-grey Chuckanut sandstone is quarried on
+the shore of Chuckanut Bay, south of Bellingham; and a coarse,
+dark-brown sandstone is quarried on Sucia Island, west of the city.
+There are quarries also on Waldron Island. Bellingham was formed in 1903
+by the consolidation of the cities of New Whatcom (pop. in 1900, 6834)
+and Fairhaven (pop. in 1900, 4228), and was chartered as a city of the
+first class in 1904; it is named from Bellingham Bay, which Vancouver is
+supposed to have named, in 1792, in honour of Sir Henry Bellingham.
+
+
+
+
+BELLINI, the name of a family of craftsmen in Venice, three members of
+which fill a great place in the history of the Venetian school of
+painting in the 15th century and the first years of the 16th.
+
+I. JACOPO BELLINI (c. 1400-1470-71) was the son of a tinsmith or
+pewterer, Nicoletto Bellini, by his wife Franceschina. When the
+accomplished Umbrian master Gentile da Fabriano came to practise at
+Venice, where art was backward, several young men of the city took
+service under him as pupils. Among these were Giovanni and Antonio of
+Murano and Jacopo Bellini. Gentile da Fabriano left Venice for Florence
+in 1422, and the two brothers of Murano stayed at home and presently
+founded a school of their own (see VIVARINI). But Jacopo Bellini
+followed his teacher to Florence, where the vast progress lately made,
+alike in truth to natural fact and in sense of classic grace and style,
+by masters like Donatello and Ghiberti, Masaccio and Paolo Uccello,
+offered him better instruction than he could obtain even from his
+Umbrian teacher. But his position as assistant to Gentile brought him
+into trouble. As a stranger coming to practise in Florence, Gentile was
+jealously looked on. One day some young Florentines threw stones into
+his shop, and the Venetian pupil ran out and drove them off with his
+fists. Thinking this might be turned against him, he went and took
+service on board the galleys of the Florentine state; but returning
+after a year, found he had in his absence been condemned and fined for
+assault. He was arrested and imprisoned, but the matter was soon
+compromised, Jacopo submitting to a public act of penance and his
+adversary renouncing further proceedings. Whether Jacopo accompanied his
+master to Rome in 1426 we cannot tell; but by 1429 we find him settled
+at Venice and married to a wife from Pesaro named Anna (family name
+uncertain), who in that year made a will in favour of her first child
+then expected. She survived, however, and bore her husband two sons,
+Gentile and Giovanni (though some evidences have been thought to point
+rather to Giovanni having been his son by another mother), and a
+daughter Nicolosia. In 1436 Jacopo was at Verona, painting a Crucifixion
+in fresco for the chapel of S. Nicholas in the cathedral (destroyed by
+order of the archbishop in 1750, but the composition, a vast one of many
+figures, has been preserved in an old engraving). Documents ranging from
+1437 to 1465 show him to have been a member of the Scuola or mutual aid
+society of St John the Evangelist at Venice, for which he painted at an
+uncertain date a series of eighteen subjects of the Life of the Virgin,
+fully described by Ridolfi but now destroyed or dispersed. In 1439 we
+find him buying a panel of tarsia work at the sale of the effects of the
+deceased painter Jacobello del Fiore, and in 1440 entering into a
+business partnership with another painter of the city called Donato.
+About this time he must have paid a visit to the court of Ferrara, where
+there prevailed a spirit of free culture and humanism most congenial to
+his tastes. Pisanello, the first great naturalist artist of north Italy,
+whose influence on Jacopo at the outset of his career had been only
+second to that of Gentile da Fabriano, had been some time engaged on a
+portrait of Leonello d'Este, the elder son of the reigning marquis
+Niccolo III. Jacopo (according to an almost contemporary sonneteer)
+competed with a rival portrait, which was declared by the father to be
+the better of the two. In the next year, the last of the marquis
+Niccolo's life, we find him making the successful painter a present of
+two bushels of wheat. The relations thus begun with the house of Este
+seem to have been kept up, and among Jacopo's extant drawings are
+several that seem to belong to the scheme of a monument erected to the
+memory of the marquis Niccolo ten years later. He was also esteemed and
+employed by Sigismondo Malatesta at the court of Rimini. In 1443 Jacopo
+took as an articled pupil a nephew whom he had brought up from charity;
+in 1452 he painted a banner for the Scuola of St Mary of Charity at
+Venice, and the next year received a grant from the confraternity for
+the marriage of his daughter Nicolosia with Andrea Mantegna, a marriage
+which had the effect of transferring the gifted young Paduan master
+definitively from the following of Squarcione to that of Bellini. In
+1456 he painted a figure of Lorenzo Giustiniani, first patriarch of
+Venice, for his monument in San Pietro de Castello, and in 1457, with a
+son for salaried assistant, three figures of saints in the great hall of
+the patriarch. For some time about these years Jacopo and his family
+would seem to have resided at, or at least to have paid frequent visits
+to Padua, where he is reported to have carried out works now lost,
+including an altar-piece painted with the assistance of his sons in
+1459-1460 for the Gattamelata chapel in the Santo, and several portraits
+which are described by 16th-century witnesses but have disappeared. At
+Venice he painted a Calvary for the Scuola of St Mark (1466). His
+activity can be traced in documents down to August 1470, but in November
+1471 his wife Anna describes herself as his relict, so that he must have
+died some time in the interval.
+
+The above are all the facts concerning the life of Jacopo Bellini which
+can be gathered from printed and documentary records. The materials
+which have reached posterity for a critical judgment on his work consist
+of four or five pictures only, together with two important and
+invaluable books of drawings. These prove him to have been a worthy
+third, following the Umbrian Gentile da Fabriano and the Veronese
+Pisanello, in that trio of remarkable artists who in the first half of
+the 15th century carried towards maturity the art of painting in Venice
+and the neighbouring cities. Of his pictures, an important signed
+example is a life-size Christ Crucified in the archbishop's palace at
+Verona. The rest are almost all Madonnas: two signed, one in the Tadini
+gallery at Lovere, another in the Venice academy; a third, unsigned and
+long ascribed in error to Gentile da Fabriano, in the Louvre, with the
+portrait of Sigismondo Malatesta as donor; a fourth, richest of all in
+colour and ornamental detail, recently acquired from private hands for
+the Uffizi at Florence. Plausibly, though less certainly, ascribed to
+him are a fifth Madonna at Bergamo, a warrior-saint on horseback (San
+Crisogono) in the church of San Trovaso at Venice, a Crucifixion in the
+Museo Correr, and an Adoration of the Magi in private possession at
+Ferrara. Against this scanty tale of paintings we have to set an
+abundance of drawings and studies preserved in two precious albums in
+the British Museum and the Louvre. The former, which is the earlier in
+date, belonged to the painter's elder son Gentile and was by him
+bequeathed to his brother Giovanni. It consists of ninety-nine paper
+pages, all drawn on both back and front with a lead point, an instrument
+unusual at this date. Two or three of the drawings have been worked over
+in pen; of the remainder many have become dim from time and rubbing. The
+album at the Louvre, discovered in 1883 in the loft of a country-house
+in Guienne, is equally rich and better preserved, the drawings being all
+highly finished in pen, probably over effaced preliminary sketches in
+chalk or lead. The range of subjects is much the same in both
+collections, and in both extremely varied, proving Jacopo to have been a
+craftsman of many-sided curiosity and invention. He passes
+indiscriminately from such usual Scripture scenes as the Adoration of
+the Magi, the Agony in the Garden, and the Crucifixion, to designs from
+classic fable, copies from ancient bas-reliefs, stories of the saints,
+especially St Christopher and St George, the latter many times repeated
+(he was the patron saint of the house of Este), fanciful allegories of
+which the meaning has now become obscure, scenes of daily life, studies
+for monuments, and studies of animals, especially of eagles (the emblem
+of the house of Este), horses and lions. He loves to marshal his figures
+in vast open spaces, whether of architecture or mountainous landscape.
+In designing such spaces and in peopling them with figures of relatively
+small scale, we see him eagerly and continually putting to the test the
+principles of the new science of perspective. His castellated and
+pinnacled architecture, in a mixed medieval and classical spirit, is
+elaborately thought out, and scarcely less so his groups and ranges of
+barren hills, broken in clefts or ascending in spiral terraces. With a
+predilection for tall and slender proportions, he draws the human figure
+with a flowing generalized grace and no small freedom of movement; but
+he does not approach either in mastery of line or in vehemence of action
+a Florentine draughtsman such as Antonio Pollaiuolo. Jacopo's influence
+on the development of Venetian art was very great, not only directly
+through his two sons and his son-in-law Mantegna, but through other and
+independent contemporary workshops of the city, in none of which did it
+remain unfelt.
+
+II. GENTILE BELLINI (1429-1430-1507), the elder son of Jacopo, first
+appears independently as the painter of a Madonna, much in his father's
+manner, dated 1460, and now in the Berlin museum. We have seen how in
+the previous year he and his brother assisted their father in the
+execution of an altar-piece for the Santo at Padua. In July 1466 we find
+him contracting with the officers of the Scuola of St Mark as an
+independent artist to decorate the doors of their organ. These paintings
+still exist in a blackened condition. They represent four saints,
+colossal in size, and designed with much of the harsh and searching
+austerity which characterized the Paduan school under Squarcione. In
+December of the same year Gentile bound himself to execute for the great
+hall of the same company two subjects of the Exodus, to be done better
+than, or at least as well as, his father's work in the same place. These
+paintings have perished. For the next eight years the history of
+Gentile's life and work remains obscure. But he must have risen steadily
+in the esteem of his fellow-citizens, since in 1474 we find him
+commissioned by the senate to restore, renew, and when necessary
+replace, the series of paintings, the work of an earlier generation of
+artists, which were perishing from damp on the walls of the Hall of the
+Great Council in the ducal palace. This was evidently intended to be a
+permanent employment, and in payment the painter was to receive the
+reversion of a broker's stall in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi; a lucrative
+form of sinecure frequently allotted to artists engaged for tasks of
+long duration. In continuation of this work Gentile undertook a series
+of independent paintings on subjects of Venetian history for the same
+hall, but had apparently only finished one, representing the delivery of
+the consecrated candle by the pope to the doge, when his labours were
+interrupted by a mission to the East. The sultan Mahommed II. had
+despatched a friendly embassy to Venice, inviting the doge to visit him
+at Constantinople and at the same time requesting the despatch of an
+excellent painter to work at his court. The former part of the sultan's
+proposal the senate declined, with the latter they complied; and Gentile
+Bellini with two assistants was selected for the mission, his brother
+Giovanni being at the same time appointed to fill his place on the works
+for the Hall of the Great Council. Gentile gave great satisfaction to
+the sultan, and returned after about a year with a knighthood, some fine
+clothes, a gold chain and a pension. The surviving fruits of his labours
+at Constantinople consist of a large painting representing the reception
+of an ambassador in that city, now in the Louvre; a highly finished
+portrait of the sultan himself, now one of the treasures, despite its
+damaged condition, of the collection of the late Sir Henry Layard; an
+exquisitely wrought small portrait in water-colour of a scribe, found in
+1905 by a private collector in the bazaar at Constantinople and now in
+the collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston; and two pen-and-ink drawings of
+Turkish types, now in the British Museum. Early copies of two or three
+other similar drawings are preserved in the Stadel Institute at
+Frankfurt; such copies may have been made for the use of Gentile's
+Umbrian contemporary, Pinturicchio, who introduced figures borrowed from
+them into some of his decorative frescoes in the Appartamento Borgia at
+Rome.
+
+A place had been left open for Gentile to continue working beside his
+brother Giovanni (with whom he lived always on terms of the closest
+amity) in the ducal palace; and soon after 1480 he began to carry out
+his share in the great series of frescoes, unfortunately destroyed by
+fire in 1577, illustrating the part played by Venice in the struggles
+between the papacy and the emperor Barbarossa. These works were executed
+not on the wall itself but on canvas (the climate of Venice having so
+many times proved fatal to wall paintings), and probably in oil, a
+method which all the artists of Venice, following the example set by
+Antonello da Messina, had by this time learnt or were learning to
+practise. The subjects allotted to Gentile, in addition to the
+above-mentioned presentation of the consecrated candle, were as follows:
+the departure of the Venetian ambassadors to the court of Barbarossa,
+Barbarossa receiving the ambassadors, the pope inciting the doge and
+senate to war, the pope bestowing a sword and his blessing on the doge
+and his army (a drawing in the British Museum purports to be the
+artist's original sketch for this composition), and according to some
+authorities also the gift of the symbolic ring by the pope to the
+victorious doge on his return. These works received the highest praise
+both from contemporary and from later Venetian critics, but no fragment
+of them survived the fire of 1577. Their character can to some extent be
+judged by a certain number of kindred historical and processional works
+by the same hand which have been preserved. Of such the Academy at
+Venice has three which were painted between 1490 and 1500 for the Scuola
+of St John the Evangelist, and represent certain events connected with a
+famous relic belonging to the Scuola, namely, a supposed fragment of the
+true cross. All have been, much injured and re-painted; nevertheless one
+at least, showing the procession of the relic through St Mark's Place
+and the thanksgiving of a father who owed to it the miraculous cure of
+his son, still gives a good idea of the painter's powers and style.
+Great accuracy and firmness of individual portraiture, a strong gift,
+derived no doubt from his father's example, for grouping and marshalling
+a crowd of personages in spaces of fine architectural perspective, the
+severity and dryness of the Paduan manner much mitigated by the dawning
+splendour of true Venetian colour--these are the qualities that no
+injury has been able to deface. They are again manifest in an
+interesting Adoration of the Magi in the Layard collection; and reappear
+still more forcibly in the last work undertaken by the artist, the great
+picture now at the Brera in Milan of St Mark preaching at Alexandria;
+this was commissioned by the Scuola of St Mark in March 1505, and left
+by the artist in his will, dated 18th of February 1507, to be finished
+by his brother Giovanni. Of single portraits by this artist, who was
+almost as famous for them as for processional groups, there survive one
+of a doge at the Museo Correr in Venice, one of Catarina Cornaro at
+Budapest, one of a mathematician at the National Gallery, another of a
+monk in the same gallery, signed wrongly to all appearance with the name
+of Giovanni Bellini, besides one or two others in private hands. The
+features of Gentile himself are known from a portrait medallion by
+Camelio, and can be recognized in two extant drawings, one at Berlin
+supposed to be by the painter's own hand, and another, much larger and
+more finished, at Christ Church, Oxford, which is variously attributed
+to Bonsignori and A. Vivarini.
+
+III. GIOVANNI BELLINI (1430-1431-1516) is generally assumed to have been
+the second son of Jacopo by his wife Anna; though the fact that she does
+not mention him in her will with her other sons has thrown some slight
+doubt upon the matter. At any rate he was brought up in his father's
+house, and always lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation
+with Gentile. Up till the age of nearly thirty we find documentary
+evidence of the two sons having served as their father's assistants in
+works both at Venice and Padua. In Giovanni's earliest independent works
+we find him more strongly influenced by the harsh and searching manner
+of the Paduan school, and especially of his own brother-in-law Mantegna,
+than by the more graceful and facile style of Jacopo. This influence
+seems to have lasted at full strength until after the departure of his
+brother-in-law Mantegna for the court of Mantua in 1460. The earliest of
+Giovanni's independent works no doubt date from before this period.
+Three of these exist at the Correr museum in Venice: a Crucifixion, a
+Transfiguration, and a Dead Christ supported by Angels. Two Madonnas of
+the same or even earlier date are in private collections in America, a
+third in that of Signor Frizzoni at Milan; while two beautiful works in
+the National Gallery of London seem to bring the period to a close. One
+of these is of a rare subject, the Blood of the Redeemer; the other is
+the fine picture of Christ's Agony in the Garden, formerly in the
+Northbrook collection. The last-named piece was evidently executed in
+friendly rivalry with Mantegna, whose version of the subject hangs near
+by; the main idea of the composition in both cases being taken from a
+drawing by Jacopo Bellini in the British Museum sketch-book. In all
+these pictures Giovanni combines with the Paduan severity of drawing and
+complex rigidity of drapery a depth of religious feeling and human
+pathos which is his own. They are all executed in the old tempera
+method; and in the last named the tragedy of the scene is softened by a
+new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise colour. In a somewhat
+changed and more personal manner, with less harshness of contour and a
+broader treatment of forms and draperies, but not less force of
+religious feeling, are the two pictures of the Dead Christ supported by
+Angels, in these days one of the master's most frequent themes, at
+Rimini and at Berlin. Chronologically to be placed with these are two
+Madonnas, one at the church of the Madonna del Orto at Venice and one in
+the Lochis collection at Bergamo; devout intensity of feeling and rich
+solemnity of colour being in the case of all these early Madonnas
+combined with a singularly direct rendering of the natural movements and
+attitudes of children.
+
+The above-named works, all still executed in tempera, are no doubt
+earlier than the date of Giovanni's first appointment to work along with
+his brother and other artists in the Scuola di San Marco, where among
+other subjects he was commissioned in 1470 to paint a Deluge with Noah's
+Ark. None of the master's works of this kind, whether painted for the
+various schools or confraternities or for the ducal palace, have
+survived. To the decade following 1470 must probably be assigned a
+Transfiguration now in the Naples museum, repeating with greatly ripened
+powers and in a much serener spirit the subject of his early effort at
+Venice; and also the great altar-piece of the Coronation of the Virgin
+at Pesaro, which would seem to be his earliest effort in a form of art
+previously almost monopolized in Venice by the rival school of the
+Vivarini. Probably not much later was the still more famous altar-piece
+painted in tempera for a chapel in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo,
+where it perished along with Titian's Peter Martyr and Tintoretto's
+Crucifixion in the disastrous fire of 1867. After 1479-1480 very much of
+Giovanni's time and energy must have been taken up by his duties as
+conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the ducal palace, in
+payment for which he was awarded, first the reversion of a broker's
+place in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and afterwards, as a substitute, a
+fixed annual pension of eighty ducats. Besides repairing and renewing
+the works of his predecessors he was commissioned to paint a number of
+new subjects, six or seven in all, in further illustration of the part
+played by Venice in the wars of Barbarossa and the pope. These works,
+executed with much interruption and delay, were the object of universal
+admiration while they lasted, but not a trace of them survived the fire
+of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and
+processional compositions come down, enabling us to compare his manner
+in such subjects with that of his brother Gentile. Of the other, the
+religious class of his work, including both altar-pieces with many
+figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable number have fortunately been
+preserved. They show him gradually throwing off the last restraints of
+the 15th-century manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the
+new oil medium introduced in Venice by Antonello da Messina about 1473,
+and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets of the
+perfect fusion of colours and atmospheric gradation of tones. The old
+intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually fades away and gives
+place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity and charm. The enthroned
+Virgin and Child become tranquil and commanding in their sweetness; the
+personages of the attendant saints gain in power, presence and
+individuality; enchanting groups of singing and viol-playing angels
+symbolize and complete the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of
+Venetian colour invests alike the figures, their architectural
+framework, the landscape and the sky. The altar-piece of the Frari at
+Venice, the altar-piece of San Giobbe, now at the academy, the Virgin
+between SS. Paul and George, also at the academy, and the altar-piece
+with the kneeling doge Barbarigo at Murano, are among the most
+conspicuous examples. Simple Madonnas of the same period (about
+1485-1490) are in the Venice academy, in the National Gallery, at Turin
+and at Bergamo. An interval of some years, no doubt chiefly occupied
+with work in the Hall of the Great Council, seems to separate the
+last-named altar-pieces from that of the church of San Zaccaria at
+Venice, which is perhaps the most beautiful and imposing of all, and is
+dated 1505, the year following that of Giorgione's Madonna at
+Castelfranco. Another great altar-piece with saints, that of the church
+of San Francesco de la Vigna at Venice, belongs to 1507; that of La
+Corona at Vicenza, a Baptism of Christ in a landscape, to 1510; to 1513
+that of San Giovanni Crisostomo at Venice, where the aged saint Jerome,
+seated on a hill, is raised high against a resplendent sunset
+background, with SS. Christopher and Augustine standing facing each
+other below him, in front. Of Giovanni's activity in the interval
+between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and of Murano and that of San
+Zaccaria, there are a few minor evidences left, though the great mass of
+its results perished with the fire of the ducal palace in 1577. The
+examples that remain consist of one very interesting and beautiful
+allegorical picture in the Uffizi at Florence, the subject of which had
+remained a riddle until it was recently identified as an illustration of
+a French medieval allegory, the _Pelerinage de l'ame_ by Guillaume de
+Guilleville; with a set of five other allegories or moral emblems, on a
+smaller scale and very romantically treated, in the academy at Venice.
+To these should probably be added, as painted towards the year 1505,
+the portrait of the doge Loredano in the National Gallery, the only
+portrait by the master which has been preserved, and in its own manner
+one of the most masterly in the whole range of painting.
+
+The last ten or twelve years of the master's life saw him besieged with
+more commissions than he could well complete. Already in the years
+1501-1504 the marchioness Isabella Gonzaga of Mantua had had great
+difficulty in obtaining delivery from him of a picture of the "Madonna
+and Saints" (now lost) for which part payment had been made in advance.
+In 1505 she endeavoured through Cardinal Bembo to obtain from him
+another picture, this time of a secular or mythological character. What
+the subject of this piece was, or whether it was actually delivered, we
+do not know. Albrecht Durer, visiting Venice for a second time in 1506,
+reports of Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter in the city, and
+as full of all courtesy and generosity towards foreign brethren of the
+brush. In 1507 Gentile Bellini died, and Giovanni completed the picture
+of the "Preaching of St Mark" which he had left unfinished; a task on
+the fulfilment of which the bequest by the elder brother to the younger
+of their father's sketch-book had been made conditional. In 1513
+Giovanni's position as sole master (since the death of his brother and
+of Alvise Vivarini) in charge of the paintings in the Hall of the Great
+Council was threatened by an application on the part of his own former
+pupil, Titian, for a joint-share in the same undertaking, to be paid for
+on the same terms. Titian's application was first granted, then after a
+year rescinded, and then after another year or two granted again; and
+the aged master must no doubt have undergone some annoyance from his
+sometime pupil's proceedings. In 1514 Giovanni undertook to paint a
+Bacchanal for the duke Alfonso of Ferrara, but died in 1516; leaving it
+to be finished by his pupils; this picture is now at Alnwick.
+
+Both in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of Giovanni
+Bellini was upon the whole the most serenely and unbrokenly prosperous,
+from youth to extreme old age, which fell to the lot of any artist of
+the early Renaissance. He lived to see his own school far outshine that
+of his rivals, the Vivarini of Murano; he embodied, with ever growing
+and maturing power, all the devotional gravity and much also of the
+worldly splendour of the Venice of his time; and he saw his influence
+propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione and
+Titian, surpassed their master. Giorgione he outlived by five years;
+Titian, as we have seen, challenged an equal place beside his teacher.
+Among the best known of his other pupils were, in his earlier time,
+Andrea Previtali, Cima da Conegliano, Marco Basaiti, Niccolo Rondinelli,
+Piermaria Pennacchi, Martino da Udine, Girolamo Mocetto; in later time,
+Pierfrancesco Bissolo, Vincenzo Catena, Lorenzo Lotto and Sebastian del
+Piombo.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Vasari, ed. Milanesi, vol. iii.; Ridolfi, _Le
+  Maraviglie_, &c., vol. i.; Francesco Sansovino, _Venezia Descritta_;
+  Morelli, _Notizia, &c., di un Assonimo_; Zanetti, _Pittura Veneziana_;
+  F. Aghietti, _Elagio Storico di Jacopo e Giovanni Bellini_; G.
+  Bernasconi, _Cenni intorna la vita e le opere di Jacopo Bellini_;
+  Moschini, _Giovanni Bellini e pittori contemporanei_; E. Galichon in
+  _Gazette des beaux-arts_ (1866); Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _History of
+  Painting in North Italy_, vol. i.; Hubert Janitschek, "Giovanni
+  Bellini" in Dohme's _Kunst und Kunstler_; Julius Meyer in Meyer's
+  _Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon_, vol. iii. (1885); Pompeo Molmenti, "I
+  pittori Bellini" in _Studi e ricerche di Storia d' Arte_; P. Paoletti,
+  _Raccolta di documenti inediti_, fasc. i.; Vasari, _Vite di Gentile da
+  Fabriano e Vittor Pisanello_, ed. Venturi; Corrado Ricci in _Rassegna
+  d' Arte_ (1901, 1903), and _Rivista d' Arte_ (1906); Roger Fry,
+  _Giovanni Bellini_ in "The Artist's Library"; Everard Meynell,
+  _Giovanni Bellini_ in Newnes's "Art Library" (useful for a nearly
+  complete set of reproductions of the known paintings); Corrado Ricci,
+  _Jacopo Bellini e i suoi Libri di Disegni_; Victor Goloubeff, _Les
+  Dessins de Jacopo Bellini_ (the two works last cited reproduce in
+  full, that of M. Goloubeff by far the most skilfully, the contents of
+  both the Paris and the London sketch-books).     (S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLINI, LORENZO (1643-1704), Italian physician and anatomist, was born
+at Florence on the 3rd of September 1643. At the age of twenty, when he
+had already begun his researches on the structure of the kidneys and had
+described the ducts known by his name (_Exercitatio anatomica de
+structura et usu renum_, 1662), he was chosen professor of theoretical
+medicine at Pisa, but soon after was transferred to the chair of
+anatomy. After spending thirty years at Pisa, he was invited to Florence
+and appointed physician to the grand duke Cosimo III., and was also made
+senior consulting physician to Pope Clement XI. He died at Florence on
+the 8th of January 1704. His works were published in a collected form at
+Venice in 1708.
+
+
+
+
+BELLINI, VINCENZO (1801-1835), operatic composer of the Italian school,
+was born at Catania in Sicily, on the 1st of November 1801. He was
+descended from a family of musicians, both his father and grandfather
+having been composers of some reputation. After having received his
+preparatory musical education at home, he entered the conservatoire of
+Naples, where he studied singing and composition under Tritto and
+Zingarelli. He soon began to write pieces for various instruments, as
+well as a cantata and several masses and other sacred compositions. His
+first opera, _Adelson e Savina_, was performed in 1825 at a small
+theatre in Naples; his second dramatic work, _Bianca e Fernando_, was
+produced next year at the San Carlo theatre of the same city, and made
+his name known in Italy. His next work, _Il Pirata_ (1827), was written
+for the Scala in Milan, to words by Felice Romano, with whom Bellini
+formed a union of friendship to be severed only by his death. The
+splendid rendering of the music by Tamburini, Rubini and other great
+Italian singers contributed greatly to the success of the work, which at
+once established the European reputation of its composer. In almost
+every year of the short remainder of his life he produced a new operatic
+work, which was received with rapture by the audiences of France, Italy,
+Germany and England. The names and dates of four of Bellini's operas
+familiar to most lovers of Italian music are: _I Montecchi e Capuleti_
+(1830), in which the part of Romeo became a favourite with all the great
+contraltos; _La Sonnambula_ (1831); _Norma_, Bellini's best and most
+popular creation (1831); and _I Puritani_ (1835), written for the
+Italian opera in Paris, and to some extent under the influence of French
+music. In 1833 Bellini had left his country to accompany to England the
+singer Pasta, who had created the part of his _Sonnambula_. In 1834 he
+accepted an invitation to write an opera for the national grand opera in
+Paris. While he was carefully studying the French language and the
+cadence of French verse for the purpose, he was seized with a sudden
+illness and died at his villa in Puteaux near Paris on the 24th of
+September 1835. His operatic creations are throughout replete with a
+spirit of gentle melancholy, frequently monotonous and almost always
+undramatic, but at the same time irresistibly sweet. To this spirit,
+combined with a rich flow of _cantilena_, Bellini's operas owe their
+popularity. "I shall never forget," wrote Wagner, "the impression made
+upon me by an opera of Bellini at a period when I was completely
+exhausted with the everlastingly abstract complication used in our
+orchestras, when a simple and noble melody was revealed anew to me."
+
+  See also G. Labat, _Bellini_ (Bordeaux, 1865); A. Pougin, _Bellini, sa
+  vie et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+BELLINZONA (Ger. _Belienz_), the political capital of the Swiss canton
+of Tessin or Ticino. It is 105 m. from Lucerne by the St Gotthard
+railway, 19 m. from Lugano and 14 m. from Locarno at the head of the
+Lago Maggiore, these two towns having been till 1881 capitals of the
+canton jointly with Bellinzona. The old town is built on some hills, on
+the left bank of the Tessin or Ticino river, and a little below the
+junction of the main Ticino valley (the Val Leventina) with that of
+Mesocco. It thus blocked the road from Germany to Italy, while a great
+wall was built from the town to the river bank. Bellinzona still
+possesses three picturesque castles (restored in modern times), dating
+in their present form from the 15th century. They belonged for several
+centuries to the three Swiss cantons which were masters of the town. The
+most westerly, Castello Grande or of San Michele, belonged to Uri; the
+central castle, that of Montebello, was the property of Schwyz; while
+the most easterly castle, that of Sasso Corbaro, was in the hands of
+Unterwalden. The 13th-century church of San Biagio (Blaise) has a
+remarkable 14th-century fresco, while the collegiate church of San
+Stefano dates from the 16th century. In 1900 the population of
+Bellinzona was 4949, practically all Romanists and Italian-speaking.
+
+Possibly Bellinzona is of Roman origin, but it is first mentioned in
+590. It played a considerable part in the early history of Lombardy,
+being a key to several Alpine passes. In the 8th century it belonged to
+the bishop of Como, while in the 13th and 14th centuries it was tossed
+to and fro between the cities of Milan and Como. In 1402 it was taken
+from Milan by Albert von Sax, lord of the Val Mesocco, who in 1419 sold
+it to Uri and Obwalden, which, however, lost it to Milan in 1422 after
+the battle of Arbedo. In 1499 (like the rest of the Milanese) it was
+occupied by the French, but in 1500 it was taken by Uri. In 1503 the
+French king ceded it to Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, which henceforth
+ruled it very harshly through their bailiffs till 1798. At that date it
+became the capital of the canton Bellinzona of the Helvetic republic,
+but in 1803 it was united to the newly-formed canton of Tessin.
+     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL (1740-1795), Swedish poet, son of a civil servant,
+was born at Stockholm on the 4th of February 1740. When quite a child he
+developed an extraordinary gift of improvising verse, during the
+delirium of a severe illness, weaving wild thoughts together lyrically
+and singing airs of his own composition. When he was nineteen he became
+clerk in a bank and afterwards in the customs, but his habits were
+irregular and he was frequently in great distress, particularly after
+the death of his patron, GUSTAVUS III. As early as 1757 he published
+_Evangeliska Dodstankar_, meditations on the Passion from the German of
+David von Schweidnitz, and during the next few years wrote, besides
+other translations, a great quantity of poems, imitative for the most
+part of Dalin. In 1760 appeared his first characteristic work, _Manan_
+(The Moon), a satirical poem, which was revised and edited by Dalin. But
+the great work of his life occupied him from 1765 to 1780, and consists
+of the collections of dithyrambic odes known as _Fredmans Epistlar_
+(1790) and _Fredmans Sanger_ (1791). Fredman and his friends were
+well-known characters in the Stockholm pot-houses, where Bellman had
+studied them from the life. No poetry can possibly smell less of the
+lamp than Bellman's. He was accustomed, when in the presence of none but
+confidential friends, to announce that the god was about to visit him.
+He would shut his eyes, take his zither, and begin apparently to
+improvise the music and the words of a long Bacchic ode in praise of
+love or wine. Most of his melodies are taken direct, or with slight
+adaptations, from old Swedish ballads, and still retain their
+popularity. _Fredman's Epistles_ bear the clear impress of individual
+genius; his torrents of rhymes are not without their method; wild as
+they seem, they all conform to the rules of style, and among those that
+have been preserved there are few that are not perfect in form. A great
+Swedish critic has remarked that the voluptuous joviality and the humour
+of Bellman is, after all, only "sorrow clad in rose-colour," and this
+underlying pathos gives his poems their undying charm. His later works,
+_Bacchi Tempel_ (The Temple of Bacchus) (1783), eight numbers of a
+journal called _Hvad behagas?_ (What you Will) (1781), in 1780 a
+religious anthology entitled in a later edition (1787) _Zions Hogtid_
+(Zion's Holiday), and a translation of Gellert's _Fables_, are
+comparatively unimportant. He died on the 11th of February 1795. Much of
+Bellman's work was only printed after his death, _Bihang till Fredmans
+Epistlar_ (Nykoping, 1809), _Fredmans Handskrifter_ (Upsala, 1813),
+_Skaldestycken_ ("Poems," Stockholm, 1814) being among the most
+important of these posthumous works. A colossal bronze bust of the poet
+by Bystrom (erected by the Swedish Academy in 1829) adorns the public
+gardens of Stockholm, and a statue by Alfred Nystrom is in the
+Hasselbacken, Stockholm. Bellman had a grand manner, a fine voice and
+great gifts of mimicry, and was a favourite companion of King Gustavus
+III.
+
+  The best edition of his works was published at Stockholm, edited by
+  J.G. Carlen, with biographical notes, illustrations and music (5
+  vols., 1856-1861); see also monographs on Bellman by Nils Erdmann
+  (Stockholm, 1895) and by F. Niedner (Berlin, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+BELLO, ANDRES (1781-1865), South American poet and scholar, was born at
+Caracas (Venezuela) on the 29th of November 1781, and in early youth
+held a minor post in the civil administration. He joined the colonial
+revolutionary party, and in 1810 was sent on a political mission to
+London, where he resided for nineteen years, acting as secretary to the
+legations of Chile, Colombia and Venezuela, studying in the British
+Museum, supplementing his small salary by giving private lessons in
+Spanish, by journalistic work and by copying Jeremy Bentham's almost
+indecipherable manuscripts. In 1829 he accepted a post in the Chilean
+treasury, settled at Santiago and took a prominent part in founding the
+national university (1843), of which he became rector. He was nominated
+senator, and died at Santiago de Chile on the 15th of October 1865.
+Bello was mainly responsible for the civil code promulgated on the 14th
+of December 1855. His prose works deal with such various subjects as
+law, philosophy, literary criticism and philology; of these the most
+important is his _Gramatica castellana_ (1847), the leading authority on
+the subject. But his position in literature proper is secured by his
+_Silvas Americanas_, a poem written during his residence in England,
+which conveys with extraordinary force the majestic impression of the
+South American landscape.
+
+  Bello's complete works were issued in fifteen volumes by the Chilean
+  government (Santiago de Chile, 1881-1893); he is the subject of an
+  excellent biography (Santiago de Chile, 1882) by Miguel Luis
+  Amunategui.     (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+
+
+BELLO-HORIZONTE, or MINAS, a city of Brazil, capital of the state of
+Minas Geraes since 1898, about 50 m. N.W. of Ouro Preto, connected with
+the Central of Brazil railway by a branch line 9 m. in length. Pop.
+(estimated) in 1906, 25,000 to 30,000. The city was built by the state
+on an open plateau, and provided with all necessary public buildings,
+gas, water and tramway services before the seat of government was
+transferred from Ouro Preto. The cost of transfer was about L1,000,000.
+The city has grown rapidly, and is considered one of the most attractive
+state capitals of Brazil.
+
+
+
+
+BELLONA (originally DUELLONA), in Roman mythology, the goddess of war
+(_bellum_, i.e. _duellum_), corresponding to the Greek Enyo. By later
+mythologists she is called sometimes the sister, daughter or wife of
+Mars, sometimes his charioteer or nurse. Her worship appears to have
+been promoted in Rome chiefly by the family of the Claudii, whose Sabine
+origin, together with their use of the name of "Nero," has suggested an
+identification of Bellona with the Sabine war goddess Nerio, herself
+identified, like Bellona, with Virtus. Her temple at Rome, dedicated by
+Appius Claudius Caecus (296 B.C.) during a battle with the Samnites and
+Etruscans (Ovid, _Fasti_ vi. 201), stood in the Campus Martius, near the
+Flaminian Circus, and outside the gates of the city. It was there that
+the senate met to discuss a general's claim to a triumph, and to receive
+ambassadors from foreign states. In front of it was the _columna
+bellica_, where the ceremony of declaring war by the fetialis was
+performed. From this native Italian goddess is to be distinguished the
+Asiatic Bellona, whose worship was introduced into Rome from Comana, in
+Cappadocia, apparently by Sulla, to whom she had appeared, urging him to
+march to Rome and bathe in the blood of his enemies (Plutarch, _Sulla_,
+9). For her a new temple was built, and a college of priests
+(_Bellonarii_) instituted to conduct her fanatical rites, the prominent
+feature of which was to lacerate themselves and sprinkle the blood on
+the spectators (Tibullus i. 6. 45-50). To make the scene more grim they
+wore black dresses (Tertullian, _De Pallio_) from head to foot. The
+festival of Bellona, which originally took place on the 3rd of June, was
+altered to the 24th of March, after the confusion of the Roman Bellona
+with her Asiatic namesake.
+
+  See Tiesler, _De Bellonae Cultu_ (1842).
+
+
+
+
+BELLOT, JOSEPH RENE (1826-1853), French Arctic explorer, was born at
+Rochefort on the 18th of March 1826, the son of a farrier. With the aid
+of the authorities of his native town he was enabled at the age of
+fifteen to enter the naval school, in which he studied two years and
+earned a high reputation. He then took part in the Anglo-French
+expedition of 1845 to Madagascar, and received the cross of the Legion
+of Honour for distinguished conduct. He afterwards took part in another
+Anglo-French expedition, that of Parana, which opened the river La Plata
+to commerce. In 1851 he joined the Arctic expedition under the command
+of Captain Kennedy in search of Sir John Franklin, and discovered the
+strait between Boothia Felix and Somerset Land which bears his name.
+Early in 1852 he was promoted lieutenant, and in the same year
+accompanied the Franklin search expedition under Captain Inglefield. As
+on the previous occasion, his intelligence, devotion to duty and courage
+won him the esteem and admiration of all with whom he was associated.
+While making a perilous journey with two comrades for the purpose of
+communicating with Sir Edward Belcher, he suddenly disappeared in an
+opening between the broken masses of ice (August 1853). A pension was
+granted to his family by the emperor Napoleon III., and an obelisk was
+erected to his memory in front of Greenwich hospital.
+
+
+
+
+BELLOWS, ALBERT F. (1829-1883), American landscape-painter, was born at
+Milford, Massachusetts, on the 20th of November 1829. He first studied
+architecture, then turned to painting, and worked in Paris and in the
+Royal Academy at Antwerp. He painted much in England; was a member of
+the National Academy of Design, and of the American Water Color Society,
+New York; and an honorary member of the Royal Belgian Society of
+Water-Colourists. His earlier work was _genre_, in oils; after 1865 he
+used water-colours more and more exclusively and painted landscapes.
+Among his water-colours are "Afternoon in Surrey" (1868); "Sunday in
+Devonshire" (1876), exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition; "New
+England Village School" (1878); and "The Parsonage" (1879). He died in
+Auburndale, Massachusetts, on the 24th of November 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY (1814-1882), American clergyman, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 11th of June 1814. He graduated at Harvard
+College in 1832, and at the Harvard Divinity School in 1837, held a
+brief pastorate (1837-1838) at Mobile, Alabama, and in 1839 became
+pastor of the First Congregational (Unitarian) church in New York City
+(afterwards All Souls church), in charge of which he remained until his
+death. Here Bellows acquired a high reputation as a pulpit orator and
+lyceum lecturer, and was a recognized leader in the Unitarian Church in
+America. For many years after 1846 he edited _The Christian Inquirer_, a
+Unitarian weekly paper, and he was also for some time an editor of _The
+Christian Examiner_. In 1857 he delivered a series of lectures in the
+Lowell Institute course, on "The Treatment of Social Diseases." At the
+outbreak of the Civil War he planned the United States Sanitary
+Commission, of which he was the first and only president (1861 to 1878).
+He was the first president of the first Civil Service Reform Association
+organized in the United States (1877), was an organizer of the Union
+League Club and of the Century Association in New York City, and planned
+with his parishioner and friend, Peter Cooper, the establishment of
+Cooper Union. In 1865 he proposed and organized the national conference
+of Unitarian and other Christian churches, and from 1865 to 1880 was
+chairman of its council. He died in New York City on the 30th of January
+1882. A bronze memorial tablet by Augustus Saint Gaudens was unveiled in
+All Souls church in 1886. His published writings include _Restatements
+of Christian Doctrine in Twenty-Five Sermons_ (1860); _Unconditioned
+Loyalty_ (1863), a strong pro-Union sermon, which was widely circulated
+during the Civil War; _The Old World in its New Face: Impressions of
+Europe in 1867-1868_ (2 vols., 1868-1869); _Historical Sketch of the
+Union League Club_ (1879); and _Twenty-Four Sermons in All Souls Church,
+New York, 1865-1881_ (1886).
+
+  See Russell N. Bellows, _Henry Whitney Bellows_ (Keene, N.H., 1897), a
+  biographical sketch reprinted from T.B. Peck's _Bellows Family
+  Genealogy_; John White Chadwick, _Henry W. Bellows: His Life and
+  Character_ (New York, 1882), a memorial address; and Charles J Stille,
+  _History of the United States Sanitary Commission_ (Philadelphia,
+  1866).
+
+
+
+
+BELLOWS and BLOWING MACHINES, appliances used for producing currents of
+air, or for moving volumes of air from one place to another. Formerly
+all such artificially-produced currents of air were used to assist the
+combustion of fires and furnaces, but now this purpose only forms a part
+of the uses to which they are put. Blowing appliances, among which are
+included bellows, rotary fans, blowing engines, rotary blowers and
+steam-jet blowers, are now also employed for forcing pure air into
+buildings and mines for purposes of ventilation, for withdrawing
+vitiated air for the same reason, and for supplying the air or other gas
+which is required in some chemical processes. Appliances of this kind
+differ from _air compressors_ in that they are primarily intended for
+the transfer of quantities of air at low pressures, very little above
+that of the atmosphere, whereas the latter are used for supplying air
+which has previously been raised to a pressure which may be many times
+that of the atmosphere (see POWER TRANSMISSION: _Pneumatic_).
+
+Among the earliest contrivances employed for producing the movement of
+air under a small pressure were those used in Egypt during the Greek
+occupation. These depended upon the heating of the air, which, being
+raised in pressure and bulk, was made to force water out of closed
+vessels, the water being afterwards employed for moving some kind of
+mechanism. In the process of iron smelting there is still used in some
+parts of India an artificial blast, produced by a simple form of bellows
+made from the skins of goats; bellows of this kind probably represent
+one of the earliest contrivances used for producing currents of air.
+
+The _bellows_[1] now in use consists, in its simplest form, of two flat
+boards, of rectangular, circular or pear shape, connected round their
+edges by a wide band of leather so as to include an air chamber, which
+can be increased or diminished in volume by separating the boards or
+bringing them nearer together. The leather is kept from collapsing, on
+the separation of the boards, by several rings of wire which act like
+the ribs of animals. The lower board has a hole in the centre, covered
+inside by a leather flap or valve which can only open inwards; there is
+also an open outlet, generally in the form of a pipe or nozzle, whose
+aperture is much smaller than that of the valve. When the upper board is
+raised air rushes into the cavity through the valve to fill up the
+partial vacuum produced; on again depressing the upper board the valve
+is closed by the air attempting to rush out again, and this air is
+discharged through the open nozzle with a velocity depending on the
+pressure exerted.
+
+The current of air produced is evidently not continuous but intermittent
+or in puffs, because an interval is needed to refill the cavity after
+each discharge. In order to remedy this drawback the _double bellows_
+are used. To understand their action it is only necessary to conceive an
+additional board with valve, like the lower board of the single bellows,
+attached in the same way by leather below this lower board. Thus there
+are three boards, forming two cavities, the two lower boards being
+fitted with air-valves. The lowest board is held down by a weight and
+another weight rests on the top board. In working these double bellows
+the lowest board is raised, and drives the air from the lower cavity
+into the upper. On lowering the bottom board again a fresh supply of air
+is drawn in through the bottom valve, to be again discharged when the
+board is raised. As the air passes from the lower to the upper cavity it
+is prevented from returning by the valve in the middle board, and in
+this way a quantity of air is sent into the upper cavity each time the
+lowest board is raised. The weight on the top board provides the
+necessary pressure for the blast, and at the same time causes the
+current of air delivered to be fairly continuous. When the air is being
+forced into the upper cavity the weight is being raised, and, during
+the interval when the lowest board is descending, the weight is slowly
+forcing the top board down and thus keeping up the flow of air.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 1 and 2.--Common Smiths' Bellows.]
+
+Hand-bellows for domestic use are generally shaped like a pear, with the
+hinge at the narrow end. The same shape was adopted for the older forms
+of smiths' bellows, with the difference that two bellows were used
+superposed, in a manner similar to that just described, so as to provide
+for a continuous blast. In the later form of smiths' bellows the same
+principle is employed, but the boards are made circular in shape and are
+always maintained roughly parallel to one another. These are shown on
+figs. 1 and 2. Here A is the blast pipe, B the movable lowest board, C
+the fixed middle board, close to which the pipe A is inserted, and D is
+the movable uppermost board pressed upon by the weight shown. The board
+B is raised by means of a hand lever L, through either a chain or a
+connecting rod, and lowered by a weight. The size of the weight on D
+depends on the air pressure required. For instance, if a blast pressure
+of half a pound per square inch is wanted and the boards are 18 in. in
+diameter, and therefore have an area of 254 sq. in., on each of the 254
+sq. in. there is to be a pressure of half a pound, so that the weight to
+balance this must be half multiplied by 254, or 127 lb. The diameter of
+the air-pipe can be varied to suit the required conditions. Instead of
+bellows with flexible sides, a sliding arrangement is sometimes used;
+this consists of what are really two boxes fitting into one another with
+the open sides both facing inwards, as if one were acting as a lid to
+the other. By having a valve and outlet pipe fitted as in the bellows
+and sliding them alternately apart and together, an intermittent blast
+is produced. The chief defect of this arrangement is the leakage of air
+caused by the difficulty in making the joint a sufficiently good fit to
+be air-tight.
