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+Project Gutenberg's The Progress of Ethnology, by John Russell Bartlett
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Progress of Ethnology
+       An Account of Recent Archaeological, Philological and
+       Geographical Researches in Various Parts of the Globe
+
+Author: John Russell Bartlett
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2011 [EBook #35234]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Gary Rees and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+
+AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT
+
+ARCHÆOLOGICAL, PHILOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
+
+RESEARCHES
+
+IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE.
+
+
+TENDING TO ELUCIDATE
+
+THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
+
+
+BY
+
+JOHN RUSSELL BARTLETT,
+
+COR. SEC. OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN COR. SEC.
+OF THE NEW YORK HIST. SOCIETY.
+
+
+SECOND EDITION.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+
+BARTLETT & WELFORD, 7 ASTOR HOUSE.
+
+1847.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+
+WILLIAM VAN NORDEN, PRINTER,
+
+NO. 39 WILLIAM STREET.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+NORTH AMERICA.
+
+EXPLORATIONS and Discoveries in the Mounds and other earth-works in
+Ohio. Similar researches and their results in Mississippi and
+Louisiana.... Mr. Jomard's essay on the tablet found in the Grave Creek
+mound in Virginia, p. 1.
+
+CALIFORNIA AND NEW MEXICO--Recent explorations in these countries, with
+accounts of the Navijo and Moqui Indians; architectural remains on the
+banks of the Gila.... French explorations in the Isthmus of Panama, p.
+15.
+
+RESEARCHES IN GREENLAND, and the Arctic regions; geographical and
+historical results.... Late attempts for exploring the northern portions
+of the American Continent, p. 21.
+
+
+SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+Details of the Scientific Expedition under Count Castelnau, sent by the
+French government for exploring the interior of South America....
+English expedition under Lord Ranelagh--other scientific expeditions....
+Peruvian antiquities, etc. etc., p. 27.
+
+
+AFRICA.
+
+Recent attempts for exploring the interior of Africa.... Mr. Thomson's
+journey from Sierra Leone.... Mr. Duncan's journey northward from
+Dahomey. Missionary operations at the Gaboon.... Mr. Richardson's
+journey into the great desert of Sahara.... The French expedition up the
+Senegal, under Mr. Raffenel.... Extensive project for the exploration of
+Soudan, in Central Africa.... Proposed expedition for penetrating the
+country from the eastern side.... Contributions to the geography of
+Southern Africa.... Mr. Maizan's unfortunate attempt to reach the
+interior from Zanzibar, p. 32.
+
+ALGIERS--scientific explorations by the French Government; interesting
+results; errors respecting the desert of Sahara, p. 41.
+
+DISCOVERY of the ancient LYBIAN alphabet, by M. de Saulcy, p. 44.
+
+The BERBERS; late researches into their language, p. 45.
+
+MADAGASCAR; recent visits of the French, p. 47.
+
+EGYPT; results of the late explorations; state of hieroglyphic and
+Coptic literature; Egyptian history and chronology, p. 48.
+
+
+EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
+
+BORNEO--Mr. Brooke's colony; the Dyaks.... The Dutch and other European
+colonies in the East Indies.... New Caledonia islands.... The Sooloo
+islands. The Nicobar islands, p. 54.
+
+AUSTRALIA; accounts of late explorations, by Count Strzelecki, Dr.
+Leichardt and others, p. 63.
+
+
+ASIA.
+
+ASIA MINOR--Interesting discoveries in Lycia, p. 69.
+
+ARABIA--Historical and philological results of the researches in
+Southern Arabia, the country of the ancient Himyarites; importance of
+these discoveries in elucidating Scriptural history, p. 73.
+
+THE CAUCASUS--Exploration by M. Hommaire de Hell.... Sclavonic MSS. and
+inscriptions, p. 84.
+
+ASSYRIA AND PERSIA--History of the study of the ancient arrow-headed
+inscriptions.... Extraordinary results therefrom.... The Zendavesta....
+The Zend language.... The great inscription of Darius.... Explorations
+at Nineveh. Journeys of Dr. Robert; of Prince Waldemar, etc., p. 84.
+
+SIBERIA--Journeys of Count Middendorff and others; geographical and
+ethnographical results, p. 109.
+
+INDIA--Progress of civilization; importance of missionary labors, p.
+113.
+
+SIAM--Decline of Boodhism; extension of Christianity, p. 117.
+
+COCHIN-CHINA--Visit of Mr. Hedde to Turon, in Annam, p. 118.
+
+CHINA--Latest accounts from, p. 119.
+
+COREA--Efforts of the Catholic missionaries to christianize the natives,
+p. 123.
+
+MANCHURIA....MONGOLIA--Recent accounts from these countries; journey of
+Rev. Mr. Huc, in Mongolia, p. 125.
+
+LEW-CHEW ISLANDS--Attempt to establish a mission, by Rev. Mr. Forcade;
+notices of the people, their manners, customs, and language, p. 127.
+
+JAPAN--Recent attempts to communicate with the Japanese; peculiarities
+of this people.... General view of the languages of the Japanese,
+Coreans, Chinese, and Cochin-Chinese, p. 131.
+
+
+
+
+THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+NORTH AMERICA.
+
+
+I have the pleasure of laying before the New York Historical Society a
+brief account of the progress which has been made during the past year
+towards extending our knowledge of the globe, particularly with
+reference to its geography, and to those nations whose history is
+imperfectly known. The subject is one that more properly belongs to
+ethnology, but the historical results which are deduced from these
+enquiries come within the scope of the objects, the elucidation of which
+belongs to this Society.
+
+A new impulse has lately been given to the study of American
+Antiquities. A brief account of recent investigations carried on in a
+portion of the West and South will show that we possess much that is
+interesting, and which will throw light on a neglected branch of
+aboriginal history and ethnology.
+
+Every enquirer into the origin and purposes of the monuments and ancient
+remains of the Mississippi valley has regretted the limited number and
+poorly attested character of the facts, of which the public are in
+possession, respecting them. The practical investigations made from time
+to time by various individuals, have not been sufficiently thorough and
+extensive, nor have they developed sufficient data to warrant or sustain
+any definite or satisfactory conclusions. They have served rather to
+provoke enquiries which they could in no degree satisfy, than to afford
+information on the subject with which they were connected.
+
+It was under a strong sense of the deficiencies in our stock of
+information in this branch of knowledge, that two gentlemen of
+Chillicothe, Ohio, Dr. Davis and Mr. E.G. Squier, undertook the
+exploration of the ancient remains which abound in the state of Ohio,
+and particularly of those in the valley of the Scioto river.
+
+It is known that there exists in this region vast numbers of mounds, of
+various dimensions, and extensive embankments of earth, enclosing in
+some instances many acres of ground. Beside these there are ditches,
+walls, causeways and other works of a greater or less extent. The
+examination of these, by opening the mounds, and making accurate surveys
+of the other works constitute the labors of these gentlemen, some of the
+results of which may be stated in anticipation of a full account which
+will shortly appear.
+
+Though their labors at first promised to end in increased doubt and
+uncertainty, they were abundantly rewarded as their enquiries
+progressed. Out of confusion, system began to develope itself, and what
+seemed accidents, were found to be characteristics. What was regarded as
+anomalous, was recognized as a type and feature of a class, and apparent
+coincidences became proofs of design.
+
+For instance, it was remarked among the numerous tumuli opened, that
+certain ones were stratified, while others were homogeneous in their
+composition. Further observation showed that stratified tumuli occupy a
+certain fixed position with regard to other works, which the
+unstratified tumuli do not. Still further examinations demonstrated that
+the contents of those respective tumuli are radically and invariably
+different. Here then was established: 1st. That the mounds are not, as
+is generally supposed, identical in character and purpose. 2d. That one
+class occupies a fixed position with regard to works of a different
+character, the design of which is to be determined, to some degree, by
+the peculiarities and the contents of this description of mounds, etc.
+
+It will be seen, at once, that a close observation of facts of this kind
+is absolutely essential, to arrive at any reasonable conclusions,
+regarding the purposes of these ancient structures, their origin, or the
+character or customs of the people by whom they were built. The
+investigations of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, were therefore conducted so
+as to permit the escape of no fact which might tend to elucidate the
+mystery in which our antiquities are shrouded. The excavations were made
+under their personal direction, and the results may be briefly stated,
+without detailing the facts in support of each conclusion, as follows.
+
+The number of enclosures or earthworks which have been surveyed by them,
+and of which they have taken careful admeasurements, exceeds _ninety_.
+The number of tumuli which have been excavated and their characteristics
+noted, amounts to _one hundred and fifteen_.
+
+Of the first class of works, it has been sufficiently demonstrated, that
+a small proportion were intended for works of defence; that another
+portion were sacred places, or in some way connected with religious or
+superstitious rites, while a third and much the larger number are
+entirely inexplicable in our present state of information.
+
+The tumuli are divided into three grand classes, which are broadly
+marked in the aggregate, though there are individual instances of an
+anomalous character. These are:
+
+    1st. Tumuli of sepulture, each containing a single skeleton enclosed
+    in a rude, wooden coffin, or an envelope of bark or matting, and
+    occurring in isolated or detached groups.
+
+    2d. Tumuli of sacrifice, containing symmetrical altars of stone or
+    burnt clay, occurring within or in the immediate vicinity of
+    enclosures, and always stratified.
+
+    3d. Places of observation, or mounds raised upon elevated or
+    commanding positions.
+
+Within these monuments have been found implements and ornaments of
+silver, copper, lead, stone, ivory and pottery, fashioned into a
+thousand forms, and evincing a skill in art, to which the existing race
+of Indians, at the time of their discovery, could not approach. Marine
+shells, mica from the primitive regions, native copper from the shores
+of lake Superior, galena from the upper Mississippi, cetacean teeth,
+pearls and instruments of _obsidian_, show the extent of communication
+and intercourse had by the authors of these ancient works. Sculptures of
+animals, birds and reptiles have been found in great numbers and
+variety, exhibiting a skill which few could now surpass. Also,
+sculptures of the human head, disclosing most probably the character of
+the physiognomy, as well as the manner of adjusting the hair, the head
+dress and ornaments of the mound-builders. Careful admeasurements of the
+earth works which abound in the Ohio valley, have been made by the
+gentlemen alluded to, in which the interesting fact has been developed,
+that many of them are perfect circles and squares, and hence that the
+people by whom they were constructed had some means of determining
+angles and of constructing circles. In some of those earth-heaps,
+sufficient remains to show that when in a perfect state, they resembled
+the _teocallis_ or terraced edifices of Mexico and Yucatan, though they
+were composed wholly of wood and earth.
+
+The number of works manifestly connected in some way with their
+religion, guide us to some estimate of the prominence which their
+superstitions occupied, and that a religious system existed among them,
+in some degree resembling that of the ancient Mexicans. The immense
+tumuli heaped over the remains of the dead, show the regard which they
+attached to their chiefs, and the veneration in which they held their
+memory. The number and extent of their remains of all kinds, which
+occupy the fertile valleys, and which are confined almost entirely to
+them, indicate that an immense population once existed there, that it
+was stationary and therefore agricultural;[1] and if agricultural and
+stationary, that a different organization of society, different manners
+and customs, different impulses and feelings existed among them, than
+are to be found among the hunter and nomadic tribes, discovered by
+Europeans in possession of the country.
+
+Another class of antiquities has been discovered by these gentlemen, of
+which we only have the particulars in a letter. These consist of rocks
+sculptured with figures of men, of birds and animals. They are cut in
+outline, the lines being from one half to three quarters of an inch deep
+by about the same width. Only those on the sides of the rocks are
+visible. Those on the upper or horizontal faces are nearly obliterated.
+One represents an elk and is said to be very spirited.
+
+What may result from the future researches of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier,
+remains to be seen; but sufficient has been developed to show that a
+people, radically different from the existing race of Indians, once
+occupied the valley of the Mississippi, and built the singular monuments
+in which it abounds. These also show that they were to a certain extent
+advanced in the arts and civilization. In short that they closely
+resembled in the character of their structures, ornaments and implements
+of war and husbandry, the races of Central America; if they were not
+indeed their progenitors or an offshoot from them. Many facts strongly
+point to such a conclusion and farther observations carefully conducted,
+will probably enable us to settle the question beyond a doubt.
+
+A detailed account of the researches of the gentlemen alluded to,
+accompanied by numerous engravings representing the implements,
+ornaments and sculptures, &c., discovered in their excavations;--surveys
+of the various earth works, forts and enclosures in the Scioto valley,
+will be given in the second volume of the Transactions of the American
+Ethnological Society, now preparing for publication. They are still
+actively engaged in their labors, and intend, should the facilities be
+extended them to carry on their operations, to examine every ancient
+relic to be found in Ohio and the adjacent parts, where these remains
+exist.
+
+Among the explorations which have been carried on in the United States,
+none possess a greater interest than those of Dr. M.W. Dickeson, in the
+south western states, chiefly in Mississippi, though in some instances
+extending to Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. Dr. Dickeson has laid open
+or examined one hundred and fifty mounds and tumuli, of various
+dimensions and collected a vast number of interesting relics, which
+illustrate the customs and arts of the ancient people who built them.
+The mounds vary from three to ninety feet in height, and from twelve to
+three hundred feet in diameter at the base. The Seltzer Town mound
+contains a superficies of eight acres on its summit. On digging into it
+vast quantities of human skeletons were found, chiefly with their heads
+flattened, and measuring generally six feet in length. Numerous
+specimens of pottery, including finely finished vases filled with
+pigments, ashes, ornaments, and beads, were also found.
+
+The north side of this mound is supported with a wall two feet thick, of
+sun dried bricks, filled with grass, rushes and leaves. In order to
+ascertain whether this immense tumulus was artificial or not, Dr.
+Benbrook, sank a shaft forty two feet, and found it artificial or made
+ground to that depth. Immense quantities of bones, both of men and
+animals, among the latter the head of a huge bear, were thrown out.
+Other excavations were made in this tumulus with the same result, thus
+showing it to have been a vast mausoleum or cemetery of the ancient
+race.
+
+The mounds are generally in systems varying from seven to ten, which Dr.
+Dickeson has divided into six classes as follows: _out post_, _ramparts
+or walls_, _telegraphs or look outs_, _temples_, _cemeteries_, and _tent
+mounds_. The first is seldom more than thirty feet at the base by ten
+feet high. Their shape varies, presenting sometimes a pyramid, at others
+a cone, or rhomboid. Walls surround the second class, which are from ten
+to fifteen feet in heighth, the same across the top, and from forty to
+fifty feet at the base.
+
+The "_Look out_" mounds are seldom under sixty feet high. Of this class,
+Dr. Dickeson has examined upwards of ninety. They are generally on the
+summit of a hill, overlooking the bottom lands. Here they stand some
+three hundred feet above the bottom lands, commanding an extensive
+prospect, and in some instances one may see the peaks of several systems
+of mounds in the distance.
+
+The "_Temple mounds_" are seldom more than twenty feet high, and
+stratified with ashes, loam, gravel, &c. They all have an earthen floor.
+Dr. Dickeson has, but in a single instant, found a skeleton in these
+mounds, and in this, he thinks the subject a Choctaw Indian recently
+placed there. It lay in a horizontal position, differing from the usual
+mode of burial, which is the sitting posture.
+
+The "_Cemeteries_" are oval, and from six to ten feet high, filled with
+bones, lying east and west, and when incased in sarcophagi, the rows run
+in the same direction. In some instances Dr. Dickeson found the bones
+lying in heaps, promiscuously. These he believes to have been the
+_canaille_.
+
+The "_Tent or Structure mounds_" are small, and a short distance below
+their surface, fragments of brick and cement are found in great
+quantities; sometimes skeletons and pottery. Never more than six
+skeletons are found together, and more care is shown in the burial of
+these than in the "cemetery mounds." In one instance an angular tumulus
+was seen by the Doctor, with the corners quite perfect, formed of large
+bricks, bearing the impression of an extended hand.[2]
+
+Many mounds and tumuli are advantageously situated on the tops of
+ridges, surrounded with walls. Some of the latter have crumbled away,
+while others remain strong and perpendicular. In many instances, the
+walls that surround these groups of mounds, form perfect squares and
+circles. Dr. Dickeson adds that, "if from the centre of one of these
+groups a circle were traced, it would strike the centre of each mound,
+both large and small." They contain numerous fragments of walls, images,
+pottery, ornaments, etc. etc.
+
+The "Temples" are generally situated among the hills and ravines, with
+perpendicular escarpments, improved by artificial fortifications. The
+enclosures often embrace upwards of thirty acres. The great enclosure at
+"the Trinity" contains upwards of one hundred and fifty acres, and is
+partially faced with sundried brick. Upon the plantation of Mr.
+Chamberlain in Mississippi, the temple is flanked with several
+_bastions_, besides _squares_, _parallels_, _half moons_, and ravines
+with perpendicular escarpments for its defence. The ditches and small
+lakes are frequently chained for miles and filled with water, intended,
+the Doctor thinks, for outworks. In these, bricks are found both at the
+bottom and on the sides. Among the rubbish and vegetable deposits taken
+from them to put on the land, ornaments, and other relics are found.
+
+Wells and reservoirs, completely walled with burnt clay, are found in
+Louisiana; near which are "systems," or groups of mounds so regular and
+strongly fortified, that they became the retreat of pirates and robbers
+who infested the rivers, greatly disturbing the early settlers, after
+the massacre of the Natchez Indians by the French. The Natchez built
+large dikes or ditches, and upon the counterscarp piled up huge
+ramparts, which they made almost impregnable, by having one side flanked
+by the slope of a hill, surrounded by precipices. They are sometimes
+situated on the level "bottoms."[3] In these cases one side invariably
+faces a creek or bayou, or is in its bend, making the creek serve as a
+formidable ditch, offering a serious impediment to an enemy's approach.
+The other two sides are protected by parallel walls or half moons, with
+gateways leading to the citadel. These walls have indications of having
+been faced with dry masonry. The east and west corners are generally
+flanked with a small oval mound.
+
+In these tumuli and mounds numerous ornaments and pottery were found by
+Dr. Dickeson, buried with the occupants, such as idols, clay stamps,
+mica mirrors, stone axes, and arrow heads, silver and copper ornaments,
+rings, beads of jasper, chalcedony, agate, &c., similar to those found
+in Peru and Mexico. Several pearls of great beauty and lustre, an inch
+in diameter, have been found. By an examination of the skulls, Dr. D.
+discovered that _dentistry_ had been extensively practised by this
+ancient people, as plugging the teeth, and inserting artificial ones,
+was common. In one instance, five artificial teeth were found inserted
+in one subject. Ovens were found containing pottery partially baked,
+three feet below the surface, with large trees covering them, exhibiting
+an age of upwards of five hundred years. Magazines of arrow points, in
+one instance a "wagon body full," (about twenty bushels), lying within
+the space of a few feet. In a small mound in Adams county, Dr. D. found
+three large jars holding upwards of ten gallons of arrow points
+elaborately finished; and three similar in dimensions and finish, have
+lately been received by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, from South
+Carolina. Carvings representing the English bull dog, the camel and
+lama, have been found by Dr. Dickeson, from forty to sixty feet below
+the surface of the mound. The bricks, to which allusion has been made,
+are of various colors; some of a bright red, others dark brown, various
+shades of purple and yellow. Forty stamps of baked clay, containing a
+variety of figures used for stamping their skins. Pieces of coin, two of
+which found near Natches, had the figure of a bird on one side, and on
+the reverse an animal.
+
+The pottery found is quite extensive, some mounds have been opened in
+which were upwards of sixty vases, some quite plain, and others
+elaborately ornamented. Of the pottery, Dr. Dickeson has succeeded in
+getting upwards of a hundred fine specimens to Philadelphia, which are
+deposited with his other Indian relics and fossils, in the Museum of the
+Academy of Natural Sciences.
+
+Dr. Dickeson has kindly furnished me a catalogue of his collection of
+relics, from which I have selected the following to give an idea of the
+extent and variety of the objects found:
+
+     6000 Arrow points of jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartz, &c.,
+     &c.
+
+     150 Arrow points, finely polished, under one inch in length.
+
+     25 Arrow points, finely polished, under half an inch in
+     length.
+
+     1600 Unfinished Arrow and Spear points.
+
+     250 small stone Axes.
+
+     40 Quoits, Weights, &c.
+
+     20 Paint mullers.
+
+     10 Corn grinders.
+
+     3 large stone Mortars.
+
+     14 small earthen Heads of men, women and boys.
+
+     6 stone Statues, erect and sitting.
+
+A great variety of personal ornaments of jasper, chalcedony, pottery,
+beads, pearls, war clubs, war axes, mica mirrors, carved ornaments, arm
+bracelets, bone carvings, earthen plates, handled saucers, earthen
+lamps, a variety of vessels for culinary purposes, stone chisels, two
+copper medals, the tusk of a Mastodon, six feet long, elaborately carved
+with a serpent and human figures; cylindrical tubes of jasper
+perforated, ornaments in pumice, (lava), seals, bricks, jars, cups and
+vases in every variety.
+
+In addition to these, Dr. Dickeson has made a collection of upwards of
+sixty crania of the ancient mound builders, out of many thousand
+skeletons discovered by him in his several explorations. These possess
+much interest in an Ethnographic point of view, for the rigid test to
+which all his results have been subjected, have satisfied him that these
+skulls belong to the ancient race. Like the gentlemen in Ohio, whose
+labors have been noticed, the Doctor can at once detect the mounds and
+remains of the ancient, from those of the modern race. Some mounds he
+has found to be the work of three periods. At the top were the remains
+of the present race of Indians; digging lower he found these remains
+accompanied by ancient Spanish relics, of the period of the earliest
+Spanish visit to these parts; and below these, he discovered the remains
+and relics of the ancient race.
+
+The inscribed tablet discovered in the grave-creek mound, Virginia, and
+which was noticed by Mr. Schoolcraft in the first volume of the
+Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, continues to excite
+much interest. Mr. Jomard of the French Institute, read a second paper
+on that subject last year, before the Academy of Inscriptions and
+Belles-lettres at Paris, a copy of which he has transmitted to the
+Society.[4] He distinctly shows, that the letters of this curious
+inscription are identically the same as those of the Libyan on the
+monument of Thugga,[5] and of the Tuarycks used at this day. It is
+worthy of remark, that Mr. Hodgson in his "Notes on Africa,"[6] arrived
+at the same conclusion, without the knowledge that Mr. Jomard, some
+years previously, had asserted the Libyan character of this inscription,
+in a first note on the subject.[7] Such a coincidence gives force to the
+views adopted by both these gentlemen. The results to which the French
+savant has arrived, in his enquiry into this engraved stone or tablet,
+possess much interest, as it is the only relic yet discovered in North
+America, of an inscription bearing alphabetic characters,[8] which have
+been satisfactorily identified as such. This Numidian inscription, which
+title we may now apply to the engraved tablet in question, will be again
+alluded to, when we come to speak of the philological discoveries in
+Northern Africa, and of the Libyan alphabet.
+
+In conclusion Mr. Jomard observes, that at a remote period the Libyan
+language was spoken by various tribes in Northern Africa, and that it
+was a language written with characters, such as we now find on the
+Thugga edifice and other monuments; that it is still written with the
+same characters, particularly in the vicinity of Fezzan and in the
+deserts traversed by the Tuarycks, although this method of writing has
+been to so great an extent supplanted by Arabic letters that we must
+consider the Berber language, the language of Syouah, Sokna, Audjelah,
+and Gherma, as representing the remains of the ancient Libyan language
+in use in the most remote period; and finally, that in the interior of
+America, on a monument of which the age is unknown, but anterior to the
+settlement by Europeans, we find an engraved stone, bearing signs
+perfectly resembling the characters traced by the modern Tuarycks and by
+their ancestors, upon the rocks of Libya. Mr. Jomard's pamphlet contains
+an engraved table, in which are given, in parallel columns, the
+characters on the American tablet, the Tuaryck alphabet, the Thugga
+characters, and their value in Hebrew and Arabic.
+
+In connexion with this subject it may be added, that M. Berthelot, a
+learned traveller, states that there exists a striking affinity between
+the names of places and of men in the ancient language of the Canaries
+and certain Carib words.[9] The contiguity of the Canaries to the
+African continent is such, that we can readily suppose their ancient
+inhabitants to have had communication with it, whereby the Libyan
+language became known to them. A new field of enquiry is thus opened to
+philologists, and we may here seek for the means to unravel one of the
+most difficult questions connected with the origin of the American race,
+and the means by which they reached this continent, for we never have
+been among those who believed that America derived the mass of her
+population, her men and animals, from Asia, by the way of Behring's
+Straits.
+
+The author of a late work on California, New Mexico, &c., brings to our
+notice a tribe of Indians known as the Munchies (Mawkeys) or white
+Indians.[10] "This remarkable nation occupies a valley among the _Sierra
+de los Mimbros_ chain of mountains, upon one of the affluents of the
+river Gila, in the extreme northwestern part of the province of Sonora.
+They number about eight hundred persons. Their country is surrounded by
+lofty mountains at nearly every point, is well watered and very fertile.
+Their dwellings are excavated in the hill-sides, and frequently cut in
+the solid rock. They subsist by agriculture, and raise great numbers of
+horses, cattle and sheep. Among them are many of the arts and comforts
+of civilized life. They spin and weave, and make butter and cheese, with
+many of the luxuries known to more enlightened nations. Their government
+is after the patriarchal order, and is purely republican in its
+character. In morals they are represented as honest and virtuous. In
+religion they differ but little from other Indians. Their features
+correspond with those of Europeans, with a fair complexion and a form
+equally if not more graceful. In regard to their origin, they have lost
+all knowledge or even tradition; neither do their characters, manners,
+customs, arts or government savor of modern Europe."
+
+Another tribe of Indians called the Navijos, of whom we know but little,
+except that they have long had a place on the maps, is noticed by the
+same author. They occupy the country between the Del Norte and the
+Sierra Anahuac, in the province of Sonora, and have never succumbed to
+Spanish domination. "They possess a civilization of their own. Most of
+them live in houses built of stone, and cultivate the ground--raising
+vegetables and grain for a subsistence. They also raise large numbers of
+horses, cattle and sheep--make butter and cheese, and spin and weave."
+
+The blankets manufactured by these Indians are superior in beauty of
+color, texture and durability to the fabrics of their Spanish neighbors.
+Their government is in strict accordance with the welfare of the whole
+community. Dishonesty is held in check by suitable regulations, industry
+is encouraged by general consent, and hospitality by common practice. As
+warriors they are brave and daring, making frequent and bold excursions
+into the Spanish settlements, driving off herds of cattle, horses and
+sheep, and spreading terror and dismay on every side. As diplomatists,
+in imitation of their neighbors, they make and break treaties whenever
+interest and inclination prompts them.[11]
+
+The Navijo country is shut in by high mountains, inaccessible from
+without, except by limited passes through narrow defiles, well situated
+for defence on the approach of an invading foe. Availing themselves of
+these natural advantages, they have continued to maintain their ground
+against fearful odds, nor have they suffered the Spaniards to set foot
+within their territory as conquerors.
+
+The relations above given of the Mawkeys and Navijos (pronounced
+_Navihoes_, and sometimes so written), correspond with the accounts that
+from time to time have been brought to us, by hunters and trappers who
+have occasionally visited them. A few years since there appeared in the
+newspapers an account of both these tribes, by a trapper. He stated that
+the Mawkeys had "light, flaxen hair, blue eyes and skins of the most
+delicate whiteness."[12] I have two other accounts wherein both are
+described much as before stated. Their manufactures are particularly
+dwelt upon. Some of them wore shoes, stockings and other garments of
+their own make. Their stone houses are noticed as well as their large
+herds of cattle,--also their cultivation of fruits and vegetables. They
+raise cotton, which they manufacture into cloth, as well as wool. Fire
+arms are unknown to them. "Their dress is different from that of other
+Indians, and from their Spanish neighbors. Their shirts, coats and
+waistcoats are made of wool, and their small clothes and gaiters of deer
+skin."
+
+These accounts might be considered fanciful, had we not high authority
+which fully corroborates them. Humboldt says, "The Indians between the
+rivers Gila and Colorado, form a contrast with the wandering and
+distrustful Indians of the savannas to the east of New Mexico. Father
+Garces visited the country of the Moqui, and was astonished to find
+there an Indian town with two great squares, houses of several stories,
+and streets well laid out, and parallel to one another. The construction
+of the edifices of the Moqui is the same with that of the _Casas
+grandes_ on the banks of the Gila."[13]
+
+In Mr. Farnham's late work on California, is a notice of the Navijos
+from Dr. Lyman's report. The author begins by saying, that "they are the
+most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America."[14] Their
+extensive cultivation of maize and all kinds of vegetables--their
+rearing of "large droves of magnificent horses, equal to the finest
+horses of the United States in appearance and value," and their large
+flocks of sheep are also noticed. From the fleece of the sheep which is
+long and coarse resembling mohair, "they manufacture blankets of a
+texture so firm and heavy as to be perfectly impervious to water." They
+make a variety of colors with which they dye their cloths, besides
+weaving them in stripes and figures. They are constantly at war with the
+Mexicans, but stand in fear of the American trappers, with whom they
+have had some severe skirmishes, which resulted much to their
+disadvantage.[15]
+
+It is believed by Baron Humboldt and by others, that in the Navijos and
+Mawkeys we see the descendants of the same race of Indians which Cortez
+and the Spanish conquerors found in Mexico, in a semi-civilized state.
+We are unable to state whether any affinity exists between their
+language and the other Mexican dialects, as no vocabularies have been
+collected. The whiteness of their skins, their knowledge of the useful
+arts and agriculture, and the mechanical skill exhibited in their
+edifices at the present day, bear a striking analogy with the Mexican
+people at the period of the conquest, and as M. Humboldt observes,
+"appears to announce traces of the cultivation of the ancient Mexicans."
+The Indians have a tradition that 20 leagues north from the Moqui, near
+the mouth of the Rio Zaguananas, the banks of the Nabajoa were the first
+abode of the Aztecs after their departure from Atzlan. "On considering
+the civilization," adds Baron Humboldt, "which exists on several points
+of the northwest coast of America, in the Moqui and on the banks of the
+Gila, we are tempted to believe (and I venture to repeat it here) that
+at the period of the migration of the Toltecs, the Acolhues and the
+Aztecs, several tribes separated from the great mass of the people to
+establish themselves in these northern regions."[16]
+
+Connected with this subject and in evidence of the identity of these
+tribes with the Aztecs, it should be stated that there exists numerous
+edifices of stone in a ruined state, on the banks of the Gila, some of
+great extent, resembling the terraced edifices and teocallis of Mexico
+and Yucatan. One of these structures measures four hundred and
+forty-five feet in length by two hundred and seventy in breadth, with
+walls four feet in thickness. It was three stories high, with a terrace.
+The whole surrounding plain is covered with broken pottery and earthen
+ware, painted in various colors. Vestiges of an artificial canal are
+also to be seen.[17] Among the fragments are found pieces of obsidian, a
+volcanic substance not common to the country, and which is also found in
+the mounds in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, in both cases applied to
+the same uses.
+
+Some valuable contributions to the geography and ethnology of the vast
+region lying between the Rocky Mountains and Upper California and
+Oregon, have been made by Capt. Fremont of the U.S. corps of Engineers.
+The expedition under his command traversed the great desert, and
+examined portions of the country not before visited by white men. The
+information collected by this enterprising traveller will be of much
+service to the country in the new relations which may arise between the
+United States and California, as well as to persons who are seeking new
+homes in Oregon. The report of Captain, (now Col.) Fremont has been so
+widely circulated, and rendered so accessible to all who feel an
+interest in the subject, that it would be superfluous to give any
+analysis of the work at this time. So satisfactory were the results of
+the expedition of this accomplished officer to the country and the
+government, that he has again been sent to make further explorations of
+the country south of that previously visited by him, and which lies
+between Santa Fé and the Pacific Ocean. Colonel Fremont has in this
+expedition already rendered important services to the country, having
+the command of a detachment of troops in Upper California. This armed
+body of men will give him great advantages over an ordinary traveller in
+a wild and inhospitable country, where there are still tribes of Indians
+which have not yet been subjugated by the Spaniards, and which an
+unprotected traveller could not approach. Much interest has been
+awakened from the accounts already received from Col. Fremont, and it is
+to be hoped that ere long we shall be placed in possession of full
+reports of his explorations, which must throw much light on the
+geography of this vast region, its aboriginal inhabitants, productions,
+climate, &c.
+
+An exploratory journey in the isthmus of Panama has recently been made
+by M. Hillert, which has resulted in adding much important information
+to our previous knowledge of the country. It is known that there have
+been many surveys of the isthmus, with the view of opening a water
+communication between the oceans on either side. Such was the primary
+object of Mr. Hillert, who, it appears has also made enquiries as to the
+practicability of making a rail road across it. His observations on the
+junction of the two oceans by means of a canal have appeared in the
+bulletin of the Geographical Society of Paris for 1846, (pp. 306 and
+389), together with various letters from him on other subjects which
+attracted his attention.
+
+Among other things Mr. Hillert has made known a most valuable
+anti-venomous plant, the guaco, a creeping plant, which abounds in the
+forest of the Isthmus, the virtues of which were made known to him by
+the Indians. After rubbing the hands with the leaves of this plant, a
+person may handle scorpions and venomous insects with impunity, and
+mosquitoes after sucking the blood of those who had taken it inwardly
+died instantly. The geology and botany of the country received
+particular attention. M. Hillert proposes to introduce several of the
+most useful plants and vegetables into the French dominions in Senegal
+or Algeria, among them the plant from which the Panama hats are made. So
+valuable are the labors of this gentleman considered, that the French
+commission has awarded him the Orleans prize, for having introduced into
+France the most useful improvement in agriculture. Some ancient
+monumental edifices were discovered in the Isthmus, not far from the
+river Atrato, and others near the mines of Cano; besides these an
+ancient canal cut through the solid rock in the interval which separates
+the rivers Atrato and Darien.
+
+     NOTE.--The following list embraces all the books relating to
+     Oregon, California, and Mexico, printed during the last two
+     years.
+
+     Narrative of the exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains,
+     in the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California, in the
+     years 1843-4, by Capt. J.C. Fremont of the Topographical
+     Engineers, under the orders of Col. J.J. Abert, 8vo.
+     Washington, 1846.
+
+     Exploration du Territoire de l'Oregon, des Californies, et de la
+     Mer Vermeille, executée pendant les années 1840, 41 et 42, par
+     M. Duflot de Mofras, Attaché à la Légation de France à Mexico. 2
+     vols. 8vo. and folio atlas of maps and plates. Paris, 1845.
+
+     The Oregon Territory, claims thereto, of England and America
+     considered, its condition and prospects. By Alexander Simpson,
+     Esq. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     The Oregon Territory, a geographical and physical account of
+     that country and its inhabitants. By Rev. C.G. Nicholay. 18mo.
+     London, 1846.
+
+     The Oregon Question determined by the rules of International
+     law. By Edward J. Wallace of Bombay. 8vo. London, 1840.
+
+     The Oregon question. By the Hon. Albert Gallatin. 8vo. New
+     York, 1846.
+
+     The Oregon Question examined, in respect to facts and the laws
+     of nations. By Travers Twiss, D.C.L. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     The Oregon Question as it stands. By M.B. Sampson. London,
+     1846.
+
+     Prairiedom; Rambles and Scrambles in Texas and New Estremadura.
+     By a Southron. 12mo. New York, 1846.
+
+     Life in California during a residence of several years in that
+     Territory. By an American. To which is annexed an historical
+     account of the origin, customs and traditions of the Indians of
+     Alta California, from the Spanish. Post 8vo. New York, 1846.
+
+     An Essay on the Oregon Question, written for the Shakespeare
+     Club. By E.A. Meredith. Montreal, 1846.
+
+     The Topic No. 3. The Oregon Question. 4to. London, 1846.
+
+     Life in Prairie Land. By Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham. 12mo. New York,
+     1846.
+
+     Green's Journal of the Texan expedition against Mier;
+     subsequent Imprisonment of the Author; his Sufferings, and
+     final Escape from the Castle of Perote. With reflections upon
+     the present political and probable future relations of Texas,
+     Mexico, and the United States. Illustrated by Drawings taken
+     from Life by Charles M'Laughlin, a Fellow-prisoner. Engravings.
+     8vo.
+
+     Travels over the table lands and Cordilleras of Mexico, in
+     1843-4. With an appendix on Oregon and California. By Albert M.
+     Gilliam, late U.S. Counsul, California. 8vo. Philadelphia,
+     1846.
+
+     Recollections of Mexico. By Waddy Thompson, Esq., late Minister
+     Plenipotentiary of the U.S. at Mexico. 8vo. New York, 1846.
+
+     Altowan; or incidents of life and adventure in the Rocky
+     Mountains. By an Amateur Traveller. Edited by James Watson
+     Webb. 2 vol. 12mo. New York, 1846.
+
+     Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, New Mexico,
+     Texas, and Grand Prairies, including descriptions of the
+     different races inhabiting them, &c. By a New Englander. 12mo.
+     Philadelphia, 1846.
+
+     History of Oregon and California, and the other Territories on
+     the North West Coast of North America: from their discovery to
+     the present day. Accompanied by a geographical view of those
+     countries. By Robert Greenhow. 8vo. third edition. Boston,
+     1847.
+
+
+GREENLAND AND THE ARCTIC REGIONS. The Royal Society of Northern
+Antiquaries published, in 1845, Grönlands Historiske Mindesmærker, (The
+Historical Monuments of Greenland), Vol. III., (958 pages, with 12
+copperplates), which closes this work. The 1st and 2d volumes, (pp. 814
+and 794 respectively), were published in 1838. After Professor Rafn had
+finished the compilation of his separate work, _Antiquitates Americanæ_,
+which was published by the Society in 1837, he connected himself with
+Professor Finn Magnusen, for the purpose of editing--also under the
+auspices of the Society--the great collection of original written
+sources of the ancient history of that remarkable polar land, which was
+first seen in 877, and colonized in 986. With a view of doing all that
+lay in its power to throw light on ancient Greenland, the Society,
+during the ten years from 1832 to 1841, caused journies to be undertaken
+and explorations to be performed in such of the Greenland firths as were
+of the greatest importance in respect of the ancient colonization. By
+excavations made among the ruins remaining from the ancient colony,
+there was obtained a collection of inscriptions and other antiquities,
+which are now preserved in the American Museum erected by the Society,
+and drawings were taken of the ground plans of several edifices. Of the
+reports received on this occasion, we must in an especial manner notice,
+as exhibiting evidence of the most assiduous care, and as moreover
+embracing the most important part of the country, the exploration
+undertaken by the Rev. George T. Joergensen, of the firths of Igalikko
+and Tunnudluarbik, where the most considerable ruins are situated. The
+present, vol. III., contains, extracts from annals, and a collection of
+Documents relating to Greenland, compiled by Finn Magnusen; (to this
+part appertains a plate exhibiting seals of the Greenland Bishops);
+ancient geographical writings, compiled by Finn Magnusen and Charles C.
+Rafn; the voyages of the brothers Zeno, with introductory remarks and
+notes by Dr. Bredsdorff; a view of more recent voyages for the
+re-discovery of Greenland, by Dr. C. Pingel, an antiquarian chorography
+of Greenland, drawn up by J.J.A. Warsaae, from the accounts furnished
+by various travellers of the explorations undertaken by them. The work
+is closed by a view of the ancient geography of Greenland, by Professor
+Charles C. Rafn, based on a collation of the notices contained in the
+ancient manuscripts and the accounts of the country furnished by the
+travellers. To which is added a list of the bishops and a chronological
+conspectus of the ancient and modern history of the country, a
+historical index of names, a geographical index, and an antiquarian
+index rerum. Copperplate maps are annexed of the two most important
+districts of ancient Greenland--the eastern settlement, (Eystribygd),
+and the western settlement, (Vestribygd), exhibiting the position of
+the numerous ruins. Moreover, plans and elevations of the most important
+ecclesiastical ruins and other rudera; also delineations of runic stones
+and other northern antiquities found in Greenland.
+
+_Scripta Historica Islandorum_, latine reddita et apparatu critico
+instructa, curante Societate Regia Antiquariorum Septentrionalium. Vol.
+XII. The edition first commenced by the Society, of the historical Sagas
+recording events which happened out of America, (Iceland, Greenland and
+Vinland), particularly in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, in the original
+Icelandic text with two translations, one into Latin, and another into
+Danish, (36 vols.) has now been brought to a completion, by the
+publication of the above mentioned volume, (pp. 658 in 8vo.) wherein are
+contained Regesta Geographica to the whole work, which for this large
+cyclus of Sagas may be considered as tantamount to an old northern
+geographical gazetteer, in as much as attention has also been paid to
+other old northern manuscripts of importance in a geographical point of
+view. Complete, however, it cannot by any means be called, neither as
+regards Iceland especially and other lands in America, whose copious
+historical sources have, in the present instance, been but partially
+made use of, nor also as regards the European countries without the
+Scandinavian North, for whose remote history and ancient geography the
+old northern writings contain such important materials, but it is to be
+hoped that the Society will in due time take an opportunity of extending
+its labors in that direction also. The present volume does, however,
+contain a number of names of places situated without the bounds of
+Scandinavia in countries of which mention is made in the writings
+published in the work itself. To the name of each place is annexed its
+Icelandic or old Danish form, and the position of the place is
+investigated by means of comparison with other historical data and with
+modern geography.
+
+Sir John Franklin who left about two years on a voyage of exploration,
+in the Arctic regions of America, remains in those inhospitable parts.
+Much anxiety is felt for him as no tidings have been received from him.
+It is to be hoped that his voyage will prove successful and that before
+the close of the present year, he may return.
+
+The Hudson's Bay Company has lately fitted out an expedition, for the
+purpose of surveying the unexplored portion of the coast on the
+northeast angle of the North American continent. The expedition, which
+consists of thirteen persons, is under the command of one of the
+company's officers. It started on the 5th July, in two boats, under
+favorable circumstances;--the ice having cleared away from the shores of
+the bay at an earlier period of the year than usual.[18]
+
+A memoir on the Indian tribes beyond the Rocky mountains, and
+particularly those along the shores of the Pacific ocean, from
+California to Behring's straits, with comparative vocabularies of their
+languages, is preparing for publication by the Hon. Albert Gallatin,
+from authentic materials. Mr. Hale, philologist of the United States
+Exploring Expedition, has made a valuable contribution to the Ethnology
+of this region, in his volume, entitled "Ethnology and Philology," being
+the seventh volume of the U.S. Exploring Expedition.
+
+     Recent Works on the Arctic Regions.
+
+     Barrow's (Sir J.) Voyages of Discovery and Research within the
+     Arctic Regions, from the year 1818 to the present time, in
+     search of a north-west passage, from the Atlantic to the
+     Pacific; with two attempts to reach the North Pole. Abridged
+     from the official narratives, with remarks by Sir John Barrow.
+     8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Americas Arctiske landes gamle geographie efter de Nordiske
+     Oldskriefter ved C.C. Rafn. 8vo. Copenhagen, 1846.
+
+
+
+
+SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+
+The French expedition which has been engaged for the last three years in
+exploring the interior of South America, has at length reached Lima,
+from which place Count Castelnau has transmitted a detailed report of
+his journey, to the French Minister of Public Instruction.[19]
+
+This expedition is by far the most important that has yet been sent out
+for the exploration of South America, and has already traversed a large
+portion of its central parts, little known to geographers. Their first
+journey was across the country from Rio Janeiro to Goyaz, on the head
+waters of the river Araguay (Lat. 16° 11Ž S. Long. 50° 29Ž W.) which
+river they descended to its junction with the Tocantiu, and then
+returned by the last named river and the desert of the Chavantes.
+
+They made another journey to the north of Cuyaba, to explore the diamond
+mines, and examine the sources of the Paraguay and Arenos. In the next
+journey,[20] the particulars of which have just been communicated from
+Lima, the expedition descended the rivers Cuyaba and San Lorenzo to
+Paraguay. During this voyage they entered the country of the Guatos
+Indians, one of the most interesting tribes of the American aborigines.
+"The features of these Indians," says the Count, "are extremely
+interesting;--never in my life having seen finer, or any more widely
+differing from the ordinary type of the red man. Their large, well
+opened eyes, with long lashes, nose aquiline and admirably modelled, and
+a long, black beard, would make them one of the finest races in the
+world, had not their habit of stooping in the canoe bowed the legs of
+the greater number. Their arms, consisting of very large bows, with
+arrows seven feet long, demand great bodily strength--and their address
+in the use of them passes imagination. These savages are timid,
+nevertheless, and of extreme mildness. By taking them for our guides,
+and attaching them by small presents, we were enabled to explore parts
+wholly unknown, of that vast net-work of rivers which they are
+constantly traversing." In Paraguay the party met a tribe of the
+celebrated Guaycurus nation. These people are eminently
+equestrian--transporting their baggage, women and effects of every kind
+on horseback, across the most arid deserts. They are mortal foes to the
+Spaniards, and a terror to the whole frontier. They wear their hair
+long, and paint themselves, black or red, after a very grotesque and
+irregular fashion; the two sides of their bodies are generally painted
+in a different manner. "Their chief arms are the lance, knife, and a
+club, which they throw with great precision at a full gallop. Their hats
+are made of hides. Each warrior has his mark, which he burns with a red
+hot iron on all that belongs to him--his horses, dogs and even wives.
+One of the most atrocious traits in the manners of this people, is that
+of putting to death all children born of mothers under thirty years of
+age."
+
+After traversing the country between Paraguay and Brazil, the expedition
+proceeded north by the river Paraguay, and passed the mouths of the San
+Lorenzo, where it entered the great lake Gaiva, and from thence the
+greater lake Uberava, the limits of which could not be traced, being
+lost in the horizon. An Indian told the Count that he had travelled for
+three whole days in his canoe, without finding its extremity, which
+supposes a length of twenty-five or thirty leagues. This great inland
+sea is unknown to geographers. At Villa Maria a caravan of mules awaited
+the travellers, when they entered the desert or Gran Chaco, as it is
+called, and proceeded to the town of Matto-Grosso, which is considered
+the most pestiferous place in the world. Out of a population of 1200
+souls, there were found but four whites, of whom three were officers of
+the government; all the rest was composed of blacks and Indians of every
+variety and color, who alone are able to support this terrible climate.
+
+From this place the expedition proceeded to Santa Cruz of the Sierra,
+where they found bread, of which they had been deprived for two years;
+after a month's repose, a journey of eight days brought the party to
+Chuquisaca, in Bolivia, and from thence by Potosi to Lima.
+
+The results of this expedition are already of great interest. It will
+make known people, the names of which were unknown to geographers.
+Rivers which appear on our maps are found not to exist, while hitherto
+unknown rivers and large bodies of water have been discovered. Many
+geographical positions have been determined, and the particulars of the
+trade which is extensively carried on in the centre of this vast
+continent by means of caravans of mules, are made known.
+
+M. de Castelnau has paid particular attention to the productions of the
+country, with a view of introducing such as are valuable into the French
+colony of Algeria. Large collections in Natural History have already
+been received at the museum in Paris; observations on terrestrial
+magnetism and meteorology have been made, in fact, no department of
+science seems to have been neglected by the expedition, which will
+reflect great credit on its distinguished head, Count Castelnau, as well
+as on the French government, by whose liberality and zeal for the
+promotion of science it has been supported.
+
+From Lima, Count Castelnau intended to prosecute further researches in
+the country of the Incas, after which he would proceed to the Amazon
+river.
+
+PERU. Some interesting remains of the ancient Peruvians, have lately
+been brought to light in the Province of Chachapoyas, about five hundred
+and fifty miles north of Lima and two hundred and fifty miles from the
+coast. The particulars of these ruins were communicated by Señor Nieto
+to the prefect of the Department.[21] "The principal edifice is an
+immense wall of hewn stone, three thousand six hundred feet in length,
+five hundred and sixty feet in width and one hundred feet high.[22] It
+is solid in the interior and level on the top, upon which is another
+wall six hundred feet in length, of the same breadth and height as the
+former, and like it solid to its summit. In this elevation, and also in
+that of the lower wall, are a great many rooms eighteen feet long and
+fifteen wide, in which are found neatly constructed niches, containing
+bones of the ancient dead, some naked and some in shrouds or blankets,"
+placed in a sitting posture.
+
+From the base of this structure commences an inclined plane gradually
+ascending to its summit, on which is a small watch tower. From this
+point, the whole of the plain below, with a considerable part of the
+province, including the capital, eleven leagues distant, may be seen.
+
+In the second wall or elevation are also openings resembling ovens, six
+feet high, and from 20 to 30 feet in circumference. In these, skeletons
+were found. The cavities in the adjoining mountain were found to contain
+heaps of human remains perfectly preserved in their shrouds, which were
+made of cotton of various colors. Still farther up this mountain was "a
+wall of square stones, with small apertures like windows, but which
+could not be reached without a ladder," owing to a perpendicular rock
+which intervened. The Indians have a superstitious horror of the place,
+in consequence of the mummies it contains, and refused to assist the
+exploring party, believing that fatal diseases would be produced by
+touching these ghastly remains of their ancestors. They were therefore
+compelled to abandon their researches, though surrounded by objects of
+antiquity of great interest.
+
+Mr. Chas. Frederick Neumann, a distinguished oriental scholar of Munich,
+has lately published a work "On the Condition of Mexico in the Fifth
+Century of our Era, according to Chinese writers." It purports to be an
+account of that country, called Fu-Sang, in the Chinese annals. De
+Guignes, in his celebrated work on China, supposes that America was the
+country referred to, while Klaproth, on the contrary, believes it to be
+Japan.
+
+It is stated in the English papers[23] that an expedition, which
+promises the most important results, both to science and commerce, is at
+this moment fitting out for the purpose of navigating some of the great
+unexplored rivers of South America. It is to be under the command of
+Lord Ranelagh; and several noblemen and gentlemen have already
+volunteered to accompany his lordship. The enterprising and scientific
+band will sail as soon as the necessary arrangements are completed. He
+proposes to penetrate, by some of the great tributaries of the Amazon,
+into the interior of Bolivar--for which purpose a steamer will be taken
+out in pieces. Returning to the Amazon, he will ascend this great river
+to its highest sources. The distance and means of communication between
+the Pacific and the basin of the Amazon will be minutely examined.
+
+Another scientific expedition has been sent out by the French Government
+to its West India colonies and the northerly parts of South America,
+under M. Charles Deville, a report from whom was read at a meeting of
+the Paris Academy of Sciences in June last. Its publication was
+recommended.
+
+The French Government gave notice to the same Academy, at its meeting on
+the 31st August last, of an intended expedition by Lieut. Tardy
+Montravel, to the Amazon river and its branches, with the steamer
+Alecton and the Astrolabe corvette; and invited the Academy to prepare a
+programme with a view to facilitate the researches which M. de Montravel
+is charged to make.
+
+     NOTE.--The following is a list of the books relating to South
+     America which have recently been published.
+
+     Historia fisica y politica de Chile segun documentos adquiredos
+     en esta Republica durante doze anos de residencia en ella, y
+     publicada bajo los auspicios del supremo gobierno. 7 livr. 8vo.
+     with an Atlas of 27 plates. Paris. 1844.
+
+     Memoria geografico economico-politica del departmento de
+     Venezuela, publicada en 1824 por el intendente de ejercito D.
+     Jose M. Aurrecoechea, quien la reimprime con varias notas
+     aclaratorias y un apendice. Quarto. Madrid. 1846.
+
+     Twenty-four years in the Argentine Republic, embracing the
+     author's personal adventures, with the history of the country,
+     &c. &c., with the circumstances which led to the interposition
+     of England and France. By Col. J.A. King. 1 vol. 12mo. New
+     York. 1846.
+
+     Travels in the interior of Brazil, principally through the
+     northern provinces, and the gold and diamond districts, in
+     1836-1841. By George Canning. 8vo. London. 1846.
+
+     Travels in Peru, during the years 1838-1842, on the coast, and
+     in the Sierra, across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the
+     primeval forests. By Dr. J.J. Tschudi. 2 vols. 12mo. New York.
+     1847.
+
+     Mr. Thomas Ewbank is preparing for the press a work on Brazil,
+     being observations made during a twelve months' residence in
+     that country. From a personal acquaintance with this gentleman,
+     his reputation as a man of observation, and his well known
+     capacity as a writer, we think a valuable book may be expected.
+
+
+
+
+AFRICA.
+
+
+The zeal which was manifested a few years since for the discovery and
+exploration of the interior of Africa, and which seemed to have
+terminated with the Landers, and the unsuccessful voyage of the steamers
+up the Niger, has again shown itself, and we now find as much curiosity
+awakened, and as much zeal manifested for geographical discovery in this
+vast continent, and the solution of questions for ages in doubt, as has
+been exhibited at any former period.
+
+The Travels of M. d'Abaddie, Dr. Beke, Isenberg, and others make known
+to us the immense extent and windings of the Bahr-el-Abiad and the
+Bahr-el-Azrek, or the white and blue Nile, but they have not yet been
+traced to their rise, and the solution of the question of the true
+source of the Nile, remains still unsettled.
+
+We have received from Mr. Jomard, member of the French Institute, a work
+entitled "Observations sur le voyage au Darfour" from an account given
+by the Sheikh Mohammed-el-Tounsy, accompanied by a vocabulary of the
+language of the people, and remarks on the white Nile by Mr. Jomard.
+This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of a portion of the
+interior of Africa, only known to us by the visit of Mr. Browne in 1794,
+and forms a link in the chain between Lake Tchad and a region of country
+quite unexplored, and of which we have no knowledge whatever.
+
+We have some information of interest, relating to Senegal, communicated
+to the Royal Geographical Society of London,[24] being a narrative of
+Mr. Thomson, linguist to the Church Missionary Society at Sierra Leone,
+from that place to Timbo, the capital of Futah Jallo. His place is about
+four hundred miles northeast of Sierra Leone. "The principal object of
+the mission, was to open a road for a regular line of traffic through
+that country, between the colony and the negro states on the Joliba or
+Niger."
+
+Mr. Thomson's narrative is full of interest and shows the great
+hardships to be encountered in effecting a communication with the
+interior. No man could be better prepared for such an enterprize, both
+by knowledge of the languages of the country, and the manners of the
+people; zeal, perseverance, and courage, also were prominent traits in
+his character; yet his enterprize failed and death cut him off, when on
+the point of starting for the eastward.
+
+An expedition more successful in its results, has been undertaken in
+Dahomey on the Guinea coast, the particulars of which are given in the
+Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, (vol. 16.) This
+journey was performed by Mr. John Duncan, from Cape Coast to Whyddah,
+and from the latter about five hundred miles due north, through the
+Dahomey country to Adofoodiah. Although the king of Ashantee had refused
+permission for Mr. Duncan to pass through his territory, and had
+endeavored to prejudice the king of Dahomey against him, he was received
+with great kindness by the latter, and every facility given him to
+travel in his dominions. A guard of one hundred men was furnished to
+accompany him--a path was cleared for upwards of one hundred miles, and
+arrangements made so that at every village through which he passed,
+provisions were always waiting, ready cooked for them. Among the strange
+things seen by this traveller was a review of six thousand Female
+troops, well armed and accoutred. Their appearance, for an uncivilized
+nation, was surprising, and their performance still more so. The slave
+trade is carried on extensively in Dahomey. In the market of Adofoodiah,
+articles from the Mediterranean, and from Bornou in the interior were
+exposed for sale, showing the immense extent of the trade of the
+country. He met people from Timbuctoo and gathered some particulars of
+that remarkable city, as well as some information respecting Mungo
+Park's death. This enterprising traveller has lately been provided with
+the means to enable him to set out on a new journey with a determination
+to penetrate the country to Timbuctoo, from whence he will endeavour to
+follow the Niger to its mouth.
+
+The American Missionaries at the Gaboon, (Western Africa), with a view
+of establishing a mission in the Pong-wee country have been preparing a
+grammar of the Pong-wee language, the peculiarities of which are such as
+to deserve notice. The Missionaries call it "one of the most perfect
+languages of which they have any knowledge. It is not so remarkable for
+copiousness of words as for its great and almost unlimited flexibility.
+Its expansions, contractions, and inflections though exceedingly
+numerous, and having, apparently, special reference to euphony, are all
+governed by grammatical rules, which seem to be well established in the
+minds of the people, and which enable them to express their ideas with
+the utmost precision. How a language so soft, so plaintive, so pleasant
+to the ear, and at the same time so copious and methodical in its
+inflections, should have originated, or how the people are enabled to
+retain its multifarious principles so distinctly in their minds as to
+express themselves with almost unvarying precision and, uniformity, are
+points which we do not pretend to settle. It is spoken coastwise nearly
+two hundred miles, and perhaps with some dialectic differences, it
+reaches the Congo river. How far it extends into the interior is not
+satisfactorily known."[25]
+
+An attempt to penetrate this continent from the north has been made by
+Mr. James Richardson, by advices from whom it appears that on the 23d
+November, 1845, he had reached Ghadames, in the Great Desert, where he
+had been residing for three months, and whence he was to start on the
+following day, with a negro and a Moor, for Soudan. If successful in
+reaching that country, he intended to proceed to Timbuctoo and other
+parts of the interior. Mr. Richardson was well received by the people
+and Sultan of Ghadames; but his journey to Sackatoo the capital of
+Soudan, which would take three months to accomplish, through some of the
+wildest tribes and without any guarantee from the English or Ottoman
+government, was considered foolhardy and desperate.[26]
+
+Later accounts state that Mr. Richardson had returned after a successful
+exploration in the very centre of the Great Zahara, and that he has
+collected important information relating to the slave trade, one of the
+objects of his undertaking. We shall look forward with interest to the
+publication of his travels.[27]
+
+The details of the expedition under M. Raffenel of the French navy and
+other scientific gentlemen, up the Senegal, have just been
+published.[28] The party ascended the Senegal to the river Falémé, and
+from the mouth of the Falémé they penetrated the country to Sansanzig.
+They then visited the gold mines of Kenieba, on the Bambouk, the country
+of Galam, Bondou and Woolli, and returned by the river Gambia. Seven
+months were spent on this expedition. They found the country beautiful,
+but its cultivation neglected, and of course little was produced. They
+visited the place where the French were formerly established, with the
+view of making treaties with the natives for its occupation anew. Few
+traces of the colony were to be found. They were kindly received by the
+various tribes of aborigines, wherever they went; though when at the
+extreme point of their journey, owing to the wars among the natives,
+they did not think it safe to proceed farther. The results of the
+expedition are interesting to science, as well as to the friends of
+humanity, who wish to improve the condition of this people.
+
+For the more complete exploration of this portion of the African
+continent, it has been proposed to send another expedition under M.
+Raffenel for the purpose. This gentleman has submitted a memoir to the
+Minister of Marine, by whom it was presented to the Geographical Society
+of Paris. The result was favorable, and Mr. Raffenel has been provided
+with instructions for his guidance in his proposed journey.
+
+A journey of exploration and civilization in Soudan, is about to be
+undertaken by four Jesuits from Rome--Bishop Casolani, and Fathers
+Ryllo, Knoblica, and Vinco. Casolani and Ryllo will start from Cairo in
+January, 1847--having previously obtained a Firman from Constantinople;
+and, proceeding through Upper Egypt, Nubia, and thence by Kordofau and
+Darfour, they hope to reach Bornou,--and meet there their brethren, who
+travel by the way of Tripoli and Mouryok. Should they be fortunate
+enough to meet, it will then be determined which route shall afterwards
+be followed. They have determined to accomplish what they have
+undertaken, or perish in the attempt. From the high character of all the
+parties, great hopes are entertained of the result of this journey. They
+are all men of extensive learning, and familiar with the languages,
+manners and customs of the East.[29]
+
+A project is on foot in London and a prospectus has been issued for a
+new Expedition of Discovery to penetrate the interior of Africa from the
+eastern side. Many advantages are presented by beginning the work of
+exploration here; among them, the populousness and civilization of
+Eastern Africa, which is in general superior to that of the western
+coast. The languages of the former bear a close affinity to each other,
+and extend over a very large space, which is not the case with the
+latter. "The absence of foreign influence, (particularly of the
+Portuguese, by whom the slave trade is carried on), and the readiness of
+the Sultan of Muscat to listen to British counsels," are strong
+inducements to carry out the scheme proposed.[30]
+
+Lieutenant Ruxton of the Royal Navy, who has lately made an interesting
+journey into Africa from the southwestern coast, near the island of
+Ichaboe, is about to undertake a second journey with the intention of
+crossing the continent from this point to the eastern coast, under the
+sanction of the British Government.
+
+Some valuable contributions have been made to our knowledge of the
+geography of Southern Africa by Mr. Cooley[31] and Mr. McQueen,[32]
+which tend to elucidate portions of this continent hitherto enveloped
+in much obscurity. Mr. Cooley's investigations relate to the country
+extending from Loango and Congo, the Portuguese settlements in Western
+Africa, to the eastern coast between Zanzibar and Sofala, in lat. 20°
+South.
+
+He commences by examining the statements of the Portuguese geographers
+of the 16th century, Lopez, Joao Dos Santos, Do Couto, and Pigafetta.
+"The information collected by Lopez, was elaborated by Pigafetta into a
+system harmonizing with the prevalent opinions of the age, and in this
+form was published in 1591. Yet in the midst of this editor's theories,
+we can at times detect the simple truth." Much confusion seems to have
+arisen by misapplying the names of lakes, rivers and people, as this
+information was in a great degree derived from natives, and not properly
+understood by the persons who received it from them. Mr. Cooley, by a
+rigid examination of these various statements, together with the
+accounts derived from later writers and from native traders, has been
+enabled to rectify the errors which had crept in, and clear up much that
+had been considered fabulous. The great lake called N'Yassi, and the
+natives occupying the country around it, are among the most interesting
+subjects of our author's enquiries. This lake, or sea, as it is called
+by the natives, is some five or six hundred miles from the eastern
+coast. Its breadth in some places is about fifteen miles, while in
+others, the opposite shores cannot be seen. Its length is unknown,
+neither extremity having been traced. It probably exceeds five hundred
+miles, according to the best authority. Numerous islands filled with a
+large population, are scattered among its waters. It is navigated by
+bark canoes, twenty feet long, capable of holding twenty persons. Its
+waters are fresh, and it abounds in fish. The people seem more advanced
+in civilization than any African nations south of the Equator, of which
+we have knowledge. Pereira, who spent six months at Cazembe, in 1796,
+describes the people as similar, in point of civilization, to the
+Mexicans and Peruvians, at the time of the conquest. The nation called
+the Monomoesi, or Mucaranga, north of the lake, as well as the Movisa,
+on its opposite shores, are a tall and handsome race, with a brown
+complexion. "They are distinguished for their industry, and retain the
+commercial habits for which they were noted two centuries and a half
+ago, when their existence was first known through the Portuguese. They
+descend annually to Zanzibar in large numbers. The journey to the coast
+and back again, takes nine or ten months, including the delay of
+awaiting the proper season for returning. They are clothed in cotton of
+their own manufacture; but the most obvious mark of their superiority
+above other nations of Eastern Africa is, that they employ beasts of
+burden, for their merchandize is conveyed to the coast laden on asses of
+a fine breed." Mr. Cooley believes that "the physical advantages and
+superior civilization of these tribes, who are not negroes," explain the
+early reports which led the Portuguese to believe that the empire of
+Prestor John was not far off.
+
+Mr. M'Queen's memoirs consist of the details of a journey made by Lief
+Ben Saeid, a native of Zanzibar, to the great lake N'Yassi, or Maravi,
+alluded to in Mr. Cooley's memoir. This visit was made in the year 1831.
+The facts collected corroborate what has been stated by Mr. Cooley. He
+found the country level, filled with an active population, civil to
+strangers, and honest in their dealings. A very extensive trade was
+carried on in ivory, and a peculiar oil, of a reddish color. The
+Manumuse (Mono-moezi) are pagans, and both sexes go nearly naked. Near
+the lake there are no horses or camels, but plenty of asses, and a few
+elephants. The houses on the road and at the lake, are made of wood and
+thatched with grass. Dogs are numerous, and very troublesome. Some are
+of a very large kind.[33]
+
+The region which forms the subject of the memoirs just alluded to, is
+doubtless one of the most interesting fields for exploration of any on
+the African continent. The languages spoken by the several nations
+between the two oceans, which are here separated by a space of sixteen
+or seventeen hundred miles, in a direct line, are believed to belong to
+one great family, or at least to present such traces of affinity, that
+an expedition, if sufficiently strong, aided by interpreters from the
+Zanzibar coast or the Monomoezi tribes, might traverse the continent
+without difficulty. Obstacles might be thrown in the way by the
+Portuguese traders, who would naturally feel jealous at any
+encroachments by rival nations; but by a proper understanding, these
+might be overcome, and this interesting and hitherto unknown portion of
+Central Africa be laid open to commerce and civilization.
+
+The latest attempt to explore this region was that of M. Maizan, a young
+officer in the French navy, who towards the close of the year 1844, set
+out for the purpose. In April, 1845, he left Zanzibar, furnished with a
+firman from Sultan Said to the principal chiefs of the tribes of the
+interior, though in reality they enjoyed the most complete independence.
+Having been warned that a chief, named Pazzy, manifested hostile
+intentions towards him, he stopped some time on his way, and after
+having acquired information relating to the country he wished to survey,
+he made a grand _détour_ round the territory over which this savage
+chief exercised his authority. After a march of twenty days, he reached
+the village of Daguélamohor, which is but three days' journey from the
+coast in a direct line, where he awaited the arrival of his baggage,
+which he had entrusted to an Arab servant. This man, it appears, had
+communication with Pazzy, and had informed him of the route his master
+had taken. Pazzy, with some men of his tribe, overtook M. Maizan towards
+the end of July, at Daguelamohor, and surrounded the house in which he
+lived. After tying him with cords to a palisade, the savage ordered his
+men to cut the throat of their unfortunate victim.[34]
+
+Mr. M'Queen gives some particulars obtained from a native African
+relating to the country between Lake Tchad, or Tshadda and Calabar. This
+portion of the African continent has never been visited by Europeans,
+and although little can be gained of its geography from the statements
+of this man, there is much in them that is interesting on the
+productions of the country, the natives, their manners, customs, &c.
+
+
+ALGIERS.
+
+The publication by the French government of the results of the great
+scientific expedition to Algeria has thrown much light on the districts
+embraced in Algiers and the regency of Tunis, as well as on the
+countries far in the interior. Among the subjects which have received
+the particular attention of the commission, are, 1. An examination of
+the routes followed by the Arabs in the south of Algiers and Tunis;
+2. Researches into the geography and commerce of Southern Algiers, by
+Capt. Carette; 3. A critical analysis of the routes of the caravans
+between Barbary and Timbuctoo, with remarks on the nature of the western
+Sahara, and on the tribes which occupy it, by M. Renou; 4. A series of
+interesting memoirs on the successive periods of the political and
+geographical history of Algiers from the earliest period to the present
+time, by M. Pelissier; 5. The History of Africa, translated from the
+Arabic of Mohammed-ben-Abi-el-Raini-el-Kairouani, by M. Remusat, giving
+a particular account of the earliest Musselman period.
+
+Gen. Marey in an account of his expedition to Laghouat in Algeria,
+published in Algiers in 1845, has contributed important information on
+this country, which deserves a rank with the great work of the
+scientific expedition.[35] In this work the author has corrected the
+erroneous opinion which has long been held, of the barrenness of the
+Sahara. Among the Arabs this word _Sahara_ does not convey the idea
+which the world has generally given it, of a desert or uninhabitable
+place, but the contrary. Like every country, it presents some excellent
+and luxuriant spots, others of a medium quality as to soil, and others
+entirely barren, not susceptible of cultivation. By _Sahara_, the Arabs
+mean a country of pastures, inhabited by a pastoral people; while, to
+the provinces between the Atlas mountains and the sea, they apply the
+name of _Tell_, meaning a country of cereals, and of an agricultural
+people.
+
+M. Carette, in his exploration of this region, has also discovered the
+false notion long imbibed in relation to it. "The Sahara," says he, "was
+for a long time deformed by the exaggerations of geographers, and by the
+reveries of poets. Called by some the Great Desert, from its sterility
+and desolation, by others the country of dates, the Sahara had become a
+fanciful region, of which our ignorance increased its proportions and
+fashioned its aspect. From the mountains which border the horizon of
+Tell, to the borders of the country of the blacks, it was believed that
+nature had departed from her ordinary laws, renouncing the variety which
+forms the essential character of her works, and had here spread an
+immense and uniform covering, composed of burning plains, over which
+troops of savage hordes carried their devastating sway. Such is not the
+nature, such is not the appearance of the Sahara."
+
+This region, occupying so large a portion of the African continent, "is
+a vast archipelago of oases, of which each presents an animated group of
+towns and villages. Around each is a large enclosure of fruit trees. The
+palm is the king of these plantations, not only from the elevation of
+its trunk, but from the value of its product, yet it does not exclude
+other species. The fig, the apricot, the peach and the vine mingle their
+foliage with the palm."
+
+The Algerine Sahara has lately been the object of a special work of Col.
+Daumas who intends completing the researches begun by Gen. Marey and the
+members of the scientific commission. He has made an excursion to the
+borders of the desert, and has collected much that is new and
+interesting in ethnology, particularly relating to the Tuarycks, a great
+division of the Berber race whose numerous tribes occupy all the western
+part of the great desert.[36]
+
+Among the interesting Ethnological facts which the late expeditions in
+this region have brought to light, is that of the existence of a white
+race, inhabiting the Aures mountains, (_mons Aurarius_) in the province
+of Constantine.[37] Dr. Guyon, of the French army of Africa, took
+advantage of an expedition sent out by General Bedeau to the Aures, to
+collect information about this people, to whom other travellers had
+referred. He describes them as having a white skin, blue eyes and flaxen
+hair. They are not found by themselves, but predominate more or less
+among various tribes. They hold a middle rank, and go but rarely with
+the Kabyles and the Arabs. They are lukewarm in observances of the
+Koran, on which account the Arabs esteem them less than the Kabyles.
+They are more numerous in the tribe of the Mouchaïas, who speak a
+language in which words of Teutonic origin have been recognized. In
+Constantine where they are numerous, they exercise the trades of butcher
+and baker. Late writers believe that they are the remains of the Vandals
+driven from the country by Belisarius.
+
+M. Bory de Saint Vincent in making some observations to the Academy of
+Sciences, on the paper of Dr. Guyon, exhibited portraits of individuals
+of this white race, which had been engraved for the Scientific
+Commission, and stated his belief that they were evidently of the
+northern Gothic and Vandal type.[38]
+
+In Northern Africa, an important discovery has lately been made of the
+ancient Libyan alphabet, by Mr. F. de Saulcy, member of the French
+Institute. This curious result has been produced, by a study of the
+bilingual inscription on the monument of Thugga, which is published in
+the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of New
+York. The reading of the Phoenician part of this bilingual inscription
+having been established, the value of the Libyan or Numidian letters of
+the counter part, has been as clearly proved, as the hieroglyphic part
+of the Rosetta stone has been established, from a comparison with the
+Greek text of that bilingual inscription.
+
+By this discovery, a vast progress has been made in the ethnography and
+history of ancient Africa. Two facts of the greatest consequence have
+been established by it:--That the Libyan language was that of Numidia,
+at the early period of its history, when the Phoenicians were settled
+there; that the Numidians of that early day, used their own peculiar
+letters for writing their own language. To these facts, may be added
+another of no less ethnographic value; that the present Numidian or
+Berber race of the great Sahara, who are called Tuarycks, make use of
+these identical letters at this day.
+
+For this recent and valuable acquisition to science, we are again
+indebted to Mr. de Saulcy,[39] who has published a Tuaryck alphabet as
+communicated to him by Mr. Boisonnet, Captain of Artillery at Algiers.
+It was furnished to him by an educated native of the Oasis of Touat, in
+the great Sahara, and is called by him _Kalem-i-Tefinag_.[40] What the
+_writing of Tefinag_ means, it would be curious to know. This Touatee,
+Abd-el-Kader, has promised more extended information, in relation to the
+writing of the Tuarycks, than which, no more valuable contribution to
+African ethnography can be imagined. He asserts that, the Tuarycks
+engrave or scratch on the rocks of the Sahara, numerous inscriptions,
+either historic or erotic. This subject has been alluded to by Mr.
+Hodgson, in his "_Notes on Africa_" in which he mentions the Tuaryck
+letters copied by Denham and Clapperton.
+
+The impulse first given by our countryman Mr. Wm. B. Hodgson, in his
+researches into the Berber language, and the ethnographic facts which
+were the results of his elucidations, has extended to England, France
+and Germany, and the last two years have been productive of several
+valuable and important works, including grammars and dictionaries of the
+Berber language. These have added greatly to our previous knowledge of
+the ancient and primitive people, who at a remote period, coeval with
+that of the ancient Egyptians occupied the northern part of Africa.
+
+Mr. de Saulcy has already unravelled the intricacy of the demotic
+writing of Egypt and the popular characters of ancient Libya. He is thus
+working at both ends of the Libyan chain. He will find the Berber thread
+at the Oasis of Ammon, and at Meröe. We shall thus probably find, that
+the Berber language was the original tongue of that part of Ethiopia.
+Dr. Lepsius found in that region, numerous inscriptions in the Egyptian
+demotic, and in Greek characters, but written in an unknown language. He
+strongly suspects, that the old Ethiopian blood will be found in the
+Berber veins; and that the Nubian language has strong affinities with
+the Berber. When these inscriptions in an unknown language are
+decyphered, it will be known how far the interpretation of Egyptian
+mythology and the local names, heretofore proposed by Mr. Hodgson, is to
+be received as plausible. He has proposed the Berber etymologies of Aman
+or Ammon as water; Themis as fire or purity; Thot as an eye; Edfou and
+Tadis as the sun.
+
+     Books on Algiers.
+
+     Algeria and Tunis in 1845. An account of a journey made through
+     the two Regencies, by Viscount Fielding and Capt. Kennedy. 2
+     vols, post 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Le Maroc et ses Caravanes, ou Relations de la France avec cet
+     Empire, par R. Thomassy. 8vo. Paris 1845.
+
+     Exploration Scientifique de l'Algeria pendant les années 1840,
+     1841, 1842. Publié par l'ordre du gouvernment et avec le
+     concours d'une commission Académique. 4 vols, folio. (now in the
+     course of publication.)
+
+     Recherches sur la constitution de la propriété territoriale dans
+     le pays mussulmans et subsidiairement en Algeria; par M. Worms.
+     8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     A visit to the French possessions in Algiers in 1845. By Count
+     St. Marie. Post 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     AFRIQUE (l') française, l'empire du Maroc et les déserts de
+     Sahara. Histoire nationale des conquêtes, victoires et
+     nouvelles découvertes des Français depuis la prise d'Alger
+     jusqu'à nos jours; par P. Christian. 8vo.
+
+     Algeria en 1846; par J. Desjobert. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Guide du voyageur en Algeria. Itinéraire du savant, de
+     l'artiste, de l'homme du monde et du colon; par Quetin. 18mo.
+     Paris, 1846.
+
+     Le Sahara Algerien. Etude geographiques, statistiques et
+     historiques sur la region au sud des établissements Françaises
+     en Algérie; par Col. Daumas 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+     L'Afrique Française l'Empire de Maroc et les deserts de Sahara,
+     conquêtes et découvértes des Français. Royal 8vo.
+
+     Dictionnaire de Géographie économique, politique et historique
+     de l'Algérie. Avec une carte. 12mo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Géographie populaire de l'Algérie, avec cartes. 12mo. 1846.
+
+     Histoire de nos Colonies Françaises de l'Algérie et du Maroc;
+     par M. Christian. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     The following list embraces the latest publications on Africa
+     generally.
+
+     Voyage dans l'Afrique Occidentale, comprenant l'exploration du
+     Senegal depuis St. Louis jusqu'à la Félemé jusqu'à Sansandig;
+     des mines d'or de Keniéba, dans le Bambouk; des pays de Galam,
+     Boudou et Wooli; et de la Gambia; par A. Raffenel. 8vo. and
+     folio atlas. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Viaggi nell' Africa Occidentale, di _Toto Omboni_, gia medico
+     di consiglié nel regno d'Angola e sue dispendenze, 8vo. Milan,
+     1845.
+
+     A visit to the Portuguese possessions in South Western Africa.
+     By Dr. Tams. 2 vols. 8vo.
+
+     Life in the Wilderness; or, Wanderings in South Africa. By
+     Henry W. Methuen. Post 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Voyage au Darfour par le Cheykh Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy;
+     traduit de l'Arabe par Dr. Perron; publié par les soins de M.
+     Jomard. Royal 8vo. Maps. Paris, 1845.
+
+     Observations sur le Voyage au Darfour suivies d'un Vocabulaire
+     de la langue des habitans et de remarques sur le Nil Blanc
+     Supérieur; par M. Jomard. 1846.
+
+     Essai historique sur les races anciennes et modernes de
+     l'Afrique Septentrionale, leurs origines, leurs mouvements et
+     leurs transformations depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos jours; par
+     Pascal Duprat. 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+
+MADAGASCAR.--The island of Madagascar has recently attracted and
+continues to occupy attention in France. In 1842 M. Guillian, in command
+of a French corvette, was sent by the governor of the isle of Bourbon to
+this island, to select a harbor safe and convenient of access, and to
+obtain information relative to the country and its inhabitants. After
+visiting various parts of the island on its western side, in which
+fourteen months were spent, M. Guillian returned to Bourbon, and in 1845
+the results of his visit were published in Paris. The first part of this
+work gives a history of the Sakalave people, who occupy the western
+parts of the island. The second details the particulars of the voyage
+made in 1842 and 1843, embracing the geography, commerce and present
+condition of the country, an abstract of which is given in the Bulletin
+of the Geographical Society of Paris, Feb. 1846.
+
+So important were the results of the visit of M. Guillian that a new
+expedition has been sent to Madagascar under his direction, with
+instructions for a more extended examination, particularly in relation
+to its animal and vegetable productions. A more extensive work by M. de
+Froberville, is preparing for publication in Paris, in which more
+attention will be given to the ethnography of this important island.
+
+     Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie et le commerce de la
+     partie occidentale de l'île de Madagascar; recueillis et redigés
+     par M. Guillian, 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+     Histoire d'établissement Français de Madagascar, pendant la
+     restauration, précédée d'une description de cette île, et
+     suivie de quelques considérations politiques et commerciales
+     sur l'expédition et la colonisation de Madagascar. Par M.
+     Carayon, 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+     Histoire et Géographie de Madagascar, depuis la découverte de
+     l'île en 1506, jusqu'au récit des derniers événements de
+     Tamative; par M. Descartes. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Madagascar expedition de 1829. Par M. le Capitaine de frégate
+     Jourdain. _Revue de l'Orient_, tom. ix. April, 1846.
+
+     A short memoir on Madagascar is contained in the "Bulletin de
+     la Société de Géographie, July, 1845," by M. Bona Christave.
+
+     Etchings of a Whaling Voyage, with notes of a sojourn in the
+     Island of Zanzibar, and a history of the whale fishery, by
+     J.R. Browne. 8vo. New York, 1846.
+
+
+EGYPT.
+
+I have hesitated, in the superficial view I propose to take in noticing
+the ethnological and archæological researches of the day, as to whether
+I ought to speak of the land of the Pharaohs. The explorations have been
+on so grand a scale, and the results so astounding, that one is lost in
+amazement in attempting to keep pace with them.
+
+In England, France, Germany and Italy, Egyptian archæology is the most
+fruitful topic among the learned. In Paris, it forms the theme of
+lectures by the most distinguished archæologists, and the subject
+absorbs so much interest in Germany, that the King of Prussia has
+established a professorship at the Royal University for Egyptian
+antiquities and history, which he has assigned to Professor Lepsius, the
+most accomplished scholar in Egyptian learning, and who was at the head
+of the scientific commission sent by his majesty to explore the valley
+of the Nile.
+
+It will be remembered that in addition to the immense and costly work
+published by Napoleon, there have since been published the great
+national works of Champollion, by the French government, and of
+Rossellini by the Tuscan government. These are to be immediately
+followed by the great work of Lepsius, who has just returned from Egypt,
+laden with innumerable treasures, the results of three years of most
+laborious and successful explorations. This undertaking is at the
+expense of the King of Prussia, one of the most enlightened monarchs of
+Europe, and who, at the present moment, is doing more in various parts
+of the world for the advancement of science than any now living.
+
+But the French government, which has always been foremost in promoting
+such explorations, is determined not to be superseded by the learned
+Prussian's researches in Egyptian lore. An expedition has been organized
+under M. Prisse, for a new survey and exploration of Egypt. Mr. Prisse
+is an accomplished scholar, versed in hieroglyphical learning, and
+author of a work on Egyptian Ethnology. He will be accompanied by
+competent artists, will go over the same ground as Lepsius, and make
+additional explorations.
+
+As regards the eminent men who have won brilliant distinction in the
+career of Egyptian studies, it is out of the question here to analyze
+their books: it must suffice to state, that all have marched boldly
+along the road opened by _Champollion_, and that the science which owed
+its first illustration to Young, to the Champollions, to the Humboldts,
+to Salvolini, to Rosellini, to Nestor L'Hote, and to whose soundness the
+great De Sacy has furnished his testimony, counts at this day as adepts
+and ardent cultivators, such scholars as Letronne, Biot, Prisse, Bunsen,
+Lepsius, Burnouf, Pauthiér, Lanci, Birch, Wilkinson, Sharpe, Bonomi, and
+many more.[41]
+
+A few important results of the late explorations in Egypt, and
+researches into her hieroglyphics and history, it may be well to
+mention.
+
+Prof. Schwartze, of Berlin, is publishing a work on Egyptian philology,
+entitled _Das Alte Ægypten_. Some idea may be formed of the erudition of
+German philologists, and the extent to which their investigations are
+carried, when we state that this savant has completed the first part of
+the first volume of this work, which embraces 2200 quarto pages! and
+this is but a beginning.
+
+De Saulcy has made great advances in decyphering the Demotic writing of
+Egypt, in which, from Champollion's death to 1843, little had been done.
+He has now translated the whole of the Demotic text on the Rosetta
+stone, so that we may consider this portion of Egyptian literature as
+placed on a firm basis.
+
+Farther elucidations of the Coptic language have been made. This, it
+will be remembered, is the language into which the ancient Egyptian
+merged, and is the main instrument by which a knowledge of the latter
+must be obtained. Recently a discovery has been made by Arthur de
+Rivière, at Cairo, in an ancient Coptic MS. containing part of the Old
+Testament. The manuscript was very large and thick, and on separating
+the leaves was found to contain a pagan manuscript in the same language,
+the only one yet discovered.[42] On a farther examination of this
+manuscript, it proved to be a work on the religion of the ancient
+Egyptians. The translation of this curious document is looked for with
+much interest.
+
+M. Prisse is publishing at the expense of the French Government, the
+continuation of Champollion's great work on Egypt and Nubia--50 plates
+are in press.
+
+Mr. Birch, of London, has nearly ready for the press a work on the
+titles of the officers of the Pharaonic court. He has discovered in
+hieroglyphical writing those of the _chief butler_, _chief baker_, and
+others, coeval with the pyramids and anterior to Joseph. He has also
+discovered upon a tablet at the Louvre (age of Thotmes III. B.C. 1600)
+his conquest of Nineveh, Shinar, and Babylon, and with the _tribute_
+exacted from those conquered nations. The intense interest which
+Egyptian archæology is exciting in Europe will be seen from the list of
+new books on the subject.
+
+The most remarkable discoveries, and in which the greatest advances has
+been made, are in monumental chronology. Through the indefatigable
+labors of the Prussian savant, Lepsius, primeval history has far
+transcended the bounds to which Champollion and Rosellini had carried
+it. They fixed the era of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, at about
+2750, B.C. Böckh, of Berlin, from astronomical calculations, places it
+at 5702 B.C.
+
+Henry of Paris, in his "_L'Égypte Pharaonique_," from historical
+deductions, places the era at 5303 B.C.
+
+Barucchi, of Turin, from critical investigations, at 4890 B.C., and
+Bunsen, in his late work entitled "Egypt's Place in the World's
+History," from the most laborious hierological and critical deductions,
+places the era of Menes at 3643 B.C.
+
+I should do wrong to speak of the labors of foreign savans, without
+alluding to what has been done in this country. Dr. Morton, it is known,
+has published a work on Egyptian Ethnography, from crania in his
+possession furnished by Mr. Gliddon, which reflects great credit on his
+scholarship, and has been highly commended in Europe. The late Mr.
+Pickering, of Boston, was one of the few who cultivated hieroglyphical
+literature in America. But perhaps the American people, as a mass, owe a
+deeper debt of gratitude to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, for his interesting
+lectures on Egypt and her literature, and to his work entitled Chapters
+on Egyptian Antiquities and Hieroglyphics, than to any other man. Mr.
+Gliddon, by a long residence in Egypt, and by a close study subsequently
+of her monuments, has been enabled to popularize the subject, and by the
+aid of a truly magnificent and costly series of illustrations of the
+monuments, the sculptures, the paintings and hieroglyphics of Egypt, to
+make this most interesting and absorbing subject, comprehensive to all.
+
+The results of these Egyptian investigations will doubtless be startling
+to many; for if the facts announced are true, and we see no reason to
+believe otherwise, it places the creation of man far, very far, beyond
+the period usually assigned to him in the chronology of the Hebrew
+Bible. But again, it must be observed that the common chronology gives
+the shortest period for that event. If other scriptural chronologies are
+adopted, we gain two or three thousand years for the creation of man,
+which gives us quite time enough to account for the high state of
+civilization and the arts in Egypt, four thousand years B.C.
+
+But we do not fear these investigations--truth will prevail, and its
+attainment can never be detrimental to the highest interests of man.
+
+     I must also acknowledge the obligation I am under for the use
+     of many splendid and valuable books relating to Egypt, from Mr.
+     Richard K. Haight. This gentleman, with an ample fortune at his
+     command, and with a taste for archæological studies, acquired
+     by a personal tour among the monuments of Egypt, has collected
+     a large and valuable library of books on Egypt, including all
+     the great works published by the European governments on that
+     country. This costly and unique collection, which few but
+     princes or governments possess, he liberally places at the
+     command of scholars, who, for purposes of study, may require
+     them.
+
+     Mr. Haight's interest in archæological researches has been
+     noticed in Paris, in an article by De Saulcy, member of the
+     Institute of France, in a memoir entitled, "L'Etude des
+     Hieroglyphics." Speaking of Mr. Gliddon's success in the United
+     States in popularizing hieroglyphical discoveries, De Saulcy
+     justly remarks--"Il a été puissamment secondé, dans cette
+     louable entreprise, par une de ces nobles intelligences dont un
+     pays s'honore; M. Haight, l'ami, le soutien, dévoué de tous les
+     hommes de science, n'a pas peu contribué, par sa généreuse
+     assistance, a répandre aux Etats-Unis les belles découvertes
+     qui concernent les temps pharaoniques." _Revue des Deux
+     Mondes._ Paris, June 15, 1846.
+
+     The following list embraces the late works relating to Egypt:
+
+     The Oriental Album; or Historical, Pictorial, and
+     Ethnographical Sketches, illustrating the human families in the
+     Valley of the Nile: by E. Prisse. folio. London, 1846.
+
+     The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest
+     by the Arabs, A.D. 640. By Samuel Sharpe. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     A Pilgrimage to the Temples and Tombs of Egypt, Nubia, and
+     Palestine, in 1845-'46, by Mrs. Romer. 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+     1846.
+
+     L'Égypte au XIX siècle, histoire militaire et politique,
+     anecdotique et pittoresque de Mehemet Ali, etc.; par E. Gouin.
+     Illustrée de gravures.
+
+     Panorama d'Égypte et de Nubie avec un texte orné, de vignettes;
+     par Hector Horeau. folio.
+
+     Recherches sur les arts et métiers de la vie civile et
+     domestique des anciens peuples de l'Égypte, de la Nubie et de
+     l'Éthiopie, suivi de détails sur les moeurs et coûtumes des
+     peuples modernes des mêmes contrées; par M. Frederic Cailliand.
+     folio. Paris, 1831-'47. 100 plates.
+
+     Das Tödtenbuch der Ægypten nach dem Hieroglyphischen Papyrus in
+     Turin, von Dr. R. Leipsius. Leipsig.
+
+     Schwartze. Das alte Ægypten, oder Sprache, Geschichte, Religion
+     und Verfassung d. alt. Ægypt. 2 vols. 4to. Leipsig.
+
+     Ægyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte: Von Carl J. Bunsen. 3
+     vols. 8vo.
+
+     Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte
+     der Pharaonen: Von August Böckh. 8vo. Berlin, 1845.
+
+     Macrizi's Geschichte der Copten. Aus den Handschriften zu Gotha
+     und Wién, mit Übersetzungen and Anmerkungen. Von Wüstenfeld.
+     4to. Göttingen, 1845.
+
+     Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie. Notices descriptives
+     conformes aux manuscrits autographes rédigés sur les lieux par
+     Champollion le jeune. folio. Paris, 1845-'46.
+
+     L'Égypte Pharaonique, ou Histoire des institutions qui régirent
+     les Égyptiens sous leur Rois nationaux. par D.M.J. Henri. 2
+     vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Discorso Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; del Prof.
+     Barucchi. 4to. Turin.
+
+     Voyage en Égypte, en Nubie, dans les déserts de Beyonda, des
+     Bycharís, et sur les côtes de la Mer Rouge: par E. Combes. 2
+     vols. 8vo. Paris, 1847.
+
+
+
+
+THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
+
+
+BORNEO.--Among the most remarkable and successful attempts to open a
+communication with the natives of the East India Islands, is that of Mr.
+James Brooke. This gentleman, prompted solely by a desire to improve the
+condition of the people of Borneo, and at the same time to explore this
+hitherto unknown region, has established himself at Sarawak, on the
+northwestern part of the island, 427 miles from Singapore. Such was the
+interest manifested by him on his arrival in the country to promote the
+good of the people, and to suppress the piracies which have been carried
+on for many years by the Malays, and certain tribes associated with
+them, that the then reigning Rajah, Muda Hassim, resigned to him his
+right and title to the government of the district, in which he was
+afterwards established by the Sultan of Borneo. The success that has
+attended Mr. Brooke's government, among a barbarous people, whose
+intercourse with foreigners had been confined to the Malays and Chinese,
+is most remarkable. Possessed of an independent fortune, of the most
+enlarged benevolence; familiar with the language, manners, customs and
+institutions of the people by which he is surrounded, with a mind stored
+with knowledge acquired from extensive travel and intercourse with
+various rude nations, he seems to have been prepared by Providence for
+the task which he has attempted, and which has thus far been crowned
+with success.
+
+Capt. Keppel's Narrative of his expedition to Borneo, and Mr. Brooke's
+Journal, furnish some interesting ethnological facts. The Dyaks, or
+aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo, are divided into numerous lesser
+tribes, varying in a slight degree in their manners and customs. Their
+language belongs to the Polynesian stock, on which has been ingrafted,
+particularly along the coast, a large number of Malayan words. It also
+exhibits evidences of migrations from India at remote periods. In
+speaking of the Sibnowans, Mr. Brooke observes that "they have no idea
+of a God, and though they have a name for the Deity, (Battara, evidently
+of Hindoo origin), with a faint notion of a future state, the belief
+seems a dead letter among them. They have no priests, say no prayers,
+make no offerings to propitiate the Deity; and of course have no
+occasion for human sacrifices, in which respect they differ from all
+other people in the same state of civilization, who bow to their idols
+with the same feelings of reverence and devotion, of awe and fear, as
+civilized beings do to their invisible God."[43] From their
+comparatively innocent state, Mr. Brooke believes they are capable of
+being easily raised in the scale of society. "Their simplicity of
+manners, the purity of their morals and their present ignorance of all
+forms of worship, and all idea of future responsibility, render them
+open to conviction of truth and religious impression, when their minds
+have been raised by education."[44] It is a well known fact, that since
+the establishment of Europeans in the Eastern Archipelago, the tendency
+of the Polynesian races has generally been to decay. The case of Mr.
+Brooke, however, now warrants us in hoping that such a result need not
+necessarily and inevitably ensue.
+
+While success has attended this gentleman at the north, the American
+missionaries, among the Dutch possessions farther south, have totally
+failed in their objects. They attribute the unwillingness of the Dyaks
+to submit to their instruction, to the influence of the Malays, whose
+interests are necessarily opposed to those of the missionaries, for, it
+is evident that once under the guidance of the latter, the Dyaks will
+see their own degraded and oppressed condition, and submit to it no
+longer. Mr. Youngblood says that "so prejudiced are the Dyaks, that I
+have been unable to obtain a few boys to instruct, of which I was very
+desirous."[45]
+
+The Dutch have long had trading establishments in Borneo, but they had
+made no efforts either to suppress the piracies, or improve the moral
+and social condition of its inhabitants. Its great value has now become
+so apparent, that unless they keep pace with, and follow the example set
+by the English, they will be in danger of having it wrested from their
+hands by the more enlightened policy of the latter.
+
+Borneo produces all the valuable articles of commerce common to other
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its mineral productions are equally
+rich, and include gold dust, diamonds, pearls, tin, copper, antimony,
+and coal. The interior is quite unknown. It is three times larger than
+Great Britain, and is supposed to contain about 3,000,000 of people.
+
+I have purposely avoided speaking of the trade and commerce of the
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago, as they are subjects which do not
+fall within the sphere of our enquiries, in a review like the present;
+although the productions, the trade and commerce of nations are properly
+a branch of ethnological enquiry, in a more enlarged view. An
+interesting pamphlet, embodying much valuable information on the
+commerce of the East, has been lately published by our townsman, Mr.
+Aaron H. Palmer. This gentleman is desirous that the United States
+government should send a special mission to the East Indies, as well as
+to other countries of Asia, with a view to extend our commercial
+relations. The plan is one that deserves the attention of our people and
+government, and I am happy to state that it has met with favor from many
+of our merchants engaged in the commerce of the East, as well as from
+some distinguished functionaries of the government.[46] England,
+France, Prussia, Denmark, and Holland, have at the present moment,
+expeditions in various parts of the East Indies and Oceanica, planned
+for the pursuit of various scientific enquiries and the extension of
+their commerce. With the exception of Prussia, these nations seem to be
+desirous to establish colonies; and they have, within a few years, taken
+up valuable positions for the purpose.
+
+Is it not then the duty of our government to be represented in this new
+and wide field? Our dominions now extend from ocean to ocean, and we
+talk of the great advantages we shall possess in carrying on an eastern
+trade; but how greatly would our advantages be increased by having a
+depot or colony on one of the fertile islands contiguous to China, Java,
+Borneo, Japan, the Philippines, &c. An extended commerce demands it, and
+we hope the day is not distant when our government may see its
+importance.
+
+England, France, Spain, Portugal and Holland have possessions in the
+East. The former, always awake to her commercial interests, now has
+three prominent stations in the China Sea,--Singapore, Borneo, and
+Hongkong. But even these important points do not satisfy her, and she
+looks with a longing eye towards Chusan, a point of great importance,
+commanding the trade of the northern provinces of China, and contiguous
+to Corea and Japan. The "Friend of India," a leading paper, "is
+possessed with a most vehement desire," says the editor of the "China
+Mail," "that the British, without infringing their 'political morality,'
+could contrive some means of obtaining the cession of Chusan, which, in
+their hands, he believes, could be converted into a second Singapore,
+and become one of the largest mercantile marts of the East."[47]
+
+It is evident from what has been stated, and from the opinions expressed
+in foreign journals, that the attention of the civilized world has been
+suddenly attracted to the Eastern Archipelago, and it is only
+surprising, considering the knowledge possessed by the European nations,
+of the rich productions of these islands, and the miserable state in
+which a large portion of their inhabitants live, that efforts have not
+before been made to colonize them, and bring them under European rule.
+
+The Spaniards contented themselves with the Philippines, but the Dutch,
+more enterprising, as well as more ambitious, extended their conquests
+to Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, and recently to Bali, Sumbawa, Timor and
+Celebes. But these are not all, for wherever our ships push their way
+through these innumerable islands, they find scattered, far and wide,
+their unobtrusive commercial stations, generally protected by a fort and
+a cruiser.
+
+It is said that the natives feel no attachment for their Dutch rulers,
+which, as they possess so wide spread a dominion in the Archipelago, is
+much to be regretted; for this feeling of animosity against them, may
+effect the relations that may be hereafter formed between the aboriginal
+races and other Christian people. Attempts will doubtless be made to
+prejudice the natives against the English, but the popularity of Mr.
+Brooke at Sarawak, in Borneo, his kindness to the natives, and the
+destruction of the pirates by the British, will no doubt gain for them
+throughout the Archipelago, a name and an influence which the jealousies
+of other nations cannot counteract. The natives of these islands except
+those of the interior, are strictly a trading and commercial people.
+Addicted to a seafaring life, and tempted by a love of gain, they
+traverse these seas in search of the various articles of commerce which
+are eagerly sought after by traders for the European, India, and Chinese
+markets. Piracy, which abounds in this region, grows out of this love of
+trade--this desire for the accumulation of wealth--and we believe that
+nothing would tend to suppress crime so effectually as the establishment
+of commercial ports throughout the Archipelago.
+
+It is said that the population embraced in the twelve thousand islands
+of which Polynesia consists, amounts to about forty millions. No part of
+the world equals it in the great variety and value of its products.
+There is scarcely an island but is accessible in every direction,
+abounding in spacious bays and harbors, and the larger ones in navigable
+rivers. The people are generally intelligent, and susceptible of a
+higher degree of cultivation than the natives of Africa, or of many
+parts of the adjacent continent.
+
+To obtain a station or an island in this vast Archipelago, we should
+require neither the outlay of a large sum of money, nor the loss of
+human life; no governments would be subjected, or kings overthrown.
+Civilization and its attendant blessings would take the place of
+barbarism, idolatry would be supplanted by christianity, and the poor
+natives, now bowed down by cruelty and oppression, would, under the care
+of an enlightened government, become elevated in the scale of social
+existence.
+
+The cultivation of spices in the Archipelago, and the acts by which the
+monopoly is secured by the Dutch in the Moluccas, reflect little credit
+on human nature. "No where in the world have the aboriginal tribes been
+treated with greater cruelty; and in some cases literal extermination
+has overtaken them. Their tribe has been extinguished, they have been
+cut off to a man, and that merely lest, in order to obtain a humble
+subsistence, they should presume to trade on their own account in those
+costly spices, the sale of which, without right or reason, Holland has
+hitherto thought proper to appropriate to herself. No form of servitude,
+moreover, equals the slavery of those who are engaged in the culture of
+the nutmeg-tree. They toil without hope. No change ever diversifies
+their drudgery; no holiday gladdens them; no reward, however trifling,
+repays extra exertion, or acts as a stimulus for the future. The
+wretched slave's life is one monotonous round, a mere alternation of
+toil and sleep, to be terminated only by death."[48] The northern
+portions of New Guinea, as well as other islands, are in the same
+latitude as Banda and Amboyna, and produce the nutmeg and other spices.
+They might be extensively cultivated by the natives, if encouragement
+was given them; and a sufficient supply obtained for all the markets of
+Europe and America.
+
+THE ISLAND OF BALI, lying east of Java, from which it is separated by a
+narrow strait, has recently been subjected by the Dutch. Some difficulty
+growing out of the commerce with the people, is the alleged cause. It is
+an island of great importance to Holland, and would seriously injure her
+commerce with Java, should any other European nation take it under its
+protection, or plant a colony there. A slight pretext therefore sufficed
+for its annexation.
+
+NEW CALEDONIA ISLANDS. Later information has been received from the
+Catholic Missionaries in New Caledonia; for it seems that even in those
+distant and barbarous islands both Protestant and Catholic are
+represented. The Propaganda annals contain some interesting accounts of
+the natives of these islands, and of other facts of importance in
+Ethnology. Two Catholic missionaries, the Rev. Mr. Rougeyron and the
+Rev. Mr. Colin, had been twenty months on these islands, during which
+time they had accomplished nothing in the way of conversions, and but
+little towards improving the moral condition of the natives. It was
+hardly time to expect much, as they had only then begun to speak the
+language of the country, which they found very difficult to acquire. The
+natives are a most lazy and wretched people. They cultivate the ground
+with the aid of a piece of pointed wood, or with their nails, but never
+in proportion to their wants. For the greater part of the year they are
+compelled to live upon a few fish, shell-fish, roots and the bark of
+trees, and at times when pressed by hunger, worms, spiders and lizards
+are eagerly devoured by them. They are cannibals in every sense of the
+word, and openly feed on the flesh of their enemies. Yet they possess
+the cocoa, banana and yam, with a luxuriant soil, from which, with a
+little labor, an abundance could be raised.
+
+Among no savage tribes are the women worse treated than here. They are
+completely at the mercy of their cruel and tyrannical husbands.
+Compelled to carry burdens, to collect food, and cultivate the fields,
+their existence promises them but little enjoyment; and when there is
+any fruit or article of delicacy procured, it is at once _tabooed_ by
+the husband, so that she cannot touch it but at the peril of her life.
+
+The missionaries had begun to expostulate with the natives on the
+horrors of eating their prisoners, and other vices to which they were
+addicted, and observe that "a happy change has already taken place among
+them; that they were less disposed to robbery, and that their wars are
+less frequent."[49] They are beginning to understand the motive which
+brought the missionaries to them, and already show a desire to be
+instructed.
+
+The protestant missions have not accomplished any more than the
+Catholic's among these savages. The latest accounts state that four of
+the native teachers who had been converted to Christianity, had been
+cruelly murdered, and that such was the hostility of the chiefs at the
+isle of Pines, that the prospects of the missionaries were most
+discouraging.[50]
+
+SOOLOO ISLANDS.--Mr. Itier, attaché to the French mission in China, has
+recently visited a cluster of islands lying to the northeast of Borneo,
+between that island and Mindanao.[51] His researches on the natural
+history and geology of these islands, are of much interest. The soil is
+exceedingly fertile, and the climate more healthy than is usual in
+intertropical climates. The sugar cane, cocoa, rice, cotton, the bread
+fruit, indigo, and spices of all kinds, are among their products. Fruits
+and vegetables of a great variety, are abundant, and of a superior
+quality. Nine-tenths of the soil is still covered with the primitive
+forest, of which teak-wood, so valuable in shipbuilding, forms a part. A
+considerable commerce with China and Manilla is carried on, and from ten
+to twelve thousand Chinese annually visit the island of Basilan, the
+most northerly of the group, to cultivate its soil, and take away its
+products. The peculiar situation of these islands, and their contiguity
+to the Philippines, to Celebes, Borneo, Manilla, China, and Singapore,
+make them well adapted for a European colony. In fact, there do not
+appear to be any islands of the East Indies of equal importance, and
+there can be no doubt that with the present desire manifested by
+European nations for colonizing, this desirable spot will ere long be
+secured by one of them. The Sooloo group embraces sixty inhabited
+islands, governed by a Sultan, residing at Soung. One of these would be
+an advantageous point for an American colony or station.
+
+The same gentleman has presented to the Geographical Society of Paris,
+the journal of a voyage and visit to the Philippine islands, from which
+it appears that that large and important croup is not inferior in
+interest to the Sooloo islands. The natural history and geology, the
+soil and its products, the manners and customs of the people, their
+commerce and political history, are described in detail.[52] The group
+embraces about twelve hundred islands, with a population of 4,000,000,
+of whom about 8,000 are Chinese, 4,000 Spaniards, 120,000 of a mixed
+race, and the remainder natives.
+
+THE NICOBAR ISLANDS, a group nineteen in number, in the Bay of Bengal,
+have again attracted the attention of the Danish government, by which an
+expedition has been sent with a view to colonize them anew. The Danes
+planted a colony there in 1756, but were compelled to abandon it in
+consequence of the insalubrity of the climate. Subsequently the French
+made an attempt with no better success.
+
+     Recent publications on the Eastern Archipelago and Polynesia.
+
+     Ethnology and Philology. By Horatio Hale, Philologist of the
+     U.S. Exploring Expedition, imp. 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.
+
+     Reise nach Java, und Ausflüge nach den Inseln Mudura und S.
+     Helena; von Dr. Edward Selberg, 8vo. Oldenburg, 1845.
+
+     Philippines (les), histoire, géographie, moeurs, agriculture,
+     industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie;
+     par _J. Mallat_, 2 vols. 8vo., avec un atlas in folio. Paris,
+     1846.
+
+     The expedition of H.M.S. Dido, for the suppression of piracy;
+     by the Hon. Capt. Keppell, with extracts from the journal of
+     James Brooke, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846. Reprinted in New
+     York.
+
+     Trade and Travel in the Far East; or recollections of
+     twenty-one years passed in Java, Singapore, Australia and
+     China, by G.F. Davidson, post 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Typee: Narrative of a four months' residence among the natives
+     of the Marquesas islands, by Herman Melville. 12mo. New York,
+     1846.
+
+     Besides these, The Missionary Herald, the Baptist Missionary
+     Magazine, The London Evangelical Magazine, the Annals of the
+     Society for the Propagation of the Faith, as well as other
+     similar journals, contain many articles of great interest on
+     the various islands of the Eastern Archipelago and the South
+     Sea Islands.
+
+
+AUSTRALIA. This vast island continues to attract the attention of
+geographers and naturalists. Its interior remains unknown,
+notwithstanding the various attempts which have been made from various
+points to penetrate it. The explorations of scientific men during the
+last four years have been productive of valuable information relating to
+its geography, ethnography, geology and natural history.
+
+Among the most eminent and successful in this field, is the Count de
+Strzelecki. This gentleman, as early as the year 1840, made an extensive
+tour into the southwestern part of Australia, in which he discovered an
+extensive tract called Gipp's Land, containing an extent of five
+thousand six hundred square miles, a navigable lake and several rivers,
+and from the richness of the soil, presenting an inviting prospect to
+settlers. His explorations were continued during the years 1842 '43 and
+'44, and in the following year the results were given to the public,[53]
+"comprehending the fruits of five years of continual labor during a tour
+of seven thousand miles on foot. This work treats, within a moderate
+compass, of the history and results of the surveys of those countries,
+of their climate, their geology, botany and zoology, as well as of the
+physical, moral and social state of the aborigines, and the state of
+colonial agriculture, the whole illustrated by comparisons with other
+countries visited by himself in the course of twelve years travel
+through other parts of the world." For these extensive explorations and
+discoveries, and for his valuable work in which they are embodied, the
+Royal Geographical Society of London awarded the "Founders" gold medal
+to Count Strzelecki.[54]
+
+Additional information to our knowledge of Australia is contained in
+Capt. Stokes's late work detailing the discoveries made by himself and
+other officers attached to H.M.S. Beagle. These discoveries consist of
+a minute examination of a large part of the coast of that island, of
+several rivers on its northern and northwestern sides, and of
+expeditions into the interior. Natives were seen in small numbers in
+various parts, all of whom were in the lowest state of barbarism. A
+remarkable diversity of character was noticed, however, among the
+natives of different localities, some being most kindly disposed, and
+approaching the strangers without fear, as though they were old
+acquaintances, whilst others manifested the greatest hostility and
+aversion. In the instances referred to, they had never seen white men
+before. Capt. Stokes says his "whole experience teaches him that these
+were not accidental differences, but that there is a marked contrast in
+the disposition of the various tribes, for which he will not attempt to
+account."[55] The natives at Port Essington, on the north, appear to be
+in some respects superior to those in other parts of the island. Their
+implements of war and their canoes show a connexion with the Malays.
+They also have a musical instrument made of bamboo, the only one yet
+found among them.[56] The rite of circumcision was practised on the
+northern coast near the gulf of Carpentaria. On the southern coast, at
+the head of the Australian bight, it had before been noticed by Mr.
+Eyre.[57] For the practice of this ancient rite at such remote
+distances, and confined to within such narrow limits, we can only
+account, by some early migration or visit of people by whom it was
+practised. Nothing has yet been done towards a comparison of the
+languages spoken by the Australian tribes. In the late cruise of Capt.
+Stokes, natives of the south were taken to the northern parts of the
+island, but in their intercourse with the people of the latter, they
+were unable to make themselves understood. It is possible, however, that
+like the languages of the American Indians, though they may exhibit a
+wide difference in words for similar objects, the grammatical structure
+may be the same. This is a more important test in ethnological
+comparison, and should be applied before any of the aboriginal tribes of
+Australia are extinct.
+
+By far the most important journey yet accomplished for the exploration
+of Australia, is that of Dr. Leichardt. This gentleman, accompanied by
+Mr. Gilbert, a naturalist, and six others, started from Moreton Bay, on
+the southeastern shore of the island, in October, 1844, to penetrate to
+Port Essington, on its most northerly point; in order, if possible, to
+open a direct route to Sydney. Several months after the party left,
+reports were brought to Moreton Bay that they had been cut off by the
+natives. This was proved to be untrue by an expedition sent out for the
+purpose, who traced the travellers four hundred miles into the interior.
+Dr. Leichardt found it impossible to penetrate into the interior in a
+direct course, on account of high table-land, and the absence of water;
+and this circumstance compelled him to keep within six or seven degrees
+of the coast. Their six months' provisions being exhausted, the only
+resource of the party was the horses and stock bullocks,--and with these
+the strictest economy was necessary. One was killed as provision for a
+month--sometimes a horse, at others a bullock. For six months prior to
+reaching Port Essington, the party were reduced to a quarter of a pound
+of meat per day--frequently putrescent--unaccompanied with salt, bread,
+or any kind of vegetable. In the neighborhood of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria, Mr. Gilbert, the naturalist, was surprised by the natives,
+and killed. The remainder reached Port Essington on the 2d of December,
+1845.[58]
+
+The narrative of Dr. Leichardt's expedition has not yet been published
+in detail. The report[59] which has appeared consists chiefly of notices
+of the geography of the region traversed, the soil, productions,
+climate, &c. He encountered natives in many places, sometimes in
+considerable numbers. By some they were kindly received, by others
+treated as enemies. Their characteristics are not noticed. The most
+extraordinary feature in Dr. Leichardt's narrative is the constant
+succession of water. Although the season was an exceedingly dry one, no
+rain having fallen for seven months, yet from the commencement to the
+close of his year and a half's expedition, throughout the whole length
+and breadth of the vast region he traversed, he was continually meeting
+with fresh water, in the forms of "pools, lagoons, brooks, wells,
+water-holes, rocky basins, living springs, swamps, streams, creeks or
+rivers." The soil in many places was of the best kind, covered with
+luxuriant grass and herbs. Of the former, some twenty kinds were seen.
+In lat. 18° 48Ž he found a level country, openly timbered, with fine
+plains, extending many miles in length and breadth. The flats bordering
+the creeks and rivers were covered with tall grass, and the table-lands
+presented equally attractive features. "The whole country along the east
+coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is highly adapted for pastoral
+pursuits. Cattle and horses would thrive exceedingly well, but the
+climate and soil are not adapted to sheep. Large plains, limited by
+narrow belts of open forest land; fine grassy meadows along frequent
+chains of lagoons, and shady forest land along the rivers, render this
+country inviting to the squatter." Dr. Leichardt thinks there are many
+districts suitable for the cultivation of rice and cotton.
+
+In regard to a communication between the settlements, it is the decided
+opinion of the Doctor, that no line of road can be effected direct from
+Fort Bourke to the northern settlement. A route from Moreton bay to the
+gulf of Carpentaria will be easily constructed. The whole coast is
+backed by ranges of mountains, consisting, nearest the sea, generally of
+granite and basaltic rocks, which he calls the granite range; behind
+this is a second range of sandstone. Descending from this and again
+rising, they entered upon the table-land; which they could nowhere
+penetrate, so as to determine what might be the character of the central
+country. It was covered with a dense shrub, had no water; and frequently
+there was difficulty in descending from it, owing to the perpendicular
+cliffs and deep ravines. They passed several rivers all of which ran
+easterly towards the coast. After reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria, they
+again ascended the table-land, and suffered extremely for want of water.
+The country beneath them was delightful to look at, but they were unable
+to descend to it, until they reached the dip towards the Alligaters.
+Here the country surpassed in fertility any thing that they had seen.
+
+By later advices from Sydney, it appears that this enterprising and
+zealous traveller, is again making arrangements for another expedition
+to explore the interior of this great island.[60] The Doctor now
+proposes to leave Moreton bay and endeavor to trace the sources of the
+rivers which flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria. He will then proceed
+northwest, penetrating directly across the unknown and unexplored
+interior, forming the are of a circle, to Swan river. This will be the
+most daring journey yet attempted; but under the direction of one who
+has already shown so much perseverance and undergone such severe
+hardships, it is to be hoped that his efforts may be crowned with
+success.
+
+An expedition for the exploration of Australia, under the command of Sir
+Thomas L. Mitchell, is at present employed in traversing the unknown
+parts of this vast country. When last heard from, the expedition had
+reached the latitude of 29° 45Ž longitude 147° 34Ž. The particulars of
+Dr. Leichardt's journey have been sent to him to guide him in his course
+of future operations.[61]
+
+     The following list embraces the latest works on Australia.
+
+     Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land,
+     accompanied by a Geographical map, by P.E. de Strzelecki. 8vo.
+     1845.
+
+     South Australia and its Mines; with an account of Captain
+     Grey's government, by Fr. Dutton. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     History of New South Wales, from its settlement to the close of
+     the year 1844, by Thomas H. Braim. 2 vols. post, 8vo. London,
+     1846.
+
+     Reminiscences of Australia, with hints on the Squatters' life,
+     by C.P. Hodgson. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     A visit to the Antipodes; with some reminiscences of a sojourn
+     in Australia. By a Squatter. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Enterprise in tropical Australia. By George W. Earl. 8vo.
+     London, 1846.
+
+     Impressions of Savage life, and scenes in Australia and New
+     Zealand. By G.F. Augas. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1847.
+
+     Travels in New South Wales. By Alexander Majoribanks. 12mo.
+     Lond. 1847.
+
+     Simmonds' Colonial Magazine contains a vast deal of information
+     relating to Australia, as well as to other British Colonies,
+     and is unquestionably the best book of reference on subjects
+     relating to the history and present condition of the British
+     colonies of any work extant.
+
+
+
+
+ASIA.
+
+
+LYCIA, ASIA MINOR. This interesting region has been further explored by
+two English gentlemen, Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Professor Forbes, who,
+accompanied by the Reverend E.T. Daniel, embarked from England in the
+year 1842, in H.M. ship Beacon, for the coast of Lycia, for the purpose
+of bringing home the remarkable monuments of antiquity discovered by Sir
+Charles Fellows.
+
+This gentleman, it will be remembered, was the first who in modern times
+successfully explored the interior. He visited the sites of many ancient
+cities and towns; copied numerous inscriptions, by means of which he was
+enabled to identify the names of fifteen out of eighteen cities; and
+made sketches of the most interesting sculptures and monuments.
+
+It is remarkable that a country so often spoken of by the Greek and
+Roman historians should not have sooner attracted attention, when
+districts contiguous to, as well as far beyond, have been so thoroughly
+explored. The ruins on the southern coast of Asia Minor, were first
+made known by Captain Beaufort, who discovered them when employed in
+making a survey of this coast. Several travellers subsequently made
+short excursions into the country; but it was not until Mr. now Sir
+Charles Fellows, in 1838 and 1840, made his visits and explorations,
+that the riches of the interior in historical monuments were disclosed.
+
+The relics of antiquity brought to light in these researches, consist
+first of the ruins of large cities, many of which, by reason of their
+isolated situation among the high lands and mountains, seem to have been
+preserved from the destruction which usually attends depopulated cities
+situated in more accessible places.
+
+These ruined cities contain amphitheatres more or less spacious, and
+generally in a good state of preservation, temples, aqueducts, and
+sepulchral monuments, together with numbers of lesser buildings, the
+dwelling houses of the inhabitants. The ruins of Christian churches are
+also found in many places, and in one instance a large and elegant
+cathedral; the purposes of these are satisfactorily made out by their
+inscriptions; and the date of their erection, when not otherwise known,
+may be fixed by their style of architecture. The most numerous as well
+as the most interesting monuments of these ancient cities, are their
+sepulchres. In some instances where a mountain or high rock is
+contiguous, it is pierced with thousands of tombs, presenting an
+appearance similar to Petræa in Idumea, sometimes called the City of the
+Dead. The roads in all directions are lined with tombs and sarcophagi,
+many of them covered with elaborate sculptures and inscriptions. It is
+by means of the latter, which abound and which exist in a fine state of
+preservation, that the names of the cities are identified and other
+historical facts brought to light. The following is a translation of the
+most common form of sepulchral inscription.
+
+    "THIS TOMB APOLLONIDES, SON OF MOLISSAS, MADE
+     FOR HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN: AND IF ANY ONE
+     VIOLATES IT, LET HIM PAY A FINE."
+
+Coins too are found, which possess considerable historic interest.
+
+In architecture, we find excellent specimens of the several Grecian
+orders, exhibiting both the perfection and declension of the art. The
+works of Sir Charles Fellows abound in architectural representations. A
+pointed arch was discovered by Lieut. Spratt and Professor Forbes in the
+interior of a tomb (a sketch of which is given) among the ruins of
+Antiphellas. This conclusively shows, that this peculiar form of the
+arch was not first introduced with Gothic architecture, as has been
+generally believed, but belongs to a period anterior to the Christian
+era. An inscription in the Lycian and Latin was found on the monument.
+
+The language of the ancient Lycians is an important discovery which has
+resulted from these researches. A bilingual inscription in Lycian and
+Greek first led to the key, and similar inscriptions, subsequently
+discovered, have furnished sufficient materials for ascertaining the
+values of the several letters of the alphabet, which consists of
+twenty-seven letters, two of which are still doubtful. Able
+disquisitions on the language have been written by Mr. Sharpe and
+Professor Grotefend.
+
+In regard to the antiquity of the monuments, and the people who spoke
+the language called Lycian, now first made known through these
+inscriptions, we are enabled to arrive at conclusions which fix their
+era with some degree of certainty. The earliest inscription yet
+decyphered is a bilingual one, which consists of an edict, in which the
+name of Harpagus, or his son, a well known personage, is mentioned;
+which would give a date of 530 to 500 B.C. This is about the period of
+the earliest arrow-head inscriptions yet known--namely, those at
+Behistun, of the age of Darius, decyphered by Major Rawlinson. The
+language belongs to the same family as the Zend and old Persian, and is
+supposed to have been in use in the same age as the former, and along
+with that of the Persepolitan inscriptions. The sculptures too, bear
+some resemblance to the figures on the Persian monuments, particularly
+the well known figure with an umbrella, so common on the latter.
+
+Other reasons are adduced by scholars for fixing the date of the Lycian
+language not before the fifth century B.C., or to the age of Herodotus.
+This historian was from the adjoining province of Caria; and as might be
+expected, gives accounts of the Lycians before his time, but does not
+say that they spoke a language different from his own, or from that of
+the entire region,--a fact that he would not have overlooked had such
+been the case.
+
+It is believed that Cyrus, when he subjected this country, brought in
+some people from his Persian dominions, who afterwards became the
+dominant party, and introduced their language.[62]
+
+It is surprising to find the names of these Lycian cities so well
+preserved when the descendants of its ancient inhabitants have been so
+entirely swept out of the country, and replaced by a people differing in
+manners, in religion, and having no interest connected with the
+locality to induce them to respect the relics or names, and keep alive
+the memory, of the former possessors of the soil.
+
+     Travels in Lycia, Milytas and the Cibyrates, in company with
+     the late Rev. E.T. Daniel, by Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Prof.
+     E. Forbes. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1847.
+
+     A Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor, by Charles
+     Fellows. royal 8vo. London, 1839.
+
+     An account of Discoveries in Lycia, in 1840. By Charles
+     Fellows, royal 8vo.
+
+     An Essay on the Lycian language. By Daniel Sharpe. (In the
+     appendix to Fellows' Journal.)
+
+
+ARABIA.
+
+If we now turn to the discoveries that have recently been made in the
+southern part of Arabia, we find much in them worthy of attention. This
+country, called in the Scriptures Hazarmaveth, by the natives Hadramaut,
+and by the classical writers of antiquity, Arabia Felix, is celebrated
+as being the kingdom of the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon, as well
+as for the gold, gems, frankincense and other precious productions,
+which it furnished in ancient times. It is represented by the Greek and
+Roman writers as a populous country, with many extensive cities,
+abounding in temples and palaces; though the palpable fables with which
+these accounts are intermingled, show that at least they had no personal
+knowledge of the facts, but retailed them at second hand.
+
+After Europe had awoke from the intellectual slumber of the dark ages,
+the Arabs were long regarded only as objects of religious and political
+abhorrence. The discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good
+Hope, at the close of the fifteenth century, by diverting the channel of
+Indo-European traffic from the Red Sea, left the countries bordering
+upon it in such a state of solitude, that when better feelings began to
+prevail, there was no means of obtaining any direct information
+respecting them.
+
+In 1650, the illustrious Pococke, by the publication of his Specimens of
+Ancient Arabian History, extracted from native authors, created a
+curiosity respecting Southern Arabia and its ancient inhabitants, which
+successive collections of a similar nature, down to our own times, have
+served rather to increase than to gratify. The researches of Niebuhr,
+Seetzen, and Burckhardt, in the latter part of the last, and the
+beginning of the present century, made us somewhat acquainted with the
+western extremity of this country, along the shores of the Red Sea; but
+before the investigations of which we are about to speak, its southern
+coast had never been accurately explored, and the great body of the
+interior, with its once famous capital, Mareb, remained, as it ever had
+been, completely unknown to and unvisited by the natives of Europe.
+
+The hordes of pirates, which until twenty years ago infested the Persian
+Gulf, caused the government of British India to order a complete survey
+of its islands and both its shores, with the view of laying bare their
+haunts, and putting an end to their depredations. In 1829, after this
+service had been performed, the project then recently set on foot of
+establishing a steam communication between England and Bombay, caused
+orders to be issued for a similar examination of the Red Sea.
+
+The attention of the officers composing the expedition, was not
+restricted to the technical duties in which they were chiefly engaged.
+It was well known that information of every kind would be prized by the
+government which they served; and this, together with the monotony of
+life on board ship on the one hand, and the novelty of the scenes by
+which they were surrounded on the other, seems to have created among
+them a spirit of emulation that led to the most interesting discoveries
+respecting both the geography and the antiquities of the adjacent
+countries.
+
+Among the most intelligent and enterprising of these officers was the
+late Lieut. Wellsted, who thus describes his reflections on joining the
+expedition in the Red Sea, on the 12th October, 1830. "From the earliest
+dawn of history, the northern shores of the Red Sea have figured as the
+scene of events which both religious and civil records have united to
+render memorable. Here Moses and the Patriarchs tended their flocks, and
+put in motion those springs of civilization, which, from that period,
+have never ceased to urge forward the whole human race in the career of
+improvement. On the one hand the Valley of the Wanderings, commencing
+near the site of Memphis, and opening upon the Red Sea, conducts the
+fancy along the track pursued by the Hebrews during their flight out of
+Egypt; on the other hand are Mount Sinai, bearing still upon its face
+the impress of miraculous events, and beyond it that strange, stormy,
+and gloomy-looking sea, once frequented by Phoenician merchants'
+ships, by the fleets of Solomon and Pharaoh, and those barks of later
+times which bore the incenses, the gems, the gold and spices of the
+East, to be consumed or lavishly squandered upon favorites at the courts
+of Macedonia or Rome. But the countries lying along this offshoot of the
+Indian Ocean, have another kind of interest, peculiar perhaps to
+themselves. On the Arabian side we find society much what it was four
+thousand years ago; for amidst the children of Ishmael it has undergone
+but trifling modifications. Their tents are neither better nor worse
+than they were when they purchased Joseph of his brethren, on their way
+to Egypt; the Sheikhs possess no other power or influence than they
+enjoyed then; the relations of the sexes have suffered little or no
+changes; they eat, drink, clothe themselves, educate their children,
+make war and peace, just as they did in the day of the Exodus. But on
+the opposite shores, all has been change, fluctuation, and decay. While
+the Bedouins have wandered with their camels and their flocks,
+unaspiring, unimproving, they have looked across the gulf and beheld the
+Egyptian overthrown by the Persian, the Persian by the Greek, the Greek
+by the Roman, and the Roman in his turn by a daring band from their own
+burning deserts. They have seen empires grow up like Jonah's gourd. War
+has swept away some; the varieties and luxuries of peace have brought
+others to the ground; and every spot along these shores is celebrated."
+
+When the northeastern and the western shores of the Arabian peninsula
+had thus been investigated, there still remained to be explored the
+south eastern shore, the coast of the anciently renowned province of
+Hadramaut, extending from Tehama, on the Red Sea, to the province of
+Oman, at the entrance to the Persian Gulf; and it is to the discoveries
+made in this almost unknown part of the world that I now wish more
+particularly to allude.
+
+In the year 1839 Capt. Haines, the commander of the expedition and the
+present governor of Aden, published his survey of about two fifths of
+this coast, extending from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb as far east as
+Missenaat, in long. 51° east of Greenwich.[63] In the year 1845, he
+published his further survey of about an equal portion extending to Cape
+Isolette, in long. 57° 51Ž, leaving about one fifth of the whole extent
+on the eastern end still to be explored.[64]
+
+In June, 1843, Adolphe Baron Wrede, a Hanoverian gentleman, made an
+excursion from Makallah on the coast, into the interior of the country.
+He visited among other places an extensive valley called Wadi Doan,
+which he thus describes. "The sudden appearance of the Wadi Doan, took
+me by surprise and impressed me much with the grandeur of the scene. The
+ravine, five hundred feet wide and six hundred feet in depth, is
+enclosed between perpendicular rocks, the debris of which form in one
+part a slope reaching to half their height. On this slope, towns and
+villages rise contiguously in the form of an amphitheatre; while below
+the date grounds, which are covered with a forest of trees, the river
+about twenty feet broad and enclosed by high and walled embankments is
+seen winding through fields laid out in terraces, then pursuing its
+course in the open plain, irrigated by small canals branching from it.
+My first view of the valley disclosed to me four towns and four
+villages, within the space of an hour's distance." He also gives an
+account of some curious spots of quicksand, in the midst of the great
+desert of El-Akkaf, which are regarded with superstitious horror by the
+wandering Bedouins. A cord of sixty fathoms in length with a plummet at
+the end, which he cast into one of them, disappeared in the course of
+five minutes. His narrative is published in the fourteenth volume of the
+Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London.
+
+In spite of the glowing descriptions of ancient authors, the idea
+hitherto entertained of this region in modern times, has been that of a
+succession of desert plains and sand-hills, with nothing to give
+animation to the arid scene but solitary groups of Bedouins and
+occasionally a passing caravan. The recent explorations, however, of
+which the one just quoted is a specimen, show that this is far from
+being a correct view of the entire country. The coast is thickly studded
+with fishing-villages and small seaports, which still carry on, though
+on a diminished scale, the trade with India and the Persian gulf, which
+has existed ever since the dawn of history. It is true, the general
+appearance of the country along the coast, consisting as it does of
+successive ranges of sand-hills, is such as to naturally give rise to
+the views entertained and promulgated by navigators, who have had no
+opportunity of visiting the interior. But the deeper researches that
+have been made during the last ten or twelve years, show that these
+opinions are very erroneous; for besides that there are a number of
+green valleys running down to the coast, produced by streams provided
+with water for at least a good part of the year, no sooner has the
+traveller surmounted the first range of sand-hills, than his sight
+begins to be regaled with numerous well watered valleys and mountains
+covered with verdure. Besides this, even in those parts of the country
+where the surface is naturally a desert plain, the inhabitants have
+possessed from the remotest times the art of forming flourishing oases,
+in which to establish their hamlets and towns; an operation which, as
+Wellsted remarks, is effected with a labor and skill that seem more
+Chinese than Arabian. This traveller says: "The greater part of the face
+of the country being destitute of running streams on the surface, the
+Arabs have sought in elevated places for springs or fountains beneath
+it. A channel from this fountain-head is then, with a very slight
+descent, bored in the direction in which it is to be conveyed, leaving
+apertures at regular distances, to afford light and air to those who are
+occasionally sent to keep it clean. In this manner water is frequently
+conducted from a distance of six or eight miles, and an unlimited supply
+is thus obtained. These channels are usually about four feet broad and
+two feet deep, and contain a clear and rapid stream. Few of the large
+towns or oases but had four or five of these rivulets or feleji running
+into them. The isolated spots to which water is thus conveyed possess a
+soil so fertile, that nearly every grain, fruit, or vegetable, common to
+India, Arabia, or Persia, is produced almost spontaneously; and the
+tales of the oases will be no longer regarded as an exaggeration, since
+a single step conveys the traveller from the glare and sand of the
+desert into a fertile tract, watered by a hundred rills, teeming with
+the most luxuriant vegetation, and embowered by lofty and stately trees,
+whose umbrageous foliage the fiercest rays of a noontide sun cannot
+penetrate."[65]
+
+These oases and the towns situated in them, date from various periods;
+some of those already discovered being evidently of considerable
+antiquity. In describing some of these towns, Wellsted says: "The
+instant you step from the Desert within the Grove, a most sensible
+change of the atmosphere is experienced. The air feels cold and damp;
+the ground in every direction is saturated with moisture; and from the
+density of the shade, the whole appears dark and gloomy. To avoid the
+damp and catch an occasional beam of the sun above the trees, the
+houses are usually very lofty. A parapet encircling the upper part is
+turreted; and on some of the largest houses guns are mounted. The
+windows and doors have the Saracenic arch; and every part of the
+building is profusely decorated with ornaments of stucco in bas relief,
+some in very good taste. The doors are also cased with brass, and have
+rings and other massive ornaments of the same metal." These descriptions
+relate to the province of Oman, the eastern extremity of Southern
+Arabia. The glimpses already obtained of this ancient and famous land,
+sufficiently prove that the fortunate traveller who shall succeed in
+obtaining access into the interior of the country, which has always been
+a _terra incognita_ to Europeans and their descendants, will find an
+abundance of objects of interest to reward his zeal and self-devotion.
+
+There is however another class of interesting objects, relating to the
+ancient history of the country, which I have not alluded to until now,
+because I wish to speak of them more particularly. These are the ancient
+_inscriptions_, of which a number have already been discovered and in
+part decyphered.
+
+Several Arabian writers have stated that there existed in the southern
+part of their country, before the time of Mohammed, a kind of writing
+which they call Himyaritic, after the name of the ancient inhabitants of
+the country, the Beni Himyar. But the confused nature of these accounts,
+together with the Arab practice of giving the name of Himyaritic to
+every ancient mode of writing which they were unable to read, caused the
+story to be regarded as little better than fabulous. In the year 1808
+the late Baron de Sacy published a learned treatise on the subject, in
+which he collected all the Arabian accounts; but no further progress was
+made in the enquiry, until the discovery of a number of inscriptions on
+various massy ruins situated along the coast and in the interior, by
+officers attached to the surveying expedition already spoken of, in the
+years 1834 and '5.
+
+Copies of these inscriptions were transmitted to the late Dr. Gesenius
+of Halle, one of the first Orientalists of Europe. After making some
+progress in the investigation, he gave up the subject to his colleague
+Dr. Rödiger, who had devoted himself to it with great ardor and success.
+The latter published a copious dissertation containing the results he
+had arrived at, which he reprinted in 1842 by way of an appendix to his
+German edition of Wellsted's Travels in Arabia. By comparing the
+characters of the inscriptions with the Himyaritic alphabets contained
+in some Arabic manuscripts and with the present Ethiopic alphabet, he
+was enabled to ascertain the powers of the letters, and even to
+interpret, with various degrees of certainty, many portions of the
+inscriptions themselves. Thus, these venerable records, which in all
+probability have for many ages been dumb to every human being, are in a
+fair way of being made to yield up to modern scientific research
+whatever information they may contain. That this information must be
+interesting and valuable to the historian is inferred from the imposing
+nature of the structures on which they are found, and whose existence
+but a few years ago was as little looked for in this part of the world
+as in the forest wilds of Oregon. A full account of these discoveries
+and of the attempts at decyphering the inscriptions was published in
+1845 in the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society
+of this city. I will therefore merely proceed to state what has been
+accomplished in the matter since the time when that account closes.
+
+In the beginning of 1843, the same year in which M. Wrede made his
+exploration, a French physician of the name of Arnaud being then at
+Jiddah, received from M. Fresnel, the French consular agent at that
+port, accounts of the Himyaritic inscriptions discovered by the officers
+of the Indian Navy, and of the interest they had created in Europe. M.
+Arnaud's enthusiasm being excited on the subject, he resolved to take a
+share in these arduous researches. The grand object of his ambition was
+to reach Mareb, the ancient capital of Hadramaut and the residence of
+the famous Queen of Sheba, whose name according to the Arabians was
+Balkis. Two English officers had undertaken the journey several years
+ago, and had reached Sana, a town within three or four days' journey of
+it; but the suspicions of the native authorities becoming excited, their
+further progress was prevented.
+
+The mode of proceeding adopted by M. Arnaud, who spoke the Arabic
+fluently, was to travel as a Mussulman, in company with a caravan going
+to the place. His plan was happily crowned with success. In the middle
+of July he reached the city, where he saw the imposing remains of the
+ancient dam, said to have been built across the valley of Mareb by
+Balkis herself, and which, by collecting an immense body of water near
+the metropolis, whence the surrounding country was irrigated, had given
+rise to the fertility and beauty for which the region was celebrated in
+ancient times. On these remains M. Arnaud discovered a number of
+inscriptions, as also among the ruins of the former city; among the most
+remarkable of these is one called Harem Balkis, which is thought to be
+the remains of the palace of the ancient Sabean kings. The inscriptions
+of which Mr. Arnaud brought away copies with him amount to fifty-six in
+number. The tour of M. Wrede was also not unproductive in this respect.
+He copied, among others, a long inscription in Wadi Doan; which,
+according to the interpretations that have since been made of it,
+contains a list of kings more copious than those which have been left us
+by Albulfeda and other historians of the middle ages.
+
+When M. Arnaud returned to Jiddah from his hazardous and toilsome
+expedition, M. Fresnel, who had originally moved him to the undertaking,
+set about studying the new inscriptions, aided by the previous labors of
+the German scholars and his own knowledge of Arabic and the modern
+Himyaritic. Possessing a far more abundant supply of materials than had
+been collected before, he was able to assign to a few doubtful
+characters their proper values. He transmitted to Paris a fair copy of
+the original inscriptions, and also a transcription of them in the
+Arabic character, showing how they should be read. A fount of Himyaritic
+types having been constructed for the express purpose at the Imprimerie
+Royale, they were all published in the course of last year in the
+Journal Asiatique, together with several letters on the subject from M.
+Fresnel. The form of the characters in these inscriptions is essentially
+the same as in those discovered before; but, whereas the former ones all
+read from right to left like the Arabic of the present day, some of the
+new ones are found to read alternately from right to left and from left
+to right, like some of the inscriptions of ancient Greece. M. Fresnel's
+attention has been mainly directed to the collection and identification
+of the proper names of persons, deities, and places, in which the
+inscriptions abound, and in which he recognises many names mentioned in
+Scripture, and in Greek, Roman, and Arabian authors. Thus he identifies
+the deity 'Athtor with the Ashtoreth or Venus of the Hebrews. He finds
+in an inscription at Hisn Ghorab the word Kaná, showing the correctness
+of the conclusion already arrived at that this is the _Cane emporium_ of
+Ptolemy. He identifies the ruins of Kharibeh, a day's journey to the
+west of Mareb, with the Caripeta of Pliny, the furthest point reached by
+the Roman commander, Ælius Gallus, in his expedition into Arabia Felix,
+in the reign of Augustus Cæsar. He has also recognised many names of
+Himyaritic sovereigns mentioned by Arabian writers, among others those
+of the grandfather and uncle of Queen Balkis. M. Fresnel has also begun
+to translate the inscriptions connectedly, a work of great labor and
+difficulty. He has already furnished an improved reading and translation
+of one at Sana, which had been copied before by English officers, and
+interpreted by Gesenius and Rödiger, and has offered a translation of
+another found by M. Arnaud, on the Hiram Balkis at Mareb.
+
+The discoveries already brought to light, merely serve to show the
+richness of the mine that yet remains to be explored. Other expeditions
+are now planning, or in progress of execution, for penetrating into
+other parts of the country; and eminent scholars are busied in
+elucidating the treasures which the enterprize of travellers is bringing
+to light. Their united exertions cannot fail, at least, to accumulate
+many curious particulars relative to the history of one of the most
+remarkable and least known nations of past ages.
+
+The Rev. T. Brockman, who was sent by the Royal Geographical Society of
+England for the purpose of geographical and antiquarian research in the
+Arabian peninsula, had proceeded up the coast from Aden to Shehar,
+midway between Aden and Muscat, and had coasted along to Cape Ras
+al-Gat. Subsequently in attempting to reach Muscat, he was arrested by
+sickness at Wadi Beni Jabor, where after a few days he died. His papers,
+which will be sent to the Geographical Society, are thought to contain
+matters of interest respecting this region.[66]
+
+     The following list embraces all of consequence that has been
+     written on Southern Arabia and the Himyaritic Inscriptions.
+
+     Pococke, Specimina Historiæ veterum Arabum. Oxford, 1649,
+     reprinted 1806.
+
+     De Sacy, sur divers Évènemens de l'histoire des Arabes avant
+     Mahomet, in Mém. de Lit. de l'Acad. Française, Vol. L. Paris,
+     1805.
+
+     Historia Jemanæ, e cod. MS. arabico, ed. G.T. Johannsen. Bonn,
+     1828.
+
+     Travels in Arabia, by Lieut. Wellsted, 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+     1838.
+
+     Memoir on the south coast of Arabia, by Capt. Harris. Journal
+     Royal Geographical Society, Vol. VI. IX.
+
+     Narrative of a Journey from Mokha to Sana: by C.J.
+     Cruttenden.--Ibid. Vol. VIII.
+
+     Gesenius, Über die Himjaritischen Sprache und Schrift, Halle,
+     1841.
+
+     Rödiger, Versuch über die Himjaritischen Schriftmonumente.
+     Halle, 1841. This was republished, with many improvements, in
+     an Appendix to the author's German translation of Wellsted's
+     Travels. 2 vols. Halle, 1842.
+
+     Ewald, on an inscription recently dug up in Aden, Zeitschrift
+     für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1843.
+
+     The Historical Geography of Arabia, or the Patriarchal
+     Evidences of Revealed Religion. By the Rev. Charles Forster, 2
+     vols. 8vo. London, 1844.
+
+     F. Fresnel. Letters to M. Jules Mohl, on the Himyaritic
+     Inscriptions. Paris, 1845.
+
+     Account of an excursion to Hadramaut, by Adolph Baron Wrede.
+     Journal Royal Geographical Society, Vol. XIV.
+
+     Memoir of the south and east coast of Arabia, by Capt. S.B.
+     Harris.--Ibid. Vol. XV.
+
+
+SCLAVONIC MSS.--It is stated in the Russian papers that M.
+Grigorowitsch, professor of the sclavonic tongues in the Imperial
+University of Kasan, has returned to that capital from a two year's
+journey in the interior of Turkey, by order of the Russian government,
+in search of the graphic monuments of the ancient Sclavonic nations. He
+has brought home fac-similes of many hundred inscriptions, and 2,138
+Sclavonian manuscripts--450 of which are said to be very ancient, and of
+great importance.
+
+
+THE CAUCASUS.--The results of a scientific expedition for the
+exploration of the Steppes of the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, and of
+Southern Russia, under the direction of M. Hommaire de Hell, has lately
+been published. This portion of the East has been little noticed by
+travellers, and the present work has therefore added much to our
+previous knowledge of the country. It is accompanied by a large map, on
+which the geographical and geological peculiarities are defined with
+great minuteness and elegance.[67]
+
+
+ASSYRIA AND PERSIA.
+
+The discoveries recently made, and the researches now in progress in
+those regions of the world known in ancient times as Assyria, Babylonia
+and Persia, are among the most interesting and important of the age. Of
+the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians we know nothing, but what we find
+in the Bible, or what has been preserved and handed down to us by the
+Greek historians. Unlike Egypt, who has left so many records of her
+greatness, of her knowledge of the arts, and of her advancement in
+civilization, in the numerous and wonderful monumental remains in the
+valley of the Nile, the Assyrians were supposed to have left nothing, no
+existing monuments as evidences that they ever had an existence, save in
+the vast and misshapen heaps along the banks of the Euphrates and
+Tigris, believed to wash the spots where the great cities of Nineveh and
+Babylon once stood. The site of Nineveh still remains doubtful; and so
+literally have the prophecies in regard to Babylon been fulfilled, that
+nothing but vast heaps of rubbish, of tumuli, and traces of numerous
+canals, remains. The language of the Assyrians is unknown, and the
+impressions of characters in the form of a wedge or arrow-head stamped
+upon the bricks and other relics dug from these heaps, have been looked
+upon as mysterious and cabalistic signs, rather than the representatives
+of sounds, or belonging to a regular form of speech. For more than
+twenty centuries, these countries have been as a blank on the page of
+history; and all we have gathered from them consists in the observations
+of curious travellers, who, at the risk of their lives, have ventured to
+extend their wanderings this way.
+
+Pietro della Valle, Le Brun, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, Rich, and Ouseley,
+have given us descriptions of the ancient remains in Persia and Assyria,
+particularly those at Persepolis, Pasargadæ, and Babylon. These consist
+of views of the monuments and sculptures, together with copies of the
+inscriptions in the cuneiform, or arrow-head character. The object of
+the edifices, the subject of the sculptures, and the meaning of the
+inscriptions, were wholly matters of conjecture; and it seemed a
+hopeless task to arrive at any conclusions in relation to them, until
+some key should be discovered, by the means of which the language should
+be made known, and the numerous inscriptions decyphered. No bilingual
+tablet, such as the Rosetta stone of Egypt, had been discovered; and,
+although it appeared that many of the inscriptions were recorded in
+three different languages, no means seemed to exist by which
+philologists could obtain a clue to their meaning. With this dark
+prospect in view, the task of decyphering the arrow-headed characters
+was attempted by M. Grotefend, one of the most sagacious and
+distinguished philologists of Europe. The particulars of the attempt and
+its results, we shall briefly state.
+
+At Persepolis it is known are extensive ruins, chiefly belonging to a
+large edifice, with every indication that this edifice was originally a
+royal palace. History and tradition supported this belief; and the
+general character of the sculptures and architecture, together with the
+inscriptions, would carry its origin back to a period some centuries
+before the Christian era. It was doubtless the work of one of the great
+monarchs of Persia; of Cyrus, Cambyses, Xerxes, Darius, or some other
+with whom history is familiar.[68] On some of the monuments at
+Persepolis, are inscriptions in the Pehlvi character, parts of which
+have been decyphered by M. de Sacy. In one of these, the titles and name
+of a king are often repeated; these titles M. Grotefend thought might be
+repeated in the same manner in the arrow-head characters.[69]
+
+Over the doorways and in other parts of this edifice, are portraits,
+evidently of kings, as there is always enough in the dress and insignia
+of a monarch to enable one to detect him on any ancient monument. Over
+these portraits are inscriptions; these it was natural to suppose
+related to the person represented, and if so, contained the name of the
+king and his titles. Such would be the conclusion of any one who
+reflected on the subject, and such was the belief of M. Grotefend and
+other philologists. In these inscriptions one group of characters was
+repeated more frequently than any other, and all agreed that the
+decyphering of this group would furnish a key to the whole. On this
+group of characters then our Savans set to work.
+
+According to the analogy of the Pehlvi inscriptions, decyphered by De
+Sacy, it was believed that the inscriptions then under consideration,
+mentioned the name of a king son of another king, that is the names of
+father and son. M. Grotefend first examined the bas-reliefs at
+Persepolis, to ascertain the particular age of the Persian kings to
+which they belonged, in order that he might discover the names
+applicable to the inscription. A reference to the Greek historians
+convinced him that he must look for the kings of the dynasty of the
+Achæmenides, and he accordingly applied their names to the characters of
+the inscriptions. "These names could obviously not be Cyrus and
+Cambyses, because the names occurring in the inscriptions do not begin
+with the same letter; Cyrus and Artaxerxes were equally inapplicable,
+the first being too short and the latter too long; there only remained
+therefore the names of Darius and Xerxes;" and these latter agreed so
+exactly with the characters, that Mr. Grotefend did not hesitate to
+select them. The next step was to ascertain what these names were in the
+old Persian language, as they come to us through the Greek, and would of
+course differ somewhat from the original. The ancient Zend, as preserved
+in the Zendavesta, furnished the only medium through which the desired
+information could be obtained.[70] He next ascertained that Xerxes was
+called _Kshershe_ or _Ksharsha_; and Darius, _Dareush_. A farther
+examination gave him the name of _Kshe_ or _Ksheio_ for 'king.'[71] The
+places or groups of characters corresponding with these names, were then
+analyzed and the value of each character ascertained. These were then
+applied to other portions of the inscriptions, and led to the
+translation of two short ones, as well as to the formation of a
+considerable portion of the alphabet.
+
+Such was the result of Professor Grotefend's labors up to the year 1833.
+His first discovery was made and announced as early as 1802, but an
+account of his system of interpretation did not appear until 1815, in
+the appendix to the third German edition of Heeren's Researches. This
+was afterwards enlarged in the translation of Heeren published at Oxford
+in 1833, when it was first made known to English readers. In 1837 he
+published a treatise containing an account of all the Persepolitan
+inscriptions in his possession, and another in 1840 on those of Babylon.
+
+The brilliant success which attended Grotefend's earlier efforts, soon
+attracted the attention of other philologists to the subject. M. Saint
+Martin read a memoir before the Asiatic Society of Paris in 1822, but
+did not make any additions to our previous knowledge. Professor Rask
+next took it up, and discovered the value of two additional characters.
+M. Burnouf followed in 1836, with an elaborate memoir, in which he
+disclosed some important discoveries.[72] Professor Lassen, in his
+Memoir published in 1836, and in a series of papers continued up to the
+present day,[73] has identified at least twelve characters, which had
+been mistaken by all his predecessors, and which, says Maj. Rawlinson,
+"may entitle him almost to contest with Professor Grotefend the palm of
+alphabetical discovery."
+
+In 1835, Major Rawlinson, then residing in Persia, turned his attention
+to the subject, and decyphered some of the proper names on the tablets
+at Hamadan. In the following year he applied himself to the great
+inscription at Behistun, the largest and most remarkable that is known
+in Persia, and succeeded in making out several lines of its contents.
+
+The result of Major Rawlinson's first attempt at decyphering the
+Behistun inscription, was the identification of several proper names,
+and consequently the values of additional characters towards the
+completion of the alphabet.[74] But more was wanted than the alphabet,
+which only enabled the student to make out proper names, but not to
+advance beyond; and it was the lack of this knowledge which prevented
+the sagacious and indefatigable Grotefend from carrying out to any great
+extent, the discoveries which he had so well begun.
+
+The language of the inscriptions must next be studied; and as the Zend
+had been the medium through which the first links in the chain of
+interpretation had been obtained, it was naturally resorted to for aid
+to farther progress. The Zendavesta, with the researches of Anquetil du
+Perron, and the commentary at the Yaçna by M. Burnouf, wherein the
+language of the Zendavesta is critically analyzed, and its grammatical
+structure developed, furnished the necessary materials. To the latter
+work, and the luminous critique of M. Burnouf, Major Rawlinson owes the
+success of his translations; as he acknowledges that by it he "obtained
+a general knowledge of the grammatical structure of the language of the
+inscriptions."
+
+But the Zend was not of itself sufficient to make out all the words and
+expressions in the Behistun and other inscriptions. Other languages
+contemporary with that of the inscription and of the Zend must be sought
+for, to elucidate many points which it left obscure.[75] The Sanscrit
+was the only one laying claim to a great antiquity, whose grammatical
+structure was sufficiently developed to render it useful in this
+enquiry. A knowledge of this language had previously been acquired by
+Major Rawlinson, and he was therefore fully prepared for the arduous
+task he had undertaken. Neither of these, it must be observed, was the
+language of the inscriptions, which it is believed had ceased to be a
+living form of speech, at the period when the Sanscrit and Zend were in
+current use.
+
+It is unnecessary to note in detail the difficulties and great labor
+attending the decyphering of the Behistun tablets, on which Major
+Rawlinson was occupied from time to time during a space of ten years.
+His discoveries were announced in London, in a memoir read before the
+Royal Asiatic Society in 1839, but were not published in extenso until
+1846.
+
+Briefly to sum up the results of his labors, it will suffice to state
+that they present "a correct grammatical translation of nearly four
+hundred lines of cuneiform writing, a memorial of the time of Darius
+Hystaspes, the greater part of which is in so perfect a state as to
+afford ample and certain grounds for a minute orthographical and
+etymological analysis, and the purport of which to the historian, must
+be of fully equal interest with the peculiarities of the language to the
+philologist." In a few cases it may be found necessary to alter or
+modify some of the significations assigned; but there is no doubt but
+that the general meaning of every paragraph is accurately determined,
+and that the learned Orientalist has thus been enabled "to exhibit a
+correct historical outline, possessing the weight of royal and
+contemporaneous recital, of many great events which preceded the rise
+and marked the career of one of the most celebrated of the early
+sovereigns of Persia."
+
+Such is the history of this great discovery, which has placed the name
+of Major Rawlinson among the most distinguished Oriental scholars of the
+age. He will rank among the laborers in cuneiform writing, where
+Champollion does among the decypherers of Egyptian hieroglyphics; for
+though, like Champollion, he did not make the first discoveries in his
+branch of Palæography, he is certainly entitled to the honor of reducing
+it to a system, by ascertaining the true powers of a large portion of
+the alphabet, and by elucidating its grammatical peculiarities, so that
+future investigators will find little difficulty in translating any
+inscription in the particular class of characters in question.
+
+The cuneiform (wedge-shaped) or arrow-headed character is a system of
+writing peculiar to the countries between the Euphrates and the Persian
+frontier on the East. Various combinations of a figure shaped like a
+wedge, together with one produced by the union of two wedges, constitute
+the system of writing employed by the ancient Assyrians, Babylonians,
+Medes, and the Achæmenian kings of Persia. The character seems to have
+been as extensively employed in this portion of the world, as the Roman
+letters now are in Europe. Particular arrangements or combinations of
+these characters apparently belonged to different nations, speaking
+different languages. When and where this system of writing originated is
+not known. Professor Westergaard[76] thinks that "Babylon was its
+cradle, whence it spread in two branches, eastward to Susiana, and
+northward to the Assyrian empire, from whence it passed into Media, and
+lastly into ancient Persia, where it was much improved and brought to
+its greatest perfection."
+
+Major Rawlinson makes of the arrow-headed writing three great classes or
+divisions, the _Babylonian_, _Median_ and _Persian_. The first of these
+he thinks is unquestionably the oldest. "It is found upon the bricks
+excavated from the foundations of all the buildings in Mesopotamia,
+Babylonia, and Chaldea, that possess the highest and most authentic
+claims to antiquity;" and he thinks it "not extravagant therefore to
+assign its invention to the primitive race which settled in the plain of
+Shinar."[77] In the recent excavations made by M. Botta and Mr. Layard,
+on or near the site of ancient Nineveh, numerous inscriptions in this
+form of the arrow-head character were found. It also occurs in detached
+inscriptions from the Mediterranean to the Persian mountains.
+
+A comparison of the various inscriptions in the Babylonian class of
+writing has led Major Rawlinson to believe that it embraces five
+distinct varieties, which he calls the Primitive Babylonian, the
+Achæmenian Babylonian, the Medo-Assyrian, the Assyrian, and the
+Elymæan.[78] The peculiarities of these several varieties, with the
+countries in which they are found, are pointed out in the second chapter
+of our author's learned Memoir on cuneiform writing. The Median and
+Persian classes are peculiar to the trilingual tablets of Persia, and
+are better known than the first class or Babylonian.
+
+Mr. Westergaard[79] divides the cuneiform writing into five classes: the
+_Assyrian_; the _Old Babylonian_; and the three kinds on the trilingual
+tablets of Persia, which embrace the _Median_ and _Persian_ varieties,
+and the one called by Rawlinson the _Achæmenian Babylonian_.
+
+The history we have already given of the progress made in decyphering
+these characters applies exclusively to one of the varieties on the
+tablets of Persia. The inscriptions on these monuments are almost
+invariably repeated in three sets of characters, and doubtless in three
+different languages. The characters of what appears in each case to be
+the primary or original inscription, of which the others are
+translations, are of the simplest construction, and consequently were
+the first to attract the attention of decypherers, and to yield to their
+efforts. The language in which they are written has been found to
+exhibit close affinities both to the Sanscrit and to the Zend, and is
+now termed by philologists the Old Persian. The system of writing is
+alphabetic, that is to say, each character represents a single
+articulate sound; whereas that of the other two species is at least in a
+great measure syllabic, which renders the task of decyphering them much
+more difficult.
+
+For our knowledge of the second variety of characters on the Persian
+trilingual tablets, we are indebted to the labors and sagacity of
+Professor Westergaard.[80] These characters had remained entirely
+undecyphered until the first kind had been completely made out. It was
+evident that the inscriptions in the second kind of character were but a
+translation of those in the first; and with this supposition, this
+learned Orientalist began the task of decyphering, by identifying the
+proper names Darius, Hystaspes, Cyrus, Xerxes, Persians, Ionians, &c.,
+which frequently occur in the inscriptions decyphered by Major
+Rawlinson. Having obtained these, he next analyzed each and ascertained
+the phonetic values of the several characters of which they are
+composed. By this means, he was enabled to construct an alphabet. He
+next examined the introductory words and the titles of the sovereigns,
+and finally the entire inscriptions, all of which he has most
+satisfactorily made out, and with them has reconstructed the language in
+which they are written. In his learned and elaborate article detailing
+the process of this discovery, Professor Westergaard gives a systematic
+classification of the characters, one hundred in number, of which
+seventy-four are syllabic, twenty-four alphabetic, and two signs of
+division between words. The character of the language, which for
+convenience sake he terms Median, he does not pretend to decide, though
+he considers that it belongs to the Scythian rather than to the Japhetic
+class of languages; in which opinion Major Rawlinson coincides. The
+Oriental Journal alluded to in the second note to p. 90, contains
+several learned papers by Professors Westergaard and Lassen, on the
+arrow-headed inscriptions.
+
+In the third sort of Persepolitan characters, termed the Achæmenian
+Babylonian, some advances have been made by Major Rawlinson. The
+contents of the other portions of these tablets being known, he pursued
+the course adopted by Professor Westergaard, namely that of identifying
+the groups of characters corresponding with the proper names in the
+other inscriptions. He has thus been enabled to ascertain the phonetic
+values of a large number of characters which must in time lead to a
+knowledge of the rest of the alphabet. A beginning in this direction was
+also made by Professor Grotefend, who in his Memoirs of 1837 and 1840,
+singles out and places in juxtaposition the names of Cyrus, Hystaspes,
+Darius and Xerxes, in the first and third species of Persepolitan
+writing. There is every reason to hope that the labors of the three
+accomplished Oriental scholars, Rawlinson, Lassen, and Westergaard,
+which have been so far crowned with success, will add to their fame by
+making out the characters and language of this species of writing also.
+A high degree of interest is attached to it, not only on account of the
+information it embodies, but in regard to the nation to which it is
+assignable.
+
+It will be recollected, that besides these three sorts of Persepolitan
+writing, there are two other distinct classes of arrow-head characters,
+called Babylonian and Assyrian. Little or nothing has yet been
+accomplished towards decyphering them; which is owing to the fact that
+they are of a very complicated nature, and that they have hitherto been
+found alone, that is to say not accompanied by a version in any other
+language or character. A Parisian savant, M.J. Löwenstern, who has
+applied himself to the study of the Assyrian tablets, published in 1845
+an Essay on the monument recently discovered by M. Botta at Khorsabad
+near Mosul, in which he thinks he has made out the groups which stand
+for the words _great king_, and also several alphabetical characters.
+Further investigations can alone determine whether or not his
+conclusions are correct.
+
+It will be necessary to state some of the historical facts brought to
+light by the labors of Major Rawlinson, to which we have alluded. The
+great tablet at Behistun relates exclusively to Darius. "To this
+monarch," says Major Rawlinson, "insatiable in his thirst of conquest,
+magnificent in his tastes, and possessed of an unlimited power, we are
+indebted for all that is most valuable in the palæography of Persia.
+Imbued, as it appears, with an ardent passion for monumental fame, he
+was not content to inscribe the palaces of his foundation at Persepolis
+with a legend commemorative of their erection, or with prayers invoking
+the guardianship of Ormuzd and his angels, but he lavished an elaborate
+workmanship on historic and geographic records in various quarters of
+his empire, which evince considerable political forethought, an earnest
+regard for truth, and an ambition to transmit the glories of his reign
+to future generations, to guide their conduct and invite their
+emulation. At Persepolis, the high place of Persian power, he aspired
+to elevate the moral feelings of his countrymen, and to secure their
+future dominancy in Asia, by displaying to them their superiority over
+the feudatory provinces of the empire,[81] while upon the sacred rock of
+Baghistan, he addressed himself in the style of an historian, to collect
+the genealogical traditions of his race, to describe the extent and
+power of his kingdom, and to relate, with a perspicuous brevity worthy
+of imitation, the leading incidents of his reign. His grave relation of
+the means by which, under the care and favor of a beneficent Providence,
+the crown of Persia first fell into his hands, and of the manner in
+which he subsequently established his authority, by the successive
+overthrow of the rebels who opposed him, contrasts strongly but most
+favorably with the usual emptiness of Oriental hyperbole."
+
+The following are some of the translations from the great inscription at
+Behistun, which embraces upwards of four hundred lines in the
+arrow-headed characters. In Major Rawlinson's Memoir, are given
+fac-similes of the original inscriptions, a transcription of the same in
+Roman letters with an interlineal translation in Latin, and a
+translation in English. Accompanying these, is a critical commentary on
+each line, together with notes, rendering the whole as clear as
+possible.
+
+     "I am Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of
+     Persia, the king of (the dependent) provinces, the son of
+     Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achæmenian.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--My father was Hystaspes; of Hystaspes,
+     the father was Arsames; of Arsames, the father was Ariyaramnes;
+     of Ariyaramnes, the father was Teispes; of Teispes, the father
+     was Achæmenes.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--On that account, we have been called
+     Achæmenians: from antiquity we have been unsubdued; from
+     antiquity those of our race have been kings.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--There are eight of my race who have
+     been kings before me, I am the ninth; for a very long time we
+     have been kings.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--By the grace of Ormuzd, I am king;
+     Ormuzd has granted me the empire.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--These are the countries which have fallen
+     into my hands--by the grace of Ormuzd, I have become king of
+     them--Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt; those
+     which are of the sea, Sparta and Ionia; Armenia, Cappadocia,
+     Parthia, Zarangea, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, the Sacæ,
+     the Sattagydes, Arachosia, and the Mecians; the total amount being
+     twenty-one countries.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--These are the countries which have come to
+     me; by the grace of Ormuzd, they have become subject to me--they
+     have brought tribute to me. That which has been said unto them by
+     me, both by night and by day, it has been performed by them.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--Ormuzd has granted me the empire. Ormuzd
+     has brought help to me until I have gained this empire. By the
+     grace of Ormuzd, I hold this empire.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:-- ... He who was named Cambyses, the son of
+     Cyrus of our race, he was here king before me. There was of that
+     Cambyses a brother named Bartius; he was of the same father and
+     mother as Cambyses. Cambyses slew this Bartius. When Cambyses slew
+     that Bartius, the troubles of the state ceased which Bartius had
+     excited. Then Cambyses proceeded to Egypt. When Cambyses had gone
+     to Egypt, the state became heretical; then the lie became abounding
+     in the land, both in Persia and in Media, and in the other
+     provinces."