+
+_Blowing Engines._--Where larger quantities of air at higher pressures
+than can conveniently be supplied by bellows are required, as for blast
+furnaces and the Bessemer process of steel-making, what are termed
+"blowing engines" are used. The mode of action of a blowing engine is
+simple. When a piston, accurately fitting a cylinder which has one end
+closed, is forcibly moved towards the other end, a partial vacuum is
+formed between the piston and the blank end, and if this space be
+allowed to communicate with the outer atmosphere air will flow in to
+fill the vacuum. When the piston has completed its movement or "stroke,"
+the cylinder will have been filled with air. On the return of the
+piston, if the valve through which the air entered is now closed and a
+second one communicating with a chamber or pipe is opened, the air in
+the cylinder is expelled through this second valve. The action is
+similar to that of the bellows, but is carried out in a machine which is
+much better able to resist higher pressures and which is more convenient
+for dealing with large quantities of air. The valves through which the
+atmosphere or "free" air is admitted are called "admission" or "suction"
+valves, and those through which the air is driven from the cylinder are
+the "discharge" or "delivery" valves. Formerly one side only of the
+blowing piston was used, the engine working "single-acting"; but now
+both sides of the piston are utilized, so that when it is moving in
+either direction suction will be taking place on one side and delivery
+on the other. All processes in connexion with which blowing engines are
+used require the air to be above the pressure of the outer atmosphere.
+This means that the discharge valves do not open quite at the beginning
+of the delivery stroke, but remain closed until the air in the cylinder
+has been reduced in volume and so increased in pressure to that of the
+air in the discharge chamber.
+
+The power used to actuate these blowing-engines is in most cases steam,
+the steam cylinder being placed in line or "tandem" with the air
+cylinder, so that the steam piston rod is continuous with or directly
+joined to the piston rod of the air cylinder. This plan is always
+adopted where the cylinders are placed horizontally, and often in the
+case of vertical engines. The engines are generally built in pairs, with
+two blowing cylinders and one high-pressure and one low-pressure steam
+cylinder, the piston rods terminating in connecting rods which are
+attached to the pins of the two cranks on the shaft. In the centre of
+this shaft, midway between the two engines, there is usually placed a
+heavy flywheel which helps to maintain a uniform speed of turning. Some
+of the largest blowing engines built in Great Britain are arranged as
+beam engines; that is to say, there is a heavy rocking beam of cast iron
+which in its middle position is horizontal. One end of this beam is
+linked by a short connecting rod to the end of the piston rod of the
+blowing cylinder, while the other end is similarly linked to the top of
+the steam piston rod, so that as the steam piston comes up the air
+piston goes down and _vice versa_. At the steam end of the beam a third
+connecting rod works the crank of a flywheel shaft.
+
+About the end of the 19th century an important development took place
+which consisted in using the waste gas from blast furnaces to form with
+air an explosive mixture, and employing this mixture to drive the piston
+of the actuating cylinder in precisely the same manner as the explosive
+mixture of coal gas and air is used in a gas engine. Since the majority
+of blowing engines are used for providing the air required in iron blast
+furnaces, considerable saving should be effected in this way, because
+the gas which escapes from the top of the furnace is a waste product and
+costs nothing to produce.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Cylinder of Early Blowing Engine
+(1851).]
+
+The general action of a blowing engine may be illustrated by the
+sectional view shown on fig. 3, which represents the internal view of
+one of the blowing cylinders of the engines erected at the Dowlais
+Ironworks as far back as 1851. Many of the details are now obsolete, but
+the general scheme is the same as in all blowing engines. Here A is the
+air cylinder; in this is a piston whose rod is marked R; this piston is
+usually made air-tight by some form of packing fitted into the groove
+which runs round its edge. In this particular case the cylinder is
+placed vertically and its piston rod is actuated from the end of a
+rocking beam. The top and bottom ends are closed by covers and in these
+are a number of openings controlled by valves opening inwards so that
+air can flow freely in but cannot return. The piston is shown moving
+downwards. Air is now being drawn into the space above the piston
+through the valves v at the top, and the air in the space A below the
+piston, drawn in during the previous up-stroke, is being expelled
+through the valve v' into the discharge chamber B, thence passing to the
+outlet pipe O. The action is reversed on the up-stroke. Thus it will be
+seen that air is being delivered both during the up-stroke and the
+down-stroke, and therefore flows almost continuously to the furnaces.
+There must, however, be momentary pauses at the ends of the strokes when
+the direction of movement is changed, and as the piston, though worked
+from an evenly rotating crank shaft, moves more quickly at the middle
+and slows down to no speed at the ends of its travel, there must be a
+considerable variation in the speed of delivery of the air. The air is
+therefore led from O into a large storage chamber or reservoir, whence
+it is again taken to the furnace; if this reservoir is made sufficiently
+large the elasticity of the air in it will serve to compensate for the
+irregularities, and a nearly uniform stream of air will flow from it.
+The valves used in this case and in most of the older blowing engines
+consist of rectangular metal plates hinged at one of the longer edges;
+these plates are faced with leather or india rubber so as to allow them
+to come to rest quietly and without clatter and at the same time to make
+them air-tight. It will be seen that some of these valves hang
+vertically and others lie flat on the bottom of the cover. The Dowlais
+cylinder is very large, having a diameter of 12 ft. and a piston stroke
+of 12 ft., giving a discharge of 44,000 cub. ft. of air per minute, at a
+pressure of 4-1/4 lb. to the square inch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Vertical Section of Lackenby Blowing Engines
+(1871).]
+
+A later design of blowing engine, built in 1871 for the Lackenby
+iron-works, Middlesbrough, is shown in section in fig. 4, and is of a
+type which is still the most common, especially in the north of England.
+Here A, the high-pressure steam cylinder, and C, the low-pressure one,
+are placed in tandem with the air cylinders B, B, whose pistons they
+actuate. In these blowing cylinders the inlet valves in the bottom are
+circular disk valves of leather, eighteen in number; the inlet valves T
+on the top of the cylinder are arranged in ten rectangular boxes, having
+openings in their vertical sides, inside which are hung leather flap
+valves. The outlet valves O are ten in number at each end of the
+cylinders, and are hung against flat gratings which are arranged round
+the circumference. The blast is delivered into a wrought iron casing M
+which surrounds the cylinder. The combined area of the inlet valves is
+860 sq. in., or one-sixth the area of the piston. The speed is
+twenty-four revolutions per minute and the air delivered at this speed
+is 15,072 cubic ft. per minute, the horse-power in the air cylinders
+being 258. The circulating pump E, air pump F, and feed pumps G, G, are
+worked off the cross-head on the low-pressure side.
+
+A more modern form of blowing engine erected at the Dowlais works about
+the end of the 19th century, may be taken as typical of the present
+design of vertical blowing engine in use in Great Britain. The two air
+cylinders are placed below and in tandem with the steam cylinders as in
+the last case. The piston rods also terminate in connecting rods working
+on to the crank shaft. The air cylinders are each 88 in. in diameter,
+and the high and low pressure cylinders of the compound steam engine are
+30 in. and 64 in. respectively, while the common stroke of all four is
+60 in. The pressure of the air delivered varies from 4-1/2 to 10 lb. per
+sq. in. and the quantity per minute is 25,000 cub. ft. Each engine
+develops about 1200 horse-power. It is to be noted that flap valves such
+as those used in the 1851 Dowlais engine have in most cases given place
+to a larger number of circular steel disk valves, held to their seats by
+springs.
+
+In a large blowing engine built in 1905 by Messrs Davy Bros. of
+Sheffield for the North-Eastern Steel Company at Middlesbrough (see
+_Engineering_, January 6, 1905) the same arrangement was adopted as in
+that just described. The two air cylinders are each 90 in. diameter and
+have a stroke of 72 in. The capacity of this engine is 52,000 cub. ft.
+of air per minute, delivered at a pressure of from 12-1/2 to 15 lb. per
+sq. in. when running at a speed of thirty-three revolutions per minute.
+The air valves consist of a large number of steel disks resting on
+circular seatings and held down by springs, which for the delivery
+valves are so adjusted in strength that they lift and release the air
+when the desired working pressure has been reached. It is worthy of note
+that in this engine no attempt is made to make the air pistons air-tight
+in the usual way by having packing rings set in grooves round the edge,
+but the piston is made deeper than usual and turned so as to be a very
+good fit in the cylinder and one or two small grooves are cut round the
+edge to hold the lubricant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Richardsons, Westgarth & Co.'s Blowing Engine.]
+
+To illustrate a blowing engine driven by a gas engine supplied with
+blast furnace gas, fig. 5 gives a diagrammatic view of the blowing
+cylinder of an engine built by Messrs Richardsons, Westgarth & Co. of
+Middlesbrough about 1905. The gas cylinder is not shown. It will be seen
+that the air cylinder is horizontal, and it is arranged to work in
+tandem with the gas motor cylinder. The chief point of interest is to be
+found in the arrangement of the details of the air cylinder. Its
+diameter is 86-1/2 in. and the length of piston stroke 55 in. As to the
+arrangement of the valves, if the piston be moving in the direction
+shown, on the left side of the piston at A air is being discharged, and
+follows the course indicated by the arrows, so as first to pass into the
+annular chamber which forms a continuation of the space A, and thence,
+through the spring-controlled steel disk valves v', into the discharge
+chamber C, which ultimately leads to the blast pipe. It will be seen
+that the valves v on the other side of the annular chamber are closed.
+At the same time a partial vacuum is being formed in the space B, to be
+filled by the inflow of air through the valves v which are now open, the
+corresponding discharge valves v' being closed. These valves on the
+inside and outside of the annular spaces referred to are arranged so as
+to form a circle round the ends of the barrel of the cylinder. The free
+air, instead of being drawn into the valves v direct from the air of the
+engine house, is taken from an enclosed annular chamber E, which may be
+in communication with the clean, cool air outside. It will be seen that
+the piston is made deep so as to allow for a long bearing surface in the
+cylinder. Two metal packing rings are provided to render the piston
+air-tight. The horse-power of this engine, which is designed on the
+Cockerell system, is 750.
+
+Air valves of other types than those which have been mentioned have been
+tried, such as sliding grid valves, rotatory slide valves and piston
+valves, but it has been found that either flap or disk lift valves are
+more satisfactory for air on account of the grit which is liable to get
+between slide valves and their seatings. In some of the blowing engines
+made by Messrs Fraser & Chalmers (see _Engineer_, June 15, 1906), sheets
+of flexible bronze act as flap valves both for admission and delivery,
+the part which actually closes the opening being thickened for strength.
+
+The pressure of the air supplied by blowing engines depends upon the
+purposes for which it is to be used. In charcoal furnaces the pressure
+is very low, being less than 1 lb. per sq. in.; for blast furnaces using
+coal an average value of 4 lb. is common; for American blast furnaces
+using coke or anthracite coal the pressure is as high as 10 lb.; while
+for the air required in the Bessemer process of steel-making pressures
+up to 25 or 30 lb. per sq. in. are not uncommon. According to British
+practice one large blowing engine is used to supply several blast
+furnaces, while in America a number of smaller ones is used, one for
+each furnace.
+
+_Rotary blowers_ occupy a position midway between blowing engines and
+fan blowers, being used for purposes requiring the delivery of large
+volumes of air at pressures lower than those of blowing engines, but
+higher than those of fan blowers. The blowing engine draws in,
+compresses and delivers its air by the direct action of air-tight
+pistons; the same effect is aimed at in a rotary blower with the
+difference that the piston revolves instead of moving up and down a
+cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Thwaites' Improved Roots' Blower.]
+
+Two of the best-known machines of this kind are Roots' and Baker's, both
+American devices. The mode of action of Roots' blower, as made by Messrs
+Thwaites Bros. of Bradford, will be clear from the section shown on fig.
+6. The moving parts work in a closed casing B, which consists of
+half-cylindrical curved plates placed a little more than their own
+radius apart, the ends being enclosed by two plates. Within the casing,
+and barely touching the curved part of the casing and each other,
+revolve two parts C, D, called "revolvers," the speed of rotation of
+which is the same, but the direction opposite. They are compelled to
+keep their proper relative positions by a pair of equal spur wheels
+fixed on the ends of the shafts on which they run. The free air enters
+the casing through a wire screen at A and passes into the space E.
+
+As the space E increases in volume owing to the movement of the
+revolvers, air is drawn in; it is then imprisoned between D and the
+casing, as shown at G, and is carried round until it is free to enter F,
+from which it is in turn expelled by the lessening of this space as the
+lower ends of the revolvers come together. In this way a series of
+volumes of air is drawn in through A, to be afterwards expelled from H
+in an almost perfectly continuous stream, this result being brought
+about by the relative variation in volume of the spaces E, F and G. In
+their most improved form the revolvers are made hollow, of cast iron,
+and accurately machined to a form such that they always keep close to
+one another and to the end casing without actually touching, there being
+never more space for the escape of air than 1/32nd of an inch. Machines
+after this design are made from the smallest size, delivering 25 cub.
+ft., to the largest, with a capacity of 25,000 cub. ft. per minute
+working up to a pressure of 3 lb. per sq. in. It is not found economical
+to attempt to work at higher pressures, as the leakage between the
+revolvers and the casing becomes too great; where a higher pressure is
+desired two or more blowers can be worked in series, the air being
+raised in pressure by steps. A blower using 1 H.P. will deliver 350 cub.
+ft. of air per minute and one using 2-3/4 H.P. will deliver 800 cub.
+ft., at a pressure suitable for smiths' fires. At the higher pressure
+required for cupola work--somewhere about 3/4 lb. per sq. in.--6-1/2
+H.P. will deliver 1300, and 123 H.P. 25,000 cub. ft. per minute. In the
+Baker blower three revolvers are used--a large one which acts as the
+rotating piston and two smaller ones forming air locks or valves.
+
+_Rotary Fans._--Now that power for driving them is so generally
+available, rotary blowing fans have for many purposes taken the place of
+bellows. They are used for blowing smiths' fires, for supplying the
+blast for iron melting cupolas and furnaces and the forced draught for
+boiler fires, and for any other purpose requiring a strong blast of air.
+Their construction will be clear from the two views (figs. 7 and 8) of
+the form made by Messrs Gunther of Oldham, Lancashire. The fan consists
+of a circular casing A having the general appearance of a snail shell.
+Within this casing revolves a series of vanes B--in this case
+five--curved as shown, and attached together so as to form a wheel whose
+centre is a boss or hub. This boss is fixed to a shaft or spindle which
+revolves in bearings supported on brackets outside the casing. As the
+shaft is rotated, the vanes B are compelled to revolve in the direction
+indicated by the arrow on fig. 7, and their rotation causes the air
+within the casing to rotate also. Thus a centrifugal action is set up by
+which there is a diminution of pressure at the centre of the fan and an
+increase against the outer casing. In consequence air is sucked in, as
+shown by the arrows on fig. 8, through the openings C, C, at the centre
+of the casing around the spindle. At the same time the air which has
+been forced towards the outside of the casing and given a rotary motion
+is expelled from the opening at D (fig. 8). All blowing fans work on the
+same principle, though differences in detail are adopted by different
+makers to meet the variety of conditions under which they are to be
+used. Where the fan is to be employed for producing a delivery or blast
+of air the opening D is connected to an air pipe which serves to
+transmit the current of air, and C is left open to the atmosphere; when,
+however, the main object is suction, as in the case where the fan is
+used for ventilation, the aperture C is connected through a suction pipe
+with the space to be exhausted, D being usually left open. Gunther fans
+range in size from those which have a diameter of fan disk of 8 in. and
+make 5500 revolutions per minute, to those which have a diameter of 50
+in. and run at from 950 to 1200 revolutions per minute. For exhausting
+the fans are run less quickly than for blowing, the speed for a fan of
+10 in. diameter being 4800 revolutions for blowing and 3300-4000 for
+exhausting, while the 50-in. fan only runs at 550-700 when exhausting.
+These two exhausting fans remove 400-500 and 12,000-15,000 cub. ft. of
+air per minute respectively.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Gunther's Blowing Fan.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Gunther's Blowing Fan.]
+
+The useful effect of rotary fans, that is to say the proportion of the
+total power used to drive the fan which is actually utilized in
+producing the current of air, is very low for the smaller sizes, but may
+rise to 30-70% in sizes above 5 ft. in diameter. It has its maximum
+value for any given fan at a certain definite speed. Fans are most
+suitable in cases where it is required to move or deliver comparatively
+large volumes of air at pressures which are little above that of the
+atmosphere. Where the pressure of the current produced exceeds a quarter
+of a pound on the square inch the waste of work becomes so great as to
+preclude their use. The fan is not the most economical form of blower,
+but it is simple and inexpensive, both in first cost and in maintenance.
+The largest fans are used for ventilating purposes, chiefly in mines,
+their diameters rising to 40 or even 50 ft. The useful effect of some of
+these larger fans, as obtained from experiments, is as high as 75%. In
+the case of the Capell fan, which differs from other forms in that it
+has two series of blades, inner and outer, separated by a curved blank
+piece between the inner wings, dipping into the fan inlet, and the outer
+wings, very high efficiencies have been obtained, being as great as 90%
+in some cases. Capell fans are used for ventilating mines, buildings,
+and ships, and for providing induced currents for use in boiler
+furnaces. In the larger fans the casing, instead of having a curved
+section, is more often built of sheet steel and is given a rectangular
+section at right angles to the periphery. The Sirocco blowing fan, of
+Messrs Davidson of Belfast, has a larger number of blades, which are
+relatively narrow as measured radially, but wide axially. It can be made
+much smaller in diameter than fans of the older designs for the same
+output of air--a great advantage for use in ships or in buildings where
+space is limited--and its useful effect is also said to be superior.
+(See also HYDRAULICS, S 213.)
+
+_Helical or screw blowers_, often called "air propellers," are used
+where relatively large volumes of air have to be moved against hardly
+any perceptible difference in pressure, chiefly for purposes of
+ventilation and drying. Most often the propeller is used to move air
+from one room or chamber to another adjoining, and is placed in a light
+circular iron frame which is fixed in a hole in the wall through which
+the air is to be passed. The propeller itself consists of a series of
+vanes or wings arranged helically on a revolving shaft which is fixed in
+the centre of the opening. The centre line of the shaft is perpendicular
+to the plane of the opening so that when the vanes revolve the air is
+drawn towards and through the opening and is propelled away from it as
+it passes through. The action is similar to that of a steamship screw
+propeller, air taking the place of water. Such blowers are often driven
+by small electric motors working directly on the end of the shaft. For
+moving large volumes of air against little pressure and suction they are
+very suitable, being simpler than fans, cheaper both in first cost and
+maintenance for the same volume of air delivered, and less likely to
+fail or get out of order. To obtain the best effect for the power used a
+certain maximum speed of rotation must not be exceeded; at higher speeds
+a great deal of the power is wasted. For example, a propeller with a
+vane diameter of 2-1/2 ft. was found to deliver a volume of air
+approximately proportional to the speed up to about 700 revolutions per
+minute, when 8000 cub. ft. per minute were passed through the machine;
+but doubling this speed to 1400 revolutions per minute only increased
+delivery by 1000 cub. ft. to 9000. At the lower of these speeds the
+horse-power absorbed was 0.6 and at the higher one 1.6.
+
+_Other Appliances for producing Currents of Air._--In its primitive form
+the "trompe" or water-blowing engine adopted in Savoy, Carniola, and
+some parts of America, consists of a long vertical wooden pipe
+terminating at its lower end in an air chest. Water is allowed to enter
+the top of the pipe through a conical plug and, falling down in
+streamlets, carries with it air which is drawn in through sloping holes
+near the top of the pipe. In this way a quantity of air is delivered
+into the chamber, its pressure depending on the height through which the
+water falls. This simple arrangement has been developed for use in
+compressing large volumes of air at high pressures to be used for
+driving compressed air machinery. It is chiefly used in America, and
+provides a simple and cheap means of obtaining compressed air where
+there is an abundant natural supply of water falling through a
+considerable height. The pressure obtained in the air vessel is somewhat
+less than half a pound per square inch for every foot of fall.
+
+Natural sources of water are also used for compressing and discharging
+air by letting the water under its natural pressure enter and leave
+closed vessels, so alternately discharging and drawing in new supplies
+of air. Here the action is the same as in a blowing engine, the water
+taking the place of the piston. This method was first thoroughly
+developed in connexion with the Mt. Cenis tunnel works, and its use has
+since been extended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Steam-jet Blower.]
+
+In the _jet blower_ (fig. 9) a jet of steam is used to induce a current
+of air. Into one end of a trumpet-shaped pipe B projects a steam pipe A.
+This steam pipe terminates in a small opening, say, one-eighth of an
+inch, through which the steam is allowed to flow freely. The effect is
+to cause a movement of the air in the pipe, with the result that a fresh
+supply is drawn in through the annular opening at C, C, and a continuous
+stream of air passes along the pipe. This is the form of blower made by
+Messrs Meldrum Bros. of Manchester, and is largely used for delivering
+air under the fire bars of boiler and other furnaces. In some cases the
+jets of steam are allowed to enter a boiler furnace above the fire, thus
+inducing a current of air which helps the chimney draught and is often
+used to do away with the production of smoke; they are also used for
+producing currents of air for purposes other than those of boiler fires,
+and are very convenient where considerable quantities of air are wanted
+at very low pressures and where the presence of the moisture of the
+steam does not matter.
+
+Sometimes jets of high-pressure air flowing at great velocities are used
+to induce more slowly-moving currents of larger volumes of air at low
+pressures.     (W. C. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Old English word for this appliance was _blastbaelig_, i.e.
+    "blow-bag," cf. German _Blasebalg_. By the 11th century the first
+    part of the word apparently dropped out of use, and _baelig, bylig_,
+    bag, is found in early glossaries as the equivalent of the Latin
+    _follis. Baelig_ became in Middle English _bely_, i.e. "belly," a
+    sack or bag, and so the general word for the lower part of the trunk
+    in man and animals, the stomach, and another form, probably northern
+    in origin, _belu, belw_, became the regular word for the appliance,
+    the plural "bellies" being still used till the 16th century, when
+    "bellows" appears, and the word in the singular ceases to be used.
+    The verb "to bellow" of the roar of a bull, or the low of a cow, is
+    from Old English _bellan_, to bell, roar.
+
+
+
+
+BELLOY, DORMONT DE, the name assumed by PIERRE LAUREXT BUIREITE
+(1727-1775), French dramatist, was born at Saint-Flour, in Auvergne, on
+the 17th of November 1727. He was educated by his uncle, a distinguished
+advocate in Paris, for the bar. To escape from a profession he disliked
+he joined a troupe of comedians playing in the courts of the northern
+sovereigns. In 1758 the performance of his _Titus_, which had already
+been produced in St Petersburg, was postponed through his uncle's
+exertions; and when it did appear, a hostile cabal procured its failure,
+and it was not until after his guardian's death that de Belloy returned
+to Paris with _Zelmire_ (1762), a fantastic drama which met with great
+success. This was followed in 1765 by the patriotic play, _Le Siege de
+Calais_. The moment was opportune. The humiliations undergone by France
+in the Seven Years' War assured a good reception for a play in which the
+devotion of Frenchmen redeemed disaster. The popular enthusiasm was
+unaffected by the judgment of calmer critics such as Diderot and
+Voltaire, who pointed out that the glorification of France was not best
+effected by a picture of defeat. De Belloy was admitted to the Academy
+in 1772. His attempt to introduce national subjects into French drama
+deserves honour, but it must be confessed that his resources proved
+unequal to the task. The _Siege de Calais_ was followed by _Gaston et
+Bayard_ (1771), _Pedro le cruel_ (1772) and _Gabrielle de Vergy_ (1777).
+None of these attained the success of the earlier play, and de Belloy's
+death, which took place on the 5th of March 1775, is said to have been
+hastened by disappointment.
+
+
+
+
+BELL or INCHCAPE ROCK, a sandstone reef in the North Sea, 11 m. S.E. of
+Arbroath, belonging to Forfarshire, Scotland. It measures 2000 ft. in
+length, is under water at high tide, but at low tide is exposed for a
+few feet, the sea for a distance of 100 yds. around being then only
+three fathoms deep. Lying in the fairway of vessels making or leaving
+the Tay and Forth, besides ports farther north, it was a constant menace
+to navigation. In the great gale of 1799 seventy sail, including the
+"York," 74 guns, were wrecked off the reef, and this disaster compelled
+the authorities to take steps to protect shipping. Next year Robert
+Stevenson modelled a tower and reported that its erection was feasible,
+but it was only in 1806 that parliamentary powers were obtained, and
+operations began in August 1807. Though John Rennie had meanwhile been
+associated with Stevenson as consulting engineer, the structure in
+design and details is wholly Stevenson's work. The tower is 100 ft.
+high; its diameter at the base is 42 ft., decreasing to 15 ft. at the
+top. It is solid for 30 ft. at which height the doorway is placed. The
+interior is divided into six storeys. After five years the building was
+finished at a cost of L61,300. Since the lighting no wrecks have
+occurred on the reef. A bust of Stevenson by Samuel Joseph (d. 1850) was
+placed in the tower.
+
+According to tradition an abbot of Aberbrothock (Arbroath) had ordered a
+bell--whence the name of the rock--to be fastened to the reef in such a
+way that it should respond to the movements of the waves, and thus
+always ring out a warning to mariners. This signal was wantonly
+destroyed by a pirate, whose ship was afterwards wrecked at this very
+spot, the rover and his men being drowned. Southey made the incident the
+subject of his ballad of "The Inchcape Rock."
+
+
+
+
+BELLUNO (anc. _Bellunum_), a city and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy,
+the capital of the province of Belluno, N. of Treviso, 54 m. by rail and
+28 m. direct. Pop. (1901) town, 6898; commune, 19,050. It is situated in
+the valley of the Piave, at its confluence with the Ardo, 1285 ft. above
+sea-level, among the lower Venetian Alps. It was a Roman _municipium_.
+In the middle ages it went through various vicissitudes; it fell under
+the dominion of Venice in 1511, and remained Venetian until 1797. Its
+buildings present Venetian characteristics; it has some good palaces,
+notably the fine early Lombard Renaissance Palazzo dei Rettori, now the
+seat of the prefecture. The cathedral, erected after 1517 by Tullio
+Lombardo, was much damaged by the earthquake of 1873, which destroyed a
+considerable portion of the town, though the campanile, 217 ft. high,
+erected in 1732-1743, stood firm. The facade was never finished.
+Important remains of prehistoric settlements have been found in the
+vicinity; cf. G. Ghirardini in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1883, 27, on the
+necropolis of Caverzano.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+BELMONT, AUGUST (1816-1890), American banker and financier, was born at
+Alzei, Rhenish Prussia, on the 8th of December 1816. He entered the
+banking house of the Rothschilds at Frankfort at the age of fourteen,
+acted as their agent for a time at Naples, and in 1837 settled in New
+York as their American representative. He became an American citizen,
+and married a daughter of Commodore Matthew C. Perry. He was the
+consul-general of Austria at New York from 1844 to 1850, when he
+resigned in protest against Austria's treatment of Hungary. In 1853-1855
+he was charge d'affaires for the United States at the Hague, and from
+1855 to 1858 was the American minister resident there. In 1860 he was a
+delegate to the Democratic National Convention at Charleston, South
+Carolina, actively supporting Stephen A. Douglas for the presidential
+nomination, and afterwards joining those who withdrew to the convention
+at Baltimore, Maryland, where he was chosen chairman of the National
+Democratic Committee. He energetically supported the Union cause during
+the Civil War, and exerted a strong influence in favour of the North
+upon the merchants and financiers of England and France. He remained at
+the head of the Democratic organization until 1872. He died in New York
+on the 24th of November 1890.
+
+His son, PERRY BELMONT (1851- ), was born in New York on the 28th of
+December 1851, graduated at Harvard in 1872 and at the Columbia Law
+School in 1876, and practised law in New York for five years. He was a
+Democratic member of Congress from 1881 to 1889, serving in 1885-1887 as
+chairman of the committee on foreign affairs. In 1889 he was United
+States minister to Spain.
+
+Another son, AUGUST BELMONT (1853- ), was born in New York on the 18th
+of February 1853 and graduated at Harvard in 1875. He succeeded his
+father as head of the banking house and was prominent in railway
+finance, and in financing and building the New York subway. In 1904 he
+was one of the principal supporters of Alton B. Parker for the
+Democratic presidential nomination, and served as chairman of the
+finance committee of the Democratic National Committee.
+
+  A volume entitled _Letters, Speeches and Addresses of August Belmont_
+  (the elder) was published at New York in 1890.
+
+
+
+
+BELOIT, a city of Rock county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated on the S.
+boundary of the state, on Rock river, about 91 m. N.W. of Chicago and
+about 85 m. S.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 6315; (1900) 10,436, of whom
+1468 were foreign-born; (1910) 15,125. It is served by the Chicago &
+North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by an
+inter-urban electric railway to Janesville, Wisconsin and Rockford,
+Illinois. Beloit is attractively situated on high bluffs on both sides
+of the river. The city is the seat of Beloit College, a co-educational,
+non-sectarian institution, founded under the auspices of the
+Congregational and Presbyterian churches in 1847, and having, in
+1907-1908, 36 instructors and 430 students. It has classical,
+philosophical (1874) and scientific (1892) courses; women were first
+admitted in 1895. The Greek department of the college has supervised
+since 1895 the public presentation nearly every year of an English
+version of a Greek play. The river furnishes good water-power, and among
+the manufactures are wood-working machinery, ploughs, steam pumps,
+windmills, gas engines, paper-mill machinery, cutlery, flour, ladies'
+shoes, cyclometers and paper; the total value of the factory product in
+1905 was $4,485,224, 60.2% more than in 1900. Beloit, founded by New
+Englanders in 1838, was chartered as a city in 1856.
+
+
+
+
+BELOMANCY (from [Greek: belos], a dart, and [Greek: manteia], prophecy
+or divination), a form of divination (q.v.) by means of arrows,
+practised by the Babylonians, Scythians and other ancient peoples.
+Nebuchadrezzar (Ezek. xxi. 21) resorted to this practice "when he stood
+in the parting of the way ... to use divination: he made his arrows
+bright."
+
+
+
+
+BELON, PIERRE (1517-1564), French naturalist, was born about 1517 near
+Le Mans (Sarthe). He studied medicine at Paris, where he took the degree
+of doctor, and then became a pupil of the botanist Valerius Cordus
+(1515-1544) at Wittenberg, with whom he travelled in Germany. On his
+return to France he was taken under the patronage of Cardinal de
+Tournon, who furnished him with means for undertaking an extensive
+scientific journey. Starting in 1546, he travelled through Greece, Asia
+Minor, Egypt, Arabia and Palestine, and returned in 1549. A full account
+of his travels, with illustrations, was published in 1553. Belon, who
+was highly favoured both by Henry II. and by Charles IX., was
+assassinated at Paris one evening in April 1564, when coming through the
+Bois de Boulogne. Besides the narrative of his travels he wrote several
+scientific works of considerable value, particularly the _Histoire
+naturelle des estranges poissons_ (1551), _De aquatilibus_ (1553), and
+_L'Histoire de la nature des oyseaux_ (1555), which entitle him to be
+regarded as one of the first workers in the science of comparative
+anatomy.
+
+
+
+
+BELPER, a market-town in the mid-parliamentary division of Derbyshire,
+England, on the river Derwent, 7 m. N. of Derby on the Midland railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901), 10,934. The chapel of St John is said to
+have been founded by Edmund Crouchback, second son of Henry III., about
+the middle of the 13th century. There is an Anglican convent of the
+Sisters of St Lawrence, with orphanage and school. For a considerable
+period one of the most flourishing towns in the county, Belper owed its
+prosperity to the establishment of cotton works in 1776 by Messrs
+Strutt, the title of Baron Belper (cr. 1856), in the Strutt family,
+being taken from the town. Belper also manufactures linen, hosiery, silk
+and earthenware; and after the decline of nail-making, once an important
+industry, engineering works and iron foundries were opened. The Derwent
+provides water-power for the cotton-mills. John of Gaunt is said to have
+been a great benefactor to Belper, and the foundations of a massive
+building have been believed to mark the site of his residence. A chapel
+which he founded is incorporated with a modern schoolhouse. The scenery
+in the neighbourhood of Belper, especially to the west, is beautiful;
+but there are collieries, lead-mines and quarries in the vicinity of the
+town.
+
+Belper (Beaurepaire) until 1846 formed part of the parish of Duffield,
+granted by William I. to Henry de Ferrers, earl of Derby. There is no
+distinct mention of Belper till 1296, when the manor was held by Edmund
+Crouchback, earl of Lancaster, who is said to have enclosed a park and
+built a hunting seat, to which, from its situation, he gave the name
+Beaurepaire. The manor thus became parcel of the duchy of Lancaster and
+is said to have been the residence of John of Gaunt. It afterwards
+passed with Duffield to the Jodrell family. In a great storm in 1545, 40
+houses were destroyed, and the place was scourged by the plague in 1609.
+
+  See C. Willott, _Historical Records of Belper._
+
+
+
+
+BELSHAM, THOMAS (1750-1829), English Unitarian minister, was born at
+Bedford on the 26th of April 1750. He was educated at the dissenting
+academy at Daventry, where for seven years he acted as assistant tutor.
+After three years spent in a charge at Worcester, he returned as head of
+the Daventry academy, a post which he continued to hold till 1789, when,
+having adopted Unitarian principles, he resigned. With Joseph Priestly
+for colleague, he superintended during its brief existence a new college
+at Hackney, and was, on Priestly's departure in 1794, also called to the
+charge of the Gravel Pit congregation. In 1805 he accepted a call to the
+Essex Street chapel, where in gradually failing health he remained till
+his death in 1829. Belsham's first work of importance, _Review of Mr
+Wilberforce's Treatise entitled Practical View_ (1798), was written
+after his conversion to Unitarianism. His most popular work was the
+_Evidences of Christianity;_ the most important was his translation and
+exposition of the Epistles of St Paul (1822). He was also the author of
+a work on philosophy, _Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind_
+(1801), which is entirely based on Hartley's psychology. Belsham is one
+of the most vigorous and able writers of his church, and the _Quarterly
+Review_ and _Gentleman's Magazine_ of the early years of the 19th
+century abound in evidences that his abilities were recognized by his
+opponents.
+
+
+
+
+BELSHAZZAR (6th century B.C.), Babylonian general. Until the
+decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, he was known only from the
+book of Daniel (v. 2, 11, 13, 18) and its reproduction in Josephus,
+where he is represented as the son of Nebuchadrezzar and the last king
+of Babylon. As his name did not appear in the list of the successors of
+Nebuchadrezzar handed down by the Greek writers, various suggestions
+were put forward as to his identity. Niebuhr identified him with
+Evil-Merodach, Ewald with Nabonidos, others again with Neriglissor. The
+identification with Nabonidos, the last Babylonian king according to the
+native historian Berossus, goes back to Josephus. The decipherment of
+the cuneiform texts put an end to all such speculations. In 1854 Sir
+H.C. Rawlinson discovered the name of Bel-sarra-uzur--"O Bel, defend the
+king"--in an inscription belonging to the first year of Nabonidos which
+had been discovered in the ruins of the temple of the Moon-god at
+Muqayyar or Ur. Here Nabonidos calls him his "first-born son," and prays
+that "he may not give way to sin," but that "the fear of the great
+divinity" of the Moon-god may "dwell in his heart." In the contracts and
+similar documents there are frequent references to Belshazzar, who is
+sometimes entitled simply "the son of the king."
+
+He was never king himself, nor was he son of Nebuchadrezzar. Indeed his
+father Nabonidos (Nabunaid), the son of Nabu-baladsu-iqbi, was not
+related to the family of Nebuchadrezzar and owed his accession to the
+throne to a palace revolution. Belshazzar, however, seems to have had
+more political and military energy than his father, whose tastes were
+antiquarian and religious; he took command of the army, living with it
+in the camp near Sippara, and whatever measures of defence were
+organized against the invasion of Cyrus appear to have been due to him.
+Hence Jewish tradition substituted him for his less-known father, and
+rightly concluded that his death marked the fall of the Babylonian
+monarchy. We learn from the Babylonian Chronicle that from the 7th year
+of Nabonidos (548 B.C.) onwards "the son of the king" was with the army
+in Akkad, that is in the close neighbourhood of Sippara. This, as Dr Th.
+G. Pinches has pointed out, doubtless accounts for the numerous gifts
+bestowed by him on the temple of the Sun-god at Sippara. So late as the
+5th of Ab in the 17th year of Nabonidos--that is to say, about three
+weeks after the forces of Cyrus had entered Babylonia and only three
+months before his death--we find him paying 47 shekels of silver to the
+temple on behalf of his sister, this being the amount of "tithe" due
+from her at the time. At an earlier period there is frequent mention of
+his trading transactions which were carried out through his
+house-steward or agent. Thus in 545 B.C. he lent 20 manehs of silver to
+a private individual, a Persian by race, on the security of the property
+of the latter, and a year later his house-steward negotiated a loan of
+16 shekels, taking as security the produce of a field of corn.
+
+The legends of Belshazzar's feast and of the siege and capture of
+Babylon by Cyrus which have come down to us from the book of Daniel and
+the _Cyropaedia_ of Xenophon have been shown by the contemporaneous
+inscriptions to have been a projection backwards of the re-conquest of
+the city by Darius Hystaspis. The actual facts were very different.
+Cyrus had invaded Babylonia from two directions, he himself marching
+towards the confluence of the Tigris and Diyaleh, while Gobryas, the
+satrap of Kurdistan, led another body of troops along the course of the
+Adhem. The portion of the Babylonian army to which the protection of the
+eastern frontier had been entrusted was defeated at Opis on the banks of
+the Nizallat, and the invaders poured across the Tigris into Babylonia.
+On the 14th of Tammuz (June), 538 B.C., Nabonidos fled from Sippara,
+where he had taken his son's place in the camp, and the city surrendered
+at once to the enemy. Meanwhile Gobryas had been despatched to Babylon,
+which opened its gates to the invader on the 16th of the month "without
+combat or battle," and a few days later Nabonidos was dragged from his
+hiding-place and made a prisoner. According to Berossus he was
+subsequently appointed governor of Karmania by his conqueror.
+Belshazzar, however, still held out, and it was probably on this account
+that Cyrus himself did not arrive at Babylon until nearly four months
+later, on the 3rd of Marchesvan. On the 11th of that month Gobryas was
+despatched to put an end to the last semblance of resistance in the
+country "and the son (?) of the king died." In accordance with the
+conciliatory policy of Cyrus, a general mourning was proclaimed on
+account of his death, and this lasted for six days, from the 27th of
+Adar to the 3rd of Nisan. Unfortunately the character representing the
+word "son" is indistinct on the tablet which contains the annals of
+Nabonidos, so that the reading is not absolutely certain. The only other
+reading possible, however, is "and the king died," and this reading is
+excluded partly by the fact that Nabonidos afterwards became a Persian
+satrap, partly by the silence which would otherwise be maintained by the
+"Annals" in regard to the fate of Belshazzar. Considering how important
+Belshazzar was politically, and what a prominent place he occupied in
+the history of the period, such a silence would be hard to explain. His
+death subsequently to the surrender of Babylon and the capture of
+Nabonidos, and with it the last native effort to resist the invader,
+would account for the position he assumed in later tradition and the
+substitution of his name for that of the actual king.
+
+  See Th. G. Pinches, _P.S.B.A._, May 1884; H. Winckler, _Zetischrift
+  fur Assyriologie_, ii. 2, 3 (1887); _Records of the Past_, new series,
+  i. pp. 22-31 (1888); A.H. Sayce, _The Higher Criticism_, pp. 497-537
+  (1893).     (A. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878), English geologist and naturalist, was born at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1832, and educated in that city. As a youth he
+became actively interested in natural history through the Tyneside
+Naturalists' Field Club. In 1852 he went to Australia and for about
+eight years worked at the gold-diggings, where he acquired a practical
+knowledge of ore-deposits. In 1860 he proceeded to Nova Scotia to take
+charge of some gold-mines, and there met with a serious injury, which
+led to his return to England. In 1861 he issued a separate work entitled
+_Mineral Veins: an Enquiry into their Origin, founded on a Study of the
+Auriferous Quartz Veins of Australia_. Later on he was engaged for about
+three years at Dolgelly, another though small gold-mining region, and
+here he carefully investigated the rocks and fossils of the Lingula
+Flags, his observations being published in an important and now classic
+memoir in the _Geological Magazine_ for 1867. In the following year he
+was appointed to take charge of some mines in Nicaragua, where he passed
+four active and adventurous years--the results being given in his
+_Naturalist in Nicaragua_ (1874), a work of high merit. In this volume
+the author expressed his views on the former presence of glaciers in
+that country. In subsequent papers he dealt boldly and suggestively with
+the phenomena of the Glacial period in Britain and in various parts of
+the world. After many further expeditions to Russia, Siberia and
+Colorado, he died at Denver on the 21st of September 1878.
+
+
+
+
+BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being
+_balz_, from which the Lat. _balteus_ probably derived), a flat strap of
+leather or other material used as a girdle (q.v.), especially the
+_cinctura gladii_ or sword-belt, the chief "ornament of investiture" of
+an earl or knight; in machinery, a flexible strap passing round from one
+drum, pulley or wheel to another, for the purpose of power-transmission
+(q.v.). The word is applied to any broad stripe, to the belts of the
+planet Jupiter, to the armour-belt at the water-line of a warship, or to
+a tract of country, narrow in proportion to its length, with special
+distinguishing characteristics, such as the earthquake-belt across a
+continent.
+
+
+
+
+BELTANE, BELTENE, BELTINE, or BEAL-TENE (Scottish Gaelic, _bealltain_),
+the Celtic name for May-day, on which also was held a festival called by
+the same name, originally common to all the Celtic peoples, of which
+traces still linger in Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland and Brittany.
+This festival, the most important ceremony of which in later centuries
+was the lighting of the bonfires known as "beltane fires," is believed
+to represent the Druidical worship of the sun-god. The fuel was piled on
+a hill-top, and at the fire the beltane cake was cooked. This was
+divided into pieces corresponding to the number of those present, and
+one piece was blackened with charcoal. For these pieces lots were drawn,
+and he who had the misfortune to get the black bit became _cailleach
+bealtine_ (the beltane carline)--a term of great reproach. He was pelted
+with egg-shells, and afterwards for some weeks was spoken of as dead. In
+the north-east of Scotland beltane fires were still kindled in the
+latter half of the 18th century. There were many superstitions
+connecting them with the belief in witchcraft. According to Cormac,
+archbishop of Cashel about the year 908, who furnishes in his glossary
+the earliest notice of beltane, it was customary to light two fires
+close together, and between these both men and cattle were driven, under
+the belief that health was thereby promoted and disease warded off. (See
+_Transactions of the Irish Academy_, xiv. pp. 100, 122, 123.) The
+Highlanders have a proverb, "he is between two beltane fires." The
+Strathspey Highlanders used to make a hoop of rowan wood through which
+on beltane day they drove the sheep and lambs both at dawn and sunset.
+
+As to the derivation of the word beltane there is considerable
+obscurity. Following Cormac, it has been usual to regard it as
+representing a combination of the name of the god Bel or Baal or Bil
+with the Celtic _teine_, fire. And on this etymology theories have been
+erected of the connexion of the Semitic Baal with Celtic mythology, and
+the identification of the beltane fires with the worship of this deity.
+This etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists, and the New
+_English Dictionary_ accepts Dr Whitley Stokes's view that beltane in
+its Gaelic form can have no connexion with _teine_, fire. Beltane, as
+the 1st of May, was in ancient Scotland one of the four quarter days,
+the others being Hallowmas, Candlemas, and Lammas.
+
+  For a full description of the beltane celebration in the Highlands of
+  Scotland during the 18th century, see John Ramsay, _Scotland and
+  Scotsmen in the 18th Century_, from MSS. edited by A. Allardyce
+  (1888); and see further J. Robertson in Sinclair's _Statistical
+  Account of Scotland_, xi. 620; Thomas Pennant, _Tour in Scotland_
+  (1769-1770); W. Gregor, "Notes on Beltane Cakes," _Folklore_, vi.
+  (1895), p. 2; and "Notes on the Folklore of the North-East of
+  Scotland," p. 167 (_Folklore Soc_. vii. 1881); A. Bertrand, _La
+  Religion des Gaulois_ (1897); Jamieson, _Scottish Dictionary_ (1808).
+  Cormac's _Glossary_ has been edited by O'Donovan and Stokes (1862).
+
+
+
+
+BELUGA (_Delphinapterus leucas_), also called the "white whale," a
+cetacean of the family _Delphinidae_, characterized by its rounded head
+and uniformly light colour. A native of the Arctic seas, it extends in
+the western Atlantic as far south as the river St Lawrence, which it
+ascends for a considerable distance. In colour it is almost pure white;
+the maximum length is about twelve feet; and the back-fin is replaced by
+a low ridge. Examples have been taken on the British coasts; and
+individuals have been kept for some time in captivity in America and in
+London. See CETACEA.
+
+
+
+
+BELVEDERE, or BELVIDERE (Ital. for "fair-view"), an architectural
+structure built in the upper part of a building or in any elevated
+position so as to command a fine view. The belvedere assumes various
+forms, such as an angle turret, a cupola, a loggia or open gallery. The
+name is also applied to the whole building, as the Belvedere gallery in
+the Vatican at Rome. For Apollo Belvidere see GREEK ART, Plate II. fig.
+55.
+
+
+
+
+BELVIDERE, a city and the county-seat of Boone county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
+in the N. part of the state, on the Kishwaukee river, about 78 m. N.W.
+of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 3867; (1900) 6937 (1018 foreign-born); (1910)
+7253. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western railway, and by an
+extensive inter-urban electric system. Among its manufactures are sewing
+machines, boilers, automobiles, bicycles, roller-skates, pianos, gloves
+and mittens, corsets, flour and dairy products, Borden's condensed milk
+factory being located there. Belvidere was settled in 1836, was
+incorporated in 1852 and was re-incorporated in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1778-1823), Italian explorer of Egyptian
+antiquities, was born at Padua in 1778. His family was from Rome, and in
+that city he spent his youth. He intended taking monastic orders, but in
+1798 the occupation of the city by the French troops drove him from Rome
+and changed his proposed career. He went back to Padua, where he studied
+hydraulics, removed in 1800 to Holland, and in 1803 went to England,
+where he married an Englishwoman. He was 6 ft. 7 in. in height, broad in
+proportion, and his wife was of equally generous build. They were for
+some time compelled to find subsistence by exhibitions of feats of
+strength and agility at fairs and on the streets of London. Through the
+kindness of Henry Salt, the traveller and antiquarian, who was ever
+afterwards his patron, he was engaged at Astley's amphitheatre, and his
+circumstances soon began to improve. In 1812 he left England, and after
+travelling in Spain and Portugal reached Egypt in 1815, where Salt was
+then British consul-general. Belzoni was desirous of laying before
+Mehemet Ali a hydraulic machine of his own invention for raising the
+waters of the Nile. Though the experiment with this engine was
+successful, the design was abandoned by the pasha, and Belzoni resolved
+to continue his travels. On the recommendation of the orientalist, J.L.
+Burckhardt, he was sent at Salt's charges to Thebes, whence he removed
+with great skill the colossal bust of Rameses II., commonly called Young
+Memnon, which he shipped for England, where it is in the British Museum.
+He also pushed his investigations into the great temple of Edfu, visited
+Elephantine and Philae, cleared the great temple at Abu Simbel of sand
+(1817), made excavations at Karnak, and opened up the sepulchre of Seti
+I. ("Belzoni's Tomb"). He was the first to penetrate into the second
+pyramid of Giza, and the first European in modern times to visit the
+oasis of Baharia, which he supposed to be that of Siwa. He also
+identified the ruins of Berenice on the Red Sea. In 1819 he returned to
+England, and published in the following year an account of his travels
+and discoveries entitled _Narrative of the Operations and Recent
+Discoveries within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs and Excavations in Egypt
+and Nubia, &c._ He also exhibited during 1820-1821 facsimiles of the
+tomb of Seti I. The exhibition was held at the Egyptian Hall,
+Piccadilly, London. In 1822 Belzoni showed his model in Paris. In 1823
+he set out for West Africa, intending to penetrate to Timbuktu. Having
+been refused permission to pass through Morocco, he chose the Guinea
+Coast route. He reached Benin, but was seized with dysentery at a
+village called Gwato, and died there on the 3rd of December 1823. In
+1829 his widow published his drawings of the royal tombs at Thebes.
+
+
+
+
+BEM, JOSEF (1795-1850), Polish soldier, was born at Tarnow in Galicia,
+and was educated at the military school at Warsaw, where he especially
+distinguished himself in mathematics. Joining a Polish artillery
+regiment in the French service, he took part in the Russian campaign of
+1812, and subsequently so brilliantly distinguished himself in the
+defence of Danzig (January-November 1813) that he won the cross of the
+Legion of Honour. On returning to Poland he was for a time in the
+Russian service, but lost his post, and his liberty as well for some
+time, for his outspokenness. In 1825 he migrated to Lemberg, where he
+taught the physical sciences. He was about to write a treatise on the
+steam-engine, when the Polish War of Independence summoned him back to
+Warsaw in November 1830. It was his skill as an artillery officer which
+won for the Polish general Skrynecki the battle of Igany (March 8,
+1831), and he distinguished himself at the indecisive battle of
+Ostrolenka (May 26). He took part in the desperate defence of Warsaw
+against Prince Paskievich (September 6-7, 1831). Then Bem escaped to
+Paris, where he supported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1833 he
+went to Portugal to assist the liberal Dom Pedro against the reactionary
+Dom Miguel, but abandoned the idea when it was found that a Polish
+legion could not be formed. A wider field for his activity presented
+itself in 1848. First he attempted to hold Vienna against the imperial
+troops, and, after the capitulation, hastened to Pressburg to offer his
+services to Kossuth, first defending himself, in a long memorial, from
+the accusations of treachery to the Polish cause and of aristocratic
+tendencies which the more fanatical section of the Polish emigrant
+Radicals repeatedly brought against him. He was entrusted with the
+defence of Transylvania at the end of 1848, and in 1849, as the general
+of the Szeklers (q.v.), he performed miracles with his little army,
+notably at the bridge of Piski (February 9), where, after fighting all
+day, he drove back an immense force of pursuers. After recovering
+Transylvania he was sent to drive the Austrian general Puchner out of
+the Banat of Temesvar. Bem defeated him at Orsova (May 16), but the
+Russian invasion recalled him to Transylvania. From the 12th to 22nd of
+July he was fighting continually, but finally, on the 31st of July, his
+army was annihilated by overwhelming numbers near Segesvar (Schassburg),
+Bem only escaping by feigning death. Yet he fought a fresh action at
+Gross-Scheueren on the 6th of August, and contrived to bring off the
+fragments of his host to Temesvar, to aid the hardly-pressed Dembinski.
+Bem was in command and was seriously wounded in the last pitched battle
+of the war, fought there on the 9th of August. On the collapse of the
+rebellion he fled to Turkey, adopted Mahommedanism, and under the name
+of Murad Pasha served as governor of Aleppo, at which place, at the risk
+of his life, he saved the Christian population from being massacred by
+the Moslems. Here he died on the 16th of September 1850. The tiny,
+withered, sickly body of Bem was animated by an heroic temper. Few men
+have been so courageous, and his influence was magnetic. Even the rough
+Szeklers, though they did not understand the language of their "little
+father," regarded him with superstitious reverence. A statue to his
+honour has been erected at Maros-Vasarhely, but he lives still more
+enduringly in the immortal verses of the patriot poet Sandor Petofi, who
+fell in the fatal action of the 31st of July at Segesvar. As a soldier
+Bem was remarkable for his excellent handling of artillery and the
+rapidity of his marches.
+
+  See Johann Czetz, _Memoiren uber Bems Feldzug_ (Hamburg, 1850); Kalman
+  Deresenyi, _General Bem's Winter Campaign in Transylvania, 1848-1849_
+  (Hung.), (Budapest, 1896).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BEMA ([Greek: baema]), in ecclesiastical architecture, the semicircular
+recess or exedra, in the basilica, where the judges sat, and where in
+after times the altar was placed. It generally is roofed with a half
+dome. The seats, [Greek: thronoi], of the priests were against the wall,
+looking into the body of the church, that of the bishop being in the
+centre. The bema is generally ascended by steps, and railed off. In
+Greece the bema was the general name of any raised platform. Thus the
+word was applied to the tribunal from which orators addressed assemblies
+of the citizens at Athens. That in the Pnyx, where the Ecclesia often
+met, was a stone platform from 10 to 11 ft. in height. Again in the
+Athenian law court counsel addressed the court from such a platform: it
+is not known whether each had a separate bema or whether there was only
+one to which each counsel (? and the witnesses) in turn ascended (cf. W.
+Wyse in his edition of Isaeus, p. 440). Another bema was the platform on
+which stood the urns for the reception of the bronze disks ([Greek:
+psiaephoi]) by means of which at the end of the 4th century the judges
+recorded their decisions.
+
+
+
+
+BEMBERG, HERMAN (1861-   ), French musical composer, was born of French
+parents at Buenos Aires, and studied at the Paris Conservatoire, under
+Massenet, whose influence, with that of Gounod, is strongly marked in
+his music. As a composer he is known by numerous songs and pieces for
+the piano, as well as by his cantata _La Mort de Jeanne d'Arc_ (1886),
+comic opera _Le Baiser de Suzon_ (1888) and grand opera _Elaine_
+(produced at Covent Garden in 1892). Among his songs the dramatic
+recitative _Ballade du Desespere_ is well known.
+
+
+
+
+BEMBO, PIETRO (1470-1547), Italian cardinal and scholar, was born at
+Venice on the 20th of May 1470. While still a boy he accompanied his
+father to Florence, and there acquired a love for that Tuscan form of
+speech which he afterwards cultivated in preference to the dialect of
+his native city. Having completed his studies, which included two years'
+devotion to Greek under Lascaris at Messina, he chose the ecclesiastical
+profession. After a considerable time spent in various cities and courts
+of Italy, where his learning already made him welcome, he accompanied
+Giulio de' Medici to Rome, where he was soon after appointed secretary
+to Leo X. On the pontiff's death he retired, with impaired health, to
+Padua, and there lived for a number of years engaged in literary labours
+and amusements. In 1529 he accepted the office of historiographer to his
+native city, and shortly afterwards was appointed librarian of St
+Mark's. The offer of a cardinal's hat by Pope Paul III. took him in 1539
+again to Rome, where he renounced the study of classical literature and
+devoted himself to theology and classical history, receiving before long
+the reward of his conversion in the shape of the bishoprics of Gubbio
+and Bergamo. He died on the 18th of January 1547. Bembo, as a writer, is
+the _beau ideal_ of a purist. The exact imitation of the style of the
+genuine classics was the highest perfection at which he aimed. This at
+once prevented the graces of spontaneity and secured the beauties of
+artistic elaboration. One cannot fail to be struck with the Ciceronian
+cadence that guides the movement even of his Italian writings.
+
+  His works (collected edition, Venice, 1729) include a _History of
+  Venice_ (1551) from 1487 to 1513, dialogues, poems, and what we would
+  now call essays. Perhaps the most famous are a little treatise on
+  Italian prose, and a dialogue entitled _Gli Asolani_, in which
+  Platonic affection is explained and recommended in a rather
+  long-winded fashion, to the amusement of the reader who remembers the
+  relations of the beautiful Morosina with the author. The edition of
+  Petrarch's _Italian Poems_, published by Aldus in 1501, and the
+  _Terzerime_, which issued from the same press in 1502, were edited by
+  Bembo, who was on intimate terms with the great typographer. See
+  _Opere de P. Bembo_ (Venice, 1729); Casa, _Vita di Bembo_, in 2nd vol.
+  of his works.
+
+
+
+
+BEMBRIDGE BEDS, in geology, strata forming part of the fluvio-marine
+series of deposits of Oligocene age, in the Isle of Wight and Hampshire,
+England. They lie between the Hamstead beds above and the Osborne beds
+below. The Bembridge marls, freshwater, estuarine and marine clays and
+marls (70-120 ft.) rest upon the Bembridge limestone, a freshwater pool
+deposit (15-25 ft.), with large land snails (_Amphidromus_ and
+_Helices_), freshwater snails (_Planorbis, Limnaea_), and the fruits of
+_Chara_. The marls contain, besides the freshwater _Limnaea_ and _Unio_,
+such forms as _Meretrix, Ostrea_ and _Melanopsis_. A thin calcareous
+sandy layer in this division has yielded the remains of many insects and
+fossil leaves.
+
+  See "Geology of the Isle of Wight," _Mem. Geol. Survey_, 2nd ed. 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER (1860-   ), American economist, was born at
+Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 7th of April 1860. He was educated at
+Amherst and Johns Hopkins University. He held the professorship of
+history and political economy in Vanderbilt University from 1887 to
+1892, was associate professor of political economy in the university of
+Chicago from 1892 to 1895, and assistant statistician to the Illinois
+bureau of labour statistics, 1896. In 1901 he became superintendent of
+the Cleveland water works. He wrote much on municipal government, his
+more important works being some chapters in _History of Co-operation in
+the United States_ (1888); _Municipal Ownership of Gas in the U.S._
+(1891); _Municipal Monopolies_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+BEMONT, CHARLES (1848-   ), French scholar, was born at Paris on the
+16th of November 1848. In 1884 he graduated with two theses, _Simon de
+Montfort_ and _La Condamnation de Jean Sansterre_ (_Revue historique_,
+1886). His _Les Chartes des libertes anglaises_ (1892) has an
+introduction upon the history of Magna Carta, &c., and his _History of
+Europe from 395 to 1270_, in collaboration with G. Monod, was translated
+into English. He was also responsible for the continuation of the
+_Gascon Rolls_, the publication of which had been begun by Francisque
+Michel in 1885 (supplement to vol. i., 1896; vol. ii., for the years
+1273-1290, 1900; vol. iii., for the years 1290-1307, 1906). He received
+the honorary degree of Litt. Doc. at Oxford in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+BEN (from Old Eng. _bennan_, within), in the Scottish phrase "a but and
+a ben," the inner room of a house in which there is only one outer door,
+so that the entrance to the inner room is through the outer, the but
+(Old Eng. _butan_, without). Hence "a but and a ben" meant originally a
+living room and sleeping room, and so a dwelling or a cottage.
+
+
+
+
+BENARES, the Holy City of the Hindus, which gives its name to a district
+and division in the United Provinces of India. It is one of the most
+ancient cities in the world. The derivation of its ancient name
+_Varanasi_ is not known, nor is that of its alternative name _Kasi_,
+which is still in common use among Hindus, and is popularly explained to
+mean "bright." The original site of the city is supposed to have been at
+Sarnath, 3-1/2 m. north of the present city, where ruins of brick and
+stone buildings, with three lofty _stupas_ still standing, cover an area
+about half a mile long by a quarter broad. Sakya Muni, the Buddha, came
+here from Gaya in the 6th century B.C. (from which time some of the
+remains may date), in order to establish his religion, which shows that
+the place was even then a great centre. Hsuan Tsang, the celebrated
+Chinese pilgrim, visited Benares in the 7th century A.D. and described
+it as containing 30 Buddhist monasteries, with about 3000 monks, and
+about 100 temples of Hindu gods. Hinduism has now supplanted Buddhism,
+and the Brahman fills the place of the monk. The modern temples number
+upwards of 1500. Even after the lapse of so great a time the city is
+still in its glory, and as seen from the river it presents a scene of
+great picturesqueness and grandeur. The Ganges here forms a fine sweep
+of about 4 m. in length, the city being situated on the outside of the
+curve, on the northern bank of the river, which is higher than the
+other. Being thus elevated, and extending along the river for some 4 m.,
+the city forms a magnificent panorama of buildings in many varieties of
+oriental architecture. The minarets of the mosque of Aurangzeb rise
+above all. The bank of the river is entirely lined with stone, and there
+are many very fine ghats or landing-places built by pious devotees, and
+highly ornamented. These are generally crowded with bathers and
+worshippers, who come to wash away their sins in the sacred river
+Ganges. Near the Manikarnika ghat is the well held to have been dug by
+Vishnu and filled with his sweat; great numbers of pilgrims bathe in its
+venerated water. Shrines and temples line the bank of the river. But in
+spite of its fine appearance from the river, the architecture of Benares
+is not distinguished, nor are its buildings of high antiquity. Among the
+most conspicuous of these are the mosque of Aurangzeb, built as an
+intentional insult in the middle of the Hindu quarter; the Bisheshwar or
+Golden Temple, important less through architectural beauty than through
+its rank as the holiest spot in the holy city; and the Durga temple,
+which, like most of the other principal temples, is a Mahratta building
+of the 17th century. The temples are mostly small and are placed in the
+angles of the streets, under the shadow of the lofty houses. Their forms
+are not ungraceful, and many of them are covered over with beautiful and
+elaborate carvings of flowers, animals and palm branches. The
+observatory of Raja Jai Singh is a notable building of the year 1693.
+The internal streets of the town are so winding and narrow that there is
+not room for a carriage to pass, and it is difficult to penetrate them
+even on horseback. The level of the roadway is considerably lower than
+the ground-floors of the houses, which have generally arched rooms in
+front, with little shops behind them; and above these they are richly
+embellished with verandahs, galleries, projecting oriel windows, and
+very broad overhanging eaves supported by carved brackets. The houses
+are built of _chanar_ stone, and are lofty, none being less than two
+storeys high, most of them three, and several of five or six storeys.
+The Hindus are fond of painting the outside of their houses a deep red
+colour, and of covering the most conspicuous parts with pictures of
+flowers, men, women, bulls, elephants and gods and goddesses in all the
+many forms known in Hindu mythology.
+
+Benares is bounded by a road which, though 50 m. in circuit, is never
+distant from the city more than five kos (7-1/2 m.); hence its name,
+Panch-kos road. All who die within this boundary, be they Brahman or low
+caste, Moslem or Christian, are sure of admittance into Siva's heaven.
+To tread the Panch-kos road is one of the great ambitions of a Hindu's
+life. Even if he be an inhabitant of the sacred city he must traverse it
+once in the year to free himself from the impurities and sins contracted
+within the holy precincts. Thousands from all parts of India make the
+pilgrimage every year. Benares, having from time immemorial been a holy
+city, contains a vast number of Brahmans, who either subsist by
+charitable contributions, or are supported by endowments in the numerous
+religious institutions of the city. Hindu religious mendicants, with
+every conceivable bodily deformity, line the principal streets on both
+sides. Some have their legs or arms distorted by long continuance in one
+position; others have kept their hands clenched until the finger nails
+have pierced entirely through their hands. But besides an immense resort
+to Benares of poor pilgrims from every part of India, as well as from
+Tibet and Burma, numbers of rich Hindus in the decline of life go there
+for religious salvation. These devotees lavish large sums in
+indiscriminate charity, and it is the hope of sharing in such pious
+distributions that brings together the concourse of religious mendicants
+from all quarters of the country.
+
+The city of Benares had a population in 1901 of 209,331. The European
+quarter lies to the west of the native town, on both sides of the river
+Barna. Here is the cantonment of Sikraul, no longer of much military
+importance, and the suburb of Sigra, the seat of the chief missionary
+institutions. The principal modern buildings are the Mint, the Prince of
+Wales' hospital (commemorating the visit of King Edward VII. to the city
+in 1876) and the town hall. The Benares college, including a first-grade
+and a Sanskrit college, was opened in 1791, but its fine buildings date
+from 1852. The Central Hindu College was opened in 1898. Benares
+conducts a flourishing trade by rail and river with the surrounding
+country. It is the junction between the Oudh & Rohilkhand and East
+Indian railways, the Ganges being crossed by a steel girder bridge of
+seven spans, each 350 ft. long. The chief manufactures are silk
+brocades, gold and silver thread, gold filigree work, German-silver
+work, embossed brass vessels and lacquered toys; but the brasswork for
+which Benares used to be famous has greatly degenerated.
+
+The Hindu kingdom of Benares is said to have been founded by one Kas
+Raja about 1200 B.C. Subsequently it became part of the kingdom of
+Kanauj, which in A.D. 1193 was conquered by Mahommed of Ghor. On the
+downfall of the Pathan dynasty of Delhi, about A.D. 1599, it was
+incorporated with the Mogul empire. On the dismemberment of the Delhi
+empire, it was seized by Safdar Jang, the nawab wazir of Oudh, by whose
+grandson it was ceded to the East India Company by the treaty of 1775.
+The subsequent history of Benares contains two important events, the
+rebellion of Chait Singh in 1781, occasioned by the demands of Warren
+Hastings for money and troops to carry on the Mahratta War, and the
+Mutiny of 1857, when the energy and coolness of the European officials,
+chiefly of General Neill, carried the district successfully through the
+storm.
+
+The DISTRICT OF BENARES extends over both sides of the Ganges and has an
+area of 1008 sq. m. The surface of the country is remarkably level, with
+numerous deep ravines in the calcareous conglomerate. The soil is a
+clayey or a sandy loam, and very fertile except in the Usar tracts,
+where there is a saline efflorescence. The principal rivers are the
+Ganges, Karamnasa, Gumti and Barna. The principal crops are barley,
+rice, wheat, other food-grains, pulse, sugar-cane and opium. The main
+line of the East Indian railway runs through the southern portion of the
+district, with a branch to Benares city; the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway
+through the northern portion, starting from the city; and a branch of
+the Bengal & North-Western railway also terminates at Benares. The
+climate of Benares is cool in winter but very warm in the hot season.
+The population in 1901 was 882,084, showing a decrease of 4% in the
+decade due to the effects of famine.
+
+The DIVISION OF BENARES has an area of 10,431 sq. m., and comprises the
+districts of Benares, Mirzapur, Jaunpur, Ghazipur and Ballia. In 1901
+the population was 5,069,020, showing a decrease of 6% in the decade.
+
+  See E.B. Havell, _Benares_ (1906); M.A. Sherring, _The Sacred City of
+  the Hindus_ (1868).
+
+
+
+
+BENBOW, JOHN (1653-1702), English admiral, the son of a tanner in
+Shrewsbury, was born in 1653. He went to sea when very young, and served
+in the navy as master's mate and master, from 1678 to 1681. When trading
+to the Mediterranean in 1686 in a ship of his own he beat off a Salli
+pirate. On the accession of William III. he re-entered the navy as a
+lieutenant and was rapidly promoted. It is probable that he enjoyed the
+protection of Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, under whom he had
+already served in the Mediterranean. After taking part in the
+bombardment of St Malo (1693), and superintending the blockade of
+Dunkirk (1696), he sailed in 1698 for the West Indies, where he
+compelled the Spaniards to restore two vessels belonging to the Scottish
+colonists at Darien (see PATERSON, WILLIAM) which they had seized. On
+his return he was appointed vice-admiral, and was frequently consulted
+by the king. In 1701 he was sent again to the West Indies as
+commander-in-chief. On the 19th of August 1702, when cruising with a
+squadron of seven ships, he sighted, and chased, four French vessels
+commanded by M. du Casse near Santa Marta. The engagement is the most
+disgraceful episode in English naval history. Benbow's captains were
+mutinous, and he was left unsupported in his flagship the "Breda." His
+right leg was shattered by a chain-shot, despite which he remained on
+the quarter-deck till morning, when the flagrant disobedience of the
+captains under him, and the disabled condition of his ship, forced him
+reluctantly to abandon the chase. After his return to Jamaica, where his
+subordinates were tried by court-martial, he died of his wounds on the
+4th of November 1702. A great deal of legendary matter has collected
+round his name, and his life is really obscure.
+
+  See Yonge's _Hist. of the British Navy_, vol. i.; Campbell's _British
+  Admirals_, vol. iii.; also Owen and Blakeway's _History of
+  Shrewsbury._
+
+
+
+
+BENCE-JONES, HENRY (1814-1873), English physician and chemist, was born
+at Thorington Hall, Suffolk, in 1814, the son of an officer in the
+dragoon guards. He was educated at Harrow and Trinity College,
+Cambridge. Subsequently he studied medicine at St George's hospital, and
+chemistry at University College, London. In 1841 he went to Giessen in
+Germany to work at chemistry with Liebig. Besides becoming a fellow, and
+afterwards senior censor, of the Royal College of Physicians, and a
+fellow of the Royal Society, he held the post of secretary to the Royal
+Institution for many years. In 1846 he was elected physician to St
+George's hospital. He died in London on the 20th of April 1873. Dr
+Bence-Jones was a recognized authority on diseases of the stomach and
+kidneys. He wrote, in addition to several scientific books and a number
+of papers in scientific periodicals, _The Life and Letters of Faraday_
+(1870).
+
+
+
+
+BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf.
+Ger. _Bank_, Dan. _baenk_ and the Eng. doublet "bank"), a long narrow
+wooden seat for several persons, with or without a back. While the chair
+was yet a seat of state or dignity the bench was ordinarily used by the
+commonalty. It is still extensively employed for other than domestic
+purposes, as in schools, churches and places of amusement. Bench or
+Banc, in law, originally was the seat occupied by judges in court; hence
+the term is used of a tribunal of justice itself, as the King's Bench,
+the Common Bench, and is now applied to judges or magistrates
+collectively as the "judicial bench," "bench of magistrates." The word
+is also applied to any seat where a number of people sit in an official
+capacity, or as equivalent to the dignity itself, as "the civic bench,"
+the "bench of aldermen," the "episcopal bench," the "front bench," i.e.
+that reserved for the leaders of either party in the British House of
+Commons. King's Bench (q.v.) was one of the three superior courts of
+common law at Westminster, the others being the common pleas and the
+exchequer. Under the Judicature Act 1873, the court of king's bench
+became the king's bench division of the High Court of Justice. The court
+of common pleas was sometimes called the common bench.
+
+Sittings in bane were formerly the sittings of one of the superior
+courts of Westminster for the hearing of motions, special cases, &c., as
+opposed to the _nisi prius_ sittings for trial of facts, where usually
+only a single judge presided. By the Judicature Act 1873 the business of
+courts sitting in bane was transferred to divisional courts.
+
+
+
+
+BENCH-MARK, a surveyor's mark cut in stone or some durable material, to
+indicate a point in a line of levels for the determination of altitudes
+over a given district. The name is taken from the "angle-iron" which is
+inserted in the horizontal incision as a "bench" or support for the
+levelling staff. The mark of the "broad-arrow" is generally incised with
+the bench-mark so that the horizontal bar passes through its apex.
+
+
+
+
+BENCH TABLE (Fr. _banc_; Ital. _sedile_; Ger. _Bank_), the stone seat
+which runs round the walls of large churches, and sometimes round the
+piers; it very generally is placed in the porches.
+
+
+
+
+BEND, (1) (From Old Eng. _bendan_), a bending or curvature, as in "the
+bend of a river," or technically the ribs or "wales" of a ship. (2)
+(From Old Eng. _bindan_, to bind), a nautical term for a knot, the
+"cable bend," the "fisherman's bend." (3) (From the Old Fr. _bende_, a
+ribbon), a term of heraldry, signifying a diagonal band or stripe across
+a shield from the dexter chief to the sinister base; also in tanning,
+the half of a hide from which the thinner parts have been trimmed away,
+"bend-leather" being the thickest and best sole-leather.
+
+
+
+
+BENDA, the name of a family of German musicians, of whom the most
+important is Georg (d. 1795), who was a pupil of his elder brother Franz
+(1709-1786), _Concertmeister_ in Berlin. Georg Benda was a famous
+clavier player and oboist, but his chief interest for modern musical
+history lies in his melodramas. Being a far more solid musician than
+Rousseau he earns the title of the musical pioneer of that art-form
+(i.e. the accompaniment of spoken words by illustrative music) in a
+sense which cannot be claimed for Rousseau's earlier _Pygmalion_.
+Benda's first melodrama, _Ariadne auf Naxos_, was written in 1774 after
+his return from a visit to Italy. He was a voluminous composer, whose
+works (instrumental and dramatic) were enthusiastically taken up by the
+aristocracy in the time of Mozart. Mozart's imagination was much fired
+by Benda's new vehicle for dramatic expression, and in 1778 he wrote to
+his father with the greatest enthusiasm about a project for composing a
+duodrama on the model of Benda's _Ariadne auf Naxos_ and _Medea_, both
+of which he considered excellent and always carried about with him. He
+concluded at the time that that was the way the problems of operatic
+recitative should be solved, or rather shelved, but the only specimen he
+has himself produced is the wonderful melodrama in his unfinished
+operetta, _Zaide_, written in 1780.
+
+
+
+
+BENDER (more correctly BENDERY), a town of Russia, in the government of
+Bessarabia, on the right bank of the Dniester, 37 m. by rail S.E. of
+Kishinev. It possesses a tobacco factory, candle-works and brick-kilns,
+and is an important river port, vessels discharging here their cargoes
+of corn, wine, wool, cattle, flour and tallow, to be conveyed by land to
+Odessa and to Yassy in Rumania. Timber also is floated down the
+Dniester. The citadel was dismantled in 1897. The town had in 1867 a
+population of 24,443, and in 1900 of 33,741, the greater proportion
+being Jews. As early as the 12th century the Genoese had a settlement on
+the site of Bender. In 1709 Charles XII., after the defeat of Poltava,
+collected his forces here in a camp which they called New Stockholm, and
+continued there till 1713. Bender was taken by the Russians in 1770, in
+1789 and in 1806, but it was not held permanently by Russia till 1812.
+
+
+
+
+BENDIGO (formerly SANDHURST), a city of Bendigo county, Victoria,
+Australia, 101 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 31,020. It is
+the centre of a large gold-field consisting of quartz ranges, with some
+alluvial deposits, and many of the mines are deep-level workings. The
+discovery of alluvial gold in 1851 brought many immigrants to the
+district; but the opening up of the quartz reefs in 1872 was the
+principal factor in the importance of Bendigo. It became a municipality
+in 1855 and a city in 1871. It is the seat of Anglican and Roman
+Catholic bishops. Besides mining, the local industries are the
+manufacture of Epsom pottery, bricks and tiles, iron-founding,
+stone-cutting, brewing, tanning and coach-building. The surrounding
+district produces quantities of wheat and fruits for export, and much
+excellent wine is made.
+
+
+
+
+BENDL, KAREL or KARL (1838-1897), Bohemian composer, was born on the
+16th of April 1838 at Prague. He studied at the organ school, and in
+1858 had already composed a number of small choral works. In 1861 his
+_Poletuje holubice_ won a prize and at once became a favourite with the
+local choral societies. In 1864 Bendl went to Brussels, where for a
+short time he held the post of second conductor of the opera. After
+visiting Amsterdam and Paris he returned to Prague. Here in 1865 he was
+appointed conductor of the choral society known as _Hlahoe_, and he held
+the post until 1879, when Baron Dervies engaged his services for his
+private band. Bendl's first opera _Lejla_ was successfully produced in
+1868. It was followed by _Bretislav a Jitka_ (1870), _Stary Zenich_, a
+comic opera (1883), _Karel Skreta_ (1883), _Dite Tabera_, a prize opera
+(1892), and _Matki Mila_ (1891). Other operas by Bendl are _Indicka
+princezna, Cernohorci_, a prize opera, and the two operas _Carovny Kvet_
+and _Gina_. His ballad _Svanda dudak_ acquired much popularity; he
+published a mass in D minor for male voices and another mass for a mixed
+choir; two songs to _Ave Maria_; a violin sonata and a string quartet in
+F; and a quantity of songs and choruses, many of which have come to be
+regarded as national possessions of Bohemia. Bendl died on the 20th of
+September 1897 at Prague.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDEK, LUDWIG, RITTER VON (1804-1881), Austrian general, was born at
+Odenburg in Hungary on the 14th of July 1804, his father being a doctor.
+He received his commission in the Austrian army as ensign in 1822,
+becoming lieutenant in 1825, first lieutenant in 1831 and captain in
+1835. He was employed for a considerable time in the general staff, and
+had risen to the rank of colonel, when he won his first laurels in the
+suppression of the rising of 1846 in Galicia (see AUSTRIA: _History_).
+In this campaign his bold leadership in the field and his capacity for
+organization were so far conspicuous that he was made a _Ritter_
+(knight) of the Leopold order by his sovereign, and a freeman
+(_Ehrenburger_) by the city of Lemberg. In 1847 he commanded a regiment
+in Italy, and on the outbreak of war with Sardinia he was placed in
+command of a mixed brigade, at the head of which he displayed against
+regular troops the same qualities of unhesitating bravery and resolution
+which had given him the victory in many actions with the Galician
+rebels. His conduct at Curtatone won for him the commandership of the
+Leopold order, and shortly afterwards the knighthood of the Maria
+Theresa order. At the action of Mortara his tactical skill and bravery
+were again conspicuous, and Radetzky particularly distinguished him in
+despatches. The archduke Albert, with whom he served, is said to have
+given him the sword of his father, the great archduke Charles. He was
+promoted major-general soon afterwards over the heads of several
+colonels senior to him, and was sent as a brigade commander to Hungary.
+Again he was distinguished as a fighting general at Raab, Komorn,
+Szegedin and many other actions, and was three times wounded. Benedek
+then received the cross for military merit, and soon afterwards was
+posted to the staff of the army in Italy. In 1852 he was made lieutenant
+field marshal, and in 1857 commander successively of the II., the IV.
+and the VIII. corps, and also a _Geheimrath_. In the political crisis of
+1854 he had command of a corps in the army of observation under Hess on
+the Turkish frontier. In the war of 1859 in Italy, Benedek commanded the
+VIII. corps, and at the battle of Solferino was in command of the right
+of the Austrian position. That portion of the struggle which was fought
+out between Benedek and the Piedmontese army is sometimes called the
+battle of San Martino. Benedek, with magnificent gallantry, held his own
+all day, and in the end covered the retreat of the rest of the Austrian
+army to the Mincio. His reward was the commandership of the order of
+Maria Theresa, and Vienna and many other cities followed the example of
+Lemberg in 1846. His reputation was now at its highest, and his great
+popularity was enhanced, in the prevailing discontent with the
+reactionary and clerical government of previous years, by the fact that
+he was a Protestant and not of noble birth. He was promoted
+_Feldzeugmeister_ and in 1860 appointed quartermaster-general to the
+army, and soon afterwards governor-general and commander-in-chief in
+Hungary, in succession to the archduke Albert. In 1861 he was made
+commander-in-chief in Venetia and the adjoining provinces of the empire,
+and in the following year he received the grand cross of the Leopold
+order. In 1864 he resigned the quartermaster-generalship and devoted
+himself exclusively to the command of the army in Italy. In 1861 he had
+been made a life-member of the house of peers. In 1866 war with Prussia
+and with Italy became imminent. Benedek was appointed to command the
+Army of the North against the Prussians, the control of affairs in Italy
+being taken over by the archduke Albert. For the story of the campaign
+of Koniggratz, in which the Austrians under Benedek's command were
+decisively defeated, see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR. Benedek took over his new
+command as a stranger to the country and to the troops. Only the
+personal command of the emperor and the requests of the archduke Albert
+prevailed upon him to "sacrifice his honour," as he himself said, in a
+task for which he felt himself ill prepared. When he took the field his
+despondency was increased by the passive obstruction which he met with
+amongst his own officers, many of whom resented being placed under a man
+of the middle class instead of the archduke Albert, and by the general
+state of unpreparedness which he found existing at the front. Further,
+his own staff was self-willed to the verge of disloyalty, and his
+assistants, Lieutenant Field Marshal von Henikstein, and Major-General
+Krismanic in particular, endeavoured to control Benedek's operations in
+the spirit of the 18th-century strategists. Under these circumstances,
+and against the superior numbers, _moral_ and armament of the Prussians,
+the Austrians were foredoomed to defeat. A series of partial actions
+convinced Benedek that success was unattainable, and he telegraphed to
+the emperor advising him to make peace; the emperor refused on the
+ground that no decisive battle had been fought; Benedek, thereupon,
+instead of retreating across the Elbe, determined to bring on a decisive
+engagement, and took up a position with the whole of his forces near
+Koniggratz with the Elbe in his rear. Here he was completely defeated by
+the Prussians on the 3rd of July, but they could not prevent him from
+making good his retreat over the river in magnificent order on the
+evening of the battle. He conducted the operations of his army in
+retreat up to the great concentration at Vienna under the archduke
+Albert, and was then suspended from his command and a court-martial
+ordered; the emperor, however, in December determined that the inquiry
+should be stopped. Benedek from this time lived in absolute retirement,
+and having given his word of honour to the archduke Albert that he would
+not attempt to rehabilitate himself before the world, he published no
+defence of his conduct, and even destroyed his papers relating to the
+campaign of 1866. This attitude of self-sacrificing loyalty he
+maintained even when on the 8th of November 1866 the official _Wiener
+Zeitung_ published an article in which he was made responsible for all
+the disasters of the war. The history of the campaign from the Austrian
+point of view as at present known leaves much unexplained, and the
+published material is primarily of a controversial character. The
+official _Osterreichs Kampfe_ speaks of the unfortunate general in the
+following terms: "A career full of achievements, distinction and fame
+deserved a less tragic close. A dispassionate judgment will not forget
+the ever fortunate and successful deeds which he accomplished earlier in
+the service of the emperor, and will ensure for him, in spite of his
+last heavy misfortune (_Last_), an honourable memory." Praise of his
+earlier career could not well be denied, and the official history is
+careful not to extend its eulogy to cover the events of 1866; the
+recognition in these words cannot therefore be set against the general
+opinion of subsequent critics that Benedek was the victim of political
+necessities, perhaps of court intrigues. For the rest of his life
+Benedek lived at Graz, where he died on the 27th of April 1881.
+
+  See H. Friedjung, _Benedeks nachgelassene Papiere_ (Leipzig, 1901, 3rd
+  and enlarged ed., 1904), and _Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in
+  Deutschland 1859-1866_ (Stuttgart, 1897, 6th ed., 1904); v.
+  Schlichtling, _Moltke und Benedek_ (Berlin, 1900), also therewith A.
+  Krauss, _Moltke, Benedek und Napoleon_ (Vienna, 1901); and a _roman a
+  cle_ by Grafin Salburg, entitled _Konigsglaube_ (Dresden, 1906). The
+  brief memoir in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ represents the court
+  view of Benedek's case.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDETTI, VINCENT, COUNT (1817-1900), French diplomatist, was born at
+Bastia, in the island of Corsica, on the 29th of April 1817. In the year
+1840 he entered the service of the French foreign office, and was
+appointed to a post under the marquis de la Valette, who was
+consul-general at Cairo. He spent eight years in Egypt, being appointed
+consul in 1845; in 1848 he was made consul at Palermo, and in 1851 he
+accompanied the marquis, who had been appointed ambassador at
+Constantinople, as first secretary. For fifteen months during the
+progress of the Crimean War he acted as charge d'affaires. In the second
+volume of his essays he gives some recollections of his experiences in
+the East, including an account of Mehemet Ali, and a (not very friendly)
+sketch of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. In 1855, after refusing the post
+of minister at Teheran, he was employed in the foreign office at Paris,
+and acted as secretary to the congress at Paris (1855-1856). During the
+next few years he was chiefly occupied with Italian affairs, in which he
+was much interested, and Cavour said of him he was an Italian at heart.
+He was chosen in 1861 to be the first envoy of France to the king of
+Italy, but he resigned his post next year on the retirement of E.A.
+Thouvenel, who had been his patron, when the anti-Italian party began to
+gain the ascendancy at Paris. In 1864 he was appointed ambassador at the
+court of Prussia.
+
+Benedetti remained in Berlin till the outbreak of war in 1870, and
+during these years he played an important part in the diplomatic history
+of Europe. His position was a difficult one, for Napoleon did not keep
+him fully informed as to the course of French policy. In 1866, during
+the critical weeks which followed the attempt of Napoleon to intervene
+between Prussia and Austria, he accompanied the Prussian headquarters in
+the advance on Vienna, and during a visit to Vienna he helped to arrange
+the preliminaries of the armistice signed at Nikolsburg. It was after
+this that he was instructed to present to Bismarck French demands for
+"compensation," and in August, after his return to Berlin, as a result
+of his discussions with Bismarck a draft treaty was drawn up, in which
+Prussia promised France her support in the annexation of Belgium. This
+treaty was never concluded, but the draft, which was in Benedetti's
+handwriting, was kept by Bismarck and, in 1870, a few days after the
+outbreak of the war, was published by him in _The Times_. During 1867
+Benedetti was much occupied with the affair of Luxemburg. In July 1870,
+when the candidature of the prince of Hohenzollern for the throne of
+Spain became known, Benedetti was instructed by the duc de Gramont to
+present to the king of Prussia, who was then at Ems, the French demands,
+that the king should order the prince to withdraw, and afterwards that
+the king should promise that the candidature would never be renewed.
+This last demand Benedetti submitted to the king in an informal meeting
+on the promenade at Ems, and the misleading reports of the conversation
+which were circulated were the immediate cause of the war which
+followed, for the Germans were led to believe that Benedetti had
+insulted the king, and the French that the king had insulted the
+ambassador. Benedetti was severely attacked in his own country for his
+conduct as ambassador, and the duc de Gramont attempted to throw upon
+him the blame for the failures of French diplomacy. He answered the
+charges brought against him in a book, _Ma Mission en Prusse_ (Paris,
+1871), which still remains one of the most valuable authorities for the
+study of Bismarck's diplomacy. In this Benedetti successfully defends
+himself, and shows that he had kept his government well informed; he had
+even warned them a year before as to the proposed Hohenzollern
+candidature. Even if he had been outwitted by Bismarck in the matter of
+the treaty of 1866, the policy of the treaty was not his, but was that
+of E. Drouyn de Lluys. The idea of the annexation of part of Belgium to
+France had been suggested to him first by Bismarck; and the use to which
+Bismarck put the draft was not one which he could be expected to
+anticipate, for he had carried on the negotiations in good faith. After
+the fall of the Empire he retired to Corsica. He lived to see his
+defence confirmed by later publications, which threw more light on the
+secret history of the times. He published in 1895 a volume of _Essais
+diplomatiques_, containing a full account of his mission to Ems, written
+in 1873; and in 1897 a second series dealing with the Eastern question.
+He died on the 28th of March 1900, while on a visit to Paris. He
+received the title of count from Napoleon.
+
+  See Rothan, _La Politique Francaise en 1866_ (Paris, 1879); and
+  _L'Affaire de Luxemburg_ (Paris, 1881); Sorel, _Histoire diplomatique_
+  (Paris, 1875); Sybel, Die Begrundung des deutschen Reiches (Munich,
+  1889), &c.     (J. W. He.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT (BENEDICTUS), the name taken by fourteen of the popes.
+
+BENEDICT I. was pope from 573 to 578. He succeeded John III., and
+occupied the papal chair during the incursions of the Lombards, and
+during the series of plagues and famines which followed these invasions.
+
+BENEDICT II. was pope from 684 to 685. He succeeded Leo II., but
+although chosen in 683 he was not ordained till 684, because the leave
+of the emperor Constantine was not obtained until some months after the
+election.
+
+BENEDICT III. was pope from 855 to 858. He was chosen by the clergy and
+people of Rome, but the election was not confirmed by the emperor, Louis
+II., who appointed an anti-pope, Anastasius (the librarian). But the
+candidature of this person, who had been deposed from the presbyterate
+under Leo IV., was indefensible. The imperial government at length
+recognized Benedict and discontinued its opposition, with the result
+that he was at last successful. The mythical pope Joan is usually placed
+between Benedict and his predecessor, Leo IV.
+
+BENEDICT IV. was pope from 900 to 903.
+
+BENEDICT V. was pope from 964 to 965. He was elected by the Romans on
+the death of John XII. The emperor Otto I. did not approve of the
+choice, and carried off the pope to Hamburg, where he died.
+
+BENEDICT VI. was pope from 972 to 974. He was chosen with great ceremony
+and installed pope under the protection of the emperor, Otto the Great.
+On the death of the emperor the turbulent citizens of Rome renewed their
+outrages, and the pope himself was strangled by order of Crescentius,
+the son of the notorious Theodora, who replaced him by a deacon called
+Franco. This Franco took the name of Boniface VII.
+
+BENEDICT VII. was pope from 974 to 983. He was elected through the
+intervention of a representative of the emperor, Count Sicco, who drove
+out the intruded Franco (afterwards Pope Boniface VII.). Benedict
+governed Rome quietly for nearly nine years, a somewhat rare thing in
+those days.
+
+BENEDICT VIII., pope from 1012 to 1024, was called originally
+Theophylactus. He was a member of the family of the count of Tusculum,
+and was opposed by an anti-pope, Gregory, but defeated him with the aid
+of King Henry II. of Saxony, whom he crowned emperor in 1014. In his
+pontificate the Saracens began to attack the southern coasts of Europe,
+and effected a settlement in Sardinia. The Normans also then began to
+settle in Italy. In Italy Benedict supported the policy of the emperor,
+Henry II., and at the council of Pavia (1022) exerted himself in favour
+of ecclesiastical discipline, then in a state of great decadence.
+
+BENEDICT IX., pope from 1033 to 1056, son of Alberic, count of Tusculum,
+and nephew of Benedict VIII., was also called Theophylactus. He was
+installed pope at the age of twelve through the influence of his father.
+The disorders of his conduct, though tolerated by the emperors, Conrad
+II. and Henry III., who were then morally responsible for the
+pontificate, at length disgusted the Romans, who drove him out in 1044
+and appointed Silvester III. his successor. Silvester remained in the
+papal chair but a few weeks, as the people of Tusculum quickly recovered
+their influence and reinstated their pope. Benedict, however, was
+obliged to bow before the execration of the Romans. He sold his rights
+to his godfather, the priest Johannes Gratianus, who was installed under
+the name of Gregory VI. (1045). The following year Henry III. obtained
+at the council of Sutri the deposition of the three competing popes, and
+replaced them by Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of
+Clement II. But before the close of 1047 Clement II. died, probably from
+poison administered by Benedict, who was reinstalled for the third time.
+At last, on the 17th of July 1048, the marquis of Tuscany drove him from
+Rome, where he was never seen again. He lived several years after his
+expulsion and appears to have died impenitent.