+
+He then goes on to speak of the rebellions in his dominions after the
+death of Cambyses, of the Magian who declared himself king, and that no
+one dared to resist him. He continues:
+
+     "every one was standing obediently around the Magian, until I
+     arrived. Then I abode in the worship of Ormuzd; Ormuzd brought
+     help to me. On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, I slew the
+     Magian and the chief men who were his followers. By the grace
+     of Ormuzd, I became king; Ormuzd granted me the sceptre."
+
+He then says, he "established his race on the throne, as in the days of
+old," prohibited the sacrificial worship introduced by the Magian, and
+restored the old families to office,--all of which was accomplished by
+the aid of Ormuzd. The people of Susiana and Babylon then became
+rebellious. He slew the leader of the former.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--Then I proceeded to Babylon against
+     that Natitabirus, who was called Nabokhadrosser
+     (Nebuchadnezzar). The forces of Natitabirus held the Tigris;
+     there they had come and they had boats. Then I placed
+     a detachment on rafts. I brought the enemy into difficulty; I
+     assaulted the enemy's position. Ormuzd brought help to me; by
+     the grace of Ormuzd, I succeeded in passing the Tigris. Then I
+     entirely defeated the army of that Natitabirus. On the 27th day
+     of the month of Atriyata, then it was that we thus fought."
+
+Darius then continued his march to Babylon, where he was met by the army
+of Natitabirus; he gave him battle and defeated him, driving his army
+into the water. He then took Babylon. It would appear from what this
+monarch relates, that he had a pretty rebellious set of subjects, who
+took advantage of his absence at Babylon. The inscription continues.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--whilst I was at Babylon, these are the
+     countries that revolted against me; Persis, Susiana, Media,
+     Assyria, Armenia, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia and Sacia."
+
+He then gives the names of the rebellious leaders and of the officers
+sent to subjugate them; the forts, villages, or cities, where battles
+were fought; the day of the month when they took place, and the result,
+in every case, by the help of Ormuzd. One example will suffice. After
+speaking of the revolt of Armenia, the inscription continues.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--Then Dadarses by name, an Armenian, one
+     of my servants, him I sent to Armenia. I thus said to him:
+     'Greeting to thee, the rebel state that does not obey me, smite
+     it.' Then Dadarses marched. When he reached Armenia, then the
+     rebels having collected came before Dadarses arraying their
+     battle ... by name, a village of Armenia, there they engaged.
+     Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, my forces
+     entirely defeated that rebel army. On the 8th of the month
+     Thurawahara, then it was a battle was fought by them."
+
+In this manner we have the whole history of the reign of Darius king of
+Persia, who filled the throne 550 B.C. And it may truly be said that no
+monument of remote antiquity which has been preserved to modern times,
+at all equals it in importance. The inscriptions of Egypt are far more
+ancient, but consist of fragments, which, excepting the tables of kings,
+do not throw much light on history. Nothing is more interesting in the
+details given by the Persian king of his successes, than his
+acknowledgment of an overruling power, a Supreme Being, who protected
+him and aided him in all his battles. From the closing part of this
+remarkable tablet, which consists of twenty paragraphs, we select the
+following.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--This is what I have done. By the grace
+     of Ormuzd have I achieved the performance of the whole. Thou
+     whoever hereafter may peruse this tablet, let it be known to
+     thee, that which has been done by me, that it has not been
+     falsely related.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--Ormuzd is my witness, that this record
+     I have faithfully made of the performance of the whole.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--By the grace of Ormuzd, there is much
+     else that has been done by me that upon this tablet has not
+     been inscribed.... If thou publish this tablet to the world,
+     Ormuzd shall be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be
+     numerous.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--If thou shalt conceal this record, thou
+     shalt not thyself be recorded; may Ormuzd be thy enemy, and
+     mayest thou be childless.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--As long as thou mayest behold this
+     tablet and these figures, thou mayest not dishonor them; and if
+     from injury thou shalt preserve them, may Ormuzd be a friend to
+     thee, and may thy offspring be numerous, and mayest thou be
+     long lived, and that which thou mayest do may Ormuzd bless for
+     thee in after times."
+
+The great inscription from which we have made these extracts, is
+sculptured in three languages, and in three different forms of the
+arrow-headed character, the particulars of which have been stated. There
+are a few imperfections and cracks in the stone which made certain words
+and sentences unintelligible; these will be corrected when the other two
+inscriptions are decyphered. In the midst of these records is a piece of
+sculpture in relief, representing Darius followed by two of his
+officers, with his foot upon a man, who raises his hands before him, and
+nine other figures representing the rebellious leaders whom he had
+severally conquered. They are connected by a rope around their necks and
+have their hands tied behind, and are probably portraits of the persons
+they represent. Beneath each is engraved his name, as in the extract
+given.
+
+     "This Natitabirus was an impostor: he thus declared, I am
+     Nabokhadrosser, the son of Nabonidas; I am king of Babylon."
+
+The discoveries of Professor Westergaard, to whom we are indebted for
+the key to the second or Median form of the arrow-headed character,
+require notice. This accomplished Orientalist, on his return from an
+archæological tour in India and Persia, under the patronage of the king
+of Denmark, brought with him, among other literary treasures, copies of
+a great number of inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. While in
+Persepolis he carefully examined all the inscriptions which those
+wonderful ruins still retain. Those which had already been published, he
+accurately compared with the original monuments, and the remainder he
+copied entire. This gentleman went thoroughly furnished with all the
+preparatory knowledge that could be gained in Europe to ensure success.
+He had shown himself by his publications to be an excellent Sanscrit
+scholar; besides which he had acquired as complete a knowledge of the
+Zend language as it is possible to do at present, and was well
+acquainted with all that had been effected in the way of decyphering the
+inscriptions. Having thus so greatly the advantage of his predecessors,
+Niebuhr, Ker Porter, and Rich, it is not to be wondered at that his
+transcripts are proportionably more accurate and complete.
+
+It has long been known that all the inscriptions at Persepolis are
+triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of
+the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor
+Lassen,[82] to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying
+his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving
+conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and
+near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical
+value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but
+consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of
+himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The
+following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense
+portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.[83]
+
+     "Ormuzd (is) the great God. He created this earth; he created
+     the heavens; he created mortals; he created the fortune of
+     mortals. He made king Xerxes the only king of many, the only
+     emperor of many.
+
+     "I Xerxes (am) the great king, the king of kings, the king of
+     realms inhabited by many nations; the sustainer, the author of
+     this great land; the son of king Darius, the Achæmenide.
+
+     "I (am) the noble Xerxes, the great king. By the will of
+     Ormuzd, I have built this portal to be entered by the people.
+     Let the Persians abide, let them congregate under this portal,
+     and in this palace--the palace which my father built for
+     abiding in. By the will of Ormuzd we built them.
+
+     "I (am) the noble king Xerxes. Protect me O Ormuzd; and also
+     this kingdom, and this my palace, and my father's palace
+     protect, O admirable Ormuzd."
+
+No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first
+son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G.
+Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three
+species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and
+its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longpérier,
+who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or
+Longimanus, whose names and titles have been made out both in the
+hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.[84]
+
+An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has
+been found at Persepolis.[85] It is in only one species of the
+Achæmenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a
+most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone
+in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a
+philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early
+a decline of the Persian language.
+
+But the most important part of this inscription consists of the
+genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the
+father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian
+historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far
+decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them,
+and the several sovereigns acknowledge their gratitude to him as to an
+all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.
+
+NINEVEH. We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the
+researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,[86] on or near the site of ancient
+Nineveh.
+
+This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his
+discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues,
+and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound,
+where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were
+covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and
+scenes illustrating the manners and customs of the Assyrians. The
+drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments
+of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the
+anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the
+Egyptians--they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head,
+and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their
+dresses are exceedingly rich and profuse in ornaments and trimmings.
+Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately
+wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The
+discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground
+in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened
+a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It
+contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at
+Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of
+chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and
+inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the
+class usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was
+built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by the
+Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered
+by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as
+though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged
+lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance
+to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the
+highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the Assyrians. There
+are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs
+consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads--others entirely
+human but winged--with battle-pieces and sieges."[87]
+
+Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned,
+announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and
+every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh,
+whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic
+dream, is astonishing the world by her buildings her sculptures, and
+her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by
+the explorations of Mr. Layard.[88] "He has opened fourteen chambers and
+uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance
+previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty
+feet long and thirty broad--entirely built of slabs of marble covered
+with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the
+highest interest--battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &c.; many of them in the
+finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary
+spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the
+Assyrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines
+of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans--such as
+the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &c. Nothing
+can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords,
+daggers, bows, spears, &c. In this great hall are several entrances,
+each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.[89] These lead to other
+chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every
+chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or
+inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a
+great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand
+eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to
+light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be
+looked forward to with intense interest.
+
+All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by
+Asshur, (whence the name Assyria), and of the first empire under
+Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political
+institutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly
+disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A
+learned author of the last century[90] has endeavored to throw distrust
+on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries,
+because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus
+and other prominent characters which fill important places in the
+Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the
+arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate
+in a remarkable degree the assertions of the Greek writers. The
+observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this
+subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and
+civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to
+have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can
+but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent
+revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such
+scanty documents have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a
+testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted
+with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger
+is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with
+severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a
+predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is
+repelled into the tomb of oblivion."[91]
+
+A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was
+directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the
+Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical,
+and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont.
+The latest accounts from this intrepid traveller left him in the
+inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his
+intention to pass through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China
+on the north.[92]
+
+In the same distant region we hear of the journeys of H.R.H. Prince
+Waldemar, of Prussia (cousin to the king). "Consulting only his ardor
+for science, and burthened with the usual load carried by a traveller on
+foot, he scaled the lofty Himmalayah, crossed the frontier of the
+Celestial Empire, and reached the table-land of Thibet."[93] The prince
+has already transmitted a large collection of objects of natural
+history, many of which are new, to Berlin. It is his intention to return
+to Europe by way of Affghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor.
+
+     The following list embraces the late works on Assyria and
+     Persia, as well as those relating to the arrow-head
+     inscriptions.
+
+     The Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions at Behistun, decyphered and
+     translated; with a Memoir on Persian cuneiform inscriptions in
+     general, and on that of Behistun in particular, by Major H.C.
+     Rawlinson, 8vo., in the journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
+     Vol. 10. London, 1846.
+
+     On the Decyphering of the second Achæmenian or Median species
+     of Arrow-headed Writing; by N.L. Westergaard, 8vo., in the
+     Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord.
+     Copenhagen, 1844.
+
+     Lettres de M. Botta sur les Découvertes à Khorsabad, près de
+     Ninive, publiées par M.J. Mohl, 8vo., with 56 plates. Paris,
+     1845.
+
+     Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapies et de la Phénicie, sous
+     les rois Achæmenides, par H. de Luynes, 4to. Paris, 1846.
+
+     The Manual, Formation and early Origin of the Hebrew letters
+     and points, demonstrated and explained; also an Elucidation of
+     the so-called Arrow-headed or Cuneiform characters. 8vo.
+     London, 1847.
+
+     Essai de Déchiffrement de l'Écriture Assyrienne pour servir à
+     l'explication du Monument de Khorsabad. Par J. Löwenstern. 8vo.
+     Paris, 1846.
+
+     Die Grabscrift des Darius zu Nakschi Rustum erläutert. Von F.
+     Hitzig. Zurich, 8vo. 1846.
+
+     Remarks on the Wedge Inscription recently discovered on the
+     upper Euphrates by the Prussian engineer, Capt. Von Mülbach.
+     Being a commentary on certain fundamental principles in the art
+     of decyphering the "cuneatic" characters of the ancient
+     Assyrians, by G.F. Grotefend. 8vo. In the papers of the
+     Syro-Egyptian Society. Vol. I. London, 1845.
+
+     Voyage en Perse. de MM. Eugene Flandin et P. Coste. Recueil
+     d'Architecture ancienne, Bas reliefs, inscriptions cuneiformes
+     et Pehlvis, plans topographiques et vues pittoresques. Folio.
+     250 plates and text.
+
+     This magnificent work, the result of an expedition sent out by
+     order of the French government, under the directions of the
+     Institute, and now published by a commission of savans,
+     consisting of Messrs Burnouf, Le Bas, and Leclerc, is in the
+     course of publication. It will unquestionably be the most
+     complete work ever published on this interesting country and
+     will include the antiquities of Babylon and Nineveh.
+
+     G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der
+     Persopolitanischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die
+     Vollkommenheit der ersten Art-derselben. Hanover, 1837.
+
+     G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der
+     Babylonischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die
+     Beschaffensheit des ältesten Schriftdruck. Hanover, 1840.
+
+     The valuable Oriental Journal edited by Prof. Lassen, entitled
+     "Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," contains many
+     papers of great interest on these subjects.
+
+
+SIBERIA. To the love of science which the enlightened Emperor of Russia,
+has always manifested, we are indebted for an expedition, the most
+successful which has yet been undertaken for the exploration of the
+northern and eastern parts of Siberia. The results of this extensive
+exploration of a region not before examined by scientific men, are of
+the greatest interest to science, and have earned for its distinguished
+and undaunted leader, Prof. Von Middendorff, the applause of the savans
+of Europe. Not having seen any detailed account of this journey, I am
+indebted to Sir R. Murchison for some particulars of its results.[94]
+
+The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west,
+and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of
+Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in
+obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next
+undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast
+continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and
+thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey
+through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers,
+was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to
+St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region
+never previously explored by a man of science."
+
+"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M.
+Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and
+perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild
+regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by
+_following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of
+underwood and birch trees_" In his return journey, he examined the
+frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and
+ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the
+Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and
+China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to
+either Emperor.
+
+In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid
+traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were
+investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these
+respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen
+subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the
+shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below
+the surface, the cold is 2° 4ŽŽ Réaumur, and that it is probable the
+frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet!
+Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of
+which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye
+succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions,
+and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M.
+Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation.
+He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow
+on the Yenisei to latitude 61° 40Ž, indigenous plants, requiring less
+warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical
+stems reach to about 72° north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!"
+This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of
+vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to
+climatological and local conditions.
+
+In regard to the mammoths, the fossil bones of which have been found in
+Siberia, M. Middendorff has shown that, in accordance with the views of
+Professor Owen, (who states that these quadrupeds were specially
+organized to live on the branches and leaves of such shrubs and trees as
+grow in boreal latitudes) there are still trees in latitude 72° which
+would suffice for their sustenance.
+
+The Ethnology of this region has been elucidated by our traveller, who
+by investigating the languages and physical characteristics of these
+remote tribes, has been enabled to affiliate them with their parent
+stocks.
+
+Our knowledge of the geology and geography of the northern and
+southeastern extremities of Siberia have been greatly extended by this
+journey; in fact no enquiry for the advancement of science and a
+knowledge of this far distant and hitherto unknown region, seems to have
+been neglected.[95]
+
+Another scientific expedition of an Ethnological character is employed
+in Siberia under the direction of M. Castren, who has devoted much of
+his first report to the geography of the country. After speaking of the
+river Irtisch and its fisheries, he gives some account of the Ostiaks,
+the most ancient people of its banks. Surrounded by Russians and
+Tartars, they have lost all their nationality except their language. The
+Tartar influence is feeble, but that of Russia is felt in their
+religion, their manners, their customs and even in their general mode of
+thinking.
+
+A paper containing "Ethnological Notes on Siberia," by Prof. Von
+Middendorff, was read at the late meeting of the British Association for
+the advancement of science. "In this paper, the geographical boundaries
+of the different tribes were set forth, the tribes were enumerated and
+some of the characteristic peculiarities described. The 1st, was the
+Ostiaks; these were stated to be of Finnish origin, on both
+physiological and philological evidence. 2d, the Samoiedes, who were of
+Mongol descent. 3rd, the Tunguses. 4th, the Yakuts; the extent to which
+Mongol features were found in a nation speaking a language akin to
+Turkish, was insisted on. 5th, the Yukagins; the physical peculiarities
+of which placed them along with the Samoiedes. 6th, the Ainos; these
+were the inhabitants of the Kinule islands at the mouth of the Arnus; of
+these there were two types, the Finnish and the Japanese. 7th, the
+Kachkell; these were only known through the Ainos."
+
+A geographical Society has lately been founded at St. Petersburg, to
+which the emperor proposed to give ten thousand silver rubles annually.
+The first great exploratory expedition under the directions and
+patronage of this Society will be directed along the eastern flank of
+the Ural mountains, from the parallel of 60° north (Bogoslafsk) to the
+Glacial sea. This survey is to be conducted by Count A. Von Keyserling,
+already known to the public through his valuable geological co-operation
+in the work on Russia, by Sir R.I. Murchison; and who by his sound
+acquirements in geology, zoology and geography, will it is presumed,
+during the ensuing three years, throw great additional light on the wild
+Arctic Ural which separates Europe from Asia, and which, inhabited by
+Ostiaks and Samoiedes, extends beyond the limits of arboreal vegetation.
+Among numerous other objects, it is hoped that this expedition will
+elicit new results concerning the entombment and preservation of the
+mammoths.[96]
+
+
+INDIA. The obstacles which have existed in India, and which have
+retarded the extension of European civilization, will now be effectually
+removed by the noble step taken by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General,
+for promoting education in that country.[97] This benevolent and
+excellent man, whose well earned laurels on the field of battle are not
+more honorable than his philanthropic efforts in extending education
+among the natives of India, and in improving their social condition,
+"has directed the Council of Education and other authorities charged
+with the duty of superintending public instruction throughout the
+provinces subject to the government of Bengal, to submit returns of the
+students who may be fitted according to their degrees of merit and
+capacity, for such of the various public offices, as with reference to
+their age, abilities and other circumstances, they may be deemed
+qualified to fill." As this order recognizes no distinction of schools,
+or castes, or religion, it will have a great influence on the people,
+towards inducing them to give their children the benefit of a good
+education, which to a great extent must be obtained through the
+Christian missionaries. "It is," says the Friend of India, "the most
+powerful impulse which the cause of education has received during the
+last twenty-five years. It makes the seminaries the nursery of the
+service, and the service the stimulant of the seminaries. It introduces
+the enlightened principles adopted by European governments, of
+recruiting the public service in every department from those who have
+earned distinctions in the public schools. At the same time it will be
+found instrumental in the highest degree in the general elevation of the
+country. It will transplant into the interior that European knowledge
+and science which has hitherto been confined to Calcutta, and diffuse
+their influence through every district."
+
+The renunciation of idolatry must necessarily follow the first steps in
+this great work of reform, and we already see it noticed that in
+southern India, within the short period of three months, eight hundred
+and thirty-two persons renounced idolatry and embraced Christianity.
+This large number was a part of the population of seven villages.[98]
+
+Such changes are not without their effects on the great mass of the
+natives, indeed it is only by removing from their minds the gross
+superstition in which they have been for ages immersed, that there can
+be a hope of improving their social condition. The wealthy Hindoos cling
+to their ancient religion with greater tenacity as it totters towards
+its downfall, than when in its most flourishing state. Alarmed at the
+innovations which European civilization and Christianity have made, they
+are printing by subscription, a series of popular religious books in
+monthly numbers, on their doctrines, rites, superstitions and idolatry.
+Fearing that the Europeans and such as have been taught to observe these
+things with ridicule, might controvert them, they have confined the
+subscription to Hindoos, and have directed that their books shall be
+rigidly kept from the hands of Christians.
+
+The Mahommedans too, in Bengal, are greatly alarmed at the danger to
+which their religion is exposed. They have prepared tracts and books in
+opposition to Christianity, and have sent, or are sending emissaries in
+every direction, with a view to strengthen the tottering cause of their
+false prophet.[99] A Mahommedan merchant in Bombay has printed at his
+own expense, two thousand copies of the Koran for gratuitous
+distribution, at a cost of several thousand dollars.
+
+In former times the efforts of the missionaries were directed to
+proselyting among the Hindoos and other idolaters of the East, without
+first making themselves acquainted with the fabric which they were
+laboring so earnestly to demolish. Nursed and educated as the natives
+were in the doctrines and superstitions which for ages their forefathers
+had venerated and professed, the efforts of the missionaries and
+of others who labored to improve their condition were unattended
+with success--and a conflict between Oriental and European
+civilization--between Hindooism and Christianity--between the false
+science of the shastres and the enlightenment of Europe, for a long time
+existed; and it seemed doubtful whether truth or falsehood would
+triumph. Now, the system is changed, and a course is pursued which bids
+fair to produce the most wonderful effects on the people of India and
+China.
+
+It has been asserted that the missionary enterprise in India was a
+failure, and did not warrant the large sums expended there. Those who
+are unfriendly to the cause do not see that more than half the amount
+there expended was for educating the people, for improving their social
+condition, for translating valuable books into their various languages
+and for establishing among them that mighty engine of civilization and
+reform, the printing press.[100]
+
+But it is not merely in the translation and distribution of these books,
+that the missionaries have rendered so much service. In this labor it is
+true they have contributed greatly towards disseminating Christian truth
+and useful knowledge among a large class of people, and have improved
+their religious, their moral and their social condition. But to Europe
+and to the learned world they have also furnished a vast deal of
+philological knowledge, elucidating and developing languages scarcely
+known beyond the precincts of the several countries in which they were
+spoken. Many of these languages, too, were previously unwritten; and
+from this rude state the missionaries have trained and moulded them into
+forms adapted to written speech.
+
+While speaking of the labors of the missionaries in the East, I should
+do great injustice to Catholics not to speak of their efforts to improve
+the moral and religious condition of the people in these distant
+countries. In the most barbarous and secluded portions of the earth do
+we find these devoted men diligently laboring to elevate the condition
+of the natives. In many do we see a zeal and devotedness, an endurance
+of hardships, of the most severe privations, and often martyrdom itself,
+which has never been surpassed in the annals of missionary enterprise.
+Neither François Xavier, nor Ignatius Loyola, so famous among the
+pioneers of the Eastern missions, ever exhibited a greater zeal or
+devotedness than we now witness among the Catholic missionaries in
+Thibet, China, Corea, the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and
+Oceanica. They too have added much to our stock of knowledge of the
+inhabitants, their manners and customs, and their languages. Their
+narratives give us particular accounts of the productions of the
+countries in which they reside, their trade, commerce, and all that
+interests us.
+
+
+SIAM. An interesting fact connected with the progress of European
+civilization, and the extension of Christianity in the kingdom of Siam,
+seems deserving of notice in this place. It was communicated by the
+American Mission in that country.
+
+"The king of Siam despatched one of his ships to Ceylon about the close
+of last year, to carry back some Ceylonese Boodhists whom he had invited
+to Siam, two or three years before, and also to send a fresh
+ecclesiastical embassy to that island--regarded by all Boodhists as very
+sacred--to make further religious researches in the primitive nursery of
+their faith. That embassy fulfilled its mission, and returned to Siam in
+June, bringing a letter to his Majesty from a high priest of Boodh in
+Ceylon, written in English, and stating in substance, that the religion
+of Boodh had become almost extinct in Ceylon, chiefly through the
+influence of the Christian religion, and the schools and seminaries of
+the missionaries and English residents in that part of the world; and
+that, if some aid from abroad could not be obtained to prop up crumbling
+Boodhism in that island, it must soon become utterly extinct. The
+writer expressed much pain at the thought, that the very birth place of
+his religion should not have some permanent witness of it; and requested
+that his Majesty, in his pious zeal for Boodhism, would send him funds,
+with which he might build a _Wat_ (Religious house) and support priests
+in honor of his god. He suggested that this would be a noble work for a
+great king, and one that would confer upon him the highest honors of
+Boodhism."[101]
+
+     The following list embraces the recent works on India.
+
+     Travels in the Kashmir and the Punjab; containing a particular
+     account of the Sikhs. From the German of Baron Hugel, with
+     notes by Major Jervis, royal 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     The Punjaub; being a brief account of the country of the Sikhs,
+     its extent, history, commerce, productions, religion, &c., to
+     the recent campaign of the Sutelege. By Lt. Col. Steinbach,
+     post, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     A Peep into Turkistan; by Capt. R. Burslem, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Travels in the Punjab, Affghanistan and Turkistan, to Balk,
+     Bokhara and Herat, by Mohan Lal, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     History of the Punjab, and of the rise, progress and present
+     condition of the Sikhs, 2 vols. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     The history of the Sikhs, with a personal narrative of the war
+     between the British and the Sikhs. By W.L. McGregor, 2 vols.
+     8vo. London, 1847.
+
+     The Sikhs and Affghans, immediately before and after the death
+     of Runjeet Singh. By Shahamat Ali, post, 8vo. London, 1847.
+
+     The Hindoo Castes; or history, manners and customs of the 42
+     castes or sects of the Brahmins of British India, with highly
+     colored plates: By E.A. Rodriguez, 24 numbers.
+
+
+COCHIN-CHINA, CHINA, MANCHURIA, COREA, AND JAPAN.
+
+COCHIN-CHINA. M. Hedde has published a few notices of a visit to Turon
+in Annam in 1844, on his passage from Singapore to Macao.[102] He
+represents the country as altogether in a wretched, declining condition,
+misgoverned and beggared by despotic officers, presenting a painful
+contrast in its general prosperity with the Chinese empire. The present
+monarch is named Thieufri (or Yuen-fuh-siuen in Chinese) and succeeded
+his father Ming-ming or Minh-menh in 1841, but no improvement in the
+domestic or foreign administration of the government has taken place.
+Several Cochin-Chinese youth have been educated at Singapore, and the
+king purchased two steamers several years ago from the Dutch, but the
+natives probably were too little acquainted with the machinery and
+motive power to make the least use of them, as nothing has since been
+heard of them. The country is highly favored by its natural advantages
+and navigable rivers for maintaining a large population, but oppression
+on the part of the rulers and ignorance among the people, vitiate the
+sources of national prosperity. The port of Turon alone, is open in
+Annam for foreign trade, but no American vessels have been there for a
+cargo since Lieut. White's unsuccessful voyage in the Franklin in 1804.
+Capt. Percival of the U.S. ship Constitution anchored there in May,
+1845, but no official account of his visit has been published, which if
+the rumors of his firing upon the town are true, is not strange. The
+Peacock and Enterprize also anchored there in 1836, but Mr. Roberts, the
+American diplomatic agent, was too ill to have any communications with
+the authorities.
+
+
+CHINA. The late war between England and China has directed the attention
+of other nations towards that empire in an unusual degree. Except the
+immediate details of the contest and the personal incidents connected
+with it, however, the works of those officers who have written upon that
+war, have not contained so much information as was expected by some, but
+quite as much as could be collected under the circumstances. The war was
+almost wholly a maritime one, confined to attacks upon cities and forts
+upon the coast and rivers, by both the army and navy, and few or none of
+the officers were acquainted with the language of the people, so that
+little information could be obtained from those natives whom suspicion
+or terror did not drive away. The region around Ningpo, Chusan and the
+mouth of the Yangtsz kiang, has been described with more minuteness than
+any other part of the maritime provinces; and the careful survey of the
+coast from Amoy to Shanghai, with the Chusan and Pescadore archipelagoes
+by Captains Collinson, and Kellet and others, has left little to be done
+for the navigator's benefit, in making known the hydrography of this
+part of China. The general topography of China is, however, but little
+better known now than it was at the close of the general survey of the
+Jesuits in 1714, and their maps form the basis of the best extant.
+
+The embassy sent by the French government in 1844, under M. Th. de
+Lagrené, to form a commercial treaty with China, was furnished on a most
+liberal scale with everything necessary to make the greatest improvement
+of the opportunities offered to examine into the mechanical arts and
+productions of the land. Four gentlemen were attached to the
+ambassador's suite, to make inquiries into the various agricultural and
+mechanical arts of the Chinese, one of whom, M. Isidore Hedde, was
+especially designated to investigate everything relating to the growth
+and preparation of silk. In pursuance of this object, he visited the
+city of Tuchan fu, which lies a few miles northwest of Shanghai, and is
+the capital of the province of Kiangsu. This place is probably the
+second or third city in the empire, Canton or Hangchau fu being the only
+ones which can compete with it for wealth and beautiful manufactures. It
+lies in a highly cultivated region, and is connected with Peking and
+other large places, through the Grand canal and the Yangtsz kiang. M.
+Hedde went in a Chinese dress, and succeeded in visiting the principal
+buildings in the city, such as the provincial mint, the hall of
+examination, an establishment for the education of unhappy females
+destined for sale for the amusement of the opulent, and some
+manufactories. The suburbs of Suchau, as is the case with most Chinese
+cities, exceed that part within the walls, and here he found most of the
+craftsmen in iron, ivory, gold, silver, wood, bone, horn, glass, earth,
+paper, cotton and silk. His errand being chiefly to examine the silken
+fabrics, he noticed whatever was peculiar in spinning, dyeing and
+weaving, in the shops he entered. The Chinese have no such immense
+establishments as are found in this country, where large buildings
+accommodate an immense quantity of machinery and numerous workmen, but
+all their products are made by manual labor in small establishments. M.
+Hedde was struck with the immense population of the city and its
+environs, including a floating suburb of great extent, the whole
+comprising a population of not far from two millions. The Chinese census
+gives an average of over nine hundred souls to a square mile in the
+province of Kiangsu, and every opportunity which has been offered for
+examining it, has added new evidence to the truth of this statement,
+though closer investigation and further travel is necessary before we
+can give implicit reliance to the assertions made on this subject.
+
+Two English missionaries have lately gone long journeys into the
+interior, but as Protestants have no coadjutors among the people away
+from the ports, who would be willing to receive and conceal them; and as
+their system of operations aims rather to impart a true knowledge of
+Christianity than to make many converts to a form of worship, these
+excursions have not been frequently made. One of the two here referred
+to, was across the country from Ningpo to Canton, by the same route Lord
+Macartney came, and the other was up the Yangtsz kiang. Two American
+missionaries visited the large city of Changchau fu near Amoy in 1844,
+where they were received with civility though not with kindness.
+
+Mr. Robert Fortune, sent out to China by the Horticultural Society, has
+lately returned to England, with new plants of great beauty, and a large
+collection of botanical and ornithological specimens, among which are
+doubtless many not heretofore described. Mr. Fortune visited all the
+ports, and made excursions in their neighborhoods, and his reception
+among the people was generally kind. The people in the cities of Ningpo
+and Shanghai, and their vicinities, compare favorably for their kindness
+and general courtesy, with the coarse mannered natives of Canton.
+
+The opening of this great empire to the commercial enterprise of western
+nations, has given rise to anticipations of an extensive trade, and the
+importation of cotton and woolen fabrics during the last few years has
+been increasing; and if it was not for the abominable traffic in opium,
+which is both impoverishing and destroying the Chinese, there would be
+every reason for believing the commerce with China would soon be one of
+the largest branches of trade. The principal articles in which it is
+most likely to increase are tea and silk, but there is a great
+assortment of other productions, which can be taken in exchange for the
+cloths, metals and wares of the west. Mr. Montgomery Martin for a short
+time colonial treasurer of Hongkong, has collected all the statistics
+bearing on this subject in his work, which will aid in forming an
+opinion on this point. Commercially, politically and religiously, the
+Chinese empire now presents a most interesting spectacle, and the
+experiment of regenerating it and introducing it into the family of
+nations, without completely disorganizing its present form of government
+and society, will constantly go on and attract still more and more the
+notice of Christendom. The probabilities at present are in favor of a
+successful issue, but it is impossible to contemplate the desolating
+effects of the use of opium, brought to the people in such quantities,
+without great apprehension as to the result. The lava like progress of
+the power of Great Britain in Asia, has just commenced on the borders of
+China, and when the country is drained of specie in payment for this
+drug, there is reason to fear that the native government will be unable
+to carry on its operations and maintain its authority.
+
+
+COREA. Since the extermination of the Catholic priests from Corea in
+1839, the most rigid measures have been adopted to exclude all
+foreigners; in fact, the determination on the part of the government of
+Corea to prevent all intercourse between its people and those of other
+countries seems to have been adopted from its neighbor of Japan. These
+measures are even extended to the Chinese, against whom a strong natural
+antipathy exists, growing out of the persecutions formerly inflicted on
+the Coreans by them. Accurate descriptions of Europeans are kept at the
+various posts on the frontier, and from their well known characteristics
+they are easily distinguished. The Coreans themselves on leaving their
+country for China for purposes of trade, receive a passport, which on
+returning must be given back or they are not permitted to enter. Many
+Christians still remain in Corea, and though they are subject to
+persecution, the minds of the people are well disposed towards the
+Christian religion. The literary class hold it in the highest
+estimation, and seem only to be waiting for the moment when they will be
+free to declare in its favor.[103]
+
+Farther accounts from this country have lately appeared in the Annals of
+the Propaganda Society,[104] in a letter from Keemay Kim a native of
+Corea, and a Christian, who had just completed his studies at Macao in
+China. He was sent on a mission to the Christians in Corea, but owing to
+the vigilance observed on the frontiers of that country, was unable to
+enter it. Determined to persevere in the attempt, he posted on to
+Hoong-tchoong, a small frontier town near the mouth of a river which
+separates Corea from Manchuria, where he waited until the period arrived
+when the great fair was to take place at Kee-eu-Wen, the nearest town in
+Corea, four leagues distant. "They supply the Coreans with dogs, cats,
+pipes, leather, stag's horns, copper, horses, mules and asses; and
+receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice, corn, swine,
+paper, mats, oxen, furs and small horses." A few officers are permitted
+to trade every year, but they are closely guarded. All others who pass
+the frontier are made slaves or massacred at once. Our traveller here
+met a few Corean Christians in the immense crowd which had come to
+traffic, and whom he recognised by a badge previously agreed upon; but
+so great was the confusion and hurry on the occasion, added to the fear
+of being recognized, that the interview does not seem to have been
+productive of good, or increased our information of the people or
+country. Since the great persecution a few years since, the church had
+been at rest; and though a few converts had been made, the faithful had
+retired to the southern provinces for better security. They still
+entertained the idea of introducing a European missionary through the
+north, though with the knowledge that if discovered by the authorities,
+instant death would follow. Such is the zeal and perseverance with which
+these men pursue their philanthropic and Christian labors.
+
+The fair to which allusion has been made, is thus described by our
+Corean. The traders cannot begin their operations until a signal is
+given, by hoisting a flag and beating the gong, "when the immense and
+densely packed crowd rush to the market place; Coreans, Chinese, and
+Manchus, are all mingled together. Each speaks in his own tongue, and so
+great is the uproar produced by this mass of people, that the echoes of
+the neighboring mountains repeat their discordant shouts."
+
+"Four or five hours is the whole time allowed for buying and selling;
+consequently, the tumult which takes place, the quarrels which arise,
+the blows which are exchanged, and the plundering which goes on, give
+the place more the look of a city taken by storm and given up to
+pillage, than that of a fair." At evening, when the signal is given,
+the strangers are driven out by the soldiers with the points of their
+lances.
+
+
+MANCHURIA. The vast regions of Manchuria, lying north of Corea to the
+Hing-an or Yablonoi mountains, and east of the Sialkoi to the ocean, are
+inhabited by various tribes speaking different dialects and subsisting
+principally by hunting and fishing. The Manchus are now the dominant
+race, but some of the tribes near the sea and in Taraka island, bear no
+tributary relations to them, if indeed they are much acquainted. Since
+the conquest of China, the Manchus have gone on steadily improving this
+part of their possessions by stationing agricultural troops at the
+principal ports of observation, and collecting the hunters around these
+points as much as possible. Criminals are also constantly banished
+there, who carry with them their arts, and by their industry both
+maintain themselves and set an example to the nomads. The southern part
+called Shingking, has become well cultivated in many parts, and
+considerable trade is carried on at Kinchau with other parts of China.
+
+Manchuria produces pulse, maize, (Indian corn), millet, barley and
+buckwheat; pulse, drugs and cattle, form the leading articles of trade.
+The climate of this country is so inhospitable, as to prove a serious
+obstacle in the way of its settlement and cultivation.
+
+The Manchus have no national literature; all the books written in their
+language are translations of Chinese works, made under the
+superintendence of the Academies at Moukden and Peking. Their written
+characters are derived from the Mongols, but have undergone many
+changes. The emperors have taken great pains to elevate their countrymen
+by providing them with the best books in Chinese literature, and
+compelling them to go through the same examinations before they can
+attain any office; but the numerical superiority of the Chinese and
+their active habits, give them so much the advantage, that except in
+their own country, the Manchus find it difficult to preserve their
+native tongue to the second generation.
+
+
+MONGOLIA. The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda Society
+contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia, by the
+Rev. Mr. Huc.[105] This vast country, covering a million of square
+miles, consists of barren deserts and boundless steppes. In the limits
+allotted each corps, there is seldom more than one town, where the chief
+resides. The people live in tents, without any permanent residence. They
+move from place to place, with the changes of the seasons, or when their
+immense herds of oxen, camels and horses have exhausted the grass around
+their encampment. To-day presents an animated scene of hundreds of
+tents, filled with an active population; the children playing as happy
+and contented as though surrounded with every luxury a civilized life
+affords; the women cooking their food and drawing water from a well just
+dug; and the men, mounted on horseback, are galloping over the plain,
+keeping their countless herds from straying away. To-morrow, this
+picturesque and animated scene will be changed to a dreary and
+forbidding desert. Men, flocks, and tents have vanished, and nought
+remains to mark the visit of this wandering race, but the curling smoke
+of their unquenched fires, or the birds of prey hovering over the
+carcase of some dying camel, or feeding on the remains of their late
+repast. The Mongols are irreclaimable nomads, though some tribes of
+them, as the Tsakhars, Ortous, and Solous, cultivate the soil. The four
+khanates of the Kalkas are called Outer Mongolia, and comprise within
+their borders, several well built towns, though none of any size,
+compared with the cities in China. Few Chinese have settled among the
+Mongols, except near the Great Wall, nor will they allow them to do so,
+as there is a deep antipathy between the two races. The Mongols of the
+present day have probably made no advances in civilization over their
+ancestors in the days of Genghis and Kublai.
+
+The approaches of the British power up the valley of the Sutlej, into
+the regions lying along the base of the western Himalayas, are such that
+they will ere long come in contact with Tibet through Ladak, and with
+Yarkand through Badakshan. But there is probably more geographical than
+ethnological information to be gained by traversing these elevated
+regions, where stupendous mountains and arid deserts offer nothing to
+tempt man from the fertile plains of India and China. Two Romish
+missionaries have lately arrived in Canton from H'lassa in Tibet, by the
+overland route through Patang in Sz'chuen to the capital of Kwangsi, and
+thence to Canton. This route has never been described by any traveller.
+
+
+LEWCHEW ISLANDS. This group of islands, including the Madjico sima,
+lying between it and Formosa, form a dependency of the principality of
+Satzuma, in the southwest of Japan, though the rulers are allowed a
+limited intercourse with China through Fuhchau fu. During the late war
+between England and China, the transport Indian Oak was lost on
+Lewchew,[106] August 14, 1840, and the crew were treated with great
+kindness, and provided with a vessel, in which they returned to Chusan.
+Every effort was made by the authorities to prevent the officers and men
+from examining the island, but their kindness to the unfortunate people
+thus cast on their shores, made such an impression, that a mission to
+the islanders was determined upon in London, by some naval gentlemen
+connected with the expedition, and a society formed. The Rev. B.J.
+Bettelheim was appointed to the post, and had reached Canton in March,
+1846. He afterwards proceeded on his voyage, and his journal received at
+Hongkong, from Napa, contains a few details of interest, but shows
+plainly that the authorities are decided in refusing to allow foreigners
+to settle in their territories.
+
+An attempt has been made by the Romish missionaries to establish a
+mission in this group.[107] The Rev. W. Forcade and an associate were
+left on Lewchew in May, 1844, and after a residence of fifteen months
+were able to transmit some notices of their treatment to the directors,
+through Sir Edward Belcher, R.N. who stopped at Napa in August, 1845.
+On their arrival, M. Forcade and his companion were conducted to their
+dwelling, where they were surrounded by a numerous guard under the
+control of officers, and attended by domestics, as they were told, "to
+charm their leisure moments." Their table was bountifully supplied, and
+everything they could ask to make them comfortable was granted them,
+except their liberty. Whenever they went abroad, they were accompanied
+by a guard, but allowed to hold no intercourse with the natives; they
+had not been able to proceed beyond twelve miles into the interior, but
+as far as they had opportunities of conversing with the natives, found
+them simple and courteous in their manners, and disposed to talk when
+not under surveillance. It is probable, however, that under such
+restraint as these gentlemen were placed, it is not likely that they had
+attained to such fluency in the language as to be able to hold very
+ready communication with natives met in this hasty manner. The
+intentions of the government were plain, however, not to allow them to
+disseminate their doctrines, (if it had learned their real object), nor,
+by intercourse with the people, become acquainted with their character,
+or the state of the country. No assistance was granted them in learning
+the language, and they were forbidden to adopt the native costume.
+Notwithstanding this opposition, they had been able to acquire a partial
+knowledge of the language, and to compile a vocabulary of six thousand
+words. Permission to preach the Christian religion was not granted them,
+lest, as the authorities said, the Chinese, to whom they are tributary,
+would break off all intercourse; but the real reason was doubtless their
+fear of the Japanese. Yet these obstacles did not dishearten them, and
+they seem determined to persevere in their attempts, though it is not
+unlikely that when Mr. Bettelheim arrives, the authorities will take
+measures for deporting them all.
+
+The Lewchewans are intimately connected with the Japanese. The language
+is the same, with unimportant dialectical variations, and Chinese
+letters and literature are in like manner cultivated by both. In
+personal appearance, however, the two people are very unlike. The
+Lewchewans are not on an average over five feet four inches high,
+slightly built, and approach the Malayan cast of features more than the
+Chinese. They are darker than the Chinese, and their mild traits of
+character, unwarlike habits, and general personal appearance, suggests
+the idea that they are akin to the aborigines of Formosa and Luçonia by
+descent, while their proximity and subjugation to their powerful
+neighbors on the north and west, have taught them a higher civilization,
+and introduced arts and sciences unknown to their early conquerors. When
+Lewchew was subjugated by the Japanese, it was agreed that embassies
+with tribute might be sent to Peking, and according to the Chinese
+account, they come to that court twice in three years.[108] The
+secretary or deputy embassador in 1841, was drowned in his passage from
+Peking to Fuhchau. This embassy is a source of considerable profit to
+the Lewchewans, for their junks, which are built on the Chinese model,
+have free entrance to Fuhchau, and all the goods they import and export,
+are passed without duty. The travelling expenses of the embassy to and
+from the capital are also defrayed, and permission is given them to
+study Chinese when in the country. This intercourse is therefore both
+honorable and profitable to the Lewchewans, but the Chinese are not
+allowed to trade there, and the only act of sovereignty the emperor
+exercises, according to M. Forcade, is to send a delegate to sanction
+the accession of a new incumbent of the throne--whom, however, it would
+be ridiculous for him to refuse. He adds, "In conversation, if one is a
+stranger, the Lewchewans will be continually dwelling on China, they
+will boast about it, they will relate its history, they will describe
+its provinces and its cities; but Japan is never mentioned! Such are the
+words, but the facts are quite another thing."
+
+The real character of the connection between Lewchew and Japan is not
+well ascertained. No Japanese officers are seen on landing, and the
+officers appointed to attend the people of the Indian Oak, exhibited the
+greatest alarm when a few were seen at a distance, while the party were
+taking a walk. The trade between the two countries is confined to the
+ports of Napa and Kagosima, between which the vessels of both nations
+pass; the junks from other parts of Japan are not permitted to resort to
+Napa, but it is not probable that the prince of Satzuma has the right of
+appointing the residents, or whatever authorities are sent thither.
+M. Forcade says there were from ten to fifteen Japanese vessels in the
+port, but when the American ship Morrison was there, in 1837, there were
+only five. Lackered-ware, grass cloth, sugar, and earthen-ware, are
+exported to Kagosima, and a great assortment of metallic articles,
+cloths, provisions, and stationery taken in exchange. The country in the
+vicinity of Napa, and towards Shudi, the capital, is highly cultivated,
+and the people appear to be as well clothed, and possess as many of the
+comforts and elegancies of life as their neighbors. They still retain
+enough of their own customs, however, to distinguish them from the
+Japanese, even if their physical appearance did not point them out as
+distinct. M. Forcade says that there is reason for supposing
+Christianity to have been implanted in Lewchew at the same time it was
+introduced into Japan, but Lewchew at that time seems to have been much
+less dependant upon Japan than subsequently; and it is not probable that
+much was done to proselyte its inhabitants. He mentions that a cross is
+cut on the end of the rampart where foreigners land, who are thus
+obliged to trample on this symbol; but no other visitors mention any
+such sculpture or custom. The landing place at Napa is a long stone
+jetty, stretching across the beach, which at low tide, prevents boats
+approaching the shore.
+
+
+JAPAN.
+
+This country has recently attracted increased attention on the part of
+commercial nations, and several foreign ships have lately appeared on
+the coasts, whose reception has only shown the vigilance of the
+authorities in taking every precaution neither to offend nor receive
+their unwelcome visitors. The Dutch and Chinese are still the only
+nations allowed to trade with the Japanese, and the news brought by the
+latter people of the troubles they have lately gone through with their
+foreign customers, has probably only more strongly convinced the siogoun
+and his ministers of the propriety of their seclusive policy. Nor is
+there much reason to doubt that the Chinese and Japanese have avoided
+the fate of the natives of Luçonia, Java, and India, by shutting out
+foreigners from free access and intercourse with their people, and owing
+to their seclusion, have remained independent to this day. The works of
+Siebold upon the natural history and political condition of the country
+and its inhabitants, are now slowly publishing in Paris, but with such
+luxury of execution as to place them beyond the reach of most persons
+who might be desirous to examine them. The visits of two American ships
+to the bay of Yedo, has directed the public eye again to the empire. The
+first was that of the whaler Manhattan, Captain Cooper, who was led to
+think of going into the port by having taken eleven shipwrecked men off
+a small island near the Bonin islands, in April, 1845, lying southeast
+of Nippon. As he was going north, he fell in with a water-logged junk
+from Nambu, laden with rice and fish, from which he received eleven
+more, and soon after made the eastern coast in the principality of
+Simosa. Here he landed two men, and proceeding towards Cape King, landed
+two more, who made their way to Yedo. Owing to north winds, he was blown
+off the coast twice, and when he approached the estuary leading to the
+capital, he was taken in tow and carried up to the anchorage.
+Interpreters came off to the vessel, who could speak English
+sufficiently well to carry on an imperfect communication, who informed
+Captain Cooper that his wants would be supplied, but none of his company
+allowed to land. A triple cordon of boats was placed around the ship,
+consisting of upwards of a thousand small boats, displaying numerous
+flags, and containing as many armed men as if the country was in danger
+of attack. The ship was visited by crowds of natives of all ranks, who
+behaved with great decorum while gratifying their curiosity, but no
+trade was allowed. Many officers of high rank came on board and examined
+the ship, and took an inventory of every article belonging to the
+rescued seamen, before they were allowed to land. The ship was
+gratuitously supplied with provisions and a few spars, to the value of
+about $500, but the captain was again and again enjoined not to return
+there on any account. When he inquired what he should do if he again
+came across the siogoun's subjects in like distress, and exposed to a
+cruel death, he was told, "leave them to their fate, or take them where
+the Dutch can get them." The men rescued from starvation and death,
+were, however, deeply sensible of the kindness which had been shown
+them. After a stay of eight or ten days, Captain Cooper was towed out of
+the port, and down the bay to the coast, and the last injunction was
+only a repetition of the first order, not to come again. This
+reception, though it presents no encouragement to hope for a relaxation
+of the policy, deemed by the siogoun at once his safety and his profit,
+is less likely to call for summary chastisement than the rude repulse
+the American ship Morrison received in 1837, when she entered the bay of
+Yedo on the same errand, and was driven away by cannon balls and armed
+gunboats.
+
+Captain Cooper represents the country in this portion of it as clothed
+with verdure, and under a high state of cultivation. The proximity of
+the mountains in Idzu, produces constant showers, which covers the
+highest peaks with forests and shrubbery. Terrace cultivation is
+extensively practiced, and constant labor is demanded to supply
+subsistence to the dense population, who still at times suffer severely
+for want of food. The capital could not well be seen from the ship, and
+its enceinte was so filled with trees, that its dimensions could not
+accurately be defined. No towers or pagodas were seen elevating
+themselves above the dull monotony of the buildings. The harbor was
+covered with vessels, at anchor and moving about; some of them unwieldy,
+open-stern junks, designed for the coast trade, others light skiffs and
+boats, used for communicating with vessels in the harbor and the shore.
+The greatest part of the coasting trade centres at Yedo, owing to the
+large amount of taxes paid the siogoun in kind, and the supplies the
+princes receive from their possessions while they reside in the capital,
+both of which causes operate to develope the maritime skill of the
+people, and increase the amount of tonnage. The shortsighted policy
+which confines the energies and capital of a seagoing people like the
+Japanese, within their own shores is, however, less a matter of wonder
+than the despotic power which could compel them to stay at home two
+centuries ago, at a time when their merchants and agents were found from
+Acapulco to Bangkok.
+
+The Japanese empire presents the greatest feudal government now
+existing, and on that account is peculiarly interesting to the student
+of political science. In some respects, the people are superior to the
+Chinese, but are inferior in the elements of national wealth and
+progress. They belong to the Mongolian race, but are darker than the
+Chinese, and not as tall, though superior in stature to the Lewchewans.
+They approximate to the Kamtschatdales in their square build, short
+necks, large heads, and short lower limbs. They are of a light olive
+complexion, but seldom exhibit a florid, ruddy countenance.
+
+Among the articles obtained from the junk by Captain Cooper, was a map
+of Japan, including part of Yesso. It is four feet square, drawn on the
+proportion of less than one degree to two inches, and contains the names
+of all the places there is room for. It is cut on wood, and painted to
+show the outlines of the chief principalities; the relative importance
+of the places is shown by writing their names in different shaped
+cartouches, but from the space occupied by the Chinese characters, there
+is probably not one-tenth of all the towns inserted. The distances
+between the principal points along the coast are stated, and on some of
+the leading thoroughfares inland. The map is evidently the original of
+Krusenstern's "Carte de Nippon," published by the Russian Board of
+Longitude, and is drawn up from trigonometrical surveys. The degrees of
+latitude bear the same numbers as upon European maps; the meridians are
+reckoned from Yedo. The existence of such maps among the people
+indicates that a good knowledge of their own country is far more
+extensively diffused than among the Chinese, whose common maps are a
+standing reproach to them, while they have others so much more accurate.
+The coast from Cape King northward to Simosa, for the space of two
+degrees, was found by captain Cooper to be better delineated upon this
+map than upon his own charts. These seas present a fine field for
+hydrographic surveys, and it would greatly advance the security of
+navigation on the eastern shores of Asia, and redound to the honor of
+our own land, if the American government would despatch two small
+vessels to survey the seas and shores between Luçonia and Kamtschatka.
+
+The visit of Commodore Biddle to the bay of Yedo, has added nothing to
+our knowledge of its shores. His polite dismissal, and the refusal of
+the government to entertain any commercial relations with the Americans,
+only add force to the injunction to captain Cooper the year before, not
+to return, and shows more strongly that while the Japanese rulers are
+determined to maintain their secluded policy, they wish to give no cause
+for retaliatory measures on the part of their unwelcome visitors, and
+mean to keep themselves as well informed as they can upon foreign
+politics. The subject of foreign intercourse between the two great
+nations of Eastern Asia and Europeans since it commenced three centuries
+since, is an instructive one; and the general impression left upon the
+mind of the candid reader, is that foreign nations have themselves
+chiefly to thank for their present seclusion from those shores, and the
+restrictions in their commerce. Rear-Admiral Cecille has also paid a
+visit to some part of Japan, quite recently, but met with no success in
+his endeavors to enter into negotiation.
+
+The great object in view in making these attempts to improve the
+intercourse with Japan, is to find new markets for western manufactures.
+It is quite doubtful, however, whether the Japanese have many articles
+suitable for foreign markets. Their lackered-ware is exceedingly
+beautiful, but it would not be so prized when it became more common.
+Copper and tea would form the basis of exports, and perhaps some silk
+fabrics, but China furnishes now all that is wanted of them both, and
+can do so to any extent. Until a taste for such foreign manufactures, as
+woolens, cutlery, glass-ware, calicoes, &c., is created among them, and
+they are willing to adapt their own products to the tastes of their
+customers, it does not seem likely that a trade at all proportioned to
+the estimated population and riches of the country, would soon be
+established. The Japanese are afraid of the probable results of a more
+extended intercourse, and deem it to be the safest course to run no
+risks; and if they read the pages of their early intercourse with the
+Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch, they must feel they would run many
+serious risks by granting a trade. If the siogoun and his advisers could
+be rightly informed, however, there are grounds for believing the
+present policy would be considerably relaxed.
+
+Learning is highly honored in Japan, and books are as cheap and common
+as in China. The written language is a singular and most difficult
+mixture of Chinese characters, with the syllabic symbols adopted by the
+Japanese, rendering its perusal a great labor, more so than that of
+Chinese, because Chinese must first be mastered. The spoken language is
+polysyllabic and harmonious, and possesses conjugations, tenses, cases,
+&c., to facilitate its perspicuity, and increase its variety of
+expressions. The arts in which they chiefly excel are in the manufacture
+of silken and linen goods, copper-ware, lackered-ware, porcelain and
+basket work. Their cutlery is despicable, and the specimens of their
+carving, which are seen abroad, do not equal those produced by the
+Chinese. Agriculture is pursued on much the same system as in
+China--minute subdivision of the soil and constant manuring, together
+with frequent watering. Rice and fish are the staples of food;
+vegetables are used in great abundance, but meats only sparingly. The
+habits and sports of the people are influenced so much by the peculiar
+notions attending a feudal society, such as adherence to the local
+prince, and maintenance of his honor, wearing coats of arms, privileged
+orders, and hereditary titles, that there is little similarity in the
+state of society in Japan and China, notwithstanding a similar religion
+and literature. The Japanese were called the Spaniards of the East by
+Xavier, and the comparison is good at this day. They have, perhaps,
+more genius and imagination than the Chinese, but are not as peaceable
+or industrious.
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF THE LANGUAGES OF THE JAPANESE, COREANS, CHINESE AND
+COCHINCHINESE. The four nations here briefly noticed; viz., the
+Japanese, Coreans, Chinese and Cochinchinese, have been collectively
+called the _Chinese language nations_, from the peculiar relations and
+connections they have had through the medium of that language. The
+relation has throughout been one of a literary character, fostered to
+some extent by religious prejudices, but depending chiefly for its
+permanence and extension upon the superiority of the writings of the
+Chinese. It is, in some respects, without a parallel in the history of
+man. While European languages have all been indebted for many of their
+words to the two leading ancient tongues of that continent, their bases
+have been diverse, and the words they have imported from Greek and Latin
+have undergone various changes, so much so as sometimes hardly to be
+recognized. This is not the case with these four nations of eastern
+Asia. They have all adopted the characters used by the leading nation
+without alteration, and with them, of course, have to a very great
+degree, taken her authors, her books, her knowledge and her opinions, as
+their own.
+
+One of the most observable features of the national character of the
+Chinese, is its conservative inclinations. Not only is it seen in the
+actions of government and in the writings of scholars, but still more in
+the habits of the people and their modes of thinking. It has been
+cherished by that government, as it is by all governments, as a sure and
+safe principle of preservation, but it is also advocated by the people.
+The geographical position of China has isolated it from all western
+nations, while the political, literary and social superiority of its
+people over the contiguous nations, has combined to foster their conceit
+and affectation of supremacy, and make them disinclined to have any
+intimate or equal relations with others. But one of the strongest and
+most comprehensive of these conservative influences has arisen from the
+nature of the language, strengthened by the extent to which education
+has been diffused among the people. The language is of such a character,
+combining mystery and difficulty with elegance and ingenuity, as greatly
+to captivate a people who have time and inclination to trace out the
+marks and veins on the pavement in the temple of science, but not the
+invention or investigation to seek out and explore its hidden chambers.
+The character of this language and the nature of the connection between
+the nations who use it, may here be briefly exhibited.
+
+The Chinese ascribe the invention of their characters to Tsang Kieh, one
+of the principal ministers or scholars in the reign of Hwangti, about
+2650 years before Christ; and although there is no very certain
+information recorded respecting their origin, there is nothing which
+seems to be fabulous or supernatural. The characters first depicted were
+the common objects in nature and art, as the sun, rain, man, parts of
+the body, animals, a house, &c., and were probably drawn sufficiently
+accurate to be detected without much if any explanation. They were all
+described in outline, and generally with far less completeness than the
+Egyptian symbols. It is not known how many of the primitive characters
+were made, but one feature attached to them all,--none of them contained
+any clue to the sound. The inventors must necessarily, one would
+suppose, have soon perceived this radical defect in their symbols, but
+they either saw the incompatibility of uniting the phonetic and
+pictorial modes, or else were so pleased with their varied pictures and
+symbols, that they cared very little how the reader acquired the sounds.
+At first, too perhaps, the number of persons who spoke this language was
+so small, that there was little difficulty in making them all acquainted
+with the meaning of the symbols, and when once their meaning was
+learned, they were of course called by the name of the thing
+represented, which everybody knew. The necessity of incorporating some
+clue to the sound of the thing, or idea denoted, became more and more
+evident, however, as the variety of the symbols multiplied, and the
+number of people increased. One of the strongest evidences, that the
+designing of these symbols was contemporary with the earliest days of
+the Chinese as a people, is deduced from the fact that they are all
+monosyllabic; the radical words in all languages are mostly of this
+character, but in nearly all others, the single sounds soon coalesce and
+combine, while in Chinese this has been prevented by the nature of the
+written language. There is not, so far as the nature of the case goes,
+any reason why the sounds of Chinese characters should all be
+monosyllabic, any more than the Arabic numerals. But not only was the
+increase of inhabitants, as we suppose, a reason for making the symbols
+phonetic, the need of reducing the labor of learning the ever growing
+list, and the difficulty of distinguishing between species of the same
+genus and things of the same sort, was a still stronger motive. This was
+done by the combination of a leading type with some other well
+understood character, chosen quite arbitrarily, but possessing the _same
+sound_ as the new object to be represented. Thus, supposing a new fish
+called _pih_ was to be represented by a character; by taking the symbol
+for _fish_ and joining it to any well known character pronounced _pih_,
+no matter what was its meaning, the compound symbol clearly expressed,
+to those who understood its elementary parts, the _fish pih_. But
+neither does this compound contain any more clue to its sound to those
+unacquainted with the component elements, than its marks and hooks do of
+its meaning to those who have never learned them. When once the form and
+meaning of the primitive symbols have been learned, however, the meaning
+and sounds of the compound ones can, in many cases, be inferred to a
+greater or less degree; but so varied has been the principle of
+combination, that no dependence can be placed upon such etymologies for
+the meaning. In the various mutations the written language has
+undergone, the sound is not now so certain as it was probably at first;
+but in the majority of characters, it can be inferred with a
+considerable degree of certainty, though the idea is exhibited so
+indefinitely as to afford almost no assistance in guessing at it. A
+dictionary is indispensable in ascertaining the meaning, and almost as
+necessary to learn the sound of all Chinese characters. The meaning can
+be explained without any greater trouble than in other languages, but
+the sounds of characters can only be given by quoting other characters
+of the same sound, which the scholar is supposed to know, if he knows
+enough to use the dictionary.
+
+These remarks will, perhaps, explain the general composition of Chinese
+characters. By far the greater part of them are now formed, either of
+the original pictorial symbols, greatly modified, indeed, and changed
+from their likeness to the things they stand for, or of those joined to
+each other in a compound character, partly symbolical and partly
+phonetic. The former part is called the _radical_, the latter the
+_primitive_. The Chinese divide the characters into six classes, viz.,
+imitative symbols, or those original figures which bore a resemblance to
+the forms of material objects; indicative symbols, where the position of
+the two parts point out the idea; symbols combining ideas, a class not
+very unlike the preceding, but more complex; inverted symbols;
+metaphoric symbols, as that of the natural heart, denoting the
+affections; and lastly, phonetic symbols. Out of twenty-four thousand
+two hundred and thirty-five characters, (nearly all the different ones
+there are in the language), twenty-one thousand eight hundred and ten of
+them are phonetic, or as much so as the nature of their composition
+would allow, though there is no other clue to the sound than to learn
+the sound of the parts or of the whole, either from the people
+themselves or from a dictionary. The Chinese tyro learns the sounds of
+most of the characters, as boys do the names of minerals, by tradition.
+As he stands before his master, he and the whole class hear from his
+mouth their names, and repeat them until they are remembered.
+Consequently, almost an infinite variety in the sounds of the characters
+arise from this mode of learning them, while the meanings remain fixed;
+though there still remains enough resemblance in the sounds to show
+their common origin, as, _bien_, _meen_, _mien_, and _meeng_, all
+meaning _the face_, and written with the same character. The local
+differences in pronunciation are so great within a few hundred miles, in
+some parts of China, that the people barely understand each other when
+they speak; and even in two towns fifty miles apart, the local patois
+can be detected, though the dissimilarity is not so great as to prevent
+their inhabitants conversing together. For purposes of intercourse among
+civilians, who being from distant parts of the empire, might otherwise
+find considerable difficulty in making themselves understood if each
+spoke his own local patois, there is a court dialect which not only
+civilians, but all educated men are obliged or expected to understand.
+This is the common pronunciation over the northeastern provinces of
+Chihli, Shantung, Nganhwui, and Kiangsu, and somewhat in the contiguous
+provinces also, though everywhere in these regions with some slight
+local variations. This dialect is called _kwan hwa_, and has been
+usually termed the _mandarin[109] dialect_, but it is properly the
+Chinese spoken language, and the variations from it are the dialects and
+patois. It is evident, however, that one sound of a character is no
+more correct than another; for there being no sound in any character,
+each one calls it as he has been taught, while all give it the same
+meaning, exactly as Europeans do with the numerals. Of course, no one
+can read or write Chinese before he has studied it, and the apparent
+singularity of people from China, Japan, and Annam all being able to
+communicate by writing but not converse by speech, is easily explained
+by the different sounds they give the characters. It is, however, really
+no more singular than that scholars in all Christian nations understand
+each others' music and arithmetic, after they have learned those
+sciences and the mode of notation.
+
+The diversity of pronunciations tends naturally to break up the nation
+into small communities, and the Chinese owe their present homogeneity
+and grandeur in no small degree to their written language; for, however,
+a man may differ in his speech, he is sure that he will be everywhere
+understood when he writes, and will understand every one who writes to
+him. It has also been a bond of union from its extensive literature, at
+once the pride of its own scholars, and the admiration of surrounding
+nations. It is perhaps owing to the fact that the literature of China
+contains the canons of the Budhist religion and the ethics of Confucius,
+that it was adopted by the Japanese, Coreans and Annamese. These nations
+have taken the characters of the Chinese language, and given them such
+names as pleased them. In Japan and Corea, there has been no uniform
+rule of adoption, but the Annamese, who formerly had more intimate
+connexions with China than at present, approach much nearer to the
+sounds spoken by the Chinese.
+
+The nature of the relations between these three nations and China,
+therefore, somewhat resembles that which European nations, we may
+suppose, now would have towards ancient Greece and Rome, if they still
+existed as independent powers, and should be visited by scholars from
+the shores of the Baltic, whose native countries, however, had risen no
+higher in civilization and morals than their source. The comparison is
+not complete in all respects, but near enough for analogy. The Japanese
+have never paid tribute to China, but have been invaded by her armies,
+and in their turn have ravaged the eastern coasts of the continent. The
+isolated policy their rulers have adopted, has prevented our tracing
+those philological comparisons between their original language and those
+of Siberia or central Asia, which would elucidate its origin. The
+Japanese up to the time of the sixteenth daïri, named Ouzin Tenwo, had
+no written character, all the orders of government being proclaimed viva
+voce. In the year B.C. 284, this monarch sent an embassy to the
+southern part of Corea, to obtain learned persons who could introduce
+the civilization and literature of China into his dominions, and
+obtained Wonin, who fulfilled the royal wishes so satisfactorily, that
+the Japanese have since accorded him divine honors. Since his day, the
+Chinese characters have been employed among the Japanese. However, as
+the construction of the Japanese language differs materially from that
+of the Chinese, and as the same Chinese character has many meanings,
+which would be expressed by different words in the native Japanese,
+confusion and difficulty arose in the use of the symbolic characters.
+But it was not until the eighth century, that a remedy was provided by
+the invention of a syllabary, a middle contrivance, partaking chiefly of
+the nature of an alphabet but containing some traces of hieroglyphics.
+The characters of this syllabary were formed by taking Chinese
+characters, either in whole or in part, and using them phonetically, but
+as indivisible syllables. Consequently, every one of them contained a
+vowel sound, rendering the language very euphonous. The characters in
+this syllabary were called _katakana_, i. e. "parts of letters." There
+were at first forty-seven, but another was added some years after in
+order to express the final _n_, as _ma-mo-ra-n_, instead of
+_ma-mo-ra-nu_, making forty-eight, the present number. This syllabary
+and that invented for the Cherokees by Guess, are the only two in the
+world. The number of sounds has been increased from forty-eight to
+seventy-three, by the addition of diacritical marks to some of the
+syllables. This syllabary enabled the Japanese to express the sounds of
+their vernacular without difficulty. But the long use of the Chinese had
+already introduced a great number of sounds from that language into it,
+besides giving the people a liking for the elegant and ingenious
+combinations of that unwieldy medium of thought, so that the scholars in
+the country still cultivated the more difficult language, and wrote
+their books in it. The incorporation of Chinese sounds into the native
+Japanese, seems to have arisen from the necessity of distinguishing
+between the various meanings of the Chinese character, so that while the
+native word would express one, the original sound would express another,
+but the unchangeable symbol stand for both to the eye.
+
+The admiration of the Chinese characters, led in time to the invention
+of a second syllabary, having the same sounds but far more difficult to
+learn from the number of characters in it and their complicated forms.
+It is called _hirakana_, or "equal writing," because it is intelligible
+without the addition of Chinese characters; it is now the common medium
+of communication, in epistolary composition of all kinds, story books,
+and other everyday uses. There are one hundred and one characters in the
+_hirakana_, or nearly three modes of writing each of the forty-eight
+syllables, and they are run together as rapidly and far more fancifully
+than in our own running-hand, when that is compared with the Roman
+character. The characters are mostly contractions of Chinese characters
+used simply as phonetic symbols, without any more reference to their
+meaning than in the _katakana_. The more ancient of the two is now
+usually employed in dictionaries, by the side of Chinese characters in
+books to explain them to the reader, or at their bottom to indicate the
+case of the word. In reading a Chinese book, a good Japanese scholar
+makes a kind of running translation into his own vernacular, sometimes
+giving the sound, and sometimes giving the sense, and the _katakana_ is
+used in the latter case, to indicate the tense, or case of the native
+word. Having the Chinese language as well as its native stores to draw
+from, the Japanese is both copious and flexible, and by its syllabic
+construction, also euphonious and mellifluous, in these respects being
+far superior to the Chinese. The following stanza is from one of the
+Dutch writers; it is written with thirty-one syllables.
+
+    Kokorodani makotono,
+    Michi ni kanai naba,
+    Inorazu totemo kamiya
+    Mamoran.
+
+There are still two other syllabaries, one called _Manyo-kana_, and the
+other _Yamato-kana_, both of which are formed of still more complicated
+Chinese characters, also used phonetically. Neither of these syllabaries
+is generally used entirely alone, but the three are joined together or
+interchanged somewhat according to the fancy of the writer, in a manner
+similar to Archdeacon Wrangham's famous echo poem. Such a complicated
+mode of writing has this unfortunate result, however, of so seriously
+obstructing the avenues to the temple of science, that the greatest part
+of the common people are unable to enter, and must be content with
+admiring the structure afar off. Most of them content themselves with
+learning to write and read in the _hirakana_, and get as much knowledge
+of Chinese as will enable them to read the names of places, signs,
+people, &c., for which those characters are universally used. Besides
+the phonetic use of Chinese characters in these syllabaries, they are
+employed very extensively as words, with their own meanings, partly
+because they are more nervous and expressive in the estimation of the
+writer than the vernacular, and partly to show his learning and shorten
+his labor. Commonly, characters so used are called by their Japanese
+meanings, but sometimes too by their Chinese names.[110]
+
+The connection between the Chinese and Japanese, therefore, is very
+intimate, and presents a curious instance of assimilation between a
+symbolic and syllabic language, though at the cost of much hard study
+and labor to acquire the mongrel compound. It is another example of
+Asiatic toil upon the media of thought, rather than investigations in
+the world of thought and science itself; for no people who possessed
+invention, research, or science, would ever have encumbered themselves
+with so burdensome a vehicle of communication. The Chinese do not attend
+to the Japanese language, and have no knowledge of its structure, or the
+principles on which it has combined with their own. Their intercourse
+with Japan is entirely commercial; that of the Japanese with them,
+chiefly literary.
+
+The Coreans have also adopted the Chinese character, but without many of
+the elaborate modifications in use among the Japanese. They have had
+more intercourse with the Chinese, but have not been able to make their
+polysyllabic words assimilate with the monosyllables of the Chinese.
+They have invented an alphabet, the letters of which combine to form
+syllables, and these syllabic compounds are then used like the Japanese
+characters to express their own words. The original letters consist of
+fifteen consonants, called _ka_, _na_, _ta_, _la_ or _ra_, _ma_ or _ba_,
+_pa_, _sa_ or _sha_, _nga_, _tsa_ or _cha_, _tsŽa_ or _chŽa_, _kŽa_,
+_tŽa_, _pŽa_, _ha_, and _wa_; and eleven vowels, _a_, _ya_, _o_, _yo_,
+_oh_, _yoh_, _ú_, _yú_, _u_, _í_, and _âh_. The combinations of these
+form altogether one hundred and sixty-eight syllables, the last
+fourteen of which are triply combined by introducing the sound of _w_
+between the consonants and some of the vowels, as _kwa_, _tsŽhwo_, &c.
+The sounds and meanings of Chinese characters are expressed in this
+syllabary in the duoglott works prepared by the Coreans for learning
+Chinese; while it is used by itself in works intended for the natives.
+The Coreans have not, like the Japanese, unnecessarily increased the
+difficulty of their own language by employing a great number of signs
+for the same sound, but are content with one series. It is to be hoped
+that this facility results in a greater diffusion of knowledge among the
+people. The Japanese have the inflections of cases, moods, tenses and
+voices, in their language; but these features are denoted in Corean by
+the collocation of the words, and the words themselves remain unchanged
+as in Chinese. The sounds of the Corean are pleasant, and both it and
+the Japanese allow many alterations and elisions for the sake of
+euphony. Further investigation will probably show some connection
+originally between the Corean and Manchu languages, though the former of
+these has been more modified by the Chinese than the latter.[111]
+
+The people of Annam have adopted the Chinese characters without making a
+syllabary or alphabet to express their own vernacular. The inhabitants
+of this country are evidently of the same race as the Chinese, and now
+acknowledge a nominal subjection to the emperor of China by sending a
+triennial embassy to Peking, partly commercial and partly tributary. The
+sounds given to the Chinese characters are, however, so unlike those
+given them in China, that the two nations cannot converse with each
+other. The Annamese have many sounds in their spoken language which no
+Chinese can enunciate. The court dialect is learned by educated men, and
+books are written and printed in Chinese. The sounds given to the
+characters are all monosyllabic, and slight analogies can be traced
+running through the variations; but they offer very little assistance to
+any one, who, knowing only one mode of pronunciation, wishes to learn
+the other.
+
+Much of the interest connected with the investigation of the Chinese and
+its cognate tongues, arises from the immense multitudes which speak and
+write them; and from the influence which China has, through the writings
+of her sages, exerted over the minds and progress of her neighbors.
+There is nothing like it in European history; but the spell cast over
+the intellects of the millions in eastern Asia, by the writings of
+Confucius, Mencius, and their disciples, is likely erelong to be broken
+by the infusion of Christian knowledge, the extension of commerce, and a
+better understanding of their political and social rights by the
+multitudes who now adopt them.
+
+For much of the information embraced in this memoir on China, Japan, and
+the adjacent countries, I am indebted to the Chinese Repository, (a
+monthly journal printed at Canton), and more especially to one of its
+accomplished editors, Mr. S. Wells Williams. This gentleman during a
+residence of twelve years in China, has made himself familiar with the
+written and spoken language of the Chinese, and is ranked, by some of
+the eminent Sinologists of Europe, among the profoundest adepts in that
+branch of literature and philology. Mr. Williams has also studied the
+Japanese language, which he reads and speaks; and is probably the only
+man in America familiar with the languages of China and Japan. Several
+natives of Japan, driven by adverse winds from their native shores,
+found their way to China, and were subsequently taken by an American
+ship to Yedo, but were not permitted to land. From these men, Mr.
+Williams has learned the spoken Japanese, and as much of the written
+language as they could impart. This gentleman is at present in New York
+making arrangements for getting founts of Chinese, Japanese, and Manchu
+type, for printing in these languages.
+
+The Chinese Repository is a monthly journal, printed at Canton, and is
+edited by the Rev. Dr. Bridgman and Mr. Williams. It contains much
+valuable information relating to China, Japan, and the eastern
+Archipelago, and frequently memoirs, translated from the Japanese and
+Chinese. On the whole, it may with truth be said to embody more
+information than any other work extant, on these countries.
+
+Mr. Williams has now in press a new work on the Chinese empire, which
+will contain an account of its general political divisions, including
+Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili and Tibet, their geographical and topographical
+features. The natural history of China; its government, laws,
+literature, language, science, industry and arts. Social and domestic
+life--History and Chronology--Religion; Christian missions; intercourse
+with other nations; and a full account of the late war with England.
+
+The history of the introduction of Christianity into China, in the
+seventh century of the Christian era, the traces of which still exist;
+and of the Jews in China, are subjects which are now attracting
+attention. It would occupy too much space to give any particulars in
+this brief memoir. In the list of late works on China, will be found
+references to such books as treat of the subject, to which the attention
+of the reader is directed.
+
+The Syrian monument which has been often referred to, is one of great
+interest, and is believed by all who have examined the subject, to be
+genuine. This monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, in the
+year 1625, in or near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of
+Shensi, and once the metropolis of the empire. The monument was found
+covered with rubbish, and was immediately reported to the magistrate,
+who caused it to be removed to a pagoda, where it was examined by both
+natives and foreigners, Christians and Pagans. It was a slab of marble,
+about ten feet long and five broad. It contained on one side a Chinese
+inscription, which was translated by Father Kircher into Latin, and by
+Dalquié into French. Mr. Bridgman has given an English translation, and
+has published the three versions, accompanied by the original Chinese,
+with explanatory notes. This inscription commemorates the progress of
+Christianity in China, and was erected in the year of the Christian era
+718. Mr. Bridgman who is one of the most learned in the Chinese
+language, says in conclusion, that "there are strong internal evidences
+of its being the work of a professor of Christianity, and such we
+believe it to be."[112]
+
+Other portions of this memoir might be very much enlarged, but would
+extend it beyond the bounds of the _resumé_, which it is intended to
+give. There are besides other countries and people, accounts of which it
+would be desirable to give place to, particularly those of Central Asia,
+but they are unavoidably passed over from the space that would be
+required to do them justice. The object of this paper is to awaken the
+attention of readers to the geographical and ethnographical discoveries
+made within the last few years, all of which have a bearing on the
+history and progress of the human race. If the author has succeeded in
+so doing, he will feel abundantly repaid for his labor.
+
+     The recent works on China are embraced in the following list.
+
+     China; Political, Commercial and Social; with descriptions of
+     the consular ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghai, etc.,
+     etc. By R. Montgomery Martin. London, 1847.
+
+     Chinese Commercial Guide. Macao, 1844.
+
+     Voyage of the Nemesis; By W.D. Barnard. 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+     1843. 2d ed. 12mo. 1846.
+
+     Events in China. By Granville Loch, R.N. 1844.
+
+     War in China. By Lieut. Ochterlony. 1844.
+
+     The Land of Sinim, with a brief account of the Jews and
+     Christians in China, By a missionary. 12mo. N.Y., 1846.
+
+     Sketches of China. By J.F. Davis. 2 vols. 12mo. 1845.
+
+     The Jews in China. By J. Finn. 12mo. London, 1844.
+
+     Les Juifs de la Chine, par H. Hirsch, (extrait des Israélites
+     de France). 1844.
+
+     Relation des Voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans
+     l'Inde et à la Chine, dans le IXth siècle de l'ère Chrétienne,
+     par M. Reinaud. Paris, 1845. 2 vols. 18mo.
+
+     Three years wanderings in China. By Robert Fortune. 8vo.
+     London, 1847.
+
+     The philological and other works on China, by M. Pauthier, a
+     distinguished French scholar, are among the most valuable works
+     in this department of learning. They embrace the following.
+
+     Sinico-Ægyptiaca, essai sur l'origine et la formation similaire
+     des écritures figuratives Chinoise et Égyptienne, etc. 8vo.
+
+     De l'origine des différents systèmes d'écriture. 4to.
+
+     Examen méthodique des faits qui concernent le Thian-Tchu ou
+     l'Inde; traduit du Chinois. 8vo.
+
+     Documents statistiques officiels sur l'empire de la Chine;
+     traduits du Chinois. 8vo.
+
+     La Chine, avec 73 planches. 8vo.
+
+     La Chine ouverte, aventures d'un Fan-kouei dans le pays de
+     Tsin; illustré par Auguste Borget. 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+     La Chine et les Chinois, par le même. 8vo. Paris, 1844.
+
+     Systema Phoneticum Scripturæ Sinicæ, auctore. J.M. Callery. 2
+     vols. royal 8vo. Macao, 1842.
+
+     Narrative of the second campaign in China, by R.S. Mackenzie.
+     12mo. London.
+
+     A work by G. Tradescant Lay; and another by Professor Kid, have
+     also been published on China.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] In a paper read by Mr. Schoolcraft before the American Ethnological
+Society, it was clearly shown by existing remains, in Michigan and
+Indiana, plans of which were exhibited, that vast districts of country,
+now covered by forests and prairies, bear incontestable proofs of having
+been subject to cultivation at a remote period and before the forest had
+begun its growth.
+
+[2] This figure of an extended hand is the most common of all the
+symbols of the aboriginal tribes of America. It is found on the ancient
+temples, and within the tombs of Yucatan. At the earliest period it was
+used by the Indians, in the United States, and at the present time, it
+is employed by the roving bands and large tribes from the Mississippi to
+the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas northward.
+
+[3] "Bottoms" and "bottom lands," are terms applied to the flat lands
+adjoining rivers. In the State of New York they are called "flats"--as
+the "Mohawk flats."
+
+[4] Second Note sur une pierre gravée trouvé dans un ancien tumulus
+Americain, et à cette occasion, sur l'idiome Libyen, par M. Jomard. 8vo.
+Paris, 1846.
+
+[5] See Mr. Catherwood's paper on the Thugga monument and its
+inscriptions, in the Ethnolg. Trans. Vol. I. p. 477.
+
+[6] Notes on Africa. p.
+
+[7] The essay here alluded to, was the reply of Mr. Jomard to a note
+addressed to him by Mr. Eugene Vail, in 1839, announcing the discovery
+of the inscribed tablet in the Grave-creek mound, and requesting his
+opinion in relation to it. In this reply, Mr. Jomard stated that they
+were of the same character with the inscriptions found by Major Denham
+in the interior of Africa, as well as in Algiers and Tunis. This note
+was inserted in Mr. Vail's work entitled "_Notice sur les Indiens de
+l'Amerique du Nord_." Paris, 1840. This work is scarcely known in the
+United States.
+
+[8] I am aware that many believe the sculptures on the Dighton rock to
+contain several alphabetic characters. Prof. Rafn in his learned and
+ingenious memoir on this inscription, supports this view. In fact, Mr.