+
+BENEDICT X. (Johannes "Mincius," i.e. the lout or dolt, bishop of
+Velletri) was pope from 1058 to 1059. He was elected on the death of
+Stephen IX. through the influence of the Roman barons, who, however, had
+pledged themselves to take no action without Hildebrand, who was then
+absent from Rome. Hildebrand did not recognize him, and put forward an
+opposition pope in the person of Gerard, bishop of Florence (pope as
+Nicholas II.), whom he supported against the Roman aristocracy. With the
+help of the Normans, Hildebrand seized the castle of Galeria, where
+Benedict had taken refuge, and degraded him to the rank of a simple
+priest.     (L. D.*)
+
+BENEDICT XI. (Niccolo Boccasini), pope from 1303 to 1304, the son of a
+notary, was born in 1240 at Treviso. Entering the Dominican order in
+1254, he became lector, prior of the convent, provincial of his order in
+Lombardy, and in 1296 its general. In 1298 he was created cardinal
+priest of Santa Sabina, and in 1300 cardinal bishop of Ostia and
+Velletri. In 1302 he was papal legate in Hungary. On the 22nd of October
+1303 he was unanimously elected pope. He did much to conciliate the
+enemies made by his predecessor Boniface VIII., notably France, the
+Colonnas and King Frederick II. of Sicily; nevertheless on the 7th of
+June 1304 he excommunicated William of Nogaret and all the Italians who
+had captured Boniface in Anagni. Benedict died at Perugia on the 7th of
+July 1304; if he was really poisoned, as report had it, suspicion would
+fall primarily on Nogaret. His successor Clement V. transferred the
+papal residence to Avignon. Among Benedict's works are commentaries on
+part of the Psalms and on the Gospel of Matthew. His beatification took
+place in 1733.
+
+  See C. Grandjean, "Registres de Benoit XI." (Paris, 1883 ff.),
+  _Bibliotheque des Ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome._
+
+BENEDICT XII. (Jacques Fournier), pope from 1334 to 1342, the son of a
+miller, was born at Saverdun on the Arriege. Entering the Cistercian
+cloister Bolbonne, and graduating doctor of theology at Paris, he became
+in 1311 abbot of Fontfroide, in 1317 bishop of Pamiers and in 1326 of
+Mirepoix. Created cardinal priest of Santa Prisca in 1327 by his uncle
+John XXII. he was elected his successor on the 20th of December 1334.
+Benedict made appointments carefully, reformed monastic orders and
+consistently opposed nepotism. Unable to remove his capital to Rome or
+to Bologna, he began to erect a great palace at Avignon. In 1336 he
+decided against a pet notion of John XXII. by saying that souls of
+saints may attain the fulness of the beatific vision _before_ the last
+judgment. In 1339 he entered upon fruitless negotiations looking toward
+the reunion of the Greek and Roman churches. French influence made
+futile his attempt to come to an understanding with the emperor Louis
+the Bavarian. He died on the 25th of April 1342.
+
+  See the source publications of G. Daumet (_Lettres closes, patentes et
+  curiales_, ... Paris, 1899 ff.), and J.-M. Vidal (_Lettres communes_,
+  ... Paris, 1903 ff.).     (W. W. R.*)
+
+BENEDICT XIII. (Pedro de Luna), (c. 1328-1422 or 1423), anti-pope,
+belonged to one of the most noble families in Aragon. His high birth,
+his legal learning--he was for a long time professor of canon law at
+Montpellier--and the irreproachable purity of his life, recommended him
+to Pope Gregory XI, who created him cardinal in 1375. He was almost the
+only one who succeeded in making a firm stand in the tumultuous
+conclave of 1378; but the deliberation with which he made up his mind as
+to the validity of the election of Urban VI. was equalled, when he took
+the side of Clement VII., by the ardour and resourcefulness which he
+displayed in defending the cause of the pope of Avignon; it was mainly
+to him that the latter owed his recognition by Castile, Aragon and
+Navarre. When elected pope, or rather anti-pope, by the cardinals of
+Avignon, on the 28th of September 1394, it was he who by his astuteness,
+his resolution, and, it may be added, by his unswerving faith in the
+justice of his cause, was to succeed in prolonging the lamentable schism
+of the West for thirty years. The hopes he had aroused that, by a
+voluntary abdication, he would restore unity to the church, were vain;
+though called upon by the princes of France to carry out his plan,
+abandoned by his cardinals, besieged and finally kept under close
+observation in the palace of the popes (1398-1403), he stood firm, and
+tired out the fury of his opponents. Escaping from Avignon, he again won
+obedience in France, and his one thought was how to triumph over his
+Italian rival, if necessary, by force. He yielded, however, to the
+instances of the government of Charles VI., and pretending that he
+wished to have an interview with Gregory XII., with a view to their
+simultaneous abdication, he advanced to Savona, and then to Porto
+Venere. The failure of these negotiations, for which he was only in part
+responsible, led to the universal movement of indignation and
+impatience, which ended, in France, in the declaration of neutrality
+(1408), and at Pisa, in the decree of deposition against the two
+pontiffs (1409). Benedict XIII., who had on his part tried to call
+together a council at Perpignan, was by this time recognized hardly
+anywhere but in his native land, in Scotland, and in the estates of the
+countship of Armagnac. He remained none the less full of energy and of
+illusions, repulsed the overtures of Sigismund, king of the Romans, who
+had come to Perpignan to persuade him to abdicate, and, abandoned by
+nearly all his adherents, he took refuge in the impregnable castle of
+Peniscola, on a rock dominating the Mediterranean (1415). The council of
+Constance then deposed him, as a perjurer, an incurable schismatic and a
+heretic (26th July 1417). After struggling with the popes of Rome, Urban
+VI., Boniface IX., Innocent VII. and Gregory XII., and against the popes
+of Pisa, Alexander V. and John XXIII., Pedro de Luna, clinging more than
+ever to that apostolic seat which he still professed not to desire,
+again took up the struggle against Martin V., although the latter was
+recognized throughout almost all Christendom, and, before his death
+(29th November 1422, or 23rd May 1423), he nominated four new cardinals
+in order to carry the schism on even after him.
+
+  See Fr. Ehrle, _Archiv fur Lit. und Kirchengesch._ vols. v., vi.,
+  vii.; N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme d'occident_ (4 vols.,
+  Paris, 1896-1902); Fr. Ehrle, "Martin de Alpartils chronica
+  actitatorum temporibus domini Benedicti XIII." (_Quellen und
+  Forschungen aus dem Geb. der Gesch._, Gorres-Gesellschaft, Paderborn,
+  1906).     (N. V.)
+
+BENEDICT XIII. (Piero Francesco Orsini), pope from 1724 to 1730, at
+first styled Benedict XIV., was born on the 2nd of February 1649, of the
+ducal family of Orsini-Gravina. In 1667 he became a Dominican (as
+Vincentius Maria), studied theology and philosophy, was made a cardinal
+in 1672 and archbishop of Benevento in 1686. Elected pope on the 29th of
+May 1724, he attempted to reform clerical morals; but neither the
+decrees of the Latin council (1725) nor his personal precepts had much
+effect. He confirmed the bull _Unigenitus_; but, despite the Jesuits,
+allowed the Dominicans to preach the Augustinian doctrine of grace.
+State affairs he left entirely to the unpopular Cardinal Nicolo Coscia.
+He died on the 21st of February 1730. His works, were published in 3
+vols. at Ravenna in 1728.
+
+BENEDICT XIV. (Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini), pope from 1740 to 1758, was
+born at Bologna on the 31st of March 1675. At the age of thirteen he
+entered the Collegium Clementinum at Rome. He served the Curia in many
+and important capacities, yet devoted his leisure time to theological
+and canonistic study. Benedict XIII. made him archbishop of Theodosia
+_in partibus_, then of Ancona (1727), and the next year created him
+cardinal priest. In 1731 Clement XII. translated him to his native city
+of Bologna, where as archbishop he was both efficient and popular. He
+published valuable works, notably _De servorum Dei beatificatione et
+canonizatione, De sacrificio missae_, as well as a treatise on the
+feasts of Christ and the Virgin and of some saints honoured in Bologna.
+In a conclave which had lasted for months he was elected on the 17th of
+August 1740 the successor of Clement XII. Benedict XIV. was not merely
+earnest and conscientious, but of incisive intellect, and unfailingly
+cheerful and witty. In several respects he bettered the economic
+conditions of the papal states, but was disinclined to undertake the
+needed thorough-going reform of its administration. In foreign politics
+he made important concessions to Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, Spain, and
+was the first pope expressly to recognize the king of Prussia as such.
+In 1741 he issued the bull _Immensa pastorum principis_, demanding more
+humane treatment for the Indians of Brazil and Paraguay, and in the
+bulls _Ex quo singulari_ (1742) and _Omnium sollicitudinum_ (1744) he
+rebuked the missionary methods of the Jesuits in accommodating their
+message to the heathen usages of the Chinese and of the natives of
+Malabar. In accord with the spirit of the age he reduced the number of
+holy days in several Catholic countries. To the end of his life he kept
+up his studies and his intercourse with other scholars, and founded
+several learned societies. His masterpiece, _Libri octo de synoda
+diocesana_, begun in Bologna, appeared during his pontificate. He died
+on the 3rd of May 1758.
+
+  His works, published in twelve quarto volumes at Rome (1747-1751),
+  appeared in more nearly complete editions at Venice in 1767 and at
+  Prato, 1839-1846; also _Briefe Benedicts XIV._, ed. F.X. Kraus (2nd
+  ed., Freiburg, 1888); _Benedicti XIV. Papae opera inedita_, ed. F.
+  Heiner (Freiburg, 1904). See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, ii. 572
+  ff.; Wetzer and Welter, _Kirchenlexikon_, ii. 317 ff.     (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN (d. 1268), Benedictine abbot of Notre Dame de la
+Grasse (1224) and bishop of Marseilles (1229), twice visited the Holy
+Land (1239 and 1260), where he helped the Templars build the great
+castle of Safet. He founded a short-lived order, the Brothers of the
+Virgin, suppressed by the council of Lyons (1274), and died a
+Franciscan. His writings include a letter to Innocent IV. and _De
+constructione Castri Saphet_ (Baluze, _Miscellanea_, ii.).
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT (c. 480-c. 544), the patriarch of Western
+monks. Our only authority for the facts of St Benedict's life is bk. ii
+of St Gregory's _Dialogues_. St Gregory declares that he obtained his
+information from four of St Benedict's disciples, whom he names; and
+there can be no serious reason for doubting that it is possible to
+reconstruct the outlines of St Benedict's career (see Hodgkin, _Italy
+and her Invaders_, iv. 412). A precise chronology and a pedigree have
+been supplied for Benedict, according to which he was born in 480, of
+the great family of the Anicii; but all we know is what St Gregory tells
+us, that he was born of good family in Nursia, near Spoleto in Umbria.
+His birth must have occurred within a few years of the date assigned;
+the only fixed chronological point is a visit of the Gothic king Totila
+to him in 543, when Benedict was already established at Monte Cassino
+and advanced in years (_Dial_. ii. 14, 15). He was sent by his parents
+to frequent the Roman schools, but shocked by the prevailing
+licentiousness he fled away. It has been usual to represent him as a
+mere boy at this time, but of late years various considerations have
+been pointed out which make it more likely that he was a young man. He
+went to the mountainous districts of the Abruzzi, and at last came to
+the ruins of Nero's palace and the artificial lake at Subiaco, 40 m.
+from Rome. Among the rocks on the side of the valley opposite the palace
+he found a cave in which he took up his abode, unknown to all except one
+friend, Romanus, a monk of a neighbouring monastery, who clothed him in
+the monastic habit and secretly supplied him with food. No one who has
+seen the spot will doubt that the Sacro Speco is indeed the cave wherein
+Benedict spent the three years of opening manhood in solitary prayer,
+contemplation and austerity. After this period of formation his fame
+began to spread abroad, and the monks of a neighbouring monastery
+induced him to become their abbot; but their lives were irregular and
+dissolute, and on his trying to put down abuses they attempted to
+poison him. He returned to his cave, but disciples flocked to him, and
+in time he formed twelve monasteries in the neighbourhood, placing
+twelve monks in each, and himself retaining a general control over all.
+In time patricians and senators from Rome entrusted their young sons to
+his care, to be brought up as monks; in this manner came to him his two
+best-known disciples, Maurus and Placidus. Driven from Subiaco by the
+jealousy and molestations of a neighbouring priest, but leaving behind
+him communities in his twelve monasteries, he himself, accompanied by a
+small band of disciples, journeyed south until he came to Cassino, a
+town halfway between Rome and Naples. Climbing the high mountain that
+overhangs the town, he established on the summit the monastery with
+which his name has ever since been associated, and which for centuries
+was a chief centre of religious life for western Europe. He destroyed
+the remnants of paganism that lingered on here, and by his preaching
+gained the rustic population to Christianity. Few other facts of his
+career are known: there is record of his founding a monastery at
+Terracina; his death must have occurred soon after Totila's visit in
+543.
+
+_Rule of St Benedict._--In order to understand St Benedict's character
+and spirit, and to discover the secret of the success of his institute,
+it is necessary, as St Gregory says, to turn to his Rule. St Gregory's
+characterization of the Rule as "conspicuous for its discretion" touches
+the most essential quality. The relation of St Benedict's Rule to
+earlier monastic rules, and of his institute to the prevailing monachism
+of his day, is explained in the article MONASTICISM. Here it is enough
+to say that nowadays it is commonly recognized by students that the
+manner of life instituted by St Benedict was not intended to be, and as
+a matter of fact was not, one of any great austerity, when judged by the
+standard of his own day (see E.C. Butler, _Lausiac History of
+Palladius_, part i. pp. 251-256). His monks were allowed proper clothes,
+sufficient food, ample sleep. The only bodily austerities were the
+abstinence from flesh meat and the unbroken fast till mid-day or even 3
+P.M., but neither would appear so onerous in Italy even now, as to us in
+northern climes. Midnight office was no part of St Benedict's Rule: the
+time for rising for the night office varied from 1.30 to 3.0, according
+to the season, and the monks had had unbroken sleep for 7-1/2 or even 8
+hours, except in the hot weather, when in compensation they were allowed
+the traditional Italian summer siesta after the mid-day meal. The
+canonical office was chanted throughout, but the directly religious
+duties of the day can hardly have taken more than 4 or 5 hours--perhaps
+8 on Sundays. The remaining hours of the day were divided between work
+and reading, in the proportion (on the average of the whole year) of
+about 6 and 4 hours respectively. The "reading" in St Benedict's time
+was probably confined to the Bible and the Fathers. The "work"
+contemplated by St Benedict was ordinarily field work, as was natural in
+view of the conditions of the time and best suited to the majority of
+the monks; but the principle laid down is that the monks should do
+whatever work is most useful. There were from the beginning young boys
+in the monastery, who were educated by the monks according to the ideas
+of the time. We have seen St Benedict evangelizing the pagan population
+round Monte Cassino; and a considerable time each day is assigned to the
+reading of the Fathers. Thus the germs of all the chief works carried on
+by his monks in later ages were to be found in his own monastery.
+
+The Rule consists of a prologue and 73 chapters. Though it has resisted
+all attempts to reduce it to an ordered scheme, and probably was not
+written on any set plan, still it is possible roughly to indicate its
+contents: after the prologue and introductory chapter setting forth St
+Benedict's intention, follow instructions to the abbot on the manner in
+which he should govern his monastery (2,3); next comes the ascetical
+portion of the Rule, on the chief monastic virtues (4-7); then the
+regulations for the celebration of the canonical office, which St
+Benedict calls "the Work of God" or "the divine work," his monks' first
+duty, "of which nothing is to take precedence" (8-20); faults and
+punishments (23-30); the cellarer and property of the monastery (31,
+32); community of goods (33, 34); various officials and daily life (21,
+22, 35-57); reception of monks (58-61); miscellaneous (62-73).
+
+The most remarkable chapters, in which St Benedict's wisdom stands out
+most conspicuously, are those on the abbot (2,3, 27,64). The abbot is to
+govern the monastery with full and unquestioned patriarchal authority;
+on important matters he must consult the whole community and hear what
+each one, even the youngest, thinks; on matters of less weight he should
+consult a few of the elder monks; but in either case the decision rests
+entirely with him, and all are to acquiesce. He must, however, bear in
+mind that he will have to render an account of all his decisions and to
+answer for the souls of all his monks before the judgment seat of God.
+Moreover, he has to govern in accordance with the Rule, and must
+endeavour, while enforcing discipline and implanting virtues, not to
+sadden or "overdrive" his monks, or give them cause for "just
+murmuring." In these chapters pre-eminently appears that element of
+"discretion," as St Gregory calls it, or humanism as it would now be
+termed, which without doubt has been a chief cause of the success of the
+Rule. There is as yet no satisfactory text of the Rule, either critical
+or manual; the best manual text is Schmidt's _editio minor_ (Regensburg,
+1892). Of the many commentaries the most valuable are those of Paulus
+Diaconus (the earliest, c. 800), of Calmet and of Martene (Migne,
+_Patrol. Lat._ lxvi.).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--An old English translation of St Gregory's _Dialogues_
+  is reprinted in the Quarterly Series (Burns & Oates). On St Benedict's
+  life and Rule see Montalembert, _Monks of the West_, bk. iv.; Abbate
+  L. Tosti, _S. Benedetto_ (translated 1896); also Indexes to standard
+  general histories of the period; Thomas Hodgkin's _Italy and Her
+  Invaders_ and Gregorovius' _History of the City of Rome_ may be
+  specially mentioned. But by far the best summaries in English are
+  those contained in the relevant portions of F.H. Dudden's _Gregory the
+  Great_ (1905), i. 107-115, ii. 160-169; on the recent criticism of the
+  text and contents of the Rule, see Otto Zockler, _Askese und Monchtum_
+  (1897), 355-371; and E.C. Butler, articles in _Downside Review_,
+  December 1899, and _Journal of Theological Studies_, April 1902.
+       (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS (1804-1885), musical composer, was born in
+Stuttgart on the 27th of November 1804. He was the son of a Jewish
+banker, and learnt composition from Hummel at Weimar and Weber at
+Dresden; with the latter he enjoyed for three years an intimacy like
+that of a son, and it was Weber who introduced him in Vienna to
+Beethoven on the 5th of October 1823. In the same year he was appointed
+Kapellmeister of the Karnthnerthor theatre at Vienna, and two years
+later (in 1825) he became Kapellmeister of the San Carlo theatre at
+Naples. Here his first opera, _Giacinta ed Ernesto_, was brought out in
+1829, and another, written for his native city, _I Portoghesi in Goa_,
+was given there in 1830; neither of these was a great success, and in
+1834 he went to Paris, leaving it in 1835 at the suggestion of Malibran
+for London, where he spent the remainder of his life. In 1836 he was
+given the conductorship of an operatic enterprise at the Lyceum Theatre,
+and brought out a short opera, _Un anno ed un giorno_, previously given
+in Naples. In 1838 he became conductor of the English opera at Drury
+Lane during the period of Balfe's great popularity; his own operas
+produced there were _The Gipsy's Warning_ (1838), _The Bride of Venice_
+(1843), and _The Crusaders_ (1846). In 1848 he conducted Mendelssohn's
+_Elijah_ at Exeter Hall, for the first appearance of Jenny Lind in
+oratorio, and in 1850 he went to America as the accompanist on that
+singer's tour. On his return in 1852 he became musical conductor under
+Mapleson's management at Her Majesty's theatre (and afterwards at Drury
+Lane), and in the same year conductor of the Harmonic Union. Benedict
+wrote recitatives for the production of an Italian version of Weber's
+_Oberon_ in 1860. In the same year was produced his beautiful cantata
+_Undine_ at the Norwich festival, in which Clara Novello appeared in
+public for the last time. His best-known opera, _The Lily of Killarney_,
+written on the subject of Dion Boucicault's play _Colleen Bawn_ to a
+libretto by Oxenford, was produced at Covent Garden in 1862. His
+operetta, _The Bride of Song_, was brought out there in 1864. _St
+Cecilia_, an oratorio, was performed at the Norwich festival in 1886;
+_St Peter_ at the Birmingham festival of 1870; _Graziella_, a cantata,
+was given at the Birmingham festival of 1882, and in August 1883 was
+produced in operatic form at the Crystal Palace. Here also a symphony by
+him was given in 1873. Benedict conducted every Norwich festival from
+1845 to 1878 inclusive, and the Liverpool Philharmonic Society's
+concerts from 1876 to 1880. He was the regular accompanist at the Monday
+Popular Concerts in London from their start, and with few exceptions
+acted as conductor of these concerts. He contributed an interesting life
+of Weber to the series of biographies of "Great Musicians." In 1871 he
+was knighted, and in 1874 was made knight commander of the orders of
+Franz Joseph (Austria) and Frederick (Wurttemberg). He died in London on
+the 5th of June 1885.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICT BISCOP (628?-690), also known as BISCOP BADUCING, English
+churchman, was born of a good Northumbrian family and was for a time a
+thegn of King Oswiu. He then went abroad and after a second journey to
+Rome (he made five altogether) lived as a monk at Lerins (665-667). It
+was under his conduct that Theodore of Tarsus came from Rome to
+Canterbury in 669, and in the same year Benedict was appointed abbot of
+St Peter's, Canterbury. Five years later he built the monastery of St
+Peter at Wearmouth, on land granted him by Ecgfrith of Northumbria, and
+endowed it with an excellent library. A papal letter in 678 exempted the
+monastery from external control, and in 682 Benedict erected a sister
+foundation (St Paul) at Jarrow. He died on the 12th of January 690,
+leaving a high reputation for piety and culture. Saxon architecture owes
+nearly everything to his initiative, and Bede was one of his pupils.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTINE, a liqueur manufactured at Fecamp, France. The composition
+is a trade secret, but, according to Konig, the following are among the
+substances used in the manufacture of imitations of the genuine article:
+fresh lemon peel, cardamoms, hyssop tops, angelica, peppermint, thyme,
+cinnamon, nutmegs, cloves and arnica flowers. (See FECAMP.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTINES, or BLACK MONKS, monks living according to the Rule of St
+Benedict (q.v.) of Nursia. Subiaco in the Abruzzi was the cradle of the
+Benedictines, and in that neighbourhood St Benedict established twelve
+monasteries. Afterwards giving up the direction of these, he migrated to
+Monte Cassino and there established the monastery which became the
+centre whence his Rule and institute spread. From Monte Cassino he
+founded a monastery at Terracina. These fourteen are the only
+monasteries of which we have any knowledge as being founded before St
+Benedict's death; for the mission of St Placidus to Sicily must
+certainly be regarded as mere romance, nor does there seem to be any
+solid reason for viewing more favourably the mission of St Maurus to
+Gaul. There is some ground for believing that it was the third abbot of
+Monte Cassino who began to spread a knowledge of the Rule beyond the
+circle of St Benedict's own foundations. About 580-590 Monte Cassino was
+sacked by the Lombards, and the community came to Rome and was
+established in a monastery attached to the Lateran Basilica, in the
+centre of the ecclesiastical world. It is now commonly recognized by
+scholars that when Gregory the Great became a monk and turned his palace
+on the Caelian Hill into a monastery, the monastic life there carried
+out was fundamentally based on the Benedictine Rule (see F.H. Dudden,
+_Gregory the Great_, i. 108). From this monastery went forth St
+Augustine and his companions on their mission to England in 596,
+carrying their monachism with them; thus England was the first country
+out of Italy in which Benedictine life was firmly planted. In the course
+of the 7th century Benedictine life was gradually introduced in Gaul,
+and in the 8th it was carried into the Germanic lands from England. It
+is doubtful whether in Spain there were Benedictine monasteries,
+properly so called, until a later period. In many parts the Benedictine
+Rule met the much stricter Irish Rule of Columbanus, introduced by the
+Irish missionaries on the continent, and after brief periods, first of
+conflict and then of fusion, it gradually absorbed and supplanted it;
+thus during the 8th century it became, out of Ireland and other purely
+Celtic lands, the only rule and form of monastic life throughout western
+Europe,--so completely that Charlemagne once asked if there ever had
+been any other monastic rule.
+
+What may be called the inner side of Benedictine life and history is
+treated in the article MONASTICISM; here it is possible to deal only
+with the broad facts of the external history. The chief external works
+achieved for western Europe by the Benedictines during the early middle
+ages may be summed up under the following heads.
+
+1. _The Conversion of the Teutonic Races._--The tendency of modern
+historical scholarship justifies the maintenance of the tradition that
+St Augustine and his forty companions were the first great Benedictine
+apostles and missioners. Through their efforts Christianity was firmly
+planted in various parts of England; and after the conversion of the
+country it was English Benedictines--Wilfrid, Willibrord, Swithbert,
+Willehad--who evangelized Friesland and Holland; and another, Winfrid or
+Boniface, who, with his fellow-monks Willibald and others, evangelized
+the greater part of central Germany and founded and organized the German
+church. It was Anschar, a monk of Corbie, who first preached to the
+Scandinavians, and other Benedictines were apostles to Poles, Prussians
+and other Slavonic peoples. The conversion of the Teutonic races may
+properly be called the work of the Benedictines.
+
+2. _The Civilization of north-western Europe._--As the result of their
+missionary enterprises the Benedictines penetrated into all these lands
+and established monasteries, so that by the 10th or 11th century
+Benedictine houses existed in great numbers throughout the whole of
+Latin Christendom except Ireland. These monasteries became centres of
+civilizing influences by the method of presenting object-lessons in
+organized work, in agriculture, in farming, in the arts and trades, and
+also in well-ordered life. The unconscious method by which such great
+results were brought about has been well described by J.S. Brewer
+(_Preface_ to Works of Giraldus Cambrensis, Rolls Series, iv.) and F.A.
+Gasquet.
+
+3. _Education._--Boys were educated in Benedictine houses from the
+beginning, but at first they were destined to be monks. The monasteries,
+however, played a great part in the educational side of the Carolingian
+revival; and certainly from that date schools for boys destined to live
+and work in the world were commonly attached to Benedictine monasteries.
+From that day to this education has been among the recognized and
+principal works of Benedictines.
+
+4. _Letters and Learning._--This side of Benedictine life is most
+typically represented by the Venerable Bede, the gentle and learned
+scholar of the early middle ages. In those times the monasteries were
+the only places of security and rest in western Europe, the only places
+where letters could in any measure be cultivated. It was in the
+monasteries that the writings of Latin antiquity, both classical and
+ecclesiastical, were transcribed and preserved.
+
+In a gigantic system embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of
+monks, and spread over all the countries of western Europe, without any
+organic bond between the different houses, and exposed to all the
+vicissitudes of the wars and conquests of those wild times, to say that
+the monks often fell short of the ideal of their state, and sometimes
+short of the Christian, and even the moral standard, is but to say that
+monks are men. Failures there have been many, and scandals not a few in
+Benedictine history; but it may be said with truth that there does not
+appear to have been ever a period of widespread or universal corruption,
+however much at times and in places primitive love may have waxed cold.
+And when such declensions occurred, they soon called forth efforts at
+reform and revival; indeed these constantly recurring reform-movements
+are one of the most striking features of Benedictine history, and the
+great proof of the vitality of the institute throughout the ages.
+
+The first of these movements arose during the Carolingian revival (c.
+800), and is associated with the name of Benedict of Aniane. Under the
+auspices of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious he initiated a scheme for
+federating into one great order, with himself as abbot general, all the
+monasteries of Charles's empire, and for enforcing throughout a rigid
+uniformity in observance. For this purpose a synod of abbots was
+assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle in 817, and a series of 80 _Capitula_
+passed, regulating the life of the monasteries. The scheme as a whole
+was short-lived and did not survive its originator; but the _Capitula_
+were commonly recognized as supplying a useful and much-needed
+supplement to St Benedict's Rule on points not sufficiently provided for
+therein. Accordingly these _Capitula_ exercised a wide influence among
+Benedictines even outside the empire. And Benedict of Aniane's ideas of
+organization found embodiment a century later in the order of Cluny
+(910), which for a time overshadowed the great body of mere Benedictines
+(see CLUNY). Here it will suffice to say that the most distinctive
+features of the Cluny system were (1) a notable increase and
+prolongation of the church services, which came to take up the greater
+part of the working day; (2) a strongly centralized government, whereby
+the houses of the order in their hundreds were strictly subject to the
+abbot of Cluny.
+
+Though forming a distinct and separate organism Cluny claimed to be, and
+was recognized as, a body of Benedictine houses; but from that time
+onwards arose a number of independent bodies, or "orders," which took
+the Benedictine Rule as the basis of their life. The more important of
+these were: in the 11th and 12th centuries, the orders of Camaldulians,
+Vallombrosians, Fontevrault and the Cistercians, and in the 13th and
+14th the Silvestrines, Celestines and Olivetans (see separate articles).
+The general tendency of these Benedictine offshoots was in the direction
+of greater austerity of life than was practised by the Black Monks or
+contemplated by St Benedict's Rule--some of them were semi-eremitical;
+the most important by far were the Cistercians, whose ground-idea was to
+reproduce exactly the life of St Benedict's own monastery. These various
+orders were also organized and governed according to the system of
+centralized authority devised by St Pachomius (see MONASTICISM) and
+brought into vogue by Cluny in the West. What has here to be traced is
+the history of the great body of Benedictine monasteries that held aloof
+from these separatist movements.
+
+For the first four or five centuries of Benedictine history there was no
+organic bond between any of the monasteries; each house formed an
+independent autonomous family, managing its own affairs and subject to
+no external authority or control except that of the bishop of the
+diocese. But the influence of Cluny, even on monasteries that did not
+enter into its organism, was enormous; many adopted Cluny customs and
+practices and moulded their life and spirit after the model it set; and
+many such monasteries became in turn centres of revival and reform in
+many lands, so that during the 10th and 11th centuries arose free unions
+of monasteries based on a common observance derived from a central
+abbey. Fleury and Hirsau are well-known examples. Basing themselves on
+St Gregory's counsel to St Augustine, Dunstan, Aethelwold and Oswald
+adopted from the observance of foreign monasteries, and notably Fleury
+and Ghent, what was suitable for the restoration of English monachism,
+and so produced the _Concordia Regularis_, interesting as the first
+serious attempt to bring about uniformity of observance among the
+monasteries of an entire nation. In the course of the 12th century
+sporadic and limited unions of Black Monk monasteries arose in different
+parts. But notwithstanding all these movements, the majority of the
+great Black Monk abbeys continued to the end of the 12th century in
+their primeval isolation. But in the year 1215, at the fourth Lateran
+council, were made regulations destined profoundly to modify Benedictine
+polity and history. It was decreed that the Benedictine houses of each
+ecclesiastical province should henceforth be federated for the purposes
+of mutual help and the maintenance of discipline, and that for these
+ends the abbots should every third year meet in a provincial chapter (or
+synod), in order to pass laws binding on all and to appoint visitors
+who, in addition to the bishops, should canonically visit the
+monasteries and report on their condition in spirituals and temporals to
+the ensuing chapter. The English monks took the lead in carrying out
+this legislation, and in 1218 the first chapter of the province of
+Canterbury was held at Oxford, and up to the dissolution under Henry
+VIII. the triennial chapters took place with wonderful regularity.
+Fitful attempts were made elsewhere to carry out the decrees, and in
+1336 Benedict XII. by the bull _Benedictina_ tried to give further
+development to the system and to secure its general observance. The
+organization of the Benedictine houses into provinces or chapters under
+this legislation interfered in the least possible degree with the
+Benedictine tradition of mutual independence of the houses; the
+provinces were loose federations of autonomous houses, the legislative
+power of the chapter and the canonical visitations being the only forms
+of external interference. The English Benedictines never advanced
+farther along the path of centralization; up to their destruction this
+polity remained in operation among them, and proved itself by its
+results to be well adapted to the conditions of the Benedictine Rule and
+life.
+
+In other lands things did not on the whole go so well, and many causes
+at work during the later middle ages tended to bring about relaxation in
+the Benedictine houses; above all the vicious system of commendatory
+abbots, rife everywhere except in England. And so in the period of the
+reforming councils of Constance and Basel the state of the religious
+orders was seriously taken in hand, and in response to the public demand
+for reforming the Church, "in head and members," reform movements were
+set on foot, as among others, so among the Benedictines of various parts
+of Europe. These movements issued in the congregational system which is
+the present polity among Benedictines. In the German lands, where the
+most typical congregation was the Bursfeld Union (1446), which finally
+embraced over 100 monasteries throughout Germany, the system was kept on
+the lines of the Lateran decree and the bull _Benedictina_, and received
+only some further developments in the direction of greater organization;
+but in Italy the congregation of S. Justina at Padua (1421), afterwards
+called the Cassinese, departed altogether from the old lines, setting up
+a highly centralized government, after the model of the Italian
+republics, whereby the autonomy of the monasteries was destroyed, and
+they were subjected to the authority of a central governing board. With
+various modifications or restrictions this latter system was imported
+into all the Latin lands, into Spain and Portugal, and thence into
+Brazil, and into Lorraine and France, where the celebrated congregation
+of St Maur (see MAURISTS) was formed early in the 17th century. During
+this century the Benedictine houses in many parts of Catholic Europe
+united themselves into congregations, usually characterized by an
+austerity that was due to the Tridentine reform movement.
+
+In England the Benedictines had, from every point of view, flourished
+exceedingly. At the time of the Dissolution there were nearly 300 Black
+Benedictine houses, great and small, men and women, including most of
+the chief religious houses of the land (for lists see tables and maps in
+Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_, and _Catholic Dictionary_, art.
+"Benedictines"). It is now hardly necessary to say that the grave
+charges brought against the monks are no longer credited by serious
+historians (Gasquet, _Henry VIII. and the Monasteries_; J. Gairdner,
+Prefaces to the relevant volumes of _Calendars of State Papers of Henry
+VIII._). In Mary's reign some of the surviving monks were brought
+together, and Westminster Abbey was restored. Of the monks professed
+there during this momentary revival, one, Sigebert Buckley, lived on
+into the reign of James I.; and being the only survivor of the
+Benedictines of England, he in 1607 invested with the English habit and
+affiliated to Westminster Abbey and to the English congregation two
+English priests, already Benedictines in the Italian congregation. By
+this act the old English Benedictine line was perpetuated; and in 1619 a
+number of English monks professed in Spain were aggregated by pontifical
+act to these representatives of the old English Benedictines, and thus
+was constituted the present English Benedictine congregation. Three or
+four monasteries of the revived English Benedictines were established on
+the continent at the beginning of the 17th century, and remained there
+till driven back to England by the French Revolution.
+
+The Reformation and the religious wars spread havoc among the
+Benedictines in many parts of northern Europe; and as a consequence, in
+part of the rule of Joseph II. of Austria, in part of the French
+Revolution, nearly every Benedictine monastery in Europe was
+suppressed--it is said that in the early years of the 19th century
+scarcely thirty in all survived. But the latter half of the century
+witnessed a series of remarkable revivals, and first in Bavaria, under
+the influence of Louis I. The French congregation (which does not enjoy
+continuity with the Maurists) was inaugurated by Dom Gueranger in 1833,
+and the German congregation of Beuron in 1863. Two vigorous
+congregations have arisen in the United States. These are all new
+creations since 1830. In Italy, Spain, Portugal and Brazil only a few
+monasteries survive the various revolutions, and in a crippled state;
+but signs are not wanting of renewed life: St Benedict's own monasteries
+of Subiaco and Monte Cassino are relatively flourishing. In Austria,
+Hungary and Switzerland there are some thirty great abbeys, most of
+which have had a continued existence since the middle ages. The English
+congregation is composed of three large abbeys (Downside, Ampleforth and
+Woolhampton), a cathedral priory (Hereford) and a nunnery (Stanbrook
+Abbey, Worcester); there are besides in England three or four abbeys
+belonging to foreign congregations, and several nunneries subject to the
+bishops. Each congregation has its president, who is merely a president,
+with limited powers, and not a general superior like the Provincials of
+other orders; so that the primitive Benedictine principle of each
+monastery being self-contained and autonomous is preserved. Similarly
+each congregation is independent and self-governing, there being no
+superior-general or central authority, as in other orders. Leo XIII.
+established an international Benedictine College in Rome for theological
+studies, and conferred on its abbot the title of "Abbot Primate," with
+precedence among Black Monk abbots. He is only _primus inter pares_, and
+exercises no kind of superiority over the other abbots or congregations.
+Thus the Benedictine polity may be described as a number of autonomous
+federations of autonomous monasteries. The individual monks, too, belong
+not to the order or the congregation, but each to the monastery in which
+he became a monk. The chief external work of the Benedictines at the
+present day is secondary education; there are 114 secondary schools or
+_gymnasia_ attached to the abbeys, wherein the monks teach over 12,000
+boys; and many of the nunneries have girls' schools. In certain
+countries (among them England) where there is a dearth of secular
+priests, Benedictines undertake parochial work.
+
+The statistics of the order (1905) show that of Black Benedictines there
+are over 4000 choir-monks and nearly 2000 lay brothers--figures that
+have more than doubled since 1880. If the Cistercians and lesser
+offshoots of the order be added, the sum total of choir-monks and lay
+brothers exceeds 11,000.
+
+In conclusion a word must be said on the Benedictine nuns. From the
+beginning the number of women living the Benedictine life has not fallen
+far short of that of the men. St Gregory describes St Benedict's sister
+Scholastica as a nun (_sanctimonialis_), and she is looked upon as the
+foundress of Benedictine nuns. As the institute spread to other lands
+nunneries arose on all sides, and nowhere were the Benedictine nuns more
+numerous or more remarkable than in England, from Saxon times to the
+Reformation. A strong type of womanhood is revealed in the
+correspondence of St Boniface with various Saxon Benedictine nuns, some
+in England and some who accompanied him to the continent and there
+established great convents. In the early times the Benedictine nuns were
+not strictly enclosed, and could, when occasion called for it, freely go
+out of their convent walls to perform any special work: on the other
+hand, they did not resemble the modern active congregations of women,
+whose ordinary work lies outside the convent. It has to be said that in
+the course of the middle ages, especially the later middle ages, grave
+disorders arose in many convents; and this doubtless led, in the reform
+movements initiated by the councils of Constance and Basel, and later of
+Trent, to the introduction of strict enclosure in Benedictine convents,
+which now is the almost universal practice. At the present day there are
+of Black Benedictine nuns 262 convents with 7000 nuns, the large
+majority being directly subject to the diocesan bishops; if the
+Cistercians and others be included, there are 387 convents with nearly
+11,000 nuns. In England there are a dozen Benedictine nunneries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES--The chief general authority for Benedictine history up to
+  the middle of the 12th century is Mabillon's _Annales_, in 6 vols.
+  folio; for the later period no such general work exists, but the
+  various countries, congregations or even abbeys have to be taken
+  separately. Montalembert's _Monks of the West_ gives the early history
+  very fully; the later history, to the beginning of the 18th century,
+  may be found in Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_, v. and vi.
+  (1792). A useful sketch, with references to the best literature, is in
+  Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. SS 17-28; see
+  also the article "Benedictinerorden" in Wetzer u. Welter,
+  _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), and "Benedikt von Nursia und der
+  Benediktinerorden," in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.). For
+  England see Ethelred Taunton, _English Black Monks_ (1897); and for
+  the modern history (19th century) the series entitled "Succisa
+  Virescit" in the _Downside Review_, 1880 onwards, by J.G. Dolan. On
+  the inner spirit and working of the institute see F.A. Gasquet,
+  _Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History_ (being the preface to the
+  2nd ed., 1895, of the trans. of Montalembert) and _English Monastic
+  Life_ (1904); and Newman's two essays on the Benedictines, among the
+  _Historical Sketches_. On Benedictine nuns much will be found in the
+  above-mentioned authorities, and also in Lina Eckenstein, _Woman in
+  Monasticism_ (1896). On Benedictines and the Arts see F.H. Kraus,
+  _Geschichte der christlichen Kunst_ (Freiburg-i-B., 1896-1897).
+       (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTION (Lat. _benedictio_, from _benedicere_, to bless), generally,
+the utterance of a blessing or of a devout wish for the prosperity and
+happiness of a person or enterprise. In the usage of the Catholic
+Church, both East and West, though the benediction as defined above has
+its place as between one Christian and another, it has also a special
+place in the sacramental system in virtue of the special powers of
+blessing vested in the priesthood. Sacerdotal benedictions are not
+indeed sacraments--means of grace ordained by Christ himself,--but
+sacramentals (_sacramenta minora_) ordained by the authority of the
+Church and exercised by the priests, as the plenipotentiaries of God, in
+virtue of the powers conferred on them at their ordination; "that
+whatever they bless may be blessed, and whatever they consecrate may be
+consecrated." The power to bless in this ecclesiastical sense is
+reserved to priests alone; the blessing of the paschal candle on Holy
+Saturday by the deacon being the one exception that proves the rule, for
+he uses for the purpose grains of incense previously blessed by the
+priest at the altar. But though by some the benediction has thus been
+brought into connexion with the supreme means of grace, the sacrifice of
+the Mass, the blessing does not in itself confer grace and does not act
+on its recipients _ex opere operato_. It must not be supposed, however,
+that the Catholic idea of a sacerdotal blessing has anything of the
+vague character associated with a benediction by Protestants. Both by
+Catholics and by Protestants blessings may be applied to things
+inanimate as well as animate; but while in the reformed Churches this
+involves no more than an appeal to God for a special blessing, or a
+solemn "setting apart" of persons or objects for sacred purposes, in the
+Catholic idea it implies a special power, conferred by God, of the
+priests over the invisible forces of evil. It thus stands in the closest
+relation to the rite of exorcism, of which it is the complement.
+
+According to Catholic doctrine, the Fall involved the subjection, not
+only of man, but of all things animate and inanimate, to the influence
+of evil spirits; in support of which St Paul's epistles to the Romans
+(viii.) and to Timothy (1 Tim. iv. 4-5) are quoted. This belief is, of
+course, not specifically Christian; it has been held at all times and
+everywhere by men of the most various races and creeds; and, if there be
+any validity in the contention that that is true which has been held
+_semper, ubique, et ab omnibus_, no fact is better established. In
+general it may be said, then, that whereas exorcism is practised in
+order to cast out devils already in possession, benediction is the
+formula by which they are prevented from entering in. Protestants have
+condemned these formulae as so much magic, and in this modern science
+tends to agree with them; but to orthodox Protestants at least Catholics
+have a perfect right to reply that, in taking this line, they are but
+repeating the accusation brought by the Pharisees against Christ, viz.
+that he cast out devils "by Beelzebub, prince of the devils."
+
+Though, however, the discomfiture of malignant spirits still plays an
+important part in the Catholic doctrine of benedictions, this has on the
+whole tended to become subordinated to other benefits. This is but
+natural; for, though the progress of knowledge has not disproved the
+existence of devils, it has greatly limited the supposed range of their
+activities. According to Father Patrick Morrisroe, dean and professor of
+liturgy at Maynooth, the efficacy of benedictions is fourfold: (1) the
+excitation of pious emotions and affections of the heart, and by their
+means the remission of venial sins and of the temporal punishments due
+for these; (2) freedom from the power of evil spirits; (3) preservation
+and restoration of bodily health; (4) various other benefits, temporal
+and spiritual. Benedictions, moreover, are twofold: (a) invocative, i.e.
+those invoking the divine benignity for persons and things without
+changing their condition, e.g. children or food; (b) constitutive, i.e.
+those which give to persons or things an indelible religious character,
+i.e. monks and nuns, or the furniture of the altar. The second of these
+brings the act of benediction into contact with the principle of
+consecration (q.v.); for by the formal blessing by the duly constituted
+authority persons, places and things are consecrated, i.e. reserved to
+sacred uses and preserved from the contaminating influence of evil
+spirits. Thus graveyards are consecrated, i.e. solemnly blessed in order
+that the powers of evil may not disturb the bodies of the faithful
+departed; thus, too, the blessing of bells gives them a special power
+against evil demons.
+
+Though the giving of blessings as a sacerdotal function is proper to the
+whole order of priests, particular benedictions have, by ecclesiastical
+authority, been reserved for the bishops, who may, however, delegate
+some of them; i.e. the benediction of abbots, of priests at their
+ordination, of virgins taking the veil, of churches, cemeteries,
+oratories, and of all articles for use in connexion with the altar
+(chalices, patens, vestments, &c.), of military colours, of soldiers and
+of their arms. The holy oil is also blessed by bishops in the Roman
+Catholic Church; in the Greek Church, on the other hand, the oil for the
+chrism at baptism is blessed by the priest. To the pope alone is
+reserved the blessing of the pallium, the golden rose, the "Agnus-Dei"
+and royal swords; he alone, too, can issue blessings that involve some
+days' indulgence. The ceremonies prescribed for the various benedictions
+are set forth in the _Rituale Romanum_ (tit. viii.). In general it is
+laid down (cap. i.) that the priest, in benedictions outside the Mass,
+shall be vested in surplice and stole, and shall give the blessing
+standing and bare-headed. Certain prayers are said before each
+benediction, after which he sprinkles the person or thing to be blessed
+with holy water and, where prescribed, censes them. He is attended by a
+minister with a vase of holy water, an _aspergillum_ and a copy of the
+_Rituale_ or missal. In all benedictions the sign of the cross is made.
+In the blessing of the holy water (cap. ii.), the essential instrument
+of all benedictions, the object is dearly to establish its potency
+against evil spirits. First the "creature of salt" is exorcized, "that
+... thou mayest be to all who take thee health of body and soul; that
+wherever thou art sprinkled every phantasy and wickedness and wile of
+diabolic deceit may flee and leave that place, and every unclean
+spirit"; a prayer to God for the blessing of the salt follows; then the
+"creature of water" is exorcized, "that thou mayest become exorcized
+water for the purpose of putting to flight every power of the enemy,
+that thou mayest avail to uproot and expel this enemy with all his
+apostate angels, by the virtue of the same our Lord Jesus Christ, &c.";
+and again a prayer to God follows that the water may "become a creature
+in the service of His mysteries, for the driving out of demons, &c." In
+the formulae of blessings that follow, the special efficacy against
+devils is implied by the aspersion with holy water; the benedictions
+themselves are usually merely invocative of the divine protection or
+assistance, though, e.g., in the form for blessing sick animals the
+priest prays that "all diabolic power in them may be destroyed, and that
+they may be ill no longer." It is to be remarked that the "laying on of
+hands," which in the Old and the New Testament alike is the usual "form"
+of blessing, is not used in liturgical benedictions, the priest being
+directed merely to extend his right hand towards the person to be
+blessed. The appendix _de Benedictionibus_ to the _Rituale Romanum_
+contains formulae, often of much simple beauty, for blessing all manner
+of persons and things, from the congregation as a whole and sick men and
+women, to railways, ships, blast-furnaces, lime-kilns, articles of food,
+medicine and medical bandages and all manner of domestic animals.
+
+The _Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament_, commonly called simply
+"Benediction" (Fr. _salut_, Ger. _Segen_), is one of the most popular of
+the services of the Roman Catholic Church. It is usually held in the
+afternoon or evening, sometimes at the conclusion of Vespers, Compline
+or the Stations of the Cross, and consists in the singing of certain
+hymns and canticles, more particularly the _O salutaris hostia_ and the
+_Tantum ergo_, before the host, which is exposed on the altar in a
+monstrance and surrounded by not less than ten lighted candles. Often
+litanies and hymns to the Virgin are added. At the conclusion the
+priest, his shoulders wrapped in the humeral veil, takes the monstrance
+and with it makes the sign of the cross over the kneeling congregation,
+whence the name Benediction. The service, the details of which vary in
+different countries, is of comparatively modern origin. Father Thurston
+traces it to a combination in the 16th and 17th centuries of customs
+that had their origin in the 13th, i.e. certain gild services in honour
+of the Blessed Virgin, and the growing habit, resulting naturally from
+the doctrine of transubstantiation, of ascribing a supreme virtue to the
+act of looking on the Holy Sacrament.
+
+In the reformed Churches the word "benediction" is technically confined
+to the blessing with which the priest or minister dismisses the
+congregation at the close of the service.
+
+  See the article "Benediktionen," by E.C. Achelis in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (Leipzig, 1897); _The Catholic Encyclopaedia_
+  (London and New York, 1908) s. "Blessing," by P. Morrisroe, and
+  "Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament," by Herbert Thurston, S.J.; in
+  all of which further authorities are cited.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTUS, the hymn of Zacharias (Luke i. 68 sqq.), so called from the
+opening word of the Latin version. The hymn has been used in Christian
+worship since at least the 9th century, and was adopted into the
+Anglican Order of Morning Prayer from the Roman service of matin-lauds.
+In the Prayer-Book of 1549 there was no alternative to the _Benedictus_;
+it was to be used "throughout the whole year." In 1552 the _Jubilate_
+was inserted without any restriction as to how often it should take the
+place of the _Benedictus_. Such restriction is clearly implied in the
+words "except when that (Benedictus) shall happen to be read in the
+chapter for the day, or for the Gospel on Saint John Baptist's day,"
+which were inserted in 1662. The rubric of 1532 had this curious
+wording: "And after the Second Lesson shall be used and said, Benedictus
+in English, as followeth."
+
+The name is also given to a part of the Roman Catholic mass service
+beginning _Benedictus qui venit_.
+
+
+
+
+BENEDICTUS ABBAS (d. 1194), abbot of Peterborough, whose name is
+accidentally connected with the _Gesta Henrici Regis Secundi_, one of
+the most valuable of English 12th-century chronicles. He first makes his
+appearance in 1174, as the chancellor of Archbishop Richard, the
+successor of Becket in the primacy. In 1175 Benedictus became prior of
+Holy Trinity, Canterbury; in 1177 he received from Henry II. the abbacy
+of Peterborough, which he held until his death. As abbot he
+distinguished himself by his activity in building, in administering the
+finances of his house and in collecting a library. He is described in
+the _Chronicon Petroburgense_ as "blessed both in name and deed." He
+belonged to the circle of Becket's admirers, and wrote two works dealing
+with the martyrdom and the miracles of his hero. Fragments of the former
+work have come down to us in the compilation known as the _Quadrilogus_,
+which is printed in the fourth volume of J.C. Robertson's _Materials for
+the History of Thomas Becket_ (Rolls series); the miracles are extant
+in their entirety, and are printed in the second volume of the same
+collection. Benedictus has been credited with the authorship of the
+_Gesta Henrici_ on the ground that his name appears in the title of the
+oldest manuscript. We have, however, conclusive evidence that Benedictus
+merely caused this work to be transcribed for the Peterborough library.
+It is only through the force of custom that the work is still
+occasionally cited under the name of Benedictus. The question of
+authorship has been discussed by Sir T.D. Hardy, Bishop Stubbs and
+Professor Liebermann; but the results of the discussion are negative.
+Stubbs conjecturally identified the first part of the _Gesta_
+(1170-1177) with the _Liber Tricolumnis_, a register of contemporary
+events kept by Richard Fitz Neal (q.v.), the treasurer of Henry II. and
+author of the _Dialogus de Scaccario_; the latter part (1177-1192) was
+by the same authority ascribed to Roger of Hoveden, who makes large use
+of the _Gesta_ in his own chronicle, copying them with few alterations
+beyond the addition of some documents. This theory, so far as concerns
+the _Liber Tricolumnis_, is rejected by Liebermann and the most recent
+editors of the _Dialogus_ (A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford,
+1902). We can only say that the _Gesta_ are the work of a well-informed
+contemporary who appears to have been closely connected with the court
+and is inclined on all occasions to take the side of Henry II. The
+author confines himself to the external history of events, and his tone
+is strictly impersonal. He incorporates some official documents, and in
+many places obviously derives his information from others which he does
+not quote. There is a break in his work at the year 1177, where the
+earliest manuscript ends; but the reasons which have been given to prove
+that the authorship changes at this point are inconclusive. The work
+begins at Christmas 1169, and concludes in 1192; it is thus in form a
+fragment, covering portions of the reign of Henry II. and Richard I.
+
+  See W. Stubbs' _Gesta regis Henrici Secundi Benedicti abbatis_ (2
+  vols., Rolls series, 1867), and particularly the preface to the first
+  volume; F. Liebermann in _Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario_
+  (Gottingen, 1875); in _Ostenglische Geschichtsquellen_ (Hanover,
+  1892); and in Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores_,
+  vol. xxvii. pp. 82, 83; also the introduction to the _Dialogus de
+  Scaccario_ in the Oxford edition of 1902.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICH (1811-1873), German dramatist and librettist,
+was born at Leipzig on the 21st of January 1811, and was educated at the
+Thomasschule at Leipzig. He joined the stage in 1831, his first
+engagement being with the travelling company of H.E. Bethmann in Dessau,
+Cothen, Bernburg and Meiningen. Subsequently he was tenor in several
+theatres in Westphalia and on the Rhine, and became manager of the
+theatre at Wesel, where he produced a comedy, _Das bemooste Haupt_
+(1841), which met with great success. After an engagement in Cologne, he
+managed the new theatre at Elberfeld (1844-1845) and in 1849 was
+appointed teacher on the staff of the Rhenish school of music in
+Cologne. In 1855 he was appointed intendant of the municipal theatre in
+Frankfort-On-Main, but retired in 1861, and died in Leipzig on the 26th
+of September 1873. Benedix's comedies, the scenes of which are mostly
+laid in upper middle-class life, still enjoy some popularity; the
+best-known are: _Dr Wespe; Die Hochzeitsreise; Der Vetter; Das
+Gefangnis; Das Lugen; Ein Lustspiel; Der Storenfried; Die Dienstboten;
+Aschenbrodel; Die zartlichen Verwandten_. The chief characteristics of
+his farces are a clear plot and bright, easy and natural dialogue. Among
+his more serious works are: _Bilder aus dem Schauspielerleben_ (Leipzig,
+1847); _Der mundliche Vortrag_ (Leipzig, 1859-1860); _Das Wesen des
+deutschen Rhythmus_ (Leipzig, 1862) and, posthumously, _Die
+Shakespearomanie_ (1873), in which he attacks the extreme adoration of
+the British poet.
+
+  Benedix's _Gesammelte dramatische Werke_ appeared in 27 vols.
+  (Leipzig, 1846-1875); a selection under the title _Volkstheater_ in 20
+  vols. (Leipzig, 1882); and a collection of smaller comedies as
+  _Haustheater_ in 2 vols. (both ed., Leipzig, 1891); see Benedix's
+  autobiography in the _Gartenlaube_ for 1871.
+
+
+
+
+BENEFICE (Lat. _beneficium_, benefit), a term first applied under the
+Roman empire to portions of land, the usufruct of which was granted by
+the emperors to their soldiers or others for life, as a reward or
+_beneficium_ for past services, and as a retainer for future services. A
+list of all such _beneficia_ was recorded in the _Book of Benefices
+(Liber Beneficiorum_), which was kept by the principal registrar of
+benefices (_Primiscrinius Beneficiorum_). In imitation of the practice
+observed under the Roman empire, the term came to be applied under the
+feudal system to portions of land granted by a lord to his vassal for
+the maintenance of the latter on condition of his rendering military
+service; and such grants were originally for life only, and the land
+reverted to the lord on the death of the vassal. In a similar manner
+grants of land, or of the profits of land, appear to have been made by
+the bishops to their clergy for life, on the ground of some
+extraordinary merit on the part of the grantee. The validity of such
+grants was first formally recognized by the council of Orleans, A.D.
+511, which forbade, however, under any circumstances, the alienation
+from the bishoprics of any lands so granted. The next following council
+of Orleans, 533, broke in upon this principle, by declaring that a
+bishop could not reclaim from his clergy any grants made to them by his
+predecessor, excepting in cases of misconduct. This innovation on the
+ancient practice was confirmed by the subsequent council of Lyons, 566,
+and from this period these grants ceased to be regarded as personal, and
+their substance became annexed to the churches,--in other words, they
+were henceforth enjoyed _jure tituli_, and no longer _jure personali_.
+How and when the term _beneficia_ came to be applied to these episcopal
+grants is uncertain, but they are designated by that term in a canon of
+the council of Mainz, 813.
+
+The term benefice, according to the canon law, implies always an
+ecclesiastical office, _propter quod beneficium datur_, but it does not
+always imply a cure of souls. It has been defined to be the right which
+a clerk has to enjoy certain ecclesiastical revenues on condition of
+discharging certain services prescribed by the canons, or by usage, or
+by the conditions under which his office has been founded. These
+services might be those of a secular priest with cure of souls, or they
+might be those of a regular priest, a member of a religious order,
+without cure of souls; but in every case a benefice implied three
+things: (1) An obligation to discharge the duties of an office, which is
+altogether spiritual; (2) The right to enjoy the fruits attached to that
+office, which is the benefice itself; (3) The fruits themselves, which
+are the temporalities. By keeping these distinctions in view, the right
+of patronage in the case of secular benefices becomes intelligible,
+being in fact the right, which was originally vested in the donor of the
+temporalities, to present to the bishop a clerk to be admitted, if found
+fit by the bishop, to the office to which those temporalities are
+annexed. Nomination or presentation on the part of the patron of the
+benefice is thus the first requisite in order that a clerk should become
+legally entitled to a benefice. The next requisite is that he should be
+admitted by the bishop as a fit person for the spiritual office to which
+the benefice is annexed, and the bishop is the judge of the sufficiency
+of the clerk to be so admitted. By the early constitutions of the Church
+of England a bishop was allowed a space of two months to inquire and
+inform himself of the sufficiency of every presentee, but by the
+ninety-fifth of the canons of 1604 that interval has been abridged to
+twenty-eight days, within which the bishop must admit or reject the
+clerk. If the bishop rejects the clerk within that time he is liable to
+a _duplex querela_ in the ecclesiastical courts, or to a _quare impedit_
+in the common law courts, and the bishop must then certify the reasons
+of his refusal. In cases where the patron is himself a clerk in orders,
+and wishes to be admitted to the benefice, he must proceed by way of
+petition instead of by deed of presentation, reciting that the benefice
+is in his own patronage, and petitioning the bishop to examine him and
+admit him. Upon the bishop having satisfied himself of the sufficiency
+of the clerk, he proceeds to institute him to the spiritual office to
+which the benefice is annexed, but, before such institution can take
+place, the clerk is required to make a declaration of assent to the
+Thirty-nine Articles of Religion and to the Book of Common Prayer
+according to a form prescribed in the Clerical Subscription Act 1865, to
+make a declaration against simony in accordance with that act, and to
+take and subscribe the oath of allegiance according to the form in the
+Promissory Oaths Act 1868. The bishop, by the act of institution,
+commits to the clerk the cure of souls attached to the office to which
+the benefice is annexed. In cases where the bishop himself is patron of
+the benefice, no presentation or petition is required to be tendered by
+the clerk, but the bishop having satisfied himself of the sufficiency of
+the clerk, collates him to the benefice and office. It is not necessary
+that the bishop himself should personally institute or collate a clerk;
+he may issue a fiat to his vicar-general, or to a special commissary for
+that purpose. After the bishop or his commissary has instituted the
+presentee, he issues a mandate under seal, addressed to the archdeacon
+or some other neighbouring clergyman, authorizing him to induct the
+clerk into his benefice,--in other words, to put him into legal
+possession of the temporalities, which is done by some outward form, and
+for the most part by delivery of the bell-rope to the clerk, who
+thereupon tolls the bell. This form of induction is required to give the
+clerk a legal title to his _beneficium_, although his admission to the
+office by institution is sufficient to vacate any other benefice which
+he may already possess.
+
+By a decree of the Lateran council of 1215, which was enforced in
+England, no clerk can hold two benefices with cure of souls, and if a
+beneficed clerk shall take a second benefice with cure of souls, he
+vacates _ipso facto_ his first benefice. Dispensations, however, could
+be easily obtained from Rome, before the reformation of the Church of
+England, to enable a clerk to hold several ecclesiastical dignities or
+benefices at the same time, and by the Peterpence, Dispensations, &c.
+Act 1534, the power to grant such dispensations, which had been
+exercised previously by the court of Rome, was transferred to the
+archbishop of Canterbury, certain ecclesiastical persons having been
+declared by a previous statute (1529) to be entitled to such
+dispensations. The system of pluralities carried with it, as a necessary
+consequence, systematic non-residence on the part of many incumbents,
+and delegation of their spiritual duties in respect of their cures of
+souls to assistant curates. The evils attendant on this system were
+found to be so great that the Pluralities Act 1838 was passed to abridge
+the holding of benefices in plurality, and it was enacted that no person
+should hold under any circumstances more than two benefices, and this
+privilege was made subject to the restriction that his benefices were
+within ten statute miles of each other. By the Pluralities Act 1850, the
+restriction was further narrowed, so that no spiritual person could hold
+two benefices except the churches of such benefices were within three
+miles of each other by the nearest road, and the annual value of one of
+such benefices did not exceed L100. By this statute the term benefice is
+defined to mean benefice with cure of souls and no other, and therein to
+comprehend all parishes, perpetual curacies, donatives, endowed public
+chapels, parochial chapelries and chapelries or districts belonging or
+reputed to belong, or annexed or reputed to be annexed, to any church or
+chapel. The Pluralities Acts Amendment Act 1885, however, enacted that,
+by dispensation from the archbishop, two benefices could be held
+together, the churches of which are within four miles of each other, and
+the annual value of one of which does not exceed L200.
+
+All benefices except those under the clear annual value of L50 pay their
+first fruits (one year's profits) and tenths (of yearly profits) to
+Queen Anne's Bounty for the augmentation of the maintenance of the
+poorer clergy. Their profits during vacation belong to the next
+incumbent. Tithe rent charge attached to a benefice is relieved from
+payment of one-half of the agricultural rates assessed thereon.
+Benefices may be exchanged by agreement between incumbents with the
+consent of the ordinary, and they may, with the consent of the patron
+and ordinary, be united or dissolved after being united. They may also
+be charged with the repayment of money laid out for their permanent
+advantage, and be augmented wholly by the medium of Queen Anne's Bounty.
+
+A benefice is avoided or vacated--(1) by death; (2) by resignation, if
+the bishop is willing to accept the resignation: by the Incumbents'
+Resignation Act 1871, Amendment Act 1887, any clergyman who has been an
+incumbent of one benefice continuously for seven years, and is
+incapacitated by permanent mental or bodily infirmities from fulfilling
+his duties, may, if the bishop thinks fit, have a commission appointed
+to consider the fitness of his resigning; and if the commission report
+in favour of his resigning, he may, with the consent of the patron (or,
+if that is refused, with the consent of the archbishop) resign the cure
+of souls into the bishop's hands, and have assigned to him, out of the
+benefice, a retiring-pension not exceeding one-third of its annual
+value, which is recoverable as a debt from his successor; (3) by
+cession, upon the clerk being instituted to another benefice or some
+other preferment incompatible with it; (4) by deprivation and sentence
+of an ecclesiastical court; under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, an
+incumbent who has been convicted of offences against the law of
+bastardy, or against whom judgment has been given in a divorce or
+matrimonial cause, is deprived, and on being found guilty in the
+consistory court of immorality or ecclesiastical offences (not in
+respect of doctrine or ritual), he may be deprived or suspended or
+declared incapable of preferment; (5) by act of law in consequence of
+simony; (6) by default of the clerk in neglecting to read publicly in
+the church the Book of Common Prayer, and to declare his assent thereto
+within two months after his induction, pursuant to an act of 1662.
+
+  See also ADVOWSON; GLEBE; INCUMBENT; VICAR; also Phillimore, _Eccles.
+  Law_; Cripps, _Law of Church and Clergy_.
+
+
+
+
+BENEFICIARY (from Lat. _beneficium_, a benefit), in law, one who holds a
+benefice; one who is beneficially entitled to, or interested in,
+property, i.e. entitled to it for his own benefit, and not merely
+holding it for others, as does an executor or trustee. In this latter
+sense it is nearly equivalent to _cestui que trust_, a term which it is
+gradually superseding in modern law.
+
+
+
+
+BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1798-1854), German psychologist, was born at
+Berlin on the 17th of February 1798, studied at the universities of
+Halle and Berlin, and served as a volunteer in the war of 1815. After
+studying theology under Schleiermacher and De Wette, he turned to pure
+philosophy, studying particularly English writers and the German
+modifiers of Kantianism, such as Jacobi, Fries and Schopenhauer. In 1820
+he published his _Erkenntnisslehre_, his _Erfahrungsseelenlehre als
+Grundlage alles Wissens_, and his inaugural dissertation _De Veris
+Philosophiae Initiis_. His marked opposition to the philosophy of Hegel,
+then dominant in Berlin, was shown more clearly in the short tract,
+_Neue Grundlegung zur Metaphysik_ (1822), intended to be the programme
+for his lectures as privat-docent, and in the able treatise,
+_Grundlegung zur Physlk der Sitten_ (1822), written, in direct
+antagonism to Kant's _Metaphysic of Ethics_, to deduce ethical
+principles from a basis of empirical feeling. In 1822 his lectures were
+prohibited at Berlin, according to his own belief through the influence
+of Hegel with the Prussian authorities, who also prevented him from
+obtaining a chair from the Saxon government. He retired to Gottingen,
+lectured there for some years, and was then allowed to return to Berlin.
+In 1832 he received an appointment as _professor extraordinarius_ in the
+university, which he continued to hold till his death. On the 1st of
+March 1854 he disappeared, and more than two years later his remains
+were found in the canal near Charlottenburg. There was some suspicion
+that he had committed suicide in a fit of mental depression.
+
+The distinctive peculiarity of Beneke's system consists, first, in the
+firmness with which he maintained that in empirical psychology is to be
+found the basis of all philosophy; and secondly, in his rigid treatment
+of mental phenomena by the genetic method. According to him, the
+perfected mind is a development from simple elements, and the first
+problem of philosophy is the determination of these elements and of the
+processes by which the development takes place. In his _Neue
+Psychologie_, (essays iii., viii. and ix.), he defined his position with
+regard to his predecessors and contemporaries, and both there and in the
+introduction to his _Lehrbuch_ signalized as the two great stages in the
+progress of psychology the negation of innate ideas by Locke, and of
+faculties, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, by Herbart. The
+next step was his own; he insisted that psychology must be treated as
+one of the natural sciences. As is the case with them, its content is
+given by experience alone, and differs from theirs only in being the
+object of the internal as opposed to the external sense. But by this
+Beneke in no wise meant a psychology founded on physiology. These two
+sciences, in his opinion, had quite distinct provinces and gave no
+mutual assistance. Just as little help is to be expected from the
+science of the body as from mathematics and metaphysics, both of which
+had been pressed by Herbart into the service of psychology. The true
+method of study is that applied with so much success in the physical
+sciences--critical examination of the given experience, and reference of
+it to ultimate causes, which may not be themselves perceived, but are
+nevertheless hypotheses necessary to account for the facts. (See on
+method, _Neue Psych._, essay i.)
+
+  Starting from the two assumptions that there is nothing, or at least
+  no formed product, innate in the mind, and that definite faculties do
+  not originally exist, and from the fact that our minds nevertheless
+  actually have a definite content and definite modes of action, Beneke
+  proceeds to state somewhat dogmatically his scientifically verifiable
+  hypotheses as to the primitive condition of the soul and the laws
+  according to which it develops. Originally the soul is possessed of or
+  is an immense variety of powers, faculties or forces (conceptions
+  which Beneke, in opposition to Herbart, holds to be metaphysically
+  justifiable), differing from one another only in tenacity, vivacity,
+  receptivity and grouping. These primitive immaterial forces, so
+  closely united as to form but one being (essence), acquire
+  definiteness or form through the action upon them of _stimuli_ or
+  excitants from the outer world. This action of external impressions
+  which are appropriated by the internal powers is the first fundamental
+  process in the genesis of the completed mind. If the union of
+  impression and faculty be sufficiently strong, consciousness (not
+  _self_-consciousness) arises, and definite sensations and perceptions
+  begin to be formed. These primitive sensations, however, are not to be
+  identified with the sensations of the special senses, for each of
+  these senses is a system of many powers which have grown into a
+  definite unity, have been educated by experience. From ordinary
+  experience it must be concluded that a second fundamental process is
+  incessantly going on, viz. the formation of new powers, which takes
+  place principally during sleep. The third and most important process
+  results from the fact that the combination between stimulus and power
+  may be weak or strong; if weak, then the two elements are said to be
+  movable, and they may flow over from one to another of the already
+  formed psychical products. Any formed faculty does not cease to exist
+  on the removal of its stimulus; in virtue of its fundamental property,
+  _tenacity_, it sinks back as a trace (_Spur_) into unconsciousness,
+  whence it may be recalled by the application to it of another
+  stimulus, or by the attraction towards it of some of the movable
+  elements or newly-formed original powers. These traces and the flowing
+  over of the movable elements are the most important conceptions in
+  Beneke's psychology; by means of them he gives a rationale of
+  reproduction and association, and strives to show that all the formed
+  faculties are simply developments from traces of earlier processes.
+  Lastly, similar forms, according to the degree of their similarity,
+  attract one another or tend to form closer combinations.
+
+  All psychical phenomena are explicable by the relation of impression
+  and power, and by the flow of movable elements; the whole process of
+  mental development is nothing but the result of the action and
+  interaction of the above simple laws. In general this growth may be
+  said to take the direction of rendering more and more definite by
+  repetition and attraction of like to like the originally indefinite
+  activities of the primary faculties. Thus the sensations of the
+  special senses are gradually formed from the primary sensuous feelings
+  (_sinnliche Empfindungen_); concepts are formed from intuitions of
+  individuals by the attraction of the common elements, and the
+  consequent flow towards them of movable forms. Judgment is the
+  springing into consciousness of a concept alongside of an intuition,
+  or of a higher concept alongside of a lower. Reasoning is merely a
+  more complex judgment. Nor are there special faculties of judging or
+  reasoning. The understanding is simply the mass of concepts lying in
+  the background of unconsciousness, ready to be called up and to flow
+  with force towards anything closely connected with them. Even memory
+  is not a special faculty; it is simply the fundamental property of
+  tenacity possessed by the original faculties. The very distinction
+  between the great classes, Knowledge, Feeling and Will, may be
+  referred to elementary differences in the original relations of
+  faculty and impression.
+
+  This is the groundwork of Beneke's philosophy. It should be carefully
+  compared with the association psychology of modern British thinkers,
+  most of whose results and processes will be found there worked into a
+  comprehensive system (see ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS). In logic, metaphysics
+  and ethics Beneke's speculations are naturally dependent on his
+  psychology.
+
+  The special value of Beneke's works, as has been already said,
+  consists in the many specimens of acute psychological analysis
+  scattered throughout them. As a complete explanation of psychical
+  facts, the theory seems defective. The original hypotheses, peculiar
+  to Beneke, on which the whole depends, are hastily assumed and rest on
+  a clumsy mechanical metaphor. As is the case with all empirical
+  theories of mental development, the higher categories or notions,
+  which are apparently shown to result from the simple elements, are
+  really presupposed at every step. Particularly unsatisfactory is the
+  account of consciousness, which is said to arise from the union of
+  impression and faculty. The necessity of consciousness for any mental
+  action whatsoever is apparently granted, but the conditions involved
+  in it are never discussed or mentioned. The same defect appears in the
+  account of ethical judgment; no amount of empirical fact can ever
+  yield the notion of absolute duty. His results have found acceptance
+  mainly with practical teachers. Undoubtedly his minute analysis of
+  temperament and careful exposition of the means whereby the young,
+  unformed mind may be trained are of infinite value; but the truth of
+  many of his doctrines on these points lends no support to the
+  fundamental hypotheses, from which, indeed, they might be almost
+  entirely severed.
+
+  Beneke was a most prolific writer, and besides the works mentioned
+  above, published large treatises in the several departments of
+  philosophy, both pure and as applied to education and ordinary life. A
+  complete list of his writings will be found in the appendix to
+  Dressler's edition of the _Lehrbuch der Psychologie als
+  Naturwissenschaft_ (1861). The chief are:--_Psychologische Skizzen_
+  (1825, 1827); _Lehrbuch der Psychologie_ (1832); _Metaphysik und
+  Religionsphilosophie_ (1840); _Die neue Psychologie_ (1845);
+  _Pragmatische Psychologie oder Seelenlehre in der Anwendung auf das
+  Leben_ (1832).
+
+  Among German writers, who, though not professed followers of Beneke,
+  have been largely influenced by him, may be mentioned Ueberweg and
+  Karl Fortlage (1806-1881). In England, perhaps, the only writer who
+  shows traces of acquaintance with his works is J.D. Morell (_Introd.
+  to Mental Philosophy_). The most eminent members of the school are
+  J.G. Dressler (whose _Beneke oder Seelenlehre als Naturwissenschaft_
+  is an admirable exposition), Fried. Dittes and G. Raue. The compendium
+  by the last-named author passed through four editions in Germany, and
+  has been translated into French, Flemish and English. The English
+  translation, _Elements of Psychology_ (1871), gives a lucid and
+  succinct view of the whole system.
+
+  Among more recent works on Beneke are O.E. Hummel, _Die
+  Unterrichtslehre Benekes_ (Leipzig, 1885); on his ethical theory,
+  C.H.Th. Kuhn, _Die Sittenlehre F.E. Benekes_ (1892); Joh. Friedrich,
+  _F.E. Beneke_ (Wiesbaden, 1898, with biography and list of works);
+  Otto Gramzow, _F.E. Benekes Leben und Philos._ (Bern, 1899, with full
+  bibliography); on his theory of knowledge, H. Renner, _Benekes
+  Erkenninistheorie_ (Halle, 1902); on his metaphysics, _Die Metaphysik
+  Benekes_, by A. Wandschneider (Berlin, 1903); Brandt, _Beneke, the Man
+  and His Philosophy_ (New York, 1895); Falckenberg, _Hist. of Phil._
+  (Eng. trans., 1895); and H. Hoffding, _Hist. of Mod. Phil._ vol. ii.
+  (Eng. trans., 1900).     (R. Ad.)
+
+
+
+
+BENETT, ETHELDRED (1776-1845), one of the earliest of English women
+geologists, the second daughter of Thomas Benett, of Pyt House near
+Tisbury, was born in 1776. Later she resided at Norton House, near
+Warminster, in Wiltshire, and for more than a quarter of a century
+devoted herself to collecting and studying the fossils of her native
+county. She contributed "A Catalogue of the Organic Remains of the
+County of Wilts" to Sir R.C. Hoare's _County History_, and a limited
+number of copies of this work were printed as a separate volume (1831)
+and privately distributed. She died on the 11th of January 1845.
+
+
+
+
+BENEVENTO, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, capital of
+the province of Benevento, 60 m. by rail and 32 m. direct N.E. of
+Naples, situated on a hill 400 ft. above sea-level at the confluence of
+the Calore and Sabbato. Pop. (1901) town, 17,227; commune, 24,137. It
+occupies the site of the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or
+Maluentum, supposed in the imperial period to have been founded by
+Diomedes. It was the chief town of the Samnites, who took refuge here
+after their defeat by the Romans in 314 B.C. It appears not to have
+fallen into the hands of the latter until Pyrrhus's absence in Sicily,
+but served them as a base of operations in the last campaign against him
+in 275 B.C. A Latin colony was planted there in 268 B.C., and it was
+then that the name was changed for the sake of the omen, and probably
+then that the Via Appia was extended from Capua to Beneventum. It
+remained in the hands of the Romans during both the Punic and the Social
+Wars, and was a fortress of importance to them. The position is strong,
+being protected by the two rivers mentioned, and the medieval
+fortifications, which are nearly 2 m. in length, probably follow the
+ancient line, which was razed to the ground by Totila in A.D. 542.
+After the Social War it became a _municipium_ and under Augustus a
+colony. Being a meeting point of six main roads,[1] it was much visited
+by travellers. Its importance is vouched for by the many remains of
+antiquity which it possesses, of which the most famous is the triumphal
+arch erected in honour of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in
+A.D. 114, with important reliefs relating to its history (E. Petersen in
+_Romische Mitteilungen_, 1892, 241; A. von Domaszewzki in _Jahreshefte
+des Osterreich. archaologischen Instituts_, ii., 1899, 173). There are
+also considerable remains of the ancient theatre, a large
+_cryptoporticus_ 197 ft. long known as the ruins of Santi Quaranta, and
+probably an emporium (according to Meomartini, the portion preserved is
+only a fraction of the whole, which once measured 1791 ft. in length)
+and an ancient brick arch (called the Arco del Sacramento), while below
+the town is the Ponte Lebroso, a bridge of the Via Appia over the
+Sabbato, and along the road to Avellino are remains of _thermae_. Many
+inscriptions and ancient fragments may be seen built into the houses; in
+front of the Madonna delle Grazie is a bull in red Egyptian granite, and
+in the Piazza Papiniano the fragments of two Egyptian obelisks erected
+in A.D. 88 in front of the temple of Isis in honour of Domitian. In 1903
+the foundations of this temple were discovered close to the Arch of
+Trajan, and many fragments of fine sculptures in both the Egyptian and
+the Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had apparently
+been used as the foundation of a portion of the city wall, reconstructed
+in A.D. 663 under the fear of an attack by Constans, the Byzantine
+emperor, the temple having been destroyed under the influence of the
+bishop, St Barbatus, to provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini,
+O. Marucchi and L. Savignoni in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1904, 107 sqq.).
+Not long after it had been sacked by Totila Benevento became the seat of
+a powerful Lombard duchy and continued to be independent until 1053,
+when the emperor Henry III. ceded it to Leo IX. in exchange for the
+bishopric of Bamberg; and it continued to be a papal possession until
+1806, when Napoleon granted it to Talleyrand with the title of prince.
+In 1815 it returned to the papacy, but was united to Italy in 1860.
+Manfred lost his life in 1266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far
+from the town. Much damage has been done by earthquakes from time to
+time. The church of S. Sofia, a circular edifice of about 760, now
+modernized, the roof of which is supported by six ancient columns, is a
+relic of the Lombard period; it has a fine cloister of the 12th century
+constructed in part of fragments of earlier buildings; while the
+cathedral with its fine arcaded facade and incomplete square campanile
+(begun in 1279) dates from the 9th century and was rebuilt in 1114. The
+bronze doors, adorned with bas-reliefs, are good; they may belong to the
+beginning of the 13th century. The interior is in the form of a
+basilica, the double aisles being borne by ancient columns, and contains
+_ambones_ and a candelabrum of 1311, the former resting on columns
+supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and coloured marble
+mosaic. The castle at the highest point of the town was erected in the
+14th century.
+
+Benevento is a station on the railway from Naples to Foggia, and has
+branch lines to Campobasso and to Avellino.
+
+  See A. Meomartini, _Monumenti e opere d'Arte di Benevento_ (Benevento,
+  1899); T. Ashby, _Melanges de l'ecole francaise_, 1903, 416.
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These were (1) the prolongation of the Via Appia from Capua, (2)
+    its continuation to Tarentum and Brundisium, of which there were two
+    different lines between Beneventum and Aquilonia at different dates
+    (see APPIA, VIA), (3) the Via Traiana to Brundisium by Herdoniae, (4)
+    the road to Telesia and Aesernia, (5) the road to Aesernia by
+    Bovianum, (6) the road to Abellinum and Salernum.
+
+
+
+
+BENEVOLENCE (Lat. _bene_, well, and _volens_, wishing), a term for an
+act of kindness, or a gift of money, or goods, but used in a special
+sense to indicate sums of money, disguised as gifts, which were extorted
+by various English kings from their subjects, without consent of
+parliament. Among the numerous methods which have been adopted by
+sovereigns everywhere to obtain support from their people, that of
+demanding gifts has frequently found a place, and consequently it is the
+word and not the method which is peculiar to English history. Edward II.
+and Richard II. had obtained funds by resorting to forced loans, a
+practice which was probably not unusual in earlier times. Edward IV.,
+however, discarded even the pretence of repayment, and in 1473 the word
+_benevolence_ was first used with reference to a royal demand for a
+gift. Edward was very successful in these efforts, and as they only
+concerned a limited number of persons he did not incur serious
+unpopularity. But when Richard III. sought to emulate his brother's
+example, protests were made which led to the passing of an act of
+parliament in 1484 abolishing benevolences as "new and unlawful
+inventions." About the same time the Chronicle of Croyland referred to a
+benevolence as a "nova et inaudita impositio muneris ut per
+benevolentiam quilibet daret id quod vellet, immo verius quod nollet."
+In spite of this act Richard demanded a further benevolence; but it was
+Henry VII. who made the most extensive use of this system. In 1491 he
+sent out commissioners to obtain gifts of money, and in 1496 an act of
+parliament enforced payment of the sums promised on this occasion under
+penalty of imprisonment. Henry's chancellor, Cardinal Morton, archbishop
+of Canterbury, was the traditional author of a method of raising money
+by benevolences known as "Morton's Fork." If a man lived economically,
+it was reasoned he was saving money and could afford a present for the
+king. If, on the contrary, he lived sumptuously, he was evidently
+wealthy and could likewise afford a gift. Henry VII. obtained
+considerable sums of money in this manner; and in 1545 Henry VIII.
+demanded a "loving contribution" from all who possessed lands worth not
+less than forty shillings a year, or chattels to the value of L15; and
+those who refused to make payment were summoned before the privy council
+and punished. Elizabeth took loans which were often repaid; and in 1614
+James I. ordered the sheriffs and magistrates in each county and borough
+to collect a general benevolence from all persons of ability, and with
+some difficulty about L40,000 was collected. Four counties had, however,
+distinguished themselves by protests against this demand, and the act of
+Richard III. had been cited by various objectors. Representatives from
+the four counties were accordingly called before the privy council,
+where Sir Edward Coke defended the action of the king, quoted the Tudor
+precedents and urged that the act of 1484 was to prevent exactions, not
+voluntary gifts such as James had requested. Subsequently Oliver St John
+was fined and imprisoned for making a violent protest against the
+benevolence, and on the occasion of his trial Sir Francis Bacon defended
+the request for money as voluntary. In 1615 an attempt to exact a
+benevolence in Ireland failed, and in 1620 it was decided to demand one
+for the defence of the Palatinate. Circular letters were sent out,
+punishments were inflicted, but many excuses were made and only about
+L34,000 was contributed. In 1621 a further attempt was made, judges of
+assize and others were ordered to press for contributions, and wealthy
+men were called before the privy council and asked to name a sum at
+which to be rated. About L88,000 was thus raised, and in 1622 William
+Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, was imprisoned for six months for
+protesting. This was the last time benevolences were actually collected,
+although in 1622 and 1625 it was proposed to raise money in this manner.
+In 1633 Charles I. consented to collect a benevolence for the recovery
+of the Palatinate for Charles Louis, the son of his sister Elizabeth,
+but no further steps were taken to carry out the project.
+
+  See W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_, vol. iii. (Oxford,
+  1895); H. Hallam, _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i.
+  (London, 1855); T.P. Taswell-Langmead, _English Constitutional
+  History_ (London, 1896); S.R. Gardiner, _History of England, passim_
+  (London, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+BENFEY, THEODOR (1809-1881), German philologist, son of a Jewish trader
+at Norten, near Gottingen, was born on the 28th of January 1809.
+Although originally designed for the medical profession, his taste for
+philology was awakened by a careful instruction in Hebrew which he
+received from his father. After brilliant studies at Gottingen he spent
+a year at Munich, where he was greatly impressed by the lectures of
+Schelling and Thiersch, and afterwards settled as a teacher in
+Frankfort. His pursuits were at first chiefly classical, and his
+attention was diverted to Sanskrit by an accidental wager that he would
+learn enough of the language in a few weeks to be able to review a new
+book upon it. This feat he accomplished, and rivalled in later years
+when he learned Russian in order to translate V.P. Vasilev's work on
+Buddhism. For the time, however, his labours were chiefly in classical
+and Semitic philology. At Gottingen, whither he had returned as
+privat-docent, he wrote a little work on the names of the Hebrew months,
+proving that they were derived from the Persian, prepared the great
+article on India in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedia_, and published
+from 1839 to 1842 the _Lexicon of Greek Roots_ which gained him the
+Volney prize of the Institute of France. From this time his attention
+was principally given to Sanskrit. He published in 1848 his edition of
+the _Sama-veda_; in 1852-1854 his _Manual of Sanskrit_, comprising a
+grammar and chrestomathy; in 1858 his practical Sanskrit grammar,
+afterwards translated into English; and in 1859 his edition of the
+_Pantscha Tantra_, with an extensive dissertation on the fables and
+mythologies of primitive nations. All these works had been produced
+under the pressure of poverty, the government, whether from parsimony or
+from prejudice against a Jew, refusing to make any substantial addition
+to his small salary as extra-professor at the university. At length, in
+1862, the growing appreciation of foreign scholars shamed it into making
+him an ordinary professor, and in 1866 Benfey published the laborious
+work by which he is on the whole best known, his great _Sanskrit-English
+Dictionary_. In 1869 he wrote a history of German philological research,
+especially Oriental, during the 19th century. In 1878 his jubilee as
+doctor was celebrated by the publication of a volume of philological
+essays dedicated to him and written by the first scholars in Germany. He
+had designed to close his literary labours by a grammar of Vedic
+Sanskrit, and was actively preparing it when he was interrupted by
+illness, which terminated in his death at Gottingen on the 26th of June
+1881.
+
+  A collection of his various writings was published in 1890, prefaced
+  by a memoir by his son.
+
+
+
+
+BENGAL, a province of British India, bounded on the E. by the province
+of Eastern Bengal and Assam, the boundary line being the Madhumati river
+and the Ganges; on the S. by the Bay of Bengal and Madras; on the W. by
+the Central Provinces and United Provinces; and on the N. by Nepal and
+Sikkim. It has an area of 141,580 sq. m. and a population of 54,096,806.
+It consists of the provinces of Behar, Orissa and Chota Nagpur, and the
+western portion of the Ganges valley, but without the provinces of
+Northern and Eastern Bengal; and is divided into the six British
+divisions of the presidency, Bhagalpur, Patna, Burdwan, Chota Nagpur and
+Orissa, and various native states. The province was reconstituted in
+1905, when the Chittagong, Dacca and Rajshahi divisions, the district of
+Malda and the state of Hill Tippera were transferred from Bengal to a
+new province, Eastern Bengal and Assam; the five Hindi-speaking states
+of Chota Nagpur, namely Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and
+Jashpur, were transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces; and
+Sambalpur and the five Oriya states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna
+and Kalahandi were transferred from the Central Provinces to Bengal. The
+province of Bengal, therefore, now consists of the thirty-three British
+districts of Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli, Howrah,
+Twenty-four Parganas, Calcutta, Nadia, Murshidabad, Jessore, Khulna,
+Patna, Gaya, Shahabad, Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga,
+Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Santal Parganas, Cuttack, Balasore, Angul
+and Khondmals, Puri, Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Palamau, Manbhum, Singhbum and
+Sambalpur, and the native states of Sikkim and the tributary states of
+Orissa and Chota Nagpur.
+
+The name Bengal is derived from Sanskrit geography, and applies strictly
+to the country stretching southwards from Bhagalpur to the sea. The
+ancient Banga formed one of the five outlying kingdoms of Aryan India,
+and was practically conterminous with the delta of Bengal. It derived
+its name, according to the etymology of the Pundits, from a prince of
+the Mahabharata, to whose portion it fell on the primitive partition of
+the country among the Lunar race of Delhi. But a city called Bangala,
+near Chittagong, which, although now washed away, is supposed to have
+existed in the Mahommedan period, appears to have given the name to the
+European world. The word Bangala was first used by the Mussulmans; and
+under their rule, like the Banga of old Sanskrit times, it applied
+specifically to the Gangetic delta, although the later conquests to the
+east of the Brahmaputra were eventually included within it. In their
+distribution of the country for fiscal purposes, it formed the central
+province of a governorship, with Behar on the north-west, and Orissa on
+the south-west, jointly ruled by one deputy of the Delhi emperor. Under
+the English the name has at different periods borne very different
+significations. Francis Fernandez applies it to the country from the
+extreme east of Chittagong to Point Palmyras in Orissa, with a coast
+line which Purchas estimates at 600 m., running inland for the same
+distance and watered by the Ganges. This territory would include the
+Mahommedan province of Bengal, with parts of Behar and Orissa. The loose
+idea thus derived from old voyagers became stereotyped in the archives
+of the East India Company. All its north-eastern factories, from
+Balasore, on the Orissa coast, to Patna, in the heart of Behar, belonged
+to the "Bengal Establishment," and as British conquests crept higher up
+the rivers, the term came to be applied to the whole of northern India.
+The presidency of Bengal, in contradistinction to those of Madras and
+Bombay, eventually included all the British territories north of the
+Central Provinces, from the mouths of the Ganges and Brahmaputra to the
+Himalayas and the Punjab. In 1831 the North-Western Provinces were
+created, which are now included with Oudh in the United Provinces; and
+the whole of northern India is now divided into the four
+lieutenant-governorships of the Punjab, the United Provinces, Bengal,
+and Eastern Bengal and Assam, and the North-West Frontier Province under
+a commissioner.
+
+_Physical Geography._--Three sub-provinces of the present
+lieutenant-governorship of Bengal--namely, Bengal proper, Behar and
+Orissa--consist of great river valleys; the fourth, Chota Nagpur, is a
+mountainous region which separates them from the central India plateau.
+Orissa embraces the rich deltas of the Mahanadi and the neighbouring
+rivers, bounded by the Bay of Bengal on the S.E., and walled in on the
+N.W. by tributary hill states. Proceeding west, the sub-province of
+Bengal proper stretches to the banks of the Ganges and inland from the
+sea-board to the Himalayas. Its southern portion is formed by the delta
+of the Ganges; its northern consists of the Ganges valley. Behar lies on
+the north-west of Bengal proper, and comprises, the higher valley of the
+Ganges from the spot where it issues from the United Provinces. Between
+Behar and Orissa lies the province of Chota Nagpur, of which a portion
+was given in 1905 to the Central Provinces. The valley of the Ganges,
+which is now divided between Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam, is one
+of the most fertile and densely-populated tracts of country in the
+world. It teems with every product of nature. Tea, indigo, turmeric,
+lac, waving white fields of the opium-poppy, wheat and innumerable
+grains and pulses, pepper, ginger, betel-nut, quinine and many costly
+spices and drugs, oil-seeds of sorts, cotton, the silk mulberry,
+inexhaustible crops of jute and other fibres; timber, from the feathery
+bamboo and coroneted palm to the iron-hearted _sal_ tree--in short,
+every vegetable product which feeds and clothes a people, and enables it
+to trade with foreign nations, abounds. Nor is the country destitute of
+mineral wealth. The districts near the sea consist entirely of alluvial
+formations; and, indeed, it is stated that no substance so coarse as
+gravel occurs throughout the delta, or in the heart of the provinces
+within 400 m. of the river mouths.