+Jomard himself hints at their Phoenician origin.
+
+[9] Histoire Naturelle des Canaries. Tom. I. p. 23
+
+[10] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, &c., by a New
+Englander. p. 198.
+
+[11] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, California, &c. by a New Englander.
+p. 180.
+
+[12] Auburn (New York) Banner, 1837.
+
+[13] Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed. in 4
+vols. 8vo.)
+
+[14] Life and Travels in California. p. 372.
+
+[15] Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American trader
+with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country, built
+a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished
+Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which
+ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh
+in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon
+commenced a brisk business."
+
+[16] Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316. On the
+testimony of the missionaries of the _Collegio de Queretaro_, versed in
+the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language spoken by the
+Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican language. In the
+seventeenth century, missionaries were established among the Moquis and
+Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of the Indians in 1680.
+
+[17] Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit. Essay on
+New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these remains, may
+be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "_Relation du Voyage de Cibola
+en 1540_," published in the "_Relations et memoirs originaux_" of
+Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners and customs of
+the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are given at
+length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the "_Grande
+Maison, dite de Moctezuma_," is extracted from the journal of Father
+Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the Pacific, in
+1775.
+
+[18] Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9, 1846.
+
+[19] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.
+
+[20] London Athenæum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed account of
+this journey.
+
+[21] Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.
+
+[22] There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which would
+give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at
+Ghizeh.
+
+[23] London Athenæum, Nov. 9. 1846.
+
+[24] Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.
+
+[25] Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.
+
+[26] London Athenæum, March 7, 1846.
+
+[27] Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.
+
+[28] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Rapport par M. Roger. 1846.
+p. 321.
+
+[29] London Athenæum, July 4, 1846.
+
+[30] London Athenæum, July, 1845.
+
+[31] The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa,
+investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza, in
+Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by Wm.
+Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,
+London. Vol. xv.
+
+[32] Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.--_Ibid._
+Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in
+Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.
+
+[33] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p. 371.
+
+[34] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.
+
+[35] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de France, for 1845, p. 251.
+
+[36] Notice sur le Progrès des découvertes Géographiques pendant
+l'année, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Société de
+Géographie, p. 245.
+
+[37] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la race
+blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.
+
+[38] Comptes-Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.
+
+[39] Revue Archæologique, Nov. 1845.
+
+[40] The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet is
+deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja,
+who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of
+Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji
+Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in
+conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name of _romouz_.
+
+Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had
+lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime
+Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of
+Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he
+discovered at the top (_en vedette_) two groups of signs, which, from
+their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the
+Arab sacramental words, _Praise be to God_, with which all good
+Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied
+the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of
+six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these
+documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended
+making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and
+on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters.
+Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but
+more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.
+
+Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian
+characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by
+him, and the result is known.--_Revue Archæologique_, November, 1845.
+
+[41] See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.
+
+[42] The accident which led to this second discovery deserves to be
+mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while
+examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a
+tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a
+window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves
+which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A
+farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.
+
+[43] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.
+
+[44] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.
+
+[45] Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.
+
+[46] Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the committee on
+foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting the present
+state, productions, trade, commerce, &c. of the Comoro Islands,
+Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago, and
+Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the government
+of the United States, to make treaties and extend our commercial
+relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer, councillor of the
+Supreme Court of the United States.
+
+[47] See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.
+
+[48] Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of much
+interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.
+
+[49] Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.
+
+[50] London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.
+
+[51] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 1846. Extrait d'une
+description de l'archipel des îles Solo, p. 311.
+
+[52] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, for 1846, p. 365.
+
+[53] Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land.
+
+[54] Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on presenting him
+with the medal.
+
+[55] Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.
+
+[56] p. 394.
+
+[57] vol. 2. p. 10.
+
+[58] London Athenæum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.
+
+[59] Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial Magazine,
+vol. 2, 1845.
+
+[60] London Athenæum. Nov. 3, 1846.
+
+[61] Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.
+
+[62] Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by Cyrus and
+Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus, the Lycians
+boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in numbers, behaved
+with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued into their city,
+they collected their wives, children and valuable effects, into the
+citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense fire.... Of those
+who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians, _the whole are
+foreigners_, eighty families excepted."--_Clio_, 176. See also _Clio_,
+171-173.
+
+Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a
+branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from
+Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had
+settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of
+Mylians and Solymi.
+
+Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy,
+assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are
+mentioned.--_Iliad_, b. v. and xii.
+
+[63] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. IX.
+
+[64] Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.
+
+[65] Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.
+
+[66] Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical Society of
+London, November 9, 1846.--London Ath.
+
+[67] Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée et la Russie
+méridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique; par X.
+Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates. Paris,
+1845.
+
+[68] I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of these
+discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The
+translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only
+accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent
+publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much
+has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in
+antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A
+full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present
+state, seems therefore necessary.
+
+[69] Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in Heeren's
+Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.
+
+[70] The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as remarkable
+books that has come down to us from the East. It was first made known in
+Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who brought it from
+Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for the ancient
+books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is said) in making
+a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes, illustrative of
+the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the Zend language, in
+which this book was written. A great sensation was produced in Europe
+among the learned at the appearance of the work. Examined as a monument
+of the ancient religion and literature of the Persians, it was
+differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones[A] and others, not
+only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the translator in very
+harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of the most
+distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it rank among
+the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an antiquity at least
+six centuries anterior to the Christian era.
+
+The Zendavesta (from _zend_ living, and _avesta_ word, i. e. "the living
+word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions,
+and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our
+breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five
+books. 1. The _Izechné_, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2.
+the _Vispered_, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. the
+_Vendidad_, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. the
+_Yeshts Sades_, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5.
+the book _Siroz_, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the
+Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]
+
+The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great
+first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This
+incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of
+the universe--Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the
+principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by
+the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful,
+active, benevolent,--in a word, the precise image of the Element; the
+centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the
+opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every
+thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and
+govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became
+an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]
+
+"The first created man was composed of the four elements,--fire, air,
+water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal
+spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of
+separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of
+sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of
+practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of
+animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with
+the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of
+the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and
+are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still
+professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the
+Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman
+and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of
+Surat."[D] The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo
+superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books
+of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.
+
+Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the
+Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur
+le Yaçna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning,
+illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient
+Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.
+
+  [A] Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.
+
+  [B] See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations
+      Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.
+
+  [C] Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.
+
+  [D] Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.
+
+[71] The modern title of the sovereign of Persia, _Shah_, is at once
+recognised in the ancient name _Kshe_ or _Ksha_ of the monuments.
+
+[72] Mémoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvées près d'Hamadan.
+Paris, 1836.
+
+[73] Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn, 1836. The
+other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift für die
+Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn,
+exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on
+Oriental Philology and Archæology published in Europe.
+
+[74] While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject was
+attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf and
+Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their
+investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with
+those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the
+others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the
+correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.
+
+[75] The Zend language is known to us chiefly by the "Zendavesta." Of
+its antiquity there is doubt. Some philologists believe that it grew up
+with the decline of the old Persian, or was formed on its basis, with an
+infusion from the Sanscrit, Median, and Scythic languages. It was used
+in the time of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 550, at which period Zoroaster
+lived, who employed the Zend in the composition of the "Zendavesta." Its
+antiquity has formed the subject of many memoirs; but late writers,
+among whom are Rask, Eugene Burnouf, Bopp, and Lassen, have decided from
+the most severe tests of criticism, that the Zend was an ancient
+language derived from the same source as the Sanscrit, and that it was
+spoken before the Christian era, particularly in the countries situated
+west of the Caspian Sea, in Georgia, Iran proper, and northern Media.
+Note to the Dabistan, Vol. I. p. 222. The only specimen of this language
+yet known, with the exception of a few MSS. of little importance among
+the Parsees, is the Zendavesta. Major Rawlinson[A] adopts views at
+variance with those of the distinguished German philologists, in regard
+to the antiquity of the Zend language. Its "very elaborate vocalic
+organization," he thinks, "indicates a comparatively recent era for the
+formation of its alphabet;" and of the Zend-Avesta, he is of opinion
+that "the disfigurement of authentic history affords an argument of
+equal weight against the antiquity of its composition." He fully agrees,
+however, with all others as to the very remote composition of the books
+generally ascribed to Zoroaster. In fact this is beyond all question,
+for Plato mentions them (Pol. B. XXX.). Clemens of Alexandria says they
+were known in the 5th century B.C. and many other ancient writers could
+be cited in proof of the same.[B]
+
+  [A] See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to page 42.
+
+  [B] See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a list
+      of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.
+
+[76] On the Decyphering of the Median species of Arrow-headed Writing,
+by N.L. Westergaard, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des
+Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.
+
+[77] Memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, p. 20.
+
+[78] Ibid. p. 28.
+
+[79] On the Median variety of Arrow-headed Writing. Mémoires de la
+Société des Antiquaires du Nord, for 1844. p. 272.
+
+[80] Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 1844-45. Prof.
+Westergaard has also published his paper in English, in the Mémoires de
+la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844, prefixing
+to it Lassen's alphabet of the first sort of Persepolitan writing. He
+was probably induced to do this by observing the limited extent to which
+the German language is cultivated by English scholars, insomuch that
+even Rawlinson complains that he was unable to read any more of Lassen's
+papers than his translations of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.
+
+[81] Memoir on the Persian cuneiform inscriptions. p. 47.
+
+[82] Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.
+
+[83] For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate 24, and
+page 254.
+
+[84] Revue Archæologique. October, 1844.
+
+[85] Westergaard in Mém. de la Socié. Royale des Antiq. du Nord, p. 419.
+Ibid. p. 423.
+
+[86] Lettres de M. Botta sur les découvertes à Khorsabad, près de
+Ninive; publiées par M.J. Mohl.
+
+[87] London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr. Layard,
+dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read before
+the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February, giving
+further accounts of his discoveries.
+
+[88] See London Athenæum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from Constantinople
+dated Sept. 10.
+
+[89] The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The first
+was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings thereof
+were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon
+the feet as a man." _Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4._ The resemblance between the
+animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at Nineveh is
+striking.
+
+[90] Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.
+
+[91] Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans.
+Fund:--by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.
+
+[92] Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.
+
+[93] Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical
+Society, 1846.
+
+[94] Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
+at its meeting, September, 1846.
+
+[95] The Royal Geographical Society of London has conferred its Victoria
+Gold Medal on Prof. Middendorff for his successful exploration.
+
+[96] Lord Colchester's Address before the Royal Geog. Society. London,
+1846.
+
+[97] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 138.
+
+[98] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 206.
+
+[99] English Baptist Missionary Report for 1845. p. 9.
+
+[100] It appears that the Baptist Missionary Society in the year ending
+in March, 1845,[A] expended in India $29,500, of which sum nearly
+$15,000, or rather more than one half, was expended in making
+translations of books into various languages. The remainder was for the
+support of the missionaries, their outfits and passages, the support of
+native teachers--schools &c. The languages and dialects which have been
+studied and elucidated and into which books have been translated may be
+summed up as follows.
+
+  32 languages and dialects in India,
+   4    do.            do.  in Persia and the Caucasian countries,
+   5    do.                 in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,
+   4    do.                 in Polynesia.
+
+The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures;
+books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science,
+popular Histories, geography, &c. Elementary books in the several
+departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety,
+though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament
+constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist
+Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845,
+fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit,
+Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed
+and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for
+Foreign Missions was as follows.
+
+MADRAS MISSION. In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or
+portions of them--books of a religious character--elementary school
+books--tracts--periodicals and reports of benevolent associations
+bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual
+improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this
+single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of
+pages--or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one
+hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was
+doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large
+establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are
+printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.
+
+CEYLON MISSION. In the Tamil and English languages were printed during
+the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes,
+and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million
+one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.
+
+SIAM MISSION. In the Siamese language were printed in two years two
+million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.
+
+When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the
+influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged
+in the same cause.
+
+  [A] Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.
+
+[101] Missionary Herald, Vol. XLV. p. 47.
+
+[102] Chinese Repository. Vol. XV. p. 113.
+
+[103] Annals of the Propaganda for 1846. p. 55.
+
+[104] Ibid. July, 1846.
+
+[105] Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845.
+
+[106] Chinese Repository, Vol. xii. p. 78.
+
+[107] Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, July, 1846.
+
+[108] Chinese Repository, Vol. xiv. p. 155.
+
+[109] It is desirable that this word be expunged from all works on China
+and eastern Asia, and the proper words _officers_, _authorities_,
+_magistrates_, &c., be used instead. Every officer, from a prime
+minister to a constable or tide-waiter, is called a mandarin by
+foreigners, partly because those who write do not know the rank of the
+person, and partly from the common custom of calling many things in
+China by some peculiar term, as if they were unlike the same things
+elsewhere.
+
+[110] Chinese Repository, Vol. X, pp. 205-215.
+
+[111] Chinese Repository. Vol. I., p. 276; Vol. II., pp. 135-138.
+
+[112] Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 202.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected. Obvious spelling errors
+in foreign language references have been corrected. Inconsistencies in
+spelling have been normalized unless otherwise noted below. Questionable
+or vintage spelling has been left as printed in the original
+publication.
+
+Footnotes in the original publication were marked with symbols at the
+page level. Sequential footnote numbering has been applied and all
+footnotes have been relocated to the end of the text.
+
+Variations in spelling for Musselman/Mussulman left as printed in
+original publication.
+
+Punctuation marks to establish phrasing (i. e., commas and semi-colons)
+that were placed inside a closing parenthesis have been moved outside
+the parenthesis.
+
+  Page 3: A chapter heading entitled "NORTH AMERICA." has been added for
+  consistency with chapters listed in the publication's Contents pages.
+
+  Page 14 (footnote 6): Page number reference for "Notes on Africa"
+  missing in original text.
+
+  Page 20 (footnote 17): "Grande Maison, dite de Moetezuma" changed to
+  "Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma".
+
+  Page 26: The second footnote on this page has been converted to appear
+  as block text, consistent with the remainder of the publication in
+  which lists of "Recent Works" appear at the conclusion of a given
+  section. The footnote marker has been removed.
+
+  Page 30: Removed stray opening quotation mark mid-sentence that was
+  not closed. 'From the base of this structure "commences an inclined'.
+
+  Page 48: The footnote on this page has been converted to appear as
+  block text, consistent with the remainder of the publication in which
+  lists of "Recent Works" appear at the conclusion of a given section.
+  The footnote marker has been removed.
+
+  Page 69: A chapter heading entitled "ASIA." has been added for
+  consistency with chapters listed in the publication's Contents pages.
+
+  Page 87 (footnote 70): The paragraph beginning "The first created man
+  was composed of the four elements..." contains unmatched quotation
+  marks in the original publication and has been left as printed.
+
+  Page 92 (footnote 75B): Opening text 'See a note to the "Dabistan,"
+  Vol. I. p. in which...' is missing the page number ("p.") in the
+  original publication.
+
+  Page 93: Changed "Archæmenian" to "Achæmenian" in the following
+  sentence (as originally printed): "Various combinations of a figure
+  shaped like a wedge, together with one produced by the union of two
+  wedges, constitute the system of writing employed by the ancient
+  Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and the Archæmenian kings of Persia."
+
+  Page 107: Original publication is missing a numeral in what is
+  presumably a year in the 1800's. Transcribed here as "18_3".
+
+  Page 126: Added a footnote marker for footnote 105 at the end of
+  this sentence: "The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda
+  Society contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia,
+  by the Rev. Mr. Huc."
+
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The Progress of Ethnology, by John Russell Bartlett
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Progress of Ethnology
+       An Account of Recent Archaeological, Philological and
+              Geographical Researches in Various Parts of the Globe
+
+Author: John Russell Bartlett
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2011 [EBook #35234]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Gary Rees and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<h2>THE</h2>
+
+<h1>PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY
+<br />
+<br />
+</h1>
+
+<h3>AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT<br /><br />
+
+ARCHÆOLOGICAL, PHILOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL<br /><br /><br /></h3>
+
+<h2>RESEARCHES<br /><br /><br /></h2>
+
+<h3>IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE.<br /><br />
+
+TENDING TO ELUCIDATE<br /><br /><br /></h3>
+
+<h2>THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.<br /><br /><br /></h2>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>JOHN RUSSELL BARTLETT,</h2>
+
+<h3>COR. SEC. OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN COR. SEC.
+OF THE NEW YORK HIST. SOCIETY.<br /><br /><br />
+
+SECOND EDITION.<br /><br /><br />
+
+NEW YORK:<br />
+
+BARTLETT &amp; WELFORD, 7 ASTOR HOUSE.<br />
+
+1847.<br /><br /></h3><p><span class="pagenum">[ii]</span></p>
+
+<h3>NEW YORK:<br />
+
+WILLIAM VAN NORDEN, PRINTER,<br />
+
+NO. 39 WILLIAM STREET.</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum">[iii]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><a href="#NORTH_AMERICA">NORTH AMERICA.</a></div>
+
+<p>Explorations and Discoveries in the Mounds and other earth-works in
+Ohio. Similar researches and their results in Mississippi and
+Louisiana.... Mr. Jomard's essay on the tablet found in the Grave Creek
+mound in Virginia, p. <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">California and New Mexico</span>&mdash;Recent explorations in these countries, with
+accounts of the Navijo and Moqui Indians; architectural remains on the
+banks of the Gila.... French explorations in the Isthmus of Panama, p.
+<a href="#Page_16">16.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Researches in Greenland</span>, and the Arctic regions; geographical and
+historical results.... Late attempts for exploring the northern portions
+of the American Continent, p. <a href="#Page_23">23.</a></p>
+
+<div class="center"><a href="#SOUTH_AMERICA">SOUTH AMERICA.</a></div>
+
+<p>Details of the Scientific Expedition under Count Castelnau, sent by the
+French government for exploring the interior of South America....
+English expedition under Lord Ranelagh&mdash;other scientific expeditions....
+Peruvian antiquities, etc. etc., p. <a href="#Page_27">27.</a></p>
+
+<div class="center"><a href="#AFRICA">AFRICA.</a></div>
+
+<p>Recent attempts for exploring the interior of Africa.... Mr. Thomson's
+journey from Sierra Leone.... Mr. Duncan's journey northward from
+Dahomey. Missionary operations at the Gaboon.... Mr. Richardson's
+journey into the great desert of Sahara.... The French expedition up the
+Senegal, under Mr. Raffenel.... Extensive project for the exploration of
+Soudan, in Central Africa.... Proposed expedition for penetrating the
+country from the eastern side.... Contributions to the geography of
+Southern Africa.... Mr. Maizan's unfortunate attempt to reach the
+interior from Zanzibar, p. <a href="#Page_32">32.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Algiers</span>&mdash;scientific explorations by the French Government; interesting
+results; errors respecting the desert of Sahara, p. <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Discovery</span> of the ancient <span class="smcap">Lybian</span> alphabet, by M. de Saulcy, p. <a href="#Page_44">44.</a></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Berbers</span>; late researches into their language, p. <a href="#Page_45">45.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Madagascar</span>; recent visits of the French, p. <a href="#Page_47">47.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Egypt</span>; results of the late explorations; state of hieroglyphic and
+Coptic literature; Egyptian history and chronology, p. <a href="#Page_48">48.</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center"><a href="#EASTERN_ARCHIPELAGO">EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.</a></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Borneo</span>&mdash;Mr. Brooke's colony; the Dyaks.... The Dutch and other European
+colonies in the East Indies.... New Caledonia islands.... The Sooloo
+islands. The Nicobar islands, p. <a href="#Page_54">54.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Australia</span>; accounts of late explorations, by Count Strzelecki, Dr.
+Leichardt and others, p. <a href="#Page_64">64.</a></p>
+
+<div class="center"><a href="#ASIA">ASIA.</a></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Asia Minor</span>&mdash;Interesting discoveries in Lycia, p. <a href="#Page_69">69.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arabia</span>&mdash;Historical and philological results of the researches in
+Southern Arabia, the country of the ancient Himyarites; importance of
+these discoveries in elucidating Scriptural history, p. <a href="#Page_73">73.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Caucasus</span>&mdash;Exploration by M. Hommaire de Hell.... Sclavonic MSS. and
+inscriptions, p. <a href="#Page_84">84.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Assyria and Persia</span>&mdash;History of the study of the ancient arrow-headed
+inscriptions.... Extraordinary results therefrom.... The Zendavesta....
+The Zend language.... The great inscription of Darius.... Explorations
+at Nineveh. Journeys of Dr. Robert; of Prince Waldemar, etc., p. <a href="#Page_84">84.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Siberia</span>&mdash;Journeys of Count Middendorff and others; geographical and
+ethnographical results, p. <a href="#Page_109">109.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">India</span>&mdash;Progress of civilization; importance of missionary labors, <a href="#Page_113">113.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Siam</span>&mdash;Decline of Boodhism; extension of Christianity, p. <a href="#Page_117">117.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cochin-China</span>&mdash;Visit of Mr. Hedde to Turon, in Annam, p. <a href="#Page_118">118.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">China</span>&mdash;Latest accounts from, <a href="#Page_119">119.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Corea</span>&mdash;Efforts of the Catholic missionaries to christianize the natives,
+p. <a href="#Page_123">123.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Manchuria....Mongolia</span>&mdash;Recent accounts from these countries; journey of
+Rev. Mr. Huc, in Mongolia, <a href="#Page_125">125.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lew-Chew Islands</span>&mdash;Attempt to establish a mission, by Rev. Mr. Forcade;
+notices of the people, their manners, customs, and language, <a href="#Page_127">127.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Japan</span>&mdash;Recent attempts to communicate with the Japanese; peculiarities
+of this people.... General view of the languages of the Japanese,
+Coreans, Chinese, and Cochin-Chinese, <a href="#Page_131">131.</a></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_PROGRESS_OF_ETHNOLOGY_AND_GEOGRAPHY" id="THE_PROGRESS_OF_ETHNOLOGY_AND_GEOGRAPHY"></a>THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="NORTH_AMERICA" id="NORTH_AMERICA"></a>NORTH AMERICA.</h2>
+
+<p>I have the pleasure of laying before the New York Historical Society a
+brief account of the progress which has been made during the past year
+towards extending our knowledge of the globe, particularly with
+reference to its geography, and to those nations whose history is
+imperfectly known. The subject is one that more properly belongs to
+ethnology, but the historical results which are deduced from these
+enquiries come within the scope of the objects, the elucidation of which
+belongs to this Society.</p>
+
+<p>A new impulse has lately been given to the study of American
+Antiquities. A brief account of recent investigations carried on in a
+portion of the West and South will show that we possess much that is
+interesting, and which will throw light on a neglected branch of
+aboriginal history and ethnology.</p>
+
+<p>Every enquirer into the origin and purposes of the monuments and ancient
+remains of the Mississippi valley has regretted the limited number and
+poorly attested character of the facts, of which the public are in
+possession, respecting them. The practical investigations made from time
+to time by various individuals, have not been sufficiently thorough and
+extensive, nor have they developed sufficient data to warrant or sustain
+any definite or satisfactory conclusions. They have served rather to
+provoke enquiries which they could in no degree satisfy,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> than to afford
+information on the subject with which they were connected.</p>
+
+<p>It was under a strong sense of the deficiencies in our stock of
+information in this branch of knowledge, that two gentlemen of
+Chillicothe, Ohio, Dr. Davis and Mr. E.G. Squier, undertook the
+exploration of the ancient remains which abound in the state of Ohio,
+and particularly of those in the valley of the Scioto river.</p>
+
+<p>It is known that there exists in this region vast numbers of mounds, of
+various dimensions, and extensive embankments of earth, enclosing in
+some instances many acres of ground. Beside these there are ditches,
+walls, causeways and other works of a greater or less extent. The
+examination of these, by opening the mounds, and making accurate surveys
+of the other works constitute the labors of these gentlemen, some of the
+results of which may be stated in anticipation of a full account which
+will shortly appear.</p>
+
+<p>Though their labors at first promised to end in increased doubt and
+uncertainty, they were abundantly rewarded as their enquiries
+progressed. Out of confusion, system began to develope itself, and what
+seemed accidents, were found to be characteristics. What was regarded as
+anomalous, was recognized as a type and feature of a class, and apparent
+coincidences became proofs of design.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, it was remarked among the numerous tumuli opened, that
+certain ones were stratified, while others were homogeneous in their
+composition. Further observation showed that stratified tumuli occupy a
+certain fixed position with regard to other works, which the
+unstratified tumuli do not. Still further examinations demonstrated that
+the contents of those respective tumuli are radically and invariably
+different. Here then was established: 1st. That the mounds are not, as
+is generally supposed, identical in character and purpose. 2d. That one
+class occupies a fixed position with regard to works of a different
+character, the design of which is to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> determined, to some degree, by
+the peculiarities and the contents of this description of mounds, etc.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen, at once, that a close observation of facts of this kind
+is absolutely essential, to arrive at any reasonable conclusions,
+regarding the purposes of these ancient structures, their origin, or the
+character or customs of the people by whom they were built. The
+investigations of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, were therefore conducted so
+as to permit the escape of no fact which might tend to elucidate the
+mystery in which our antiquities are shrouded. The excavations were made
+under their personal direction, and the results may be briefly stated,
+without detailing the facts in support of each conclusion, as follows.</p>
+
+<p>The number of enclosures or earthworks which have been surveyed by them,
+and of which they have taken careful admeasurements, exceeds <i>ninety</i>.
+The number of tumuli which have been excavated and their characteristics
+noted, amounts to <i>one hundred and fifteen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Of the first class of works, it has been sufficiently demonstrated, that
+a small proportion were intended for works of defence; that another
+portion were sacred places, or in some way connected with religious or
+superstitious rites, while a third and much the larger number are
+entirely inexplicable in our present state of information.</p>
+
+<p>The tumuli are divided into three grand classes, which are broadly
+marked in the aggregate, though there are individual instances of an
+anomalous character. These are:</p>
+
+<p>1st. Tumuli of sepulture, each containing a single skeleton enclosed in
+a rude, wooden coffin, or an envelope of bark or matting, and occurring
+in isolated or detached groups.</p>
+
+<p>2d. Tumuli of sacrifice, containing symmetrical altars of stone or burnt
+clay, occurring within or in the immediate vicinity of enclosures, and
+always stratified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3d. Places of observation, or mounds raised upon elevated or commanding
+positions.</p>
+
+<p>Within these monuments have been found implements and ornaments of
+silver, copper, lead, stone, ivory and pottery, fashioned into a
+thousand forms, and evincing a skill in art, to which the existing race
+of Indians, at the time of their discovery, could not approach. Marine
+shells, mica from the primitive regions, native copper from the shores
+of lake Superior, galena from the upper Mississippi, cetacean teeth,
+pearls and instruments of <i>obsidian</i>, show the extent of communication
+and intercourse had by the authors of these ancient works. Sculptures of
+animals, birds and reptiles have been found in great numbers and
+variety, exhibiting a skill which few could now surpass. Also,
+sculptures of the human head, disclosing most probably the character of
+the physiognomy, as well as the manner of adjusting the hair, the head
+dress and ornaments of the mound-builders. Careful admeasurements of the
+earth works which abound in the Ohio valley, have been made by the
+gentlemen alluded to, in which the interesting fact has been developed,
+that many of them are perfect circles and squares, and hence that the
+people by whom they were constructed had some means of determining
+angles and of constructing circles. In some of those earth-heaps,
+sufficient remains to show that when in a perfect state, they resembled
+the <i>teocallis</i> or terraced edifices of Mexico and Yucatan, though they
+were composed wholly of wood and earth.</p>
+
+<p>The number of works manifestly connected in some way with their
+religion, guide us to some estimate of the prominence which their
+superstitions occupied, and that a religious system existed among them,
+in some degree resembling that of the ancient Mexicans. The immense
+tumuli heaped over the remains of the dead, show the regard which they
+attached to their chiefs, and the veneration in which they held their
+memory. The number and extent of their remains of all kinds, which
+occupy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> the fertile valleys, and which are confined almost entirely to
+them, indicate that an immense population once existed there, that it
+was stationary and therefore agricultural;<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and if agricultural and
+stationary, that a different organization of society, different manners
+and customs, different impulses and feelings existed among them, than
+are to be found among the hunter and nomadic tribes, discovered by
+Europeans in possession of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of antiquities has been discovered by these gentlemen, of
+which we only have the particulars in a letter. These consist of rocks
+sculptured with figures of men, of birds and animals. They are cut in
+outline, the lines being from one half to three quarters of an inch deep
+by about the same width. Only those on the sides of the rocks are
+visible. Those on the upper or horizontal faces are nearly obliterated.
+One represents an elk and is said to be very spirited.</p>
+
+<p>What may result from the future researches of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier,
+remains to be seen; but sufficient has been developed to show that a
+people, radically different from the existing race of Indians, once
+occupied the valley of the Mississippi, and built the singular monuments
+in which it abounds. These also show that they were to a certain extent
+advanced in the arts and civilization. In short that they closely
+resembled in the character of their structures, ornaments and implements
+of war and husbandry, the races of Central America; if they were not
+indeed their progenitors or an offshoot from them. Many facts strongly
+point to such a conclusion and farther observations carefully conducted,
+will probably enable us to settle the question beyond a doubt.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A detailed account of the researches of the gentlemen alluded to,
+accompanied by numerous engravings representing the implements,
+ornaments and sculptures, &amp;c., discovered in their excavations;&mdash;surveys
+of the various earth works, forts and enclosures in the Scioto valley,
+will be given in the second volume of the Transactions of the American
+Ethnological Society, now preparing for publication. They are still
+actively engaged in their labors, and intend, should the facilities be
+extended them to carry on their operations, to examine every ancient
+relic to be found in Ohio and the adjacent parts, where these remains
+exist.</p>
+
+<p>Among the explorations which have been carried on in the United States,
+none possess a greater interest than those of Dr. M.W. Dickeson, in the
+south western states, chiefly in Mississippi, though in some instances
+extending to Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. Dr. Dickeson has laid open
+or examined one hundred and fifty mounds and tumuli, of various
+dimensions and collected a vast number of interesting relics, which
+illustrate the customs and arts of the ancient people who built them.
+The mounds vary from three to ninety feet in height, and from twelve to
+three hundred feet in diameter at the base. The Seltzer Town mound
+contains a superficies of eight acres on its summit. On digging into it
+vast quantities of human skeletons were found, chiefly with their heads
+flattened, and measuring generally six feet in length. Numerous
+specimens of pottery, including finely finished vases filled with
+pigments, ashes, ornaments, and beads, were also found.</p>
+
+<p>The north side of this mound is supported with a wall two feet thick, of
+sun dried bricks, filled with grass, rushes and leaves. In order to
+ascertain whether this immense tumulus was artificial or not, Dr.
+Benbrook, sank a shaft forty two feet, and found it artificial or made
+ground to that depth. Immense quantities of bones, both of men and
+animals, among the latter the head of a huge bear,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> were thrown out.
+Other excavations were made in this tumulus with the same result, thus
+showing it to have been a vast mausoleum or cemetery of the ancient
+race.</p>
+
+<p>The mounds are generally in systems varying from seven to ten, which Dr.
+Dickeson has divided into six classes as follows: <i>out post</i>, <i>ramparts
+or walls</i>, <i>telegraphs or look outs</i>, <i>temples</i>, <i>cemeteries</i>, and <i>tent
+mounds</i>. The first is seldom more than thirty feet at the base by ten
+feet high. Their shape varies, presenting sometimes a pyramid, at others
+a cone, or rhomboid. Walls surround the second class, which are from ten
+to fifteen feet in heighth, the same across the top, and from forty to
+fifty feet at the base.</p>
+
+<p>The "<i>Look out</i>" mounds are seldom under sixty feet high. Of this class,
+Dr. Dickeson has examined upwards of ninety. They are generally on the
+summit of a hill, overlooking the bottom lands. Here they stand some
+three hundred feet above the bottom lands, commanding an extensive
+prospect, and in some instances one may see the peaks of several systems
+of mounds in the distance.</p>
+
+<p>The "<i>Temple mounds</i>" are seldom more than twenty feet high, and
+stratified with ashes, loam, gravel, &amp;c. They all have an earthen floor.
+Dr. Dickeson has, but in a single instant, found a skeleton in these
+mounds, and in this, he thinks the subject a Choctaw Indian recently
+placed there. It lay in a horizontal position, differing from the usual
+mode of burial, which is the sitting posture.</p>
+
+<p>The "<i>Cemeteries</i>" are oval, and from six to ten feet high, filled with
+bones, lying east and west, and when incased in sarcophagi, the rows run
+in the same direction. In some instances Dr. Dickeson found the bones
+lying in heaps, promiscuously. These he believes to have been the
+<i>canaille</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The "<i>Tent or Structure mounds</i>" are small, and a short distance below
+their surface, fragments of brick and cement are found in great
+quantities; sometimes skeletons and pottery. Never more than six
+skeletons are found together, and more care is shown in the burial of
+these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> than in the "cemetery mounds." In one instance an angular tumulus
+was seen by the Doctor, with the corners quite perfect, formed of large
+bricks, bearing the impression of an extended hand.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Many mounds and tumuli are advantageously situated on the tops of
+ridges, surrounded with walls. Some of the latter have crumbled away,
+while others remain strong and perpendicular. In many instances, the
+walls that surround these groups of mounds, form perfect squares and
+circles. Dr. Dickeson adds that, "if from the centre of one of these
+groups a circle were traced, it would strike the centre of each mound,
+both large and small." They contain numerous fragments of walls, images,
+pottery, ornaments, etc. etc.</p>
+
+<p>The "Temples" are generally situated among the hills and ravines, with
+perpendicular escarpments, improved by artificial fortifications. The
+enclosures often embrace upwards of thirty acres. The great enclosure at
+"the Trinity" contains upwards of one hundred and fifty acres, and is
+partially faced with sundried brick. Upon the plantation of Mr.
+Chamberlain in Mississippi, the temple is flanked with several
+<i>bastions</i>, besides <i>squares</i>, <i>parallels</i>, <i>half moons</i>, and ravines
+with perpendicular escarpments for its defence. The ditches and small
+lakes are frequently chained for miles and filled with water, intended,
+the Doctor thinks, for outworks. In these, bricks are found both at the
+bottom and on the sides. Among the rubbish and vegetable deposits taken
+from them to put on the land, ornaments, and other relics are found.</p>
+
+<p>Wells and reservoirs, completely walled with burnt clay,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> are found in
+Louisiana; near which are "systems," or groups of mounds so regular and
+strongly fortified, that they became the retreat of pirates and robbers
+who infested the rivers, greatly disturbing the early settlers, after
+the massacre of the Natchez Indians by the French. The Natchez built
+large dikes or ditches, and upon the counterscarp piled up huge
+ramparts, which they made almost impregnable, by having one side flanked
+by the slope of a hill, surrounded by precipices. They are sometimes
+situated on the level "bottoms."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> In these cases one side invariably
+faces a creek or bayou, or is in its bend, making the creek serve as a
+formidable ditch, offering a serious impediment to an enemy's approach.
+The other two sides are protected by parallel walls or half moons, with
+gateways leading to the citadel. These walls have indications of having
+been faced with dry masonry. The east and west corners are generally
+flanked with a small oval mound.</p>
+
+<p>In these tumuli and mounds numerous ornaments and pottery were found by
+Dr. Dickeson, buried with the occupants, such as idols, clay stamps,
+mica mirrors, stone axes, and arrow heads, silver and copper ornaments,
+rings, beads of jasper, chalcedony, agate, &amp;c., similar to those found
+in Peru and Mexico. Several pearls of great beauty and lustre, an inch
+in diameter, have been found. By an examination of the skulls, Dr. D.
+discovered that <i>dentistry</i> had been extensively practised by this
+ancient people, as plugging the teeth, and inserting artificial ones,
+was common. In one instance, five artificial teeth were found inserted
+in one subject. Ovens were found containing pottery partially baked,
+three feet below the surface, with large trees covering them, exhibiting
+an age of upwards of five hundred years. Magazines of arrow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> points, in
+one instance a "wagon body full," (about twenty bushels), lying within
+the space of a few feet. In a small mound in Adams county, Dr. D. found
+three large jars holding upwards of ten gallons of arrow points
+elaborately finished; and three similar in dimensions and finish, have
+lately been received by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, from South
+Carolina. Carvings representing the English bull dog, the camel and
+lama, have been found by Dr. Dickeson, from forty to sixty feet below
+the surface of the mound. The bricks, to which allusion has been made,
+are of various colors; some of a bright red, others dark brown, various
+shades of purple and yellow. Forty stamps of baked clay, containing a
+variety of figures used for stamping their skins. Pieces of coin, two of
+which found near Natches, had the figure of a bird on one side, and on
+the reverse an animal.</p>
+
+<p>The pottery found is quite extensive, some mounds have been opened in
+which were upwards of sixty vases, some quite plain, and others
+elaborately ornamented. Of the pottery, Dr. Dickeson has succeeded in
+getting upwards of a hundred fine specimens to Philadelphia, which are
+deposited with his other Indian relics and fossils, in the Museum of the
+Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Dickeson has kindly furnished me a catalogue of his collection of
+relics, from which I have selected the following to give an idea of the
+extent and variety of the objects found:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>6000 Arrow points of jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartz, &amp;c.,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>150 Arrow points, finely polished, under one inch in length.</p>
+
+<p>25 Arrow points, finely polished, under half an inch in</p>
+
+<p>length.</p>
+
+<p>1600 Unfinished Arrow and Spear points.</p>
+
+<p>250 small stone Axes.</p>
+
+<p>40 Quoits, Weights, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>20 Paint mullers.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+<p>10 Corn grinders.</p>
+
+<p>3 large stone Mortars.</p>
+
+<p>14 small earthen Heads of men, women and boys.</p>
+
+<p>6 stone Statues, erect and sitting.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A great variety of personal ornaments of jasper, chalcedony, pottery,
+beads, pearls, war clubs, war axes, mica mirrors, carved ornaments, arm
+bracelets, bone carvings, earthen plates, handled saucers, earthen
+lamps, a variety of vessels for culinary purposes, stone chisels, two
+copper medals, the tusk of a Mastodon, six feet long, elaborately carved
+with a serpent and human figures; cylindrical tubes of jasper
+perforated, ornaments in pumice, (lava), seals, bricks, jars, cups and
+vases in every variety.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these, Dr. Dickeson has made a collection of upwards of
+sixty crania of the ancient mound builders, out of many thousand
+skeletons discovered by him in his several explorations. These possess
+much interest in an Ethnographic point of view, for the rigid test to
+which all his results have been subjected, have satisfied him that these
+skulls belong to the ancient race. Like the gentlemen in Ohio, whose
+labors have been noticed, the Doctor can at once detect the mounds and
+remains of the ancient, from those of the modern race. Some mounds he
+has found to be the work of three periods. At the top were the remains
+of the present race of Indians; digging lower he found these remains
+accompanied by ancient Spanish relics, of the period of the earliest
+Spanish visit to these parts; and below these, he discovered the remains
+and relics of the ancient race.</p>
+
+<p>The inscribed tablet discovered in the grave-creek mound, Virginia, and
+which was noticed by Mr. Schoolcraft in the first volume of the
+Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, continues to excite
+much interest. Mr. Jomard of the French Institute, read a second paper
+on that subject last year, before the Academy of Inscriptions and
+Belles-lettres at Paris, a copy of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> he has transmitted to the
+Society.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> He distinctly shows, that the letters of this curious
+inscription are identically the same as those of the Libyan on the
+monument of Thugga,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and of the Tuarycks used at this day. It is
+worthy of remark, that Mr. Hodgson in his "Notes on Africa,"<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> arrived
+at the same conclusion, without the knowledge that Mr. Jomard, some
+years previously, had asserted the Libyan character of this inscription,
+in a first note on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Such a coincidence gives force to the
+views adopted by both these gentlemen. The results to which the French
+savant has arrived, in his enquiry into this engraved stone or tablet,
+possess much interest, as it is the only relic yet discovered in North
+America, of an inscription bearing alphabetic characters,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> which have
+been satisfactorily identified as such. This Numidian inscription, which
+title we may now apply to the engraved tablet in question, will be again
+alluded to, when we come to speak of the philological discoveries in
+Northern Africa, and of the Libyan alphabet.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion Mr. Jomard observes, that at a remote period the Libyan
+language was spoken by various tribes in Northern Africa, and that it
+was a language written<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> with characters, such as we now find on the
+Thugga edifice and other monuments; that it is still written with the
+same characters, particularly in the vicinity of Fezzan and in the
+deserts traversed by the Tuarycks, although this method of writing has
+been to so great an extent supplanted by Arabic letters that we must
+consider the Berber language, the language of Syouah, Sokna, Audjelah,
+and Gherma, as representing the remains of the ancient Libyan language
+in use in the most remote period; and finally, that in the interior of
+America, on a monument of which the age is unknown, but anterior to the
+settlement by Europeans, we find an engraved stone, bearing signs
+perfectly resembling the characters traced by the modern Tuarycks and by
+their ancestors, upon the rocks of Libya. Mr. Jomard's pamphlet contains
+an engraved table, in which are given, in parallel columns, the
+characters on the American tablet, the Tuaryck alphabet, the Thugga
+characters, and their value in Hebrew and Arabic.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with this subject it may be added, that M. Berthelot, a
+learned traveller, states that there exists a striking affinity between
+the names of places and of men in the ancient language of the Canaries
+and certain Carib words.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The contiguity of the Canaries to the
+African continent is such, that we can readily suppose their ancient
+inhabitants to have had communication with it, whereby the Libyan
+language became known to them. A new field of enquiry is thus opened to
+philologists, and we may here seek for the means to unravel one of the
+most difficult questions connected with the origin of the American race,
+and the means by which they reached this continent, for we never have
+been among those who believed that America derived the mass of her
+population, her men and animals, from Asia, by the way of Behring's
+Straits.</p>
+
+<p>The author of a late work on California, New Mexico, &amp;c., brings to our
+notice a tribe of Indians known as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> Munchies (Mawkeys) or white
+Indians.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> "This remarkable nation occupies a valley among the <i>Sierra
+de los Mimbros</i> chain of mountains, upon one of the affluents of the
+river Gila, in the extreme northwestern part of the province of Sonora.
+They number about eight hundred persons. Their country is surrounded by
+lofty mountains at nearly every point, is well watered and very fertile.
+Their dwellings are excavated in the hill-sides, and frequently cut in
+the solid rock. They subsist by agriculture, and raise great numbers of
+horses, cattle and sheep. Among them are many of the arts and comforts
+of civilized life. They spin and weave, and make butter and cheese, with
+many of the luxuries known to more enlightened nations. Their government
+is after the patriarchal order, and is purely republican in its
+character. In morals they are represented as honest and virtuous. In
+religion they differ but little from other Indians. Their features
+correspond with those of Europeans, with a fair complexion and a form
+equally if not more graceful. In regard to their origin, they have lost
+all knowledge or even tradition; neither do their characters, manners,
+customs, arts or government savor of modern Europe."</p>
+
+<p>Another tribe of Indians called the Navijos, of whom we know but little,
+except that they have long had a place on the maps, is noticed by the
+same author. They occupy the country between the Del Norte and the
+Sierra Anahuac, in the province of Sonora, and have never succumbed to
+Spanish domination. "They possess a civilization of their own. Most of
+them live in houses built of stone, and cultivate the ground&mdash;raising
+vegetables and grain for a subsistence. They also raise large numbers of
+horses, cattle and sheep&mdash;make butter and cheese, and spin and weave."</p>
+
+<p>The blankets manufactured by these Indians are supe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>rior in beauty of
+color, texture and durability to the fabrics of their Spanish neighbors.
+Their government is in strict accordance with the welfare of the whole
+community. Dishonesty is held in check by suitable regulations, industry
+is encouraged by general consent, and hospitality by common practice. As
+warriors they are brave and daring, making frequent and bold excursions
+into the Spanish settlements, driving off herds of cattle, horses and
+sheep, and spreading terror and dismay on every side. As diplomatists,
+in imitation of their neighbors, they make and break treaties whenever
+interest and inclination prompts them.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Navijo country is shut in by high mountains, inaccessible from
+without, except by limited passes through narrow defiles, well situated
+for defence on the approach of an invading foe. Availing themselves of
+these natural advantages, they have continued to maintain their ground
+against fearful odds, nor have they suffered the Spaniards to set foot
+within their territory as conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>The relations above given of the Mawkeys and Navijos (pronounced
+<i>Navihoes</i>, and sometimes so written), correspond with the accounts that
+from time to time have been brought to us, by hunters and trappers who
+have occasionally visited them. A few years since there appeared in the
+newspapers an account of both these tribes, by a trapper. He stated that
+the Mawkeys had "light, flaxen hair, blue eyes and skins of the most
+delicate whiteness."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> I have two other accounts wherein both are
+described much as before stated. Their manufactures are particularly
+dwelt upon. Some of them wore shoes, stockings and other garments of
+their own make. Their stone houses are noticed as well as their large
+herds of cattle,&mdash;also their cultivation of fruits and vegetables. They
+raise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> cotton, which they manufacture into cloth, as well as wool. Fire
+arms are unknown to them. "Their dress is different from that of other
+Indians, and from their Spanish neighbors. Their shirts, coats and
+waistcoats are made of wool, and their small clothes and gaiters of deer
+skin."</p>
+
+<p>These accounts might be considered fanciful, had we not high authority
+which fully corroborates them. Humboldt says, "The Indians between the
+rivers Gila and Colorado, form a contrast with the wandering and
+distrustful Indians of the savannas to the east of New Mexico. Father
+Garces visited the country of the Moqui, and was astonished to find
+there an Indian town with two great squares, houses of several stories,
+and streets well laid out, and parallel to one another. The construction
+of the edifices of the Moqui is the same with that of the <i>Casas
+grandes</i> on the banks of the Gila."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Mr. Farnham's late work on California, is a notice of the Navijos
+from Dr. Lyman's report. The author begins by saying, that "they are the
+most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Their
+extensive cultivation of maize and all kinds of vegetables&mdash;their
+rearing of "large droves of magnificent horses, equal to the finest
+horses of the United States in appearance and value," and their large
+flocks of sheep are also noticed. From the fleece of the sheep which is
+long and coarse resembling mohair, "they manufacture blankets of a
+texture so firm and heavy as to be perfectly impervious to water." They
+make a variety of colors with which they dye their cloths, besides
+weaving them in stripes and figures. They are constantly at war with the
+Mexicans, but stand in fear of the American trappers, with whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> they
+have had some severe skirmishes, which resulted much to their
+disadvantage.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is believed by Baron Humboldt and by others, that in the Navijos and
+Mawkeys we see the descendants of the same race of Indians which Cortez
+and the Spanish conquerors found in Mexico, in a semi-civilized state.
+We are unable to state whether any affinity exists between their
+language and the other Mexican dialects, as no vocabularies have been
+collected. The whiteness of their skins, their knowledge of the useful
+arts and agriculture, and the mechanical skill exhibited in their
+edifices at the present day, bear a striking analogy with the Mexican
+people at the period of the conquest, and as M. Humboldt observes,
+"appears to announce traces of the cultivation of the ancient Mexicans."
+The Indians have a tradition that 20 leagues north from the Moqui, near
+the mouth of the Rio Zaguananas, the banks of the Nabajoa were the first
+abode of the Aztecs after their departure from Atzlan. "On considering
+the civilization," adds Baron Humboldt, "which exists on several points
+of the northwest coast of America, in the Moqui and on the banks of the
+Gila, we are tempted to believe (and I venture to repeat it here) that
+at the period of the migration of the Toltecs, the Acolhues and the
+Aztecs, several tribes separated from the great mass of the people to
+establish themselves in these northern regions."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>Connected with this subject and in evidence of the identity of these
+tribes with the Aztecs, it should be stated that there exists numerous
+edifices of stone in a ruined state, on the banks of the Gila, some of
+great extent, resembling the terraced edifices and teocallis of Mexico
+and Yucatan. One of these structures measures four hundred and
+forty-five feet in length by two hundred and seventy in breadth, with
+walls four feet in thickness. It was three stories high, with a terrace.
+The whole surrounding plain is covered with broken pottery and earthen
+ware, painted in various colors. Vestiges of an artificial canal are
+also to be seen.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Among the fragments are found pieces of obsidian, a
+volcanic substance not common to the country, and which is also found in
+the mounds in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, in both cases applied to
+the same uses.</p>
+
+<p>Some valuable contributions to the geography and ethnology of the vast
+region lying between the Rocky Mountains and Upper California and
+Oregon, have been made by Capt. Fremont of the U.S. corps of Engineers.
+The expedition under his command traversed the great desert, and
+examined portions of the country not before visited by white men. The
+information collected by this enterprising traveller will be of much
+service to the country in the new relations which may arise between the
+United States and California, as well as to persons who are seeking new
+homes in Oregon. The report of Captain, (now Col.) Fremont has been so
+widely circulated, and rendered so accessible to all who feel an
+interest in the subject,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> that it would be superfluous to give any
+analysis of the work at this time. So satisfactory were the results of
+the expedition of this accomplished officer to the country and the
+government, that he has again been sent to make further explorations of
+the country south of that previously visited by him, and which lies
+between Santa Fé and the Pacific Ocean. Colonel Fremont has in this
+expedition already rendered important services to the country, having
+the command of a detachment of troops in Upper California. This armed
+body of men will give him great advantages over an ordinary traveller in
+a wild and inhospitable country, where there are still tribes of Indians
+which have not yet been subjugated by the Spaniards, and which an
+unprotected traveller could not approach. Much interest has been
+awakened from the accounts already received from Col. Fremont, and it is
+to be hoped that ere long we shall be placed in possession of full
+reports of his explorations, which must throw much light on the
+geography of this vast region, its aboriginal inhabitants, productions,
+climate, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>An exploratory journey in the isthmus of Panama has recently been made
+by M. Hillert, which has resulted in adding much important information
+to our previous knowledge of the country. It is known that there have
+been many surveys of the isthmus, with the view of opening a water
+communication between the oceans on either side. Such was the primary
+object of Mr. Hillert, who, it appears has also made enquiries as to the
+practicability of making a rail road across it. His observations on the
+junction of the two oceans by means of a canal have appeared in the
+bulletin of the Geographical Society of Paris for 1846, (pp. 306 and
+389), together with various letters from him on other subjects which
+attracted his attention.</p>
+
+<p>Among other things Mr. Hillert has made known a most valuable
+anti-venomous plant, the guaco, a creeping plant, which abounds in the
+forest of the Isthmus, the virtues of which were made known to him by
+the Indians. After<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> rubbing the hands with the leaves of this plant, a
+person may handle scorpions and venomous insects with impunity, and
+mosquitoes after sucking the blood of those who had taken it inwardly
+died instantly. The geology and botany of the country received
+particular attention. M. Hillert proposes to introduce several of the
+most useful plants and vegetables into the French dominions in Senegal
+or Algeria, among them the plant from which the Panama hats are made. So
+valuable are the labors of this gentleman considered, that the French
+commission has awarded him the Orleans prize, for having introduced into
+France the most useful improvement in agriculture. Some ancient
+monumental edifices were discovered in the Isthmus, not far from the
+river Atrato, and others near the mines of Cano; besides these an
+ancient canal cut through the solid rock in the interval which separates
+the rivers Atrato and Darien.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The following list embraces all the books relating to
+Oregon, California, and Mexico, printed during the last two
+years.</p>
+
+<p>Narrative of the exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains,
+in the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California, in the
+years 1843-4, by Capt. J.C. Fremont of the Topographical
+Engineers, under the orders of Col. J.J. Abert, 8vo.
+Washington, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Exploration du Territoire de l'Oregon, des Californies, et de la
+Mer Vermeille, executée pendant les années 1840, 41 et 42, par
+M. Duflot de Mofras, Attaché à la Légation de France à Mexico. 2
+vols. 8vo. and folio atlas of maps and plates. Paris, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>The Oregon Territory, claims thereto, of England and America
+considered, its condition and prospects. By Alexander Simpson,
+Esq. 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The Oregon Territory, a geographical and physical account of
+that country and its inhabitants. By Rev. C.G. Nicholay. 18mo.
+London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The Oregon Question determined by the rules of International
+law. By Edward J. Wallace of Bombay. 8vo. London, 1840.</p>
+
+<p>The Oregon question. By the Hon. Albert Gallatin. 8vo. New
+York, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The Oregon Question examined, in respect to facts and the laws
+of nations. By Travers Twiss, D.C.L. 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The Oregon Question as it stands. By M.B. Sampson. London,
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>Prairiedom; Rambles and Scrambles in Texas and New Estremadura.
+By a Southron. 12mo. New York, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Life in California during a residence of several years in that
+Territory. By an American. To which is annexed an historical
+account of the origin, customs and traditions of the Indians of
+Alta California, from the Spanish. Post 8vo. New York, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>An Essay on the Oregon Question, written for the Shakespeare
+Club. By E.A. Meredith. Montreal, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The Topic No. 3. The Oregon Question. 4to. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Life in Prairie Land. By Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham. 12mo. New York,
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>Green's Journal of the Texan expedition against Mier;
+subsequent Imprisonment of the Author; his Sufferings, and
+final Escape from the Castle of Perote. With reflections upon
+the present political and probable future relations of Texas,
+Mexico, and the United States. Illustrated by Drawings taken
+from Life by Charles M'Laughlin, a Fellow-prisoner. Engravings.
+8vo.</p>
+
+<p>Travels over the table lands and Cordilleras of Mexico, in
+1843-4. With an appendix on Oregon and California. By Albert M.
+Gilliam, late U.S. Counsul, California. 8vo. Philadelphia,
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>Recollections of Mexico. By Waddy Thompson, Esq., late Minister
+Plenipotentiary of the U.S. at Mexico. 8vo. New York, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Altowan; or incidents of life and adventure in the Rocky
+Mountains. By an Amateur Traveller. Edited by James Watson
+Webb. 2 vol. 12mo. New York, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, New Mexico,
+Texas, and Grand Prairies, including descriptions of the
+different races inhabiting them, &amp;c. By a New Englander. 12mo.
+Philadelphia, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>History of Oregon and California, and the other Territories on
+the North West Coast of North America: from their discovery to
+the present day. Accompanied by a geographical view of those
+countries. By Robert Greenhow. 8vo. third edition. Boston,
+1847.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Greenland and the Arctic Regions.</span> The Royal Society of Northern
+Antiquaries published, in 1845, Grönlands Historiske Mindesmærker, (The
+Historical Monuments of Greenland), Vol. III., (958 pages, with 12
+copperplates), which closes this work. The 1st and 2d volumes, (pp. 814
+and 794 respectively), were published in 1838. After Professor Rafn had
+finished the compilation of his separate work, <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>,
+which was published by the Society in 1837, he connected himself with
+Professor Finn Magnusen, for the purpose of editing&mdash;also under the
+auspices of the Society&mdash;the great collection of original written
+sources of the ancient history of that remarkable polar land, which was
+first seen in 877, and colonized in 986. With a view of doing all that
+lay in its power to throw light on ancient Greenland, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> Society,
+during the ten years from 1832 to 1841, caused journies to be undertaken
+and explorations to be performed in such of the Greenland firths as were
+of the greatest importance in respect of the ancient colonization. By
+excavations made among the ruins remaining from the ancient colony,
+there was obtained a collection of inscriptions and other antiquities,
+which are now preserved in the American Museum erected by the Society,
+and drawings were taken of the ground plans of several edifices. Of the
+reports received on this occasion, we must in an especial manner notice,
+as exhibiting evidence of the most assiduous care, and as moreover
+embracing the most important part of the country, the exploration
+undertaken by the Rev. George T. Joergensen, of the firths of Igalikko
+and Tunnudluarbik, where the most considerable ruins are situated. The
+present, vol. III., contains, extracts from annals, and a collection of
+Documents relating to Greenland, compiled by Finn Magnusen; (to this
+part appertains a plate exhibiting seals of the Greenland Bishops);
+ancient geographical writings, compiled by Finn Magnusen and Charles C.
+Rafn; the voyages of the brothers Zeno, with introductory remarks and
+notes by Dr. Bredsdorff; a view of more recent voyages for the
+re-discovery of Greenland, by Dr. C. Pingel, an antiquarian chorography
+of Greenland, drawn up by J.J.A. Warsaae, from the accounts furnished
+by various travellers of the explorations undertaken by them. The work
+is closed by a view of the ancient geography of Greenland, by Professor
+Charles C. Rafn, based on a collation of the notices contained in the
+ancient manuscripts and the accounts of the country furnished by the
+travellers. To which is added a list of the bishops and a chronological
+conspectus of the ancient and modern history of the country, a
+historical index of names, a geographical index, and an antiquarian
+index rerum. Copperplate maps are annexed of the two most important
+districts of ancient Greenland&mdash;the eastern settlement, (Eystribygd),
+and the western settlement,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> (Vestribygd), exhibiting the position of
+the numerous ruins. Moreover, plans and elevations of the most important
+ecclesiastical ruins and other rudera; also delineations of runic stones
+and other northern antiquities found in Greenland.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scripta Historica Islandorum</i>, latine reddita et apparatu critico
+instructa, curante Societate Regia Antiquariorum Septentrionalium. Vol.
+XII. The edition first commenced by the Society, of the historical Sagas
+recording events which happened out of America, (Iceland, Greenland and
+Vinland), particularly in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, in the original
+Icelandic text with two translations, one into Latin, and another into
+Danish, (36 vols.) has now been brought to a completion, by the
+publication of the above mentioned volume, (pp. 658 in 8vo.) wherein are
+contained Regesta Geographica to the whole work, which for this large
+cyclus of Sagas may be considered as tantamount to an old northern
+geographical gazetteer, in as much as attention has also been paid to
+other old northern manuscripts of importance in a geographical point of
+view. Complete, however, it cannot by any means be called, neither as
+regards Iceland especially and other lands in America, whose copious
+historical sources have, in the present instance, been but partially
+made use of, nor also as regards the European countries without the
+Scandinavian North, for whose remote history and ancient geography the
+old northern writings contain such important materials, but it is to be
+hoped that the Society will in due time take an opportunity of extending
+its labors in that direction also. The present volume does, however,
+contain a number of names of places situated without the bounds of
+Scandinavia in countries of which mention is made in the writings
+published in the work itself. To the name of each place is annexed its
+Icelandic or old Danish form, and the position of the place is
+investigated by means of comparison with other historical data and with
+modern geography.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sir John Franklin who left about two years on a voyage of exploration,
+in the Arctic regions of America, remains in those inhospitable parts.
+Much anxiety is felt for him as no tidings have been received from him.
+It is to be hoped that his voyage will prove successful and that before
+the close of the present year, he may return.</p>
+
+<p>The Hudson's Bay Company has lately fitted out an expedition, for the
+purpose of surveying the unexplored portion of the coast on the
+northeast angle of the North American continent. The expedition, which
+consists of thirteen persons, is under the command of one of the
+company's officers. It started on the 5th July, in two boats, under
+favorable circumstances;&mdash;the ice having cleared away from the shores of
+the bay at an earlier period of the year than usual.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>A memoir on the Indian tribes beyond the Rocky mountains, and
+particularly those along the shores of the Pacific ocean, from
+California to Behring's straits, with comparative vocabularies of their
+languages, is preparing for publication by the Hon. Albert Gallatin,
+from authentic materials. Mr. Hale, philologist of the United States
+Exploring Expedition, has made a valuable contribution to the Ethnology
+of this region, in his volume, entitled "Ethnology and Philology," being
+the seventh volume of the U.S. Exploring Expedition.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Recent Works on the Arctic Regions.</p>
+
+<p>Barrow's (Sir J.) Voyages of Discovery and Research within the
+Arctic Regions, from the year 1818 to the present time, in
+search of a north-west passage, from the Atlantic to the
+Pacific; with two attempts to reach the North Pole. Abridged
+from the official narratives, with remarks by Sir John Barrow.
+8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Americas Arctiske landes gamle geographie efter de Nordiske
+Oldskriefter ved C.C. Rafn. 8vo. Copenhagen, 1846.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SOUTH_AMERICA" id="SOUTH_AMERICA"></a>SOUTH AMERICA.</h2>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>The French expedition which has been engaged for the last three years in
+exploring the interior of South America, has at length reached Lima,
+from which place Count Castelnau has transmitted a detailed report of
+his journey, to the French Minister of Public Instruction.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>This expedition is by far the most important that has yet been sent out
+for the exploration of South America, and has already traversed a large
+portion of its central parts, little known to geographers. Their first
+journey was across the country from Rio Janeiro to Goyaz, on the head
+waters of the river Araguay (Lat. 16° 11' S. Long. 50° 29' W.) which
+river they descended to its junction with the Tocantiu, and then
+returned by the last named river and the desert of the Chavantes.</p>
+
+<p>They made another journey to the north of Cuyaba, to explore the diamond
+mines, and examine the sources of the Paraguay and Arenos. In the next
+journey,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> the particulars of which have just been communicated from
+Lima, the expedition descended the rivers Cuyaba and San Lorenzo to
+Paraguay. During this voyage they entered the country of the Guatos
+Indians, one of the most interesting tribes of the American aborigines.
+"The features of these Indians," says the Count, "are extremely
+interesting;&mdash;never in my life having seen finer, or any more widely
+differing from the ordinary type of the red man. Their large, well
+opened eyes, with long lashes, nose aquiline and admirably modelled, and
+a long, black beard, would make them one of the finest races in the
+world, had not their habit of stooping in the canoe bowed the legs of
+the greater number. Their arms, consisting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> of very large bows, with
+arrows seven feet long, demand great bodily strength&mdash;and their address
+in the use of them passes imagination. These savages are timid,
+nevertheless, and of extreme mildness. By taking them for our guides,
+and attaching them by small presents, we were enabled to explore parts
+wholly unknown, of that vast net-work of rivers which they are
+constantly traversing." In Paraguay the party met a tribe of the
+celebrated Guaycurus nation. These people are eminently
+equestrian&mdash;transporting their baggage, women and effects of every kind
+on horseback, across the most arid deserts. They are mortal foes to the
+Spaniards, and a terror to the whole frontier. They wear their hair
+long, and paint themselves, black or red, after a very grotesque and
+irregular fashion; the two sides of their bodies are generally painted
+in a different manner. "Their chief arms are the lance, knife, and a
+club, which they throw with great precision at a full gallop. Their hats
+are made of hides. Each warrior has his mark, which he burns with a red
+hot iron on all that belongs to him&mdash;his horses, dogs and even wives.
+One of the most atrocious traits in the manners of this people, is that
+of putting to death all children born of mothers under thirty years of
+age."</p>
+
+<p>After traversing the country between Paraguay and Brazil, the expedition
+proceeded north by the river Paraguay, and passed the mouths of the San
+Lorenzo, where it entered the great lake Gaiva, and from thence the
+greater lake Uberava, the limits of which could not be traced, being
+lost in the horizon. An Indian told the Count that he had travelled for
+three whole days in his canoe, without finding its extremity, which
+supposes a length of twenty-five or thirty leagues. This great inland
+sea is unknown to geographers. At Villa Maria a caravan of mules awaited
+the travellers, when they entered the desert or Gran Chaco, as it is
+called, and proceeded to the town of Matto-Grosso, which is considered
+the most pestiferous place in the world. Out of a population of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> 1200
+souls, there were found but four whites, of whom three were officers of
+the government; all the rest was composed of blacks and Indians of every
+variety and color, who alone are able to support this terrible climate.</p>
+
+<p>From this place the expedition proceeded to Santa Cruz of the Sierra,
+where they found bread, of which they had been deprived for two years;
+after a month's repose, a journey of eight days brought the party to
+Chuquisaca, in Bolivia, and from thence by Potosi to Lima.</p>
+
+<p>The results of this expedition are already of great interest. It will
+make known people, the names of which were unknown to geographers.
+Rivers which appear on our maps are found not to exist, while hitherto
+unknown rivers and large bodies of water have been discovered. Many
+geographical positions have been determined, and the particulars of the
+trade which is extensively carried on in the centre of this vast
+continent by means of caravans of mules, are made known.</p>
+
+<p>M. de Castelnau has paid particular attention to the productions of the
+country, with a view of introducing such as are valuable into the French
+colony of Algeria. Large collections in Natural History have already
+been received at the museum in Paris; observations on terrestrial
+magnetism and meteorology have been made, in fact, no department of
+science seems to have been neglected by the expedition, which will
+reflect great credit on its distinguished head, Count Castelnau, as well
+as on the French government, by whose liberality and zeal for the
+promotion of science it has been supported.</p>
+
+<p>From Lima, Count Castelnau intended to prosecute further researches in
+the country of the Incas, after which he would proceed to the Amazon
+river.</p>
+
+<p>PERU. Some interesting remains of the ancient Peruvians, have lately
+been brought to light in the Province of Chachapoyas, about five hundred
+and fifty miles north of Lima and two hundred and fifty miles from the
+coast. The particulars of these ruins were communicated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> Señor Nieto
+to the prefect of the Department.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> "The principal edifice is an
+immense wall of hewn stone, three thousand six hundred feet in length,
+five hundred and sixty feet in width and one hundred feet high.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> It
+is solid in the interior and level on the top, upon which is another
+wall six hundred feet in length, of the same breadth and height as the
+former, and like it solid to its summit. In this elevation, and also in
+that of the lower wall, are a great many rooms eighteen feet long and
+fifteen wide, in which are found neatly constructed niches, containing
+bones of the ancient dead, some naked and some in shrouds or blankets,"
+placed in a sitting posture.</p>
+
+<p>From the base of this structure commences an inclined plane gradually
+ascending to its summit, on which is a small watch tower. From this
+point, the whole of the plain below, with a considerable part of the
+province, including the capital, eleven leagues distant, may be seen.</p>
+
+<p>In the second wall or elevation are also openings resembling ovens, six
+feet high, and from 20 to 30 feet in circumference. In these, skeletons
+were found. The cavities in the adjoining mountain were found to contain
+heaps of human remains perfectly preserved in their shrouds, which were
+made of cotton of various colors. Still farther up this mountain was "a
+wall of square stones, with small apertures like windows, but which
+could not be reached without a ladder," owing to a perpendicular rock
+which intervened. The Indians have a superstitious horror of the place,
+in consequence of the mummies it contains, and refused to assist the
+exploring party, believing that fatal diseases would be produced by
+touching these ghastly remains of their ancestors. They were therefore
+compelled to abandon their researches, though surrounded by objects of
+antiquity of great interest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Chas. Frederick Neumann, a distinguished oriental scholar of Munich,
+has lately published a work "On the Condition of Mexico in the Fifth
+Century of our Era, according to Chinese writers." It purports to be an
+account of that country, called Fu-Sang, in the Chinese annals. De
+Guignes, in his celebrated work on China, supposes that America was the
+country referred to, while Klaproth, on the contrary, believes it to be
+Japan.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated in the English papers<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> that an expedition, which
+promises the most important results, both to science and commerce, is at
+this moment fitting out for the purpose of navigating some of the great
+unexplored rivers of South America. It is to be under the command of
+Lord Ranelagh; and several noblemen and gentlemen have already
+volunteered to accompany his lordship. The enterprising and scientific
+band will sail as soon as the necessary arrangements are completed. He
+proposes to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> penetrate, by some of the great tributaries of the Amazon,
+into the interior of Bolivar&mdash;for which purpose a steamer will be taken
+out in pieces. Returning to the Amazon, he will ascend this great river
+to its highest sources. The distance and means of communication between
+the Pacific and the basin of the Amazon will be minutely examined.</p>
+
+<p>Another scientific expedition has been sent out by the French Government
+to its West India colonies and the northerly parts of South America,
+under M. Charles Deville, a report from whom was read at a meeting of
+the Paris Academy of Sciences in June last. Its publication was
+recommended.</p>
+
+<p>The French Government gave notice to the same Academy, at its meeting on
+the 31st August last, of an intended expedition by Lieut. Tardy
+Montravel, to the Amazon river and its branches, with the steamer
+Alecton and the Astrolabe corvette; and invited the Academy to prepare a
+programme with a view to facilitate the researches which M. de Montravel
+is charged to make.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The following is a list of the books relating to South
+America which have recently been published.</p>
+
+<p>Historia fisica y politica de Chile segun documentos adquiredos
+en esta Republica durante doze anos de residencia en ella, y
+publicada bajo los auspicios del supremo gobierno. 7 livr. 8vo.
+with an Atlas of 27 plates. Paris. 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Memoria geografico economico-politica del departmento de
+Venezuela, publicada en 1824 por el intendente de ejercito D.
+Jose M. Aurrecoechea, quien la reimprime con varias notas
+aclaratorias y un apendice. Quarto. Madrid. 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-four years in the Argentine Republic, embracing the
+author's personal adventures, with the history of the country,
+&amp;c. &amp;c., with the circumstances which led to the interposition
+of England and France. By Col. J.A. King. 1 vol. 12mo. New
+York. 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Travels in the interior of Brazil, principally through the
+northern provinces, and the gold and diamond districts, in
+1836-1841. By George Canning. 8vo. London. 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Travels in Peru, during the years 1838-1842, on the coast, and
+in the Sierra, across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the
+primeval forests. By Dr. J.J. Tschudi. 2 vols. 12mo. New York.
+1847.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Thomas Ewbank is preparing for the press a work on Brazil,
+being observations made during a twelve months' residence in
+that country. From a personal acquaintance with this gentleman,
+his reputation as a man of observation, and his well known
+capacity as a writer, we think a valuable book may be expected.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="AFRICA" id="AFRICA"></a>AFRICA.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The zeal which was manifested a few years since for the discovery and
+exploration of the interior of Africa, and which seemed to have
+terminated with the Landers, and the unsuccessful voyage of the steamers
+up the Niger, has again shown itself, and we now find as much curiosity
+awakened, and as much zeal manifested for geographical discovery in this
+vast continent, and the solution of questions for ages in doubt, as has
+been exhibited at any former period.</p>
+
+<p>The Travels of M. d'Abaddie, Dr. Beke, Isenberg, and others make known
+to us the immense extent and windings of the Bahr-el-Abiad and the
+Bahr-el-Azrek, or the white and blue Nile, but they have not yet been
+traced to their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> rise, and the solution of the question of the true
+source of the Nile, remains still unsettled.</p>
+
+<p>We have received from Mr. Jomard, member of the French Institute, a work
+entitled "Observations sur le voyage au Darfour" from an account given
+by the Sheikh Mohammed-el-Tounsy, accompanied by a vocabulary of the
+language of the people, and remarks on the white Nile by Mr. Jomard.
+This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of a portion of the
+interior of Africa, only known to us by the visit of Mr. Browne in 1794,
+and forms a link in the chain between Lake Tchad and a region of country
+quite unexplored, and of which we have no knowledge whatever.</p>
+
+<p>We have some information of interest, relating to Senegal, communicated
+to the Royal Geographical Society of London,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> being a narrative of
+Mr. Thomson, linguist to the Church Missionary Society at Sierra Leone,
+from that place to Timbo, the capital of Futah Jallo. His place is about
+four hundred miles northeast of Sierra Leone. "The principal object of
+the mission, was to open a road for a regular line of traffic through
+that country, between the colony and the negro states on the Joliba or
+Niger."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Thomson's narrative is full of interest and shows the great
+hardships to be encountered in effecting a communication with the
+interior. No man could be better prepared for such an enterprize, both
+by knowledge of the languages of the country, and the manners of the
+people; zeal, perseverance, and courage, also were prominent traits in
+his character; yet his enterprize failed and death cut him off, when on
+the point of starting for the eastward.</p>
+
+<p>An expedition more successful in its results, has been undertaken in
+Dahomey on the Guinea coast, the particulars of which are given in the
+Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, (vol. 16.) This
+journey was performed by Mr. John Duncan, from Cape Coast to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> Whyddah,
+and from the latter about five hundred miles due north, through the
+Dahomey country to Adofoodiah. Although the king of Ashantee had refused
+permission for Mr. Duncan to pass through his territory, and had
+endeavored to prejudice the king of Dahomey against him, he was received
+with great kindness by the latter, and every facility given him to
+travel in his dominions. A guard of one hundred men was furnished to
+accompany him&mdash;a path was cleared for upwards of one hundred miles, and
+arrangements made so that at every village through which he passed,
+provisions were always waiting, ready cooked for them. Among the strange
+things seen by this traveller was a review of six thousand Female
+troops, well armed and accoutred. Their appearance, for an uncivilized
+nation, was surprising, and their performance still more so. The slave
+trade is carried on extensively in Dahomey. In the market of Adofoodiah,
+articles from the Mediterranean, and from Bornou in the interior were
+exposed for sale, showing the immense extent of the trade of the
+country. He met people from Timbuctoo and gathered some particulars of
+that remarkable city, as well as some information respecting Mungo
+Park's death. This enterprising traveller has lately been provided with
+the means to enable him to set out on a new journey with a determination
+to penetrate the country to Timbuctoo, from whence he will endeavour to
+follow the Niger to its mouth.</p>
+
+<p>The American Missionaries at the Gaboon, (Western Africa), with a view
+of establishing a mission in the Pong-wee country have been preparing a
+grammar of the Pong-wee language, the peculiarities of which are such as
+to deserve notice. The Missionaries call it "one of the most perfect
+languages of which they have any knowledge. It is not so remarkable for
+copiousness of words as for its great and almost unlimited flexibility.
+Its expansions, contractions, and inflections though exceedingly
+numerous, and having, apparently, special reference to euphony, are all
+governed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> by grammatical rules, which seem to be well established in the
+minds of the people, and which enable them to express their ideas with
+the utmost precision. How a language so soft, so plaintive, so pleasant
+to the ear, and at the same time so copious and methodical in its
+inflections, should have originated, or how the people are enabled to
+retain its multifarious principles so distinctly in their minds as to
+express themselves with almost unvarying precision and, uniformity, are
+points which we do not pretend to settle. It is spoken coastwise nearly
+two hundred miles, and perhaps with some dialectic differences, it
+reaches the Congo river. How far it extends into the interior is not
+satisfactorily known."<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>An attempt to penetrate this continent from the north has been made by
+Mr. James Richardson, by advices from whom it appears that on the 23d
+November, 1845, he had reached Ghadames, in the Great Desert, where he
+had been residing for three months, and whence he was to start on the
+following day, with a negro and a Moor, for Soudan. If successful in
+reaching that country, he intended to proceed to Timbuctoo and other
+parts of the interior. Mr. Richardson was well received by the people
+and Sultan of Ghadames; but his journey to Sackatoo the capital of
+Soudan, which would take three months to accomplish, through some of the
+wildest tribes and without any guarantee from the English or Ottoman
+government, was considered foolhardy and desperate.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>Later accounts state that Mr. Richardson had returned after a successful
+exploration in the very centre of the Great Zahara, and that he has
+collected important information relating to the slave trade, one of the
+objects of his undertaking. We shall look forward with interest to the
+publication of his travels.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>The details of the expedition under M. Raffenel of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> French navy and
+other scientific gentlemen, up the Senegal, have just been
+published.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> The party ascended the Senegal to the river Falémé, and
+from the mouth of the Falémé they penetrated the country to Sansanzig.
+They then visited the gold mines of Kenieba, on the Bambouk, the country
+of Galam, Bondou and Woolli, and returned by the river Gambia. Seven
+months were spent on this expedition. They found the country beautiful,
+but its cultivation neglected, and of course little was produced. They
+visited the place where the French were formerly established, with the
+view of making treaties with the natives for its occupation anew. Few
+traces of the colony were to be found. They were kindly received by the
+various tribes of aborigines, wherever they went; though when at the
+extreme point of their journey, owing to the wars among the natives,
+they did not think it safe to proceed farther. The results of the
+expedition are interesting to science, as well as to the friends of
+humanity, who wish to improve the condition of this people.</p>
+
+<p>For the more complete exploration of this portion of the African
+continent, it has been proposed to send another expedition under M.
+Raffenel for the purpose. This gentleman has submitted a memoir to the
+Minister of Marine, by whom it was presented to the Geographical Society
+of Paris. The result was favorable, and Mr. Raffenel has been provided
+with instructions for his guidance in his proposed journey.</p>
+
+<p>A journey of exploration and civilization in Soudan, is about to be
+undertaken by four Jesuits from Rome&mdash;Bishop Casolani, and Fathers
+Ryllo, Knoblica, and Vinco. Casolani and Ryllo will start from Cairo in
+January, 1847&mdash;having previously obtained a Firman from Constantinople;
+and, proceeding through Upper Egypt, Nubia, and thence by Kordofau and
+Darfour, they hope to reach Bornou,&mdash;and meet there their brethren, who
+travel by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> the way of Tripoli and Mouryok. Should they be fortunate
+enough to meet, it will then be determined which route shall afterwards
+be followed. They have determined to accomplish what they have
+undertaken, or perish in the attempt. From the high character of all the
+parties, great hopes are entertained of the result of this journey. They
+are all men of extensive learning, and familiar with the languages,
+manners and customs of the East.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>A project is on foot in London and a prospectus has been issued for a
+new Expedition of Discovery to penetrate the interior of Africa from the
+eastern side. Many advantages are presented by beginning the work of
+exploration here; among them, the populousness and civilization of
+Eastern Africa, which is in general superior to that of the western
+coast. The languages of the former bear a close affinity to each other,
+and extend over a very large space, which is not the case with the
+latter. "The absence of foreign influence, (particularly of the
+Portuguese, by whom the slave trade is carried on), and the readiness of
+the Sultan of Muscat to listen to British counsels," are strong
+inducements to carry out the scheme proposed.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Ruxton of the Royal Navy, who has lately made an interesting
+journey into Africa from the southwestern coast, near the island of
+Ichaboe, is about to undertake a second journey with the intention of
+crossing the continent from this point to the eastern coast, under the
+sanction of the British Government.</p>
+
+<p>Some valuable contributions have been made to our knowledge of the
+geography of Southern Africa by Mr. Cooley<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> and Mr. McQueen,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+which tend to elucidate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> portions of this continent hitherto enveloped
+in much obscurity. Mr. Cooley's investigations relate to the country
+extending from Loango and Congo, the Portuguese settlements in Western
+Africa, to the eastern coast between Zanzibar and Sofala, in lat. 20°
+South.</p>
+
+<p>He commences by examining the statements of the Portuguese geographers
+of the 16th century, Lopez, Joao Dos Santos, Do Couto, and Pigafetta.
+"The information collected by Lopez, was elaborated by Pigafetta into a
+system harmonizing with the prevalent opinions of the age, and in this
+form was published in 1591. Yet in the midst of this editor's theories,
+we can at times detect the simple truth." Much confusion seems to have
+arisen by misapplying the names of lakes, rivers and people, as this
+information was in a great degree derived from natives, and not properly
+understood by the persons who received it from them. Mr. Cooley, by a
+rigid examination of these various statements, together with the
+accounts derived from later writers and from native traders, has been
+enabled to rectify the errors which had crept in, and clear up much that
+had been considered fabulous. The great lake called N'Yassi, and the
+natives occupying the country around it, are among the most interesting
+subjects of our author's enquiries. This lake, or sea, as it is called
+by the natives, is some five or six hundred miles from the eastern
+coast. Its breadth in some places is about fifteen miles, while in
+others, the opposite shores cannot be seen. Its length is unknown,
+neither extremity having been traced. It probably exceeds five hundred
+miles, according to the best authority. Numerous islands filled with a
+large population, are scattered among its waters. It is navigated by
+bark canoes, twenty feet long, capable of holding twenty persons. Its
+waters are fresh, and it abounds in fish. The people seem more advanced
+in civilization than any African nations south of the Equator, of which
+we have knowledge. Pereira, who spent six months at Cazembe, in 1796,
+describes the people as similar, in point of civilization, to the
+Mexicans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> and Peruvians, at the time of the conquest. The nation called
+the Monomoesi, or Mucaranga, north of the lake, as well as the Movisa,
+on its opposite shores, are a tall and handsome race, with a brown
+complexion. "They are distinguished for their industry, and retain the
+commercial habits for which they were noted two centuries and a half
+ago, when their existence was first known through the Portuguese. They
+descend annually to Zanzibar in large numbers. The journey to the coast
+and back again, takes nine or ten months, including the delay of
+awaiting the proper season for returning. They are clothed in cotton of
+their own manufacture; but the most obvious mark of their superiority
+above other nations of Eastern Africa is, that they employ beasts of
+burden, for their merchandize is conveyed to the coast laden on asses of
+a fine breed." Mr. Cooley believes that "the physical advantages and
+superior civilization of these tribes, who are not negroes," explain the
+early reports which led the Portuguese to believe that the empire of
+Prestor John was not far off.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. M'Queen's memoirs consist of the details of a journey made by Lief
+Ben Saeid, a native of Zanzibar, to the great lake N'Yassi, or Maravi,
+alluded to in Mr. Cooley's memoir. This visit was made in the year 1831.