+
+
+  Climate.
+
+The climate varies from the snowy regions of the Himalayas to the
+tropical vapour-bath of the delta and the burning winds of Behar. The
+ordinary range of the thermometer, on the plains is from about 52 deg.
+F. in the coldest month to 103 deg. in the shade in summer. A
+temperature below 60 deg. is considered very cold, while with care the
+temperature of well-built houses rarely exceeds 95 deg. in the hot
+weather. The rainfall varies from 37 in. in Behar to about 65 in. in the
+delta.
+
+
+  Rivers.
+
+Lower Bengal exhibits the two typical stages in the life of a great
+river. In the northern districts the rivers run along the valleys,
+receive the drainage from the country on either side, absorb broad
+tributaries and rush forward with an ever-increasing volume. But near
+the centre of the provinces the rivers enter upon a new stage of their
+career. Their main channels bifurcate, and each new stream so created
+throws off its own set of distributaries to right and left. The country
+which they thus enclose and intersect forms the delta of Bengal.
+Originally conquered by the fluvial deposits from the sea, it now
+stretches out as a vast dead level, in which the rivers find their
+velocity checked, and their current no longer able to carry along the
+silt which they have brought down from northern India. The streams,
+accordingly, deposit their alluvial burden in their channels and upon
+their banks, so that by degrees their beds rise above the level of the
+surrounding country. In this way the rivers in the delta slowly build
+themselves up into canals, which every autumn break through or overflow
+their margins, and leave their silt upon the adjacent flats. Thousands
+of square miles in Lower Bengal annually receive a top-dressing of
+virgin soil from the Himalayas,--a system of natural manuring which
+renders elaborate tillage a waste of labour, and defies the utmost power
+of over-cropping to exhaust its fertility. As the rivers creep farther
+down the delta, they become more and more sluggish, and their
+bifurcations and interfacings more complicated. The last scene of all is
+a vast amphibious wilderness of swamp and forest, amid whose solitudes
+their network of channels insensibly merges into the sea. The rivers,
+finally checked by the sea, deposit their remaining silt, which emerges
+as banks or blunted promontories, or, after a year's battling with the
+tide, adds a few feet or it may be a few inches to the foreshore.
+
+The Ganges gives to the country its peculiar character and aspect. About
+200 m. from its mouth it spreads out into numerous branches, forming a
+large delta, composed, where it borders on the sea, of a labyrinth of
+creeks and rivers, running through the dense forests of the Sundarbans,
+and exhibiting during the annual inundation the appearance of an immense
+sea. At this time the rice fields to the extent of many hundreds of
+square miles are submerged. The scene presents to a European eye a
+panorama of singular novelty and interest--rice fields covered with
+water to a great depth; the ears of grain floating on the surface; the
+stupendous embankments, which restrain without altogether preventing the
+excesses of the inundations; and peasants going out to their daily work
+with their cattle in canoes or on rafts. The navigable streams which
+fall into the Ganges intersect the country in every direction and afford
+great facilities for internal communication. In many parts boats can
+approach by means of lakes, rivulets and water-courses to the door of
+almost every cottage. The lower region of the Ganges is the richest and
+most productive portion of Bengal, abounding in valuable produce. The
+other principal rivers in Bengal are the Sone, Gogra, Gandak, Kusi,
+Tista; the Hugli, formed by the junction of the Bhagirathi and Jalangi,
+and farther to the west, the Damodar and Rupnarayan; and in the
+south-west, the Mahanadi or great river of Orissa. In a level country
+like Bengal, where the soil is composed of yielding and loose materials,
+the courses of the rivers are continually shifting from the wearing away
+of their different banks, or from the water being turned off by
+obstacles in its course into a different channel. As this channel is
+gradually widened the old bed of the river is left dry. The new channel
+into which the river flows is of course so much land lost, while the old
+bed constitutes an accession to the adjacent estates. Thus, one man's
+property is diminished, while that of another is enlarged or improved;
+and a distinct branch of jurisprudence has grown up, the particular
+province of which is the definition and regulation of the alluvial
+rights alike of private property and of the state.
+
+_Geology._--The greater part of Bengal is occupied by the alluvial
+deposits of the Ganges, but in the south-west rises the plateau of Chota
+Nagpur composed chiefly of gneissic rocks. The great thickness of the
+Gangetic alluvium is shown by a borehole at Calcutta which was carried
+to a depth of about 460 ft. below the present level of the sea without
+entering any marine deposit. Over the surface of the gneissic rocks are
+scattered numerous basins of Gondwana beds. Some of these are
+undoubtedly faulted into their present positions, and to this they owe
+their preservation. In the Rajmahal Hills basaltic lava flows are
+interbedded with the Gondwana deposits, and in the Karharbari coalfield
+the Gondwana beds are traversed by dikes of mica-peridotite and basalt,
+which are supposed to be of the same age as the Rajmahal lavas. The
+Gondwana series is economically of great importance. It includes
+numerous seams of coal, many of which are worked on an extensive scale
+(at Giridih, Raniganj, &c.). The quality of the coal is good, but
+unfortunately it contains a large amount of ash, the average being as
+high as 17%.
+
+_People._--In the sub-provinces under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal
+dwell a great congeries of peoples, of widely diverse origin, speaking
+different languages and representing far separated eras of civilization.
+The province, in fact, became so unwieldy that this was the chief reason
+for its partition in 1905. The people exhibit every stage of human
+progress, and every type of human enlightenment and superstition from
+the educated classes to primitive hill tribes. On the same bench of a
+Calcutta college sit youths trained up in the strictest theism, others
+indoctrinated in the mysteries of the Hindu trinity and pantheon, with
+representatives of every link in the chain of superstition--from the
+harmless offering of flowers before the family god to the cruel rites of
+Kali, whose altars in the most civilized districts of Bengal, as lately
+as the famine of 1866, were stained with human blood. Indeed, the very
+word Hindu is one of absolutely indeterminate meaning. The census
+officers employ it as a convenient generic to include 42 millions of the
+population of Bengal, comprising elements of transparently distinct
+ethnical origin, and separated from each other by their language,
+customs and religious rites. But Hinduism, understood even in this wide
+sense, represents only one of many creeds and races found within Bengal.
+The other great historical cultus, which during the last twelve
+centuries did for the Semitic peoples what Christianity accomplished
+among the European Aryans, has won to itself one-fifth of the population
+of Bengal. The Mahommedans number some 9,000,000 in Bengal, but the
+great bulk of their numbers was transferred to Eastern Bengal and Assam.
+They consist largely of the original inhabitants of the country, who
+were proselytized by the successive Pathan and Mogul invasions. In the
+face of great natural catastrophes, such as river inundations, famines,
+tidal waves and cyclones of the lower provinces of Bengal, the religious
+instinct works with a vitality unknown in European countries. Until the
+British government stepped in with its police and canals and railroads,
+between the people and what they were accustomed to consider the
+dealings of Providence, scarcely a year passed without some terrible
+manifestation of the power and the wrath of God. Mahratta invasions from
+central India, piratical devastations on the sea-board, banditti who
+marched about the interior in bodies of 50,000 men, floods which drowned
+the harvests of whole districts, and droughts in which a third of the
+population starved to death, kept alive a sense of human powerlessness
+in the presence of an omnipotent fate. Under the Mahommedans a
+pestilence turned the capital into a silent wilderness, never again to
+be re-peopled. Under British rule it is estimated that 10 millions
+perished within the Lower Provinces alone in the famine of 1769-1770;
+and the first surveyor-general of Bengal entered on his maps a tract of
+many hundreds of square miles as bare of villages and "depopulated by
+the Maghs." But since the advent of British administration the history
+of Bengal has substantially been a record of prosperity; the teeming
+population of its river valleys is one of the densest in the world, and
+the purely agricultural districts of Saran and Muzaffarpur in the Patna
+division support over 900 persons to the square mile, a number hardly
+surpassed elsewhere except in urban areas.
+
+_Language._--Excluding immigrants the languages spoken by the people of
+Bengal belong to one or other of four linguistic families--Aryan,
+Dravidian, Munda and Tibeto-Burman. Of these the languages of the Aryan
+family are by far the most important, being spoken by no less than 95%
+of the population according to the census of 1901. The Aryan languages
+are spoken in the plains by almost the whole population; the Munda and
+Dravidian in the Chota Nagpur plateau and adjoining tracts; and the
+Tibeto-Burman in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Jalpaiguri. The most important
+Aryan languages are Bengali (q.v.), Bihari, Eastern Hindi and Oriya. On
+the average in the province, before partition, out of every 1000 persons
+528 spoke Bengali, 341 Hindi and Bihari, and 79 Oriya. As a rule Bengali
+is the language of Bengal proper, Hindi of Behar and Chota Nagpur, and
+Oriya of Orissa.
+
+_Agriculture._--The staple crop of the province is rice, to which about
+66% of the cropped area is devoted. There are three harvests in the
+year--the _boro_, or spring rice; _aus_, or autumn rice; and _aman_, or
+winter rice. Of these the last or winter rice is by far the most
+extensively cultivated, and forms the great harvest of the year. The
+_aman_ crop is grown on low land. In May, after the first fall of rain,
+a nursery ground is ploughed three times, and the seed scattered
+broadcast. When the seedlings make their appearance another field is
+prepared for transplanting. By this time the rainy season has thoroughly
+set in, and the field is dammed up so as to retain the water. It is then
+repeatedly ploughed until the water becomes worked into the soil, and
+the whole reduced to thick mud. The young rice is then taken from the
+nursery, and transplanted in rows about 9 in. apart. _Aman_ rice is much
+more extensively cultivated than _aus_, and in favourable years is the
+most valuable crop, but being sown in low lands is liable to be
+destroyed by excessive rainfall. Harvest takes place in December or
+January. _Aus_ rice is generally sown on high ground. The field is
+ploughed when the early rains set in, ten or twelve times over, till the
+soil is reduced nearly to dust, the seed being sown broadcast in April
+or May. As soon as the young plants reach 6 in. in height, the land is
+harrowed for the purpose of thinning the crop and to clear it of weeds.
+The crop is harvested in August or September. _Boro_, or spring rice, is
+cultivated on low marshy land, being sown in a nursery in October,
+transplanted a month later, and harvested in March and April. An
+indigenous description of rice, called _uri_ or _jaradhan_, grows in
+certain marshy tracts. The grain is very small, and is gathered for
+consumption only by the poorest. Wheat forms an important food staple in
+Behar, whence there is a considerable export to Calcutta. Oil-seeds are
+very largely grown, particularly in Behar. The principal oil-seeds are
+_sarisha_ (mustard), _til_ (sesamum) and _lisi_ or _masina_ (linseed).
+Jute (_pat_ or _kosta_) forms a very important commercial staple of
+Bengal. The cultivation of this crop has rapidly increased of late
+years. Its principal seat of cultivation, however, is Eastern Bengal,
+where the superior varieties are grown. The crop grows on either high or
+low lands, is sown in April and cut in August. Apart from the quantity
+exported and the quantity made up by hand, it supports a prosperous mill
+industry, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Calcutta and Howrah. In 1905
+there were thirty-six jute mills in the province and 2-1/4 million acres
+were cropped. The value of jute and of the goods manufactured from it
+represents more than a third of the aggregate value of the trade of
+Calcutta. Indigo used to be an important crop carried on with European
+capital in Behar, but of late years the industry has almost been
+destroyed by the invention of artificial indigo. Tea cultivation is the
+other great industry carried on by European capital, but that is chiefly
+confined to Assam, the industry in Darjeeling and the Dwars being on a
+small scale. Opium is grown in Behar with its head station at Patna. The
+cultivation of the cinchona plant in Bengal was introduced as an
+experiment about 1862, and is grown on government plantations in
+Darjeeling.
+
+_Mineral Products._--The chief mineral product in Bengal is coal, which
+disputes with the gold of Mysore for the place of premier importance in
+the mining industries of India. The most important mine in point of
+area, accessibility and output is Raniganj, with an area of 500 sq. m.
+Another of rising importance is that of Jherria, with an area of 200 sq.
+m., which is situated only 16 m. to the west of Raniganj; while
+Daltonganj also has an area of 200 sq. m. The small coalfield of
+Karharbari with an area of only 11 sq. m. yields the best coal in
+Bengal. Besides these four coalfields there are twenty-five others of
+various sizes, which are only in the initial stages of development.
+
+_Commerce._--The sea-borne trade of Bengal is almost entirely
+concentrated at Calcutta (q.v.), which also serves as the chief port for
+Eastern Bengal and Assam, and for the United Provinces. The principal
+imports are cotton piece goods, railway materials, metals and machinery,
+oils, sugar, cotton, twist and salt; and the principal exports are jute,
+tea, hides, opium, rice, oil-seeds, indigo and lac. The inter-provincial
+trade is mostly carried on with Eastern Bengal and Assam, the United
+Provinces and the Central Provinces. From the United Provinces come
+opium, hides, raw cotton, wheat, shellac and oil-seeds; and from Assam,
+tea, oil-seeds and jute. The frontier trade of Bengal is registered with
+Nepal, Sikkim, Tibet and Bhutan, but except with Nepal the amount is
+insignificant.
+
+_Railways._--Bengal is well supplied with railways, which naturally have
+the seaport of Calcutta as the centre of the system. South of the
+Ganges, the East Indian follows the river from the North-Western
+Provinces, with its terminus at Howrah on the Hugli, opposite Calcutta.
+A chord line passes by the coalfield of Raniganj, which enables this
+great railway to be worked more economically than any other in India.
+The Bengal-Nagpur, from the Central Provinces, also has its terminus at
+Howrah, and the section of this railway through Midnapore carries the
+East Coast line from Madras. North of the Ganges the Eastern Bengal runs
+north to Darjeeling, and maintains a service of river steamers on the
+Brahmaputra. The Bengal Central serves the lower Gangetic delta. Both of
+these have their termini at Sealdah, an eastern suburb of Calcutta.
+Northern Behar is traversed by the Bengal & North-Western, with an
+extension eastwards through Tirhoot to join the Eastern Bengal. In
+addition there are a few light lines and steam tramways.
+
+_Canals and Rivers._--Rivers and other waterways still carry a large
+part of the traffic of Bengal, especially in the delta. The government
+maintains two channels through the Sundarbans, known as the Calcutta and
+Eastern canals, and likewise does its best to keep open the Nadiya
+rivers, which form the communication between the main stream of the
+Ganges and the Hugli. There is further a route by water between Calcutta
+and Midnapore. The most important canals, those in Orissa (see MAHANADI)
+and on the Sone river in southern Behar, have been constructed primarily
+for irrigation, though they are also used for navigation. Except as a
+protection against famine, expenditure on irrigation is not remunerative
+in Bengal, on account of the abundance of rivers, and the general
+dampness of the climate.
+
+_Administration._--The administration of Bengal is conducted by a
+lieutenant-governor, with a chief secretary, two secretaries and three
+under-secretaries. There is no executive council, as in Madras and
+Bombay; but there is a board of revenue, consisting of two members. For
+legislative purposes the lieutenant-governor has a council of twenty
+members, of whom not more than ten may be officials. Of the remaining
+members seven are nominated on the recommendation of the Calcutta
+corporation, groups of municipalities, groups of district boards,
+selected public associations and the senate of Calcutta university. The
+number of divisions or commissionerships is 6, of which Chota Nagpur
+ranks as "non-regulation." The number of districts is 33.
+
+_Army._--In Lord Kitchener's reconstitution of the Indian army in 1904
+the old Bengal command was abolished and its place taken by the Eastern
+army corps, which includes all the troops from Meerut to Assam. The
+boundaries of the 8th division include those of the former Oudh,
+Allahabad, Assam and Presidency districts; and the troops now quartered
+in Bengal only consist of the Presidency brigade with its headquarters
+at Fort William.
+
+_History._--The history of so large a province as Bengal forms an
+integral part of the general history of India. The northern part, Behar
+(q.v.), constituted the ancient kingdom of Magadha, the nucleus of the
+imperial power of the successive great dynasties of the Mauryas,
+Andhras and Guptas; and its chief town, Patna, is the ancient
+Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), once the capital of India.
+The Delta or southern part of Bengal lay beyond the ancient Sanskrit
+polity, and was governed by a number of local kings belonging to a
+pre-Aryan stock. The Chinese travellers, Fa Hien in the 5th century, and
+Hsuan Tsang in the 7th century, found the Buddhist religion prevailing
+throughout Bengal, but already in a fierce struggle with Hinduism--a
+struggle which ended about the 9th or 10th century in the general
+establishment of the latter faith. Until the end of the 12th century
+Hindu princes governed in a number of petty principalities, till, in
+1199, Mahommed Bakhtiyar Khilji was appointed to lead the first
+Mussulman invasion into Bengal. The Mahommedan conquest of Behar dates
+from 1197 A.D., and the new power speedily spread southwards into the
+delta. From about this date until 1340 Bengal was ruled by governors
+appointed by the Mahommedan emperors in the north. From 1340 to 1539 its
+governors asserted a precarious independence, and arrogated the position
+of sovereigns on their own account. From 1540 to 1576 Bengal passed
+under the rule of the Pathan or Afghan dynasty, which commonly bears the
+name of Sher Shah. On the overthrow of this house by the powerful arms
+of Akbar, Bengal was incorporated into the Mogul empire, and
+administered by governors appointed by the Delhi emperor, until the
+treaties of 1765, which placed Bengal, Behar and Orissa under the
+administration of the East India Company. The Company formed its
+earliest settlements in Bengal in the first half of the 17th century.
+These settlements were of a purely commercial character. In 1620 one of
+the Company's factors dates from Patna; in 1624-1636 the Company
+established itself, by the favour of the emperor, on the ruins of the
+ancient Portuguese settlement of Pippli, in the north of Orissa; in
+1640-1642 an English surgeon, Gabriel Boughton, obtained establishments
+at Balasore, also in Orissa, and at Hugli, some miles above Calcutta.
+The vexations and extortions to which the Company's early agents were
+subjected more than once almost induced them to abandon the trade, and
+in 1677-1678 they threatened to withdraw from Bengal altogether. In
+1685, the Bengal factors, driven to extremity by the oppression of the
+Mogul governors, threw down the gauntlet; and after various successes
+and hairbreadth escapes, purchased from the grandson of Aurangzeb, in
+1696, the villages which have since grown up into Calcutta, the
+metropolis of India. During the next fifty years the British had a long
+and hazardous struggle alike with the Mogul governors of the province
+and the Mahratta armies which invaded it. In 1756 this struggle
+culminated in the great outrage known as the Black Hole of Calcutta,
+followed by Clive's battle of Plassey and capture of Calcutta, which
+avenged it. That battle, and the subsequent years of confused fighting,
+established British military supremacy in Bengal, and procured the
+treaties of 1765, by which the provinces of Bengal, Behar and Orissa
+passed under British administration. To Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
+belongs the glory of consolidating the British power, and converting a
+military occupation into a stable civil government. To another member of
+the civil service, John Shore, afterwards Lord Teignmouth (1786-1793),
+is due the formation of a regular system of Anglo-Indian legislation.
+Acting through Lord Cornwallis, then governor-general, he ascertained
+and defined the rights of the landholders in the soil. These landholders
+under the native system had started, for the most part, as collectors of
+the revenues, and gradually acquired certain prescriptive rights as
+quasi-proprietors of the estates entrusted to them by the government. In
+1793 Lord Cornwallis declared their rights perpetual, and made over the
+land of Bengal to the previous quasi-proprietors or _zamindars_, on
+condition of the payment of a fixed land tax. This piece of legislation
+is known as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. But the
+Cornwallis code, while defining the rights of the proprietors, failed to
+give adequate recognition to the rights of the undertenants and the
+cultivators. His Regulations formally reserved the latter class of
+rights, but did not legally define them, or enable the husbandmen to
+enforce them in the courts. After half a century of rural disquiet, the
+rights of the cultivators were at length carefully formulated by Act X.
+of 1859. This measure, now known as the land law of Bengal, effected for
+the rights of the under-holders and cultivators what the Cornwallis code
+in 1793 had effected for those of the superior landholders. The status
+of each class of persons interested in the soil, from the government as
+suzerain, through the _zamindars_ or superior landholders, the
+intermediate tenure-holders and the undertenants, down to the actual
+cultivator, is now clearly defined. The act dates from the first year
+after the transfer of India from the company to the crown; for the
+mutiny burst out in 1857. The transactions of that revolt chiefly took
+place in northern India, and are narrated in the article INDIAN MUTINY.
+In Bengal the rising began at Barrackpore, was communicated to Dacca in
+Eastern Bengal, and for a time raged in Behar, producing the memorable
+defence of the billiard-room at Arrah by a handful of civilians and
+Sikhs--one of the most splendid pieces of gallantry in the history of
+the British arms. Since 1858, when the country passed to the crown, the
+history of Bengal has been one of steady progress. Five great lines of
+railway have been constructed. Trade has enormously expanded; new
+centres of commerce have sprung up in spots which formerly were silent
+jungles; new staples of trade, such as tea and jute, have rapidly
+attained importance; and the coalfields and iron ores have opened up
+prospects of a new and splendid era in the internal development of the
+country.
+
+During the decade 1891-1901 Bengal was fortunate in escaping to a great
+extent the two calamities of famine and plague which afflicted central
+and western India. The drought of 1896-1897 did indeed extend to Bengal,
+but not to such an extent as to cause actual famine. The distress was
+most acute in the densely populated districts of northern Behar, and in
+the remote hills of Chota Nagpur. Plague first appeared at Calcutta in a
+sporadic form in April 1898, but down to April of the following year the
+total number of deaths ascribed to plague throughout the province was
+less than 1000, compared with 191,000 for Bombay. At the beginning of
+1900, however, there was a serious recrudescence of plague at Calcutta,
+and a malignant outbreak in the district of Patna, which caused 1000
+deaths a week. In the early months of 1901, plague again appeared in the
+same regions. The number of deaths in 1904 was 75,436, the highest
+recorded up to that date.
+
+The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897, which had its centre of
+disturbance in Assam, was felt throughout eastern and northern Bengal.
+In all the large towns the masonry buildings were severely damaged or
+totally wrecked. The permanent way of the railways also suffered. The
+total number of deaths returned was only 135. Far more destructive to
+life was the cyclone and storm-wave that broke over Chittagong district
+on the night of the 24th of October 1897. Apart from damage to shipping
+and buildings, the low-lying lands along the coast were completely
+submerged, and in many villages half the inhabitants were drowned. The
+loss of human lives was reported to be about 14,000, and the number of
+cattle drowned about 15,000. As usual in such cases, a severe outbreak
+of cholera followed in the track of the storm-wave. Another natural
+calamity on a large scale occurred at Darjeeling in October 1899.
+Torrential rains caused a series of landslips, carrying away houses and
+breaking up the hill railway.
+
+The most notable event, however, of recent times was the partition of
+the province, which was decided upon by Lord Curzon, and carried into
+execution in October 1905. Serious popular agitation followed this step,
+on the ground (_inter alia_) that the Bengali population, the centre of
+whose interests and prosperity was Calcutta, would now be divided under
+two governments, instead of being concentrated and numerically dominant
+under the one; while the bulk would be in the new division. In 1906-1909
+the unrest developed to a considerable extent, requiring special
+attention from the Indian and home governments; but as part of the
+general history of India the movement may be best discussed under that
+heading (see INDIA: _History_).
+
+  See Parliamentary Papers relating to the reconstitution of the
+  provinces of Bengal and Assam (Cd. 2658 and Cd. 2746, 1905); Colonel
+  E.T. Dalton, _The Ethnology of Bengal_ (1872); Sir W.W. Hunter,
+  _Annals of Rural Bengal_ (1868), and _Orissa_ (1872); Sir H.H. Risley,
+  _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_ (1891); C.E. Buckland, _Bengal under the
+  Lieutenant-Governors_ (1901); and Sir James Bourdillon, _The Partition
+  of Bengal_ (Society of Arts, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+BENGAL, BAY OF, a portion of the Indian Ocean, resembling a triangle in
+shape, lying between India and Burma. A zone 50 m. wide extending from
+the island of Ceylon and the Coromandel coast to the head of the bay,
+and thence southwards through a strip embracing the Andaman and Nicobar
+islands, is bounded by the 100 fathom line of sea bottom; some 50 m.
+beyond this lies the 500-fathom limit. Opposite the mouth of the Ganges,
+however, the intervals between these depths are very much extended by
+deltaic influence. The bay receives many large rivers, of which the most
+important are the Ganges and Brahmaputra on the north, the Irrawaddy on
+the east, and the Mahanadi, Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery on the west. On
+the west coast it has no harbours, Madras having a mere open roadstead,
+but on the east there are many good ports, such as Akyab, Moulmein,
+Rangoon and Tavoy river. The islands in the bay are very numerous,
+including the Andaman, Nicobar and Mergui groups. The group of islands,
+Cheduba and others, in the north-east, off the Burmese coast, are
+remarkable for a chain of mud volcanoes, which are occasionally active.
+Thus in December 1906 a new island of mud was thrown up, and measured
+307 by 217 yds.
+
+
+
+
+BENGALI, with ORIYA and ASSAMESE, three of the four forms of speech
+which compose the Eastern Group of the Indo-Aryan Languages (q.v.). This
+group includes all the Aryan languages spoken in India east of the
+longitude of Benares, and its members are the following:--
+
+            Number of speakers in
+             British India, 1901.
+  Bengali        44,624,048
+  Oriya           9,687,429
+  Assamese        1,350,846
+  Bihari         34,579,844
+                 ----------
+     Total       90,242,167
+
+Of these Bihari is treated separately. In the present article we shall
+devote ourselves to the examination of Bengali together with the two
+other closely connected languages. The reader is throughout assumed to
+be in possession of the facts described under the heads INDO-ARYAN
+LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT.
+
+
+  Language.
+
+Bengali is spoken in the province of Bengal proper, i.e. in, and on both
+sides of the delta of the Ganges, and also in the Eastern Bengal
+portion of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The name "Bengali"
+is an English word, derived from the English word "Bengal." Natives call
+the language _Banga-Bhasa_, or the language of Banga, i.e. "Bengal."
+"Oriya" is the native name for the language of Odra or Orissa. Assamese,
+again an English word, is spoken in the Assam Valley. Its native name is
+_Asamiya_, pronounced _Ohamiya_. All these languages have alphabets
+derived from early forms of the well-known Nagari character of northern
+India. That of Bengali dates from about the 11th century A.D. It is a
+cursive script which admits of considerable speed in writing. The
+Assamese alphabet is the same as that of Bengali, but has one additional
+character to represent the sound of _w_, which has to be expressed in
+the former language in a very awkward fashion. In Orissa, till lately,
+writing was done on a talipot palm-leaf, on which the letters were
+scratched with an iron stylus. In such circumstances straight lines
+would tend to split the leaf, and accordingly the alphabet received a
+peculiar curved appearance typical of it and of one or two other South
+Indian methods of writing.
+
+The three languages are all the immediate descendants of Magadhi Prakrit
+(see PRAKRIT), the headquarters of which were in south Behar, near the
+modern city of Patna. From here it spread in three lines--southwards,
+where it developed into Oriya; south-eastwards into Bengal proper, where
+it became Bengali; and eastwards, through Northern Bengal, into Assam,
+where it became Assamese. It thus appears that the language of Northern
+Bengal, though usually and conveniently treated as a dialect of Bengali,
+is not so in reality, but is a connecting link between Assamese and
+Bihari, the language of Behar. It is noteworthy that Northern Bengali
+and Assamese often agree in their grammar with Oriya, as against
+standard Bengali.
+
+Omitting border forms of speech, Bengali, as a vernacular, has two main
+dialects, a western and an eastern, the former being the standard. The
+boundary-line between the two may be roughly put at the 89th degree of
+east longitude. The eastern dialect has many marked peculiarities,
+amongst which we may mention a tendency to disaspiration, the
+pronunciation of _c_ as _ts_, of _ch_ as _s_, and of _j_ as _z_. In the
+northern part of the tract a medial _r_ is often elided, and in the
+extreme east there is a broader pronunciation of the vowel _a_, like
+that in the English word "ball," _k_ is sounded like the _ch_ in "loch,"
+and both _c_ and _ch_ are pronounced like _s_. The letter _p_ is often
+sounded like _w_, and _s_ like _h_, which again, when initial, is
+dropped. The distinction between cerebral and dental letters is lost, so
+that the words _ath_ and _sat_ are both pronounced _'at_. In the
+south-east, near Chittagong, corruption has gone even further, and the
+local dialect, which is practically a new language, is unintelligible to
+a man from Western Bengal. Throughout the eastern districts there is a
+strong tendency to epenthesis, e.g. _kali_ is pronounced _kail_. A more
+important dialectic difference in Bengali is that between the literary
+speech and the vernacular. The literary vocabulary is highly
+Sanskritized, so much so that it is not understood by any native of
+Bengal who has not received special instruction in it. Its grammar
+preserves numerous archaic or pseudo-archaic forms, which are invariably
+contracted in the colloquial speech of even the most highly educated.
+For instance, "I do" is expressed in the literary dialect by
+_karitechi_, but in the vernacular by _korcci_ or _kocci_. Oriya and
+Assamese may be said to have no dialects. There are a few local
+variations, but the standard form of speech, as a whole, is used
+everywhere in the respective tracts where the languages are spoken.
+
+The three languages, being all children of a common parent, present many
+similar features. Oriya on the whole preserves the usual accentuation of
+the Indo-Aryan Languages (q.v.), seldom having the stress syllable
+farther back than the antepenultimate. Bengali, on the other hand,
+throws the accent as far back as possible, and this produces the
+contracted forms which we observe in the colloquial language, the first
+syllable of a word being strongly accented, and the rest being hurried
+over. Literary Bengali preserves the full form of the word, and in
+reading aloud this full form is adhered to. Assamese follows Bengali in
+its accentuation, but the language has never been the toy of euphuism.
+In its literature colloquial words are employed, and are written as they
+are pronounced colloquially.
+
+  In the following account of the three languages, Bengali, literary and
+  colloquial, will be primarily dealt with, and then the points of
+  difference between it and the other two will be described.
+  Abbreviations used: A. = Assamese, Bg. = Bengali, O. = Oriya, Pr. =
+  Prakrit, Mg. Pr. = Magadhi Prakrit, Skr. = Sanskrit.
+
+  _Vocabulary._--As already said, Literary Bengali abounds in
+  _tatsamas_, or words borrowed in modern times from Sanskrit (see
+  INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES), and these have also intruded themselves into
+  the speech of the educated. So much has the false taste for these
+  learned words obtained the mastery that, in the literary language,
+  when a genuine Bengali or _tadbhava_ word is used in literature it is
+  frequently not put into writing, but the corresponding learned
+  _tatsama_ is written in its place, although the _tadbhava_ is read. It
+  is as though a French writer wrote _sicca_ when he wished the word
+  _seche_ to be pronounced. Similarly, the Bengali word for the goddess
+  of Fortune is _Lakkhi_, but in books this is always written in the
+  Skr. form _Laksmi_, although no Bengali would dream of saying anything
+  but _Lakkhi_, even when reciting a purple passage _ore rotunda_. In
+  fact, the vocal organs of most Bengalis are incapable of uttering the
+  sound connoted by the letters _Laksmi_. The result is that the
+  spelling of a Bengali word rarely represents its pronunciation. Oriya
+  also borrows freely from Sanskrit, but there is no confusion between
+  _tatsamas_ and _tadbhavas_, as in Bengali. Assamese, on the other
+  hand, is remarkably free from these parasites, its vocabulary being
+  mainly _tadbhava_. In Eastern Bengal, where Mussulmans predominate,
+  there is a free use of words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. Owing
+  to geographical and historical circumstances, Oriya is to some extent
+  infected by Telugu and Marathi idioms, while the Tibeto-Burman
+  dialects and Ahom have left their marks upon Assamese.
+
+  _Phonetics._--The three forms of speech agree in sounding the vowel
+  _a_ like the _o_ in "hot." When writing phonetically, this sound is
+  represented in the present article by _o_. The pronunciation of this
+  frequently recurring vowel gives a tone to the general sound of the
+  languages which at once strikes a foreigner. In Bg. and A. a final
+  vowel preceded by a single consonant is generally not pronounced. In
+  Bg. this is only true for nouns, a final _a_ being freely sounded in
+  adjectives and verbs. In O., on the other hand, a final _a_ is always
+  pronounced. The sound of such a final _a_ is in all three languages
+  the same as that of the second _o_ in "promote"; thus, the Bg. _bara_
+  is pronounced _boro_. In Bg. a medial _a_ sometimes has the sound of
+  the first _o_ in "promote," as, for instance, in the word _ban_
+  (_bon_), a forest. In A. and Eastern Bg. a medial _a_ is often sounded
+  like the _a_ in "ball," and is then transliterated _a_. _A_ has
+  preserved as a rule its proper sound of _a_ in "father." The
+  distinction between _i_ and _i_ and between _u_ and _u_ is everywhere
+  lost in pronunciation, although in _tatsama_ words the Sanskrit
+  spelling is followed in literature. Thus, in Bg., the Skr. _vyatita_
+  is pronounced _betito_, with the accent on the first syllable. In A.
+  the distinction between these long and short vowels is obliterated
+  more than elsewhere, the reason being, as in Bg., the changes of
+  pronunciation due to the shifting back of the accent. In O., the Skr.
+  vowel _r_ is pronounced _ru_. Elsewhere it is _ri_. In O. the vowel
+  _e_ is always long, but in Bg. it may be long or short, and in A. it
+  is always short. The syllable _ya_ preceded by a consonant has in Bg.
+  the sound of a short _e_, so that _vyakti_ is pronounced _bekti_.
+  Moreover, in the same language the letter _e_ is often pronounced like
+  the _a_ in the German _Mann_, a sound here phonetically represented by
+  _a_; thus, _dekha_ is sometimes pronounced _dekho_, and sometimes
+  _dakho_ or even _dako_. The syllable _ya_, when following a consonant,
+  also has this _a_-sound, so that the English word "bank" is written
+  _byank_ in Bengali characters. _O_ in O. is always long. In Bg., when
+  it has not got the accent it is shortened to the sound of the first
+  _o_ in "promote," a sound which, as we have seen, is also sometimes
+  taken by a medial _a_. In A. _o_ approaches the sound of _u_, and it
+  actually becomes _u_ when followed by _i_ in the next syllable. The
+  diphthongs _ai_ (in _tatsamas_, i.e. the Skr. _ai_) and _ai_ (in
+  _tadbhavas_) are sounded like _oi_ in "oil" in Bg. and O., while in A.
+  they have the sound of _oi_ in "going." Similarly, in Bg. and O. the
+  diphthongs _au_ and _au_ are sounded like the _au_ in the German
+  _Haus_, but in A. like _au_ in the French _jaune_, or the second _o_
+  in "promote." In colloquial Bg. the two syllables _ai_ often have the
+  sound of _e_, as in _khaite_ (_khete_), to eat.
+
+  In Eastern Bengal _k_ has often the sound of _ch_ in "loch." In A. the
+  consonants _c_ and _ch_ are both pronounced like _s_, and _j_ and _jh_
+  become _zh_ (i.e. the _s_ in "pleasure") or (when final) _z_. The same
+  tendency is observable in Bg., though it is usually considered vulgar.
+  In parts of Eastern Bengal _c_ is pronounced like _ts_. O. as a rule
+  has the proper sound of these letters, but towards the south _c_ and
+  _ch_ become _ts_ and _tsh_ when not followed by a palatal letter. The
+  letters _d_ and _dh_, when medial, are pronounced as a strongly burred
+  _r_, and are then transliterated _r_ and _rh_ respectively. In A. and
+  Eastern Bg. there is a strong tendency to pronounce both dentals and
+  cerebrals as semi-cerebrals, as is done by the neighbouring
+  Tibeto-Burmans. In A. _r_ and _rh_ become _r_ and _rh_ respectively.
+  In Bg. and A. _n_ has universally become _n_, but is properly
+  pronounced in O. _Y_ is usually pronounced as _j_, unless it is a
+  merely euphonic bridge to avoid a hiatus between two vowels, as in
+  _kariya_ for _kari-a_. In A. the resultant _j_ has the usual
+  _z_-sound. When _y_ is the final element of a conjunct consonant, in
+  Bg. (except in the south-east) it is very faintly pronounced. In
+  compensation the preceding member of the conjunct is doubled and the
+  preceding vowel is shortened if possible, thus _vakya_ becomes
+  _bakk^yo_. In A., while the _y_ is usually preserved, an _i_ is
+  inserted before the conjunct, so that we have _baikyo_. _M_ and _v_
+  when similarly situated are altogether elided in Bg., and this is also
+  the case with _v_ in A., in which language _m_ under these
+  circumstances becomes _w_; thus, _smarana_ becomes Bg. _ssoron_, A.
+  _sworon_, and _dvara_ becomes Bg. and A. _ddara_. _R_ is generally
+  pronounced correctly, except that when a member of a compound it is
+  often not pronounced in colloquial Bg.; thus _karma_ (_kommo_). In
+  North-eastern Bengali and in A. a medial _r_ is commonly dropped;
+  thus, Bg. _karilam_ (_kailam_), A. _kari_ (_kai_).[1] The vulgar
+  commonly confound _n_ and _l_. O. has retained the old cerebral _l_ of
+  Pr., which has disappeared in Bg. and A. The semi-vowel _v_ (_w_)
+  becomes _b_ in Bg. and O., but retains its proper sound when medial in
+  A. When Bg. wishes to represent a _w_, it has to write _oya_; thus,
+  for _chawa_ it writes _chaoya_. Similarly _baro_, twelve, +_yari_,
+  friendship, when compounded together to mean "a collection of twelve
+  friends," is pronounced _barwari_. Bg. pronounces all uncompounded
+  sibilants as if they were _s_, like the English _sh_ in "shin." This
+  was already the case in Mg. Pr. (see PRAKRIT). O., on the contrary,
+  pronounces all three like the dental _s_ in "sin," while A. sounds
+  them like a rough _h_, almost like the _ch_ in "loch." In Eastern Bg.
+  _s_ becomes frankly _h_, and is then often dropped. The compound _ks_
+  is everywhere treated as if it were _khy_, In colloquial Bg. there is
+  a tendency to disaspiration; thus _dekha_ is pronounced _dako_ and the
+  Pr. _hattha-_, a hand, becomes _hat_, not _hath_. In Eastern Bg. there
+  is a cockney tendency to drop _h_, so that we have _'at_, a hand, and
+  _kailam_ for _kahilam_, I said.
+
+  The above remarks show that O. has, on the whole, preserved the
+  original sounds of the various letters better than Bg. or A.
+
+  _Declension._--The distinction of gender has disappeared from all
+  three languages. Sex is distinguished either by the use of qualifying
+  terms, such as "male" or "female," or by the employment of different
+  words, as in the case of our "bull" and "cow." The plural number is
+  almost always denoted by the addition of some word meaning "many" or
+  "collection" to the singular, although we sometimes find a true plural
+  used in the case of nouns denoting human beings. Case was originally
+  indicated by postpositions (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES), but in many
+  instances these have been joined to the noun, so that they form one
+  word with it. The following is the full declension of the singular of
+  the word _ghora_, a horse, in the three languages:--
+
+
+    +-----------+---------+-------------------+-----------+
+    |           |  Oriya. |      Bengali.     | Assamese. |
+    +-----------+---------+-------------------+-----------+
+    | Nom.      | ghora   | ghora             | ghora     |
+    | Acc.-Dat. | ghoraku | ghorake           | ghorak    |
+    | Instr.    | ghorare | ghorate           | ghorare   |
+    | Abl.      | ghoraru | ghora-haite       | ghoraye   |
+    | Gen.      | ghorara | ghorar            | ghorar    |
+    | Loc.      | ghorare | ghorate or ghoray | ghorat    |
+    +-----------+---------+-------------------+-----------+
+
+  In Bg. and A. a noun often takes _e_ (_e_) in the nominative singular,
+  when it is the subject of a transitive verb; thus Bg. _bedee_ (from
+  _bed_) _bale_, the Veda says. In Bg. the nominative plural may, in the
+  case of human beings, be formed by adding _a_ to the genitive
+  singular; thus, _santan_, a son; gen. sing., _santaner_; nom. plur.,
+  _santanera_. The same is the case with the pronouns; thus _amar_, of
+  me; _amara_, we; _tahar_, his; _tahara_, they. In Bihari (q.v.) the
+  pronouns follow the same rule, and, as is explained under that head,
+  the nominative plural is really an oblique form of the genitive. With
+  this exception, the plural in all our three languages is either the
+  same as the singular, or (when the idea of plurality has to be
+  emphasized) is formed by the addition of nouns of multitude, such as
+  _gan_ in Bg., _mana_ in O., or _bilak_ in A.
+
+  We shall see that pronominal suffixes are freely used in all three
+  languages in the conjugation of verbs. In the Outer languages of the
+  north-west of India (for the list of these, see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES)
+  pronominal suffixes are also commonly added to nouns to signify
+  possession. In most of the languages of the Eastern Group such
+  pronominal suffixes added to nouns have fallen into disuse, but in A.
+  they are still commonly employed with nouns of relationship; thus,
+  _bap_, a father; _bopai_, my father; _baper_, your father; _bapek_,
+  his father. Their retention in A. is no doubt due to the example of
+  the neighbouring Tibeto-Burman languages, in which such pronominal
+  _prefixes_ are a common feature.
+
+  In all three languages the adjective does not change for gender, for
+  number or for case.
+
+  The personal pronouns have at the present day lost their old
+  nominatives, and have new nominatives formed from the oblique base. In
+  the first and second persons the singulars have fallen into disuse in
+  polite conversation, and the plurals are used honorifically for the
+  singular, as in the case of the English "you" for "thou." For the
+  plural, new plurals are formed from the new singular (old plural)
+  bases. In A., however, the old singular of the first person is
+  retained, and the old plural plays its proper function. The Bg.
+  pronouns are, _mui_ (old), I; _ami_ (modern), I; _tui_ (old), thou;
+  _tumi_ (modern), thou; _se_, _tini_, he; _e_, _ini_, this; _o_, _uni_,
+  that; _je_, _jini_, who; _ke_, who?; _ki_, what?; _kon_, what
+  (adjective)?; _keha_, anyone; _kichu_, anything; _kona_, any. Most of
+  the forms in the other languages closely follow these. The words in O.
+  for "I" and "thou" are _ambhe_ and _tumbhe_ respectively. All these
+  pronouns have plurals and oblique forms to which the case suffixes are
+  added. These must be learnt from the grammars.
+
+  _Conjugation._--It is in the conjugation of the verb that colloquial
+  Bg. differs most from the literary dialect. There is no distinction in
+  any of the three languages between singular and plural. Most of the
+  old singular forms have survived in a non-honorific sense, but they
+  are rarely employed in polite language except in the third person. The
+  old plural forms are generally employed for the singular also. The
+  usual base for the verb substantive, when employed as an auxiliary, is
+  _ach_, be, derived from the Skr. _rcchati_. O., however, forms its
+  past from the base _tha_ (Skr. _sthita-_), and in South-western Bengal
+  the base _tha_, derived from the same original, is used for both
+  present and past time. Only two of the old Skr.-Pr. tenses have
+  survived in the finite verb, the simple present and the imperative.
+  Thus, Bg. _kari_, I do; _kar_, do thou. The past is formed by adding
+  pronominal suffixes to the old past participle in _il_ (Skr. _-illa-_,
+  a pleonastic suffix, see PRAKRIT), and the future by adding them to
+  the old future participle in _b_ (Skr. _-tavya-_, Pr. _-avva-_). Thus,
+  Bg. _karil-am_, done + by-me, I did; _karib-a_, it-is-to-be-done +
+  by-me, I shall do. In Bg. there are two modern participles, a present
+  (_kar-ite_) and a past (_kar-iya_), and from these there are formed
+  periphrastic tenses by suffixing auxiliary verbs. Thus, _karite-chi_
+  (colloquial, _korci_ or _kocci_), I am doing; _karite-chilam_ (coll.
+  _korcilum_ or _koccilum_), I was doing; _kariya-chi_ (coll., _korsi_),
+  I have done; _kariya-chilam_ (coll., _korsilum_), I had done. A past
+  conditional is formed by adding pronominal suffixes to the present
+  participle; thus, _karitam_ (coll., _kortum_ or _kottum_), (if) I had
+  done. Similar tenses are formed in O. and A., but the periphrastic
+  tenses are formed with verbal nouns and not with participles. Thus, O.
+  _karu-achi_, A. _kari-cho_, I am a-doing, I am doing. O. and A. have
+  each a very complete series of gerunds or verbal nouns which are fully
+  declined. In Bg. only one gerund, that of the genitive, is in common
+  use.
+
+  In order to illustrate the conjugation of the verb, we here give that
+  of the root _kar_, do, in its present, past and future tenses.
+
+
+    +----------------------------+---------+----------+----------------+----------+
+    |                            |         | Literary |   Colloquial   |          |
+    |                            |  Oriya. | Bengali. |    Bengali.    | Assamese.|
+    +----------------------------+---------+----------+----------------+----------+
+    | I do                       | karn    | kari     | kori           | karo     |
+    | Thou doest                 | kara    | kara     | koro           | kara     |
+    | He (non-honorific) does    | kare    | kare     | kore           | kare     |
+    | He (honorific) does        | karanti | karen    | koren          | kare     |
+    | I did                      | karilu  | karilam  | kollum, korlum | karilo   |
+    | Thou didst                 | karila  | karile   | kolle, korle   | karila   |
+    | He (non-honorific) did     | karila  | karila   | kollo, korlo   | karile   |
+    | He (honorific) did         | karile  | karilen  | kollen, korlen | karile   |
+    | I shall do                 | karibu  | kariba   | korbo          | karim    |
+    | Thou wilt do               | kariba  | karibe   | korbe          | kariba   |
+    | He (non-honorific) will do | kariba  | karibe   | korbe          | kariba   |
+    | He (honorific) will do     | karibe  | kariben  | korben         | kariba   |
+    +----------------------------+---------+----------+----------------+----------+
+
+  All the three languages have negative forms of the verb substantive,
+  and A. has a complete negative conjugation for all verbs, made by
+  prefixing the negative syllable _na_ under certain euphonic rules.
+
+
+Literature.
+
+_Bengali Literature._--The oldest recognized writer in Bengali is the
+Vaishnava poet Candi Das, who flourished about the end of the 14th or
+the beginning of the 15th century. His language does not differ much
+from the Bengali of to-day. He founded a school of poets who wrote hymns
+in honour of Krishna, many of whom, in later times, became connected
+with the religious revival instituted by Caitanya in the early part of
+the 16th century. In the 15th century Kasi Ram translated the
+_Mahabharata_, and Krttibas Ojha the _Ramayana_ into the vernacular. The
+principal figure of the 17th century was Mukunda Ram who has left us two
+really admirable poems entitled _Candi_ and _Srimanta Saudagar_. Parts
+of the former have been translated by Professor Cowell into English
+verse, and both well deserve putting into an English dress. With Bharat
+Candra, whose much admired but artificial Bidya Sundar appeared in the
+18th century, the list of old Bengali authors may be considered as
+closed. They wrote in genuine nervous Bengali, and the conspicuous
+success of many of them shows how baseless is the contention of some
+native writers of the present day that modern literary Bengali needs the
+help of its huge imported Sanskrit vocabulary to express anything but
+the simplest ideas. This modern literary Bengali arose early in the 19th
+century, as a child of the revival of Sanskrit learning in Calcutta,
+under the influence of the college founded by the English in Fort
+William. Each decade it has become more and more the slave of Sanskrit.
+It has had some excellent writers, notably the late Bankim Candra, whose
+novels have received the honour of being translated into several
+languages, including English. Even he, however, sometimes laboured under
+the fetters imposed upon him by a strange vocabulary, and all competent
+European scholars are agreed that no work of first-class originality has
+much chance of arising in Bengal till some great genius purges the
+language of its pseudo-classical element.
+
+_Oriya Literature_ does not go back beyond the 16th century, though
+examples of the language are found in inscriptions of the 13th century.
+Nearly all the works are connected with the history of Krishna, and the
+translation of the _Bhagavata Purana_ into Oriya in the first half of
+the 16th century still exercises great influence on the masses. Dina
+Krsna Das (17th century) was the author of another popular work entitled
+_Rasa Kallola_, or "The Waves of Sentiment," which deals with the early
+life of Krishna. Every verse in it begins with the letter k. It is not
+always decent, but is immensely popular. Upendra Bhanja, Raja of Gumsur,
+a petty hill state, is the most famous of Oriya poets, and was the most
+prolific. His work is insipid to a European taste, and when not
+unintelligible is often obscene. Oriya poetry, from first to last, has
+been an artificial production, the work of _pandits_, who clung to the
+rules of Sanskrit rhetoric, and loaded their verses with so many ideas
+and words borrowed from that language that it is rarely understood,
+except by the learned. The whole literature is, in fact, overshadowed by
+the great temple of Jagannath (a name of Krishna) at Puri in Orissa.
+
+_Assamese Literature._--The Assamese are justly proud of their national
+literature. It has an independent growth, and its strength lies in
+history, a branch of letters in which other Indian languages are almost
+entirely wanting. They have chronicles going back for the past 600
+years, and a knowledge of their contents is a necessary part of the
+education of the upper classes of the country. In poetry, the Vaishnava
+reformer, Sankar Deb, who flourished some 450 years ago, was a
+voluminous writer. His best known work is a translation of the
+_Bhagavata Purana_. About the same time Ananta Kandali translated the
+_Mahabharata_ and the _Ramayana_ into his native tongue. Medicine was a
+science much studied, and there are translations of all the principal
+Sanskrit works on the subject. Forty or fifty dramatic works in the
+vernacular are known and are still acted. Some of them date back to the
+time of Sankar Deb.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--There is no work dealing with the three languages as a
+  group. Both the _Comparative Grammars_ of Beames and Hoernle (see
+  INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES) are silent about Assamese. The fullest details
+  concerning them all will be found in vol. v. of the _Linguistic Survey
+  of India_, parts i. and ii. (Calcutta, 1903). In this each dialect and
+  subdialect is treated with great minuteness and with copious examples.
+
+  The first Bengali grammar and dictionary in a European language was
+  the _Vocabulario em Idioma Bengalla e Portuguez_ of Manoel da
+  Assumpcam (Lisbon, 1743). N.B. Halhed wrote the first Bengali grammar
+  in the English language (Hooghly, 1778), but the real father of
+  Bengali philology was the great missionary, William Carey (_Grammar_,
+  Serampore, 1801; _Dictionary, ib_., 1825). W. Yates's _Grammar_, as
+  edited and improved by T. Wenger (Calcutta, 1847) and others, is still
+  on sale. It is entirely confined to the literary Bengali of the
+  pandits. Its great rival has been Syama Caran Sarkar's _Grammar_
+  (Calcutta, 1850), of which there have been numerous reprints. In 1894
+  J. Beames published his _Grammar_ (Oxford), now the standard work on
+  the subject. It is largely based on Syama Caran's work, but with much
+  new material, especially that dealing with the colloquial side of the
+  language. G.F. Nicholl's _Grammar_ (London, 1885) is an independent
+  study of the language, in which the vernacular works of the best
+  native grammarians have been freely utilized. There is no good Bengali
+  dictionary. G.C. Haughton's _Dictionary_ (London, 1833) is perhaps
+  still the best, but J. Mendies' (Calcutta, about 1870) is also well
+  known, and is the parent of countless others which have issued from
+  the Calcutta presses. _A Small Dictionary of Colloquial Bengali
+  Words_, by J. M. C. and G. A. C. (Calcutta, 1904), may also be studied
+  with advantage. Cf. also Syama-caran Ganguli, _Bengali Spoken and
+  Written_ (Calcutta, 1906). For Bengali literature, see R.C. Dutt, _The
+  Literature of Bengal_ (Calcutta and London, 1895), and Hara Prasad
+  Sastri, _The Vernacular Literature of Bengal before the Introduction
+  of English Education_ (Calcutta, n.d.). The most complete work is
+  _Bangabhasa o Sahitya_ by Dines Candra Sen (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1901)
+  in the Bengali language.
+
+  For Oriya there are E. Hallam's (Calcutta, 1874), T. Maltby's
+  (Calcutta, 1874) and J. Browne's (London, 1882) _Grammars_. The last
+  two are in the Roman character. They are all mere sketches of the
+  language. Sutton's (Cuttack, 1841) is still the only _Dictionary_
+  which the present writer has found of any practical use. For Oriya
+  literature, see App. IX. of Hunter's _Orissa_ (London, 1872), and
+  Monmohan Chakravarti's "Notes on the Language and Literature of
+  Orissa" in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. lxvi.
+  (1897), part i. pp. 317 ff., and vol. lxvii. (1898), part i. pp. 332
+  ff.
+
+  The first Assamese _Grammar_ was Nathan Brown's (Sibsagar, 1848, 3rd
+  ed. 1893), and it is still the one usually studied. G.F. Nicholl gives
+  an Assamese grammar as a supplement to his Bengali _Grammar_ already
+  quoted. Like that work, it is quite independent, and is not a revised
+  edition of Brown. M. Bronson's _Dictionary_ (Sibsagar, 1867) was for
+  long the only vocabulary available, and a very useful and practical
+  work it was. It is now superseded by Hem Candra Barua's _Hema-kosa_
+  (Shillong, 1900). For Assamese literature, see Ananda Ram Dhekial
+  Phukan's _A Few Remarks on the Assamese Language_ (Sibsagar, 1855),
+  partly reprinted in the _Indian Antiquary_, vol. xxv. (1896), pp. 57
+  ff.     (G. A. Gr.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In Mg. Pr. every _r_ becomes _l_. For an explanation of the
+    apparent non-observance of this rule in languages of the Eastern
+    Group, see BIHARI.
+
+
+
+
+BENGAZI (anc. _Hesperides-Berenice_), a seaport on the north coast of
+Africa, capital of the sanjak of Bengazi or Barca, formerly in the
+vilayet of Tripoli, but, since 1875, dependent directly on the ministry
+of the interior at Constantinople. It is situated on a narrow strip of
+land between the Gulf of Sidra and a salt marsh, in 30 deg. 7' N. lat.
+and 20 deg. 3' E. long. Though for the most part poorly built, it has
+one or two buildings of some pretension--an ancient castle, a mosque, a
+Franciscan monastery, government buildings and barracks. Senussi
+influence is strong and there is a large _zawia_ (convent). The harbour
+is half silted up with sand and the ruins of fortifications and is
+accessible only to vessels of light draught. A lighthouse has been
+erected at the entrance, but reefs render approach difficult, and the
+outer anchorage is fully exposed to west and north and not good holding.
+The export trade is largely in barley, shipped to British and other
+maltsters. The Sudan produce (ivory, ostrich feathers, &c.) formerly
+brought to Bengazi by caravan, has now been almost wholly diverted to
+Tripoli, the eastern tracks from Wadai and Borku by way of Kufra to
+Aujila having become so unsafe that their natural difficulties are no
+longer worth braving. Consular vigilance has also killed the once
+considerable slave trade. Trade in other commodities, however, is on the
+increase, exports now amounting to nearly half a million sterling and
+imports to half that figure. The neighbouring coast is frequented by
+Greek and Italian sponge-fishers, the industry being a valuable one. The
+province of Bengazi, being still without telegraphs or roads, is one of
+the most backward in the Ottoman empire.
+
+Founded by the Greeks of Cyrenaica under the name Hesperides, the town
+received from Ptolemy III. the name of Berenice in compliment to his
+wife. The ruins of the ancient town, which superseded Cyrene and Barca
+as chief place in the province after the 3rd century A.D., are now
+nearly buried in the sand. The modern town lies south-west of the
+original site. Certain large natural pits which are found in the plain
+behind, and have luxuriant gardens at the bottom, are supposed to have
+originated the myth of the Gardens of the Hesperides. Ancient tombs are
+found, which in 1882 yielded fine Greek vases to G. Dennis, then British
+vice-consul. The present name is derived from that of a Moslem saint
+whose tomb, near the sea-coast, is an object of veneration. The
+population, amounting to about 25,000, is greatly mixed. Levantines,
+Maltese, Greeks and Jews form the trading community, but since 1895,
+when a branch of the Agenzia Italiana Commerciale was established at
+Bengazi, Italians have exercised an increasing influence on Cyrenaic
+commerce. Turks, Arabs and Berbers are the ruling castes, and negroes
+act as labourers and domestics. Many of these found their way to Crete,
+and becoming porters, &c. in Canea and Candia, were notorious for
+turbulence and fanaticism. In 1897 and 1898 the European admirals
+forcibly deported consignments of the worst characters back to Bengazi.
+In 1858 and again in 1874 the town was devastated by plague (see also
+TRIPOLI and CYRENAICA).     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT (1687-1752), Lutheran divine and scholar, was
+born at Winnenden in Wurttemberg, on the 24th of June 1687. His father
+died in 1693, and Bengel was educated by a friend, who became a master
+in the gymnasium at Stuttgart. In 1703 Bengel left Stuttgart and entered
+the university of Tubingen, where, in his spare time, he devoted himself
+specially to the works of Aristotle and Spinoza, and in theology to
+those of Philipp Spener, Johann Arndt and August Franke. His knowledge
+of the metaphysics of Spinoza was such that he was selected by one of
+the professors to prepare materials for a treatise _De Spinosismo_,
+which was afterwards published. After taking his degree, Bengel devoted
+himself to theology. Even at this time he had religious doubts; it is
+interesting in view of his later work that one cause of his perplexities
+was the difficulty of ascertaining the true reading of certain passages
+in the Greek New Testament. In 1707 Bengel entered the ministry and was
+appointed to the parochial charge of Metzingen-unter-Urach. In the
+following year he was recalled to Tubingen to undertake the office of
+_Repetent_ or theological tutor. Here he remained till 1713, when he was
+appointed head of a seminary recently established at Denkendorf as a
+preparatory school of theology. Before entering on his new duties he
+travelled through the greater part of Germany, studying the systems of
+education which were in use, and visiting the seminaries of the Jesuits
+as well as those of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. Among other
+places he went to Heidelberg and Halle, and had his attention directed
+at Heidelberg to the canons of scripture criticism published by Gerhard
+von Mastricht, and at Halle to C. Vitringa's _Anacrisis ad Apocalypsin_.
+The influence exerted by these upon his theological studies is manifest
+in some of his works. For twenty-eight years--from 1713 to 1741--he was
+master (_Klosterpraceptor_) of the _Klosterschule_ at Denkendorf, a
+seminary for candidates for the ministry established in a former
+monastery of the canons of the Holy Sepulchre. To these years, the
+period of his greatest intellectual activity, belong many of his chief
+works. In 1741 he was appointed prelate (i.e. _General Superintendent_)
+at Herbrechtingen, where he remained till 1749, when he was raised to
+the dignity of consistorial counsellor and prelate of Alpirspach, with a
+residence in Stuttgart. He now devoted himself to the discharge of his
+duties as a member of the consistory. A question of considerable
+difficulty was at that time occupying the attention of the church
+courts, viz. the manner in which those who separated themselves from the
+church were to be dealt with, and the amount of toleration which should
+be accorded to meetings held in private houses for the purpose of
+religious edification. The civil power (the duke of Wurttemberg was a
+Roman Catholic) was disposed to have recourse to measures of repression,
+while the members of the consistory, recognizing the good effects of
+such meetings, were inclined to concede considerable liberty. Bengel
+exerted himself on the side of the members of the consistory. In 1751
+the university of Tubingen conferred upon him the degree of doctor of
+divinity. He died after a short illness, in 1752.
+
+The works on which Bengel's reputation rests as a Biblical scholar and
+critic are his edition of the Greek New Testament, and his _Gnomon_ or
+_Exegetical Commentary_ on the same.
+
+(A.) His edition of the Greek Testament was published at Tubingen in
+1734, and at Stuttgart in the same year, but without the critical
+apparatus. So early as 1725, in an addition to his edition of
+Chrysostom's _De Sacerdotio_, he had given an account in his _Prodromus
+Novi Testamenti Graeci recte cauteque adornandi_ of the principles on
+which his intended edition was to be based. In preparation for his work
+Bengel was able to avail himself of the collations of upwards of twenty
+MSS., none of them, however, of great importance, twelve of which had
+been collated by himself. In constituting the text, he imposed upon
+himself the singular restriction of not inserting any various reading
+which had not already been _printed_ in some preceding edition of the
+Greek text. From this rule, however, he deviated in the case of the
+Apocalypse, where, owing to the corrupt state of the text, he felt
+himself at liberty to introduce certain readings on manuscript
+authority. In the lower margin of the page he inserted a selection of
+various readings, the relative importance of which he denoted by the
+first five letters of the Greek alphabet in the following
+manner:--[alpha] was employed to denote the reading which in his
+judgment was the true one, although he did not venture to place it in
+the text; [beta], a reading better than that in the text; [gamma], one
+equal to the textual reading; [delta] and [epsilon], readings inferior
+to those in the text. R. Etienne's division into verses was retained in
+the inner margin, but the text was divided into paragraphs. The text was
+followed by a critical apparatus, the first part of which consisted of
+an introduction to the criticism of the New Testament, in the
+thirty-fourth section of which he laid down and explained his celebrated
+canon, _"Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua"_ ("The difficult reading is
+to be preferred to that which is easy"), the soundness of which, as a
+general principle, has been recognized by succeeding critics. The second
+part of the critical apparatus was devoted to a consideration of the
+various readings, and here Bengel adopted the plan of stating the
+evidence both _against_ and _in favour_ of a particular reading, thus
+placing before the reader the materials for forming a judgment. Bengel
+was the first definitely to propound the theory of families or
+recensions of MSS. His investigations had led him to see that a certain
+affinity or resemblance existed amongst many of the authorities for the
+Greek text--MSS., versions, and ecclesiastical writers; that if a
+peculiar reading, e.g., was found in one of these, it was generally
+found also in the other members of the same class; and this general
+relationship seemed to point ultimately to a common origin for all the
+authorities which presented such peculiarities. Although disposed at
+first to divide the various documents into three classes, he finally
+adopted a classification into two--the African or older family of
+documents, and the Asiatic, or more recent class, to which he attached
+only a subordinate value. The theory was afterwards adopted by J.S.
+Semler and J.J. Griesbach, and worked up into an elaborate system by the
+latter critic. Bengel's labours on the text of the Greek Testament were
+received with great disfavour in many quarters. Like Brian Walton and
+John Mill before him, he had to encounter the opposition of those who
+believed that the certainty of the word of God was endangered by the
+importance attached to the various readings. J.J. Wetstein, on the other
+hand, accused him of excessive caution in not making freer use of his
+critical materials. In answer to these strictures, Bengel published a
+_Defence of the Greek Text of His New Testament_, which he prefixed to
+his _Harmony of the Four Gospels_, published in 1736, and which
+contained a sufficient answer to the complaints, especially of Wetstein,
+which had been made against him from so many different quarters. The
+text of Bengel long enjoyed a high reputation among scholars, and was
+frequently reprinted. An enlarged edition of the critical apparatus was
+published by Philip David Burk in 1763.
+
+(B.) The other great work of Bengel, and that on which his reputation as
+an exegete is mainly based, is his _Gnomon Novi Testamenti, or
+Exegetical Annotations on the New Testament_, published in 1742. It was
+the fruit of twenty years' labour, and exhibits with a brevity of
+expression, which, it has been said, "condenses more matter into a line
+than can be extracted from pages of other writers," the results of his
+study. He modestly entitled his work a _Gnomon_ or index, his object
+being rather to guide the reader to ascertain the meaning for himself,
+than to save him from the trouble of personal investigation. The
+principles of interpretation on which he proceeded were, to import
+nothing _into_ Scripture, but to draw _out of_ it everything that it
+really contained, in conformity with grammatico-historical rules; not to
+be hampered by dogmatical considerations; and not to be influenced by
+the symbolical books. Bengel's hope that the _Gnomon_ would help to
+rekindle a fresh interest in the study of the New Testament was fully
+realized. It has passed through many editions, has been translated into
+German and into English, and is still one of the books most valued by
+expositors of the New Testament. John Wesley made great use of it in
+compiling his _Expository Notes upon the New Testament_ (1755).
+
+Besides the two works already described, Bengel was the editor or author
+of many others, classical, patristic, ecclesiastical and expository. The
+more important are: _Ordo Temporum_, a treatise on the chronology of
+Scripture, in which he enters upon speculations regarding the end of the
+world, and an _Exposition of the Apocalypse_ which enjoyed for a time
+great popularity in Germany, and was translated into several languages.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For full details regarding Bengel the reader is referred
+  to Oskar Wachter's _J.A. Bengels Lebensabriss_ and to the _Memoir of
+  His Life and Writings_ (_J.A. Bengels Leben und Wirken_), by J.C.F.
+  Burk, translated into English by Rev. R.F. Walker (London, 1837); see
+  also Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, and E. Nestle, _Bengel als
+  Gelehrter_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+BENGUELLA (Sao Felipe de Benguella), a town of Portuguese West Africa,
+capital of Benguella district, on a bay of the same name, in 12 deg. 33'
+S., 13 deg. 25' E. Benguella was founded in 1617 by the Portuguese under
+Manoel Cerveira Pereira. It was long the centre of an important trade,
+especially in slaves to Brazil and Cuba, but has now greatly declined.
+The anchorage, about a mile from the town, in 4 to 6 fathoms, is nothing
+but an open roadstead. Besides the churches of S. Felipe and S. Antonio,
+the hospital, and the fortress, there are only a few stone-built houses.
+The white population numbers about 1500. A short way beyond Benguella is
+Bahia Tarta, where salt is manufactured and sulphur excavated.
+
+About 20 m. north of Benguella is Lobito Bay, a natural harbour chosen
+(1903) as the starting-point of a railway to Katanga. At Lobito steamers
+can come close inshore and discharge cargo direct. Lobito is connected
+with Benguella by a railway which passes about midway through
+Katumbella, a town at the mouth of the river of the same name, and the
+sea terminus of an ancient route from the heart of Central Africa
+through Bihe. Old Benguella is a small town about 120 m. north of Lobito
+Bay.
+
+
+
+
+BENI, a river of Bolivia, a tributary of the Madeira, rising in the
+elevated Cordilleras near the city of La Paz and at first known as the
+Rio de La Paz, and flowing east, and north-east, to a junction with the
+Mamore at 10 deg. 20' S. lat. to form the Madeira. Fully one-half of its
+length is through the mountainous districts of central Bolivia, where it
+is fed by a large number of rivers and streams from the snowclad peaks,
+and may be described as a raging torrent. Below Reyes its course is
+through the forest-covered hills and open plains of northern Bolivia,
+where some of the old Indian missions were located. The lower river is
+navigable for 217 m. from Reyes to the Esperanza rapids, 18 m. above its
+confluence with the Mamore, where a fall of 20 ft. in a distance of 330
+yds. obstructs free navigation. Its principal affluent is the Madre de
+Dios, or Mayu-tata, which rises in the eastern Cordilleras about 35 m.
+east of Cuzco, and flows in an east and north-east direction through
+northern Bolivia to a junction with the Beni 120 m. above its mouth. The
+principal tributaries of the Madre de Dios are the Inambari and
+Paucartambo, both large rivers, and the Chandless, Marcapata, and
+Tambopata. In length and size of its tributaries the Madre de Dios is a
+more important river than the Beni itself, and is navigable during the
+wet season to the foot of the Andes, 180 m. from Cuzco.
+
+
+
+
+BENI (EL BENI), a department of north-eastern Bolivia, bounded N. and E.
+by Brazil, S. by the departments of Santa Cruz and Cochabamba, and W. by
+La Paz and the national territory contiguous to Peru and Brazil. Pop.
+(est., 1900) 32,180, including 6000 wild Indians; area (est., probably
+too high) 102,111 sq. m. The "Llanos de Mojos," famous for their
+flourishing Jesuit mission settlements of the 17th and 18th centuries,
+occupy the eastern part of this department and are still inhabited by an
+industrious peaceful native population, devoted to cattle raising and
+primitive methods of agriculture. Cattle and forest products, including
+rubber and coca, are exported to a limited extent. The capital, Trinidad
+(pop. 2556), is situated on the Mamore river in an open fertile country,
+and was once a flourishing Jesuit mission.
+
+
+
+
+BENI-AMER (AMIR), a tribe of African "Arabs" of Hamitic stock,
+ethnologically intermediate between Abyssinians and Nubians. They are of
+the Beja family, and occupy the coast of the Red Sea south of Suakin and
+portions of the adjacent coast-country of Eritrea, north of Abyssinia.
+They are of very mixed Beja and Abyssinian blood, and speak a dialect
+half Beja and half Tigre, locally known as _Hassa_. They marry the women
+of the Bogos and other mountain tribes; but are too proud to let their
+daughters marry Abyssinians.
+
+  See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, ed. Count Gleichen (London, 1905); A.H.
+  Keane, _Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan_ (1884); G. Sergi, _Africa:
+  Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica_ (Turin, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+BENI-ISRAEL ("Sons of Israel"), a colony of Jews settled on the Malabar
+coast in Kolaba district, Bombay presidency, chiefly centring in the
+native state of Janjira. With the Jews of Cochin, they represent a very
+ancient Judaic invasion of India, and are to be entirely distinguished
+from those Jews who have come to India in modern days for purposes of
+trade. Some authorities believe that the Beni-Israel settled in Kolaba
+in the 15th century, but they themselves have traditions which indicate
+a far longer connexion with India (see JEWS: S 3).
+
+
+
+
+BENIN, the name of a country, city and river of British West Africa,
+west of the main channel of the Niger, forming part of the protectorate
+of Southern Nigeria. The name was formerly applied to the coast from the
+Volta, in 0 deg. 40' E., to the Rio del Rey, in 8 deg. 40' E., and
+included the Slave Coast, the whole delta of the Niger and a small
+portion of the country to the eastward. Some trace of this earlier
+application remains in the name "Bight of Benin," still given to that
+part of the sea which washes the Slave Coast, whilst up to 1894 "Benin"
+was used to designate the French possessions on the coast now included
+in Dahomey.
+
+In its restricted sense Benin is the country formerly ruled by the king
+of Benin city. This area, at one time very extensive, gradually
+contracted as subject tribes and towns acquired independence. It may be
+described as bounded W. by Lagos, S. by the territory of the Jakri and
+other tribes of the Niger delta, E. by the Niger river, and N. by
+Yorubaland. The coast-line held by Benin had passed out of its
+sovereignty by the middle of the 19th century. In physical
+characteristics, climate, flora and fauna, Benin in no way differs from
+the rest of the southern portion of Nigeria (q.v.). The coast is low,
+intersected by creeks, and forms one huge mangrove swamp; on the rising
+ground inland are dense forests in which the cotton and mahogany trees
+are conspicuous.
+
+Benin river (known also as the Jakri outlet), though linked to the Niger
+system by a network of creeks, is an independent stream. It is formed by
+the junction of two rivers, the Ethiope and the Jamieson, which rise
+(north of 6 deg. N,) on the western side of the hills which slope east
+to the Niger river. They unite about 50 m. above the sea. The general
+course of the Benin is westerly. It enters the Atlantic in about 5 deg.
+46' N., 5 deg. 3' E., and at its mouth is 2 m. wide. It is here
+obstructed by a sand-bar over which there is 12-14 ft. of water at high
+tide. The river is navigable by small steamers up to Sapele, a town on
+the south bank immediately below the junction of the head streams. The
+Ologi and Gwato creeks enter the Benin on the right or north bank, and
+on the same side (8 m. above the mouth of the river) a channel, the
+Lagos creek, 170 m. long, branches off to the north-west, affording a
+waterway to Lagos. From the south or left bank of the Benin the Forcados
+mouth of the Niger can be reached by the Nana creek.
+
+The Beni are a pure negro tribe, speaking a distinct language, but
+having many characteristics common to those of the Yoruba-and
+Ewe-speaking tribes. Like the Ashanti and Dahomeyans the Beni had a
+well-organized and powerful government and possessed a culture rare
+among negro races (see below, _History_).
+
+Benin city is situated in a clearing of the forest, about 25 m. from the
+river-port of Gwato, on Gwato creek. The principal building is the
+British residency, which is constructed of brick and timber. A primary
+school, supported by the native chiefs, was opened in 1901, and a
+meteorological station was established in 1902. In 1904 the town was
+placed in telegraphic communication with the rest of the protectorate
+and with Europe. Of the ancient city, whose buildings excited the
+admiration of travellers in the 17th and 18th centuries, scarcely a
+trace remains. The houses are neatly built of clay, coloured with red
+ochre, and frequently ornamented with rudely carved pillars. The port of
+Gwato, which lies about 30 m. north-north-east of the mouth of the Benin
+river, has a special interest as the place where Giovanni Belzoni, the
+explorer of Egyptian antiquities, died in 1823 when starting on an
+expedition to Timbuktu. No trace of his grave can now be found. Wari
+(formerly known also as Owari, Oywhere, &c.) is a much-frequented port
+on a branch of the Niger of the same name reached from the Forcados
+mouth, and is 55 m. south of Benin city.
+
+Since the abolition of the slave trade the chief export of the country
+is palm-oil. Other trade products were from time to time--with the
+desire to preserve the isolation and independence of the country--placed
+under fetish, i.e. their export was forbidden, so that in 1897 the only
+article in which trade was allowed by the king was palm-oil. After the
+British occupation, an extensive trade developed in oil, kernels,
+timber, ivory, rubber, &c. In the rubber and timber industries great
+strides have been made. The chiefs and people have shown considerable
+aptitude in adapting themselves to the new order of things. Among the
+articles prized by the Beni is coral, of which the chiefs wear great
+quantities as ornaments.
+
+_History._--Benin was discovered by the Portuguese about the year 1485,
+and they carried on a brisk trade in slaves, who were taken to Elmina
+and sold to the natives of the Gold Coast. At that time and for more
+than two centuries afterwards, Benin seems to have been one of the most
+powerful states of West Africa. It was known to Europeans in the 17th
+century as the Great Benin. The towns of Lagos and Badagry were both
+founded by Benin colonists. Benin city was the seat of a theocracy of
+priests, in whose hands the oba or king, nominally supreme, appears to
+have often been a puppet. He was revered by his subjects as a species of
+divinity, and seldom left the enclosure surrounding the royal palace.
+The religion and mythology of the Beni, like those of the Yorubas, are
+based on spirit- and ancestor-worship (see NEGRO and AFRICA:
+_Ethnology_); the chief spirit or juju was worshipped with human
+sacrifices to an appalling extent, the Benin fetish being considered the
+most powerful in all West Africa. The usual form of sacrifice was
+crucifixion. Many chiefs, in no way politically dependent on Benin, used
+to send annual presents to the juju. The Benin people do not appear to
+have indulged in wanton cruelty, and it is stated that they usually
+stupefied the victims before putting them to death. The people were
+skilled in brass work; their carving and design were alike excellent.
+Carved ivory objects abound, and there are many evidences of the skill
+attained by native artists, who perhaps owed something to their contact
+with the Portuguese. The weaving of cloth was also carried on. The Beni
+remained politically and socially almost unaffected by European
+influence until the occupation of their country by the British in 1897,
+their connexion with the white men having previously been almost
+confined to matters of trade. The Portuguese withdrew from the coast in
+the 18th century, but one of the most striking proofs of their
+commercial influence is the fact that a corrupt Lusitanian dialect was
+spoken by the older natives up to the last quarter of the 19th century.
+The first English expedition to Benin was in 1553; after that time a
+considerable trade grew up between England and that country, ivory,
+palm-oil and pepper being the chief commodities exported from Benin. The
+Dutch afterwards established factories and maintained them for a
+considerable time, chiefly with a view to the slave trade. In 1788
+Captain Landolphe founded a factory called Barodo, near the native
+village of Obobi for the French Compagnie d'Oywhere; and it lasted till
+1792, when it was destroyed by the English. In 1863 Sir Richard Burton,
+then British consul at Fernando Po, went to Benin to try and put a stop
+to human sacrifices, an attempt in which he did not succeed. At that
+time the decline in power of the kingdom of Benin was obvious, and the
+city was in a decaying condition. In 1885 the coast-line of Benin was
+placed under British protection, and steps were taken to enter into
+friendly relations with the king. Consul G.F.N.B. Annesley[1] saw the
+king in 1890, with the hope of making a treaty, but failed in his
+object. In March 1892 Captain H.L. Gallwey, British vice-consul,
+succeeded in concluding a treaty with the king Overami. The treaty,
+however, proved of no avail, and the king kept as aloof as of old from
+any outside interference. In January 1897 J.R. Phillips, acting
+consul-general, and eight Europeans were brutally massacred on the road
+from Gwato to Benin city, whilst on a mission to the king. Phillips had
+persisted in starting for Benin despite the repeated request of the king
+that he should delay his visit until he (the king) had finished the
+celebration of the annual "customs." Two Europeans, Captain Alan
+Boisragon and R.F. Locke, alone escaped. A punitive expedition was
+organized under the command of Admiral Sir Harry Rawson, the success of
+which was a remarkable example of good organization hastily improvised.
+The news of the massacre of Phillips's party reached Rear-Admiral
+Rawson, the commander-in-chief on the Cape station, on the 4th of
+January 1897. The flagship was at Simons Town. The small craft were
+dispersed. Two ships at Malta had been ordered to join the Cape command.
+A transport was chartered in the Thames for the purposes of the
+expedition. In twenty-nine days a force of 1200 men, coming from three
+places between 3000 and 4500 m. from the Benin river, was landed,
+organized, equipped and provided with transport. Five days later the
+city of Benin was taken, and in twelve days more the men were
+re-embarked, and the ships coaled and ready for any further service. On
+the 17th of February Benin was occupied after considerable fighting. The
+town, which was found to be reeking of human sacrifices, was partly
+burned, and on the 22nd the expedition started on its return. The king
+and chiefs responsible for the massacre were placed on their trial by
+Sir Ralph Moor, high commissioner for Southern Nigeria; the king was
+deposed and deported to Calabar, and the chiefs, six in all, were
+executed. The chief offender was not brought to justice until a second
+punitive expedition in 1899 completed the pacification of the country.
+After the removal of the king in September 1897 a council of chiefs was
+appointed. This council carries on the government of the whole Beni
+country, and is presided over by a British resident.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--H.L. Roth, _Great Benin, its Customs, Art and Horrors_
+  (Halifax, 1903), a comprehensive and profusely illustrated work, with
+  an annotated bibliography; C.H. Read and O.M. Dalton, _Antiquities
+  from Benin ... in the British Museum_ (1899); Pitt Rivers, _Works of
+  Art from Benin_ (1900); R.E. Dennett, _At the Back of the Black Man's
+  Mind_ (London, 1906); Sir R. Burton, _Wanderings in West Africa_
+  (London, 1863); H.L. Gallwey, "Journeys in the Benin Country," _Geog.
+  Jnl._, vol. i., London, 1893; A. Boisragon, _The Benin Massacre_
+  (London, 1897); R.H. Bacon, _Benin, the City of Blood_ (London, 1898),
+  by a member of the punitive expedition of 1897; the annual _Reports on
+  Southern Nigeria_, issued by the Colonial Office, London.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Mr Annesley (b. 1851), after having served in the Prussian army,
+    and in the Turkish army during the war of 1877, was in the British
+    consular service from 1879 to 1892. In 1888 he became consul to the
+    Congo Free State.
+
+
+
+
+BENITOITE, a mineral discovered in 1907 near the headwaters of the San
+Benito river, San Benito Co., California, and described by Prof. G.D.
+Louderback. It is a titano-silicate of barium (BaTiSi3O9), crystallizing
+in the hexagonal system, with a hardness of 6.5, and specific gravity
+3.65. It may be colourless or blue, the colour varying sometimes in
+different parts, and passing to a deep sapphire blue. The blue variety
+is cut as a gem stone, and often resembles blue spinel, though its
+softness distinguishes it from spinel and sapphire. It is a brilliant
+stone, with high refractive index, and is strongly dichroic, being pale
+when viewed parallel to the principal axis and dark when viewed
+transversely.
+
+
+
+
+BENJAMIN, a tribe of Israel, named after the youngest son of Jacob and
+Rachel. As distinct from the others Benjamin was born not beyond the
+Jordan but in Palestine, between Bethel and Ephrath. His mother, dying
+in childbed, gave him the name Ben-oni, "Son of my sorrow," which was
+changed by his father to Ben-jamin, meaning probably "Son of the right
+hand" (i.e. "of prosperity," or, perhaps, "son of the south"; Gen. xxxv.
+16-18). Of his personal history little is recorded. He was the favourite
+of his father and brothers (with which contrast the spirit of the
+stories in Judg. xix.-xxi.), and the reputation of fierceness ascribed
+to him in the blessing of Jacob ("Benjamin is a wolf that teareth," Gen.
+xlix. 27) agrees with what is told of the tribe's warriors (see EHUD,
+SAUL, JONATHAN). It is a curious feature that its noted slingers were
+said to be left-handed (Judg. xx. 16, cf. iii. 15) and even ambidextrous
+(1 Chron. xii. 2). The late references to this tribe in the Israelite
+wanderings in the wilderness are of little value. On entering Palestine
+it is allotted a portion encompassed by the districts of Ephraim, Dan
+and Judah. In the time of the "judges" the tribe of Benjamin was almost
+exterminated (see JUDGES, BOOK OF), 600 men alone escaping (Judges xix.
+sqq.). The tribe was built up again by the rape of the maidens of Shiloh
+at one of their annual festivals (for which cf. Judges ix. 27), but a
+later narrative gives currency to a tradition that 400 virgins were also
+brought to Shiloh, the survivors of a massacre of the inhabitants of
+Jabesh-Gilead. At all events, Benjamin claimed the honour of providing
+the great king of Israel whose heroic deliverance of Jabesh-Gilead is
+referred to elsewhere (see SAUL), and it is noteworthy that the tribe
+only now attain historical importance. If the genealogies associated it
+with Joseph the father of Ephraim and Manasseh, its fortunes were for a
+time bound up with the northern kingdom (see DAVID). Although its
+territory lies open on the west and east, its physical features unite it
+to Judah, and what is known of its mixed population[1] makes it
+difficult to determine how far the youngest of the tribes of Israel
+enjoyed any independent position previous to the monarchy. Its neutral
+position between Judah and Ephraim gave it an importance which was
+religious as well as political. Anathoth the home of Abiathar and
+Jeremiah, Gibeon the old Canaanite sanctuary, the royal sanctuary at
+Bethel, its associations with Samuel and the prophetic gilds of the
+times of Elijah and Elisha, and finally Jerusalem itself, the centre of
+worship, give "the least of all the tribes" a unique value in the
+history of Old Testament religion.
+
+  See H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._, col. 534 sqq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Jerusalem and its district was Jebusite until its capture by
+    David (see 2 Sam. v.); for Beeroth and Gibeon, see 2 Sam. iv. 2 seq.,
+    xxi. 2, and note the Benjamite and Judahite names which find
+    analogies in the Edomite genealogies. See, on these points, S.A.
+    Cook, _Jew. Quarterly Review_ (1906), pp. 528 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+BENJAMIN OF TUDELA (in Navarre), a Jewish rabbi of the 12th century. He
+visited Constantinople, Egypt, Assyria and Persia, and penetrated to the
+frontiers of China. His journeys occupied him for about thirteen years.
+He was credulous, but his _Itinerary_, or _Massa'oth_, contains some
+curious notices of the countries he visited and of the condition of the
+Jews. Thus his work is of much value for the Jewish history of the 12th
+century. It is from Benjamin that we know that the Jews of Palestine and
+other parts of the East were noted for the arts of dyeing and
+glass-making.
+
+  His _Itinerary_ was translated from the Hebrew into Latin by Arias
+  Montanus in 1575, and appeared in a French version by Baratier in
+  1734. There have been various English translations. One was published
+  by Asher in 1840; another (with critical Hebrew text) by M.N. Adler
+  (_Jewish Quarterly Review_, vols. xvi.-xviii.; also reprinted as a
+  separate volume, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP (1811-1884), Anglo-American lawyer, of Jewish
+descent, was born a British subject at St Thomas in the West Indies on
+the 11th of August 1811, and was successively an American lawyer, a
+leading Confederate politician and a distinguished English barrister. He
+eventually died in Paris a domiciled Frenchman. After 1818 his parents
+lived in Charleston, South Carolina, and he went to Yale in 1825 for his
+education, but left without taking a degree, and entered an attorney's
+office in New Orleans. He was admitted to the New Orleans bar in 1832.
+He compiled with his friend John Slidell a valuable digest of decisions
+of the superior courts of New Orleans and Louisiana; and as a partner in
+the firm of Slidell, Benjamin & Conrad, he enjoyed a good practice. In
+1848 he was admitted a councillor of the supreme court, and in 1852 he
+was elected a senator for Louisiana, and thereafter he took an active
+part in politics, declining to accept a judgeship of the supreme court.
+In 1861 he withdrew from the Senate, left Washington and actively
+espoused the Confederate cause. He joined Jefferson Davis's provisional
+government as attorney-general, becoming afterwards his secretary for
+war (1861-1862), and chief secretary of state (1862-1865). Although at
+times subject to fierce criticism with regard to matters of
+administration and finance, he was recognized as one of the ablest men
+on the Confederate side, and he remained with Jefferson Davis to the
+last, sharing his flight after the surrender at Appomattox, and only
+leaving him shortly before his capture, because he found himself unable
+to go farther on horseback. He escaped from the coast of Florida in an
+open boat, and after many vicissitudes reached England, an exile. In
+1866 his remaining property was lost in the banking failure of Overend &
+Gurney.
+
+In London Benjamin was able to earn a little money by journalism, and on
+the 13th of January 1866 he entered Lincoln's Inn. He received a
+hospitable welcome from the legal profession. The influence of English
+judges who knew his abilities and his circumstances enabled him to be
+called to the bar on the 6th of June 1866, dispensing with the usual
+three years as a student, and he acquired his first knowledge of the
+practice and methods of English courts as the pupil of Mr C.E.
+(afterwards Baron) Pollock. Pollock fully recognized his abilities and
+they became and remained firm friends. Benjamin was naturally an apt and
+useful pupil; for instance, an opinion of Mr Pollock, which for long
+guided the London police in the exercise of their right to search
+prisoners, is mentioned by him as having been really composed by
+Benjamin while he was still his pupil. Benjamin joined the northern
+circuit, and a large proportion of his early practice came from
+solicitors at Liverpool who had correspondents in New Orleans. His
+business gradually increased, and having received a patent of
+precedence, he was on the 2nd of November 1872 called within the bar as
+a queen's counsel. In addition to his knowledge of law and of commercial
+matters he had considerable eloquence, and a power of marshalling facts
+and arguments that rendered him extremely effective, particularly before
+judges. He was less successful in addressing juries, and towards the
+close of his career did not take _Nisi prius_ work, but in the court of
+appeal and House of Lords and before the judicial committee of the privy
+council he enjoyed a very large practice, making for some time fully
+L15,000 a year. The question of raising him to the bench was seriously
+considered by Lord Cairns, who, however, seems to have thought that the
+ungrudging hospitality and goodwill with which Benjamin had been
+received by the English legal profession had gone far enough. Towards
+the close of his career he was in ill health, and he suffered from the
+results of a fall from a tramcar. He retired in 1882 to a house in Paris
+which he had built and where he had been in the habit of passing his
+vacations with his wife, who was a Frenchwoman. He never returned to
+practice, but came back to London to be entertained by the bench and bar
+of England at a banquet in the Inner Temple Hall on the 30th of June
+1883. He died at Paris on the 6th of May 1884.
+
+Benjamin was thick-set and stout, with an expression of great
+shrewdness. An early portrait of him is to be found in Jefferson Davis's
+_Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government_. His political history may
+be traced in that work, and in John W. Draper's _American Civil War_ and
+von Holst's _Constitutional History of the United States_. Many
+allusions to his English career will be found in works describing
+English lawyers of his period, and there are some interesting
+reminiscences of him by Baron Pollock in the _Fortnightly Review_ for
+March 1898. His _Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal Property with
+References to the American Decisions and to the French Code and Civil
+Law_--a bulky volume known to practitioners as _Benjamin on Sales_--is
+the principal text-book on its subject, and a fitting monument of the
+author's career at the English bar, of his industry and learning. Many
+of his American speeches have been published.
+
+  See _Judah P. Benjamin_, by Pierce Butler (Philadelphia, 1907, with a
+  good bibliography).
+
+
+
+
+BEN LEDI (Gaelic, "the hill of God"), a mountain of Perthshire,
+Scotland, 2875 ft. high, 5 m. by road N.W. of Callander. It is situated
+close to some of the most romantic scenery in the Highlands, and is
+particularly well known through Scott's _Lady of the Lake_. Its name is
+supposed to point to the time when Beltane rites were observed on its
+summit. A cairn was built on the top in 1887 to commemorate Queen
+Victoria's jubilee. On one of the sides of the mountain is a tarn which
+bears the name of Lochan nan Corp, "the little loch of the dead," from
+an accident to a funeral party by which 200 lives were lost.
+
+
+
+
+BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSE (1858-), Spanish painter, was born at Valencia,
+studied painting under Domingo, and showed from the first such marked
+talent that he was sent to the Spanish school in Rome. He was one of the
+select circle pensioned by the Spanish government for residence in Italy
+and executed several state orders for the decoration of public
+buildings; but he owes his chief fame to his large historical paintings,
+notably the "Vision in the Coliseum." He became the leader of the
+Spanish art colony in Rome, where he practised as painter and sculptor.
+
+
+
+
+BEN LOMOND, a mountain in the north-west of Stirlingshire, Scotland. It
+is situated near the eastern bank of Loch Lomond, about 9 m. from the
+head and about 15 from the foot. It is 3192 ft. high, and the prevailing
+rocks are granite, mica schist, diorite, porphyry and quartzite, the
+last, where it crops out on the surface, gleaming in the distance like
+snow. Duchray Water, a head-stream of the Forth, rises in the north-east
+shoulder. The hill, which is covered with grass to the top, is a
+favourite climb, being ascended from Rowardennan (the easiest) or
+Inversnaid on the lake, or Aberfoyle 10 m. inland due east. The view
+from the summit extends northward as far as the Grampians, with
+occasional glimpses of Ben Nevis; westward to Jura in the Atlantic;
+south-westward to Arran in the Firth of Clyde; southward to Tinto Hill,
+the Lowthers and Cairnsmore; and eastward to Edinburgh Castle and
+Arthur's Seat.
+
+
+
+
+BENLOWES, EDWARD (1603?-1676), English poet, son of Andrew Benlowes of
+Brent Hall, Essex, was born about 1603. He matriculated at St John's
+College, Cambridge, in 1620, and on leaving the university he made a
+prolonged tour on the continent of Europe. He was a Roman Catholic in
+middle life, but became a convert to Protestantism in his later years.