+The facts collected corroborate what has been stated by Mr. Cooley. He
+found the country level, filled with an active population, civil to
+strangers, and honest in their dealings. A very extensive trade was
+carried on in ivory, and a peculiar oil, of a reddish color. The
+Manumuse (Mono-moezi) are pagans, and both sexes go nearly naked. Near
+the lake there are no horses or camels, but plenty of asses, and a few
+elephants. The houses on the road and at the lake, are made of wood and
+thatched with grass. Dogs are numerous, and very troublesome. Some are
+of a very large kind.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>The region which forms the subject of the memoirs just alluded to, is
+doubtless one of the most interesting fields for exploration of any on
+the African continent. The languages spoken by the several nations
+between the two oceans, which are here separated by a space of sixteen
+or seventeen hundred miles, in a direct line, are believed to belong to
+one great family, or at least to present such traces of affinity, that
+an expedition, if sufficiently strong, aided by interpreters from the
+Zanzibar coast or the Monomoezi tribes, might traverse the continent
+without difficulty. Obstacles might be thrown in the way by the
+Portuguese traders, who would naturally feel jealous at any
+encroachments by rival nations; but by a proper understanding, these
+might be overcome, and this interesting and hitherto unknown portion of
+Central Africa be laid open to commerce and civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The latest attempt to explore this region was that of M. Maizan, a young
+officer in the French navy, who towards the close of the year 1844, set
+out for the purpose. In April, 1845, he left Zanzibar, furnished with a
+firman from Sultan Said to the principal chiefs of the tribes of the
+interior, though in reality they enjoyed the most complete independence.
+Having been warned that a chief, named Pazzy, manifested hostile
+intentions towards him, he stopped some time on his way, and after
+having acquired information relating to the country he wished to survey,
+he made a grand <i>détour</i> round the territory over which this savage
+chief exercised his authority. After a march of twenty days, he reached
+the village of Daguélamohor, which is but three days' journey from the
+coast in a direct line, where he awaited the arrival of his baggage,
+which he had entrusted to an Arab servant. This man, it appears, had
+communication with Pazzy, and had informed him of the route his master
+had taken. Pazzy, with some men of his tribe, overtook M. Maizan towards
+the end of July, at Daguelamohor, and surrounded the house in which he
+lived. After tying him with cords to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> palisade, the savage ordered his
+men to cut the throat of their unfortunate victim.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. M'Queen gives some particulars obtained from a native African
+relating to the country between Lake Tchad, or Tshadda and Calabar. This
+portion of the African continent has never been visited by Europeans,
+and although little can be gained of its geography from the statements
+of this man, there is much in them that is interesting on the
+productions of the country, the natives, their manners, customs, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<h3>ALGIERS.</h3>
+
+<p>The publication by the French government of the results of the great
+scientific expedition to Algeria has thrown much light on the districts
+embraced in Algiers and the regency of Tunis, as well as on the
+countries far in the interior. Among the subjects which have received
+the particular attention of the commission, are, 1. An examination of
+the routes followed by the Arabs in the south of Algiers and Tunis; 2.
+Researches into the geography and commerce of Southern Algiers, by Capt.
+Carette; 3. A critical analysis of the routes of the caravans between
+Barbary and Timbuctoo, with remarks on the nature of the western Sahara,
+and on the tribes which occupy it, by M. Renou; 4. A series of
+interesting memoirs on the successive periods of the political and
+geographical history of Algiers from the earliest period to the present
+time, by M. Pelissier; 5. The History of Africa, translated from the
+Arabic of Mohammed-ben-Abi-el-Raini-el-Kairouani, by M. Remusat, giving
+a particular account of the earliest Musselman period.</p>
+
+<p>Gen. Marey in an account of his expedition to Laghouat in Algeria,
+published in Algiers in 1845, has contributed important information on
+this country, which deserves a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> rank with the great work of the
+scientific expedition.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> In this work the author has corrected the
+erroneous opinion which has long been held, of the barrenness of the
+Sahara. Among the Arabs this word <i>Sahara</i> does not convey the idea
+which the world has generally given it, of a desert or uninhabitable
+place, but the contrary. Like every country, it presents some excellent
+and luxuriant spots, others of a medium quality as to soil, and others
+entirely barren, not susceptible of cultivation. By <i>Sahara</i>, the Arabs
+mean a country of pastures, inhabited by a pastoral people; while, to
+the provinces between the Atlas mountains and the sea, they apply the
+name of <i>Tell</i>, meaning a country of cereals, and of an agricultural
+people.</p>
+
+<p>M. Carette, in his exploration of this region, has also discovered the
+false notion long imbibed in relation to it. "The Sahara," says he, "was
+for a long time deformed by the exaggerations of geographers, and by the
+reveries of poets. Called by some the Great Desert, from its sterility
+and desolation, by others the country of dates, the Sahara had become a
+fanciful region, of which our ignorance increased its proportions and
+fashioned its aspect. From the mountains which border the horizon of
+Tell, to the borders of the country of the blacks, it was believed that
+nature had departed from her ordinary laws, renouncing the variety which
+forms the essential character of her works, and had here spread an
+immense and uniform covering, composed of burning plains, over which
+troops of savage hordes carried their devastating sway. Such is not the
+nature, such is not the appearance of the Sahara."</p>
+
+<p>This region, occupying so large a portion of the African continent, "is
+a vast archipelago of oases, of which each presents an animated group of
+towns and villages. Around each is a large enclosure of fruit trees. The
+palm is the king of these plantations, not only from the elevation of
+its trunk, but from the value of its product, yet it does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> exclude
+other species. The fig, the apricot, the peach and the vine mingle their
+foliage with the palm."</p>
+
+<p>The Algerine Sahara has lately been the object of a special work of Col.
+Daumas who intends completing the researches begun by Gen. Marey and the
+members of the scientific commission. He has made an excursion to the
+borders of the desert, and has collected much that is new and
+interesting in ethnology, particularly relating to the Tuarycks, a great
+division of the Berber race whose numerous tribes occupy all the western
+part of the great desert.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the interesting Ethnological facts which the late expeditions in
+this region have brought to light, is that of the existence of a white
+race, inhabiting the Aures mountains, (<i>mons Aurarius</i>) in the province
+of Constantine.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> Dr. Guyon, of the French army of Africa, took
+advantage of an expedition sent out by General Bedeau to the Aures, to
+collect information about this people, to whom other travellers had
+referred. He describes them as having a white skin, blue eyes and flaxen
+hair. They are not found by themselves, but predominate more or less
+among various tribes. They hold a middle rank, and go but rarely with
+the Kabyles and the Arabs. They are lukewarm in observances of the
+Koran, on which account the Arabs esteem them less than the Kabyles.
+They are more numerous in the tribe of the Mouchaïas, who speak a
+language in which words of Teutonic origin have been recognized. In
+Constantine where they are numerous, they exercise the trades of butcher
+and baker. Late writers believe that they are the remains of the Vandals
+driven from the country by Belisarius.</p>
+
+<p>M. Bory de Saint Vincent in making some observations to the Academy of
+Sciences, on the paper of Dr. Guyon, exhibited portraits of individuals
+of this white race, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> had been engraved for the Scientific
+Commission, and stated his belief that they were evidently of the
+northern Gothic and Vandal type.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Northern Africa, an important discovery has lately been made of the
+ancient Libyan alphabet, by Mr. F. de Saulcy, member of the French
+Institute. This curious result has been produced, by a study of the
+bilingual inscription on the monument of Thugga, which is published in
+the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of New
+York. The reading of the Ph&oelig;nician part of this bilingual inscription
+having been established, the value of the Libyan or Numidian letters of
+the counter part, has been as clearly proved, as the hieroglyphic part
+of the Rosetta stone has been established, from a comparison with the
+Greek text of that bilingual inscription.</p>
+
+<p>By this discovery, a vast progress has been made in the ethnography and
+history of ancient Africa. Two facts of the greatest consequence have
+been established by it:&mdash;That the Libyan language was that of Numidia,
+at the early period of its history, when the Ph&oelig;nicians were settled
+there; that the Numidians of that early day, used their own peculiar
+letters for writing their own language. To these facts, may be added
+another of no less ethnographic value; that the present Numidian or
+Berber race of the great Sahara, who are called Tuarycks, make use of
+these identical letters at this day.</p>
+
+<p>For this recent and valuable acquisition to science, we are again
+indebted to Mr. de Saulcy,<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> who has published a Tuaryck alphabet as
+communicated to him by Mr. Boisonnet, Captain of Artillery at Algiers.
+It was furnished to him by an educated native of the Oasis of Touat, in
+the great Sahara, and is called by him <i>Kalem-i-Tefinag</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> What the
+<i>writing of Tefinag</i> means, it would be curious to know. This Touatee,
+Abd-el-Kader, has promised more extended information, in relation to the
+writing of the Tuarycks, than which, no more valuable contribution to
+African ethnography can be imagined. He asserts that, the Tuarycks
+engrave or scratch on the rocks of the Sahara, numerous inscriptions,
+either historic or erotic. This subject has been alluded to by Mr.
+Hodgson, in his "<i>Notes on Africa</i>" in which he mentions the Tuaryck
+letters copied by Denham and Clapperton.</p>
+
+<p>The impulse first given by our countryman Mr. Wm. B. Hodgson, in his
+researches into the Berber language, and the ethnographic facts which
+were the results of his elucidations, has extended to England, France
+and Germany, and the last two years have been productive of several
+valuable and important works, including grammars and dictionaries of the
+Berber language. These have added greatly to our previous knowledge of
+the ancient and primitive people, who at a remote period, coeval with
+that of the ancient Egyptians occupied the northern part of Africa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. de Saulcy has already unravelled the intricacy of the demotic
+writing of Egypt and the popular characters of ancient Libya. He is thus
+working at both ends of the Libyan chain. He will find the Berber thread
+at the Oasis of Ammon, and at Meröe. We shall thus probably find, that
+the Berber language was the original tongue of that part of Ethiopia.
+Dr. Lepsius found in that region, numerous inscriptions in the Egyptian
+demotic, and in Greek characters, but written in an unknown language. He
+strongly suspects, that the old Ethiopian blood will be found in the
+Berber veins; and that the Nubian language has strong affinities with
+the Berber. When these inscriptions in an unknown language are
+decyphered, it will be known how far the interpretation of Egyptian
+mythology and the local names, heretofore proposed by Mr. Hodgson, is to
+be received as plausible. He has proposed the Berber etymologies of Aman
+or Ammon as water; Themis as fire or purity; Thot as an eye; Edfou and
+Tadis as the sun.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Books on Algiers.</p>
+
+<p>Algeria and Tunis in 1845. An account of a journey made through
+the two Regencies, by Viscount Fielding and Capt. Kennedy. 2
+vols, post 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Le Maroc et ses Caravanes, ou Relations de la France avec cet
+Empire, par R. Thomassy. 8vo. Paris 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Exploration Scientifique de l'Algeria pendant les années 1840,
+1841, 1842. Publié par l'ordre du gouvernment et avec le
+concours d'une commission Académique. 4 vols, folio. (now in the
+course of publication.)</p>
+
+<p>Recherches sur la constitution de la propriété territoriale dans
+le pays mussulmans et subsidiairement en Algeria; par M. Worms.
+8vo. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>A visit to the French possessions in Algiers in 1845. By Count
+St. Marie. Post 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Afrique</span> (l') française, l'empire du Maroc et les déserts de
+Sahara. Histoire nationale des conquêtes, victoires et
+nouvelles découvertes des Français depuis la prise d'Alger
+jusqu'à nos jours; par P. Christian. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>Algeria en 1846; par J. Desjobert. 8vo. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Guide du voyageur en Algeria. Itinéraire du savant, de
+l'artiste, de l'homme du monde et du colon; par Quetin. 18mo.
+Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Le Sahara Algerien. Etude geographiques, statistiques et
+historiques sur la region au sud des établissements Françaises
+en Algérie; par Col. Daumas 8vo. Paris, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>L'Afrique Française l'Empire de Maroc et les deserts de Sahara,
+conquêtes et découvértes des Français. Royal 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>Dictionnaire de Géographie économique, politique et historique
+de l'Algérie. Avec une carte. 12mo. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Géographie populaire de l'Algérie, avec cartes. 12mo. 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Histoire de nos Colonies Françaises de l'Algérie et du Maroc;
+par M. Christian. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The following list embraces the latest publications on Africa
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>Voyage dans l'Afrique Occidentale, comprenant l'exploration du
+Senegal depuis St. Louis jusqu'à la Félemé jusqu'à Sansandig;
+des mines d'or de Keniéba, dans le Bambouk; des pays de Galam,
+Boudou et Wooli; et de la Gambia; par A. Raffenel. 8vo. and
+folio atlas. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Viaggi nell' Africa Occidentale, di <i>Toto Omboni</i>, gia medico
+di consiglié nel regno d'Angola e sue dispendenze, 8vo. Milan,
+1845.</p>
+
+<p>A visit to the Portuguese possessions in South Western Africa.
+By Dr. Tams. 2 vols. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>Life in the Wilderness; or, Wanderings in South Africa. By
+Henry W. Methuen. Post 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Voyage au Darfour par le Cheykh Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy;
+traduit de l'Arabe par Dr. Perron; publié par les soins de M.
+Jomard. Royal 8vo. Maps. Paris, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Observations sur le Voyage au Darfour suivies d'un Vocabulaire
+de la langue des habitans et de remarques sur le Nil Blanc
+Supérieur; par M. Jomard. 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Essai historique sur les races anciennes et modernes de
+l'Afrique Septentrionale, leurs origines, leurs mouvements et
+leurs transformations depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos jours; par
+Pascal Duprat. 8vo. Paris, 1845.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Madagascar.</span>&mdash;The island of Madagascar has recently attracted and
+continues to occupy attention in France. In 1842 M. Guillian, in command
+of a French corvette, was sent by the governor of the isle of Bourbon to
+this island, to select a harbor safe and convenient of access, and to
+obtain information relative to the country and its inhabitants. After
+visiting various parts of the island on its western side, in which
+fourteen months were spent, M. Guillian returned to Bourbon, and in 1845
+the results of his visit were published in Paris. The first part of this
+work gives a history of the Sakalave people, who occupy the western
+parts of the island. The second details the particulars of the voyage
+made in 1842 and 1843, embra<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>cing the geography, commerce and present
+condition of the country, an abstract of which is given in the Bulletin
+of the Geographical Society of Paris, Feb. 1846.</p>
+
+<p>So important were the results of the visit of M. Guillian that a new
+expedition has been sent to Madagascar under his direction, with
+instructions for a more extended examination, particularly in relation
+to its animal and vegetable productions. A more extensive work by M. de
+Froberville, is preparing for publication in Paris, in which more
+attention will be given to the ethnography of this important island.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie et le commerce de la
+partie occidentale de l'île de Madagascar; recueillis et redigés
+par M. Guillian, 8vo. Paris, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Histoire d'établissement Français de Madagascar, pendant la
+restauration, précédée d'une description de cette île, et
+suivie de quelques considérations politiques et commerciales
+sur l'expédition et la colonisation de Madagascar. Par M.
+Carayon, 8vo. Paris, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Histoire et Géographie de Madagascar, depuis la découverte de
+l'île en 1506, jusqu'au récit des derniers événements de
+Tamative; par M. Descartes. 8vo. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Madagascar expedition de 1829. Par M. le Capitaine de frégate
+Jourdain. <i>Revue de l'Orient</i>, tom. ix. April, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>A short memoir on Madagascar is contained in the "Bulletin de
+la Société de Géographie, July, 1845," by M. Bona Christave.</p>
+
+<p>Etchings of a Whaling Voyage, with notes of a sojourn in the
+Island of Zanzibar, and a history of the whale fishery, by J.
+R. Browne. 8vo. New York, 1846.</p></blockquote>
+
+<h3>EGYPT.</h3>
+
+<p>I have hesitated, in the superficial view I propose to take in noticing
+the ethnological and archæological researches of the day, as to whether
+I ought to speak of the land of the Pharaohs. The explorations have been
+on so grand a scale, and the results so astounding, that one is lost in
+amazement in attempting to keep pace with them.</p>
+
+<p>In England, France, Germany and Italy, Egyptian archæology is the most
+fruitful topic among the learned.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> In Paris, it forms the theme of
+lectures by the most distinguished archæologists, and the subject
+absorbs so much interest in Germany, that the King of Prussia has
+established a professorship at the Royal University for Egyptian
+antiquities and history, which he has assigned to Professor Lepsius, the
+most accomplished scholar in Egyptian learning, and who was at the head
+of the scientific commission sent by his majesty to explore the valley
+of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that in addition to the immense and costly work
+published by Napoleon, there have since been published the great
+national works of Champollion, by the French government, and of
+Rossellini by the Tuscan government. These are to be immediately
+followed by the great work of Lepsius, who has just returned from Egypt,
+laden with innumerable treasures, the results of three years of most
+laborious and successful explorations. This undertaking is at the
+expense of the King of Prussia, one of the most enlightened monarchs of
+Europe, and who, at the present moment, is doing more in various parts
+of the world for the advancement of science than any now living.</p>
+
+<p>But the French government, which has always been foremost in promoting
+such explorations, is determined not to be superseded by the learned
+Prussian's researches in Egyptian lore. An expedition has been organized
+under M. Prisse, for a new survey and exploration of Egypt. Mr. Prisse
+is an accomplished scholar, versed in hieroglyphical learning, and
+author of a work on Egyptian Ethnology. He will be accompanied by
+competent artists, will go over the same ground as Lepsius, and make
+additional explorations.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the eminent men who have won brilliant distinction in the
+career of Egyptian studies, it is out of the question here to analyze
+their books: it must suffice to state, that all have marched boldly
+along the road opened by <i>Champollion</i>, and that the science which owed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+its first illustration to Young, to the Champollions, to the Humboldts,
+to Salvolini, to Rosellini, to Nestor L'Hote, and to whose soundness the
+great De Sacy has furnished his testimony, counts at this day as adepts
+and ardent cultivators, such scholars as Letronne, Biot, Prisse, Bunsen,
+Lepsius, Burnouf, Pauthiér, Lanci, Birch, Wilkinson, Sharpe, Bonomi, and
+many more.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>A few important results of the late explorations in Egypt, and
+researches into her hieroglyphics and history, it may be well to
+mention.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. Schwartze, of Berlin, is publishing a work on Egyptian philology,
+entitled <i>Das Alte Ægypten</i>. Some idea may be formed of the erudition of
+German philologists, and the extent to which their investigations are
+carried, when we state that this savant has completed the first part of
+the first volume of this work, which embraces 2200 quarto pages! and
+this is but a beginning.</p>
+
+<p>De Saulcy has made great advances in decyphering the Demotic writing of
+Egypt, in which, from Champollion's death to 1843, little had been done.
+He has now translated the whole of the Demotic text on the Rosetta
+stone, so that we may consider this portion of Egyptian literature as
+placed on a firm basis.</p>
+
+<p>Farther elucidations of the Coptic language have been made. This, it
+will be remembered, is the language into which the ancient Egyptian
+merged, and is the main instrument by which a knowledge of the latter
+must be obtained. Recently a discovery has been made by Arthur de
+Rivière, at Cairo, in an ancient Coptic MS. containing part of the Old
+Testament. The manuscript was very large and thick, and on separating
+the leaves was found to contain a pagan manuscript in the same language,
+the only one yet discovered.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> On a farther examination of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> this
+manuscript, it proved to be a work on the religion of the ancient
+Egyptians. The translation of this curious document is looked for with
+much interest.</p>
+
+<p>M. Prisse is publishing at the expense of the French Government, the
+continuation of Champollion's great work on Egypt and Nubia&mdash;50 plates
+are in press.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Birch, of London, has nearly ready for the press a work on the
+titles of the officers of the Pharaonic court. He has discovered in
+hieroglyphical writing those of the <i>chief butler</i>, <i>chief baker</i>, and
+others, coeval with the pyramids and anterior to Joseph. He has also
+discovered upon a tablet at the Louvre (age of Thotmes III. B.C. 1600)
+his conquest of Nineveh, Shinar, and Babylon, and with the <i>tribute</i>
+exacted from those conquered nations. The intense interest which
+Egyptian archæology is exciting in Europe will be seen from the list of
+new books on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable discoveries, and in which the greatest advances has
+been made, are in monumental chronology. Through the indefatigable
+labors of the Prussian savant, Lepsius, primeval history has far
+transcended the bounds to which Champollion and Rosellini had carried
+it. They fixed the era of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, at about
+2750, B.C. Böckh, of Berlin, from astronomical calculations, places it
+at 5702 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>Henry of Paris, in his "<i>L'Égypte Pharaonique</i>," from historical
+deductions, places the era at 5303 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>Barucchi, of Turin, from critical investigations, at 4890 B.C., and
+Bunsen, in his late work entitled "Egypt's Place in the World's
+History," from the most laborious hierological and critical deductions,
+places the era of Menes at 3643 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>I should do wrong to speak of the labors of foreign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> savans, without
+alluding to what has been done in this country. Dr. Morton, it is known,
+has published a work on Egyptian Ethnography, from crania in his
+possession furnished by Mr. Gliddon, which reflects great credit on his
+scholarship, and has been highly commended in Europe. The late Mr.
+Pickering, of Boston, was one of the few who cultivated hieroglyphical
+literature in America. But perhaps the American people, as a mass, owe a
+deeper debt of gratitude to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, for his interesting
+lectures on Egypt and her literature, and to his work entitled Chapters
+on Egyptian Antiquities and Hieroglyphics, than to any other man. Mr.
+Gliddon, by a long residence in Egypt, and by a close study subsequently
+of her monuments, has been enabled to popularize the subject, and by the
+aid of a truly magnificent and costly series of illustrations of the
+monuments, the sculptures, the paintings and hieroglyphics of Egypt, to
+make this most interesting and absorbing subject, comprehensive to all.</p>
+
+<p>The results of these Egyptian investigations will doubtless be startling
+to many; for if the facts announced are true, and we see no reason to
+believe otherwise, it places the creation of man far, very far, beyond
+the period usually assigned to him in the chronology of the Hebrew
+Bible. But again, it must be observed that the common chronology gives
+the shortest period for that event. If other scriptural chronologies are
+adopted, we gain two or three thousand years for the creation of man,
+which gives us quite time enough to account for the high state of
+civilization and the arts in Egypt, four thousand years B.C.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But we do not fear these investigations&mdash;truth will prevail, and its
+attainment can never be detrimental to the highest interests of man.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>I must also acknowledge the obligation I am under for the use
+of many splendid and valuable books relating to Egypt, from Mr.
+Richard K. Haight. This gentleman, with an ample fortune at his
+command, and with a taste for archæological studies, acquired
+by a personal tour among the monuments of Egypt, has collected
+a large and valuable library of books on Egypt, including all
+the great works published by the European governments on that
+country. This costly and unique collection, which few but
+princes or governments possess, he liberally places at the
+command of scholars, who, for purposes of study, may require
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Haight's interest in archæological researches has been
+noticed in Paris, in an article by De Saulcy, member of the
+Institute of France, in a memoir entitled, "L'Etude des
+Hieroglyphics." Speaking of Mr. Gliddon's success in the United
+States in popularizing hieroglyphical discoveries, De Saulcy
+justly remarks&mdash;"Il a été puissamment secondé, dans cette
+louable entreprise, par une de ces nobles intelligences dont un
+pays s'honore; M. Haight, l'ami, le soutien, dévoué de tous les
+hommes de science, n'a pas peu contribué, par sa généreuse
+assistance, a répandre aux Etats-Unis les belles découvertes
+qui concernent les temps pharaoniques." <i>Revue des Deux
+Mondes.</i> Paris, June 15, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The following list embraces the late works relating to Egypt:</p>
+
+<p>The Oriental Album; or Historical, Pictorial, and
+Ethnographical Sketches, illustrating the human families in the
+Valley of the Nile: by E. Prisse. folio. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest
+by the Arabs, A.D. 640. By Samuel Sharpe. 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>A Pilgrimage to the Temples and Tombs of Egypt, Nubia, and
+Palestine, in 1845-'46, by Mrs. Romer. 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>L'Égypte au XIX siècle, histoire militaire et politique,
+anecdotique et pittoresque de Mehemet Ali, etc.; par E. Gouin.
+Illustrée de gravures.</p>
+
+<p>Panorama d'Égypte et de Nubie avec un texte orné, de vignettes;
+par Hector Horeau. folio.</p>
+
+<p>Recherches sur les arts et métiers de la vie civile et
+domestique des anciens peuples de l'Égypte, de la Nubie et de
+l'Éthiopie, suivi de détails sur les m&oelig;urs et coûtumes des
+peuples modernes des mêmes contrées; par M. Frederic Cailliand.
+folio. Paris, 1831-'47. 100 plates.</p>
+
+<p>Das Tödtenbuch der Ægypten nach dem Hieroglyphischen Papyrus in
+Turin, von Dr. R. Leipsius. Leipsig.</p>
+
+<p>Schwartze. Das alte Ægypten, oder Sprache, Geschichte, Religion
+und Verfassung d. alt. Ægypt. 2 vols. 4to. Leipsig.</p>
+
+<p>Ægyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte: Von Carl J. Bunsen. 3
+vols. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte
+der Pharaonen: Von August Böckh. 8vo. Berlin, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Macrizi's Geschichte der Copten. Aus den Handschriften zu Gotha
+und Wién, mit Übersetzungen and Anmerkungen. Von Wüstenfeld.
+4to. Göttingen, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie. Notices descriptives
+conformes aux manuscrits autographes rédigés sur les lieux par
+Champollion le jeune. folio. Paris, 1845-'46.</p>
+
+<p>L'Égypte Pharaonique, ou Histoire des institutions qui régirent
+les Égyptiens sous leur Rois nationaux. par D.M.J. Henri. 2
+vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Discorso Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; del Prof.
+Barucchi. 4to. Turin.</p>
+
+<p>Voyage en Égypte, en Nubie, dans les déserts de Beyonda, des
+Bycharís, et sur les côtes de la Mer Rouge: par E. Combes. 2
+vols. 8vo. Paris, 1847.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="EASTERN_ARCHIPELAGO" id="EASTERN_ARCHIPELAGO"></a>EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.</h2>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Borneo.</span>&mdash;Among the most remarkable and successful attempts to open a
+communication with the natives of the East India Islands, is that of Mr.
+James Brooke. This gentleman, prompted solely by a desire to improve the
+condition of the people of Borneo, and at the same time to explore this
+hitherto unknown region, has established himself at Sarawak, on the
+northwestern part of the island, 427 miles from Singapore. Such was the
+interest manifested by him on his arrival in the country to promote the
+good of the people, and to suppress the piracies which have been carried
+on for many years by the Malays, and certain tribes associated with
+them, that the then reigning Rajah, Muda Hassim, resigned to him his
+right and title to the government of the district, in which he was
+afterwards established by the Sultan of Borneo. The success that has
+attended Mr. Brooke's government, among a barbarous people, whose
+intercourse with foreigners had been confined to the Malays and Chinese,
+is most remarkable. Possessed of an independent fortune, of the most
+enlarged benevolence; familiar with the language, manners, customs and
+institutions of the people by which he is surrounded, with a mind stored
+with knowledge acquired from extensive travel and intercourse with
+various rude nations, he seems to have been prepared by Providence for
+the task which he has attempted, and which has thus far been crowned
+with success.</p>
+
+<p>Capt. Keppel's Narrative of his expedition to Borneo, and Mr. Brooke's
+Journal, furnish some interesting ethnological facts. The Dyaks, or
+aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo, are divided into numerous lesser
+tribes, varying in a slight degree in their manners and customs. Their
+language belongs to the Polynesian stock, on which has been ingrafted,
+particularly along the coast, a large num<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>ber of Malayan words. It also
+exhibits evidences of migrations from India at remote periods. In
+speaking of the Sibnowans, Mr. Brooke observes that "they have no idea
+of a God, and though they have a name for the Deity, (Battara, evidently
+of Hindoo origin), with a faint notion of a future state, the belief
+seems a dead letter among them. They have no priests, say no prayers,
+make no offerings to propitiate the Deity; and of course have no
+occasion for human sacrifices, in which respect they differ from all
+other people in the same state of civilization, who bow to their idols
+with the same feelings of reverence and devotion, of awe and fear, as
+civilized beings do to their invisible God."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> From their comparatively
+innocent state, Mr. Brooke believes they are capable of being easily
+raised in the scale of society. "Their simplicity of manners, the purity
+of their morals and their present ignorance of all forms of worship, and
+all idea of future responsibility, render them open to conviction of
+truth and religious impression, when their minds have been raised by
+education."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> It is a well known fact, that since the establishment of
+Europeans in the Eastern Archipelago, the tendency of the Polynesian
+races has generally been to decay. The case of Mr. Brooke, however, now
+warrants us in hoping that such a result need not necessarily and
+inevitably ensue.</p>
+
+<p>While success has attended this gentleman at the north, the American
+missionaries, among the Dutch possessions farther south, have totally
+failed in their objects. They attribute the unwillingness of the Dyaks
+to submit to their instruction, to the influence of the Malays, whose
+interests are necessarily opposed to those of the missionaries, for, it
+is evident that once under the guidance of the latter, the Dyaks will
+see their own degraded and oppressed condition, and submit to it no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+longer. Mr. Youngblood says that "so prejudiced are the Dyaks, that I
+have been unable to obtain a few boys to instruct, of which I was very
+desirous."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Dutch have long had trading establishments in Borneo, but they had
+made no efforts either to suppress the piracies, or improve the moral
+and social condition of its inhabitants. Its great value has now become
+so apparent, that unless they keep pace with, and follow the example set
+by the English, they will be in danger of having it wrested from their
+hands by the more enlightened policy of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Borneo produces all the valuable articles of commerce common to other
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its mineral productions are equally
+rich, and include gold dust, diamonds, pearls, tin, copper, antimony,
+and coal. The interior is quite unknown. It is three times larger than
+Great Britain, and is supposed to contain about 3,000,000 of people.</p>
+
+<p>I have purposely avoided speaking of the trade and commerce of the
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago, as they are subjects which do not
+fall within the sphere of our enquiries, in a review like the present;
+although the productions, the trade and commerce of nations are properly
+a branch of ethnological enquiry, in a more enlarged view. An
+interesting pamphlet, embodying much valuable information on the
+commerce of the East, has been lately published by our townsman, Mr.
+Aaron H. Palmer. This gentleman is desirous that the United States
+government should send a special mission to the East Indies, as well as
+to other countries of Asia, with a view to extend our commercial
+relations. The plan is one that deserves the attention of our people and
+government, and I am happy to state that it has met with favor from many
+of our merchants engaged in the commerce of the East, as well as from
+some distinguished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> functionaries of the government.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> England,
+France, Prussia, Denmark, and Holland, have at the present moment,
+expeditions in various parts of the East Indies and Oceanica, planned
+for the pursuit of various scientific enquiries and the extension of
+their commerce. With the exception of Prussia, these nations seem to be
+desirous to establish colonies; and they have, within a few years, taken
+up valuable positions for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Is it not then the duty of our government to be represented in this new
+and wide field? Our dominions now extend from ocean to ocean, and we
+talk of the great advantages we shall possess in carrying on an eastern
+trade; but how greatly would our advantages be increased by having a
+depot or colony on one of the fertile islands contiguous to China, Java,
+Borneo, Japan, the Philippines, &amp;c. An extended commerce demands it, and
+we hope the day is not distant when our government may see its
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>England, France, Spain, Portugal and Holland have possessions in the
+East. The former, always awake to her commercial interests, now has
+three prominent stations in the China Sea,&mdash;Singapore, Borneo, and
+Hongkong. But even these important points do not satisfy her, and she
+looks with a longing eye towards Chusan, a point of great importance,
+commanding the trade of the northern provinces of China, and contiguous
+to Corea and Japan. The "Friend of India," a leading paper, "is
+possessed with a most vehement desire," says the editor of the "China
+Mail," "that the British, without infringing their 'political morality,'
+could contrive some means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> of obtaining the cession of Chusan, which, in
+their hands, he believes, could be converted into a second Singapore,
+and become one of the largest mercantile marts of the East."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is evident from what has been stated, and from the opinions expressed
+in foreign journals, that the attention of the civilized world has been
+suddenly attracted to the Eastern Archipelago, and it is only
+surprising, considering the knowledge possessed by the European nations,
+of the rich productions of these islands, and the miserable state in
+which a large portion of their inhabitants live, that efforts have not
+before been made to colonize them, and bring them under European rule.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards contented themselves with the Philippines, but the Dutch,
+more enterprising, as well as more ambitious, extended their conquests
+to Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, and recently to Bali, Sumbawa, Timor and
+Celebes. But these are not all, for wherever our ships push their way
+through these innumerable islands, they find scattered, far and wide,
+their unobtrusive commercial stations, generally protected by a fort and
+a cruiser.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the natives feel no attachment for their Dutch rulers,
+which, as they possess so wide spread a dominion in the Archipelago, is
+much to be regretted; for this feeling of animosity against them, may
+effect the relations that may be hereafter formed between the aboriginal
+races and other Christian people. Attempts will doubtless be made to
+prejudice the natives against the English, but the popularity of Mr.
+Brooke at Sarawak, in Borneo, his kindness to the natives, and the
+destruction of the pirates by the British, will no doubt gain for them
+throughout the Archipelago, a name and an influence which the jealousies
+of other nations cannot counteract. The natives of these islands except
+those of the interior, are strictly a trading and commercial people.
+Addicted to a seafaring life, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> tempted by a love of gain, they
+traverse these seas in search of the various articles of commerce which
+are eagerly sought after by traders for the European, India, and Chinese
+markets. Piracy, which abounds in this region, grows out of this love of
+trade&mdash;this desire for the accumulation of wealth&mdash;and we believe that
+nothing would tend to suppress crime so effectually as the establishment
+of commercial ports throughout the Archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the population embraced in the twelve thousand islands
+of which Polynesia consists, amounts to about forty millions. No part of
+the world equals it in the great variety and value of its products.
+There is scarcely an island but is accessible in every direction,
+abounding in spacious bays and harbors, and the larger ones in navigable
+rivers. The people are generally intelligent, and susceptible of a
+higher degree of cultivation than the natives of Africa, or of many
+parts of the adjacent continent.</p>
+
+<p>To obtain a station or an island in this vast Archipelago, we should
+require neither the outlay of a large sum of money, nor the loss of
+human life; no governments would be subjected, or kings overthrown.
+Civilization and its attendant blessings would take the place of
+barbarism, idolatry would be supplanted by christianity, and the poor
+natives, now bowed down by cruelty and oppression, would, under the care
+of an enlightened government, become elevated in the scale of social
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of spices in the Archipelago, and the acts by which the
+monopoly is secured by the Dutch in the Moluccas, reflect little credit
+on human nature. "No where in the world have the aboriginal tribes been
+treated with greater cruelty; and in some cases literal extermination
+has overtaken them. Their tribe has been extinguished, they have been
+cut off to a man, and that merely lest, in order to obtain a humble
+subsistence, they should presume to trade on their own account in those
+costly spices, the sale of which, without right or reason, Holland has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+hitherto thought proper to appropriate to herself. No form of servitude,
+moreover, equals the slavery of those who are engaged in the culture of
+the nutmeg-tree. They toil without hope. No change ever diversifies
+their drudgery; no holiday gladdens them; no reward, however trifling,
+repays extra exertion, or acts as a stimulus for the future. The
+wretched slave's life is one monotonous round, a mere alternation of
+toil and sleep, to be terminated only by death."<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> The northern
+portions of New Guinea, as well as other islands, are in the same
+latitude as Banda and Amboyna, and produce the nutmeg and other spices.
+They might be extensively cultivated by the natives, if encouragement
+was given them; and a sufficient supply obtained for all the markets of
+Europe and America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Island of Bali</span>, lying east of Java, from which it is separated by a
+narrow strait, has recently been subjected by the Dutch. Some difficulty
+growing out of the commerce with the people, is the alleged cause. It is
+an island of great importance to Holland, and would seriously injure her
+commerce with Java, should any other European nation take it under its
+protection, or plant a colony there. A slight pretext therefore sufficed
+for its annexation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">New Caledonia Islands.</span> Later information has been received from the
+Catholic Missionaries in New Caledonia; for it seems that even in those
+distant and barbarous islands both Protestant and Catholic are
+represented. The Propaganda annals contain some interesting accounts of
+the natives of these islands, and of other facts of importance in
+Ethnology. Two Catholic missionaries, the Rev. Mr. Rougeyron and the
+Rev. Mr. Colin, had been twenty months on these islands, during which
+time they had accomplished nothing in the way of conversions, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> but
+little towards improving the moral condition of the natives. It was
+hardly time to expect much, as they had only then begun to speak the
+language of the country, which they found very difficult to acquire. The
+natives are a most lazy and wretched people. They cultivate the ground
+with the aid of a piece of pointed wood, or with their nails, but never
+in proportion to their wants. For the greater part of the year they are
+compelled to live upon a few fish, shell-fish, roots and the bark of
+trees, and at times when pressed by hunger, worms, spiders and lizards
+are eagerly devoured by them. They are cannibals in every sense of the
+word, and openly feed on the flesh of their enemies. Yet they possess
+the cocoa, banana and yam, with a luxuriant soil, from which, with a
+little labor, an abundance could be raised.</p>
+
+<p>Among no savage tribes are the women worse treated than here. They are
+completely at the mercy of their cruel and tyrannical husbands.
+Compelled to carry burdens, to collect food, and cultivate the fields,
+their existence promises them but little enjoyment; and when there is
+any fruit or article of delicacy procured, it is at once <i>tabooed</i> by
+the husband, so that she cannot touch it but at the peril of her life.</p>
+
+<p>The missionaries had begun to expostulate with the natives on the
+horrors of eating their prisoners, and other vices to which they were
+addicted, and observe that "a happy change has already taken place among
+them; that they were less disposed to robbery, and that their wars are
+less frequent."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> They are beginning to understand the motive which
+brought the missionaries to them, and already show a desire to be
+instructed.</p>
+
+<p>The protestant missions have not accomplished any more than the
+Catholic's among these savages. The latest accounts state that four of
+the native teachers who had been converted to Christianity, had been
+cruelly mur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>dered, and that such was the hostility of the chiefs at the
+isle of Pines, that the prospects of the missionaries were most
+discouraging.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sooloo Islands.</span>&mdash;Mr. Itier, attaché to the French mission in China, has
+recently visited a cluster of islands lying to the northeast of Borneo,
+between that island and Mindanao.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> His researches on the natural
+history and geology of these islands, are of much interest. The soil is
+exceedingly fertile, and the climate more healthy than is usual in
+intertropical climates. The sugar cane, cocoa, rice, cotton, the bread
+fruit, indigo, and spices of all kinds, are among their products. Fruits
+and vegetables of a great variety, are abundant, and of a superior
+quality. Nine-tenths of the soil is still covered with the primitive
+forest, of which teak-wood, so valuable in shipbuilding, forms a part. A
+considerable commerce with China and Manilla is carried on, and from ten
+to twelve thousand Chinese annually visit the island of Basilan, the
+most northerly of the group, to cultivate its soil, and take away its
+products. The peculiar situation of these islands, and their contiguity
+to the Philippines, to Celebes, Borneo, Manilla, China, and Singapore,
+make them well adapted for a European colony. In fact, there do not
+appear to be any islands of the East Indies of equal importance, and
+there can be no doubt that with the present desire manifested by
+European nations for colonizing, this desirable spot will ere long be
+secured by one of them. The Sooloo group embraces sixty inhabited
+islands, governed by a Sultan, residing at Soung. One of these would be
+an advantageous point for an American colony or station.</p>
+
+<p>The same gentleman has presented to the Geographical Society of Paris,
+the journal of a voyage and visit to the Philippine islands, from which
+it appears that that large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> and important croup is not inferior in
+interest to the Sooloo islands. The natural history and geology, the
+soil and its products, the manners and customs of the people, their
+commerce and political history, are described in detail.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> The group
+embraces about twelve hundred islands, with a population of 4,000,000,
+of whom about 8,000 are Chinese, 4,000 Spaniards, 120,000 of a mixed
+race, and the remainder natives.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Nicobar Islands</span>, a group nineteen in number, in the Bay of Bengal,
+have again attracted the attention of the Danish government, by which an
+expedition has been sent with a view to colonize them anew. The Danes
+planted a colony there in 1756, but were compelled to abandon it in
+consequence of the insalubrity of the climate. Subsequently the French
+made an attempt with no better success.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Recent publications on the Eastern Archipelago and Polynesia.</p>
+
+<p>Ethnology and Philology. By Horatio Hale, Philologist of the U.
+S. Exploring Expedition, imp. 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Reise nach Java, und Ausflüge nach den Inseln Mudura und S.
+Helena; von Dr. Edward Selberg, 8vo. Oldenburg, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Philippines (les), histoire, géographie, m&oelig;urs, agriculture,
+industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie;
+par <i>J. Mallat</i>, 2 vols. 8vo., avec un atlas in folio. Paris,
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition of H.M.S. Dido, for the suppression of piracy;
+by the Hon. Capt. Keppell, with extracts from the journal of
+James Brooke, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846. Reprinted in New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>Trade and Travel in the Far East; or recollections of
+twenty-one years passed in Java, Singapore, Australia and
+China, by G.F. Davidson, post 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Typee: Narrative of a four months' residence among the natives
+of the Marquesas islands, by Herman Melville. 12mo. New York,
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these, The Missionary Herald, the Baptist Missionary
+Magazine, The London Evangelical Magazine, the Annals of the
+Society for the Propagation of the Faith, as well as other
+similar journals, contain many articles of great interest on
+the various islands of the Eastern Archipelago and the South
+Sea Islands.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Australia.</span> This vast island continues to attract the attention of
+geographers and naturalists. Its interior remains unknown,
+notwithstanding the various attempts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> which have been made from various
+points to penetrate it. The explorations of scientific men during the
+last four years have been productive of valuable information relating to
+its geography, ethnography, geology and natural history.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most eminent and successful in this field, is the Count de
+Strzelecki. This gentleman, as early as the year 1840, made an extensive
+tour into the southwestern part of Australia, in which he discovered an
+extensive tract called Gipp's Land, containing an extent of five
+thousand six hundred square miles, a navigable lake and several rivers,
+and from the richness of the soil, presenting an inviting prospect to
+settlers. His explorations were continued during the years 1842 '43 and
+'44, and in the following year the results were given to the public,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>
+"comprehending the fruits of five years of continual labor during a tour
+of seven thousand miles on foot. This work treats, within a moderate
+compass, of the history and results of the surveys of those countries,
+of their climate, their geology, botany and zoology, as well as of the
+physical, moral and social state of the aborigines, and the state of
+colonial agriculture, the whole illustrated by comparisons with other
+countries visited by himself in the course of twelve years travel
+through other parts of the world." For these extensive explorations and
+discoveries, and for his valuable work in which they are embodied, the
+Royal Geographical Society of London awarded the "Founders" gold medal
+to Count Strzelecki.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>Additional information to our knowledge of Australia is contained in
+Capt. Stokes's late work detailing the discoveries made by himself and
+other officers attached to H.M.S. Beagle. These discoveries consist of
+a minute examination of a large part of the coast of that island, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+several rivers on its northern and northwestern sides, and of
+expeditions into the interior. Natives were seen in small numbers in
+various parts, all of whom were in the lowest state of barbarism. A
+remarkable diversity of character was noticed, however, among the
+natives of different localities, some being most kindly disposed, and
+approaching the strangers without fear, as though they were old
+acquaintances, whilst others manifested the greatest hostility and
+aversion. In the instances referred to, they had never seen white men
+before. Capt. Stokes says his "whole experience teaches him that these
+were not accidental differences, but that there is a marked contrast in
+the disposition of the various tribes, for which he will not attempt to
+account."<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> The natives at Port Essington, on the north, appear to be
+in some respects superior to those in other parts of the island. Their
+implements of war and their canoes show a connexion with the Malays.
+They also have a musical instrument made of bamboo, the only one yet
+found among them.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> The rite of circumcision was practised on the
+northern coast near the gulf of Carpentaria. On the southern coast, at
+the head of the Australian bight, it had before been noticed by Mr.
+Eyre.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> For the practice of this ancient rite at such remote
+distances, and confined to within such narrow limits, we can only
+account, by some early migration or visit of people by whom it was
+practised. Nothing has yet been done towards a comparison of the
+languages spoken by the Australian tribes. In the late cruise of Capt.
+Stokes, natives of the south were taken to the northern parts of the
+island, but in their intercourse with the people of the latter, they
+were unable to make themselves understood. It is possible, however, that
+like the languages of the American Indians, though they may exhibit a
+wide difference in words for similar objects, the grammatical structure
+may be the same. This is a more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> important test in ethnological
+comparison, and should be applied before any of the aboriginal tribes of
+Australia are extinct.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most important journey yet accomplished for the exploration
+of Australia, is that of Dr. Leichardt. This gentleman, accompanied by
+Mr. Gilbert, a naturalist, and six others, started from Moreton Bay, on
+the southeastern shore of the island, in October, 1844, to penetrate to
+Port Essington, on its most northerly point; in order, if possible, to
+open a direct route to Sydney. Several months after the party left,
+reports were brought to Moreton Bay that they had been cut off by the
+natives. This was proved to be untrue by an expedition sent out for the
+purpose, who traced the travellers four hundred miles into the interior.
+Dr. Leichardt found it impossible to penetrate into the interior in a
+direct course, on account of high table-land, and the absence of water;
+and this circumstance compelled him to keep within six or seven degrees
+of the coast. Their six months' provisions being exhausted, the only
+resource of the party was the horses and stock bullocks,&mdash;and with these
+the strictest economy was necessary. One was killed as provision for a
+month&mdash;sometimes a horse, at others a bullock. For six months prior to
+reaching Port Essington, the party were reduced to a quarter of a pound
+of meat per day&mdash;frequently putrescent&mdash;unaccompanied with salt, bread,
+or any kind of vegetable. In the neighborhood of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria, Mr. Gilbert, the naturalist, was surprised by the natives,
+and killed. The remainder reached Port Essington on the 2d of December,
+1845.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>The narrative of Dr. Leichardt's expedition has not yet been published
+in detail. The report<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> which has appeared consists chiefly of notices
+of the geography of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> region traversed, the soil, productions,
+climate, &amp;c. He encountered natives in many places, sometimes in
+considerable numbers. By some they were kindly received, by others
+treated as enemies. Their characteristics are not noticed. The most
+extraordinary feature in Dr. Leichardt's narrative is the constant
+succession of water. Although the season was an exceedingly dry one, no
+rain having fallen for seven months, yet from the commencement to the
+close of his year and a half's expedition, throughout the whole length
+and breadth of the vast region he traversed, he was continually meeting
+with fresh water, in the forms of "pools, lagoons, brooks, wells,
+water-holes, rocky basins, living springs, swamps, streams, creeks or
+rivers." The soil in many places was of the best kind, covered with
+luxuriant grass and herbs. Of the former, some twenty kinds were seen.
+In lat. 18° 48' he found a level country, openly timbered, with fine
+plains, extending many miles in length and breadth. The flats bordering
+the creeks and rivers were covered with tall grass, and the table-lands
+presented equally attractive features. "The whole country along the east
+coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is highly adapted for pastoral
+pursuits. Cattle and horses would thrive exceedingly well, but the
+climate and soil are not adapted to sheep. Large plains, limited by
+narrow belts of open forest land; fine grassy meadows along frequent
+chains of lagoons, and shady forest land along the rivers, render this
+country inviting to the squatter." Dr. Leichardt thinks there are many
+districts suitable for the cultivation of rice and cotton.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to a communication between the settlements, it is the decided
+opinion of the Doctor, that no line of road can be effected direct from
+Fort Bourke to the northern settlement. A route from Moreton bay to the
+gulf of Carpentaria will be easily constructed. The whole coast is
+backed by ranges of mountains, consisting, nearest the sea, generally of
+granite and basaltic rocks, which he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> calls the granite range; behind
+this is a second range of sandstone. Descending from this and again
+rising, they entered upon the table-land; which they could nowhere
+penetrate, so as to determine what might be the character of the central
+country. It was covered with a dense shrub, had no water; and frequently
+there was difficulty in descending from it, owing to the perpendicular
+cliffs and deep ravines. They passed several rivers all of which ran
+easterly towards the coast. After reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria, they
+again ascended the table-land, and suffered extremely for want of water.
+The country beneath them was delightful to look at, but they were unable
+to descend to it, until they reached the dip towards the Alligaters.
+Here the country surpassed in fertility any thing that they had seen.</p>
+
+<p>By later advices from Sydney, it appears that this enterprising and
+zealous traveller, is again making arrangements for another expedition
+to explore the interior of this great island.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> The Doctor now
+proposes to leave Moreton<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> bay and endeavor to trace the sources of the
+rivers which flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria. He will then proceed
+northwest, penetrating directly across the unknown and unexplored
+interior, forming the are of a circle, to Swan river. This will be the
+most daring journey yet attempted; but under the direction of one who
+has already shown so much perseverance and undergone such severe
+hardships, it is to be hoped that his efforts may be crowned with
+success.</p>
+
+<p>An expedition for the exploration of Australia, under the command of Sir
+Thomas L. Mitchell, is at present employed in traversing the unknown
+parts of this vast country. When last heard from, the expedition had
+reached the latitude of 29° 45' longitude 147° 34'. The particulars of
+Dr. Leichardt's journey have been sent to him to guide him in his course
+of future operations.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The following list embraces the latest works on Australia.</p>
+
+<p>Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land,
+accompanied by a Geographical map, by P.E. de Strzelecki. 8vo.
+1845.</p>
+
+<p>South Australia and its Mines; with an account of Captain
+Grey's government, by Fr. Dutton. 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>History of New South Wales, from its settlement to the close of
+the year 1844, by Thomas H. Braim. 2 vols. post, 8vo. London,
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>Reminiscences of Australia, with hints on the Squatters' life,
+by C.P. Hodgson. post, 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>A visit to the Antipodes; with some reminiscences of a sojourn
+in Australia. By a Squatter. 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Enterprise in tropical Australia. By George W. Earl. 8vo.
+London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Impressions of Savage life, and scenes in Australia and New
+Zealand. By G.F. Augas. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1847.</p>
+
+<p>Travels in New South Wales. By Alexander Majoribanks. 12mo.
+Lond. 1847.</p>
+
+<p>Simmonds' Colonial Magazine contains a vast deal of information
+relating to Australia, as well as to other British Colonies,
+and is unquestionably the best book of reference on subjects
+relating to the history and present condition of the British
+colonies of any work extant.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ASIA" id="ASIA"></a>ASIA.</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lycia, Asia Minor.</span> This interesting region has been further explored by
+two English gentlemen, Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Professor Forbes, who,
+accompanied by the Reverend E.T. Daniel, embarked from England in the
+year 1842, in H.M. ship Beacon, for the coast of Lycia, for the purpose
+of bringing home the remarkable monuments of antiquity discovered by Sir
+Charles Fellows.</p>
+
+<p>This gentleman, it will be remembered, was the first who in modern times
+successfully explored the interior. He visited the sites of many ancient
+cities and towns; copied numerous inscriptions, by means of which he was
+enabled to identify the names of fifteen out of eighteen cities; and
+made sketches of the most interesting sculptures and monuments.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that a country so often spoken of by the Greek and
+Roman historians should not have sooner attracted attention, when
+districts contiguous to, as well as far beyond, have been so thoroughly
+explored. The ruins on the southern coast of Asia Minor, were first
+made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> known by Captain Beaufort, who discovered them when employed in
+making a survey of this coast. Several travellers subsequently made
+short excursions into the country; but it was not until Mr. now Sir
+Charles Fellows, in 1838 and 1840, made his visits and explorations,
+that the riches of the interior in historical monuments were disclosed.</p>
+
+<p>The relics of antiquity brought to light in these researches, consist
+first of the ruins of large cities, many of which, by reason of their
+isolated situation among the high lands and mountains, seem to have been
+preserved from the destruction which usually attends depopulated cities
+situated in more accessible places.</p>
+
+<p>These ruined cities contain amphitheatres more or less spacious, and
+generally in a good state of preservation, temples, aqueducts, and
+sepulchral monuments, together with numbers of lesser buildings, the
+dwelling houses of the inhabitants. The ruins of Christian churches are
+also found in many places, and in one instance a large and elegant
+cathedral; the purposes of these are satisfactorily made out by their
+inscriptions; and the date of their erection, when not otherwise known,
+may be fixed by their style of architecture. The most numerous as well
+as the most interesting monuments of these ancient cities, are their
+sepulchres. In some instances where a mountain or high rock is
+contiguous, it is pierced with thousands of tombs, presenting an
+appearance similar to Petræa in Idumea, sometimes called the City of the
+Dead. The roads in all directions are lined with tombs and sarcophagi,
+many of them covered with elaborate sculptures and inscriptions. It is
+by means of the latter, which abound and which exist in a fine state of
+preservation, that the names of the cities are identified and other
+historical facts brought to light. The following is a translation of the
+most common form of sepulchral inscription.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"THIS TOMB APOLLONIDES, SON OF MOLISSAS, MADE</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">FOR HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN: AND IF ANY ONE</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">VIOLATES IT, LET HIM PAY A FINE."</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Coins too are found, which possess considerable historic interest.</p>
+
+<p>In architecture, we find excellent specimens of the several Grecian
+orders, exhibiting both the perfection and declension of the art. The
+works of Sir Charles Fellows abound in architectural representations. A
+pointed arch was discovered by Lieut. Spratt and Professor Forbes in the
+interior of a tomb (a sketch of which is given) among the ruins of
+Antiphellas. This conclusively shows, that this peculiar form of the
+arch was not first introduced with Gothic architecture, as has been
+generally believed, but belongs to a period anterior to the Christian
+era. An inscription in the Lycian and Latin was found on the monument.</p>
+
+<p>The language of the ancient Lycians is an important discovery which has
+resulted from these researches. A bilingual inscription in Lycian and
+Greek first led to the key, and similar inscriptions, subsequently
+discovered, have furnished sufficient materials for ascertaining the
+values of the several letters of the alphabet, which consists of
+twenty-seven letters, two of which are still doubtful. Able
+disquisitions on the language have been written by Mr. Sharpe and
+Professor Grotefend.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the antiquity of the monuments, and the people who spoke
+the language called Lycian, now first made known through these
+inscriptions, we are enabled to arrive at conclusions which fix their
+era with some degree of certainty. The earliest inscription yet
+decyphered is a bilingual one, which consists of an edict, in which the
+name of Harpagus, or his son, a well known personage, is mentioned;
+which would give a date of 530 to 500 B.C. This is about the period of
+the earliest arrow-head inscriptions yet known&mdash;namely, those at
+Behistun, of the age of Darius, decyphered by Major Rawlinson. The
+language belongs to the same family as the Zend and old Persian, and is
+supposed to have been in use in the same age as the former, and along
+with that of the Persepolitan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> inscriptions. The sculptures too, bear
+some resemblance to the figures on the Persian monuments, particularly
+the well known figure with an umbrella, so common on the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Other reasons are adduced by scholars for fixing the date of the Lycian
+language not before the fifth century B.C., or to the age of Herodotus.
+This historian was from the adjoining province of Caria; and as might be
+expected, gives accounts of the Lycians before his time, but does not
+say that they spoke a language different from his own, or from that of
+the entire region,&mdash;a fact that he would not have overlooked had such
+been the case.</p>
+
+<p>It is believed that Cyrus, when he subjected this country, brought in
+some people from his Persian dominions, who afterwards became the
+dominant party, and introduced their language.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is surprising to find the names of these Lycian cities so well
+preserved when the descendants of its ancient inhabitants have been so
+entirely swept out of the country, and replaced by a people differing in
+manners, in religion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> and having no interest connected with the
+locality to induce them to respect the relics or names, and keep alive
+the memory, of the former possessors of the soil.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Travels in Lycia, Milytas and the Cibyrates, in company with
+the late Rev. E.T. Daniel, by Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Prof.
+E. Forbes. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1847.</p>
+
+<p>A Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor, by Charles
+Fellows. royal 8vo. London, 1839.</p>
+
+<p>An account of Discoveries in Lycia, in 1840. By Charles
+Fellows, royal 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>An Essay on the Lycian language. By Daniel Sharpe. (In the
+appendix to Fellows' Journal.)</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>ARABIA.</h3>
+
+<p>If we now turn to the discoveries that have recently been made in the
+southern part of Arabia, we find much in them worthy of attention. This
+country, called in the Scriptures Hazarmaveth, by the natives Hadramaut,
+and by the classical writers of antiquity, Arabia Felix, is celebrated
+as being the kingdom of the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon, as well
+as for the gold, gems, frankincense and other precious productions,
+which it furnished in ancient times. It is represented by the Greek and
+Roman writers as a populous country, with many extensive cities,
+abounding in temples and palaces; though the palpable fables with which
+these accounts are intermingled, show that at least they had no personal
+knowledge of the facts, but retailed them at second hand.</p>
+
+<p>After Europe had awoke from the intellectual slumber of the dark ages,
+the Arabs were long regarded only as objects of religious and political
+abhorrence. The discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good
+Hope, at the close of the fifteenth century, by diverting the channel of
+Indo-European traffic from the Red Sea, left the countries bordering
+upon it in such a state of solitude, that when better feelings began to
+prevail, there was no means of obtaining any direct information
+respecting them.</p>
+
+<p>In 1650, the illustrious Pococke, by the publication of his Specimens of
+Ancient Arabian History, extracted from native authors, created a
+curiosity respecting Southern Arabia and its ancient inhabitants, which
+successive collections of a similar nature, down to our own times, have
+served rather to increase than to gratify. The researches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> of Niebuhr,
+Seetzen, and Burckhardt, in the latter part of the last, and the
+beginning of the present century, made us somewhat acquainted with the
+western extremity of this country, along the shores of the Red Sea; but
+before the investigations of which we are about to speak, its southern
+coast had never been accurately explored, and the great body of the
+interior, with its once famous capital, Mareb, remained, as it ever had
+been, completely unknown to and unvisited by the natives of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The hordes of pirates, which until twenty years ago infested the Persian
+Gulf, caused the government of British India to order a complete survey
+of its islands and both its shores, with the view of laying bare their
+haunts, and putting an end to their depredations. In 1829, after this
+service had been performed, the project then recently set on foot of
+establishing a steam communication between England and Bombay, caused
+orders to be issued for a similar examination of the Red Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The attention of the officers composing the expedition, was not
+restricted to the technical duties in which they were chiefly engaged.
+It was well known that information of every kind would be prized by the
+government which they served; and this, together with the monotony of
+life on board ship on the one hand, and the novelty of the scenes by
+which they were surrounded on the other, seems to have created among
+them a spirit of emulation that led to the most interesting discoveries
+respecting both the geography and the antiquities of the adjacent
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most intelligent and enterprising of these officers was the
+late Lieut. Wellsted, who thus describes his reflections on joining the
+expedition in the Red Sea, on the 12th October, 1830. "From the earliest
+dawn of history, the northern shores of the Red Sea have figured as the
+scene of events which both religious and civil records have united to
+render memorable. Here Moses and the Patriarchs tended their flocks, and
+put in motion those springs of civilization, which, from that period,
+have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> never ceased to urge forward the whole human race in the career of
+improvement. On the one hand the Valley of the Wanderings, commencing
+near the site of Memphis, and opening upon the Red Sea, conducts the
+fancy along the track pursued by the Hebrews during their flight out of
+Egypt; on the other hand are Mount Sinai, bearing still upon its face
+the impress of miraculous events, and beyond it that strange, stormy,
+and gloomy-looking sea, once frequented by Ph&oelig;nician merchants'
+ships, by the fleets of Solomon and Pharaoh, and those barks of later
+times which bore the incenses, the gems, the gold and spices of the
+East, to be consumed or lavishly squandered upon favorites at the courts
+of Macedonia or Rome. But the countries lying along this offshoot of the
+Indian Ocean, have another kind of interest, peculiar perhaps to
+themselves. On the Arabian side we find society much what it was four
+thousand years ago; for amidst the children of Ishmael it has undergone
+but trifling modifications. Their tents are neither better nor worse
+than they were when they purchased Joseph of his brethren, on their way
+to Egypt; the Sheikhs possess no other power or influence than they
+enjoyed then; the relations of the sexes have suffered little or no
+changes; they eat, drink, clothe themselves, educate their children,
+make war and peace, just as they did in the day of the Exodus. But on
+the opposite shores, all has been change, fluctuation, and decay. While
+the Bedouins have wandered with their camels and their flocks,
+unaspiring, unimproving, they have looked across the gulf and beheld the
+Egyptian overthrown by the Persian, the Persian by the Greek, the Greek
+by the Roman, and the Roman in his turn by a daring band from their own
+burning deserts. They have seen empires grow up like Jonah's gourd. War
+has swept away some; the varieties and luxuries of peace have brought
+others to the ground; and every spot along these shores is celebrated."</p>
+
+<p>When the northeastern and the western shores of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> Arabian peninsula
+had thus been investigated, there still remained to be explored the
+south eastern shore, the coast of the anciently renowned province of
+Hadramaut, extending from Tehama, on the Red Sea, to the province of
+Oman, at the entrance to the Persian Gulf; and it is to the discoveries
+made in this almost unknown part of the world that I now wish more
+particularly to allude.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1839 Capt. Haines, the commander of the expedition and the
+present governor of Aden, published his survey of about two fifths of
+this coast, extending from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb as far east as
+Missenaat, in long. 51° east of Greenwich.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> In the year 1845, he
+published his further survey of about an equal portion extending to Cape
+Isolette, in long. 57° 51', leaving about one fifth of the whole extent
+on the eastern end still to be explored.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>In June, 1843, Adolphe Baron Wrede, a Hanoverian gentleman, made an
+excursion from Makallah on the coast, into the interior of the country.
+He visited among other places an extensive valley called Wadi Doan,
+which he thus describes. "The sudden appearance of the Wadi Doan, took
+me by surprise and impressed me much with the grandeur of the scene. The
+ravine, five hundred feet wide and six hundred feet in depth, is
+enclosed between perpendicular rocks, the debris of which form in one
+part a slope reaching to half their height. On this slope, towns and
+villages rise contiguously in the form of an amphitheatre; while below
+the date grounds, which are covered with a forest of trees, the river
+about twenty feet broad and enclosed by high and walled embankments is
+seen winding through fields laid out in terraces, then pursuing its
+course in the open plain, irrigated by small canals branching from it.
+My first view of the valley disclosed to me four towns and four
+villages, within the space of an hour's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> distance." He also gives an
+account of some curious spots of quicksand, in the midst of the great
+desert of El-Akkaf, which are regarded with superstitious horror by the
+wandering Bedouins. A cord of sixty fathoms in length with a plummet at
+the end, which he cast into one of them, disappeared in the course of
+five minutes. His narrative is published in the fourteenth volume of the
+Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the glowing descriptions of ancient authors, the idea
+hitherto entertained of this region in modern times, has been that of a
+succession of desert plains and sand-hills, with nothing to give
+animation to the arid scene but solitary groups of Bedouins and
+occasionally a passing caravan. The recent explorations, however, of
+which the one just quoted is a specimen, show that this is far from
+being a correct view of the entire country. The coast is thickly studded
+with fishing-villages and small seaports, which still carry on, though
+on a diminished scale, the trade with India and the Persian gulf, which
+has existed ever since the dawn of history. It is true, the general
+appearance of the country along the coast, consisting as it does of
+successive ranges of sand-hills, is such as to naturally give rise to
+the views entertained and promulgated by navigators, who have had no
+opportunity of visiting the interior. But the deeper researches that
+have been made during the last ten or twelve years, show that these
+opinions are very erroneous; for besides that there are a number of
+green valleys running down to the coast, produced by streams provided
+with water for at least a good part of the year, no sooner has the
+traveller surmounted the first range of sand-hills, than his sight
+begins to be regaled with numerous well watered valleys and mountains
+covered with verdure. Besides this, even in those parts of the country
+where the surface is naturally a desert plain, the inhabitants have
+possessed from the remotest times the art of forming flourishing oases,
+in which to establish their hamlets and towns; an operation which, as
+Wellsted re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>marks, is effected with a labor and skill that seem more
+Chinese than Arabian. This traveller says: "The greater part of the face
+of the country being destitute of running streams on the surface, the
+Arabs have sought in elevated places for springs or fountains beneath
+it. A channel from this fountain-head is then, with a very slight
+descent, bored in the direction in which it is to be conveyed, leaving
+apertures at regular distances, to afford light and air to those who are
+occasionally sent to keep it clean. In this manner water is frequently
+conducted from a distance of six or eight miles, and an unlimited supply
+is thus obtained. These channels are usually about four feet broad and
+two feet deep, and contain a clear and rapid stream. Few of the large
+towns or oases but had four or five of these rivulets or feleji running
+into them. The isolated spots to which water is thus conveyed possess a
+soil so fertile, that nearly every grain, fruit, or vegetable, common to
+India, Arabia, or Persia, is produced almost spontaneously; and the
+tales of the oases will be no longer regarded as an exaggeration, since
+a single step conveys the traveller from the glare and sand of the
+desert into a fertile tract, watered by a hundred rills, teeming with
+the most luxuriant vegetation, and embowered by lofty and stately trees,
+whose umbrageous foliage the fiercest rays of a noontide sun cannot
+penetrate."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>These oases and the towns situated in them, date from various periods;
+some of those already discovered being evidently of considerable
+antiquity. In describing some of these towns, Wellsted says: "The
+instant you step from the Desert within the Grove, a most sensible
+change of the atmosphere is experienced. The air feels cold and damp;
+the ground in every direction is saturated with moisture; and from the
+density of the shade, the whole appears dark and gloomy. To avoid the
+damp and catch an occasional beam of the sun above the trees, the
+houses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> are usually very lofty. A parapet encircling the upper part is
+turreted; and on some of the largest houses guns are mounted. The
+windows and doors have the Saracenic arch; and every part of the
+building is profusely decorated with ornaments of stucco in bas relief,
+some in very good taste. The doors are also cased with brass, and have
+rings and other massive ornaments of the same metal." These descriptions
+relate to the province of Oman, the eastern extremity of Southern
+Arabia. The glimpses already obtained of this ancient and famous land,
+sufficiently prove that the fortunate traveller who shall succeed in
+obtaining access into the interior of the country, which has always been
+a <i>terra incognita</i> to Europeans and their descendants, will find an
+abundance of objects of interest to reward his zeal and self-devotion.</p>
+
+<p>There is however another class of interesting objects, relating to the
+ancient history of the country, which I have not alluded to until now,
+because I wish to speak of them more particularly. These are the ancient
+<i>inscriptions</i>, of which a number have already been discovered and in
+part decyphered.</p>
+
+<p>Several Arabian writers have stated that there existed in the southern
+part of their country, before the time of Mohammed, a kind of writing
+which they call Himyaritic, after the name of the ancient inhabitants of
+the country, the Beni Himyar. But the confused nature of these accounts,
+together with the Arab practice of giving the name of Himyaritic to
+every ancient mode of writing which they were unable to read, caused the
+story to be regarded as little better than fabulous. In the year 1808
+the late Baron de Sacy published a learned treatise on the subject, in
+which he collected all the Arabian accounts; but no further progress was
+made in the enquiry, until the discovery of a number of inscriptions on
+various massy ruins situated along the coast and in the interior, by
+officers attached to the surveying expedition already spoken of, in the
+years 1834 and '5.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Copies of these inscriptions were transmitted to the late Dr. Gesenius
+of Halle, one of the first Orientalists of Europe. After making some
+progress in the investigation, he gave up the subject to his colleague
+Dr. Rödiger, who had devoted himself to it with great ardor and success.
+The latter published a copious dissertation containing the results he
+had arrived at, which he reprinted in 1842 by way of an appendix to his
+German edition of Wellsted's Travels in Arabia. By comparing the
+characters of the inscriptions with the Himyaritic alphabets contained
+in some Arabic manuscripts and with the present Ethiopic alphabet, he
+was enabled to ascertain the powers of the letters, and even to
+interpret, with various degrees of certainty, many portions of the
+inscriptions themselves. Thus, these venerable records, which in all
+probability have for many ages been dumb to every human being, are in a
+fair way of being made to yield up to modern scientific research
+whatever information they may contain. That this information must be
+interesting and valuable to the historian is inferred from the imposing
+nature of the structures on which they are found, and whose existence
+but a few years ago was as little looked for in this part of the world
+as in the forest wilds of Oregon. A full account of these discoveries
+and of the attempts at decyphering the inscriptions was published in
+1845 in the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society
+of this city. I will therefore merely proceed to state what has been
+accomplished in the matter since the time when that account closes.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1843, the same year in which M. Wrede made his
+exploration, a French physician of the name of Arnaud being then at
+Jiddah, received from M. Fresnel, the French consular agent at that
+port, accounts of the Himyaritic inscriptions discovered by the officers
+of the Indian Navy, and of the interest they had created in Europe. M.
+Arnaud's enthusiasm being excited on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> subject, he resolved to take a
+share in these arduous researches. The grand object of his ambition was
+to reach Mareb, the ancient capital of Hadramaut and the residence of
+the famous Queen of Sheba, whose name according to the Arabians was
+Balkis. Two English officers had undertaken the journey several years
+ago, and had reached Sana, a town within three or four days' journey of
+it; but the suspicions of the native authorities becoming excited, their
+further progress was prevented.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of proceeding adopted by M. Arnaud, who spoke the Arabic
+fluently, was to travel as a Mussulman, in company with a caravan going
+to the place. His plan was happily crowned with success. In the middle
+of July he reached the city, where he saw the imposing remains of the
+ancient dam, said to have been built across the valley of Mareb by
+Balkis herself, and which, by collecting an immense body of water near
+the metropolis, whence the surrounding country was irrigated, had given
+rise to the fertility and beauty for which the region was celebrated in
+ancient times. On these remains M. Arnaud discovered a number of
+inscriptions, as also among the ruins of the former city; among the most
+remarkable of these is one called Harem Balkis, which is thought to be
+the remains of the palace of the ancient Sabean kings. The inscriptions
+of which Mr. Arnaud brought away copies with him amount to fifty-six in
+number. The tour of M. Wrede was also not unproductive in this respect.
+He copied, among others, a long inscription in Wadi Doan; which,
+according to the interpretations that have since been made of it,
+contains a list of kings more copious than those which have been left us
+by Albulfeda and other historians of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>When M. Arnaud returned to Jiddah from his hazardous and toilsome
+expedition, M. Fresnel, who had originally moved him to the undertaking,
+set about studying the new inscriptions, aided by the previous labors of
+the German scholars and his own knowledge of Arabic and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> modern
+Himyaritic. Possessing a far more abundant supply of materials than had
+been collected before, he was able to assign to a few doubtful
+characters their proper values. He transmitted to Paris a fair copy of
+the original inscriptions, and also a transcription of them in the
+Arabic character, showing how they should be read. A fount of Himyaritic
+types having been constructed for the express purpose at the Imprimerie
+Royale, they were all published in the course of last year in the
+Journal Asiatique, together with several letters on the subject from M.
+Fresnel. The form of the characters in these inscriptions is essentially
+the same as in those discovered before; but, whereas the former ones all
+read from right to left like the Arabic of the present day, some of the
+new ones are found to read alternately from right to left and from left
+to right, like some of the inscriptions of ancient Greece. M. Fresnel's
+attention has been mainly directed to the collection and identification
+of the proper names of persons, deities, and places, in which the
+inscriptions abound, and in which he recognises many names mentioned in
+Scripture, and in Greek, Roman, and Arabian authors. Thus he identifies
+the deity 'Athtor with the Ashtoreth or Venus of the Hebrews. He finds
+in an inscription at Hisn Ghorab the word Kaná, showing the correctness
+of the conclusion already arrived at that this is the <i>Cane emporium</i> of
+Ptolemy. He identifies the ruins of Kharibeh, a day's journey to the
+west of Mareb, with the Caripeta of Pliny, the furthest point reached by
+the Roman commander, Ælius Gallus, in his expedition into Arabia Felix,
+in the reign of Augustus Cæsar. He has also recognised many names of
+Himyaritic sovereigns mentioned by Arabian writers, among others those
+of the grandfather and uncle of Queen Balkis. M. Fresnel has also begun
+to translate the inscriptions connectedly, a work of great labor and
+difficulty. He has already furnished an improved reading and translation
+of one at Sana, which had been copied before by English officers, and
+interpreted by Gesenius and Rödiger, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> has offered a translation of
+another found by M. Arnaud, on the Hiram Balkis at Mareb.</p>
+
+<p>The discoveries already brought to light, merely serve to show the
+richness of the mine that yet remains to be explored. Other expeditions
+are now planning, or in progress of execution, for penetrating into
+other parts of the country; and eminent scholars are busied in
+elucidating the treasures which the enterprize of travellers is bringing
+to light. Their united exertions cannot fail, at least, to accumulate
+many curious particulars relative to the history of one of the most
+remarkable and least known nations of past ages.</p>
+
+<p>The Rev. T. Brockman, who was sent by the Royal Geographical Society of
+England for the purpose of geographical and antiquarian research in the
+Arabian peninsula, had proceeded up the coast from Aden to Shehar,
+midway between Aden and Muscat, and had coasted along to Cape Ras
+al-Gat. Subsequently in attempting to reach Muscat, he was arrested by
+sickness at Wadi Beni Jabor, where after a few days he died. His papers,
+which will be sent to the Geographical Society, are thought to contain
+matters of interest respecting this region.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The following list embraces all of consequence that has been
+written on Southern Arabia and the Himyaritic Inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>Pococke, Specimina Historiæ veterum Arabum. Oxford, 1649,
+reprinted 1806.</p>
+
+<p>De Sacy, sur divers Évènemens de l'histoire des Arabes avant
+Mahomet, in Mém. de Lit. de l'Acad. Française, Vol. L. Paris,
+1805.</p>
+
+<p>Historia Jemanæ, e cod. MS. arabico, ed. G.T. Johannsen. Bonn,
+1828.</p>
+
+<p>Travels in Arabia, by Lieut. Wellsted, 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+1838.</p>
+
+<p>Memoir on the south coast of Arabia, by Capt. Harris. Journal
+Royal Geographical Society, Vol. VI. IX.</p>
+
+<p>Narrative of a Journey from Mokha to Sana: by C.J.
+Cruttenden.&mdash;Ibid. Vol. VIII.</p>
+
+<p>Gesenius, Über die Himjaritischen Sprache und Schrift, Halle,
+1841.</p>
+
+<p>Rödiger, Versuch über die Himjaritischen Schriftmonumente.
+Halle, 1841. This was republished, with many improvements, in
+an Appendix to the author's German translation of Wellsted's
+Travels. 2 vols. Halle, 1842.</p>
+
+<p>Ewald, on an inscription recently dug up in Aden, Zeitschrift
+für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1843.</p>
+
+<p>The Historical Geography of Arabia, or the Patriarchal
+Evidences of Revealed Religion. By the Rev. Charles Forster, 2
+vols. 8vo. London, 1844.</p>
+
+<p>F. Fresnel. Letters to M. Jules Mohl, on the Himyaritic
+Inscriptions. Paris, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Account of an excursion to Hadramaut, by Adolph Baron Wrede.
+Journal Royal Geographical Society, Vol. XIV.</p>
+
+<p>Memoir of the south and east coast of Arabia, by Capt. S.B.
+Harris.&mdash;Ibid. Vol. XV.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sclavonic Mss.</span>&mdash;It is stated in the Russian papers that M.
+Grigorowitsch, professor of the sclavonic tongues in the Imperial
+University of Kasan, has returned to that capital from a two year's
+journey in the interior of Turkey, by order of the Russian government,
+in search of the graphic monuments of the ancient Sclavonic nations. He
+has brought home fac-similes of many hundred inscriptions, and 2,138
+Sclavonian manuscripts&mdash;450 of which are said to be very ancient, and of
+great importance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Caucasus.</span>&mdash;The results of a scientific expedition for the
+exploration of the Steppes of the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, and of
+Southern Russia, under the direction of M. Hommaire de Hell, has lately
+been published. This portion of the East has been little noticed by
+travellers, and the present work has therefore added much to our
+previous knowledge of the country. It is accompanied by a large map, on
+which the geographical and geological peculiarities are defined with
+great minuteness and elegance.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<h3>ASSYRIA AND PERSIA.</h3>
+
+<p>The discoveries recently made, and the researches now in progress in
+those regions of the world known in ancient times as Assyria, Babylonia
+and Persia, are among the most interesting and important of the age. Of
+the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians we know nothing, but what we find
+in the Bible, or what has been preserved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> and handed down to us by the
+Greek historians. Unlike Egypt, who has left so many records of her
+greatness, of her knowledge of the arts, and of her advancement in
+civilization, in the numerous and wonderful monumental remains in the
+valley of the Nile, the Assyrians were supposed to have left nothing, no
+existing monuments as evidences that they ever had an existence, save in
+the vast and misshapen heaps along the banks of the Euphrates and
+Tigris, believed to wash the spots where the great cities of Nineveh and
+Babylon once stood. The site of Nineveh still remains doubtful; and so
+literally have the prophecies in regard to Babylon been fulfilled, that
+nothing but vast heaps of rubbish, of tumuli, and traces of numerous
+canals, remains. The language of the Assyrians is unknown, and the
+impressions of characters in the form of a wedge or arrow-head stamped
+upon the bricks and other relics dug from these heaps, have been looked
+upon as mysterious and cabalistic signs, rather than the representatives
+of sounds, or belonging to a regular form of speech. For more than
+twenty centuries, these countries have been as a blank on the page of
+history; and all we have gathered from them consists in the observations
+of curious travellers, who, at the risk of their lives, have ventured to
+extend their wanderings this way.</p>
+
+<p>Pietro della Valle, Le Brun, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, Rich, and Ouseley,
+have given us descriptions of the ancient remains in Persia and Assyria,
+particularly those at Persepolis, Pasargadæ, and Babylon. These consist
+of views of the monuments and sculptures, together with copies of the
+inscriptions in the cuneiform, or arrow-head character. The object of
+the edifices, the subject of the sculptures, and the meaning of the
+inscriptions, were wholly matters of conjecture; and it seemed a
+hopeless task to arrive at any conclusions in relation to them, until
+some key should be discovered, by the means of which the language should
+be made known, and the numerous inscriptions decyphered. No bilingual
+tablet, such as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> Rosetta stone of Egypt, had been discovered; and,
+although it appeared that many of the inscriptions were recorded in
+three different languages, no means seemed to exist by which
+philologists could obtain a clue to their meaning. With this dark
+prospect in view, the task of decyphering the arrow-headed characters
+was attempted by M. Grotefend, one of the most sagacious and
+distinguished philologists of Europe. The particulars of the attempt and
+its results, we shall briefly state.</p>
+
+<p>At Persepolis it is known are extensive ruins, chiefly belonging to a
+large edifice, with every indication that this edifice was originally a
+royal palace. History and tradition supported this belief; and the
+general character of the sculptures and architecture, together with the
+inscriptions, would carry its origin back to a period some centuries
+before the Christian era. It was doubtless the work of one of the great
+monarchs of Persia; of Cyrus, Cambyses, Xerxes, Darius, or some other
+with whom history is familiar.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> On some of the monuments at
+Persepolis, are inscriptions in the Pehlvi character, parts of which
+have been decyphered by M. de Sacy. In one of these, the titles and name
+of a king are often repeated; these titles M. Grotefend thought might be
+repeated in the same manner in the arrow-head characters.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>Over the doorways and in other parts of this edifice, are portraits,
+evidently of kings, as there is always enough in the dress and insignia
+of a monarch to enable one to detect him on any ancient monument. Over
+these por<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>traits are inscriptions; these it was natural to suppose
+related to the person represented, and if so, contained the name of the
+king and his titles. Such would be the conclusion of any one who
+reflected on the subject, and such was the belief of M. Grotefend and
+other philologists. In these inscriptions one group of characters was
+repeated more frequently than any other, and all agreed that the
+decyphering of this group would furnish a key to the whole. On this
+group of characters then our Savans set to work.</p>
+
+<p>According to the analogy of the Pehlvi inscriptions, decyphered by De
+Sacy, it was believed that the inscriptions then under consideration,
+mentioned the name of a king son of another king, that is the names of
+father and son. M. Grotefend first examined the bas-reliefs at
+Persepolis, to ascertain the particular age of the Persian kings to
+which they belonged, in order that he might discover the names
+applicable to the inscription. A reference to the Greek historians
+convinced him that he must look for the kings of the dynasty of the
+Achæmenides, and he accordingly applied their names to the characters of
+the inscriptions. "These names could obviously not be Cyrus and
+Cambyses, because the names occurring in the inscriptions do not begin
+with the same letter; Cyrus and Artaxerxes were equally inapplicable,
+the first being too short and the latter too long; there only remained
+therefore the names of Darius and Xerxes;" and these latter agreed so
+exactly with the characters, that Mr. Grotefend did not hesitate to
+select them. The next step was to ascertain what these names were in the
+old Persian language, as they come to us through the Greek, and would of
+course differ somewhat from the original. The ancient Zend, as preserved
+in the Zendavesta, furnished the only medium through which the desired
+information could be obtained.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> He next ascertained that Xerxes was
+called <i>Kshershe</i> or <i>Ksharsha</i>; and Darius, <i>Dareush</i>. A farther
+examination gave him the name of <i>Kshe</i> or <i>Ksheio</i> for 'king.'<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> The
+places or groups of characters corresponding with these names, were then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+analyzed and the value of each character ascertained. These were then
+applied to other portions of the inscriptions, and led to the
+translation of two short ones, as well as to the formation of a
+considerable portion of the alphabet.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the result of Professor Grotefend's labors up to the year 1833.
+His first discovery was made and announced as early as 1802, but an
+account of his system of interpretation did not appear until 1815, in
+the appendix to the third German edition of Heeren's Researches. This
+was afterwards enlarged in the translation of Heeren published at Oxford
+in 1833, when it was first made known to English readers. In 1837 he
+published a treatise containing an account of all the Persepolitan
+inscriptions in his possession, and another in 1840 on those of Babylon.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant success which attended Grotefend's earlier efforts, soon
+attracted the attention of other philologists to the subject. M. Saint
+Martin read a memoir before the Asiatic Society of Paris in 1822, but
+did not make any additions to our previous knowledge. Professor Rask
+next took it up, and discovered the value of two addi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>tional characters.
+M. Burnouf followed in 1836, with an elaborate memoir, in which he
+disclosed some important discoveries.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Professor Lassen, in his
+Memoir published in 1836, and in a series of papers continued up to the
+present day,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> has identified at least twelve characters, which had
+been mistaken by all his predecessors, and which, says Maj. Rawlinson,
+"may entitle him almost to contest with Professor Grotefend the palm of
+alphabetical discovery."</p>
+
+<p>In 1835, Major Rawlinson, then residing in Persia, turned his attention
+to the subject, and decyphered some of the proper names on the tablets
+at Hamadan. In the following year he applied himself to the great
+inscription at Behistun, the largest and most remarkable that is known
+in Persia, and succeeded in making out several lines of its contents.</p>
+
+<p>The result of Major Rawlinson's first attempt at decyphering the
+Behistun inscription, was the identification of several proper names,
+and consequently the values of additional characters towards the
+completion of the alphabet.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> But more was wanted than the alphabet,
+which only enabled the student to make out proper names, but not to
+advance beyond; and it was the lack of this knowledge which prevented
+the sagacious and indefatigable Grotefend from carrying out to any great
+extent, the discoveries which he had so well begun.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The language of the inscriptions must next be studied; and as the Zend
+had been the medium through which the first links in the chain of
+interpretation had been obtained, it was naturally resorted to for aid
+to farther progress. The Zendavesta, with the researches of Anquetil du
+Perron, and the commentary at the Yaçna by M. Burnouf, wherein the
+language of the Zendavesta is critically analyzed, and its grammatical
+structure developed, furnished the necessary materials. To the latter
+work, and the luminous critique of M. Burnouf, Major Rawlinson owes the
+success of his translations; as he acknowledges that by it he "obtained
+a general knowledge of the grammatical structure of the language of the
+inscriptions."</p>
+
+<p>But the Zend was not of itself sufficient to make out all the words and
+expressions in the Behistun and other inscriptions. Other languages
+contemporary with that of the inscription and of the Zend must be sought
+for, to elucidate many points which it left obscure.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> The Sanscrit
+was the only one laying claim to a great antiquity, whose grammatical
+structure was sufficiently developed to render it useful in this
+enquiry. A knowledge of this language had previously been acquired by
+Major Rawlinson, and he was therefore fully prepared for the arduous
+task he had undertaken. Neither of these, it must be observed, was the
+language of the inscriptions, which it is believed had ceased to be a
+living form of speech, at the period when the Sanscrit and Zend were in
+current use.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to note in detail the difficulties and great labor
+attending the decyphering of the Behistun tablets, on which Major
+Rawlinson was occupied from time to time during a space of ten years.
+His discoveries were announced in London, in a memoir read before the
+Royal Asiatic Society in 1839, but were not published in extenso until
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>Briefly to sum up the results of his labors, it will suffice to state
+that they present "a correct grammatical translation of nearly four
+hundred lines of cuneiform writing, a memorial of the time of Darius
+Hystaspes, the greater part of which is in so perfect a state as to
+afford ample and certain grounds for a minute orthographical and
+etymological analysis, and the purport of which to the historian, must
+be of fully equal interest with the peculiarities of the language to the
+philologist." In a few cases it may be found necessary to alter or
+modify some of the significations assigned; but there is no doubt but
+that the general meaning of every paragraph is accurately determined,
+and that the learned Orientalist has thus been enabled "to exhibit a
+correct historical outline, possessing the weight of royal and
+contemporaneous recital, of many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> great events which preceded the rise
+and marked the career of one of the most celebrated of the early
+sovereigns of Persia."</p>
+
+<p>Such is the history of this great discovery, which has placed the name
+of Major Rawlinson among the most distinguished Oriental scholars of the
+age. He will rank among the laborers in cuneiform writing, where
+Champollion does among the decypherers of Egyptian hieroglyphics; for
+though, like Champollion, he did not make the first discoveries in his
+branch of Palæography, he is certainly entitled to the honor of reducing
+it to a system, by ascertaining the true powers of a large portion of
+the alphabet, and by elucidating its grammatical peculiarities, so that
+future investigators will find little difficulty in translating any
+inscription in the particular class of characters in question.</p>
+
+<p>The cuneiform (wedge-shaped) or arrow-headed character is a system of
+writing peculiar to the countries between the Euphrates and the Persian
+frontier on the East. Various combinations of a figure shaped like a
+wedge, together with one produced by the union of two wedges, constitute
+the system of writing employed by the ancient Assyrians, Babylonians,
+Medes, and the Achæmenian kings of Persia. The character seems to have
+been as extensively employed in this portion of the world, as the Roman
+letters now are in Europe. Particular arrangements or combinations of
+these characters apparently belonged to different nations, speaking
+different languages. When and where this system of writing originated is
+not known. Professor Westergaard<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> thinks that "Babylon was its
+cradle, whence it spread in two branches, eastward to Susiana, and
+northward to the Assyrian empire, from whence it passed into Media, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+lastly into ancient Persia, where it was much improved and brought to
+its greatest perfection."</p>
+
+<p>Major Rawlinson makes of the arrow-headed writing three great classes or
+divisions, the <i>Babylonian</i>, <i>Median</i> and <i>Persian</i>. The first of these
+he thinks is unquestionably the oldest. "It is found upon the bricks
+excavated from the foundations of all the buildings in Mesopotamia,
+Babylonia, and Chaldea, that possess the highest and most authentic
+claims to antiquity;" and he thinks it "not extravagant therefore to
+assign its invention to the primitive race which settled in the plain of
+Shinar."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> In the recent excavations made by M. Botta and Mr. Layard,
+on or near the site of ancient Nineveh, numerous inscriptions in this
+form of the arrow-head character were found. It also occurs in detached
+inscriptions from the Mediterranean to the Persian mountains.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the various inscriptions in the Babylonian class of
+writing has led Major Rawlinson to believe that it embraces five
+distinct varieties, which he calls the Primitive Babylonian, the
+Achæmenian Babylonian, the Medo-Assyrian, the Assyrian, and the
+Elymæan.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> The peculiarities of these several varieties, with the
+countries in which they are found, are pointed out in the second chapter
+of our author's learned Memoir on cuneiform writing. The Median and
+Persian classes are peculiar to the trilingual tablets of Persia, and
+are better known than the first class or Babylonian.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Westergaard<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> divides the cuneiform writing into five classes: the
+<i>Assyrian</i>; the <i>Old Babylonian</i>; and the three kinds on the trilingual
+tablets of Persia, which embrace the <i>Median</i> and <i>Persian</i> varieties,
+and the one called by Rawlinson the <i>Achæmenian Babylonian</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The history we have already given of the progress made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> in decyphering
+these characters applies exclusively to one of the varieties on the
+tablets of Persia. The inscriptions on these monuments are almost
+invariably repeated in three sets of characters, and doubtless in three
+different languages. The characters of what appears in each case to be
+the primary or original inscription, of which the others are
+translations, are of the simplest construction, and consequently were
+the first to attract the attention of decypherers, and to yield to their
+efforts. The language in which they are written has been found to
+exhibit close affinities both to the Sanscrit and to the Zend, and is
+now termed by philologists the Old Persian. The system of writing is
+alphabetic, that is to say, each character represents a single
+articulate sound; whereas that of the other two species is at least in a
+great measure syllabic, which renders the task of decyphering them much
+more difficult.</p>
+
+<p>For our knowledge of the second variety of characters on the Persian
+trilingual tablets, we are indebted to the labors and sagacity of
+Professor Westergaard.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> These characters had remained entirely
+undecyphered until the first kind had been completely made out. It was
+evident that the inscriptions in the second kind of character were but a
+translation of those in the first; and with this supposition, this
+learned Orientalist began the task of decyphering, by identifying the
+proper names Darius, Hystaspes, Cyrus, Xerxes, Persians, Ionians, &amp;c.,
+which frequently occur in the inscriptions decyphered by Major
+Rawlinson. Having obtained these, he next analyzed each and ascertained
+the phonetic values of the several characters of which they are
+composed. By<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> this means, he was enabled to construct an alphabet. He
+next examined the introductory words and the titles of the sovereigns,
+and finally the entire inscriptions, all of which he has most
+satisfactorily made out, and with them has reconstructed the language in
+which they are written. In his learned and elaborate article detailing
+the process of this discovery, Professor Westergaard gives a systematic
+classification of the characters, one hundred in number, of which
+seventy-four are syllabic, twenty-four alphabetic, and two signs of
+division between words. The character of the language, which for
+convenience sake he terms Median, he does not pretend to decide, though
+he considers that it belongs to the Scythian rather than to the Japhetic
+class of languages; in which opinion Major Rawlinson coincides. The
+Oriental Journal alluded to in the second note to p. 90, contains
+several learned papers by Professors Westergaard and Lassen, on the
+arrow-headed inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>In the third sort of Persepolitan characters, termed the Achæmenian
+Babylonian, some advances have been made by Major Rawlinson. The
+contents of the other portions of these tablets being known, he pursued
+the course adopted by Professor Westergaard, namely that of identifying
+the groups of characters corresponding with the proper names in the
+other inscriptions. He has thus been enabled to ascertain the phonetic
+values of a large number of characters which must in time lead to a
+knowledge of the rest of the alphabet. A beginning in this direction was
+also made by Professor Grotefend, who in his Memoirs of 1837 and 1840,
+singles out and places in juxtaposition the names of Cyrus, Hystaspes,
+Darius and Xerxes, in the first and third species of Persepolitan
+writing. There is every reason to hope that the labors of the three
+accomplished Oriental scholars, Rawlinson, Lassen, and Westergaard,
+which have been so far crowned with success, will add to their fame by
+making out the characters and language of this species of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> writing also.
+A high degree of interest is attached to it, not only on account of the
+information it embodies, but in regard to the nation to which it is
+assignable.</p>
+
+<p>It will be recollected, that besides these three sorts of Persepolitan
+writing, there are two other distinct classes of arrow-head characters,
+called Babylonian and Assyrian. Little or nothing has yet been
+accomplished towards decyphering them; which is owing to the fact that
+they are of a very complicated nature, and that they have hitherto been
+found alone, that is to say not accompanied by a version in any other
+language or character. A Parisian savant, M.J. Löwenstern, who has
+applied himself to the study of the Assyrian tablets, published in 1845
+an Essay on the monument recently discovered by M. Botta at Khorsabad
+near Mosul, in which he thinks he has made out the groups which stand
+for the words <i>great king</i>, and also several alphabetical characters.
+Further investigations can alone determine whether or not his
+conclusions are correct.</p>
+
+<p>It will be necessary to state some of the historical facts brought to
+light by the labors of Major Rawlinson, to which we have alluded. The
+great tablet at Behistun relates exclusively to Darius. "To this
+monarch," says Major Rawlinson, "insatiable in his thirst of conquest,
+magnificent in his tastes, and possessed of an unlimited power, we are
+indebted for all that is most valuable in the palæography of Persia.
+Imbued, as it appears, with an ardent passion for monumental fame, he
+was not content to inscribe the palaces of his foundation at Persepolis
+with a legend commemorative of their erection, or with prayers invoking
+the guardianship of Ormuzd and his angels, but he lavished an elaborate
+workmanship on historic and geographic records in various quarters of
+his empire, which evince considerable political forethought, an earnest
+regard for truth, and an ambition to transmit the glories of his reign
+to future generations, to guide their conduct and invite their
+emulation. At Persepolis, the high place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> of Persian power, he aspired
+to elevate the moral feelings of his countrymen, and to secure their
+future dominancy in Asia, by displaying to them their superiority over
+the feudatory provinces of the empire,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> while upon the sacred rock of
+Baghistan, he addressed himself in the style of an historian, to collect
+the genealogical traditions of his race, to describe the extent and
+power of his kingdom, and to relate, with a perspicuous brevity worthy
+of imitation, the leading incidents of his reign. His grave relation of
+the means by which, under the care and favor of a beneficent Providence,
+the crown of Persia first fell into his hands, and of the manner in
+which he subsequently established his authority, by the successive
+overthrow of the rebels who opposed him, contrasts strongly but most
+favorably with the usual emptiness of Oriental hyperbole."</p>
+
+<p>The following are some of the translations from the great inscription at
+Behistun, which embraces upwards of four hundred lines in the
+arrow-headed characters. In Major Rawlinson's Memoir, are given
+fac-similes of the original inscriptions, a transcription of the same in
+Roman letters with an interlineal translation in Latin, and a
+translation in English. Accompanying these, is a critical commentary on
+each line, together with notes, rendering the whole as clear as
+possible.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"I am Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of
+Persia, the king of (the dependent) provinces, the son of
+Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achæmenian.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;My father was Hystaspes; of Hystaspes,
+the father was Arsames; of Arsames, the father was Ariyaramnes;
+of Ariyaramnes, the father was Teispes; of Teispes, the father
+was Achæmenes.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;On that account, we have been called
+Achæmenians: from antiquity we have been unsubdued; from
+antiquity those of our race have been kings.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;There are eight of my race who have
+been kings before me, I am the ninth; for a very long time we
+have been kings.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;By the grace of Ormuzd, I am king;
+Ormuzd has granted me the empire.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;These are the countries which have fallen into
+my hands&mdash;by the grace of Ormuzd, I have become king of them&mdash;Persia,
+Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt; those which are of the sea,
+Sparta and Ionia; Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Zarangea, Aria,
+Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, the Sacæ, the Sattagydes, Arachosia, and
+the Mecians; the total amount being twenty-one countries.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;These are the countries which have come to me;
+by the grace of Ormuzd, they have become subject to me&mdash;they have
+brought tribute to me. That which has been said unto them by me, both by
+night and by day, it has been performed by them.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;Ormuzd has granted me the empire. Ormuzd has
+brought help to me until I have gained this empire. By the grace of
+Ormuzd, I hold this empire.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash; ... He who was named Cambyses, the son of Cyrus
+of our race, he was here king before me. There was of that Cambyses a
+brother named Bartius; he was of the same father and mother as Cambyses.
+Cambyses slew this Bartius. When Cambyses slew that Bartius, the
+troubles of the state ceased which Bartius had excited. Then Cambyses
+proceeded to Egypt. When Cambyses had gone to Egypt, the state became
+heretical; then the lie became abounding in the land, both in Persia and
+in Media, and in the other provinces."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>He then goes on to speak of the rebellions in his dominions after the
+death of Cambyses, of the Magian who declared himself king, and that no
+one dared to resist him. He continues:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"every one was standing obediently around the Magian, until I
+arrived. Then I abode in the worship of Ormuzd; Ormuzd brought
+help to me. On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, I slew the
+Magian and the chief men who were his followers. By the grace
+of Ormuzd, I became king; Ormuzd granted me the sceptre."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>He then says, he "established his race on the throne, as in the days of
+old," prohibited the sacrificial worship introduced by the Magian, and
+restored the old families to office,&mdash;all of which was accomplished by
+the aid of Ormuzd. The people of Susiana and Babylon then became
+rebellious. He slew the leader of the former.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;Then I proceeded to Babylon against
+that Natitabirus, who was called Nabokhadrosser
+(Nebuchadnezzar). The forces of Natitabirus held the Tigris;
+there they had come and they had boats. Then I placed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>a detachment on rafts. I brought the enemy into difficulty; I
+assaulted the enemy's position. Ormuzd brought help to me; by
+the grace of Ormuzd, I succeeded in passing the Tigris. Then I
+entirely defeated the army of that Natitabirus. On the 27th day
+of the month of Atriyata, then it was that we thus fought."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Darius then continued his march to Babylon, where he was met by the army
+of Natitabirus; he gave him battle and defeated him, driving his army
+into the water. He then took Babylon. It would appear from what this
+monarch relates, that he had a pretty rebellious set of subjects, who
+took advantage of his absence at Babylon. The inscription continues.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;whilst I was at Babylon, these are the
+countries that revolted against me; Persis, Susiana, Media,
+Assyria, Armenia, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia and Sacia.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>He then gives the names of the rebellious leaders and of the officers
+sent to subjugate them; the forts, villages, or cities, where battles
+were fought; the day of the month when they took place, and the result,
+in every case, by the help of Ormuzd. One example will suffice. After
+speaking of the revolt of Armenia, the inscription continues.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;Then Dadarses by name, an Armenian, one
+of my servants, him I sent to Armenia. I thus said to him:
+'Greeting to thee, the rebel state that does not obey me, smite
+it.' Then Dadarses marched. When he reached Armenia, then the
+rebels having collected came before Dadarses arraying their
+battle ... by name, a village of Armenia, there they engaged.
+Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, my forces
+entirely defeated that rebel army. On the 8th of the month
+Thurawahara, then it was a battle was fought by them."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In this manner we have the whole history of the reign of Darius king of
+Persia, who filled the throne 550 B.C. And it may truly be said that no
+monument of remote antiquity which has been preserved to modern times,
+at all equals it in importance. The inscriptions of Egypt are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> far more
+ancient, but consist of fragments, which, excepting the tables of kings,
+do not throw much light on history. Nothing is more interesting in the
+details given by the Persian king of his successes, than his
+acknowledgment of an overruling power, a Supreme Being, who protected
+him and aided him in all his battles. From the closing part of this
+remarkable tablet, which consists of twenty paragraphs, we select the
+following.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;This is what I have done. By the grace
+of Ormuzd have I achieved the performance of the whole. Thou
+whoever hereafter may peruse this tablet, let it be known to
+thee, that which has been done by me, that it has not been
+falsely related.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;Ormuzd is my witness, that this record
+I have faithfully made of the performance of the whole.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;By the grace of Ormuzd, there is much
+else that has been done by me that upon this tablet has not
+been inscribed.... If thou publish this tablet to the world,
+Ormuzd shall be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be
+numerous.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;If thou shalt conceal this record, thou
+shalt not thyself be recorded; may Ormuzd be thy enemy, and
+mayest thou be childless.</p>
+
+<p>"Says Darius the King:&mdash;As long as thou mayest behold this
+tablet and these figures, thou mayest not dishonor them; and if
+from injury thou shalt preserve them, may Ormuzd be a friend to
+thee, and may thy offspring be numerous, and mayest thou be
+long lived, and that which thou mayest do may Ormuzd bless for
+thee in after times."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The great inscription from which we have made these extracts, is
+sculptured in three languages, and in three different forms of the
+arrow-headed character, the particulars of which have been stated. There
+are a few imperfections and cracks in the stone which made certain words
+and sentences unintelligible; these will be corrected when the other two
+inscriptions are decyphered. In the midst of these records is a piece of
+sculpture in relief, representing Darius followed by two of his
+officers, with his foot upon a man, who raises his hands before him, and
+nine other figures representing the rebellious leaders whom he had
+severally conquered. They are connected by a rope around their necks and
+have their hands tied behind, and are probably portraits of the persons
+they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> represent. Beneath each is engraved his name, as in the extract
+given.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"This Natitabirus was an impostor: he thus declared, I am
+Nabokhadrosser, the son of Nabonidas; I am king of Babylon."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The discoveries of Professor Westergaard, to whom we are indebted for
+the key to the second or Median form of the arrow-headed character,
+require notice. This accomplished Orientalist, on his return from an
+archæological tour in India and Persia, under the patronage of the king
+of Denmark, brought with him, among other literary treasures, copies of
+a great number of inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. While in
+Persepolis he carefully examined all the inscriptions which those
+wonderful ruins still retain. Those which had already been published, he
+accurately compared with the original monuments, and the remainder he
+copied entire. This gentleman went thoroughly furnished with all the
+preparatory knowledge that could be gained in Europe to ensure success.
+He had shown himself by his publications to be an excellent Sanscrit
+scholar; besides which he had acquired as complete a knowledge of the
+Zend language as it is possible to do at present, and was well
+acquainted with all that had been effected in the way of decyphering the
+inscriptions. Having thus so greatly the advantage of his predecessors,
+Niebuhr, Ker Porter, and Rich, it is not to be wondered at that his
+transcripts are proportionably more accurate and complete.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been known that all the inscriptions at Persepolis are
+triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of
+the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor
+Lassen,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying
+his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and
+near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical
+value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but
+consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of
+himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The
+following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense
+portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Ormuzd (is) the great God. He created this earth; he created
+the heavens; he created mortals; he created the fortune of
+mortals. He made king Xerxes the only king of many, the only
+emperor of many.</p>
+
+<p>"I Xerxes (am) the great king, the king of kings, the king of
+realms inhabited by many nations; the sustainer, the author of
+this great land; the son of king Darius, the Achæmenide.</p>
+
+<p>"I (am) the noble Xerxes, the great king. By the will of
+Ormuzd, I have built this portal to be entered by the people.
+Let the Persians abide, let them congregate under this portal,
+and in this palace&mdash;the palace which my father built for
+abiding in. By the will of Ormuzd we built them.</p>
+
+<p>"I (am) the noble king Xerxes. Protect me O Ormuzd; and also
+this kingdom, and this my palace, and my father's palace
+protect, O admirable Ormuzd."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first
+son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G.
+Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three
+species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and
+its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longpérier,
+who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or
+Longimanus, whose names and titles have been made out both in the
+hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has
+been found at Persepolis.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> It is in only one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> species of the
+Achæmenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a
+most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone
+in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a
+philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early
+a decline of the Persian language.</p>
+
+<p>But the most important part of this inscription consists of the
+genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the
+father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian
+historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far
+decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them,
+and the several sovereigns acknowledge their gratitude to him as to an
+all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nineveh.</span> We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the
+researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> on or near the site of ancient
+Nineveh.</p>
+
+<p>This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his
+discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues,
+and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound,
+where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were
+covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and
+scenes illustrating the manners and customs of the Assyrians. The
+drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments
+of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the
+anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the
+Egyptians&mdash;they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head,
+and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their
+dresses are exceed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>ingly rich and profuse in ornaments and trimmings.
+Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately
+wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The
+discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground
+in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened
+a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It
+contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at
+Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of
+chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and
+inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the
+class usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was
+built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by the
+Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered
+by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as
+though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged
+lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance
+to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the
+highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the Assyrians. There
+are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs
+consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads&mdash;others entirely
+human but winged&mdash;with battle-pieces and sieges."<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p>Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned,
+announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and
+every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh,
+whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic
+dream, is astonishing the world by her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> buildings her sculptures, and
+her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by
+the explorations of Mr. Layard.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> "He has opened fourteen chambers and
+uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance
+previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty
+feet long and thirty broad&mdash;entirely built of slabs of marble covered
+with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the
+highest interest&mdash;battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &amp;c.; many of them in the
+finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary
+spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the
+Assyrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines
+of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans&mdash;such as
+the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &amp;c. Nothing
+can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords,
+daggers, bows, spears, &amp;c. In this great hall are several entrances,
+each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> These lead to other
+chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every
+chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or
+inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a
+great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand
+eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to
+light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be
+looked forward to with intense interest.</p>
+
+<p>All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by
+Asshur, (whence the name Assyria), and of the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> empire under
+Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political
+institutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly
+disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A
+learned author of the last century<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> has endeavored to throw distrust
+on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries,
+because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus
+and other prominent characters which fill important places in the
+Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the
+arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate
+in a remarkable degree the assertions of the Greek writers. The
+observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this
+subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and
+civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to
+have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can
+but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent
+revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such
+scanty documents have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a
+testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted
+with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger
+is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with
+severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a
+predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is
+repelled into the tomb of oblivion."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
+
+<p>A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was
+directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the
+Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical,
+and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont.
+The latest accounts from this intrepid tra<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>veller left him in the
+inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his
+intention to pass through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China
+on the north.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the same distant region we hear of the journeys of H.R.H. Prince
+Waldemar, of Prussia (cousin to the king). "Consulting only his ardor
+for science, and burthened with the usual load carried by a traveller on
+foot, he scaled the lofty Himmalayah, crossed the frontier of the
+Celestial Empire, and reached the table-land of Thibet."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> The prince
+has already transmitted a large collection of objects of natural
+history, many of which are new, to Berlin. It is his intention to return
+to Europe by way of Affghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The following list embraces the late works on Assyria and
+Persia, as well as those relating to the arrow-head
+inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>The Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions at Behistun, decyphered and
+translated; with a Memoir on Persian cuneiform inscriptions in
+general, and on that of Behistun in particular, by Major H.C.
+Rawlinson, 8vo., in the journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
+Vol. 10. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>On the Decyphering of the second Achæmenian or Median species
+of Arrow-headed Writing; by N.L. Westergaard, 8vo., in the
+Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord.
+Copenhagen, 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Lettres de M. Botta sur les Découvertes à Khorsabad, près de
+Ninive, publiées par M.J. Mohl, 8vo., with 56 plates. Paris,
+1845.</p>
+
+<p>Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapies et de la Phénicie, sous
+les rois Achæmenides, par H. de Luynes, 4to. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The Manual, Formation and early Origin of the Hebrew letters
+and points, demonstrated and explained; also an Elucidation of
+the so-called Arrow-headed or Cuneiform characters. 8vo.
+London, 1847.</p>
+
+<p>Essai de Déchiffrement de l'Écriture Assyrienne pour servir à
+l'explication du Monument de Khorsabad. Par J. Löwenstern. 8vo.
+Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Die Grabscrift des Darius zu Nakschi Rustum erläutert. Von F.
+Hitzig. Zurich, 8vo. 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Remarks on the Wedge Inscription recently discovered on the
+upper Euphrates by the Prussian engineer, Capt. Von Mülbach.
+Being a commentary on certain fundamental principles in the art
+of decyphering the "cuneatic" characters of the ancient
+Assyrians, by G.F. Grotefend. 8vo. In the papers of the
+Syro-Egyptian Society. Vol. I. London, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>Voyage en Perse. de MM. Eugene Flandin et P. Coste. Recueil
+d'Architecture ancienne, Bas reliefs, inscriptions cuneiformes
+et Pehlvis, plans topographiques et vues pittoresques. Folio.
+250 plates and text.</p>
+
+<p>This magnificent work, the result of an expedition sent out by
+order of the French government, under the directions of the
+Institute, and now published by a commission of savans,
+consisting of Messrs Burnouf, Le Bas, and Leclerc, is in the
+course of publication. It will unquestionably be the most
+complete work ever published on this interesting country and
+will include the antiquities of Babylon and Nineveh.</p>
+
+<p>G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der
+Persopolitanischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die
+Vollkommenheit der ersten Art-derselben. Hanover, 1837.</p>
+
+<p>G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der
+Babylonischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die
+Beschaffensheit des ältesten Schriftdruck. Hanover, 1840.</p>
+
+<p>The valuable Oriental Journal edited by Prof. Lassen, entitled
+"Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," contains many
+papers of great interest on these subjects.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Siberia.</span> To the love of science which the enlightened Emperor of Russia,
+has always manifested, we are indebted for an expedition, the most
+successful which has yet been undertaken for the exploration of the
+northern and eastern parts of Siberia. The results of this extensive
+exploration of a region not before examined by scientific men, are of
+the greatest interest to science, and have earned for its distinguished
+and undaunted leader, Prof. Von Middendorff, the applause of the savans
+of Europe. Not having seen any detailed account of this journey, I am
+indebted to Sir R. Murchison for some particulars of its results.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<p>The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west,
+and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of
+Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in
+obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next
+undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast
+continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and
+thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey
+through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to
+St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region
+never previously explored by a man of science."</p>
+
+<p>"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M.
+Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and
+perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild
+regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by
+<i>following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of
+underwood and birch trees</i>" In his return journey, he examined the
+frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and
+ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the
+Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and
+China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to
+either Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid
+traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were
+investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these
+respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen
+subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the
+shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below
+the surface, the cold is 2° 4" Réaumur, and that it is probable the
+frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet!
+Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of
+which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye
+succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions,
+and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M.
+Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation.
+He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow
+on the Yenisei to latitude 61° 40', indigenous plants, requiring less
+warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+stems reach to about 72° north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!"
+This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of
+vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to
+climatological and local conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the mammoths, the fossil bones of which have been found in
+Siberia, M. Middendorff has shown that, in accordance with the views of
+Professor Owen, (who states that these quadrupeds were specially
+organized to live on the branches and leaves of such shrubs and trees as
+grow in boreal latitudes) there are still trees in latitude 72° which
+would suffice for their sustenance.</p>
+
+<p>The Ethnology of this region has been elucidated by our traveller, who
+by investigating the languages and physical characteristics of these
+remote tribes, has been enabled to affiliate them with their parent
+stocks.</p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the geology and geography of the northern and
+southeastern extremities of Siberia have been greatly extended by this
+journey; in fact no enquiry for the advancement of science and a
+knowledge of this far distant and hitherto unknown region, seems to have
+been neglected.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another scientific expedition of an Ethnological character is employed
+in Siberia under the direction of M. Castren, who has devoted much of
+his first report to the geography of the country. After speaking of the
+river Irtisch and its fisheries, he gives some account of the Ostiaks,
+the most ancient people of its banks. Surrounded by Russians and
+Tartars, they have lost all their nationality except their language. The
+Tartar influence is feeble, but that of Russia is felt in their
+religion, their manners, their customs and even in their general mode of
+thinking.</p>
+
+<p>A paper containing "Ethnological Notes on Siberia," by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> Prof. Von
+Middendorff, was read at the late meeting of the British Association for
+the advancement of science. "In this paper, the geographical boundaries
+of the different tribes were set forth, the tribes were enumerated and
+some of the characteristic peculiarities described. The 1st, was the
+Ostiaks; these were stated to be of Finnish origin, on both
+physiological and philological evidence. 2d, the Samoiedes, who were of
+Mongol descent. 3rd, the Tunguses. 4th, the Yakuts; the extent to which
+Mongol features were found in a nation speaking a language akin to
+Turkish, was insisted on. 5th, the Yukagins; the physical peculiarities
+of which placed them along with the Samoiedes. 6th, the Ainos; these
+were the inhabitants of the Kinule islands at the mouth of the Arnus; of
+these there were two types, the Finnish and the Japanese. 7th, the
+Kachkell; these were only known through the Ainos."</p>
+
+<p>A geographical Society has lately been founded at St. Petersburg, to
+which the emperor proposed to give ten thousand silver rubles annually.
+The first great exploratory expedition under the directions and
+patronage of this Society will be directed along the eastern flank of
+the Ural mountains, from the parallel of 60° north (Bogoslafsk) to the
+Glacial sea. This survey is to be conducted by Count A. Von Keyserling,
+already known to the public through his valuable geological co-operation
+in the work on Russia, by Sir R.I. Murchison; and who by his sound
+acquirements in geology, zoology and geography, will it is presumed,
+during the ensuing three years, throw great additional light on the wild
+Arctic Ural which separates Europe from Asia, and which, inhabited by
+Ostiaks and Samoiedes, extends beyond the limits of arboreal vegetation.
+Among numerous other objects, it is hoped that this expedition will
+elicit new results concerning the entombment and preservation of the
+mammoths.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">India.</span> The obstacles which have existed in India, and which have
+retarded the extension of European civilization, will now be effectually
+removed by the noble step taken by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General,
+for promoting education in that country.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> This benevolent and
+excellent man, whose well earned laurels on the field of battle are not
+more honorable than his philanthropic efforts in extending education
+among the natives of India, and in improving their social condition,
+"has directed the Council of Education and other authorities charged
+with the duty of superintending public instruction throughout the
+provinces subject to the government of Bengal, to submit returns of the
+students who may be fitted according to their degrees of merit and
+capacity, for such of the various public offices, as with reference to
+their age, abilities and other circumstances, they may be deemed
+qualified to fill." As this order recognizes no distinction of schools,
+or castes, or religion, it will have a great influence on the people,
+towards inducing them to give their children the benefit of a good
+education, which to a great extent must be obtained through the
+Christian missionaries. "It is," says the Friend of India, "the most
+powerful impulse which the cause of education has received during the
+last twenty-five years. It makes the seminaries the nursery of the
+service, and the service the stimulant of the seminaries. It introduces
+the enlightened principles adopted by European governments, of
+recruiting the public service in every department from those who have
+earned distinctions in the public schools. At the same time it will be
+found instrumental in the highest degree in the general elevation of the
+country. It will transplant into the interior that European knowledge
+and science which has hitherto been confined to Calcutta, and diffuse
+their influence through every district."</p>
+
+<p>The renunciation of idolatry must necessarily follow the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> first steps in
+this great work of reform, and we already see it noticed that in
+southern India, within the short period of three months, eight hundred
+and thirty-two persons renounced idolatry and embraced Christianity.
+This large number was a part of the population of seven villages.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such changes are not without their effects on the great mass of the
+natives, indeed it is only by removing from their minds the gross
+superstition in which they have been for ages immersed, that there can
+be a hope of improving their social condition. The wealthy Hindoos cling
+to their ancient religion with greater tenacity as it totters towards
+its downfall, than when in its most flourishing state. Alarmed at the
+innovations which European civilization and Christianity have made, they
+are printing by subscription, a series of popular religious books in
+monthly numbers, on their doctrines, rites, superstitions and idolatry.
+Fearing that the Europeans and such as have been taught to observe these
+things with ridicule, might controvert them, they have confined the
+subscription to Hindoos, and have directed that their books shall be
+rigidly kept from the hands of Christians.</p>
+
+<p>The Mahommedans too, in Bengal, are greatly alarmed at the danger to
+which their religion is exposed. They have prepared tracts and books in
+opposition to Christianity, and have sent, or are sending emissaries in
+every direction, with a view to strengthen the tottering cause of their
+false prophet.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> A Mahommedan merchant in Bombay has printed at his
+own expense, two thousand copies of the Koran for gratuitous
+distribution, at a cost of several thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>In former times the efforts of the missionaries were directed to
+proselyting among the Hindoos and other idolaters of the East, without
+first making themselves acquainted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> with the fabric which they were
+laboring so earnestly to demolish. Nursed and educated as the natives
+were in the doctrines and superstitions which for ages their forefathers
+had venerated and professed, the efforts of the missionaries and of
+others who labored to improve their condition were unattended with
+success&mdash;and a conflict between Oriental and European
+civilization&mdash;between Hindooism and Christianity&mdash;between the false
+science of the shastres and the enlightenment of Europe, for a long time
+existed; and it seemed doubtful whether truth or falsehood would
+triumph. Now, the system is changed, and a course is pursued which bids
+fair to produce the most wonderful effects on the people of India and
+China.</p>
+
+<p>It has been asserted that the missionary enterprise in India was a
+failure, and did not warrant the large sums expended there. Those who
+are unfriendly to the cause do not see that more than half the amount
+there expended was for educating the people, for improving their social
+condition, for translating valuable books into their various languages
+and for establishing among them that mighty engine of civilization and
+reform, the printing press.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>But it is not merely in the translation and distribution of these books,
+that the missionaries have rendered so much service. In this labor it is
+true they have contributed greatly towards disseminating Christian truth
+and useful knowledge among a large class of people, and have improved
+their religious, their moral and their social condition. But to Europe
+and to the learned world they have also furnished a vast deal of
+philological knowledge, elucidating and developing languages scarcely
+known beyond the precincts of the several countries in which they were
+spoken. Many of these languages, too, were previously unwritten; and
+from this rude state the missionaries have trained and moulded them into
+forms adapted to written speech.</p>
+
+<p>While speaking of the labors of the missionaries in the East, I should
+do great injustice to Catholics not to speak of their efforts to improve
+the moral and religious condition of the people in these distant
+countries. In the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> barbarous and secluded portions of the earth do
+we find these devoted men diligently laboring to elevate the condition
+of the natives. In many do we see a zeal and devotedness, an endurance
+of hardships, of the most severe privations, and often martyrdom itself,
+which has never been surpassed in the annals of missionary enterprise.
+Neither François Xavier, nor Ignatius Loyola, so famous among the
+pioneers of the Eastern missions, ever exhibited a greater zeal or
+devotedness than we now witness among the Catholic missionaries in
+Thibet, China, Corea, the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and
+Oceanica. They too have added much to our stock of knowledge of the
+inhabitants, their manners and customs, and their languages. Their
+narratives give us particular accounts of the productions of the
+countries in which they reside, their trade, commerce, and all that
+interests us.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Siam.</span> An interesting fact connected with the progress of European
+civilization, and the extension of Christianity in the kingdom of Siam,
+seems deserving of notice in this place. It was communicated by the
+American Mission in that country.</p>
+
+<p>"The king of Siam despatched one of his ships to Ceylon about the close
+of last year, to carry back some Ceylonese Boodhists whom he had invited
+to Siam, two or three years before, and also to send a fresh
+ecclesiastical embassy to that island&mdash;regarded by all Boodhists as very
+sacred&mdash;to make further religious researches in the primitive nursery of
+their faith. That embassy fulfilled its mission, and returned to Siam in
+June, bringing a letter to his Majesty from a high priest of Boodh in
+Ceylon, written in English, and stating in substance, that the religion
+of Boodh had become almost extinct in Ceylon, chiefly through the
+influence of the Christian religion, and the schools and seminaries of
+the missionaries and English residents in that part of the world; and
+that, if some aid from abroad could not be obtained to prop up crumbling
+Boodhism in that island, it must soon become utterly ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>tinct. The
+writer expressed much pain at the thought, that the very birth place of
+his religion should not have some permanent witness of it; and requested
+that his Majesty, in his pious zeal for Boodhism, would send him funds,
+with which he might build a <i>Wat</i> (Religious house) and support priests
+in honor of his god. He suggested that this would be a noble work for a
+great king, and one that would confer upon him the highest honors of
+Boodhism."<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The following list embraces the recent works on India.</p>
+
+<p>Travels in the Kashmir and the Punjab; containing a particular
+account of the Sikhs. From the German of Baron Hugel, with
+notes by Major Jervis, royal 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The Punjaub; being a brief account of the country of the Sikhs,
+its extent, history, commerce, productions, religion, &amp;c., to
+the recent campaign of the Sutelege. By Lt. Col. Steinbach,
+post, 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>A Peep into Turkistan; by Capt. R. Burslem, 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Travels in the Punjab, Affghanistan and Turkistan, to Balk,
+Bokhara and Herat, by Mohan Lal, 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>History of the Punjab, and of the rise, progress and present
+condition of the Sikhs, 2 vols. post, 8vo. London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Sikhs, with a personal narrative of the war
+between the British and the Sikhs. By W.L. McGregor, 2 vols.
+8vo. London, 1847.</p>
+
+<p>The Sikhs and Affghans, immediately before and after the death
+of Runjeet Singh. By Shahamat Ali, post, 8vo. London, 1847.</p>
+
+<p>The Hindoo Castes; or history, manners and customs of the 42
+castes or sects of the Brahmins of British India, with highly
+colored plates: By E.A. Rodriguez, 24 numbers.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>COCHIN-CHINA, CHINA, MANCHURIA, COREA, AND JAPAN.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cochin-China.</span> M. Hedde has published a few notices of a visit to Turon
+in Annam in 1844, on his passage from Singapore to Macao.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> He
+represents the country as altogether in a wretched, declining condition,
+misgoverned and beggared by despotic officers, presenting a painful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+contrast in its general prosperity with the Chinese empire. The present
+monarch is named Thieufri (or Yuen-fuh-siuen in Chinese) and succeeded
+his father Ming-ming or Minh-menh in 1841, but no improvement in the
+domestic or foreign administration of the government has taken place.
+Several Cochin-Chinese youth have been educated at Singapore, and the
+king purchased two steamers several years ago from the Dutch, but the
+natives probably were too little acquainted with the machinery and
+motive power to make the least use of them, as nothing has since been
+heard of them. The country is highly favored by its natural advantages
+and navigable rivers for maintaining a large population, but oppression
+on the part of the rulers and ignorance among the people, vitiate the
+sources of national prosperity. The port of Turon alone, is open in
+Annam for foreign trade, but no American vessels have been there for a
+cargo since Lieut. White's unsuccessful voyage in the Franklin in 1804.
+Capt. Percival of the U.S. ship Constitution anchored there in May,
+1845, but no official account of his visit has been published, which if
+the rumors of his firing upon the town are true, is not strange. The
+Peacock and Enterprize also anchored there in 1836, but Mr. Roberts, the
+American diplomatic agent, was too ill to have any communications with
+the authorities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">China.</span> The late war between England and China has directed the attention
+of other nations towards that empire in an unusual degree. Except the
+immediate details of the contest and the personal incidents connected
+with it, however, the works of those officers who have written upon that
+war, have not contained so much information as was expected by some, but
+quite as much as could be collected under the circumstances. The war was
+almost wholly a maritime one, confined to attacks upon cities and forts
+upon the coast and rivers, by both the army and navy, and few or none of
+the officers were acquainted with the language of the people, so that
+little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> information could be obtained from those natives whom suspicion
+or terror did not drive away. The region around Ningpo, Chusan and the
+mouth of the Yangtsz kiang, has been described with more minuteness than
+any other part of the maritime provinces; and the careful survey of the
+coast from Amoy to Shanghai, with the Chusan and Pescadore archipelagoes
+by Captains Collinson, and Kellet and others, has left little to be done
+for the navigator's benefit, in making known the hydrography of this
+part of China. The general topography of China is, however, but little
+better known now than it was at the close of the general survey of the
+Jesuits in 1714, and their maps form the basis of the best extant.</p>
+
+<p>The embassy sent by the French government in 1844, under M. Th. de
+Lagrené, to form a commercial treaty with China, was furnished on a most
+liberal scale with everything necessary to make the greatest improvement
+of the opportunities offered to examine into the mechanical arts and
+productions of the land. Four gentlemen were attached to the
+ambassador's suite, to make inquiries into the various agricultural and
+mechanical arts of the Chinese, one of whom, M. Isidore Hedde, was
+especially designated to investigate everything relating to the growth
+and preparation of silk. In pursuance of this object, he visited the
+city of Tuchan fu, which lies a few miles northwest of Shanghai, and is
+the capital of the province of Kiangsu. This place is probably the
+second or third city in the empire, Canton or Hangchau fu being the only
+ones which can compete with it for wealth and beautiful manufactures. It
+lies in a highly cultivated region, and is connected with Peking and
+other large places, through the Grand canal and the Yangtsz kiang. M.
+Hedde went in a Chinese dress, and succeeded in visiting the principal
+buildings in the city, such as the provincial mint, the hall of
+examination, an establishment for the education of unhappy females
+destined for sale for the amusement of the opulent, and some
+manufactories.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> The suburbs of Suchau, as is the case with most Chinese
+cities, exceed that part within the walls, and here he found most of the
+craftsmen in iron, ivory, gold, silver, wood, bone, horn, glass, earth,
+paper, cotton and silk. His errand being chiefly to examine the silken
+fabrics, he noticed whatever was peculiar in spinning, dyeing and
+weaving, in the shops he entered. The Chinese have no such immense
+establishments as are found in this country, where large buildings
+accommodate an immense quantity of machinery and numerous workmen, but
+all their products are made by manual labor in small establishments. M.
+Hedde was struck with the immense population of the city and its
+environs, including a floating suburb of great extent, the whole
+comprising a population of not far from two millions. The Chinese census
+gives an average of over nine hundred souls to a square mile in the
+province of Kiangsu, and every opportunity which has been offered for
+examining it, has added new evidence to the truth of this statement,
+though closer investigation and further travel is necessary before we
+can give implicit reliance to the assertions made on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>Two English missionaries have lately gone long journeys into the
+interior, but as Protestants have no coadjutors among the people away
+from the ports, who would be willing to receive and conceal them; and as
+their system of operations aims rather to impart a true knowledge of
+Christianity than to make many converts to a form of worship, these
+excursions have not been frequently made. One of the two here referred
+to, was across the country from Ningpo to Canton, by the same route Lord
+Macartney came, and the other was up the Yangtsz kiang. Two American
+missionaries visited the large city of Changchau fu near Amoy in 1844,
+where they were received with civility though not with kindness.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Robert Fortune, sent out to China by the Horticultural Society, has
+lately returned to England, with new plants of great beauty, and a large
+collection of botanical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> and ornithological specimens, among which are
+doubtless many not heretofore described. Mr. Fortune visited all the
+ports, and made excursions in their neighborhoods, and his reception
+among the people was generally kind. The people in the cities of Ningpo
+and Shanghai, and their vicinities, compare favorably for their kindness
+and general courtesy, with the coarse mannered natives of Canton.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of this great empire to the commercial enterprise of western
+nations, has given rise to anticipations of an extensive trade, and the
+importation of cotton and woolen fabrics during the last few years has
+been increasing; and if it was not for the abominable traffic in opium,
+which is both impoverishing and destroying the Chinese, there would be
+every reason for believing the commerce with China would soon be one of
+the largest branches of trade. The principal articles in which it is
+most likely to increase are tea and silk, but there is a great
+assortment of other productions, which can be taken in exchange for the
+cloths, metals and wares of the west. Mr. Montgomery Martin for a short
+time colonial treasurer of Hongkong, has collected all the statistics
+bearing on this subject in his work, which will aid in forming an
+opinion on this point. Commercially, politically and religiously, the
+Chinese empire now presents a most interesting spectacle, and the
+experiment of regenerating it and introducing it into the family of
+nations, without completely disorganizing its present form of government
+and society, will constantly go on and attract still more and more the
+notice of Christendom. The probabilities at present are in favor of a
+successful issue, but it is impossible to contemplate the desolating
+effects of the use of opium, brought to the people in such quantities,
+without great apprehension as to the result. The lava like progress of
+the power of Great Britain in Asia, has just commenced on the borders of
+China, and when the country is drained of specie in payment for this
+drug, there is reason to fear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> that the native government will be unable
+to carry on its operations and maintain its authority.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Corea.</span> Since the extermination of the Catholic priests from Corea in
+1839, the most rigid measures have been adopted to exclude all
+foreigners; in fact, the determination on the part of the government of
+Corea to prevent all intercourse between its people and those of other
+countries seems to have been adopted from its neighbor of Japan. These
+measures are even extended to the Chinese, against whom a strong natural
+antipathy exists, growing out of the persecutions formerly inflicted on
+the Coreans by them. Accurate descriptions of Europeans are kept at the
+various posts on the frontier, and from their well known characteristics
+they are easily distinguished. The Coreans themselves on leaving their
+country for China for purposes of trade, receive a passport, which on
+returning must be given back or they are not permitted to enter. Many
+Christians still remain in Corea, and though they are subject to
+persecution, the minds of the people are well disposed towards the
+Christian religion. The literary class hold it in the highest
+estimation, and seem only to be waiting for the moment when they will be
+free to declare in its favor.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>Farther accounts from this country have lately appeared in the Annals of
+the Propaganda Society,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> in a letter from Keemay Kim a native of
+Corea, and a Christian, who had just completed his studies at Macao in
+China. He was sent on a mission to the Christians in Corea, but owing to
+the vigilance observed on the frontiers of that country, was unable to
+enter it. Determined to persevere in the attempt, he posted on to
+Hoong-tchoong, a small frontier town near the mouth of a river which
+separates Corea from Manchuria, where he waited until the period arrived
+when the great fair was to take place at Kee-eu-Wen, the nearest town in
+Corea, four leagues distant.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> "They supply the Coreans with dogs, cats,
+pipes, leather, stag's horns, copper, horses, mules and asses; and
+receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice, corn, swine,
+paper, mats, oxen, furs and small horses." A few officers are permitted
+to trade every year, but they are closely guarded. All others who pass
+the frontier are made slaves or massacred at once. Our traveller here
+met a few Corean Christians in the immense crowd which had come to
+traffic, and whom he recognised by a badge previously agreed upon; but
+so great was the confusion and hurry on the occasion, added to the fear
+of being recognized, that the interview does not seem to have been
+productive of good, or increased our information of the people or
+country. Since the great persecution a few years since, the church had
+been at rest; and though a few converts had been made, the faithful had
+retired to the southern provinces for better security. They still
+entertained the idea of introducing a European missionary through the
+north, though with the knowledge that if discovered by the authorities,
+instant death would follow. Such is the zeal and perseverance with which
+these men pursue their philanthropic and Christian labors.</p>
+
+<p>The fair to which allusion has been made, is thus described by our
+Corean. The traders cannot begin their operations until a signal is
+given, by hoisting a flag and beating the gong, "when the immense and
+densely packed crowd rush to the market place; Coreans, Chinese, and
+Manchus, are all mingled together. Each speaks in his own tongue, and so
+great is the uproar produced by this mass of people, that the echoes of
+the neighboring mountains repeat their discordant shouts."</p>
+
+<p>"Four or five hours is the whole time allowed for buying and selling;
+consequently, the tumult which takes place, the quarrels which arise,
+the blows which are exchanged, and the plundering which goes on, give
+the place more the look of a city taken by storm and given up to
+pillage, than that of a fair." At evening, when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> signal is given,
+the strangers are driven out by the soldiers with the points of their
+lances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Manchuria.</span> The vast regions of Manchuria, lying north of Corea to the
+Hing-an or Yablonoi mountains, and east of the Sialkoi to the ocean, are
+inhabited by various tribes speaking different dialects and subsisting
+principally by hunting and fishing. The Manchus are now the dominant
+race, but some of the tribes near the sea and in Taraka island, bear no
+tributary relations to them, if indeed they are much acquainted. Since
+the conquest of China, the Manchus have gone on steadily improving this
+part of their possessions by stationing agricultural troops at the
+principal ports of observation, and collecting the hunters around these
+points as much as possible. Criminals are also constantly banished
+there, who carry with them their arts, and by their industry both
+maintain themselves and set an example to the nomads. The southern part
+called Shingking, has become well cultivated in many parts, and
+considerable trade is carried on at Kinchau with other parts of China.</p>
+
+<p>Manchuria produces pulse, maize, (Indian corn), millet, barley and
+buckwheat; pulse, drugs and cattle, form the leading articles of trade.
+The climate of this country is so inhospitable, as to prove a serious
+obstacle in the way of its settlement and cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>The Manchus have no national literature; all the books written in their
+language are translations of Chinese works, made under the
+superintendence of the Academies at Moukden and Peking. Their written
+characters are derived from the Mongols, but have undergone many
+changes. The emperors have taken great pains to elevate their countrymen
+by providing them with the best books in Chinese literature, and
+compelling them to go through the same examinations before they can
+attain any office; but the numerical superiority of the Chinese and
+their active habits, give them so much the advantage, that except in
+their own country, the Manchus find it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> difficult to preserve their
+native tongue to the second generation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mongolia.</span> The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda Society
+contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia, by the
+Rev. Mr. Huc.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> This vast country, covering a million of square
+miles, consists of barren deserts and boundless steppes. In the limits
+allotted each corps, there is seldom more than one town, where the chief
+resides. The people live in tents, without any permanent residence. They
+move from place to place, with the changes of the seasons, or when their
+immense herds of oxen, camels and horses have exhausted the grass around
+their encampment. To-day presents an animated scene of hundreds of
+tents, filled with an active population; the children playing as happy
+and contented as though surrounded with every luxury a civilized life
+affords; the women cooking their food and drawing water from a well just
+dug; and the men, mounted on horseback, are galloping over the plain,
+keeping their countless herds from straying away. To-morrow, this
+picturesque and animated scene will be changed to a dreary and
+forbidding desert. Men, flocks, and tents have vanished, and nought
+remains to mark the visit of this wandering race, but the curling smoke
+of their unquenched fires, or the birds of prey hovering over the
+carcase of some dying camel, or feeding on the remains of their late
+repast. The Mongols are irreclaimable nomads, though some tribes of
+them, as the Tsakhars, Ortous, and Solous, cultivate the soil. The four
+khanates of the Kalkas are called Outer Mongolia, and comprise within
+their borders, several well built towns, though none of any size,
+compared with the cities in China. Few Chinese have settled among the
+Mongols, except near the Great Wall, nor will they allow them to do so,
+as there is a deep antipathy between the two races. The Mongols of the
+present day have proba<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>bly made no advances in civilization over their
+ancestors in the days of Genghis and Kublai.</p>
+
+<p>The approaches of the British power up the valley of the Sutlej, into
+the regions lying along the base of the western Himalayas, are such that
+they will ere long come in contact with Tibet through Ladak, and with
+Yarkand through Badakshan. But there is probably more geographical than
+ethnological information to be gained by traversing these elevated
+regions, where stupendous mountains and arid deserts offer nothing to
+tempt man from the fertile plains of India and China. Two Romish
+missionaries have lately arrived in Canton from H'lassa in Tibet, by the
+overland route through Patang in Sz'chuen to the capital of Kwangsi, and
+thence to Canton. This route has never been described by any traveller.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lewchew Islands.</span> This group of islands, including the Madjico sima,
+lying between it and Formosa, form a dependency of the principality of
+Satzuma, in the southwest of Japan, though the rulers are allowed a
+limited intercourse with China through Fuhchau fu. During the late war
+between England and China, the transport Indian Oak was lost on
+Lewchew,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> August 14, 1840, and the crew were treated with great
+kindness, and provided with a vessel, in which they returned to Chusan.
+Every effort was made by the authorities to prevent the officers and men
+from examining the island, but their kindness to the unfortunate people
+thus cast on their shores, made such an impression, that a mission to
+the islanders was determined upon in London, by some naval gentlemen
+connected with the expedition, and a society formed. The Rev. B.J.
+Bettelheim was appointed to the post, and had reached Canton in March,
+1846. He afterwards proceeded on his voyage, and his journal received at
+Hongkong, from Napa, contains a few details of interest, but shows
+plainly that the authorities are decided in refusing to allow foreigners
+to settle in their territories.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>An attempt has been made by the Romish missionaries to establish a
+mission in this group.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The Rev. W. Forcade and an associate were
+left on Lewchew in May, 1844, and after a residence of fifteen months
+were able to transmit some notices of their treatment to the directors,
+through Sir Edward Belcher, R.N. who stopped at Napa in August, 1845.
+On their arrival, M. Forcade and his companion were conducted to their
+dwelling, where they were surrounded by a numerous guard under the
+control of officers, and attended by domestics, as they were told, "to
+charm their leisure moments." Their table was bountifully supplied, and
+everything they could ask to make them comfortable was granted them,
+except their liberty. Whenever they went abroad, they were accompanied
+by a guard, but allowed to hold no intercourse with the natives; they
+had not been able to proceed beyond twelve miles into the interior, but
+as far as they had opportunities of conversing with the natives, found
+them simple and courteous in their manners, and disposed to talk when
+not under surveillance. It is probable, however, that under such
+restraint as these gentlemen were placed, it is not likely that they had
+attained to such fluency in the language as to be able to hold very
+ready communication with natives met in this hasty manner. The
+intentions of the government were plain, however, not to allow them to
+disseminate their doctrines, (if it had learned their real object), nor,
+by intercourse with the people, become acquainted with their character,
+or the state of the country. No assistance was granted them in learning
+the language, and they were forbidden to adopt the native costume.
+Notwithstanding this opposition, they had been able to acquire a partial
+knowledge of the language, and to compile a vocabulary of six thousand
+words. Permission to preach the Christian religion was not granted them,
+lest, as the authorities said, the Chinese, to whom they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> tributary,
+would break off all intercourse; but the real reason was doubtless their
+fear of the Japanese. Yet these obstacles did not dishearten them, and
+they seem determined to persevere in their attempts, though it is not
+unlikely that when Mr. Bettelheim arrives, the authorities will take
+measures for deporting them all.</p>
+
+<p>The Lewchewans are intimately connected with the Japanese. The language
+is the same, with unimportant dialectical variations, and Chinese
+letters and literature are in like manner cultivated by both. In
+personal appearance, however, the two people are very unlike. The
+Lewchewans are not on an average over five feet four inches high,
+slightly built, and approach the Malayan cast of features more than the
+Chinese. They are darker than the Chinese, and their mild traits of
+character, unwarlike habits, and general personal appearance, suggests
+the idea that they are akin to the aborigines of Formosa and Luçonia by
+descent, while their proximity and subjugation to their powerful
+neighbors on the north and west, have taught them a higher civilization,
+and introduced arts and sciences unknown to their early conquerors. When
+Lewchew was subjugated by the Japanese, it was agreed that embassies
+with tribute might be sent to Peking, and according to the Chinese
+account, they come to that court twice in three years.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> The
+secretary or deputy embassador in 1841, was drowned in his passage from
+Peking to Fuhchau. This embassy is a source of considerable profit to
+the Lewchewans, for their junks, which are built on the Chinese model,
+have free entrance to Fuhchau, and all the goods they import and export,
+are passed without duty. The travelling expenses of the embassy to and
+from the capital are also defrayed, and permission is given them to
+study Chinese when in the country. This intercourse is therefore both
+honorable and profitable to the Lewchewans, but the Chinese are not
+allowed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> trade there, and the only act of sovereignty the emperor
+exercises, according to M. Forcade, is to send a delegate to sanction
+the accession of a new incumbent of the throne&mdash;whom, however, it would
+be ridiculous for him to refuse. He adds, "In conversation, if one is a
+stranger, the Lewchewans will be continually dwelling on China, they
+will boast about it, they will relate its history, they will describe
+its provinces and its cities; but Japan is never mentioned! Such are the
+words, but the facts are quite another thing."</p>
+
+<p>The real character of the connection between Lewchew and Japan is not
+well ascertained. No Japanese officers are seen on landing, and the
+officers appointed to attend the people of the Indian Oak, exhibited the
+greatest alarm when a few were seen at a distance, while the party were
+taking a walk. The trade between the two countries is confined to the
+ports of Napa and Kagosima, between which the vessels of both nations
+pass; the junks from other parts of Japan are not permitted to resort to
+Napa, but it is not probable that the prince of Satzuma has the right of
+appointing the residents, or whatever authorities are sent thither. M.
+Forcade says there were from ten to fifteen Japanese vessels in the
+port, but when the American ship Morrison was there, in 1837, there were
+only five. Lackered-ware, grass cloth, sugar, and earthen-ware, are
+exported to Kagosima, and a great assortment of metallic articles,
+cloths, provisions, and stationery taken in exchange. The country in the
+vicinity of Napa, and towards Shudi, the capital, is highly cultivated,
+and the people appear to be as well clothed, and possess as many of the
+comforts and elegancies of life as their neighbors. They still retain
+enough of their own customs, however, to distinguish them from the
+Japanese, even if their physical appearance did not point them out as
+distinct. M. Forcade says that there is reason for supposing
+Christianity to have been implanted in Lewchew at the same time it was
+introduced into Japan, but Lew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>chew at that time seems to have been much
+less dependant upon Japan than subsequently; and it is not probable that
+much was done to proselyte its inhabitants. He mentions that a cross is
+cut on the end of the rampart where foreigners land, who are thus
+obliged to trample on this symbol; but no other visitors mention any
+such sculpture or custom. The landing place at Napa is a long stone
+jetty, stretching across the beach, which at low tide, prevents boats
+approaching the shore.</p>
+
+
+<h3>JAPAN.</h3>
+
+<p>This country has recently attracted increased attention on the part of
+commercial nations, and several foreign ships have lately appeared on
+the coasts, whose reception has only shown the vigilance of the
+authorities in taking every precaution neither to offend nor receive
+their unwelcome visitors. The Dutch and Chinese are still the only
+nations allowed to trade with the Japanese, and the news brought by the
+latter people of the troubles they have lately gone through with their
+foreign customers, has probably only more strongly convinced the siogoun
+and his ministers of the propriety of their seclusive policy. Nor is
+there much reason to doubt that the Chinese and Japanese have avoided
+the fate of the natives of Luçonia, Java, and India, by shutting out
+foreigners from free access and intercourse with their people, and owing
+to their seclusion, have remained independent to this day. The works of
+Siebold upon the natural history and political condition of the country
+and its inhabitants, are now slowly publishing in Paris, but with such
+luxury of execution as to place them beyond the reach of most persons
+who might be desirous to examine them. The visits of two American ships
+to the bay of Yedo, has directed the public eye again to the empire. The
+first was that of the whaler Manhattan, Captain Cooper, who was led to
+think<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> of going into the port by having taken eleven shipwrecked men off
+a small island near the Bonin islands, in April, 1845, lying southeast
+of Nippon. As he was going north, he fell in with a water-logged junk
+from Nambu, laden with rice and fish, from which he received eleven
+more, and soon after made the eastern coast in the principality of
+Simosa. Here he landed two men, and proceeding towards Cape King, landed
+two more, who made their way to Yedo. Owing to north winds, he was blown
+off the coast twice, and when he approached the estuary leading to the
+capital, he was taken in tow and carried up to the anchorage.
+Interpreters came off to the vessel, who could speak English
+sufficiently well to carry on an imperfect communication, who informed
+Captain Cooper that his wants would be supplied, but none of his company
+allowed to land. A triple cordon of boats was placed around the ship,
+consisting of upwards of a thousand small boats, displaying numerous
+flags, and containing as many armed men as if the country was in danger
+of attack. The ship was visited by crowds of natives of all ranks, who
+behaved with great decorum while gratifying their curiosity, but no
+trade was allowed. Many officers of high rank came on board and examined
+the ship, and took an inventory of every article belonging to the
+rescued seamen, before they were allowed to land. The ship was
+gratuitously supplied with provisions and a few spars, to the value of
+about $500, but the captain was again and again enjoined not to return
+there on any account. When he inquired what he should do if he again
+came across the siogoun's subjects in like distress, and exposed to a
+cruel death, he was told, "leave them to their fate, or take them where
+the Dutch can get them." The men rescued from starvation and death,
+were, however, deeply sensible of the kindness which had been shown
+them. After a stay of eight or ten days, Captain Cooper was towed out of
+the port, and down the bay to the coast, and the last injunction was
+only a repetition of the first order,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> not to come again. This
+reception, though it presents no encouragement to hope for a relaxation
+of the policy, deemed by the siogoun at once his safety and his profit,
+is less likely to call for summary chastisement than the rude repulse
+the American ship Morrison received in 1837, when she entered the bay of
+Yedo on the same errand, and was driven away by cannon balls and armed
+gunboats.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Cooper represents the country in this portion of it as clothed
+with verdure, and under a high state of cultivation. The proximity of
+the mountains in Idzu, produces constant showers, which covers the
+highest peaks with forests and shrubbery. Terrace cultivation is
+extensively practiced, and constant labor is demanded to supply
+subsistence to the dense population, who still at times suffer severely
+for want of food. The capital could not well be seen from the ship, and
+its enceinte was so filled with trees, that its dimensions could not
+accurately be defined. No towers or pagodas were seen elevating
+themselves above the dull monotony of the buildings. The harbor was
+covered with vessels, at anchor and moving about; some of them unwieldy,
+open-stern junks, designed for the coast trade, others light skiffs and
+boats, used for communicating with vessels in the harbor and the shore.
+The greatest part of the coasting trade centres at Yedo, owing to the
+large amount of taxes paid the siogoun in kind, and the supplies the
+princes receive from their possessions while they reside in the capital,
+both of which causes operate to develope the maritime skill of the
+people, and increase the amount of tonnage. The shortsighted policy
+which confines the energies and capital of a seagoing people like the
+Japanese, within their own shores is, however, less a matter of wonder
+than the despotic power which could compel them to stay at home two
+centuries ago, at a time when their merchants and agents were found from
+Acapulco to Bangkok.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese empire presents the greatest feudal gov<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>ernment now
+existing, and on that account is peculiarly interesting to the student
+of political science. In some respects, the people are superior to the
+Chinese, but are inferior in the elements of national wealth and
+progress. They belong to the Mongolian race, but are darker than the
+Chinese, and not as tall, though superior in stature to the Lewchewans.
+They approximate to the Kamtschatdales in their square build, short
+necks, large heads, and short lower limbs. They are of a light olive
+complexion, but seldom exhibit a florid, ruddy countenance.</p>
+
+<p>Among the articles obtained from the junk by Captain Cooper, was a map
+of Japan, including part of Yesso. It is four feet square, drawn on the
+proportion of less than one degree to two inches, and contains the names
+of all the places there is room for. It is cut on wood, and painted to
+show the outlines of the chief principalities; the relative importance
+of the places is shown by writing their names in different shaped
+cartouches, but from the space occupied by the Chinese characters, there
+is probably not one-tenth of all the towns inserted. The distances
+between the principal points along the coast are stated, and on some of
+the leading thoroughfares inland. The map is evidently the original of
+Krusenstern's "Carte de Nippon," published by the Russian Board of
+Longitude, and is drawn up from trigonometrical surveys. The degrees of
+latitude bear the same numbers as upon European maps; the meridians are
+reckoned from Yedo. The existence of such maps among the people
+indicates that a good knowledge of their own country is far more
+extensively diffused than among the Chinese, whose common maps are a
+standing reproach to them, while they have others so much more accurate.
+The coast from Cape King northward to Simosa, for the space of two
+degrees, was found by captain Cooper to be better delineated upon this
+map than upon his own charts. These seas present a fine field for
+hydrographic surveys, and it would greatly advance the security of
+navigation on the eastern shores of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> Asia, and redound to the honor of
+our own land, if the American government would despatch two small
+vessels to survey the seas and shores between Luçonia and Kamtschatka.</p>
+
+<p>The visit of Commodore Biddle to the bay of Yedo, has added nothing to
+our knowledge of its shores. His polite dismissal, and the refusal of
+the government to entertain any commercial relations with the Americans,
+only add force to the injunction to captain Cooper the year before, not
+to return, and shows more strongly that while the Japanese rulers are
+determined to maintain their secluded policy, they wish to give no cause
+for retaliatory measures on the part of their unwelcome visitors, and
+mean to keep themselves as well informed as they can upon foreign
+politics. The subject of foreign intercourse between the two great
+nations of Eastern Asia and Europeans since it commenced three centuries
+since, is an instructive one; and the general impression left upon the
+mind of the candid reader, is that foreign nations have themselves
+chiefly to thank for their present seclusion from those shores, and the
+restrictions in their commerce. Rear-Admiral Cecille has also paid a
+visit to some part of Japan, quite recently, but met with no success in
+his endeavors to enter into negotiation.</p>
+
+<p>The great object in view in making these attempts to improve the
+intercourse with Japan, is to find new markets for western manufactures.
+It is quite doubtful, however, whether the Japanese have many articles
+suitable for foreign markets. Their lackered-ware is exceedingly
+beautiful, but it would not be so prized when it became more common.
+Copper and tea would form the basis of exports, and perhaps some silk
+fabrics, but China furnishes now all that is wanted of them both, and
+can do so to any extent. Until a taste for such foreign manufactures, as
+woolens, cutlery, glass-ware, calicoes, &amp;c., is created among them, and
+they are willing to adapt their own products to the tastes of their
+customers, it does not seem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> likely that a trade at all proportioned to
+the estimated population and riches of the country, would soon be
+established. The Japanese are afraid of the probable results of a more
+extended intercourse, and deem it to be the safest course to run no
+risks; and if they read the pages of their early intercourse with the
+Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch, they must feel they would run many
+serious risks by granting a trade. If the siogoun and his advisers could
+be rightly informed, however, there are grounds for believing the
+present policy would be considerably relaxed.</p>
+
+<p>Learning is highly honored in Japan, and books are as cheap and common
+as in China. The written language is a singular and most difficult
+mixture of Chinese characters, with the syllabic symbols adopted by the
+Japanese, rendering its perusal a great labor, more so than that of
+Chinese, because Chinese must first be mastered. The spoken language is
+polysyllabic and harmonious, and possesses conjugations, tenses, cases,
+&amp;c., to facilitate its perspicuity, and increase its variety of
+expressions. The arts in which they chiefly excel are in the manufacture
+of silken and linen goods, copper-ware, lackered-ware, porcelain and
+basket work. Their cutlery is despicable, and the specimens of their
+carving, which are seen abroad, do not equal those produced by the
+Chinese. Agriculture is pursued on much the same system as in
+China&mdash;minute subdivision of the soil and constant manuring, together
+with frequent watering. Rice and fish are the staples of food;
+vegetables are used in great abundance, but meats only sparingly. The
+habits and sports of the people are influenced so much by the peculiar
+notions attending a feudal society, such as adherence to the local
+prince, and maintenance of his honor, wearing coats of arms, privileged
+orders, and hereditary titles, that there is little similarity in the
+state of society in Japan and China, notwithstanding a similar religion
+and literature. The Japanese were called the Spaniards of the East by
+Xavier,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> and the comparison is good at this day. They have, perhaps,
+more genius and imagination than the Chinese, but are not as peaceable
+or industrious.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">General view of the languages of the Japanese, Coreans, Chinese and
+Cochinchinese.</span> The four nations here briefly noticed; viz., the
+Japanese, Coreans, Chinese and Cochinchinese, have been collectively
+called the <i>Chinese language nations</i>, from the peculiar relations and
+connections they have had through the medium of that language. The
+relation has throughout been one of a literary character, fostered to
+some extent by religious prejudices, but depending chiefly for its
+permanence and extension upon the superiority of the writings of the
+Chinese. It is, in some respects, without a parallel in the history of
+man. While European languages have all been indebted for many of their
+words to the two leading ancient tongues of that continent, their bases
+have been diverse, and the words they have imported from Greek and Latin
+have undergone various changes, so much so as sometimes hardly to be
+recognized. This is not the case with these four nations of eastern
+Asia. They have all adopted the characters used by the leading nation
+without alteration, and with them, of course, have to a very great
+degree, taken her authors, her books, her knowledge and her opinions, as
+their own.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most observable features of the national character of the
+Chinese, is its conservative inclinations. Not only is it seen in the
+actions of government and in the writings of scholars, but still more in
+the habits of the people and their modes of thinking. It has been
+cherished by that government, as it is by all governments, as a sure and
+safe principle of preservation, but it is also advocated by the people.
+The geographical position of China has isolated it from all western
+nations, while the political, literary and social superiority of its
+people over the contiguous nations, has combined to foster their conceit
+and affectation of supremacy, and make them disinclined to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> have any
+intimate or equal relations with others. But one of the strongest and
+most comprehensive of these conservative influences has arisen from the
+nature of the language, strengthened by the extent to which education
+has been diffused among the people. The language is of such a character,
+combining mystery and difficulty with elegance and ingenuity, as greatly
+to captivate a people who have time and inclination to trace out the
+marks and veins on the pavement in the temple of science, but not the
+invention or investigation to seek out and explore its hidden chambers.
+The character of this language and the nature of the connection between
+the nations who use it, may here be briefly exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese ascribe the invention of their characters to Tsang Kieh, one
+of the principal ministers or scholars in the reign of Hwangti, about
+2650 years before Christ; and although there is no very certain
+information recorded respecting their origin, there is nothing which
+seems to be fabulous or supernatural. The characters first depicted were
+the common objects in nature and art, as the sun, rain, man, parts of
+the body, animals, a house, &amp;c., and were probably drawn sufficiently
+accurate to be detected without much if any explanation. They were all
+described in outline, and generally with far less completeness than the
+Egyptian symbols. It is not known how many of the primitive characters
+were made, but one feature attached to them all,&mdash;none of them contained
+any clue to the sound. The inventors must necessarily, one would
+suppose, have soon perceived this radical defect in their symbols, but
+they either saw the incompatibility of uniting the phonetic and
+pictorial modes, or else were so pleased with their varied pictures and
+symbols, that they cared very little how the reader acquired the sounds.
+At first, too perhaps, the number of persons who spoke this language was
+so small, that there was little difficulty in making them all acquainted
+with the meaning of the symbols, and when once their meaning was
+learned, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> were of course called by the name of the thing
+represented, which everybody knew. The necessity of incorporating some
+clue to the sound of the thing, or idea denoted, became more and more
+evident, however, as the variety of the symbols multiplied, and the
+number of people increased. One of the strongest evidences, that the
+designing of these symbols was contemporary with the earliest days of
+the Chinese as a people, is deduced from the fact that they are all
+monosyllabic; the radical words in all languages are mostly of this
+character, but in nearly all others, the single sounds soon coalesce and
+combine, while in Chinese this has been prevented by the nature of the
+written language. There is not, so far as the nature of the case goes,
+any reason why the sounds of Chinese characters should all be
+monosyllabic, any more than the Arabic numerals. But not only was the
+increase of inhabitants, as we suppose, a reason for making the symbols
+phonetic, the need of reducing the labor of learning the ever growing
+list, and the difficulty of distinguishing between species of the same
+genus and things of the same sort, was a still stronger motive. This was
+done by the combination of a leading type with some other well
+understood character, chosen quite arbitrarily, but possessing the <i>same
+sound</i> as the new object to be represented. Thus, supposing a new fish
+called <i>pih</i> was to be represented by a character; by taking the symbol
+for <i>fish</i> and joining it to any well known character pronounced <i>pih</i>,
+no matter what was its meaning, the compound symbol clearly expressed,
+to those who understood its elementary parts, the <i>fish pih</i>. But
+neither does this compound contain any more clue to its sound to those
+unacquainted with the component elements, than its marks and hooks do of
+its meaning to those who have never learned them. When once the form and
+meaning of the primitive symbols have been learned, however, the meaning
+and sounds of the compound ones can, in many cases, be inferred to a
+greater or less degree; but so varied has been the prin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>ciple of
+combination, that no dependence can be placed upon such etymologies for
+the meaning. In the various mutations the written language has
+undergone, the sound is not now so certain as it was probably at first;
+but in the majority of characters, it can be inferred with a
+considerable degree of certainty, though the idea is exhibited so
+indefinitely as to afford almost no assistance in guessing at it. A
+dictionary is indispensable in ascertaining the meaning, and almost as
+necessary to learn the sound of all Chinese characters. The meaning can
+be explained without any greater trouble than in other languages, but
+the sounds of characters can only be given by quoting other characters
+of the same sound, which the scholar is supposed to know, if he knows
+enough to use the dictionary.</p>
+
+<p>These remarks will, perhaps, explain the general composition of Chinese
+characters. By far the greater part of them are now formed, either of
+the original pictorial symbols, greatly modified, indeed, and changed
+from their likeness to the things they stand for, or of those joined to
+each other in a compound character, partly symbolical and partly
+phonetic. The former part is called the <i>radical</i>, the latter the
+<i>primitive</i>. The Chinese divide the characters into six classes, viz.,
+imitative symbols, or those original figures which bore a resemblance to
+the forms of material objects; indicative symbols, where the position of
+the two parts point out the idea; symbols combining ideas, a class not
+very unlike the preceding, but more complex; inverted symbols;
+metaphoric symbols, as that of the natural heart, denoting the
+affections; and lastly, phonetic symbols. Out of twenty-four thousand
+two hundred and thirty-five characters, (nearly all the different ones
+there are in the language), twenty-one thousand eight hundred and ten of
+them are phonetic, or as much so as the nature of their composition
+would allow, though there is no other clue to the sound than to learn
+the sound of the parts or of the whole, either from the people
+them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>selves or from a dictionary. The Chinese tyro learns the sounds of
+most of the characters, as boys do the names of minerals, by tradition.
+As he stands before his master, he and the whole class hear from his
+mouth their names, and repeat them until they are remembered.
+Consequently, almost an infinite variety in the sounds of the characters
+arise from this mode of learning them, while the meanings remain fixed;
+though there still remains enough resemblance in the sounds to show
+their common origin, as, <i>bien</i>, <i>meen</i>, <i>mien</i>, and <i>mee<sup>ng</sup></i>, all
+meaning <i>the face</i>, and written with the same character. The local
+differences in pronunciation are so great within a few hundred miles, in
+some parts of China, that the people barely understand each other when
+they speak; and even in two towns fifty miles apart, the local patois
+can be detected, though the dissimilarity is not so great as to prevent
+their inhabitants conversing together. For purposes of intercourse among
+civilians, who being from distant parts of the empire, might otherwise
+find considerable difficulty in making themselves understood if each
+spoke his own local patois, there is a court dialect which not only
+civilians, but all educated men are obliged or expected to understand.