+He dissipated his fortune by openhanded generosity to his friends and
+relations, and possibly by serving in the Civil War; so that he was in
+great poverty at the time of his death, which occurred on the 18th of
+December 1676. The last eight years of his life were passed at Oxford.
+Many of his writings are in Latin. His most important work is
+_Theophila, or Love's Sacrifice, a Divine Poem_ (1652). The poem deals
+with mystical religion, telling how the soul, represented by Theophila,
+ascends by humility, zeal and contemplation, and triumphs over the sins
+of the senses. It is written in a curious stanza of three lines of
+unequal length rhyming together. Until recent times justice has hardly
+been done to Benlowes' poetical merits and indisputable piety. Samuel
+Butler, who satirized him in his "Character of a Small Poet," found
+abundant matter for ridicule in his eccentricities; and Pope and
+Warburton noted him as a patron of bad poets.
+
+  His _Theophila_ was reprinted by S.W. Singer; and in _Minor Poets of
+  the Caroline Period_, vol. i. (1905), Mr Saintsbury reprints
+  _Theophila_ and two other poems by Benlowes, "The Summary of
+  Wisedome," and "A Poetic Descant upon a Private Music-Meeting."
+
+
+
+
+BEN MACDHUI, more correctly BEN MUICHDHUI (Gaelic for "the mountain of
+the black pig," in allusion to its shape), the second highest mountain
+(4296 ft.) in Great Britain, one of the Cairngorm group, on the confines
+of south-western Aberdeenshire and south-western Banffshire, not far
+from the eastern boundary of Inverness-shire. It is about 11 m. from
+Castleton of Braemar and about 10 from Aviemore. The ascent is usually
+made from Castleton of Braemar, by way of the Linn of Dee, Glen Lui and
+Glen Derry. From the head of Glen Derry, with its blasted trees, the
+picture of desolation, it becomes more toilsome, but is partly repaid by
+the view of the remarkable columnar cliffs of Corrie Etchachan. The
+summit is flat and quite bare of vegetation, but the panorama in every
+direction is extremely grand. At the foot of a vast gully, 2500 ft.
+above the sea, lies Loch Avon (or A'an), a narrow lake about 1-1/2 m.
+long, with water of the deepest blue and a margin of bright yellow sand.
+At the western end of the lake is the Shelter Stone, an enormous block
+of granite resting upon two other blocks, which can accommodate a dozen
+persons. Beautiful rock crystals occur in veins in the corries. The
+summit of Cairngorm, 3-1/2 m. north of that of Ben Macdhui, may be
+reached from the latter with scarcely any descent, by following the
+rugged ridge flanking the western side of Loch Avon. The other great
+peaks of the group are Braeriach (4248 ft.) and Cairntoul (4241 ft.),
+and 6 m. to the east are the twin masses of Ben a Bourd, the northern
+top of which is 3924 ft. and the southern 3860 ft. high. Ben A'an, an
+adjoining hill, is 3843 ft. high.
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN (1858-   ), American classical scholar, was born
+on the 6th of April 1858, in Providence, Rhode Island. He graduated from
+Brown University in 1878 and also studied at Harvard (1881-1882) and in
+Germany (1882-1884). He taught in secondary schools in Florida
+(1878-1879), New York (1879-1881), and Nebraska (1885-1889), and became
+professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin in 1889, of classical
+philology at Brown University in 1891, and of Latin at Cornell
+University in 1892. His syntactical studies, notably various papers on
+the subjunctive, are based on a statistical examination of Latin texts
+and are marked by a fresh system of nomenclature; he ranks as one of the
+leaders of the "New American School" of syntacticians, who insist on a
+preliminary re-examination of all available data. Of great importance
+are his advocacy of "quantitative" reading of Latin verse and his
+_Critique of Some Recent Subjunctive Theories_ in vol. ix. (1898) of
+_Cornell Studies in Classical Philology_, of which he was an editor.
+Bennett's _Latin Grammar_ (1895) is the first successful attempt in
+America to adopt the method of the brief, scholarly _Schulgrammatik_.
+Besides the Latin classics commonly read in secondary courses and other
+text-books in "Bennett's Latin Series," he edited Tacitus's _Dialogus de
+Oratoribus_ (1894), and Cicero's _De Senectute_ (1897) and _De Amicitia_
+(1897). He wrote, with George P. Bristol, _The Teaching of Greek and
+Latin in Secondary Schools_ (1900), and _The Latin Language_, (1907),
+and with William Alexander Hammond translated _The Characters of
+Theophrastus_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, JAMES GORDON (1794-1872), American journalist, founder and
+editor of the New York Herald, was born at Newmills in Banffshire,
+Scotland, in 1794 (not in 1800, as has been stated). He was educated for
+the Roman Catholic priesthood in a seminary at Aberdeen, but in the
+spring of 1819, giving up the career which had been chosen for him, he
+emigrated to America. Landing at Halifax, Nova Scotia, he earned a poor
+living there for a short time by giving lessons in French, Spanish and
+bookkeeping; he passed next to Boston, where starvation threatened him
+until he got employment in a printing-office; and in 1822 he went to New
+York. An engagement as translator of Spanish for the _Courier_ of
+Charleston, South Carolina, took him there for a few months in 1823. On
+his return to New York he projected a school, gave lectures on political
+economy and did subordinate work for the journals. During the next ten
+years he was employed on various papers, was the Washington
+correspondent first of the _New York Enquirer_, and later of the
+_Courier and Enquirer_ in 1827-1832, his letters attracting much
+attention; he founded the short-lived _Globe_ in New York in 1832; and
+in 1833-1834 was the chief editor and one of the proprietors of the
+_Pennsylvanian_ at Philadelphia. On the 6th of May 1835 he published the
+first number of a small one-cent paper, bearing the title of _New York
+Herald_, and issuing from a cellar, in which the proprietor and editor
+played also the part of salesman. "He started with a disclaimer of all
+principle, as it is called, all party, all politics"; and to this he
+consistently adhered. By his industry, sagacity and unscrupulousness,
+and by the variety of his news, the "spicy" correspondence, and the
+supply of personal gossip and scandal, he made the paper a great
+commercial success. He devoted his attention particularly to the
+gathering of news, and was the first to introduce many of the methods of
+the modern American reporter. He published on the 13th of June 1835, the
+first Wall Street financial article to appear in any American newspaper;
+printed a vivid and detailed account of the great fire of December 1835,
+in New York; was the first, in 1846, to obtain the report in full by
+telegraph of a long political speech; and during the Civil War
+maintained a staff of sixty-three war correspondents. Bennett continued
+to edit the Herald almost till his death, at New York, on the 1st of
+June 1872.
+
+His son, JAMES GORDON BENNETT (1841-   ), took over the management of
+the paper during the last year of its founder's life, and succeeded him
+in its control. It was he who sent Henry M. Stanley on his mission to
+find Livingstone in Central Africa, and he fitted out the "Jeannette"
+Polar Expedition, and in 1883 established (with John W. Mackay) the
+Commercial Cable Company.
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, JOHN, one of the finest English madrigalists, whose first set
+of madrigals appeared in 1599. In 1614 Ravenscroft, in a collection
+including five of his madrigals, writes a eulogy which reads like an
+obituary notice. The first set of madrigals was reprinted in 1845 by the
+Musical Antiquarian Society. Bennett's works consist of this set and
+several contributions to such collections as the _Triumphs of Oriana_,
+and to various collections of church music.
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES (1812-1875), English physician and pathologist, was
+born in London on the 31st of August 1812. He was educated at Exeter,
+and being destined for the medical profession was articled to a surgeon
+in Maidstone. In 1833 he began his studies at Edinburgh, and in 1837
+graduated with the highest honours. During the next four years he
+studied in Paris and Germany, and on his return to Edinburgh in 1841
+published a _Treatise on Cod-liver Oil as a Therapeutic Agent_. In the
+same year he began to lecture as an extra-academical teacher on
+histology, drawing attention to the importance of the microscope in the
+investigation of disease; and as physician to the Royal Dispensary he
+instituted courses of "polyclinical medicine." In 1843 he was appointed
+professor of the institutes of medicine at Edinburgh, and performed the
+duties of that chair with great energy till incapacitated by failing
+health. He resigned in 1874. In August 1875 he was able to be present at
+the meeting of the British Medical Association in Edinburgh, on which
+occasion he received the degree of LL.D., but the fatigue he then
+underwent brought on a relapse, and he was compelled to have the
+operation of lithotomy performed. He sank rapidly and died on the 25th
+of September at Norwich. His publications were very numerous including
+_Lectures on Clinical Medicine_ (1850-1856), which in second and
+subsequent editions were called _Clinical Lectures on the Principles and
+Practice of Medicine_, and were translated into various languages,
+including Russian and Hindu; _Leucocythaemia_ (1852), the first recorded
+cure of which was published by him in 1845; _Outlines of Physiology_
+(1858), reprinted from the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica;
+Pathology and Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis_ (1853); _Textbook of
+Physiology_ (1871-1872).
+
+
+
+
+BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE (1816-1875), English musical composer,
+the son of Robert Bennett, an organist, was born at Sheffield on the
+13th of April 1816. Having lost his father at an early age, he was
+brought up at Cambridge by his grandfather, from whom he received his
+first musical education. He entered the choir of King's College chapel
+in 1824. In 1826 he entered the Royal Academy of Music, and remained a
+pupil of that institution for the next ten years, studying pianoforte
+under W.H. Holmes and Cipriani Potter, and composition under Lucas and
+Dr Crotch. It was during this time that he wrote several of his most
+appreciated works, in which may be traced influences of the contemporary
+movement of music in Germany, which country he frequently visited during
+the years 1836-1842. At one of the Rhenish musical festivals in
+Dusseldorf he made the personal acquaintance of Mendelssohn, and soon
+afterwards renewed it at Leipzig, where the talented young Englishman
+was welcomed by the leading musicians of the rising generation. At one
+of the celebrated Gewandhaus concerts he played his third pianoforte
+concerto, which was received enthusiastically. An enthusiastic account
+of the event was written by Robert Schumann, who pronounced Bennett to
+be the most "_musikalisch_" of all Englishmen, and "an angel of a
+musician" (copying Gregory's pun on _Angli_ and _Angeli_). But it was
+Mendelssohn's influence that dominated Bennett's mode of utterance. A
+good example of this may be studied in Bennett's _Capriccio in D minor_.
+His great success on the continent established his position on his
+return to England. In 1834 he was elected organist of St Anne's chapel
+(now church), Wandsworth. In this year he composed his _Overture to
+Parisina_, and his Concerto in C minor, modelled on Mozart. An
+unpublished concerto in F minor, and the overture to the _Naiads_,
+impressed the firm of Broadwood so favourably in 1836 that they offered
+the composer a year in Leipzig, where the _Naiads_ overture was
+performed at a Gewandhaus concert on the 13th of February 1837. Bennett
+visited Leipzig a second time in 1840-1841, when he composed his
+_Caprice in E_ for pianoforte and orchestra and his overture _The Wood
+Nymphs_. He settled in London, devoting himself chiefly to practical
+teaching. In 1844 he married Mary Anne, daughter of Captain James Wood,
+R.N. He was made musical professor at Cambridge in 1856, the year in
+which he was engaged as permanent conductor of the Philharmonic Society.
+This latter post he held until 1866, when he became principal of the
+Royal Academy of Music. Owing to his professional duties his latter
+years were not fertile, and what he then wrote was scarcely equal to the
+productions of his youth. The principal charm of Bennett's compositions
+(not to mention his absolute mastery of the musical form) consists in
+the tenderness of their conception, rising occasionally to sweetest
+lyrical intensity. Except the opera, Bennett tried his hand at almost
+all the different forms of vocal and instrumental writing. As his best
+works in various branches of art, we may mention, for pianoforte solo,
+and with accompaniment of the orchestra, his three sketches, _The Lake,
+The Millstream_ and _The Fountain_, and his 3rd pianoforte concerto; for
+the orchestra, his _Symphony in G minor_, and his overture _The Naiads_;
+and for voices, his cantata _The May Queen_, written for the Leeds
+Festival in 1858. For the jubilee of the Philharmonic Society he wrote
+the overture _Paradise and the Peri_ in 1862. He also wrote a sacred
+cantata, _The Woman of Samaria_, first performed at the Birmingham
+Musical Festival in 1867. In 1870 the university of Oxford conferred
+upon him the honorary degree of D.C.L. A year later he was knighted, and
+in 1872 he received a public testimonial before a large audience at St
+James's Hall, the money subscribed being devoted to the foundation of a
+scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music. Shortly before his death he
+produced a sonata called the _Maid of Orleans_, an elaborate piece of
+programme music based on Schiller's tragedy. He died at his house in St
+John's Wood, London, on the 15th of February 1875. See the _Life_, by
+his son (1908).
+
+
+
+
+BEN NEVIS, the highest mountain in the British Isles, in
+Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is 4406 ft. above the level of the sea,
+and is situated 4-1/2 m. E.S.E. of Fort William, the meridian of 5 deg.
+W passing through it. As viewed from Banavie on the Caledonian Canal, it
+has the appearance of two great masses, one higher than the other, and
+though its bulk is impressive, its outline is much less striking than
+that of many other Highland hills. Its summit consists of a plateau 100
+acres in area, with a slight slope to the south, terminating on its
+north-eastern side in a sheer fall of more than 1500 ft. Snow lies in
+some of the gorges all the year round. The rocks of its lower half are
+mainly granite and gneiss; its upper half is composed of porphyritic
+greenstone, and a variety of minerals occur. Its circumference at the
+base is about 30 m. It may be described as flanked on the west and south
+by the Glen and Water of Nevis, on the east by the river and Glen of
+Treig, and on the north by the river and Glen of Spean. From 1881 till
+1904 meteorological observations were taken from the summit of Ben
+Nevis, the observers at first making the ascent daily for the purpose.
+In 1883, however, an observatory, equipped at a cost of L4000 (raised by
+public subscription), was opened by Mrs Cameron Campbell of Monzie, who
+provided the site. The observatory, which was connected by wire with the
+post office at Fort William, was provisioned by the Scottish
+Meteorological Society, to whom it belonged. The burden of maintaining
+it, however, proving too great for the society's means, appeal was made
+in vain to government for national support, and the station was closed
+in 1904. The bridle road up the mountain leaves Glen Nevis at Achintee;
+it has a gradient nowhere exceeding 1 in 5, and the ascent is commonly
+effected in two to three hours. There is a small hotel on the summit for
+the convenience of tourists, especially of those anxious to witness
+sunrise. From the summit every considerable peak in Scotland is visible.
+Observations conducted during several months have shown that, whilst the
+mean temperature at Fort William was 57 deg. F., at the summit of Ben
+Nevis it was 41 deg. F., and that though the rainfall at the fort
+amounted to 24 in., it was as much as 43 in. on the top of the Ben.
+
+
+
+
+BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST, COUNT VON (1745-1826), Russian general, of
+Hanoverian family, was born on the 10th of February 1745 in Brunswick,
+and served successively as a page at the Hanoverian court and as an
+officer of foot-guards. He retired from the Hanoverian army in 1764, and
+in 1773 entered the Russian service as a field officer. He fought
+against the Turks in 1774 and in 1778, becoming lieutenant-colonel in
+the latter year. In 1787 his conduct at the storming of Oczakov won him
+promotion to the rank of brigadier, and he distinguished himself
+repeatedly in the Polish War of 1793-1794 and in the Persian War of
+1796. The part played by Bennigsen in the actual assassination of the
+tsar Paul I. is not fully known, but he took a most active share in the
+formation and conduct of the conspiracy. Alexander I. made him
+governor-general of Lithuania in 1801, and in 1802 a general of cavalry.
+In 1806 he was in command of one of the Russian armies operating against
+Napoleon, when he fought the battle of Pultusk and met the emperor in
+person in the sanguinary battle of Eylau (8th of February 1807). Here he
+could claim to have inflicted the first reverse suffered by Napoleon,
+but six months later Bennigsen met with the crushing defeat of Friedland
+(14th of June 1807) the direct consequence of which was the treaty of
+Tilsit. Bennigsen now retired for some years, but in the campaign of
+1812 he reappeared in the army in various responsible positions. He was
+present at Borodino, and defeated Murat in the engagement of Tarutino,
+but on account of a quarrel with Marshal Kutusov, the Russian
+commander-in-chief, he was compelled to retire from active military
+employment. After the death of Kutusov he was recalled and placed at the
+head of an army. Bennigsen led one of the columns which made the
+decisive attack on the last day of the battle of Leipzig (16th-19th of
+October 1813). On the same evening he was made a count by the emperor
+Alexander I., and he afterwards commanded the forces which operated
+against Marshal Davout in North Germany. After the general peace he held
+a command from 1815 to 1818, when he retired from active service and
+settled on his Hanoverian estate of Banteln near Hildesheim. Count
+Bennigsen died on the 3rd of December 1826. His son, ALEXANDER LEVIN,
+count von Bennigsen (1809-1893), was a distinguished Hanoverian
+statesman.
+
+
+
+
+BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON (1824-1902), German politician, was born at
+Luneburg on the 10th of July 1824. He was descended from an old
+Hanoverian family, his father, Karl von Bennigsen, being an officer in
+the Hanoverian army, who rose to the rank of general and also held
+diplomatic appointments. Bennigsen, having studied at the university of
+Gottingen, entered the Hanoverian civil service. In 1855 he was elected
+a member of the second chamber; and as the government refused to allow
+him leave of absence from his official duties he resigned his post in
+the public service. He at once became the recognized leader of the
+Liberal opposition to the reactionary government, but must be
+distinguished from Count Bennigsen, a member of the same family, and son
+of the distinguished Russian general, who was also one of the
+parliamentary leaders at the time. What gave Bennigsen his importance
+not only in Hanover, but throughout the whole of Germany, was the
+foundation of the National Verein, which was due to him, and of which he
+was president. This society, which arose out of the public excitement
+created by the war between France and Austria, had for its object the
+formation of a national party which should strive for the unity and the
+constitutional liberty of the whole Fatherland. It united the moderate
+Liberals throughout Germany, and at once became a great political power,
+notwithstanding all the efforts of the governments, and especially of
+the king of Hanover to suppress it. In 1866 Bennigsen used all his
+influence to keep Hanover neutral in the conflict between Prussia and
+Austria, but in vain. He took no part in the war, but his brother, who
+was an officer in the Prussian army, was killed in Bohemia. In May of
+this year he had an important interview with Bismarck, who wished to
+secure his support for the reform of the confederation, and after the
+war was over at once accepted the position of a Prussian subject, and
+took his seat in the diet of the North German Confederation and in the
+Prussian parliament. He used his influence to procure as much autonomy
+as possible for the province of Hanover, but was a strong opponent of
+the Guelph party. He was one of the three Hanoverians, Windthorst and
+Miquel being the other two, who at once won for the representatives of
+the conquered province the lead in both the Prussian and German
+parliaments. The National Verein, its work being done, was now
+dissolved; but Bennigsen was chiefly instrumental in founding a new
+political party--the National Liberals,--who, while they supported
+Bismarck's national policy, hoped to secure the constitutional
+development of the country. For the next thirty years he was president
+of the party, and was the most influential of the parliamentary leaders.
+It was chiefly owing to him that the building up of the internal
+institutions of the empire was carried on without the open breach
+between Bismarck and the parliament, which was often imminent. Many
+amendments suggested by him were introduced in the debates on the
+constitution; in 1870 he undertook a mission to South Germany to
+strengthen the national party there, and was consulted by Bismarck while
+at Versailles. It was he who brought about the compromise on the
+military bill in 1874. In 1877 he was offered the post of
+vice-chancellor with a seat in the Prussian ministry, but refused it
+because Bismarck or the king would not agree to his conditions. From
+this time his relations with the government were less friendly, and in
+1878 he brought about the rejection of the first Socialist Bill. In 1883
+he resigned his seat in parliament owing to the reactionary measures of
+the government, which made it impossible for him to continue his former
+co-operation with Bismarck, but returned in 1887 to support the
+coalition of national parties. One of the first acts of the emperor
+William II. was to appoint him president of the province of Hanover. In
+1897 he resigned this post and retired from public life. He died on the
+7th of August 1902.
+
+  See biographical notices by A. Kiepert (2nd ed., Hanover, 1902), and
+  E. Schreck (Hanover, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+BENNINGTON, a village and one of the county-seats of Bennington county,
+Vermont, U.S.A., situated in the S.W. part of the state, about 30 m.
+E.N.E. of Troy, New York. Pop. (1890) 3971; (1900) 5656 (965
+foreign-born); (1910) 6211. The township of the same name, in which it
+is situated, had in 1910 a population of 8698, living chiefly in the
+villages of Bennington, North Bennington and Bennington Centre, the last
+a summer resort. The village of Bennington is served by the Rutland
+railway, and is connected by electric railway with North Adams and
+Pittsfield, Mass., and Hoosick Falls, N.Y. It is picturesquely situated
+at the foot of the Green Mountains, and the summit of the neighbouring
+Mt. Anthony (2345 ft.) commands a magnificent view. The village has
+woollen mills, knitting mills, stereoscope, box, and collar and cuff
+factories and machine shops. There are white clay and yellow ochre works
+in different parts of the township. Bennington is the seat of the
+Vermont state soldiers' home. The Bennington Battle Monument, a shaft
+301 ft. high, is said to be the highest battle monument in the world. It
+commemorates the success gained on the 16th of August 1777 by a force of
+nearly 2000 "Green Mountain Boys" and New Hampshire and Massachusetts
+militia under General John Stark over two detachments of General
+Burgoyne's army, totalling about 1200 men, under Col. Friedrich Baum and
+Col. Breyman. These came up one after the other in search of provisions
+and were practically annihilated, Col. Baum being mortally wounded and
+700 men taken prisoners. The scene of the battle is about 5 m. from the
+village. The victory had an important influence on Burgoyne's campaign
+(see AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE), weakening Burgoyne and encouraging
+the American militia to take the field against him. Bennington was
+settled in 1761 and was named in honour of Governor Benning Wentworth of
+New Hampshire. The township was organized in 1762. It was one of the
+"New Hampshire Grant" towns, both New York and New Hampshire claiming
+jurisdiction over it, and, being the home of Ethan Alien and Seth
+Warner, it became the centre of activities of the "Green Mountain Boys,"
+of whom they were leaders. During the fifteen years in which Vermont was
+an independent commonwealth, Bennington was the headquarters of the
+council of safety. In 1828-1829 W.L. Garrison edited here a paper called
+_The Journal of the Times_. The village of Bennington was incorporated
+in 1849.
+
+  See Merrill and Merrill, _Sketches of Historic Bennington_ (Cambridge,
+  Mass., 1898).
+
+
+
+
+BENNO (1010-1106), bishop of Meissen, was the son of Werner, count of
+Woldenburg, was educated at Gosslar, and in 1066 was nominated by the
+emperor Henry IV. to the see of Meissen. In the troubles between empire
+and papacy that followed Benno took part against the emperor. In 1085 he
+was deposed by the synod of Mainz, but after the death of Pope Gregory
+VII. he submitted, and on the recommendation of the imperialist Pope
+Clement III. was restored to his see, which he held till his death. He
+did much for his diocese, both by ecclesiastical reforms on the
+Hildebrandine model and by material developments. He was long reverenced
+in his own diocese as a saint before, in 1523, he was canonized by Pope
+Adrian VI. His canonization drew from Luther a violent brochure "against
+the new false god and old devil, who is to be lifted up at Meissen."
+
+  For bibliography, see Ulysse Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources hist.:
+  Bio-bibliographie, s.v._ "Bennon."
+
+
+
+
+BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD (1834-1901), Flemish composer, was born on
+the 17th of August 1834 at Harlebeke in Flanders. His father and a local
+village organist were his first teachers. In 1851 Benoit entered the
+Brussels Conservatoire, where he remained till 1855, studying chiefly
+under F.J. Fetis. During this period he composed music to many
+melodramas, and to an opera _Le Village dans les montagnes_ for the Park
+theatre, of which in 1856 he became conductor. He won a government prize
+and a money grant in 1857 by his cantata _Le Meurtre d'Abel_, and this
+enabled him to travel through Germany. In course of his journeyings he
+found time to write a considerable amount of music, as well as an essay
+_L'Ecole de musique flamande et son avenir_. Fetis loudly praised his
+_Messe solennelle_, which Benoit produced at Brussels on his return from
+Germany. In 1861 he visited Paris for the production of his opera _Le
+Roi des Aulnes_ ("Erlkonig"), which, though accepted by the Theatre
+Lyrique, was never mounted; while there he conducted at the
+Bouffes-Parisiens. Again returning home, he astonished a section of the
+musical world by the production at Antwerp of a sacred tetralogy,
+consisting of his _Cantate de Noel_, the above-mentioned _Mass_, a _Te
+Deum_ and a _Requiem_, in which were embodied to a large extent his
+theories of Flemish music. It was in consequence of his passion for the
+founding of an entirely separate Flemish school that Benoit changed his
+name from Pierre to Peter. By prodigious efforts he succeeded in
+gathering round him a small band of enthusiasts, who affected to see
+with him possibilities in the foundation of a school whose music should
+differ completely from that of the French and German schools. In its
+main features this school failed, for its faith was pinned to Benoit's
+music, which is hardly more Flemish than French or German. Benoit's more
+important compositions include the Flemish oratorios _De Schelde_ and
+_Lucifer_, the latter of which met with complete failure on its
+production in London in 1888; the operas _Het Dorp int Gebirgte_ and
+_Isa_, the _Drama Christi_; an enormous mass of songs, choruses, small
+cantatas and motets. Benoit also wrote a great number of essays on
+musical matters. He died at Antwerp on the 8th of March 1901.
+
+
+
+
+BENOIT DE SAINTE-MORE, or SAINTE-MAURE, 12th century French _trouvere_,
+is supposed to have been a native of Sainte-Maure in Touraine. Very
+little is known of his personal history. The _maitre_ prefixed to his
+name implies that he had graduated at the university, but there is
+nothing to show whether he was a simple _trouvere_ by profession or
+belonged to the clergy. He was a loyal subject of Henry II. of England,
+to whose court he was attached, and when he speaks of the French, it is
+as "they." Wace had begun a history of the dukes of Normandy in his
+_Roman du Rou_. This he brought down to the reign of Henry I., but here
+Henry II. seems to have withdrawn his patronage, and at the end of his
+poem Wace refers to a _maistre Beneeit_ who had received a similar
+commission. There is no other contemporary poem extant dealing with the
+subject except the _Chronique des ducs de Normandie_, and it would seem
+reasonable to assume the identity of Wace's rival with Benoit de
+Sainte-More, whose authorship of the chronicle has, nevertheless, been
+often disputed. But a comparison of the _Roman de Troie_, which is
+certainly Benoit's work, with the _Chronique_, confirms the supposition
+that they are by the same author. The poem contains over forty thousand
+lines, and relates the history of the Norman dukes from Rollo to Henry
+I., with a preliminary sketch of the Danish invasions and the adventures
+of Hastings and his companions. It has no claims to be considered an
+original authority. Benoit drew his information from the _De moribus et
+actis primorum Normanniae ducum_ of Dudon de Saint Quentin as far as
+1002, following his model very closely. From that time he avails himself
+of the chronicle of William of Jumieges, also of Ordericus Vitalis and
+others. The _Chronique_ probably dates from about 1172 to 1176. In the
+_Roman de Troie_, written about 1160, Benoit expressly asserts his
+authorship. He mentions "Omers" with great respect as _li clers
+merveillos_, but his authority for the story is naturally not Homer, of
+whom he could have no first-hand knowledge. He follows the apocryphal
+_Historia de excidio Trojae_ of Dares the Phrygian and the _Ephemerides
+belli Trojani_ of Dictys of Crete. The poem runs to about 30,000 lines.
+The personages of the classical story are converted into heroes of
+romance. They have their castles and their abbeys, and act in accordance
+with feudal custom. The supernatural machinery of Homer is missing both
+in Benoit's original and his own narrative. The story begins with the
+capture of the Golden Fleece and comes down to the return of the Greek
+princes after the fall of Troy. Benoit diverges very widely from the
+classical tradition, and M. Leopold Constans sees reason to suppose that
+the _trouvere_ founded his poem on an amplified version of the Dares
+narrative that has not come down to us. In the _Roman de Troie_ first
+appeared the episode of Troilus and Briseide, that was to be developed
+later in the _Filostrato_ of Boccaccio, which in its turn formed the
+basis of Chaucer's _Troilus and Creseide_. The Shakespearian play of
+_Troilus and Cressida_ is also indirectly derived from Benoit's story.
+
+On the strength of a certain similarity of treatment Benoit has
+sometimes been credited with the authorship of the anonymous _Roman
+d'Eneas_ and of the _Roman de Thebes_, a romance derived indirectly from
+the _Thebais_ of Statius. M. Constans is inclined to negative both these
+attributions. It is not even certain that the Benoit who chronicled the
+deeds of the Norman dukes for Henry II. between 1172 and 1176 was the
+Benoit de Sainte-More of the _Roman de Troie_.
+
+  The _Chronique des ducs de Normandie_ was edited by Francisque Michel
+  in 1836-1844; the _Roman de Troie_ by A. Joly in 1870-1871; the
+  _Eneas_, by J.J. Salverda de Grave in H. Suchier's _Bibliotheca
+  Normannica_ in 1891; the _Roman de Thebes_ for the _Societe des
+  anciens textes francais_, by M.L. Constans in 1890. See E.D. Grand in
+  _La Grande Encyclopedie_; L. Constans in Petit de Julleville's _Hist.
+  de la langue et de la litt, francaise_ (vol. i. pp. 171-225). where
+  the three romances are analysed at length. The prefaces to the
+  editions just mentioned discuss the authorship of the romances.
+
+
+
+
+BENSERADE, ISAAC DE (1613-1691), French poet, was born in Paris, and
+baptized on the 5th of November 1613. His family appears to have been
+connected with Richelieu, who bestowed on him a pension of 600 livres.
+He began his literary career with the tragedy of _Cleopatre_ (1635),
+which was followed by four other indifferent pieces. On Richelieu's
+death Benserade lost his pension, but became more and more a favourite
+at court, especially with Anne of Austria. He provided the words for the
+court ballets, and was, in 1674, admitted to the Academy, where he
+wielded an influence quite out of proportion to the merit of his work.
+In 1676 the failure of his _Metamorphoses d'Ovide_ in the form of
+rondeaux gave a blow to his reputation, but by no means destroyed his
+vogue with his contemporaries. Benserade would probably be forgotten but
+for his sonnet on Job (1651). This sonnet, which he sent to a young lady
+with his paraphrase on Job, having been placed in competition with the
+_Urania_ of Voiture, a dispute on their relative merits long divided the
+whole court and the wits into two parties, styled respectively the
+_Jobelins_ and the _Uranists_. The partisans of Benserade were headed by
+the prince de Conti and Mile de Scudery, while Mme de Montausier and
+J.G. de Balzac took the side of Voiture.
+
+Some years before his death, on the 19th of October 1691, Benserade
+retired to Chantilly, and devoted himself to a translation of the
+Psalms, which he nearly completed.
+
+
+
+
+BENSLEY, ROBERT, an 18th-century English actor, of whom Charles Lamb in
+the _Essays of Elia_ speaks with special praise. His early life is
+obscure, and he is said to have served in America as a lieutenant of
+marines; but he appeared at Drury Lane in 1765, and at that house and at
+Covent Garden, and later at the Haymarket, he played important parts up
+to 1796, when he retired from the stage. He appears then to have been
+given a small post under the government, a paymastership, which he
+resigned in 1798. He is stated in various quarters to have died in 1817,
+but Mr Joseph Knight shows in his article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ that
+this is due to a confusion with another man named William Bensley, who
+possibly belonged to the family of printers of whom Thomas Bensley (d.
+1833) was the chief representative. On the stage he was simply "Mr
+Bensley," but though he is named William and even Richard in some
+accounts, Mr Knight shows that his name was certainly Robert. The actual
+date of his death is unknown, though it was probably later than 1809,
+when he is said to have inherited a fortune. His great character was
+Malvolio, but Charles Lamb's fervent admiration of his acting seems to
+have outrun the general opinion.
+
+
+
+
+BENSON, EDWARD WHITE (1829-1896), archbishop of Canterbury, was born on
+the 14th of July 1829, at Birmingham. He came of a family of Yorkshire
+dalesmen, his father, whose name was also Edward White Benson, being a
+manufacturing chemist of some note. He was educated at King Edward VI.'s
+school, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop of
+Manchester, and amongst his school-fellows were B.F. Westcott and J.B.
+Lightfoot, both of whom preceded him to Trinity College, Cambridge,
+where he was elected a sub-sizar in 1848, becoming subsequently sizar
+and scholar. The death of his widowed mother in 1850 left him almost
+without resources, with a family of younger brothers and sisters
+dependent upon him. Relations came to his aid, and presently his
+anxieties were relieved by Francis Martin, bursar of Trinity, who gave
+him liberal help. Benson took his degree in 1852 as a senior optime,
+eighth classic and senior chancellor's medallist, and was elected fellow
+of Trinity in the following year. He became a master at Rugby, first
+under E.M. Goulburn, and then (1857) under Frederick Temple, who became
+his lifelong friend; he was also ordained deacon in 1854 and priest in
+1856. From Rugby he went to be first headmaster of Wellington College,
+which was opened in January 1859; and in the course of the same year he
+married his cousin, Mary Sidgwick. The school flourished under his
+management and also developed his administrative abilities, but
+gradually his thoughts began to turn towards other work. In 1868 he
+became prebendary of Lincoln and examining chaplain to Bishop
+Christopher Wordsworth, an office which he also held for a short time in
+1870 for Dr Temple, just appointed to the see of Exeter. In 1872 his
+acceptance of the chancellorship of Lincoln opened a new period of his
+life. As chancellor, the statutes directed him to study theology, to
+train others in that study and to oversee the educational work of the
+diocese. To such work Benson at once devoted himself; and did more
+perhaps than any other man to reinvigorate cathedral life in England. He
+started a theological college (the _Scholae Cancellarii_), founded night
+schools, delivered courses of lectures on church history, held Bible
+classes, and was instrumental in founding a society of mission preachers
+for the diocese, the "Novate Novale." Early in 1877 he was consecrated
+first bishop of Truro, and threw himself with characteristic vigour into
+the work of organizing the new diocese. His knowledge, his sympathy, his
+enthusiasm soon made themselves felt everywhere; the ruridecanal
+conferences of clergy became a real force, and the church in Cornwall
+was inspired with a vitality that had never been possible when it was
+part of the unwieldy diocese of Exeter. A chapter was constituted, the
+bishop being dean; amongst its members was a canon missioner (the first
+to be appointed in England), and the _Scholae Cancellarii_ were founded
+after the Lincoln pattern. Moreover, the bishop at once set to work to
+build a cathedral. The foundation-stone was laid on the 20th of May
+1880, and on the 3rd of November 1887 the building, so far as then
+completed, was consecrated. On the death of Dr Tait, Benson was
+nominated to the see of Canterbury and was enthroned on the 29th of
+March 1883. His primacy was one of almost unprecedented activity.
+
+Frequent communications passed between him and the heads of the Eastern
+Churches. With their approval a bishop was again consecrated, after six
+years' interval (1881-1887), for the Anglican congregations in Jerusalem
+and the East; and the features which had made the plan objectionable to
+many English churchmen were now abolished. In 1886, after much careful
+investigation, he founded the "Archbishop's Mission to the Assyrian
+Christians," having for its object the instruction and the strengthening
+from within of the "Nestorian" churches of the East (see NESTORIANS). An
+interchange of courtesies with the Metropolitan of Kiev on the occasion
+of the 900th anniversary of the conversion of Russia (1888), led to
+further intercourse, which has tended to a friendlier feeling between
+the English and Russian churches. On the other hand, with the efforts
+towards a _rapprochement_ with the Church of Rome, to which the visit of
+the French Abbe Portal in 1894 gave some stimulus, the archbishop would
+have nothing to do.
+
+With the other churches of the Anglican Communion the archbishop's
+relations were cordial in the extreme and grew closer as time went on.
+Particular questions of importance, the Jerusalem bishopric, the healing
+of the Colenso schism in the diocese of Natal, the organization of
+native ministries and the like, occupied much of his time; and he did
+all in his power to foster the growth of local churches. But it was the
+work at home which occupied most of his energies. That he in no way
+slighted diocesan work had been shown at Truro. He complained now that
+the bishops were "bishops of their dioceses but not bishops of England,"
+and did all he could to make the Church a greater religious force in
+English life. He sat on the ecclesiastical courts commission (1881-1883)
+and the sweating commission (1888-1890). He brought bills into
+parliament to reform Church patronage and Church discipline, and worked
+unremittingly for years in their behalf. The latter became law in 1892,
+and the former was merged in the Benefices Bill, which passed in 1898,
+after his death. He wrote and spoke vigorously against Welsh
+disestablishment (1893); and in the following year, under his guidance,
+the existing agencies for Church defence were consolidated. He was
+largely instrumental in the inauguration of the House of Laymen in the
+province of Canterbury (1886); he made diligent inquiries as to the
+internal order of the sisterhoods of which he was visitor; from 1884
+onwards he gave regular Bible readings for ladies in Lambeth Palace
+chapel. But the most important ecclesiastical event of his primacy was
+the judgment in the case of the bishop of Lincoln (see LINCOLN
+JUDGMENT), in which the law of the prayer-book is investigated, as it
+had never been before, from the standpoint of the whole history of the
+English Church. In 1896 the archbishop went to Ireland to see the
+working of the sister Church. He was received with enthusiasm, but the
+work which his tour entailed over-fatigued him. On Sunday morning the
+11th of October, just after his return, whilst on a visit to Mr
+Gladstone, he died in Hawarden parish church of heart failure.
+
+Archbishop Benson left numerous writings, including a valuable essay on
+_The Cathedral_ (London, 1878), and various charges and volumes of
+sermons and addresses. But his two chief works, posthumously published,
+are his _Cyprian_ (London, 1897), a work of great learning, which had
+occupied him at intervals since early manhood; and _The Apocalypse, an
+Introductory Study_ (London, 1900), interesting and beautiful, but
+limited by the fact that the method of study is that of a Greek play,
+not of a Hebrew apocalypse. The archbishop's knowledge of the past was
+both wide and minute, but it was that of an antiquary rather than of a
+historian. "I think," writes his son, "he was more interested in modern
+movements for their resemblance to ancient than vice versa." His sermons
+are very noble though written in a style which is over-compressed and
+often obscure. He wrote some good hymns, including "O Throned, O
+Crowned" and a beautiful version of _Urbs Beata_. His "grandeur in
+social function" was unequalled and his interests were very wide. But
+above all else he was a great ecclesiastic. He paid less attention to
+secular politics than Archbishop Tait; but if a man is to be judged by
+the effect of his work, it is Benson and not Tait who should be
+described as a great statesman. His biography, by his son, reveals him
+as a man of devout and holy life, impulsive indeed and masterful, but
+one who learned self-restraint by strenuous endeavour.
+
+His eldest son, ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER BENSON (b. 1862), was educated at
+Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He became fellow of Magdalene
+College, Cambridge, and was a master at Eton College from 1885 to 1903.
+His literary capacity was early shown in the remarkable fiction of his
+_Memoirs of Arthur Hamilton_ (1886) under the pseudonym of "Christopher
+Carr," and his _Poems_ (1893) and _Lyrics_ (1895) established his
+reputation as a writer of verse. Among his works are _Fasti Etonenses_
+(1899); his father's _Life_ (1899); _The Schoolmaster_ (1902), a
+commentary on the aims and methods of an assistant schoolmaster in a
+public school; a study of Archbishop Laud (1887); monographs on D.G.
+Rossetti (1904), Edward FitzGerald (1905) and Walter Pater (1906), in
+the "English Men of Letters" series; _Lord Vyet and other Poems_ (1897),
+_Peace and other Poems_ (1905); _The Upton Letters (1905), From a
+College Window_ (1906), _Beside Still Waters_ (1907). He also
+collaborated with Lord Esher in editing the _Correspondence of Queen
+Victoria_ (1907).
+
+The third son, EDWARD FREDERICK BENSON (b. 1867), was educated at
+Marlborough College and King's College, Cambridge. He worked at Athens
+for the British Archaeological Society from 1892 to 1895, and
+subsequently in Egypt for the Hellenic Society. In 1893 his society
+novel, _Dodo_, brought him to the front among the writers of clever
+fiction; and this was followed by other novels, notably _The Vintage_
+(1898) and _The Capsina_ (1899).
+
+The fourth son, ROBERT HUGH BENSON (b. 1871), was educated at Eton and
+Trinity College, Cambridge. After reading with Dean Vaughan at Llandaff
+he took orders, and in 1898 became a member of the Community of the
+Resurrection at Mirfield. In 1903 he became a Roman Catholic, was
+ordained priest at Rome in the following year, and returned to Cambridge
+as assistant priest of the Roman Catholic church there. Among his
+numerous publications are _The Light Invisible, By What Authority?, The
+King's Achievement, Richard Raynal, Solitary, The Queen's Tragedy, The
+Sentimentalists, Lord of the World_.
+
+  See A.C. Benson, _Life of Archbishop Benson_ (2 vols., London, 1899);
+  J.H. Bernard, _Archbishop Benson in Ireland_ (1897); Sir L.T. Dibdin
+  in _The Quarterly Review_, October 1897.
+
+
+
+
+BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT (1858-), English actor, son of William Benson of
+Alresford, Hants, was born at Tunbridge Wells on the 4th of November
+1858. He came of a talented family, his elder brother, W.A.S. Benson (b.
+1854), becoming well known in the world of art as one of the pioneers in
+the revival of English industrial craftsmanship, especially in the field
+of the metallic arts; and his younger brother, Godfrey Benson, being an
+active Liberal politician. He was educated at Winchester and New
+College, Oxford, and at the university was distinguished both as an
+athlete (winning the Inter-university three miles) and as an amateur
+actor. In the latter respect he was notable for producing at Oxford the
+first performance of a Greek play, the _Agamemnon_, in which many Oxford
+men who afterwards became famous in other fields took part. Mr Benson,
+on leaving Oxford, took to the professional stage, and made his first
+appearance at the Lyceum, under Irving, in _Romeo and Juliet_, as Paris,
+in 1882. In the next year he went into managership with a company of his
+own, taken over from Walter Bentley, and from this time he became
+gradually more and more prominent, both as an actor of leading parts
+himself and as the organizer of practically the only modern "stock
+company" touring through the provinces. In 1886 he married Gertrude
+Constance Cockburn (Featherstonhaugh), who acted in his company and
+continued to play leading parts with him. Mr Benson's chief successes
+were gained out of London for some years, but in 1890 he had a season in
+London at the Globe and in 1900 at the Lyceum, and in later years he was
+seen with his _repertoire_ at the Coronet. His company included from
+time to time many actors and actresses who, having been trained under
+him, became prominent on their own account, and both by his organization
+of this regular company and by his foundation of a dramatic school of
+acting in 1901, Mr Benson exercised a most important influence on the
+contemporary stage. From the first he devoted himself largely to the
+production of Shakespeare's plays, reviving many which had not been
+acted for generations, and his services to the cause of Shakespeare can
+hardly be overestimated. From 1888 onwards he managed the
+Stratford-on-Avon Shakespearian Festival. His romantic and intellectual
+powers as an actor, combined with his athletic and picturesque bearing
+and fine elocution, were conspicuously shown in his own impersonations,
+most remarkable among which were his Hamlet (in 1900 he produced this
+play without cuts in London), his Coriolanus, his Richard II., his Lear
+and his Petruchio.
+
+
+
+
+BENSON, FRANK WESTON (1862-   ), American painter, was born in Salem,
+Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1862. He was a pupil of Boulanger
+and of Lefebvre in Paris; won many distinctions in American exhibitions,
+and a silver medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1900; and became a member
+of the "Ten Americans," and of the National Academy of Design, New
+York. Besides portraits, he painted landscape and still life; and he was
+one of the decorators of the Congressional library, Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+BENSON, GEORGE (1699-1762), English dissenting minister, was born at
+Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, on the 1st of September 1699, of a family
+which had distinguished itself in church and state. He studied at a
+school at Whitehaven and later at the university of Glasgow. In 1722, on
+Calamy's recommendation, he was chosen pastor of a congregation of
+dissenters at Abingdon, in Berkshire, where he continued till 1729,
+when, having embraced Arminian views, he became the choice of a
+congregation in Southwark; and in 1740 he was appointed by the
+congregation of Crutched Friars colleague to the learned Dr Nathaniel
+Lardner, whom he succeeded in 1749. His _Defence of the Reasonableness
+of Prayer_ appeared in 1731, and he afterwards published paraphrases and
+notes on the epistles to the Thessalonians, Timothy, Titus and Philemon,
+adding dissertations on several important subjects, particularly (as an
+appendix to 1 Timothy) on inspiration. In 1738 he published his _History
+of the First Planting of the Christian Religion_, in 3 vols. 4to, a work
+of great learning and ability. He also wrote the _Reasonableness of the
+Christian Religion_ (1743), the _History of the Life of Jesus Christ_,
+posthumously published in 1764, a paraphrase and notes on the seven
+Catholic epistles, and several other works, which gained him great
+reputation as a scholar and theologian even outside his own communion
+and his own country. Owing to his undoubted Socinianism his works
+suffered neglect after his death, which occurred on the 6th of April
+1762.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 3, Slice 5, by Various
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