+This is the common pronunciation over the northeastern provinces of
+Chihli, Shantung, Nganhwui, and Kiangsu, and somewhat in the contiguous
+provinces also, though everywhere in these regions with some slight
+local variations. This dialect is called <i>kwan hwa</i>, and has been
+usually termed the <i>mandarin<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> dialect</i>, but it is properly the
+Chinese spoken language, and the variations from it are the dialects and
+patois. It is evident, how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>ever, that one sound of a character is no
+more correct than another; for there being no sound in any character,
+each one calls it as he has been taught, while all give it the same
+meaning, exactly as Europeans do with the numerals. Of course, no one
+can read or write Chinese before he has studied it, and the apparent
+singularity of people from China, Japan, and Annam all being able to
+communicate by writing but not converse by speech, is easily explained
+by the different sounds they give the characters. It is, however, really
+no more singular than that scholars in all Christian nations understand
+each others' music and arithmetic, after they have learned those
+sciences and the mode of notation.</p>
+
+<p>The diversity of pronunciations tends naturally to break up the nation
+into small communities, and the Chinese owe their present homogeneity
+and grandeur in no small degree to their written language; for, however,
+a man may differ in his speech, he is sure that he will be everywhere
+understood when he writes, and will understand every one who writes to
+him. It has also been a bond of union from its extensive literature, at
+once the pride of its own scholars, and the admiration of surrounding
+nations. It is perhaps owing to the fact that the literature of China
+contains the canons of the Budhist religion and the ethics of Confucius,
+that it was adopted by the Japanese, Coreans and Annamese. These nations
+have taken the characters of the Chinese language, and given them such
+names as pleased them. In Japan and Corea, there has been no uniform
+rule of adoption, but the Annamese, who formerly had more intimate
+connexions with China than at present, approach much nearer to the
+sounds spoken by the Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of the relations between these three nations and China,
+therefore, somewhat resembles that which European nations, we may
+suppose, now would have towards ancient Greece and Rome, if they still
+existed as independent powers, and should be visited by scholars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> from
+the shores of the Baltic, whose native countries, however, had risen no
+higher in civilization and morals than their source. The comparison is
+not complete in all respects, but near enough for analogy. The Japanese
+have never paid tribute to China, but have been invaded by her armies,
+and in their turn have ravaged the eastern coasts of the continent. The
+isolated policy their rulers have adopted, has prevented our tracing
+those philological comparisons between their original language and those
+of Siberia or central Asia, which would elucidate its origin. The
+Japanese up to the time of the sixteenth daïri, named Ouzin Tenwo, had
+no written character, all the orders of government being proclaimed viva
+voce. In the year B.C. 284, this monarch sent an embassy to the
+southern part of Corea, to obtain learned persons who could introduce
+the civilization and literature of China into his dominions, and
+obtained Wonin, who fulfilled the royal wishes so satisfactorily, that
+the Japanese have since accorded him divine honors. Since his day, the
+Chinese characters have been employed among the Japanese. However, as
+the construction of the Japanese language differs materially from that
+of the Chinese, and as the same Chinese character has many meanings,
+which would be expressed by different words in the native Japanese,
+confusion and difficulty arose in the use of the symbolic characters.
+But it was not until the eighth century, that a remedy was provided by
+the invention of a syllabary, a middle contrivance, partaking chiefly of
+the nature of an alphabet but containing some traces of hieroglyphics.
+The characters of this syllabary were formed by taking Chinese
+characters, either in whole or in part, and using them phonetically, but
+as indivisible syllables. Consequently, every one of them contained a
+vowel sound, rendering the language very euphonous. The characters in
+this syllabary were called <i>katakana</i>, i. e. "parts of letters." There
+were at first forty-seven, but another was added<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> some years after in
+order to express the final <i>n</i>, as <i>ma-mo-ra-n</i>, instead of
+<i>ma-mo-ra-nu</i>, making forty-eight, the present number. This syllabary
+and that invented for the Cherokees by Guess, are the only two in the
+world. The number of sounds has been increased from forty-eight to
+seventy-three, by the addition of diacritical marks to some of the
+syllables. This syllabary enabled the Japanese to express the sounds of
+their vernacular without difficulty. But the long use of the Chinese had
+already introduced a great number of sounds from that language into it,
+besides giving the people a liking for the elegant and ingenious
+combinations of that unwieldy medium of thought, so that the scholars in
+the country still cultivated the more difficult language, and wrote
+their books in it. The incorporation of Chinese sounds into the native
+Japanese, seems to have arisen from the necessity of distinguishing
+between the various meanings of the Chinese character, so that while the
+native word would express one, the original sound would express another,
+but the unchangeable symbol stand for both to the eye.</p>
+
+<p>The admiration of the Chinese characters, led in time to the invention
+of a second syllabary, having the same sounds but far more difficult to
+learn from the number of characters in it and their complicated forms.
+It is called <i>hirakana</i>, or "equal writing," because it is intelligible
+without the addition of Chinese characters; it is now the common medium
+of communication, in epistolary composition of all kinds, story books,
+and other everyday uses. There are one hundred and one characters in the
+<i>hirakana</i>, or nearly three modes of writing each of the forty-eight
+syllables, and they are run together as rapidly and far more fancifully
+than in our own running-hand, when that is compared with the Roman
+character. The characters are mostly contractions of Chinese characters
+used simply as phonetic symbols, without any more reference to their
+meaning than in the <i>katakana</i>. The more ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> of the two is now
+usually employed in dictionaries, by the side of Chinese characters in
+books to explain them to the reader, or at their bottom to indicate the
+case of the word. In reading a Chinese book, a good Japanese scholar
+makes a kind of running translation into his own vernacular, sometimes
+giving the sound, and sometimes giving the sense, and the <i>katakana</i> is
+used in the latter case, to indicate the tense, or case of the native
+word. Having the Chinese language as well as its native stores to draw
+from, the Japanese is both copious and flexible, and by its syllabic
+construction, also euphonious and mellifluous, in these respects being
+far superior to the Chinese. The following stanza is from one of the
+Dutch writers; it is written with thirty-one syllables.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kokorodani makotono,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Michi ni kanai naba,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Inorazu totemo kamiya</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mamoran.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>There are still two other syllabaries, one called <i>Manyo-kana</i>, and the
+other <i>Yamato-kana</i>, both of which are formed of still more complicated
+Chinese characters, also used phonetically. Neither of these syllabaries
+is generally used entirely alone, but the three are joined together or
+interchanged somewhat according to the fancy of the writer, in a manner
+similar to Archdeacon Wrangham's famous echo poem. Such a complicated
+mode of writing has this unfortunate result, however, of so seriously
+obstructing the avenues to the temple of science, that the greatest part
+of the common people are unable to enter, and must be content with
+admiring the structure afar off. Most of them content themselves with
+learning to write and read in the <i>hirakana</i>, and get as much knowledge
+of Chinese as will enable them to read the names of places, signs,
+people, &amp;c., for which those characters are universally used. Besides
+the phonetic use of Chinese characters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> in these syllabaries, they are
+employed very extensively as words, with their own meanings, partly
+because they are more nervous and expressive in the estimation of the
+writer than the vernacular, and partly to show his learning and shorten
+his labor. Commonly, characters so used are called by their Japanese
+meanings, but sometimes too by their Chinese names.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+
+<p>The connection between the Chinese and Japanese, therefore, is very
+intimate, and presents a curious instance of assimilation between a
+symbolic and syllabic language, though at the cost of much hard study
+and labor to acquire the mongrel compound. It is another example of
+Asiatic toil upon the media of thought, rather than investigations in
+the world of thought and science itself; for no people who possessed
+invention, research, or science, would ever have encumbered themselves
+with so burdensome a vehicle of communication. The Chinese do not attend
+to the Japanese language, and have no knowledge of its structure, or the
+principles on which it has combined with their own. Their intercourse
+with Japan is entirely commercial; that of the Japanese with them,
+chiefly literary.</p>
+
+<p>The Coreans have also adopted the Chinese character, but without many of
+the elaborate modifications in use among the Japanese. They have had
+more intercourse with the Chinese, but have not been able to make their
+polysyllabic words assimilate with the monosyllables of the Chinese.
+They have invented an alphabet, the letters of which combine to form
+syllables, and these syllabic compounds are then used like the Japanese
+characters to express their own words. The original letters consist of
+fifteen consonants, called <i>ka</i>, <i>na</i>, <i>ta</i>, <i>la</i> or <i>ra</i>, <i>ma</i> or <i>ba</i>,
+<i>pa</i>, <i>sa</i> or <i>sha</i>, <i>nga</i>, <i>tsa</i> or <i>cha</i>, <i>tsŽa</i> or <i>chŽa</i>, <i>kŽa</i>,
+<i>tŽa</i>, <i>pŽa</i>, <i>ha</i>, and <i>wa</i>; and eleven vowels, <i>a</i>, <i>ya</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>yo</i>,
+<i>oh</i>, <i>yoh</i>, <i>ú</i>, <i>yú</i>, <i>u</i>, <i>í</i>, and <i>âh</i>. The combinations of these
+form altogether one hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> and sixty-eight syllables, the last
+fourteen of which are triply combined by introducing the sound of <i>w</i>
+between the consonants and some of the vowels, as <i>kwa</i>, <i>tsŽhwo</i>, &amp;c.
+The sounds and meanings of Chinese characters are expressed in this
+syllabary in the duoglott works prepared by the Coreans for learning
+Chinese; while it is used by itself in works intended for the natives.
+The Coreans have not, like the Japanese, unnecessarily increased the
+difficulty of their own language by employing a great number of signs
+for the same sound, but are content with one series. It is to be hoped
+that this facility results in a greater diffusion of knowledge among the
+people. The Japanese have the inflections of cases, moods, tenses and
+voices, in their language; but these features are denoted in Corean by
+the collocation of the words, and the words themselves remain unchanged
+as in Chinese. The sounds of the Corean are pleasant, and both it and
+the Japanese allow many alterations and elisions for the sake of
+euphony. Further investigation will probably show some connection
+originally between the Corean and Manchu languages, though the former of
+these has been more modified by the Chinese than the latter.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+
+<p>The people of Annam have adopted the Chinese characters without making a
+syllabary or alphabet to express their own vernacular. The inhabitants
+of this country are evidently of the same race as the Chinese, and now
+acknowledge a nominal subjection to the emperor of China by sending a
+triennial embassy to Peking, partly commercial and partly tributary. The
+sounds given to the Chinese characters are, however, so unlike those
+given them in China, that the two nations cannot converse with each
+other. The Annamese have many sounds in their spoken language which no
+Chinese can enunciate. The court dialect is learned by educated men, and
+books are written and printed in Chinese. The sounds given to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+characters are all monosyllabic, and slight analogies can be traced
+running through the variations; but they offer very little assistance to
+any one, who, knowing only one mode of pronunciation, wishes to learn
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the interest connected with the investigation of the Chinese and
+its cognate tongues, arises from the immense multitudes which speak and
+write them; and from the influence which China has, through the writings
+of her sages, exerted over the minds and progress of her neighbors.
+There is nothing like it in European history; but the spell cast over
+the intellects of the millions in eastern Asia, by the writings of
+Confucius, Mencius, and their disciples, is likely erelong to be broken
+by the infusion of Christian knowledge, the extension of commerce, and a
+better understanding of their political and social rights by the
+multitudes who now adopt them.</p>
+
+<p>For much of the information embraced in this memoir on China, Japan, and
+the adjacent countries, I am indebted to the Chinese Repository, (a
+monthly journal printed at Canton), and more especially to one of its
+accomplished editors, Mr. S. Wells Williams. This gentleman during a
+residence of twelve years in China, has made himself familiar with the
+written and spoken language of the Chinese, and is ranked, by some of
+the eminent Sinologists of Europe, among the profoundest adepts in that
+branch of literature and philology. Mr. Williams has also studied the
+Japanese language, which he reads and speaks; and is probably the only
+man in America familiar with the languages of China and Japan. Several
+natives of Japan, driven by adverse winds from their native shores,
+found their way to China, and were subsequently taken by an American
+ship to Yedo, but were not permitted to land. From these men, Mr.
+Williams has learned the spoken Japanese, and as much of the written
+language as they could impart. This gentleman is at present in New York
+making arrangements for getting founts of Chinese, Japanese, and Manchu
+type, for printing in these languages.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Chinese Repository is a monthly journal, printed at Canton, and is
+edited by the Rev. Dr. Bridgman and Mr. Williams. It contains much
+valuable information relating to China, Japan, and the eastern
+Archipelago, and frequently memoirs, translated from the Japanese and
+Chinese. On the whole, it may with truth be said to embody more
+information than any other work extant, on these countries.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Williams has now in press a new work on the Chinese empire, which
+will contain an account of its general political divisions, including
+Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili and Tibet, their geographical and topographical
+features. The natural history of China; its government, laws,
+literature, language, science, industry and arts. Social and domestic
+life&mdash;History and Chronology&mdash;Religion; Christian missions; intercourse
+with other nations; and a full account of the late war with England.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the introduction of Christianity into China, in the
+seventh century of the Christian era, the traces of which still exist;
+and of the Jews in China, are subjects which are now attracting
+attention. It would occupy too much space to give any particulars in
+this brief memoir. In the list of late works on China, will be found
+references to such books as treat of the subject, to which the attention
+of the reader is directed.</p>
+
+<p>The Syrian monument which has been often referred to, is one of great
+interest, and is believed by all who have examined the subject, to be
+genuine. This monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, in the
+year 1625, in or near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of
+Shensi, and once the metropolis of the empire. The monument was found
+covered with rubbish, and was immediately reported to the magistrate,
+who caused it to be removed to a pagoda, where it was examined by both
+natives and foreigners, Christians and Pagans. It was a slab of marble,
+about ten feet long and five broad. It contained on one side a Chinese
+inscription, which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> translated by Father Kircher into Latin, and by
+Dalquié into French. Mr. Bridgman has given an English translation, and
+has published the three versions, accompanied by the original Chinese,
+with explanatory notes. This inscription commemorates the progress of
+Christianity in China, and was erected in the year of the Christian era
+718. Mr. Bridgman who is one of the most learned in the Chinese
+language, says in conclusion, that "there are strong internal evidences
+of its being the work of a professor of Christianity, and such we
+believe it to be."<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+
+<p>Other portions of this memoir might be very much enlarged, but would
+extend it beyond the bounds of the <i>resumé</i>, which it is intended to
+give. There are besides other countries and people, accounts of which it
+would be desirable to give place to, particularly those of Central Asia,
+but they are unavoidably passed over from the space that would be
+required to do them justice. The object of this paper is to awaken the
+attention of readers to the geographical and ethnographical discoveries
+made within the last few years, all of which have a bearing on the
+history and progress of the human race. If the author has succeeded in
+so doing, he will feel abundantly repaid for his labor.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The recent works on China are embraced in the following list.</p>
+
+<p>China; Political, Commercial and Social; with descriptions of
+the consular ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghai, etc.,
+etc. By R. Montgomery Martin. London, 1847.</p>
+
+<p>Chinese Commercial Guide. Macao, 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Voyage of the Nemesis; By W.D. Barnard. 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+1843. 2d ed. 12mo. 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Events in China. By Granville Loch, R.N. 1844.</p>
+
+<p>War in China. By Lieut. Ochterlony. 1844.</p>
+
+<p>The Land of Sinim, with a brief account of the Jews and
+Christians in China, By a missionary. 12mo. N.Y., 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Sketches of China. By J.F. Davis. 2 vols. 12mo. 1845.</p>
+
+<p>The Jews in China. By J. Finn. 12mo. London, 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Les Juifs de la Chine, par H. Hirsch, (extrait des Israélites
+de France). 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Relation des Voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans
+l'Inde et à la Chine, dans le IXth siècle de l'ère Chrétienne,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+par M. Reinaud. Paris, 1845. 2 vols. 18mo.</p>
+
+<p>Three years wanderings in China. By Robert Fortune. 8vo.
+London, 1847.</p>
+
+<p>The philological and other works on China, by M. Pauthier, a
+distinguished French scholar, are among the most valuable works
+in this department of learning. They embrace the following.</p>
+
+<p>Sinico-Ægyptiaca, essai sur l'origine et la formation similaire
+des écritures figuratives Chinoise et Égyptienne, etc. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>De l'origine des différents systèmes d'écriture. 4to.</p>
+
+<p>Examen méthodique des faits qui concernent le Thian-Tchu ou
+l'Inde; traduit du Chinois. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>Documents statistiques officiels sur l'empire de la Chine;
+traduits du Chinois. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>La Chine, avec 73 planches. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>La Chine ouverte, aventures d'un Fan-kouei dans le pays de
+Tsin; illustré par Auguste Borget. 8vo. Paris, 1845.</p>
+
+<p>La Chine et les Chinois, par le même. 8vo. Paris, 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Systema Phoneticum Scripturæ Sinicæ, auctore. J.M. Callery. 2
+vols. royal 8vo. Macao, 1842.</p>
+
+<p>Narrative of the second campaign in China, by R.S. Mackenzie.
+12mo. London.</p>
+
+<p>A work by G. Tradescant Lay; and another by Professor Kid, have
+also been published on China.<br /><br /></p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In a paper read by Mr. Schoolcraft before the American
+Ethnological Society, it was clearly shown by existing remains, in
+Michigan and Indiana, plans of which were exhibited, that vast districts
+of country, now covered by forests and prairies, bear incontestable
+proofs of having been subject to cultivation at a remote period and
+before the forest had begun its growth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> This figure of an extended hand is the most common of all
+the symbols of the aboriginal tribes of America. It is found on the
+ancient temples, and within the tombs of Yucatan. At the earliest period
+it was used by the Indians, in the United States, and at the present
+time, it is employed by the roving bands and large tribes from the
+Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas northward.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> "Bottoms" and "bottom lands," are terms applied to the flat
+lands adjoining rivers. In the State of New York they are called
+"flats"&mdash;as the "Mohawk flats."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Second Note sur une pierre gravée trouvé dans un ancien
+tumulus Americain, et à cette occasion, sur l'idiome Libyen, par M.
+Jomard. 8vo. Paris, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See Mr. Catherwood's paper on the Thugga monument and its
+inscriptions, in the Ethnolg. Trans. Vol. I. p. 477.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Notes on Africa. p.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The essay here alluded to, was the reply of Mr. Jomard to a
+note addressed to him by Mr. Eugene Vail, in 1839, announcing the
+discovery of the inscribed tablet in the Grave-creek mound, and
+requesting his opinion in relation to it. In this reply, Mr. Jomard
+stated that they were of the same character with the inscriptions found
+by Major Denham in the interior of Africa, as well as in Algiers and
+Tunis. This note was inserted in Mr. Vail's work entitled "<i>Notice sur
+les Indiens de l'Amerique du Nord</i>." Paris, 1840. This work is scarcely
+known in the United States.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> I am aware that many believe the sculptures on the Dighton
+rock to contain several alphabetic characters. Prof. Rafn in his learned
+and ingenious memoir on this inscription, supports this view. In fact,
+Mr. Jomard himself hints at their Ph&oelig;nician origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Histoire Naturelle des Canaries. Tom. I. p. 23</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, &amp;c., by
+a New Englander. p. 198.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, California, &amp;c. by a New
+Englander. p. 180.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Auburn (New York) Banner, 1837.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed.
+in 4 vols. 8vo.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Life and Travels in California. p. 372.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American
+trader with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country,
+built a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished
+Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which
+ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh
+in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon
+commenced a brisk business."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316.
+On the testimony of the missionaries of the <i>Collegio de Queretaro</i>,
+versed in the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language
+spoken by the Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican
+language. In the seventeenth century, missionaries were established
+among the Moquis and Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of
+the Indians in 1680.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit.
+Essay on New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these
+remains, may be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "<i>Relation du
+Voyage de Cibola en 1540</i>," published in the "<i>Relations et memoirs
+originaux</i>" of Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners
+and customs of the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are
+given at length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the
+"<i>Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma</i>," is extracted from the journal of
+Father Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the
+Pacific, in 1775.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9,
+1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> London Athenæum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed
+account of this journey.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which
+would give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at
+Ghizeh.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> London Athenæum, Nov. 9. 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> London Athenæum, March 7, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Rapport par M.
+Roger. 1846. p. 321.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> London Athenæum, July 4, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> London Athenæum, July, 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern
+Africa, investigated, with an account of the overland route from the
+Quanza, in Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by
+Wm. Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,
+London. Vol. xv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.&mdash;<i>Ibid.</i>
+Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in
+Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p.
+371.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de France, for 1845,
+p. 251.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Notice sur le Progrès des découvertes Géographiques
+pendant l'année, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Société de
+Géographie, p. 245.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la
+race blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Comptes-Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Revue Archæologique, Nov. 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet
+is deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja,
+who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of
+Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji
+Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in
+conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name of <i>romouz</i>.
+</p><p>
+Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had
+lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime
+Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of
+Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he
+discovered at the top (<i>en vedette</i>) two groups of signs, which, from
+their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the
+Arab sacramental words, <i>Praise be to God</i>, with which all good
+Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied
+the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of
+six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these
+documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended
+making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and
+on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters.
+Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but
+more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.
+</p><p>
+Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian
+characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by
+him, and the result is known.&mdash;<i>Revue Archæologique</i>, November, 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> The accident which led to this second discovery deserves
+to be mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while
+examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a
+tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a
+window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves
+which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A
+farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the
+committee on foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting
+the present state, productions, trade, commerce, &amp;c. of the Comoro
+Islands, Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago,
+and Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the
+government of the United States, to make treaties and extend our
+commercial relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer,
+councillor of the Supreme Court of the United States.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of
+much interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 1846. Extrait d'une
+description de l'archipel des îles Solo, p. 311.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, for 1846, p. 365.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's
+Land.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on
+presenting him with the medal.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> p. 394.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> vol. 2. p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> London Athenæum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial
+Magazine, vol. 2, 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> London Athenæum. Nov. 3, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by
+Cyrus and Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus,
+the Lycians boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in
+numbers, behaved with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued
+into their city, they collected their wives, children and valuable
+effects, into the citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense
+fire.... Of those who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians,
+<i>the whole are foreigners</i>, eighty families excepted."&mdash;<i>Clio</i>, 176. See
+also <i>Clio</i>, 171-173.
+</p><p>
+Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a
+branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from
+Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had
+settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of
+Mylians and Solymi.
+</p><p>
+Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy,
+assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are
+mentioned.&mdash;<i>Iliad</i>, b. v. and xii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol.
+IX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical
+Society of London, November 9, 1846.&mdash;London Ath.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée et
+la Russie méridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique;
+par X. Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates.
+Paris, 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of
+these discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The
+translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only
+accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent
+publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much
+has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in
+antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A
+full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present
+state, seems therefore necessary.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in
+Heeren's Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as
+remarkable books that has come down to us from the East. It was first
+made known in Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who
+brought it from Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for
+the ancient books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is
+said) in making a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes,
+illustrative of the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the
+Zend language, in which this book was written. A great sensation was
+produced in Europe among the learned at the appearance of the work.
+Examined as a monument of the ancient religion and literature of the
+Persians, it was differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones<a name="FNanchor_70A_70A" id="FNanchor_70A_70A"></a><a href="#Footnote_70A_70A" class="fnanchor">[A]</a>
+and others, not only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the
+translator in very harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of
+the most distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it
+rank among the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an
+antiquity at least six centuries anterior to the Christian era.
+</p><p>
+The Zendavesta (from <i>zend</i> living, and <i>avesta</i> word, i. e. "the living
+word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions,
+and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our
+breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five
+books. 1. The <i>Izechné</i>, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2.
+the <i>Vispered</i>, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. the
+<i>Vendidad</i>, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. the
+<i>Yeshts Sades</i>, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5.
+the book <i>Siroz</i>, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the
+Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.<a name="FNanchor_70B_70B" id="FNanchor_70B_70B"></a><a href="#Footnote_70B_70B" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>
+</p><p>
+The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great
+first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This
+incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of
+the universe&mdash;Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the
+principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by
+the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful,
+active, benevolent,&mdash;in a word, the precise image of the Element; the
+centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the
+opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every
+thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and
+govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became
+an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."<a name="FNanchor_70C_70C" id="FNanchor_70C_70C"></a><a href="#Footnote_70C_70C" class="fnanchor">[C]</a>
+</p><p>
+"The first created man was composed of the four elements,&mdash;fire, air,
+water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal
+spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of
+separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of
+sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of
+practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of
+animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with
+the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of
+the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and
+are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still
+professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the
+Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman
+and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of
+Surat."<a name="FNanchor_70D_70D" id="FNanchor_70D_70D"></a><a href="#Footnote_70D_70D" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo
+superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books
+of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.
+</p><p>
+Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the
+Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur
+le Yaçna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning,
+illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient
+Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_70A_70A" id="Footnote_70A_70A"></a><a style="text-decoration:none" href="#FNanchor_70A_70A">[A]</a> Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_70B_70B" id="Footnote_70B_70B"></a><a style="text-decoration:none" href="#FNanchor_70B_70B">[B]</a> See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental
+Translations Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_70C_70C" id="Footnote_70C_70C"></a><a style="text-decoration:none" href="#FNanchor_70C_70C">[C]</a> Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_70D_70D" id="Footnote_70D_70D"></a><a style="text-decoration:none" href="#FNanchor_70D_70D">[D]</a> Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A.
+Troyer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> The modern title of the sovereign of Persia, <i>Shah</i>, is at
+once recognised in the ancient name <i>Kshe</i> or <i>Ksha</i> of the monuments.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Mémoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvées près
+d'Hamadan. Paris, 1836.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn,
+1836. The other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift
+für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn,
+exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on
+Oriental Philology and Archæology published in Europe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject
+was attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf
+and Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their
+investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with
+those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the
+others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the
+correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The Zend language is known to us chiefly by the
+"Zendavesta." Of its antiquity there is doubt. Some philologists believe
+that it grew up with the decline of the old Persian, or was formed on
+its basis, with an infusion from the Sanscrit, Median, and Scythic
+languages. It was used in the time of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 550, at
+which period Zoroaster lived, who employed the Zend in the composition
+of the "Zendavesta." Its antiquity has formed the subject of many
+memoirs; but late writers, among whom are Rask, Eugene Burnouf, Bopp,
+and Lassen, have decided from the most severe tests of criticism, that
+the Zend was an ancient language derived from the same source as the
+Sanscrit, and that it was spoken before the Christian era, particularly
+in the countries situated west of the Caspian Sea, in Georgia, Iran
+proper, and northern Media. Note to the Dabistan, Vol. I. p. 222. The
+only specimen of this language yet known, with the exception of a few
+MSS. of little importance among the Parsees, is the Zendavesta. Major
+Rawlinson<a name="FNanchor_75A_75A" id="FNanchor_75A_75A"></a><a href="#Footnote_75A_75A" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> adopts views at variance with those of the distinguished
+German philologists, in regard to the antiquity of the Zend language.
+Its "very elaborate vocalic organization," he thinks, "indicates a
+comparatively recent era for the formation of its alphabet;" and of the
+Zend-Avesta, he is of opinion that "the disfigurement of authentic
+history affords an argument of equal weight against the antiquity of its
+composition." He fully agrees, however, with all others as to the very
+remote composition of the books generally ascribed to Zoroaster. In fact
+this is beyond all question, for Plato mentions them (Pol. B. XXX.).
+Clemens of Alexandria says they were known in the 5th century B.C. and
+many other ancient writers could be cited in proof of the same.<a name="FNanchor_75B_75B" id="FNanchor_75B_75B"></a><a href="#Footnote_75B_75B" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>
+</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_75A_75A" id="Footnote_75A_75A"></a><a style="text-decoration:none" href="#FNanchor_75A_75A">[A]</a> See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to
+page 42.
+</p><p>
+<a name="Footnote_75B_75B" id="Footnote_75B_75B"></a><a style="text-decoration:none" href="#FNanchor_75B_75B">[B]</a> See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a
+list of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> On the Decyphering of the Median species of Arrow-headed
+Writing, by N.L. Westergaard, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des
+Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, p. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Ibid. p. 28.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> On the Median variety of Arrow-headed Writing. Mémoires de
+la Société des Antiquaires du Nord, for 1844. p. 272.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 1844-45. Prof.
+Westergaard has also published his paper in English, in the Mémoires de
+la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844, prefixing
+to it Lassen's alphabet of the first sort of Persepolitan writing. He
+was probably induced to do this by observing the limited extent to which
+the German language is cultivated by English scholars, insomuch that
+even Rawlinson complains that he was unable to read any more of Lassen's
+papers than his translations of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Memoir on the Persian cuneiform inscriptions. p. 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate
+24, and page 254.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Revue Archæologique. October, 1844.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Westergaard in Mém. de la Socié. Royale des Antiq. du
+Nord, p. 419. Ibid. p. 423.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Lettres de M. Botta sur les découvertes à Khorsabad, près
+de Ninive; publiées par M.J. Mohl.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr.
+Layard, dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read
+before the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February,
+giving further accounts of his discoveries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> See London Athenæum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from
+Constantinople dated Sept. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The
+first was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings
+thereof were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made
+stand upon the feet as a man." <i>Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4.</i> The resemblance
+between the animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at
+Nineveh is striking.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans.
+Fund:&mdash;by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal
+Geographical Society, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Address to the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science, at its meeting, September, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> The Royal Geographical Society of London has conferred its
+Victoria Gold Medal on Prof. Middendorff for his successful
+exploration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Lord Colchester's Address before the Royal Geog. Society.
+London, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 138.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 206.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> English Baptist Missionary Report for 1845. p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> It appears that the Baptist Missionary Society in the year
+ending in March, 1845,<a name="FNanchor_100A_100A" id="FNanchor_100A_100A"></a><a href="#Footnote_100A_100A" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> expended in India $29,500, of which sum nearly
+$15,000, or rather more than one half, was expended in making
+translations of books into various languages. The remainder was for the
+support of the missionaries, their outfits and passages, the support of
+native teachers&mdash;schools &amp;c. The languages and dialects which have been
+studied and elucidated and into which books have been translated may be
+summed up as follows.
+</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;">32 languages and dialects in India,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4&nbsp;  do.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;do.&nbsp; in Persia and the Caucasian countries,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">5&nbsp;  do.&nbsp; in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4&nbsp;  do.&nbsp; in Polynesia.</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>
+The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures;
+books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science,
+popular Histories, geography, &amp;c. Elementary books in the several
+departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety,
+though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament
+constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist
+Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845,
+fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit,
+Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed
+and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for
+Foreign Missions was as follows.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Madras Mission.</span> In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or
+portions of them&mdash;books of a religious character&mdash;elementary school
+books&mdash;tracts&mdash;periodicals and reports of benevolent associations
+bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual
+improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this
+single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of
+pages&mdash;or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one
+hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was
+doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large
+establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are
+printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Ceylon Mission.</span> In the Tamil and English languages were printed during
+the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes,
+and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million
+one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Siam Mission.</span> In the Siamese language were printed in two years two
+million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.
+</p><p>
+When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the
+influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged
+in the same cause.
+</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_100A_100A" id="Footnote_100A_100A"></a><a style="text-decoration:none" href="#FNanchor_100A_100A">[A]</a> Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Missionary Herald, Vol. XLV. p. 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Chinese Repository. Vol. XV. p. 113.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Annals of the Propaganda for 1846. p. 55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Ibid. July, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Chinese Repository, Vol. xii. p. 78.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, July, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Chinese Repository, Vol. xiv. p. 155.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> It is desirable that this word be expunged from all works
+on China and eastern Asia, and the proper words <i>officers</i>,
+<i>authorities</i>, <i>magistrates</i>, &amp;c., be used instead. Every officer, from
+a prime minister to a constable or tide-waiter, is called a mandarin by
+foreigners, partly because those who write do not know the rank of the
+person, and partly from the common custom of calling many things in
+China by some peculiar term, as if they were unlike the same things
+elsewhere.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Chinese Repository, Vol. X, pp. 205-215.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Chinese Repository. Vol. I., p. 276; Vol. II., pp.
+135-138.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 202.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="notes">
+<h2><a name="Transcribers_Notes" id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber's Notes:</h2>
+
+<p>Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected. Obvious spelling errors
+in foreign language references have been corrected. Inconsistencies in
+spelling have been normalized unless otherwise noted below. Questionable
+or vintage spelling has been left as printed in the original
+publication.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes in the original publication were marked with symbols at the
+page level. Sequential footnote numbering has been applied and all
+footnotes have been relocated to the end of the text.</p>
+
+<p>Variations in spelling for Musselman/Mussulman left as printed in
+original publication.</p>
+
+<p>Punctuation marks to establish phrasing (i. e., commas and semi-colons)
+that were placed inside a closing parenthesis have been moved outside
+the parenthesis.</p>
+
+<p>Page 3: A chapter heading entitled "NORTH AMERICA." has been added for
+consistency with chapters listed in the publication's Contents pages.</p>
+
+<p>Page 14 (footnote 6): Page number reference for "Notes on Africa"
+are missing in the original publication.</p>
+
+<p>Page 20 (footnote 17): "Grande Maison, dite de Moetezuma" changed to
+"Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma".</p>
+
+<p>Page 26: The second footnote on this page has been converted to appear
+as block text, consistent with the remainder of the publication in which
+lists of "Recent Works" appear at the conclusion of a given section. The
+footnote marker has been removed.</p>
+
+<p>Page 30: Removed stray opening quotation mark mid-sentence that was not
+closed. 'From the base of this structure "commences an inclined'.</p>
+
+<p>Page 48: The footnote on this page has been converted to appear as block
+text, consistent with the remainder of the publication in which lists of
+"Recent Works" appear at the conclusion of a given section. The footnote
+marker has been removed.</p>
+
+<p>Page 69: A chapter heading entitled "ASIA." has been added for
+consistency with chapters listed in the publication's Contents pages.</p>
+
+<p>Page 87 (footnote 70): The paragraph beginning "The first created man
+was composed of the four elements..." contains unmatched quotation marks
+in the original publication and has been left as printed.</p>
+
+<p>Page 92 (footnote 75B): Opening text 'See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol.
+I. p. in which...' is missing the page number ("p.") in the original
+publication.</p>
+
+<p>Page 93: Changed "Archæmenian" to "Achæmenian" in the following sentence
+(as originally printed): "Various combinations of a figure shaped like a
+wedge, together with one produced by the union of two wedges, constitute
+the system of writing employed by the ancient Assyrians, Babylonians,
+Medes, and the Archæmenian kings of Persia."</p>
+
+<p>Page 107: Original publication is missing a numeral in what is
+presumably a year in the 1800's. Transcribed here as "18_3".</p>
+
+<p>Page 126: Added a footnote marker for footnote 105 at the end of this
+sentence: "The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda
+Society contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia, by
+the Rev. Mr. Huc."</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Progress of Ethnology, by John Russell Bartlett
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+Project Gutenberg's The Progress of Ethnology, by John Russell Bartlett
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Progress of Ethnology
+       An Account of Recent Archaeological, Philological and
+       Geographical Researches in Various Parts of the Globe
+
+Author: John Russell Bartlett
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2011 [EBook #35234]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Gary Rees and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+
+AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT
+
+ARCHAEOLOGICAL, PHILOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
+
+RESEARCHES
+
+IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE.
+
+
+TENDING TO ELUCIDATE
+
+THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
+
+
+BY
+
+JOHN RUSSELL BARTLETT,
+
+COR. SEC. OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN COR. SEC.
+OF THE NEW YORK HIST. SOCIETY.
+
+
+SECOND EDITION.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+
+BARTLETT & WELFORD, 7 ASTOR HOUSE.
+
+1847.
+
+
+NEW YORK:
+
+WILLIAM VAN NORDEN, PRINTER,
+
+NO. 39 WILLIAM STREET.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+NORTH AMERICA.
+
+EXPLORATIONS and Discoveries in the Mounds and other earth-works in
+Ohio. Similar researches and their results in Mississippi and
+Louisiana.... Mr. Jomard's essay on the tablet found in the Grave Creek
+mound in Virginia, p. 1.
+
+CALIFORNIA AND NEW MEXICO--Recent explorations in these countries, with
+accounts of the Navijo and Moqui Indians; architectural remains on the
+banks of the Gila.... French explorations in the Isthmus of Panama, p.
+15.
+
+RESEARCHES IN GREENLAND, and the Arctic regions; geographical and
+historical results.... Late attempts for exploring the northern portions
+of the American Continent, p. 21.
+
+
+SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+Details of the Scientific Expedition under Count Castelnau, sent by the
+French government for exploring the interior of South America....
+English expedition under Lord Ranelagh--other scientific expeditions....
+Peruvian antiquities, etc. etc., p. 27.
+
+
+AFRICA.
+
+Recent attempts for exploring the interior of Africa.... Mr. Thomson's
+journey from Sierra Leone.... Mr. Duncan's journey northward from
+Dahomey. Missionary operations at the Gaboon.... Mr. Richardson's
+journey into the great desert of Sahara.... The French expedition up the
+Senegal, under Mr. Raffenel.... Extensive project for the exploration of
+Soudan, in Central Africa.... Proposed expedition for penetrating the
+country from the eastern side.... Contributions to the geography of
+Southern Africa.... Mr. Maizan's unfortunate attempt to reach the
+interior from Zanzibar, p. 32.
+
+ALGIERS--scientific explorations by the French Government; interesting
+results; errors respecting the desert of Sahara, p. 41.
+
+DISCOVERY of the ancient LYBIAN alphabet, by M. de Saulcy, p. 44.
+
+The BERBERS; late researches into their language, p. 45.
+
+MADAGASCAR; recent visits of the French, p. 47.
+
+EGYPT; results of the late explorations; state of hieroglyphic and
+Coptic literature; Egyptian history and chronology, p. 48.
+
+
+EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
+
+BORNEO--Mr. Brooke's colony; the Dyaks.... The Dutch and other European
+colonies in the East Indies.... New Caledonia islands.... The Sooloo
+islands. The Nicobar islands, p. 54.
+
+AUSTRALIA; accounts of late explorations, by Count Strzelecki, Dr.
+Leichardt and others, p. 63.
+
+
+ASIA.
+
+ASIA MINOR--Interesting discoveries in Lycia, p. 69.
+
+ARABIA--Historical and philological results of the researches in
+Southern Arabia, the country of the ancient Himyarites; importance of
+these discoveries in elucidating Scriptural history, p. 73.
+
+THE CAUCASUS--Exploration by M. Hommaire de Hell.... Sclavonic MSS. and
+inscriptions, p. 84.
+
+ASSYRIA AND PERSIA--History of the study of the ancient arrow-headed
+inscriptions.... Extraordinary results therefrom.... The Zendavesta....
+The Zend language.... The great inscription of Darius.... Explorations
+at Nineveh. Journeys of Dr. Robert; of Prince Waldemar, etc., p. 84.
+
+SIBERIA--Journeys of Count Middendorff and others; geographical and
+ethnographical results, p. 109.
+
+INDIA--Progress of civilization; importance of missionary labors, p.
+113.
+
+SIAM--Decline of Boodhism; extension of Christianity, p. 117.
+
+COCHIN-CHINA--Visit of Mr. Hedde to Turon, in Annam, p. 118.
+
+CHINA--Latest accounts from, p. 119.
+
+COREA--Efforts of the Catholic missionaries to christianize the natives,
+p. 123.
+
+MANCHURIA....MONGOLIA--Recent accounts from these countries; journey of
+Rev. Mr. Huc, in Mongolia, p. 125.
+
+LEW-CHEW ISLANDS--Attempt to establish a mission, by Rev. Mr. Forcade;
+notices of the people, their manners, customs, and language, p. 127.
+
+JAPAN--Recent attempts to communicate with the Japanese; peculiarities
+of this people.... General view of the languages of the Japanese,
+Coreans, Chinese, and Cochin-Chinese, p. 131.
+
+
+
+
+THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+NORTH AMERICA.
+
+
+I have the pleasure of laying before the New York Historical Society a
+brief account of the progress which has been made during the past year
+towards extending our knowledge of the globe, particularly with
+reference to its geography, and to those nations whose history is
+imperfectly known. The subject is one that more properly belongs to
+ethnology, but the historical results which are deduced from these
+enquiries come within the scope of the objects, the elucidation of which
+belongs to this Society.
+
+A new impulse has lately been given to the study of American
+Antiquities. A brief account of recent investigations carried on in a
+portion of the West and South will show that we possess much that is
+interesting, and which will throw light on a neglected branch of
+aboriginal history and ethnology.
+
+Every enquirer into the origin and purposes of the monuments and ancient
+remains of the Mississippi valley has regretted the limited number and
+poorly attested character of the facts, of which the public are in
+possession, respecting them. The practical investigations made from time
+to time by various individuals, have not been sufficiently thorough and
+extensive, nor have they developed sufficient data to warrant or sustain
+any definite or satisfactory conclusions. They have served rather to
+provoke enquiries which they could in no degree satisfy, than to afford
+information on the subject with which they were connected.
+
+It was under a strong sense of the deficiencies in our stock of
+information in this branch of knowledge, that two gentlemen of
+Chillicothe, Ohio, Dr. Davis and Mr. E.G. Squier, undertook the
+exploration of the ancient remains which abound in the state of Ohio,
+and particularly of those in the valley of the Scioto river.
+
+It is known that there exists in this region vast numbers of mounds, of
+various dimensions, and extensive embankments of earth, enclosing in
+some instances many acres of ground. Beside these there are ditches,
+walls, causeways and other works of a greater or less extent. The
+examination of these, by opening the mounds, and making accurate surveys
+of the other works constitute the labors of these gentlemen, some of the
+results of which may be stated in anticipation of a full account which
+will shortly appear.
+
+Though their labors at first promised to end in increased doubt and
+uncertainty, they were abundantly rewarded as their enquiries
+progressed. Out of confusion, system began to develope itself, and what
+seemed accidents, were found to be characteristics. What was regarded as
+anomalous, was recognized as a type and feature of a class, and apparent
+coincidences became proofs of design.
+
+For instance, it was remarked among the numerous tumuli opened, that
+certain ones were stratified, while others were homogeneous in their
+composition. Further observation showed that stratified tumuli occupy a
+certain fixed position with regard to other works, which the
+unstratified tumuli do not. Still further examinations demonstrated that
+the contents of those respective tumuli are radically and invariably
+different. Here then was established: 1st. That the mounds are not, as
+is generally supposed, identical in character and purpose. 2d. That one
+class occupies a fixed position with regard to works of a different
+character, the design of which is to be determined, to some degree, by
+the peculiarities and the contents of this description of mounds, etc.
+
+It will be seen, at once, that a close observation of facts of this kind
+is absolutely essential, to arrive at any reasonable conclusions,
+regarding the purposes of these ancient structures, their origin, or the
+character or customs of the people by whom they were built. The
+investigations of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, were therefore conducted so
+as to permit the escape of no fact which might tend to elucidate the
+mystery in which our antiquities are shrouded. The excavations were made
+under their personal direction, and the results may be briefly stated,
+without detailing the facts in support of each conclusion, as follows.
+
+The number of enclosures or earthworks which have been surveyed by them,
+and of which they have taken careful admeasurements, exceeds _ninety_.
+The number of tumuli which have been excavated and their characteristics
+noted, amounts to _one hundred and fifteen_.
+
+Of the first class of works, it has been sufficiently demonstrated, that
+a small proportion were intended for works of defence; that another
+portion were sacred places, or in some way connected with religious or
+superstitious rites, while a third and much the larger number are
+entirely inexplicable in our present state of information.
+
+The tumuli are divided into three grand classes, which are broadly
+marked in the aggregate, though there are individual instances of an
+anomalous character. These are:
+
+    1st. Tumuli of sepulture, each containing a single skeleton enclosed
+    in a rude, wooden coffin, or an envelope of bark or matting, and
+    occurring in isolated or detached groups.
+
+    2d. Tumuli of sacrifice, containing symmetrical altars of stone or
+    burnt clay, occurring within or in the immediate vicinity of
+    enclosures, and always stratified.
+
+    3d. Places of observation, or mounds raised upon elevated or
+    commanding positions.
+
+Within these monuments have been found implements and ornaments of
+silver, copper, lead, stone, ivory and pottery, fashioned into a
+thousand forms, and evincing a skill in art, to which the existing race
+of Indians, at the time of their discovery, could not approach. Marine
+shells, mica from the primitive regions, native copper from the shores
+of lake Superior, galena from the upper Mississippi, cetacean teeth,
+pearls and instruments of _obsidian_, show the extent of communication
+and intercourse had by the authors of these ancient works. Sculptures of
+animals, birds and reptiles have been found in great numbers and
+variety, exhibiting a skill which few could now surpass. Also,
+sculptures of the human head, disclosing most probably the character of
+the physiognomy, as well as the manner of adjusting the hair, the head
+dress and ornaments of the mound-builders. Careful admeasurements of the
+earth works which abound in the Ohio valley, have been made by the
+gentlemen alluded to, in which the interesting fact has been developed,
+that many of them are perfect circles and squares, and hence that the
+people by whom they were constructed had some means of determining
+angles and of constructing circles. In some of those earth-heaps,
+sufficient remains to show that when in a perfect state, they resembled
+the _teocallis_ or terraced edifices of Mexico and Yucatan, though they
+were composed wholly of wood and earth.
+
+The number of works manifestly connected in some way with their
+religion, guide us to some estimate of the prominence which their
+superstitions occupied, and that a religious system existed among them,
+in some degree resembling that of the ancient Mexicans. The immense
+tumuli heaped over the remains of the dead, show the regard which they
+attached to their chiefs, and the veneration in which they held their
+memory. The number and extent of their remains of all kinds, which
+occupy the fertile valleys, and which are confined almost entirely to
+them, indicate that an immense population once existed there, that it
+was stationary and therefore agricultural;[1] and if agricultural and
+stationary, that a different organization of society, different manners
+and customs, different impulses and feelings existed among them, than
+are to be found among the hunter and nomadic tribes, discovered by
+Europeans in possession of the country.
+
+Another class of antiquities has been discovered by these gentlemen, of
+which we only have the particulars in a letter. These consist of rocks
+sculptured with figures of men, of birds and animals. They are cut in
+outline, the lines being from one half to three quarters of an inch deep
+by about the same width. Only those on the sides of the rocks are
+visible. Those on the upper or horizontal faces are nearly obliterated.
+One represents an elk and is said to be very spirited.
+
+What may result from the future researches of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier,
+remains to be seen; but sufficient has been developed to show that a
+people, radically different from the existing race of Indians, once
+occupied the valley of the Mississippi, and built the singular monuments
+in which it abounds. These also show that they were to a certain extent
+advanced in the arts and civilization. In short that they closely
+resembled in the character of their structures, ornaments and implements
+of war and husbandry, the races of Central America; if they were not
+indeed their progenitors or an offshoot from them. Many facts strongly
+point to such a conclusion and farther observations carefully conducted,
+will probably enable us to settle the question beyond a doubt.
+
+A detailed account of the researches of the gentlemen alluded to,
+accompanied by numerous engravings representing the implements,
+ornaments and sculptures, &c., discovered in their excavations;--surveys
+of the various earth works, forts and enclosures in the Scioto valley,
+will be given in the second volume of the Transactions of the American
+Ethnological Society, now preparing for publication. They are still
+actively engaged in their labors, and intend, should the facilities be
+extended them to carry on their operations, to examine every ancient
+relic to be found in Ohio and the adjacent parts, where these remains
+exist.
+
+Among the explorations which have been carried on in the United States,
+none possess a greater interest than those of Dr. M.W. Dickeson, in the
+south western states, chiefly in Mississippi, though in some instances
+extending to Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. Dr. Dickeson has laid open
+or examined one hundred and fifty mounds and tumuli, of various
+dimensions and collected a vast number of interesting relics, which
+illustrate the customs and arts of the ancient people who built them.
+The mounds vary from three to ninety feet in height, and from twelve to
+three hundred feet in diameter at the base. The Seltzer Town mound
+contains a superficies of eight acres on its summit. On digging into it
+vast quantities of human skeletons were found, chiefly with their heads
+flattened, and measuring generally six feet in length. Numerous
+specimens of pottery, including finely finished vases filled with
+pigments, ashes, ornaments, and beads, were also found.
+
+The north side of this mound is supported with a wall two feet thick, of
+sun dried bricks, filled with grass, rushes and leaves. In order to
+ascertain whether this immense tumulus was artificial or not, Dr.
+Benbrook, sank a shaft forty two feet, and found it artificial or made
+ground to that depth. Immense quantities of bones, both of men and
+animals, among the latter the head of a huge bear, were thrown out.
+Other excavations were made in this tumulus with the same result, thus
+showing it to have been a vast mausoleum or cemetery of the ancient
+race.
+
+The mounds are generally in systems varying from seven to ten, which Dr.
+Dickeson has divided into six classes as follows: _out post_, _ramparts
+or walls_, _telegraphs or look outs_, _temples_, _cemeteries_, and _tent
+mounds_. The first is seldom more than thirty feet at the base by ten
+feet high. Their shape varies, presenting sometimes a pyramid, at others
+a cone, or rhomboid. Walls surround the second class, which are from ten
+to fifteen feet in heighth, the same across the top, and from forty to
+fifty feet at the base.
+
+The "_Look out_" mounds are seldom under sixty feet high. Of this class,
+Dr. Dickeson has examined upwards of ninety. They are generally on the
+summit of a hill, overlooking the bottom lands. Here they stand some
+three hundred feet above the bottom lands, commanding an extensive
+prospect, and in some instances one may see the peaks of several systems
+of mounds in the distance.
+
+The "_Temple mounds_" are seldom more than twenty feet high, and
+stratified with ashes, loam, gravel, &c. They all have an earthen floor.
+Dr. Dickeson has, but in a single instant, found a skeleton in these
+mounds, and in this, he thinks the subject a Choctaw Indian recently
+placed there. It lay in a horizontal position, differing from the usual
+mode of burial, which is the sitting posture.
+
+The "_Cemeteries_" are oval, and from six to ten feet high, filled with
+bones, lying east and west, and when incased in sarcophagi, the rows run
+in the same direction. In some instances Dr. Dickeson found the bones
+lying in heaps, promiscuously. These he believes to have been the
+_canaille_.
+
+The "_Tent or Structure mounds_" are small, and a short distance below
+their surface, fragments of brick and cement are found in great
+quantities; sometimes skeletons and pottery. Never more than six
+skeletons are found together, and more care is shown in the burial of
+these than in the "cemetery mounds." In one instance an angular tumulus
+was seen by the Doctor, with the corners quite perfect, formed of large
+bricks, bearing the impression of an extended hand.[2]
+
+Many mounds and tumuli are advantageously situated on the tops of
+ridges, surrounded with walls. Some of the latter have crumbled away,
+while others remain strong and perpendicular. In many instances, the
+walls that surround these groups of mounds, form perfect squares and
+circles. Dr. Dickeson adds that, "if from the centre of one of these
+groups a circle were traced, it would strike the centre of each mound,
+both large and small." They contain numerous fragments of walls, images,
+pottery, ornaments, etc. etc.
+
+The "Temples" are generally situated among the hills and ravines, with
+perpendicular escarpments, improved by artificial fortifications. The
+enclosures often embrace upwards of thirty acres. The great enclosure at
+"the Trinity" contains upwards of one hundred and fifty acres, and is
+partially faced with sundried brick. Upon the plantation of Mr.
+Chamberlain in Mississippi, the temple is flanked with several
+_bastions_, besides _squares_, _parallels_, _half moons_, and ravines
+with perpendicular escarpments for its defence. The ditches and small
+lakes are frequently chained for miles and filled with water, intended,
+the Doctor thinks, for outworks. In these, bricks are found both at the
+bottom and on the sides. Among the rubbish and vegetable deposits taken
+from them to put on the land, ornaments, and other relics are found.
+
+Wells and reservoirs, completely walled with burnt clay, are found in
+Louisiana; near which are "systems," or groups of mounds so regular and
+strongly fortified, that they became the retreat of pirates and robbers
+who infested the rivers, greatly disturbing the early settlers, after
+the massacre of the Natchez Indians by the French. The Natchez built
+large dikes or ditches, and upon the counterscarp piled up huge
+ramparts, which they made almost impregnable, by having one side flanked
+by the slope of a hill, surrounded by precipices. They are sometimes
+situated on the level "bottoms."[3] In these cases one side invariably
+faces a creek or bayou, or is in its bend, making the creek serve as a
+formidable ditch, offering a serious impediment to an enemy's approach.
+The other two sides are protected by parallel walls or half moons, with
+gateways leading to the citadel. These walls have indications of having
+been faced with dry masonry. The east and west corners are generally
+flanked with a small oval mound.
+
+In these tumuli and mounds numerous ornaments and pottery were found by
+Dr. Dickeson, buried with the occupants, such as idols, clay stamps,
+mica mirrors, stone axes, and arrow heads, silver and copper ornaments,
+rings, beads of jasper, chalcedony, agate, &c., similar to those found
+in Peru and Mexico. Several pearls of great beauty and lustre, an inch
+in diameter, have been found. By an examination of the skulls, Dr. D.
+discovered that _dentistry_ had been extensively practised by this
+ancient people, as plugging the teeth, and inserting artificial ones,
+was common. In one instance, five artificial teeth were found inserted
+in one subject. Ovens were found containing pottery partially baked,
+three feet below the surface, with large trees covering them, exhibiting
+an age of upwards of five hundred years. Magazines of arrow points, in
+one instance a "wagon body full," (about twenty bushels), lying within
+the space of a few feet. In a small mound in Adams county, Dr. D. found
+three large jars holding upwards of ten gallons of arrow points
+elaborately finished; and three similar in dimensions and finish, have
+lately been received by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, from South
+Carolina. Carvings representing the English bull dog, the camel and
+lama, have been found by Dr. Dickeson, from forty to sixty feet below
+the surface of the mound. The bricks, to which allusion has been made,
+are of various colors; some of a bright red, others dark brown, various
+shades of purple and yellow. Forty stamps of baked clay, containing a
+variety of figures used for stamping their skins. Pieces of coin, two of
+which found near Natches, had the figure of a bird on one side, and on
+the reverse an animal.
+
+The pottery found is quite extensive, some mounds have been opened in
+which were upwards of sixty vases, some quite plain, and others
+elaborately ornamented. Of the pottery, Dr. Dickeson has succeeded in
+getting upwards of a hundred fine specimens to Philadelphia, which are
+deposited with his other Indian relics and fossils, in the Museum of the
+Academy of Natural Sciences.
+
+Dr. Dickeson has kindly furnished me a catalogue of his collection of
+relics, from which I have selected the following to give an idea of the
+extent and variety of the objects found:
+
+     6000 Arrow points of jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartz, &c.,
+     &c.
+
+     150 Arrow points, finely polished, under one inch in length.
+
+     25 Arrow points, finely polished, under half an inch in
+     length.
+
+     1600 Unfinished Arrow and Spear points.
+
+     250 small stone Axes.
+
+     40 Quoits, Weights, &c.
+
+     20 Paint mullers.
+
+     10 Corn grinders.
+
+     3 large stone Mortars.
+
+     14 small earthen Heads of men, women and boys.
+
+     6 stone Statues, erect and sitting.
+
+A great variety of personal ornaments of jasper, chalcedony, pottery,
+beads, pearls, war clubs, war axes, mica mirrors, carved ornaments, arm
+bracelets, bone carvings, earthen plates, handled saucers, earthen
+lamps, a variety of vessels for culinary purposes, stone chisels, two
+copper medals, the tusk of a Mastodon, six feet long, elaborately carved
+with a serpent and human figures; cylindrical tubes of jasper
+perforated, ornaments in pumice, (lava), seals, bricks, jars, cups and
+vases in every variety.
+
+In addition to these, Dr. Dickeson has made a collection of upwards of
+sixty crania of the ancient mound builders, out of many thousand
+skeletons discovered by him in his several explorations. These possess
+much interest in an Ethnographic point of view, for the rigid test to
+which all his results have been subjected, have satisfied him that these
+skulls belong to the ancient race. Like the gentlemen in Ohio, whose
+labors have been noticed, the Doctor can at once detect the mounds and
+remains of the ancient, from those of the modern race. Some mounds he
+has found to be the work of three periods. At the top were the remains
+of the present race of Indians; digging lower he found these remains
+accompanied by ancient Spanish relics, of the period of the earliest
+Spanish visit to these parts; and below these, he discovered the remains
+and relics of the ancient race.
+
+The inscribed tablet discovered in the grave-creek mound, Virginia, and
+which was noticed by Mr. Schoolcraft in the first volume of the
+Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, continues to excite
+much interest. Mr. Jomard of the French Institute, read a second paper
+on that subject last year, before the Academy of Inscriptions and
+Belles-lettres at Paris, a copy of which he has transmitted to the
+Society.[4] He distinctly shows, that the letters of this curious
+inscription are identically the same as those of the Libyan on the
+monument of Thugga,[5] and of the Tuarycks used at this day. It is
+worthy of remark, that Mr. Hodgson in his "Notes on Africa,"[6] arrived
+at the same conclusion, without the knowledge that Mr. Jomard, some
+years previously, had asserted the Libyan character of this inscription,
+in a first note on the subject.[7] Such a coincidence gives force to the
+views adopted by both these gentlemen. The results to which the French
+savant has arrived, in his enquiry into this engraved stone or tablet,
+possess much interest, as it is the only relic yet discovered in North
+America, of an inscription bearing alphabetic characters,[8] which have
+been satisfactorily identified as such. This Numidian inscription, which
+title we may now apply to the engraved tablet in question, will be again
+alluded to, when we come to speak of the philological discoveries in
+Northern Africa, and of the Libyan alphabet.
+
+In conclusion Mr. Jomard observes, that at a remote period the Libyan
+language was spoken by various tribes in Northern Africa, and that it
+was a language written with characters, such as we now find on the
+Thugga edifice and other monuments; that it is still written with the
+same characters, particularly in the vicinity of Fezzan and in the
+deserts traversed by the Tuarycks, although this method of writing has
+been to so great an extent supplanted by Arabic letters that we must
+consider the Berber language, the language of Syouah, Sokna, Audjelah,
+and Gherma, as representing the remains of the ancient Libyan language
+in use in the most remote period; and finally, that in the interior of
+America, on a monument of which the age is unknown, but anterior to the
+settlement by Europeans, we find an engraved stone, bearing signs
+perfectly resembling the characters traced by the modern Tuarycks and by
+their ancestors, upon the rocks of Libya. Mr. Jomard's pamphlet contains
+an engraved table, in which are given, in parallel columns, the
+characters on the American tablet, the Tuaryck alphabet, the Thugga
+characters, and their value in Hebrew and Arabic.
+
+In connexion with this subject it may be added, that M. Berthelot, a
+learned traveller, states that there exists a striking affinity between
+the names of places and of men in the ancient language of the Canaries
+and certain Carib words.[9] The contiguity of the Canaries to the
+African continent is such, that we can readily suppose their ancient
+inhabitants to have had communication with it, whereby the Libyan
+language became known to them. A new field of enquiry is thus opened to
+philologists, and we may here seek for the means to unravel one of the
+most difficult questions connected with the origin of the American race,
+and the means by which they reached this continent, for we never have
+been among those who believed that America derived the mass of her
+population, her men and animals, from Asia, by the way of Behring's
+Straits.
+
+The author of a late work on California, New Mexico, &c., brings to our
+notice a tribe of Indians known as the Munchies (Mawkeys) or white
+Indians.[10] "This remarkable nation occupies a valley among the _Sierra
+de los Mimbros_ chain of mountains, upon one of the affluents of the
+river Gila, in the extreme northwestern part of the province of Sonora.
+They number about eight hundred persons. Their country is surrounded by
+lofty mountains at nearly every point, is well watered and very fertile.
+Their dwellings are excavated in the hill-sides, and frequently cut in
+the solid rock. They subsist by agriculture, and raise great numbers of
+horses, cattle and sheep. Among them are many of the arts and comforts
+of civilized life. They spin and weave, and make butter and cheese, with
+many of the luxuries known to more enlightened nations. Their government
+is after the patriarchal order, and is purely republican in its
+character. In morals they are represented as honest and virtuous. In
+religion they differ but little from other Indians. Their features
+correspond with those of Europeans, with a fair complexion and a form
+equally if not more graceful. In regard to their origin, they have lost
+all knowledge or even tradition; neither do their characters, manners,
+customs, arts or government savor of modern Europe."
+
+Another tribe of Indians called the Navijos, of whom we know but little,
+except that they have long had a place on the maps, is noticed by the
+same author. They occupy the country between the Del Norte and the
+Sierra Anahuac, in the province of Sonora, and have never succumbed to
+Spanish domination. "They possess a civilization of their own. Most of
+them live in houses built of stone, and cultivate the ground--raising
+vegetables and grain for a subsistence. They also raise large numbers of
+horses, cattle and sheep--make butter and cheese, and spin and weave."
+
+The blankets manufactured by these Indians are superior in beauty of
+color, texture and durability to the fabrics of their Spanish neighbors.
+Their government is in strict accordance with the welfare of the whole
+community. Dishonesty is held in check by suitable regulations, industry
+is encouraged by general consent, and hospitality by common practice. As
+warriors they are brave and daring, making frequent and bold excursions
+into the Spanish settlements, driving off herds of cattle, horses and
+sheep, and spreading terror and dismay on every side. As diplomatists,
+in imitation of their neighbors, they make and break treaties whenever
+interest and inclination prompts them.[11]
+
+The Navijo country is shut in by high mountains, inaccessible from
+without, except by limited passes through narrow defiles, well situated
+for defence on the approach of an invading foe. Availing themselves of
+these natural advantages, they have continued to maintain their ground
+against fearful odds, nor have they suffered the Spaniards to set foot
+within their territory as conquerors.
+
+The relations above given of the Mawkeys and Navijos (pronounced
+_Navihoes_, and sometimes so written), correspond with the accounts that
+from time to time have been brought to us, by hunters and trappers who
+have occasionally visited them. A few years since there appeared in the
+newspapers an account of both these tribes, by a trapper. He stated that
+the Mawkeys had "light, flaxen hair, blue eyes and skins of the most
+delicate whiteness."[12] I have two other accounts wherein both are
+described much as before stated. Their manufactures are particularly
+dwelt upon. Some of them wore shoes, stockings and other garments of
+their own make. Their stone houses are noticed as well as their large
+herds of cattle,--also their cultivation of fruits and vegetables. They
+raise cotton, which they manufacture into cloth, as well as wool. Fire
+arms are unknown to them. "Their dress is different from that of other
+Indians, and from their Spanish neighbors. Their shirts, coats and
+waistcoats are made of wool, and their small clothes and gaiters of deer
+skin."
+
+These accounts might be considered fanciful, had we not high authority
+which fully corroborates them. Humboldt says, "The Indians between the
+rivers Gila and Colorado, form a contrast with the wandering and
+distrustful Indians of the savannas to the east of New Mexico. Father
+Garces visited the country of the Moqui, and was astonished to find
+there an Indian town with two great squares, houses of several stories,
+and streets well laid out, and parallel to one another. The construction
+of the edifices of the Moqui is the same with that of the _Casas
+grandes_ on the banks of the Gila."[13]
+
+In Mr. Farnham's late work on California, is a notice of the Navijos
+from Dr. Lyman's report. The author begins by saying, that "they are the
+most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America."[14] Their
+extensive cultivation of maize and all kinds of vegetables--their
+rearing of "large droves of magnificent horses, equal to the finest
+horses of the United States in appearance and value," and their large
+flocks of sheep are also noticed. From the fleece of the sheep which is
+long and coarse resembling mohair, "they manufacture blankets of a
+texture so firm and heavy as to be perfectly impervious to water." They
+make a variety of colors with which they dye their cloths, besides
+weaving them in stripes and figures. They are constantly at war with the
+Mexicans, but stand in fear of the American trappers, with whom they
+have had some severe skirmishes, which resulted much to their
+disadvantage.[15]
+
+It is believed by Baron Humboldt and by others, that in the Navijos and
+Mawkeys we see the descendants of the same race of Indians which Cortez
+and the Spanish conquerors found in Mexico, in a semi-civilized state.
+We are unable to state whether any affinity exists between their
+language and the other Mexican dialects, as no vocabularies have been
+collected. The whiteness of their skins, their knowledge of the useful
+arts and agriculture, and the mechanical skill exhibited in their
+edifices at the present day, bear a striking analogy with the Mexican
+people at the period of the conquest, and as M. Humboldt observes,
+"appears to announce traces of the cultivation of the ancient Mexicans."
+The Indians have a tradition that 20 leagues north from the Moqui, near
+the mouth of the Rio Zaguananas, the banks of the Nabajoa were the first
+abode of the Aztecs after their departure from Atzlan. "On considering
+the civilization," adds Baron Humboldt, "which exists on several points
+of the northwest coast of America, in the Moqui and on the banks of the
+Gila, we are tempted to believe (and I venture to repeat it here) that
+at the period of the migration of the Toltecs, the Acolhues and the
+Aztecs, several tribes separated from the great mass of the people to
+establish themselves in these northern regions."[16]
+
+Connected with this subject and in evidence of the identity of these
+tribes with the Aztecs, it should be stated that there exists numerous
+edifices of stone in a ruined state, on the banks of the Gila, some of
+great extent, resembling the terraced edifices and teocallis of Mexico
+and Yucatan. One of these structures measures four hundred and
+forty-five feet in length by two hundred and seventy in breadth, with
+walls four feet in thickness. It was three stories high, with a terrace.
+The whole surrounding plain is covered with broken pottery and earthen
+ware, painted in various colors. Vestiges of an artificial canal are
+also to be seen.[17] Among the fragments are found pieces of obsidian, a
+volcanic substance not common to the country, and which is also found in
+the mounds in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, in both cases applied to
+the same uses.
+
+Some valuable contributions to the geography and ethnology of the vast
+region lying between the Rocky Mountains and Upper California and
+Oregon, have been made by Capt. Fremont of the U.S. corps of Engineers.
+The expedition under his command traversed the great desert, and
+examined portions of the country not before visited by white men. The
+information collected by this enterprising traveller will be of much
+service to the country in the new relations which may arise between the
+United States and California, as well as to persons who are seeking new
+homes in Oregon. The report of Captain, (now Col.) Fremont has been so
+widely circulated, and rendered so accessible to all who feel an
+interest in the subject, that it would be superfluous to give any
+analysis of the work at this time. So satisfactory were the results of
+the expedition of this accomplished officer to the country and the
+government, that he has again been sent to make further explorations of
+the country south of that previously visited by him, and which lies
+between Santa Fe and the Pacific Ocean. Colonel Fremont has in this
+expedition already rendered important services to the country, having
+the command of a detachment of troops in Upper California. This armed
+body of men will give him great advantages over an ordinary traveller in
+a wild and inhospitable country, where there are still tribes of Indians
+which have not yet been subjugated by the Spaniards, and which an
+unprotected traveller could not approach. Much interest has been
+awakened from the accounts already received from Col. Fremont, and it is
+to be hoped that ere long we shall be placed in possession of full
+reports of his explorations, which must throw much light on the
+geography of this vast region, its aboriginal inhabitants, productions,
+climate, &c.
+
+An exploratory journey in the isthmus of Panama has recently been made
+by M. Hillert, which has resulted in adding much important information
+to our previous knowledge of the country. It is known that there have
+been many surveys of the isthmus, with the view of opening a water
+communication between the oceans on either side. Such was the primary
+object of Mr. Hillert, who, it appears has also made enquiries as to the
+practicability of making a rail road across it. His observations on the
+junction of the two oceans by means of a canal have appeared in the
+bulletin of the Geographical Society of Paris for 1846, (pp. 306 and
+389), together with various letters from him on other subjects which
+attracted his attention.
+
+Among other things Mr. Hillert has made known a most valuable
+anti-venomous plant, the guaco, a creeping plant, which abounds in the
+forest of the Isthmus, the virtues of which were made known to him by
+the Indians. After rubbing the hands with the leaves of this plant, a
+person may handle scorpions and venomous insects with impunity, and
+mosquitoes after sucking the blood of those who had taken it inwardly
+died instantly. The geology and botany of the country received
+particular attention. M. Hillert proposes to introduce several of the
+most useful plants and vegetables into the French dominions in Senegal
+or Algeria, among them the plant from which the Panama hats are made. So
+valuable are the labors of this gentleman considered, that the French
+commission has awarded him the Orleans prize, for having introduced into
+France the most useful improvement in agriculture. Some ancient
+monumental edifices were discovered in the Isthmus, not far from the
+river Atrato, and others near the mines of Cano; besides these an
+ancient canal cut through the solid rock in the interval which separates
+the rivers Atrato and Darien.
+
+     NOTE.--The following list embraces all the books relating to
+     Oregon, California, and Mexico, printed during the last two
+     years.
+
+     Narrative of the exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains,
+     in the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California, in the
+     years 1843-4, by Capt. J.C. Fremont of the Topographical
+     Engineers, under the orders of Col. J.J. Abert, 8vo.
+     Washington, 1846.
+
+     Exploration du Territoire de l'Oregon, des Californies, et de la
+     Mer Vermeille, executee pendant les annees 1840, 41 et 42, par
+     M. Duflot de Mofras, Attache a la Legation de France a Mexico. 2
+     vols. 8vo. and folio atlas of maps and plates. Paris, 1845.
+
+     The Oregon Territory, claims thereto, of England and America
+     considered, its condition and prospects. By Alexander Simpson,
+     Esq. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     The Oregon Territory, a geographical and physical account of
+     that country and its inhabitants. By Rev. C.G. Nicholay. 18mo.
+     London, 1846.
+
+     The Oregon Question determined by the rules of International
+     law. By Edward J. Wallace of Bombay. 8vo. London, 1840.
+
+     The Oregon question. By the Hon. Albert Gallatin. 8vo. New
+     York, 1846.
+
+     The Oregon Question examined, in respect to facts and the laws
+     of nations. By Travers Twiss, D.C.L. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     The Oregon Question as it stands. By M.B. Sampson. London,
+     1846.
+
+     Prairiedom; Rambles and Scrambles in Texas and New Estremadura.
+     By a Southron. 12mo. New York, 1846.
+
+     Life in California during a residence of several years in that
+     Territory. By an American. To which is annexed an historical
+     account of the origin, customs and traditions of the Indians of
+     Alta California, from the Spanish. Post 8vo. New York, 1846.
+
+     An Essay on the Oregon Question, written for the Shakespeare
+     Club. By E.A. Meredith. Montreal, 1846.
+
+     The Topic No. 3. The Oregon Question. 4to. London, 1846.
+
+     Life in Prairie Land. By Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham. 12mo. New York,
+     1846.
+
+     Green's Journal of the Texan expedition against Mier;
+     subsequent Imprisonment of the Author; his Sufferings, and
+     final Escape from the Castle of Perote. With reflections upon
+     the present political and probable future relations of Texas,
+     Mexico, and the United States. Illustrated by Drawings taken
+     from Life by Charles M'Laughlin, a Fellow-prisoner. Engravings.
+     8vo.
+
+     Travels over the table lands and Cordilleras of Mexico, in
+     1843-4. With an appendix on Oregon and California. By Albert M.
+     Gilliam, late U.S. Counsul, California. 8vo. Philadelphia,
+     1846.
+
+     Recollections of Mexico. By Waddy Thompson, Esq., late Minister
+     Plenipotentiary of the U.S. at Mexico. 8vo. New York, 1846.
+
+     Altowan; or incidents of life and adventure in the Rocky
+     Mountains. By an Amateur Traveller. Edited by James Watson
+     Webb. 2 vol. 12mo. New York, 1846.
+
+     Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, New Mexico,
+     Texas, and Grand Prairies, including descriptions of the
+     different races inhabiting them, &c. By a New Englander. 12mo.
+     Philadelphia, 1846.
+
+     History of Oregon and California, and the other Territories on
+     the North West Coast of North America: from their discovery to
+     the present day. Accompanied by a geographical view of those
+     countries. By Robert Greenhow. 8vo. third edition. Boston,
+     1847.
+
+
+GREENLAND AND THE ARCTIC REGIONS. The Royal Society of Northern
+Antiquaries published, in 1845, Groenlands Historiske Mindesmaerker, (The
+Historical Monuments of Greenland), Vol. III., (958 pages, with 12
+copperplates), which closes this work. The 1st and 2d volumes, (pp. 814
+and 794 respectively), were published in 1838. After Professor Rafn had
+finished the compilation of his separate work, _Antiquitates Americanae_,
+which was published by the Society in 1837, he connected himself with
+Professor Finn Magnusen, for the purpose of editing--also under the
+auspices of the Society--the great collection of original written
+sources of the ancient history of that remarkable polar land, which was
+first seen in 877, and colonized in 986. With a view of doing all that
+lay in its power to throw light on ancient Greenland, the Society,
+during the ten years from 1832 to 1841, caused journies to be undertaken
+and explorations to be performed in such of the Greenland firths as were
+of the greatest importance in respect of the ancient colonization. By
+excavations made among the ruins remaining from the ancient colony,
+there was obtained a collection of inscriptions and other antiquities,
+which are now preserved in the American Museum erected by the Society,
+and drawings were taken of the ground plans of several edifices. Of the
+reports received on this occasion, we must in an especial manner notice,
+as exhibiting evidence of the most assiduous care, and as moreover
+embracing the most important part of the country, the exploration
+undertaken by the Rev. George T. Joergensen, of the firths of Igalikko
+and Tunnudluarbik, where the most considerable ruins are situated. The
+present, vol. III., contains, extracts from annals, and a collection of
+Documents relating to Greenland, compiled by Finn Magnusen; (to this
+part appertains a plate exhibiting seals of the Greenland Bishops);
+ancient geographical writings, compiled by Finn Magnusen and Charles C.
+Rafn; the voyages of the brothers Zeno, with introductory remarks and
+notes by Dr. Bredsdorff; a view of more recent voyages for the
+re-discovery of Greenland, by Dr. C. Pingel, an antiquarian chorography
+of Greenland, drawn up by J.J.A. Warsaae, from the accounts furnished
+by various travellers of the explorations undertaken by them. The work
+is closed by a view of the ancient geography of Greenland, by Professor
+Charles C. Rafn, based on a collation of the notices contained in the
+ancient manuscripts and the accounts of the country furnished by the
+travellers. To which is added a list of the bishops and a chronological
+conspectus of the ancient and modern history of the country, a
+historical index of names, a geographical index, and an antiquarian
+index rerum. Copperplate maps are annexed of the two most important
+districts of ancient Greenland--the eastern settlement, (Eystribygd),
+and the western settlement, (Vestribygd), exhibiting the position of
+the numerous ruins. Moreover, plans and elevations of the most important
+ecclesiastical ruins and other rudera; also delineations of runic stones
+and other northern antiquities found in Greenland.
+
+_Scripta Historica Islandorum_, latine reddita et apparatu critico
+instructa, curante Societate Regia Antiquariorum Septentrionalium. Vol.
+XII. The edition first commenced by the Society, of the historical Sagas
+recording events which happened out of America, (Iceland, Greenland and
+Vinland), particularly in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, in the original
+Icelandic text with two translations, one into Latin, and another into
+Danish, (36 vols.) has now been brought to a completion, by the
+publication of the above mentioned volume, (pp. 658 in 8vo.) wherein are
+contained Regesta Geographica to the whole work, which for this large
+cyclus of Sagas may be considered as tantamount to an old northern
+geographical gazetteer, in as much as attention has also been paid to
+other old northern manuscripts of importance in a geographical point of
+view. Complete, however, it cannot by any means be called, neither as
+regards Iceland especially and other lands in America, whose copious
+historical sources have, in the present instance, been but partially
+made use of, nor also as regards the European countries without the
+Scandinavian North, for whose remote history and ancient geography the
+old northern writings contain such important materials, but it is to be
+hoped that the Society will in due time take an opportunity of extending
+its labors in that direction also. The present volume does, however,
+contain a number of names of places situated without the bounds of
+Scandinavia in countries of which mention is made in the writings
+published in the work itself. To the name of each place is annexed its
+Icelandic or old Danish form, and the position of the place is
+investigated by means of comparison with other historical data and with
+modern geography.
+
+Sir John Franklin who left about two years on a voyage of exploration,
+in the Arctic regions of America, remains in those inhospitable parts.
+Much anxiety is felt for him as no tidings have been received from him.
+It is to be hoped that his voyage will prove successful and that before
+the close of the present year, he may return.
+
+The Hudson's Bay Company has lately fitted out an expedition, for the
+purpose of surveying the unexplored portion of the coast on the
+northeast angle of the North American continent. The expedition, which
+consists of thirteen persons, is under the command of one of the
+company's officers. It started on the 5th July, in two boats, under
+favorable circumstances;--the ice having cleared away from the shores of
+the bay at an earlier period of the year than usual.[18]
+
+A memoir on the Indian tribes beyond the Rocky mountains, and
+particularly those along the shores of the Pacific ocean, from
+California to Behring's straits, with comparative vocabularies of their
+languages, is preparing for publication by the Hon. Albert Gallatin,
+from authentic materials. Mr. Hale, philologist of the United States
+Exploring Expedition, has made a valuable contribution to the Ethnology
+of this region, in his volume, entitled "Ethnology and Philology," being
+the seventh volume of the U.S. Exploring Expedition.
+
+     Recent Works on the Arctic Regions.
+
+     Barrow's (Sir J.) Voyages of Discovery and Research within the
+     Arctic Regions, from the year 1818 to the present time, in
+     search of a north-west passage, from the Atlantic to the
+     Pacific; with two attempts to reach the North Pole. Abridged
+     from the official narratives, with remarks by Sir John Barrow.
+     8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Americas Arctiske landes gamle geographie efter de Nordiske
+     Oldskriefter ved C.C. Rafn. 8vo. Copenhagen, 1846.
+
+
+
+
+SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+
+The French expedition which has been engaged for the last three years in
+exploring the interior of South America, has at length reached Lima,
+from which place Count Castelnau has transmitted a detailed report of
+his journey, to the French Minister of Public Instruction.[19]
+
+This expedition is by far the most important that has yet been sent out
+for the exploration of South America, and has already traversed a large
+portion of its central parts, little known to geographers. Their first
+journey was across the country from Rio Janeiro to Goyaz, on the head
+waters of the river Araguay (Lat. 16 deg. 11' S. Long. 50 deg. 29' W.) which
+river they descended to its junction with the Tocantiu, and then
+returned by the last named river and the desert of the Chavantes.
+
+They made another journey to the north of Cuyaba, to explore the diamond
+mines, and examine the sources of the Paraguay and Arenos. In the next
+journey,[20] the particulars of which have just been communicated from
+Lima, the expedition descended the rivers Cuyaba and San Lorenzo to
+Paraguay. During this voyage they entered the country of the Guatos
+Indians, one of the most interesting tribes of the American aborigines.
+"The features of these Indians," says the Count, "are extremely
+interesting;--never in my life having seen finer, or any more widely
+differing from the ordinary type of the red man. Their large, well
+opened eyes, with long lashes, nose aquiline and admirably modelled, and
+a long, black beard, would make them one of the finest races in the
+world, had not their habit of stooping in the canoe bowed the legs of
+the greater number. Their arms, consisting of very large bows, with
+arrows seven feet long, demand great bodily strength--and their address
+in the use of them passes imagination. These savages are timid,
+nevertheless, and of extreme mildness. By taking them for our guides,
+and attaching them by small presents, we were enabled to explore parts
+wholly unknown, of that vast net-work of rivers which they are
+constantly traversing." In Paraguay the party met a tribe of the
+celebrated Guaycurus nation. These people are eminently
+equestrian--transporting their baggage, women and effects of every kind
+on horseback, across the most arid deserts. They are mortal foes to the
+Spaniards, and a terror to the whole frontier. They wear their hair
+long, and paint themselves, black or red, after a very grotesque and
+irregular fashion; the two sides of their bodies are generally painted
+in a different manner. "Their chief arms are the lance, knife, and a
+club, which they throw with great precision at a full gallop. Their hats
+are made of hides. Each warrior has his mark, which he burns with a red
+hot iron on all that belongs to him--his horses, dogs and even wives.
+One of the most atrocious traits in the manners of this people, is that
+of putting to death all children born of mothers under thirty years of
+age."
+
+After traversing the country between Paraguay and Brazil, the expedition
+proceeded north by the river Paraguay, and passed the mouths of the San
+Lorenzo, where it entered the great lake Gaiva, and from thence the
+greater lake Uberava, the limits of which could not be traced, being
+lost in the horizon. An Indian told the Count that he had travelled for
+three whole days in his canoe, without finding its extremity, which
+supposes a length of twenty-five or thirty leagues. This great inland
+sea is unknown to geographers. At Villa Maria a caravan of mules awaited
+the travellers, when they entered the desert or Gran Chaco, as it is
+called, and proceeded to the town of Matto-Grosso, which is considered
+the most pestiferous place in the world. Out of a population of 1200
+souls, there were found but four whites, of whom three were officers of
+the government; all the rest was composed of blacks and Indians of every
+variety and color, who alone are able to support this terrible climate.
+
+From this place the expedition proceeded to Santa Cruz of the Sierra,
+where they found bread, of which they had been deprived for two years;
+after a month's repose, a journey of eight days brought the party to
+Chuquisaca, in Bolivia, and from thence by Potosi to Lima.
+
+The results of this expedition are already of great interest. It will
+make known people, the names of which were unknown to geographers.
+Rivers which appear on our maps are found not to exist, while hitherto
+unknown rivers and large bodies of water have been discovered. Many
+geographical positions have been determined, and the particulars of the
+trade which is extensively carried on in the centre of this vast
+continent by means of caravans of mules, are made known.
+
+M. de Castelnau has paid particular attention to the productions of the
+country, with a view of introducing such as are valuable into the French
+colony of Algeria. Large collections in Natural History have already
+been received at the museum in Paris; observations on terrestrial
+magnetism and meteorology have been made, in fact, no department of
+science seems to have been neglected by the expedition, which will
+reflect great credit on its distinguished head, Count Castelnau, as well
+as on the French government, by whose liberality and zeal for the
+promotion of science it has been supported.
+
+From Lima, Count Castelnau intended to prosecute further researches in
+the country of the Incas, after which he would proceed to the Amazon
+river.
+
+PERU. Some interesting remains of the ancient Peruvians, have lately
+been brought to light in the Province of Chachapoyas, about five hundred
+and fifty miles north of Lima and two hundred and fifty miles from the
+coast. The particulars of these ruins were communicated by Senor Nieto
+to the prefect of the Department.[21] "The principal edifice is an
+immense wall of hewn stone, three thousand six hundred feet in length,
+five hundred and sixty feet in width and one hundred feet high.[22] It
+is solid in the interior and level on the top, upon which is another
+wall six hundred feet in length, of the same breadth and height as the
+former, and like it solid to its summit. In this elevation, and also in
+that of the lower wall, are a great many rooms eighteen feet long and
+fifteen wide, in which are found neatly constructed niches, containing
+bones of the ancient dead, some naked and some in shrouds or blankets,"
+placed in a sitting posture.
+
+From the base of this structure commences an inclined plane gradually
+ascending to its summit, on which is a small watch tower. From this
+point, the whole of the plain below, with a considerable part of the
+province, including the capital, eleven leagues distant, may be seen.
+
+In the second wall or elevation are also openings resembling ovens, six
+feet high, and from 20 to 30 feet in circumference. In these, skeletons
+were found. The cavities in the adjoining mountain were found to contain
+heaps of human remains perfectly preserved in their shrouds, which were
+made of cotton of various colors. Still farther up this mountain was "a
+wall of square stones, with small apertures like windows, but which
+could not be reached without a ladder," owing to a perpendicular rock
+which intervened. The Indians have a superstitious horror of the place,
+in consequence of the mummies it contains, and refused to assist the
+exploring party, believing that fatal diseases would be produced by
+touching these ghastly remains of their ancestors. They were therefore
+compelled to abandon their researches, though surrounded by objects of
+antiquity of great interest.
+
+Mr. Chas. Frederick Neumann, a distinguished oriental scholar of Munich,
+has lately published a work "On the Condition of Mexico in the Fifth
+Century of our Era, according to Chinese writers." It purports to be an
+account of that country, called Fu-Sang, in the Chinese annals. De
+Guignes, in his celebrated work on China, supposes that America was the
+country referred to, while Klaproth, on the contrary, believes it to be
+Japan.
+
+It is stated in the English papers[23] that an expedition, which
+promises the most important results, both to science and commerce, is at
+this moment fitting out for the purpose of navigating some of the great
+unexplored rivers of South America. It is to be under the command of
+Lord Ranelagh; and several noblemen and gentlemen have already
+volunteered to accompany his lordship. The enterprising and scientific
+band will sail as soon as the necessary arrangements are completed. He
+proposes to penetrate, by some of the great tributaries of the Amazon,
+into the interior of Bolivar--for which purpose a steamer will be taken
+out in pieces. Returning to the Amazon, he will ascend this great river
+to its highest sources. The distance and means of communication between
+the Pacific and the basin of the Amazon will be minutely examined.
+
+Another scientific expedition has been sent out by the French Government
+to its West India colonies and the northerly parts of South America,
+under M. Charles Deville, a report from whom was read at a meeting of
+the Paris Academy of Sciences in June last. Its publication was
+recommended.
+
+The French Government gave notice to the same Academy, at its meeting on
+the 31st August last, of an intended expedition by Lieut. Tardy
+Montravel, to the Amazon river and its branches, with the steamer
+Alecton and the Astrolabe corvette; and invited the Academy to prepare a
+programme with a view to facilitate the researches which M. de Montravel
+is charged to make.
+
+     NOTE.--The following is a list of the books relating to South
+     America which have recently been published.
+
+     Historia fisica y politica de Chile segun documentos adquiredos
+     en esta Republica durante doze anos de residencia en ella, y
+     publicada bajo los auspicios del supremo gobierno. 7 livr. 8vo.
+     with an Atlas of 27 plates. Paris. 1844.
+
+     Memoria geografico economico-politica del departmento de
+     Venezuela, publicada en 1824 por el intendente de ejercito D.
+     Jose M. Aurrecoechea, quien la reimprime con varias notas
+     aclaratorias y un apendice. Quarto. Madrid. 1846.
+
+     Twenty-four years in the Argentine Republic, embracing the
+     author's personal adventures, with the history of the country,
+     &c. &c., with the circumstances which led to the interposition
+     of England and France. By Col. J.A. King. 1 vol. 12mo. New
+     York. 1846.
+
+     Travels in the interior of Brazil, principally through the
+     northern provinces, and the gold and diamond districts, in
+     1836-1841. By George Canning. 8vo. London. 1846.
+
+     Travels in Peru, during the years 1838-1842, on the coast, and
+     in the Sierra, across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the
+     primeval forests. By Dr. J.J. Tschudi. 2 vols. 12mo. New York.
+     1847.
+
+     Mr. Thomas Ewbank is preparing for the press a work on Brazil,
+     being observations made during a twelve months' residence in
+     that country. From a personal acquaintance with this gentleman,
+     his reputation as a man of observation, and his well known
+     capacity as a writer, we think a valuable book may be expected.
+
+
+
+
+AFRICA.
+
+
+The zeal which was manifested a few years since for the discovery and
+exploration of the interior of Africa, and which seemed to have
+terminated with the Landers, and the unsuccessful voyage of the steamers
+up the Niger, has again shown itself, and we now find as much curiosity
+awakened, and as much zeal manifested for geographical discovery in this
+vast continent, and the solution of questions for ages in doubt, as has
+been exhibited at any former period.
+
+The Travels of M. d'Abaddie, Dr. Beke, Isenberg, and others make known
+to us the immense extent and windings of the Bahr-el-Abiad and the
+Bahr-el-Azrek, or the white and blue Nile, but they have not yet been
+traced to their rise, and the solution of the question of the true
+source of the Nile, remains still unsettled.
+
+We have received from Mr. Jomard, member of the French Institute, a work
+entitled "Observations sur le voyage au Darfour" from an account given
+by the Sheikh Mohammed-el-Tounsy, accompanied by a vocabulary of the
+language of the people, and remarks on the white Nile by Mr. Jomard.
+This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of a portion of the
+interior of Africa, only known to us by the visit of Mr. Browne in 1794,
+and forms a link in the chain between Lake Tchad and a region of country
+quite unexplored, and of which we have no knowledge whatever.
+
+We have some information of interest, relating to Senegal, communicated
+to the Royal Geographical Society of London,[24] being a narrative of
+Mr. Thomson, linguist to the Church Missionary Society at Sierra Leone,
+from that place to Timbo, the capital of Futah Jallo. His place is about
+four hundred miles northeast of Sierra Leone. "The principal object of
+the mission, was to open a road for a regular line of traffic through
+that country, between the colony and the negro states on the Joliba or
+Niger."
+
+Mr. Thomson's narrative is full of interest and shows the great
+hardships to be encountered in effecting a communication with the
+interior. No man could be better prepared for such an enterprize, both
+by knowledge of the languages of the country, and the manners of the
+people; zeal, perseverance, and courage, also were prominent traits in
+his character; yet his enterprize failed and death cut him off, when on
+the point of starting for the eastward.
+
+An expedition more successful in its results, has been undertaken in
+Dahomey on the Guinea coast, the particulars of which are given in the
+Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, (vol. 16.) This
+journey was performed by Mr. John Duncan, from Cape Coast to Whyddah,
+and from the latter about five hundred miles due north, through the
+Dahomey country to Adofoodiah. Although the king of Ashantee had refused
+permission for Mr. Duncan to pass through his territory, and had
+endeavored to prejudice the king of Dahomey against him, he was received
+with great kindness by the latter, and every facility given him to
+travel in his dominions. A guard of one hundred men was furnished to
+accompany him--a path was cleared for upwards of one hundred miles, and
+arrangements made so that at every village through which he passed,
+provisions were always waiting, ready cooked for them. Among the strange
+things seen by this traveller was a review of six thousand Female
+troops, well armed and accoutred. Their appearance, for an uncivilized
+nation, was surprising, and their performance still more so. The slave
+trade is carried on extensively in Dahomey. In the market of Adofoodiah,
+articles from the Mediterranean, and from Bornou in the interior were
+exposed for sale, showing the immense extent of the trade of the
+country. He met people from Timbuctoo and gathered some particulars of
+that remarkable city, as well as some information respecting Mungo
+Park's death. This enterprising traveller has lately been provided with
+the means to enable him to set out on a new journey with a determination
+to penetrate the country to Timbuctoo, from whence he will endeavour to
+follow the Niger to its mouth.
+
+The American Missionaries at the Gaboon, (Western Africa), with a view
+of establishing a mission in the Pong-wee country have been preparing a
+grammar of the Pong-wee language, the peculiarities of which are such as
+to deserve notice. The Missionaries call it "one of the most perfect
+languages of which they have any knowledge. It is not so remarkable for
+copiousness of words as for its great and almost unlimited flexibility.
+Its expansions, contractions, and inflections though exceedingly
+numerous, and having, apparently, special reference to euphony, are all
+governed by grammatical rules, which seem to be well established in the
+minds of the people, and which enable them to express their ideas with
+the utmost precision. How a language so soft, so plaintive, so pleasant
+to the ear, and at the same time so copious and methodical in its
+inflections, should have originated, or how the people are enabled to
+retain its multifarious principles so distinctly in their minds as to
+express themselves with almost unvarying precision and, uniformity, are
+points which we do not pretend to settle. It is spoken coastwise nearly
+two hundred miles, and perhaps with some dialectic differences, it
+reaches the Congo river. How far it extends into the interior is not
+satisfactorily known."[25]
+
+An attempt to penetrate this continent from the north has been made by
+Mr. James Richardson, by advices from whom it appears that on the 23d
+November, 1845, he had reached Ghadames, in the Great Desert, where he
+had been residing for three months, and whence he was to start on the
+following day, with a negro and a Moor, for Soudan. If successful in
+reaching that country, he intended to proceed to Timbuctoo and other
+parts of the interior. Mr. Richardson was well received by the people
+and Sultan of Ghadames; but his journey to Sackatoo the capital of
+Soudan, which would take three months to accomplish, through some of the
+wildest tribes and without any guarantee from the English or Ottoman
+government, was considered foolhardy and desperate.[26]
+
+Later accounts state that Mr. Richardson had returned after a successful
+exploration in the very centre of the Great Zahara, and that he has
+collected important information relating to the slave trade, one of the
+objects of his undertaking. We shall look forward with interest to the
+publication of his travels.[27]
+
+The details of the expedition under M. Raffenel of the French navy and
+other scientific gentlemen, up the Senegal, have just been
+published.[28] The party ascended the Senegal to the river Faleme, and
+from the mouth of the Faleme they penetrated the country to Sansanzig.
+They then visited the gold mines of Kenieba, on the Bambouk, the country
+of Galam, Bondou and Woolli, and returned by the river Gambia. Seven
+months were spent on this expedition. They found the country beautiful,
+but its cultivation neglected, and of course little was produced. They
+visited the place where the French were formerly established, with the
+view of making treaties with the natives for its occupation anew. Few
+traces of the colony were to be found. They were kindly received by the
+various tribes of aborigines, wherever they went; though when at the
+extreme point of their journey, owing to the wars among the natives,
+they did not think it safe to proceed farther. The results of the
+expedition are interesting to science, as well as to the friends of
+humanity, who wish to improve the condition of this people.
+
+For the more complete exploration of this portion of the African
+continent, it has been proposed to send another expedition under M.
+Raffenel for the purpose. This gentleman has submitted a memoir to the
+Minister of Marine, by whom it was presented to the Geographical Society
+of Paris. The result was favorable, and Mr. Raffenel has been provided
+with instructions for his guidance in his proposed journey.
+
+A journey of exploration and civilization in Soudan, is about to be
+undertaken by four Jesuits from Rome--Bishop Casolani, and Fathers
+Ryllo, Knoblica, and Vinco. Casolani and Ryllo will start from Cairo in
+January, 1847--having previously obtained a Firman from Constantinople;
+and, proceeding through Upper Egypt, Nubia, and thence by Kordofau and
+Darfour, they hope to reach Bornou,--and meet there their brethren, who
+travel by the way of Tripoli and Mouryok. Should they be fortunate
+enough to meet, it will then be determined which route shall afterwards
+be followed. They have determined to accomplish what they have
+undertaken, or perish in the attempt. From the high character of all the
+parties, great hopes are entertained of the result of this journey. They
+are all men of extensive learning, and familiar with the languages,
+manners and customs of the East.[29]
+
+A project is on foot in London and a prospectus has been issued for a
+new Expedition of Discovery to penetrate the interior of Africa from the
+eastern side. Many advantages are presented by beginning the work of
+exploration here; among them, the populousness and civilization of
+Eastern Africa, which is in general superior to that of the western
+coast. The languages of the former bear a close affinity to each other,
+and extend over a very large space, which is not the case with the
+latter. "The absence of foreign influence, (particularly of the
+Portuguese, by whom the slave trade is carried on), and the readiness of
+the Sultan of Muscat to listen to British counsels," are strong
+inducements to carry out the scheme proposed.[30]
+
+Lieutenant Ruxton of the Royal Navy, who has lately made an interesting
+journey into Africa from the southwestern coast, near the island of
+Ichaboe, is about to undertake a second journey with the intention of
+crossing the continent from this point to the eastern coast, under the
+sanction of the British Government.
+
+Some valuable contributions have been made to our knowledge of the
+geography of Southern Africa by Mr. Cooley[31] and Mr. McQueen,[32]
+which tend to elucidate portions of this continent hitherto enveloped
+in much obscurity. Mr. Cooley's investigations relate to the country
+extending from Loango and Congo, the Portuguese settlements in Western
+Africa, to the eastern coast between Zanzibar and Sofala, in lat. 20 deg.
+South.
+
+He commences by examining the statements of the Portuguese geographers
+of the 16th century, Lopez, Joao Dos Santos, Do Couto, and Pigafetta.
+"The information collected by Lopez, was elaborated by Pigafetta into a
+system harmonizing with the prevalent opinions of the age, and in this
+form was published in 1591. Yet in the midst of this editor's theories,
+we can at times detect the simple truth." Much confusion seems to have
+arisen by misapplying the names of lakes, rivers and people, as this
+information was in a great degree derived from natives, and not properly
+understood by the persons who received it from them. Mr. Cooley, by a
+rigid examination of these various statements, together with the
+accounts derived from later writers and from native traders, has been
+enabled to rectify the errors which had crept in, and clear up much that
+had been considered fabulous. The great lake called N'Yassi, and the
+natives occupying the country around it, are among the most interesting
+subjects of our author's enquiries. This lake, or sea, as it is called
+by the natives, is some five or six hundred miles from the eastern
+coast. Its breadth in some places is about fifteen miles, while in
+others, the opposite shores cannot be seen. Its length is unknown,
+neither extremity having been traced. It probably exceeds five hundred
+miles, according to the best authority. Numerous islands filled with a
+large population, are scattered among its waters. It is navigated by
+bark canoes, twenty feet long, capable of holding twenty persons. Its
+waters are fresh, and it abounds in fish. The people seem more advanced
+in civilization than any African nations south of the Equator, of which
+we have knowledge. Pereira, who spent six months at Cazembe, in 1796,
+describes the people as similar, in point of civilization, to the
+Mexicans and Peruvians, at the time of the conquest. The nation called
+the Monomoesi, or Mucaranga, north of the lake, as well as the Movisa,
+on its opposite shores, are a tall and handsome race, with a brown
+complexion. "They are distinguished for their industry, and retain the
+commercial habits for which they were noted two centuries and a half
+ago, when their existence was first known through the Portuguese. They
+descend annually to Zanzibar in large numbers. The journey to the coast
+and back again, takes nine or ten months, including the delay of
+awaiting the proper season for returning. They are clothed in cotton of
+their own manufacture; but the most obvious mark of their superiority
+above other nations of Eastern Africa is, that they employ beasts of
+burden, for their merchandize is conveyed to the coast laden on asses of
+a fine breed." Mr. Cooley believes that "the physical advantages and
+superior civilization of these tribes, who are not negroes," explain the
+early reports which led the Portuguese to believe that the empire of
+Prestor John was not far off.
+
+Mr. M'Queen's memoirs consist of the details of a journey made by Lief
+Ben Saeid, a native of Zanzibar, to the great lake N'Yassi, or Maravi,
+alluded to in Mr. Cooley's memoir. This visit was made in the year 1831.
+The facts collected corroborate what has been stated by Mr. Cooley. He
+found the country level, filled with an active population, civil to
+strangers, and honest in their dealings. A very extensive trade was
+carried on in ivory, and a peculiar oil, of a reddish color. The
+Manumuse (Mono-moezi) are pagans, and both sexes go nearly naked. Near
+the lake there are no horses or camels, but plenty of asses, and a few
+elephants. The houses on the road and at the lake, are made of wood and
+thatched with grass. Dogs are numerous, and very troublesome. Some are
+of a very large kind.[33]
+
+The region which forms the subject of the memoirs just alluded to, is
+doubtless one of the most interesting fields for exploration of any on
+the African continent. The languages spoken by the several nations
+between the two oceans, which are here separated by a space of sixteen
+or seventeen hundred miles, in a direct line, are believed to belong to
+one great family, or at least to present such traces of affinity, that
+an expedition, if sufficiently strong, aided by interpreters from the
+Zanzibar coast or the Monomoezi tribes, might traverse the continent
+without difficulty. Obstacles might be thrown in the way by the
+Portuguese traders, who would naturally feel jealous at any
+encroachments by rival nations; but by a proper understanding, these
+might be overcome, and this interesting and hitherto unknown portion of
+Central Africa be laid open to commerce and civilization.
+
+The latest attempt to explore this region was that of M. Maizan, a young
+officer in the French navy, who towards the close of the year 1844, set
+out for the purpose. In April, 1845, he left Zanzibar, furnished with a
+firman from Sultan Said to the principal chiefs of the tribes of the
+interior, though in reality they enjoyed the most complete independence.
+Having been warned that a chief, named Pazzy, manifested hostile
+intentions towards him, he stopped some time on his way, and after
+having acquired information relating to the country he wished to survey,
+he made a grand _detour_ round the territory over which this savage
+chief exercised his authority. After a march of twenty days, he reached
+the village of Daguelamohor, which is but three days' journey from the
+coast in a direct line, where he awaited the arrival of his baggage,
+which he had entrusted to an Arab servant. This man, it appears, had
+communication with Pazzy, and had informed him of the route his master
+had taken. Pazzy, with some men of his tribe, overtook M. Maizan towards
+the end of July, at Daguelamohor, and surrounded the house in which he
+lived. After tying him with cords to a palisade, the savage ordered his
+men to cut the throat of their unfortunate victim.[34]
+
+Mr. M'Queen gives some particulars obtained from a native African
+relating to the country between Lake Tchad, or Tshadda and Calabar. This
+portion of the African continent has never been visited by Europeans,
+and although little can be gained of its geography from the statements
+of this man, there is much in them that is interesting on the
+productions of the country, the natives, their manners, customs, &c.
+
+
+ALGIERS.
+
+The publication by the French government of the results of the great
+scientific expedition to Algeria has thrown much light on the districts
+embraced in Algiers and the regency of Tunis, as well as on the
+countries far in the interior. Among the subjects which have received
+the particular attention of the commission, are, 1. An examination of
+the routes followed by the Arabs in the south of Algiers and Tunis;
+2. Researches into the geography and commerce of Southern Algiers, by
+Capt. Carette; 3. A critical analysis of the routes of the caravans
+between Barbary and Timbuctoo, with remarks on the nature of the western
+Sahara, and on the tribes which occupy it, by M. Renou; 4. A series of
+interesting memoirs on the successive periods of the political and
+geographical history of Algiers from the earliest period to the present
+time, by M. Pelissier; 5. The History of Africa, translated from the
+Arabic of Mohammed-ben-Abi-el-Raini-el-Kairouani, by M. Remusat, giving
+a particular account of the earliest Musselman period.
+
+Gen. Marey in an account of his expedition to Laghouat in Algeria,
+published in Algiers in 1845, has contributed important information on
+this country, which deserves a rank with the great work of the
+scientific expedition.[35] In this work the author has corrected the
+erroneous opinion which has long been held, of the barrenness of the
+Sahara. Among the Arabs this word _Sahara_ does not convey the idea
+which the world has generally given it, of a desert or uninhabitable
+place, but the contrary. Like every country, it presents some excellent
+and luxuriant spots, others of a medium quality as to soil, and others
+entirely barren, not susceptible of cultivation. By _Sahara_, the Arabs
+mean a country of pastures, inhabited by a pastoral people; while, to
+the provinces between the Atlas mountains and the sea, they apply the
+name of _Tell_, meaning a country of cereals, and of an agricultural
+people.
+
+M. Carette, in his exploration of this region, has also discovered the
+false notion long imbibed in relation to it. "The Sahara," says he, "was
+for a long time deformed by the exaggerations of geographers, and by the
+reveries of poets. Called by some the Great Desert, from its sterility
+and desolation, by others the country of dates, the Sahara had become a
+fanciful region, of which our ignorance increased its proportions and
+fashioned its aspect. From the mountains which border the horizon of
+Tell, to the borders of the country of the blacks, it was believed that
+nature had departed from her ordinary laws, renouncing the variety which
+forms the essential character of her works, and had here spread an
+immense and uniform covering, composed of burning plains, over which
+troops of savage hordes carried their devastating sway. Such is not the
+nature, such is not the appearance of the Sahara."
+
+This region, occupying so large a portion of the African continent, "is
+a vast archipelago of oases, of which each presents an animated group of
+towns and villages. Around each is a large enclosure of fruit trees. The
+palm is the king of these plantations, not only from the elevation of
+its trunk, but from the value of its product, yet it does not exclude
+other species. The fig, the apricot, the peach and the vine mingle their
+foliage with the palm."
+
+The Algerine Sahara has lately been the object of a special work of Col.
+Daumas who intends completing the researches begun by Gen. Marey and the
+members of the scientific commission. He has made an excursion to the
+borders of the desert, and has collected much that is new and
+interesting in ethnology, particularly relating to the Tuarycks, a great
+division of the Berber race whose numerous tribes occupy all the western
+part of the great desert.[36]
+
+Among the interesting Ethnological facts which the late expeditions in
+this region have brought to light, is that of the existence of a white
+race, inhabiting the Aures mountains, (_mons Aurarius_) in the province
+of Constantine.[37] Dr. Guyon, of the French army of Africa, took
+advantage of an expedition sent out by General Bedeau to the Aures, to
+collect information about this people, to whom other travellers had
+referred. He describes them as having a white skin, blue eyes and flaxen
+hair. They are not found by themselves, but predominate more or less
+among various tribes. They hold a middle rank, and go but rarely with
+the Kabyles and the Arabs. They are lukewarm in observances of the
+Koran, on which account the Arabs esteem them less than the Kabyles.
+They are more numerous in the tribe of the Mouchaias, who speak a
+language in which words of Teutonic origin have been recognized. In
+Constantine where they are numerous, they exercise the trades of butcher
+and baker. Late writers believe that they are the remains of the Vandals
+driven from the country by Belisarius.
+
+M. Bory de Saint Vincent in making some observations to the Academy of
+Sciences, on the paper of Dr. Guyon, exhibited portraits of individuals
+of this white race, which had been engraved for the Scientific
+Commission, and stated his belief that they were evidently of the
+northern Gothic and Vandal type.[38]
+
+In Northern Africa, an important discovery has lately been made of the
+ancient Libyan alphabet, by Mr. F. de Saulcy, member of the French
+Institute. This curious result has been produced, by a study of the
+bilingual inscription on the monument of Thugga, which is published in
+the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of New
+York. The reading of the Phoenician part of this bilingual inscription
+having been established, the value of the Libyan or Numidian letters of
+the counter part, has been as clearly proved, as the hieroglyphic part
+of the Rosetta stone has been established, from a comparison with the
+Greek text of that bilingual inscription.
+
+By this discovery, a vast progress has been made in the ethnography and
+history of ancient Africa. Two facts of the greatest consequence have
+been established by it:--That the Libyan language was that of Numidia,
+at the early period of its history, when the Phoenicians were settled
+there; that the Numidians of that early day, used their own peculiar
+letters for writing their own language. To these facts, may be added
+another of no less ethnographic value; that the present Numidian or
+Berber race of the great Sahara, who are called Tuarycks, make use of
+these identical letters at this day.
+
+For this recent and valuable acquisition to science, we are again
+indebted to Mr. de Saulcy,[39] who has published a Tuaryck alphabet as
+communicated to him by Mr. Boisonnet, Captain of Artillery at Algiers.
+It was furnished to him by an educated native of the Oasis of Touat, in
+the great Sahara, and is called by him _Kalem-i-Tefinag_.[40] What the
+_writing of Tefinag_ means, it would be curious to know. This Touatee,
+Abd-el-Kader, has promised more extended information, in relation to the
+writing of the Tuarycks, than which, no more valuable contribution to
+African ethnography can be imagined. He asserts that, the Tuarycks
+engrave or scratch on the rocks of the Sahara, numerous inscriptions,
+either historic or erotic. This subject has been alluded to by Mr.
+Hodgson, in his "_Notes on Africa_" in which he mentions the Tuaryck
+letters copied by Denham and Clapperton.
+
+The impulse first given by our countryman Mr. Wm. B. Hodgson, in his
+researches into the Berber language, and the ethnographic facts which
+were the results of his elucidations, has extended to England, France
+and Germany, and the last two years have been productive of several
+valuable and important works, including grammars and dictionaries of the
+Berber language. These have added greatly to our previous knowledge of
+the ancient and primitive people, who at a remote period, coeval with
+that of the ancient Egyptians occupied the northern part of Africa.
+
+Mr. de Saulcy has already unravelled the intricacy of the demotic
+writing of Egypt and the popular characters of ancient Libya. He is thus
+working at both ends of the Libyan chain. He will find the Berber thread
+at the Oasis of Ammon, and at Meroee. We shall thus probably find, that
+the Berber language was the original tongue of that part of Ethiopia.
+Dr. Lepsius found in that region, numerous inscriptions in the Egyptian
+demotic, and in Greek characters, but written in an unknown language. He
+strongly suspects, that the old Ethiopian blood will be found in the
+Berber veins; and that the Nubian language has strong affinities with
+the Berber. When these inscriptions in an unknown language are
+decyphered, it will be known how far the interpretation of Egyptian
+mythology and the local names, heretofore proposed by Mr. Hodgson, is to
+be received as plausible. He has proposed the Berber etymologies of Aman
+or Ammon as water; Themis as fire or purity; Thot as an eye; Edfou and
+Tadis as the sun.
+
+     Books on Algiers.
+
+     Algeria and Tunis in 1845. An account of a journey made through
+     the two Regencies, by Viscount Fielding and Capt. Kennedy. 2
+     vols, post 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Le Maroc et ses Caravanes, ou Relations de la France avec cet
+     Empire, par R. Thomassy. 8vo. Paris 1845.
+
+     Exploration Scientifique de l'Algeria pendant les annees 1840,
+     1841, 1842. Publie par l'ordre du gouvernment et avec le
+     concours d'une commission Academique. 4 vols, folio. (now in the
+     course of publication.)
+
+     Recherches sur la constitution de la propriete territoriale dans
+     le pays mussulmans et subsidiairement en Algeria; par M. Worms.
+     8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     A visit to the French possessions in Algiers in 1845. By Count
+     St. Marie. Post 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     AFRIQUE (l') francaise, l'empire du Maroc et les deserts de
+     Sahara. Histoire nationale des conquetes, victoires et
+     nouvelles decouvertes des Francais depuis la prise d'Alger
+     jusqu'a nos jours; par P. Christian. 8vo.
+
+     Algeria en 1846; par J. Desjobert. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Guide du voyageur en Algeria. Itineraire du savant, de
+     l'artiste, de l'homme du monde et du colon; par Quetin. 18mo.
+     Paris, 1846.
+
+     Le Sahara Algerien. Etude geographiques, statistiques et
+     historiques sur la region au sud des etablissements Francaises
+     en Algerie; par Col. Daumas 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+     L'Afrique Francaise l'Empire de Maroc et les deserts de Sahara,
+     conquetes et decouvertes des Francais. Royal 8vo.
+
+     Dictionnaire de Geographie economique, politique et historique
+     de l'Algerie. Avec une carte. 12mo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Geographie populaire de l'Algerie, avec cartes. 12mo. 1846.
+
+     Histoire de nos Colonies Francaises de l'Algerie et du Maroc;
+     par M. Christian. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     The following list embraces the latest publications on Africa
+     generally.
+
+     Voyage dans l'Afrique Occidentale, comprenant l'exploration du
+     Senegal depuis St. Louis jusqu'a la Feleme jusqu'a Sansandig;
+     des mines d'or de Kenieba, dans le Bambouk; des pays de Galam,
+     Boudou et Wooli; et de la Gambia; par A. Raffenel. 8vo. and
+     folio atlas. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Viaggi nell' Africa Occidentale, di _Toto Omboni_, gia medico
+     di consiglie nel regno d'Angola e sue dispendenze, 8vo. Milan,
+     1845.
+
+     A visit to the Portuguese possessions in South Western Africa.
+     By Dr. Tams. 2 vols. 8vo.
+
+     Life in the Wilderness; or, Wanderings in South Africa. By
+     Henry W. Methuen. Post 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Voyage au Darfour par le Cheykh Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy;
+     traduit de l'Arabe par Dr. Perron; publie par les soins de M.
+     Jomard. Royal 8vo. Maps. Paris, 1845.
+
+     Observations sur le Voyage au Darfour suivies d'un Vocabulaire
+     de la langue des habitans et de remarques sur le Nil Blanc
+     Superieur; par M. Jomard. 1846.
+
+     Essai historique sur les races anciennes et modernes de
+     l'Afrique Septentrionale, leurs origines, leurs mouvements et
+     leurs transformations depuis l'antiquite jusqu'a nos jours; par
+     Pascal Duprat. 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+
+MADAGASCAR.--The island of Madagascar has recently attracted and
+continues to occupy attention in France. In 1842 M. Guillian, in command
+of a French corvette, was sent by the governor of the isle of Bourbon to
+this island, to select a harbor safe and convenient of access, and to
+obtain information relative to the country and its inhabitants. After
+visiting various parts of the island on its western side, in which
+fourteen months were spent, M. Guillian returned to Bourbon, and in 1845
+the results of his visit were published in Paris. The first part of this
+work gives a history of the Sakalave people, who occupy the western
+parts of the island. The second details the particulars of the voyage
+made in 1842 and 1843, embracing the geography, commerce and present
+condition of the country, an abstract of which is given in the Bulletin
+of the Geographical Society of Paris, Feb. 1846.
+
+So important were the results of the visit of M. Guillian that a new
+expedition has been sent to Madagascar under his direction, with
+instructions for a more extended examination, particularly in relation
+to its animal and vegetable productions. A more extensive work by M. de
+Froberville, is preparing for publication in Paris, in which more
+attention will be given to the ethnography of this important island.
+
+     Documents sur l'histoire, la geographie et le commerce de la
+     partie occidentale de l'ile de Madagascar; recueillis et rediges
+     par M. Guillian, 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+     Histoire d'etablissement Francais de Madagascar, pendant la
+     restauration, precedee d'une description de cette ile, et
+     suivie de quelques considerations politiques et commerciales
+     sur l'expedition et la colonisation de Madagascar. Par M.
+     Carayon, 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+     Histoire et Geographie de Madagascar, depuis la decouverte de
+     l'ile en 1506, jusqu'au recit des derniers evenements de
+     Tamative; par M. Descartes. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Madagascar expedition de 1829. Par M. le Capitaine de fregate
+     Jourdain. _Revue de l'Orient_, tom. ix. April, 1846.
+
+     A short memoir on Madagascar is contained in the "Bulletin de
+     la Societe de Geographie, July, 1845," by M. Bona Christave.
+
+     Etchings of a Whaling Voyage, with notes of a sojourn in the
+     Island of Zanzibar, and a history of the whale fishery, by
+     J.R. Browne. 8vo. New York, 1846.
+
+
+EGYPT.
+
+I have hesitated, in the superficial view I propose to take in noticing
+the ethnological and archaeological researches of the day, as to whether
+I ought to speak of the land of the Pharaohs. The explorations have been
+on so grand a scale, and the results so astounding, that one is lost in
+amazement in attempting to keep pace with them.
+
+In England, France, Germany and Italy, Egyptian archaeology is the most
+fruitful topic among the learned. In Paris, it forms the theme of
+lectures by the most distinguished archaeologists, and the subject
+absorbs so much interest in Germany, that the King of Prussia has
+established a professorship at the Royal University for Egyptian
+antiquities and history, which he has assigned to Professor Lepsius, the
+most accomplished scholar in Egyptian learning, and who was at the head
+of the scientific commission sent by his majesty to explore the valley
+of the Nile.
+
+It will be remembered that in addition to the immense and costly work
+published by Napoleon, there have since been published the great
+national works of Champollion, by the French government, and of
+Rossellini by the Tuscan government. These are to be immediately
+followed by the great work of Lepsius, who has just returned from Egypt,
+laden with innumerable treasures, the results of three years of most
+laborious and successful explorations. This undertaking is at the
+expense of the King of Prussia, one of the most enlightened monarchs of
+Europe, and who, at the present moment, is doing more in various parts
+of the world for the advancement of science than any now living.
+
+But the French government, which has always been foremost in promoting
+such explorations, is determined not to be superseded by the learned
+Prussian's researches in Egyptian lore. An expedition has been organized
+under M. Prisse, for a new survey and exploration of Egypt. Mr. Prisse
+is an accomplished scholar, versed in hieroglyphical learning, and
+author of a work on Egyptian Ethnology. He will be accompanied by
+competent artists, will go over the same ground as Lepsius, and make
+additional explorations.
+
+As regards the eminent men who have won brilliant distinction in the
+career of Egyptian studies, it is out of the question here to analyze
+their books: it must suffice to state, that all have marched boldly
+along the road opened by _Champollion_, and that the science which owed
+its first illustration to Young, to the Champollions, to the Humboldts,
+to Salvolini, to Rosellini, to Nestor L'Hote, and to whose soundness the
+great De Sacy has furnished his testimony, counts at this day as adepts
+and ardent cultivators, such scholars as Letronne, Biot, Prisse, Bunsen,
+Lepsius, Burnouf, Pauthier, Lanci, Birch, Wilkinson, Sharpe, Bonomi, and
+many more.[41]
+
+A few important results of the late explorations in Egypt, and
+researches into her hieroglyphics and history, it may be well to
+mention.
+
+Prof. Schwartze, of Berlin, is publishing a work on Egyptian philology,
+entitled _Das Alte AEgypten_. Some idea may be formed of the erudition of
+German philologists, and the extent to which their investigations are
+carried, when we state that this savant has completed the first part of
+the first volume of this work, which embraces 2200 quarto pages! and
+this is but a beginning.
+
+De Saulcy has made great advances in decyphering the Demotic writing of
+Egypt, in which, from Champollion's death to 1843, little had been done.
+He has now translated the whole of the Demotic text on the Rosetta
+stone, so that we may consider this portion of Egyptian literature as
+placed on a firm basis.
+
+Farther elucidations of the Coptic language have been made. This, it
+will be remembered, is the language into which the ancient Egyptian
+merged, and is the main instrument by which a knowledge of the latter
+must be obtained. Recently a discovery has been made by Arthur de
+Riviere, at Cairo, in an ancient Coptic MS. containing part of the Old
+Testament. The manuscript was very large and thick, and on separating
+the leaves was found to contain a pagan manuscript in the same language,
+the only one yet discovered.[42] On a farther examination of this
+manuscript, it proved to be a work on the religion of the ancient
+Egyptians. The translation of this curious document is looked for with
+much interest.
+
+M. Prisse is publishing at the expense of the French Government, the
+continuation of Champollion's great work on Egypt and Nubia--50 plates
+are in press.
+
+Mr. Birch, of London, has nearly ready for the press a work on the
+titles of the officers of the Pharaonic court. He has discovered in
+hieroglyphical writing those of the _chief butler_, _chief baker_, and
+others, coeval with the pyramids and anterior to Joseph. He has also
+discovered upon a tablet at the Louvre (age of Thotmes III. B.C. 1600)
+his conquest of Nineveh, Shinar, and Babylon, and with the _tribute_
+exacted from those conquered nations. The intense interest which
+Egyptian archaeology is exciting in Europe will be seen from the list of
+new books on the subject.
+
+The most remarkable discoveries, and in which the greatest advances has
+been made, are in monumental chronology. Through the indefatigable
+labors of the Prussian savant, Lepsius, primeval history has far
+transcended the bounds to which Champollion and Rosellini had carried
+it. They fixed the era of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, at about
+2750, B.C. Boeckh, of Berlin, from astronomical calculations, places it
+at 5702 B.C.
+
+Henry of Paris, in his "_L'Egypte Pharaonique_," from historical
+deductions, places the era at 5303 B.C.
+
+Barucchi, of Turin, from critical investigations, at 4890 B.C., and
+Bunsen, in his late work entitled "Egypt's Place in the World's
+History," from the most laborious hierological and critical deductions,
+places the era of Menes at 3643 B.C.
+
+I should do wrong to speak of the labors of foreign savans, without
+alluding to what has been done in this country. Dr. Morton, it is known,
+has published a work on Egyptian Ethnography, from crania in his
+possession furnished by Mr. Gliddon, which reflects great credit on his
+scholarship, and has been highly commended in Europe. The late Mr.
+Pickering, of Boston, was one of the few who cultivated hieroglyphical
+literature in America. But perhaps the American people, as a mass, owe a
+deeper debt of gratitude to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, for his interesting
+lectures on Egypt and her literature, and to his work entitled Chapters
+on Egyptian Antiquities and Hieroglyphics, than to any other man. Mr.
+Gliddon, by a long residence in Egypt, and by a close study subsequently
+of her monuments, has been enabled to popularize the subject, and by the
+aid of a truly magnificent and costly series of illustrations of the
+monuments, the sculptures, the paintings and hieroglyphics of Egypt, to
+make this most interesting and absorbing subject, comprehensive to all.
+
+The results of these Egyptian investigations will doubtless be startling
+to many; for if the facts announced are true, and we see no reason to
+believe otherwise, it places the creation of man far, very far, beyond
+the period usually assigned to him in the chronology of the Hebrew
+Bible. But again, it must be observed that the common chronology gives
+the shortest period for that event. If other scriptural chronologies are
+adopted, we gain two or three thousand years for the creation of man,
+which gives us quite time enough to account for the high state of
+civilization and the arts in Egypt, four thousand years B.C.
+
+But we do not fear these investigations--truth will prevail, and its
+attainment can never be detrimental to the highest interests of man.
+
+     I must also acknowledge the obligation I am under for the use
+     of many splendid and valuable books relating to Egypt, from Mr.
+     Richard K. Haight. This gentleman, with an ample fortune at his
+     command, and with a taste for archaeological studies, acquired
+     by a personal tour among the monuments of Egypt, has collected
+     a large and valuable library of books on Egypt, including all
+     the great works published by the European governments on that
+     country. This costly and unique collection, which few but
+     princes or governments possess, he liberally places at the
+     command of scholars, who, for purposes of study, may require
+     them.
+
+     Mr. Haight's interest in archaeological researches has been
+     noticed in Paris, in an article by De Saulcy, member of the
+     Institute of France, in a memoir entitled, "L'Etude des
+     Hieroglyphics." Speaking of Mr. Gliddon's success in the United
+     States in popularizing hieroglyphical discoveries, De Saulcy
+     justly remarks--"Il a ete puissamment seconde, dans cette
+     louable entreprise, par une de ces nobles intelligences dont un
+     pays s'honore; M. Haight, l'ami, le soutien, devoue de tous les
+     hommes de science, n'a pas peu contribue, par sa genereuse
+     assistance, a repandre aux Etats-Unis les belles decouvertes
+     qui concernent les temps pharaoniques." _Revue des Deux
+     Mondes._ Paris, June 15, 1846.
+
+     The following list embraces the late works relating to Egypt:
+
+     The Oriental Album; or Historical, Pictorial, and
+     Ethnographical Sketches, illustrating the human families in the
+     Valley of the Nile: by E. Prisse. folio. London, 1846.
+
+     The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest
+     by the Arabs, A.D. 640. By Samuel Sharpe. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     A Pilgrimage to the Temples and Tombs of Egypt, Nubia, and
+     Palestine, in 1845-'46, by Mrs. Romer. 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+     1846.
+
+     L'Egypte au XIX siecle, histoire militaire et politique,
+     anecdotique et pittoresque de Mehemet Ali, etc.; par E. Gouin.
+     Illustree de gravures.
+
+     Panorama d'Egypte et de Nubie avec un texte orne, de vignettes;
+     par Hector Horeau. folio.
+
+     Recherches sur les arts et metiers de la vie civile et
+     domestique des anciens peuples de l'Egypte, de la Nubie et de
+     l'Ethiopie, suivi de details sur les moeurs et coutumes des
+     peuples modernes des memes contrees; par M. Frederic Cailliand.
+     folio. Paris, 1831-'47. 100 plates.
+
+     Das Toedtenbuch der AEgypten nach dem Hieroglyphischen Papyrus in
+     Turin, von Dr. R. Leipsius. Leipsig.
+
+     Schwartze. Das alte AEgypten, oder Sprache, Geschichte, Religion
+     und Verfassung d. alt. AEgypt. 2 vols. 4to. Leipsig.
+
+     AEgyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte: Von Carl J. Bunsen. 3
+     vols. 8vo.
+
+     Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte
+     der Pharaonen: Von August Boeckh. 8vo. Berlin, 1845.
+
+     Macrizi's Geschichte der Copten. Aus den Handschriften zu Gotha
+     und Wien, mit Uebersetzungen and Anmerkungen. Von Wuestenfeld.
+     4to. Goettingen, 1845.
+
+     Monuments de l'Egypte et de la Nubie. Notices descriptives
+     conformes aux manuscrits autographes rediges sur les lieux par
+     Champollion le jeune. folio. Paris, 1845-'46.
+
+     L'Egypte Pharaonique, ou Histoire des institutions qui regirent
+     les Egyptiens sous leur Rois nationaux. par D.M.J. Henri. 2
+     vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+     Discorso Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; del Prof.
+     Barucchi. 4to. Turin.
+
+     Voyage en Egypte, en Nubie, dans les deserts de Beyonda, des
+     Bycharis, et sur les cotes de la Mer Rouge: par E. Combes. 2
+     vols. 8vo. Paris, 1847.
+
+
+
+
+THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
+
+
+BORNEO.--Among the most remarkable and successful attempts to open a
+communication with the natives of the East India Islands, is that of Mr.
+James Brooke. This gentleman, prompted solely by a desire to improve the
+condition of the people of Borneo, and at the same time to explore this
+hitherto unknown region, has established himself at Sarawak, on the
+northwestern part of the island, 427 miles from Singapore. Such was the
+interest manifested by him on his arrival in the country to promote the
+good of the people, and to suppress the piracies which have been carried
+on for many years by the Malays, and certain tribes associated with
+them, that the then reigning Rajah, Muda Hassim, resigned to him his
+right and title to the government of the district, in which he was
+afterwards established by the Sultan of Borneo. The success that has
+attended Mr. Brooke's government, among a barbarous people, whose
+intercourse with foreigners had been confined to the Malays and Chinese,
+is most remarkable. Possessed of an independent fortune, of the most
+enlarged benevolence; familiar with the language, manners, customs and
+institutions of the people by which he is surrounded, with a mind stored
+with knowledge acquired from extensive travel and intercourse with
+various rude nations, he seems to have been prepared by Providence for
+the task which he has attempted, and which has thus far been crowned
+with success.
+
+Capt. Keppel's Narrative of his expedition to Borneo, and Mr. Brooke's
+Journal, furnish some interesting ethnological facts. The Dyaks, or
+aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo, are divided into numerous lesser
+tribes, varying in a slight degree in their manners and customs. Their
+language belongs to the Polynesian stock, on which has been ingrafted,
+particularly along the coast, a large number of Malayan words. It also
+exhibits evidences of migrations from India at remote periods. In
+speaking of the Sibnowans, Mr. Brooke observes that "they have no idea
+of a God, and though they have a name for the Deity, (Battara, evidently
+of Hindoo origin), with a faint notion of a future state, the belief
+seems a dead letter among them. They have no priests, say no prayers,
+make no offerings to propitiate the Deity; and of course have no
+occasion for human sacrifices, in which respect they differ from all
+other people in the same state of civilization, who bow to their idols
+with the same feelings of reverence and devotion, of awe and fear, as
+civilized beings do to their invisible God."[43] From their
+comparatively innocent state, Mr. Brooke believes they are capable of
+being easily raised in the scale of society. "Their simplicity of
+manners, the purity of their morals and their present ignorance of all
+forms of worship, and all idea of future responsibility, render them
+open to conviction of truth and religious impression, when their minds
+have been raised by education."[44] It is a well known fact, that since
+the establishment of Europeans in the Eastern Archipelago, the tendency
+of the Polynesian races has generally been to decay. The case of Mr.
+Brooke, however, now warrants us in hoping that such a result need not
+necessarily and inevitably ensue.
+
+While success has attended this gentleman at the north, the American
+missionaries, among the Dutch possessions farther south, have totally
+failed in their objects. They attribute the unwillingness of the Dyaks
+to submit to their instruction, to the influence of the Malays, whose
+interests are necessarily opposed to those of the missionaries, for, it
+is evident that once under the guidance of the latter, the Dyaks will
+see their own degraded and oppressed condition, and submit to it no
+longer. Mr. Youngblood says that "so prejudiced are the Dyaks, that I
+have been unable to obtain a few boys to instruct, of which I was very
+desirous."[45]
+
+The Dutch have long had trading establishments in Borneo, but they had
+made no efforts either to suppress the piracies, or improve the moral
+and social condition of its inhabitants. Its great value has now become
+so apparent, that unless they keep pace with, and follow the example set
+by the English, they will be in danger of having it wrested from their
+hands by the more enlightened policy of the latter.
+
+Borneo produces all the valuable articles of commerce common to other
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its mineral productions are equally
+rich, and include gold dust, diamonds, pearls, tin, copper, antimony,
+and coal. The interior is quite unknown. It is three times larger than
+Great Britain, and is supposed to contain about 3,000,000 of people.
+
+I have purposely avoided speaking of the trade and commerce of the
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago, as they are subjects which do not
+fall within the sphere of our enquiries, in a review like the present;
+although the productions, the trade and commerce of nations are properly
+a branch of ethnological enquiry, in a more enlarged view. An
+interesting pamphlet, embodying much valuable information on the
+commerce of the East, has been lately published by our townsman, Mr.
+Aaron H. Palmer. This gentleman is desirous that the United States
+government should send a special mission to the East Indies, as well as
+to other countries of Asia, with a view to extend our commercial
+relations. The plan is one that deserves the attention of our people and
+government, and I am happy to state that it has met with favor from many
+of our merchants engaged in the commerce of the East, as well as from
+some distinguished functionaries of the government.[46] England,
+France, Prussia, Denmark, and Holland, have at the present moment,
+expeditions in various parts of the East Indies and Oceanica, planned
+for the pursuit of various scientific enquiries and the extension of
+their commerce. With the exception of Prussia, these nations seem to be
+desirous to establish colonies; and they have, within a few years, taken
+up valuable positions for the purpose.
+
+Is it not then the duty of our government to be represented in this new
+and wide field? Our dominions now extend from ocean to ocean, and we
+talk of the great advantages we shall possess in carrying on an eastern
+trade; but how greatly would our advantages be increased by having a
+depot or colony on one of the fertile islands contiguous to China, Java,
+Borneo, Japan, the Philippines, &c. An extended commerce demands it, and
+we hope the day is not distant when our government may see its
+importance.
+
+England, France, Spain, Portugal and Holland have possessions in the
+East. The former, always awake to her commercial interests, now has
+three prominent stations in the China Sea,--Singapore, Borneo, and
+Hongkong. But even these important points do not satisfy her, and she
+looks with a longing eye towards Chusan, a point of great importance,
+commanding the trade of the northern provinces of China, and contiguous
+to Corea and Japan. The "Friend of India," a leading paper, "is
+possessed with a most vehement desire," says the editor of the "China
+Mail," "that the British, without infringing their 'political morality,'
+could contrive some means of obtaining the cession of Chusan, which, in
+their hands, he believes, could be converted into a second Singapore,
+and become one of the largest mercantile marts of the East."[47]
+
+It is evident from what has been stated, and from the opinions expressed
+in foreign journals, that the attention of the civilized world has been
+suddenly attracted to the Eastern Archipelago, and it is only
+surprising, considering the knowledge possessed by the European nations,
+of the rich productions of these islands, and the miserable state in
+which a large portion of their inhabitants live, that efforts have not
+before been made to colonize them, and bring them under European rule.
+
+The Spaniards contented themselves with the Philippines, but the Dutch,
+more enterprising, as well as more ambitious, extended their conquests
+to Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, and recently to Bali, Sumbawa, Timor and
+Celebes. But these are not all, for wherever our ships push their way
+through these innumerable islands, they find scattered, far and wide,
+their unobtrusive commercial stations, generally protected by a fort and
+a cruiser.
+
+It is said that the natives feel no attachment for their Dutch rulers,
+which, as they possess so wide spread a dominion in the Archipelago, is
+much to be regretted; for this feeling of animosity against them, may
+effect the relations that may be hereafter formed between the aboriginal
+races and other Christian people. Attempts will doubtless be made to
+prejudice the natives against the English, but the popularity of Mr.
+Brooke at Sarawak, in Borneo, his kindness to the natives, and the
+destruction of the pirates by the British, will no doubt gain for them
+throughout the Archipelago, a name and an influence which the jealousies
+of other nations cannot counteract. The natives of these islands except
+those of the interior, are strictly a trading and commercial people.
+Addicted to a seafaring life, and tempted by a love of gain, they
+traverse these seas in search of the various articles of commerce which
+are eagerly sought after by traders for the European, India, and Chinese
+markets. Piracy, which abounds in this region, grows out of this love of
+trade--this desire for the accumulation of wealth--and we believe that
+nothing would tend to suppress crime so effectually as the establishment
+of commercial ports throughout the Archipelago.
+
+It is said that the population embraced in the twelve thousand islands
+of which Polynesia consists, amounts to about forty millions. No part of
+the world equals it in the great variety and value of its products.
+There is scarcely an island but is accessible in every direction,
+abounding in spacious bays and harbors, and the larger ones in navigable
+rivers. The people are generally intelligent, and susceptible of a
+higher degree of cultivation than the natives of Africa, or of many
+parts of the adjacent continent.
+
+To obtain a station or an island in this vast Archipelago, we should
+require neither the outlay of a large sum of money, nor the loss of
+human life; no governments would be subjected, or kings overthrown.
+Civilization and its attendant blessings would take the place of
+barbarism, idolatry would be supplanted by christianity, and the poor
+natives, now bowed down by cruelty and oppression, would, under the care
+of an enlightened government, become elevated in the scale of social
+existence.
+
+The cultivation of spices in the Archipelago, and the acts by which the
+monopoly is secured by the Dutch in the Moluccas, reflect little credit
+on human nature. "No where in the world have the aboriginal tribes been
+treated with greater cruelty; and in some cases literal extermination
+has overtaken them. Their tribe has been extinguished, they have been
+cut off to a man, and that merely lest, in order to obtain a humble
+subsistence, they should presume to trade on their own account in those
+costly spices, the sale of which, without right or reason, Holland has
+hitherto thought proper to appropriate to herself. No form of servitude,
+moreover, equals the slavery of those who are engaged in the culture of
+the nutmeg-tree. They toil without hope. No change ever diversifies
+their drudgery; no holiday gladdens them; no reward, however trifling,
+repays extra exertion, or acts as a stimulus for the future. The
+wretched slave's life is one monotonous round, a mere alternation of
+toil and sleep, to be terminated only by death."[48] The northern
+portions of New Guinea, as well as other islands, are in the same
+latitude as Banda and Amboyna, and produce the nutmeg and other spices.
+They might be extensively cultivated by the natives, if encouragement
+was given them; and a sufficient supply obtained for all the markets of
+Europe and America.
+
+THE ISLAND OF BALI, lying east of Java, from which it is separated by a
+narrow strait, has recently been subjected by the Dutch. Some difficulty
+growing out of the commerce with the people, is the alleged cause. It is
+an island of great importance to Holland, and would seriously injure her
+commerce with Java, should any other European nation take it under its
+protection, or plant a colony there. A slight pretext therefore sufficed
+for its annexation.
+
+NEW CALEDONIA ISLANDS. Later information has been received from the
+Catholic Missionaries in New Caledonia; for it seems that even in those
+distant and barbarous islands both Protestant and Catholic are
+represented. The Propaganda annals contain some interesting accounts of
+the natives of these islands, and of other facts of importance in
+Ethnology. Two Catholic missionaries, the Rev. Mr. Rougeyron and the
+Rev. Mr. Colin, had been twenty months on these islands, during which
+time they had accomplished nothing in the way of conversions, and but
+little towards improving the moral condition of the natives. It was
+hardly time to expect much, as they had only then begun to speak the
+language of the country, which they found very difficult to acquire. The
+natives are a most lazy and wretched people. They cultivate the ground
+with the aid of a piece of pointed wood, or with their nails, but never
+in proportion to their wants. For the greater part of the year they are
+compelled to live upon a few fish, shell-fish, roots and the bark of
+trees, and at times when pressed by hunger, worms, spiders and lizards
+are eagerly devoured by them. They are cannibals in every sense of the
+word, and openly feed on the flesh of their enemies. Yet they possess
+the cocoa, banana and yam, with a luxuriant soil, from which, with a
+little labor, an abundance could be raised.
+
+Among no savage tribes are the women worse treated than here. They are
+completely at the mercy of their cruel and tyrannical husbands.
+Compelled to carry burdens, to collect food, and cultivate the fields,
+their existence promises them but little enjoyment; and when there is
+any fruit or article of delicacy procured, it is at once _tabooed_ by
+the husband, so that she cannot touch it but at the peril of her life.
+
+The missionaries had begun to expostulate with the natives on the
+horrors of eating their prisoners, and other vices to which they were
+addicted, and observe that "a happy change has already taken place among
+them; that they were less disposed to robbery, and that their wars are
+less frequent."[49] They are beginning to understand the motive which
+brought the missionaries to them, and already show a desire to be
+instructed.
+
+The protestant missions have not accomplished any more than the
+Catholic's among these savages. The latest accounts state that four of
+the native teachers who had been converted to Christianity, had been
+cruelly murdered, and that such was the hostility of the chiefs at the
+isle of Pines, that the prospects of the missionaries were most
+discouraging.[50]
+
+SOOLOO ISLANDS.--Mr. Itier, attache to the French mission in China, has
+recently visited a cluster of islands lying to the northeast of Borneo,
+between that island and Mindanao.[51] His researches on the natural
+history and geology of these islands, are of much interest. The soil is
+exceedingly fertile, and the climate more healthy than is usual in
+intertropical climates. The sugar cane, cocoa, rice, cotton, the bread
+fruit, indigo, and spices of all kinds, are among their products. Fruits
+and vegetables of a great variety, are abundant, and of a superior
+quality. Nine-tenths of the soil is still covered with the primitive
+forest, of which teak-wood, so valuable in shipbuilding, forms a part. A
+considerable commerce with China and Manilla is carried on, and from ten
+to twelve thousand Chinese annually visit the island of Basilan, the
+most northerly of the group, to cultivate its soil, and take away its
+products. The peculiar situation of these islands, and their contiguity
+to the Philippines, to Celebes, Borneo, Manilla, China, and Singapore,
+make them well adapted for a European colony. In fact, there do not
+appear to be any islands of the East Indies of equal importance, and
+there can be no doubt that with the present desire manifested by
+European nations for colonizing, this desirable spot will ere long be
+secured by one of them. The Sooloo group embraces sixty inhabited
+islands, governed by a Sultan, residing at Soung. One of these would be
+an advantageous point for an American colony or station.
+
+The same gentleman has presented to the Geographical Society of Paris,
+the journal of a voyage and visit to the Philippine islands, from which
+it appears that that large and important croup is not inferior in
+interest to the Sooloo islands. The natural history and geology, the
+soil and its products, the manners and customs of the people, their
+commerce and political history, are described in detail.[52] The group
+embraces about twelve hundred islands, with a population of 4,000,000,
+of whom about 8,000 are Chinese, 4,000 Spaniards, 120,000 of a mixed
+race, and the remainder natives.
+
+THE NICOBAR ISLANDS, a group nineteen in number, in the Bay of Bengal,
+have again attracted the attention of the Danish government, by which an
+expedition has been sent with a view to colonize them anew. The Danes
+planted a colony there in 1756, but were compelled to abandon it in
+consequence of the insalubrity of the climate. Subsequently the French
+made an attempt with no better success.
+
+     Recent publications on the Eastern Archipelago and Polynesia.
+
+     Ethnology and Philology. By Horatio Hale, Philologist of the
+     U.S. Exploring Expedition, imp. 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.
+
+     Reise nach Java, und Ausfluege nach den Inseln Mudura und S.
+     Helena; von Dr. Edward Selberg, 8vo. Oldenburg, 1845.
+
+     Philippines (les), histoire, geographie, moeurs, agriculture,
+     industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Oceanie;
+     par _J. Mallat_, 2 vols. 8vo., avec un atlas in folio. Paris,
+     1846.
+
+     The expedition of H.M.S. Dido, for the suppression of piracy;
+     by the Hon. Capt. Keppell, with extracts from the journal of
+     James Brooke, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846. Reprinted in New
+     York.
+
+     Trade and Travel in the Far East; or recollections of
+     twenty-one years passed in Java, Singapore, Australia and
+     China, by G.F. Davidson, post 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Typee: Narrative of a four months' residence among the natives
+     of the Marquesas islands, by Herman Melville. 12mo. New York,
+     1846.
+
+     Besides these, The Missionary Herald, the Baptist Missionary
+     Magazine, The London Evangelical Magazine, the Annals of the
+     Society for the Propagation of the Faith, as well as other
+     similar journals, contain many articles of great interest on
+     the various islands of the Eastern Archipelago and the South
+     Sea Islands.
+
+
+AUSTRALIA. This vast island continues to attract the attention of
+geographers and naturalists. Its interior remains unknown,
+notwithstanding the various attempts which have been made from various
+points to penetrate it. The explorations of scientific men during the
+last four years have been productive of valuable information relating to
+its geography, ethnography, geology and natural history.
+
+Among the most eminent and successful in this field, is the Count de
+Strzelecki. This gentleman, as early as the year 1840, made an extensive
+tour into the southwestern part of Australia, in which he discovered an
+extensive tract called Gipp's Land, containing an extent of five
+thousand six hundred square miles, a navigable lake and several rivers,
+and from the richness of the soil, presenting an inviting prospect to
+settlers. His explorations were continued during the years 1842 '43 and
+'44, and in the following year the results were given to the public,[53]
+"comprehending the fruits of five years of continual labor during a tour
+of seven thousand miles on foot. This work treats, within a moderate
+compass, of the history and results of the surveys of those countries,
+of their climate, their geology, botany and zoology, as well as of the
+physical, moral and social state of the aborigines, and the state of
+colonial agriculture, the whole illustrated by comparisons with other
+countries visited by himself in the course of twelve years travel
+through other parts of the world." For these extensive explorations and
+discoveries, and for his valuable work in which they are embodied, the
+Royal Geographical Society of London awarded the "Founders" gold medal
+to Count Strzelecki.[54]
+
+Additional information to our knowledge of Australia is contained in
+Capt. Stokes's late work detailing the discoveries made by himself and
+other officers attached to H.M.S. Beagle. These discoveries consist of
+a minute examination of a large part of the coast of that island, of
+several rivers on its northern and northwestern sides, and of
+expeditions into the interior. Natives were seen in small numbers in
+various parts, all of whom were in the lowest state of barbarism. A
+remarkable diversity of character was noticed, however, among the
+natives of different localities, some being most kindly disposed, and
+approaching the strangers without fear, as though they were old
+acquaintances, whilst others manifested the greatest hostility and
+aversion. In the instances referred to, they had never seen white men
+before. Capt. Stokes says his "whole experience teaches him that these
+were not accidental differences, but that there is a marked contrast in
+the disposition of the various tribes, for which he will not attempt to
+account."[55] The natives at Port Essington, on the north, appear to be
+in some respects superior to those in other parts of the island. Their
+implements of war and their canoes show a connexion with the Malays.
+They also have a musical instrument made of bamboo, the only one yet
+found among them.[56] The rite of circumcision was practised on the
+northern coast near the gulf of Carpentaria. On the southern coast, at
+the head of the Australian bight, it had before been noticed by Mr.
+Eyre.[57] For the practice of this ancient rite at such remote
+distances, and confined to within such narrow limits, we can only
+account, by some early migration or visit of people by whom it was
+practised. Nothing has yet been done towards a comparison of the
+languages spoken by the Australian tribes. In the late cruise of Capt.
+Stokes, natives of the south were taken to the northern parts of the
+island, but in their intercourse with the people of the latter, they
+were unable to make themselves understood. It is possible, however, that
+like the languages of the American Indians, though they may exhibit a
+wide difference in words for similar objects, the grammatical structure
+may be the same. This is a more important test in ethnological
+comparison, and should be applied before any of the aboriginal tribes of
+Australia are extinct.
+
+By far the most important journey yet accomplished for the exploration
+of Australia, is that of Dr. Leichardt. This gentleman, accompanied by
+Mr. Gilbert, a naturalist, and six others, started from Moreton Bay, on
+the southeastern shore of the island, in October, 1844, to penetrate to
+Port Essington, on its most northerly point; in order, if possible, to
+open a direct route to Sydney. Several months after the party left,
+reports were brought to Moreton Bay that they had been cut off by the
+natives. This was proved to be untrue by an expedition sent out for the
+purpose, who traced the travellers four hundred miles into the interior.
+Dr. Leichardt found it impossible to penetrate into the interior in a
+direct course, on account of high table-land, and the absence of water;
+and this circumstance compelled him to keep within six or seven degrees
+of the coast. Their six months' provisions being exhausted, the only
+resource of the party was the horses and stock bullocks,--and with these
+the strictest economy was necessary. One was killed as provision for a
+month--sometimes a horse, at others a bullock. For six months prior to
+reaching Port Essington, the party were reduced to a quarter of a pound
+of meat per day--frequently putrescent--unaccompanied with salt, bread,
+or any kind of vegetable. In the neighborhood of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria, Mr. Gilbert, the naturalist, was surprised by the natives,
+and killed. The remainder reached Port Essington on the 2d of December,
+1845.[58]
+
+The narrative of Dr. Leichardt's expedition has not yet been published
+in detail. The report[59] which has appeared consists chiefly of notices
+of the geography of the region traversed, the soil, productions,
+climate, &c. He encountered natives in many places, sometimes in
+considerable numbers. By some they were kindly received, by others
+treated as enemies. Their characteristics are not noticed. The most
+extraordinary feature in Dr. Leichardt's narrative is the constant
+succession of water. Although the season was an exceedingly dry one, no
+rain having fallen for seven months, yet from the commencement to the
+close of his year and a half's expedition, throughout the whole length
+and breadth of the vast region he traversed, he was continually meeting
+with fresh water, in the forms of "pools, lagoons, brooks, wells,
+water-holes, rocky basins, living springs, swamps, streams, creeks or
+rivers." The soil in many places was of the best kind, covered with
+luxuriant grass and herbs. Of the former, some twenty kinds were seen.
+In lat. 18 deg. 48' he found a level country, openly timbered, with fine
+plains, extending many miles in length and breadth. The flats bordering
+the creeks and rivers were covered with tall grass, and the table-lands
+presented equally attractive features. "The whole country along the east
+coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is highly adapted for pastoral
+pursuits. Cattle and horses would thrive exceedingly well, but the
+climate and soil are not adapted to sheep. Large plains, limited by
+narrow belts of open forest land; fine grassy meadows along frequent
+chains of lagoons, and shady forest land along the rivers, render this
+country inviting to the squatter." Dr. Leichardt thinks there are many
+districts suitable for the cultivation of rice and cotton.
+
+In regard to a communication between the settlements, it is the decided
+opinion of the Doctor, that no line of road can be effected direct from
+Fort Bourke to the northern settlement. A route from Moreton bay to the
+gulf of Carpentaria will be easily constructed. The whole coast is
+backed by ranges of mountains, consisting, nearest the sea, generally of
+granite and basaltic rocks, which he calls the granite range; behind
+this is a second range of sandstone. Descending from this and again
+rising, they entered upon the table-land; which they could nowhere
+penetrate, so as to determine what might be the character of the central
+country. It was covered with a dense shrub, had no water; and frequently
+there was difficulty in descending from it, owing to the perpendicular
+cliffs and deep ravines. They passed several rivers all of which ran
+easterly towards the coast. After reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria, they
+again ascended the table-land, and suffered extremely for want of water.
+The country beneath them was delightful to look at, but they were unable
+to descend to it, until they reached the dip towards the Alligaters.
+Here the country surpassed in fertility any thing that they had seen.
+
+By later advices from Sydney, it appears that this enterprising and
+zealous traveller, is again making arrangements for another expedition
+to explore the interior of this great island.[60] The Doctor now
+proposes to leave Moreton bay and endeavor to trace the sources of the
+rivers which flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria. He will then proceed
+northwest, penetrating directly across the unknown and unexplored
+interior, forming the are of a circle, to Swan river. This will be the
+most daring journey yet attempted; but under the direction of one who
+has already shown so much perseverance and undergone such severe
+hardships, it is to be hoped that his efforts may be crowned with
+success.
+
+An expedition for the exploration of Australia, under the command of Sir
+Thomas L. Mitchell, is at present employed in traversing the unknown
+parts of this vast country. When last heard from, the expedition had
+reached the latitude of 29 deg. 45' longitude 147 deg. 34'. The particulars of
+Dr. Leichardt's journey have been sent to him to guide him in his course
+of future operations.[61]
+
+     The following list embraces the latest works on Australia.
+
+     Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land,
+     accompanied by a Geographical map, by P.E. de Strzelecki. 8vo.
+     1845.
+
+     South Australia and its Mines; with an account of Captain
+     Grey's government, by Fr. Dutton. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     History of New South Wales, from its settlement to the close of
+     the year 1844, by Thomas H. Braim. 2 vols. post, 8vo. London,
+     1846.
+
+     Reminiscences of Australia, with hints on the Squatters' life,
+     by C.P. Hodgson. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     A visit to the Antipodes; with some reminiscences of a sojourn
+     in Australia. By a Squatter. 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Enterprise in tropical Australia. By George W. Earl. 8vo.
+     London, 1846.
+
+     Impressions of Savage life, and scenes in Australia and New
+     Zealand. By G.F. Augas. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1847.
+
+     Travels in New South Wales. By Alexander Majoribanks. 12mo.
+     Lond. 1847.
+
+     Simmonds' Colonial Magazine contains a vast deal of information
+     relating to Australia, as well as to other British Colonies,
+     and is unquestionably the best book of reference on subjects
+     relating to the history and present condition of the British
+     colonies of any work extant.
+
+
+
+
+ASIA.
+
+
+LYCIA, ASIA MINOR. This interesting region has been further explored by
+two English gentlemen, Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Professor Forbes, who,
+accompanied by the Reverend E.T. Daniel, embarked from England in the
+year 1842, in H.M. ship Beacon, for the coast of Lycia, for the purpose
+of bringing home the remarkable monuments of antiquity discovered by Sir
+Charles Fellows.
+
+This gentleman, it will be remembered, was the first who in modern times
+successfully explored the interior. He visited the sites of many ancient
+cities and towns; copied numerous inscriptions, by means of which he was
+enabled to identify the names of fifteen out of eighteen cities; and
+made sketches of the most interesting sculptures and monuments.
+
+It is remarkable that a country so often spoken of by the Greek and
+Roman historians should not have sooner attracted attention, when
+districts contiguous to, as well as far beyond, have been so thoroughly
+explored. The ruins on the southern coast of Asia Minor, were first
+made known by Captain Beaufort, who discovered them when employed in
+making a survey of this coast. Several travellers subsequently made
+short excursions into the country; but it was not until Mr. now Sir
+Charles Fellows, in 1838 and 1840, made his visits and explorations,
+that the riches of the interior in historical monuments were disclosed.
+
+The relics of antiquity brought to light in these researches, consist
+first of the ruins of large cities, many of which, by reason of their
+isolated situation among the high lands and mountains, seem to have been
+preserved from the destruction which usually attends depopulated cities
+situated in more accessible places.
+
+These ruined cities contain amphitheatres more or less spacious, and
+generally in a good state of preservation, temples, aqueducts, and
+sepulchral monuments, together with numbers of lesser buildings, the
+dwelling houses of the inhabitants. The ruins of Christian churches are
+also found in many places, and in one instance a large and elegant
+cathedral; the purposes of these are satisfactorily made out by their
+inscriptions; and the date of their erection, when not otherwise known,
+may be fixed by their style of architecture. The most numerous as well
+as the most interesting monuments of these ancient cities, are their
+sepulchres. In some instances where a mountain or high rock is
+contiguous, it is pierced with thousands of tombs, presenting an
+appearance similar to Petraea in Idumea, sometimes called the City of the
+Dead. The roads in all directions are lined with tombs and sarcophagi,
+many of them covered with elaborate sculptures and inscriptions. It is
+by means of the latter, which abound and which exist in a fine state of
+preservation, that the names of the cities are identified and other
+historical facts brought to light. The following is a translation of the
+most common form of sepulchral inscription.
+
+    "THIS TOMB APOLLONIDES, SON OF MOLISSAS, MADE
+     FOR HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN: AND IF ANY ONE
+     VIOLATES IT, LET HIM PAY A FINE."
+
+Coins too are found, which possess considerable historic interest.
+
+In architecture, we find excellent specimens of the several Grecian
+orders, exhibiting both the perfection and declension of the art. The
+works of Sir Charles Fellows abound in architectural representations. A
+pointed arch was discovered by Lieut. Spratt and Professor Forbes in the
+interior of a tomb (a sketch of which is given) among the ruins of
+Antiphellas. This conclusively shows, that this peculiar form of the
+arch was not first introduced with Gothic architecture, as has been
+generally believed, but belongs to a period anterior to the Christian
+era. An inscription in the Lycian and Latin was found on the monument.
+
+The language of the ancient Lycians is an important discovery which has
+resulted from these researches. A bilingual inscription in Lycian and
+Greek first led to the key, and similar inscriptions, subsequently
+discovered, have furnished sufficient materials for ascertaining the
+values of the several letters of the alphabet, which consists of
+twenty-seven letters, two of which are still doubtful. Able
+disquisitions on the language have been written by Mr. Sharpe and
+Professor Grotefend.
+
+In regard to the antiquity of the monuments, and the people who spoke
+the language called Lycian, now first made known through these
+inscriptions, we are enabled to arrive at conclusions which fix their
+era with some degree of certainty. The earliest inscription yet
+decyphered is a bilingual one, which consists of an edict, in which the
+name of Harpagus, or his son, a well known personage, is mentioned;
+which would give a date of 530 to 500 B.C. This is about the period of
+the earliest arrow-head inscriptions yet known--namely, those at
+Behistun, of the age of Darius, decyphered by Major Rawlinson. The
+language belongs to the same family as the Zend and old Persian, and is
+supposed to have been in use in the same age as the former, and along
+with that of the Persepolitan inscriptions. The sculptures too, bear
+some resemblance to the figures on the Persian monuments, particularly
+the well known figure with an umbrella, so common on the latter.
+
+Other reasons are adduced by scholars for fixing the date of the Lycian
+language not before the fifth century B.C., or to the age of Herodotus.
+This historian was from the adjoining province of Caria; and as might be
+expected, gives accounts of the Lycians before his time, but does not
+say that they spoke a language different from his own, or from that of
+the entire region,--a fact that he would not have overlooked had such
+been the case.
+
+It is believed that Cyrus, when he subjected this country, brought in
+some people from his Persian dominions, who afterwards became the
+dominant party, and introduced their language.[62]
+
+It is surprising to find the names of these Lycian cities so well
+preserved when the descendants of its ancient inhabitants have been so
+entirely swept out of the country, and replaced by a people differing in
+manners, in religion, and having no interest connected with the
+locality to induce them to respect the relics or names, and keep alive
+the memory, of the former possessors of the soil.
+
+     Travels in Lycia, Milytas and the Cibyrates, in company with
+     the late Rev. E.T. Daniel, by Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Prof.
+     E. Forbes. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1847.
+
+     A Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor, by Charles
+     Fellows. royal 8vo. London, 1839.
+
+     An account of Discoveries in Lycia, in 1840. By Charles
+     Fellows, royal 8vo.
+
+     An Essay on the Lycian language. By Daniel Sharpe. (In the
+     appendix to Fellows' Journal.)
+
+
+ARABIA.
+
+If we now turn to the discoveries that have recently been made in the
+southern part of Arabia, we find much in them worthy of attention. This
+country, called in the Scriptures Hazarmaveth, by the natives Hadramaut,
+and by the classical writers of antiquity, Arabia Felix, is celebrated
+as being the kingdom of the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon, as well
+as for the gold, gems, frankincense and other precious productions,
+which it furnished in ancient times. It is represented by the Greek and
+Roman writers as a populous country, with many extensive cities,
+abounding in temples and palaces; though the palpable fables with which
+these accounts are intermingled, show that at least they had no personal
+knowledge of the facts, but retailed them at second hand.
+
+After Europe had awoke from the intellectual slumber of the dark ages,
+the Arabs were long regarded only as objects of religious and political
+abhorrence. The discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good
+Hope, at the close of the fifteenth century, by diverting the channel of
+Indo-European traffic from the Red Sea, left the countries bordering
+upon it in such a state of solitude, that when better feelings began to
+prevail, there was no means of obtaining any direct information
+respecting them.
+
+In 1650, the illustrious Pococke, by the publication of his Specimens of
+Ancient Arabian History, extracted from native authors, created a
+curiosity respecting Southern Arabia and its ancient inhabitants, which
+successive collections of a similar nature, down to our own times, have
+served rather to increase than to gratify. The researches of Niebuhr,
+Seetzen, and Burckhardt, in the latter part of the last, and the
+beginning of the present century, made us somewhat acquainted with the
+western extremity of this country, along the shores of the Red Sea; but
+before the investigations of which we are about to speak, its southern
+coast had never been accurately explored, and the great body of the
+interior, with its once famous capital, Mareb, remained, as it ever had
+been, completely unknown to and unvisited by the natives of Europe.
+
+The hordes of pirates, which until twenty years ago infested the Persian
+Gulf, caused the government of British India to order a complete survey
+of its islands and both its shores, with the view of laying bare their
+haunts, and putting an end to their depredations. In 1829, after this
+service had been performed, the project then recently set on foot of
+establishing a steam communication between England and Bombay, caused
+orders to be issued for a similar examination of the Red Sea.
+
+The attention of the officers composing the expedition, was not
+restricted to the technical duties in which they were chiefly engaged.
+It was well known that information of every kind would be prized by the
+government which they served; and this, together with the monotony of
+life on board ship on the one hand, and the novelty of the scenes by
+which they were surrounded on the other, seems to have created among
+them a spirit of emulation that led to the most interesting discoveries
+respecting both the geography and the antiquities of the adjacent
+countries.
+
+Among the most intelligent and enterprising of these officers was the
+late Lieut. Wellsted, who thus describes his reflections on joining the
+expedition in the Red Sea, on the 12th October, 1830. "From the earliest
+dawn of history, the northern shores of the Red Sea have figured as the
+scene of events which both religious and civil records have united to
+render memorable. Here Moses and the Patriarchs tended their flocks, and
+put in motion those springs of civilization, which, from that period,
+have never ceased to urge forward the whole human race in the career of
+improvement. On the one hand the Valley of the Wanderings, commencing
+near the site of Memphis, and opening upon the Red Sea, conducts the
+fancy along the track pursued by the Hebrews during their flight out of
+Egypt; on the other hand are Mount Sinai, bearing still upon its face
+the impress of miraculous events, and beyond it that strange, stormy,
+and gloomy-looking sea, once frequented by Phoenician merchants'
+ships, by the fleets of Solomon and Pharaoh, and those barks of later
+times which bore the incenses, the gems, the gold and spices of the
+East, to be consumed or lavishly squandered upon favorites at the courts
+of Macedonia or Rome. But the countries lying along this offshoot of the
+Indian Ocean, have another kind of interest, peculiar perhaps to
+themselves. On the Arabian side we find society much what it was four
+thousand years ago; for amidst the children of Ishmael it has undergone
+but trifling modifications. Their tents are neither better nor worse
+than they were when they purchased Joseph of his brethren, on their way
+to Egypt; the Sheikhs possess no other power or influence than they
+enjoyed then; the relations of the sexes have suffered little or no
+changes; they eat, drink, clothe themselves, educate their children,
+make war and peace, just as they did in the day of the Exodus. But on
+the opposite shores, all has been change, fluctuation, and decay. While
+the Bedouins have wandered with their camels and their flocks,
+unaspiring, unimproving, they have looked across the gulf and beheld the
+Egyptian overthrown by the Persian, the Persian by the Greek, the Greek
+by the Roman, and the Roman in his turn by a daring band from their own
+burning deserts. They have seen empires grow up like Jonah's gourd. War
+has swept away some; the varieties and luxuries of peace have brought
+others to the ground; and every spot along these shores is celebrated."
+
+When the northeastern and the western shores of the Arabian peninsula
+had thus been investigated, there still remained to be explored the
+south eastern shore, the coast of the anciently renowned province of
+Hadramaut, extending from Tehama, on the Red Sea, to the province of
+Oman, at the entrance to the Persian Gulf; and it is to the discoveries
+made in this almost unknown part of the world that I now wish more
+particularly to allude.
+
+In the year 1839 Capt. Haines, the commander of the expedition and the
+present governor of Aden, published his survey of about two fifths of
+this coast, extending from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb as far east as
+Missenaat, in long. 51 deg. east of Greenwich.[63] In the year 1845, he
+published his further survey of about an equal portion extending to Cape
+Isolette, in long. 57 deg. 51', leaving about one fifth of the whole extent
+on the eastern end still to be explored.[64]
+
+In June, 1843, Adolphe Baron Wrede, a Hanoverian gentleman, made an
+excursion from Makallah on the coast, into the interior of the country.
+He visited among other places an extensive valley called Wadi Doan,
+which he thus describes. "The sudden appearance of the Wadi Doan, took
+me by surprise and impressed me much with the grandeur of the scene. The
+ravine, five hundred feet wide and six hundred feet in depth, is
+enclosed between perpendicular rocks, the debris of which form in one
+part a slope reaching to half their height. On this slope, towns and
+villages rise contiguously in the form of an amphitheatre; while below
+the date grounds, which are covered with a forest of trees, the river
+about twenty feet broad and enclosed by high and walled embankments is
+seen winding through fields laid out in terraces, then pursuing its
+course in the open plain, irrigated by small canals branching from it.
+My first view of the valley disclosed to me four towns and four
+villages, within the space of an hour's distance." He also gives an
+account of some curious spots of quicksand, in the midst of the great
+desert of El-Akkaf, which are regarded with superstitious horror by the
+wandering Bedouins. A cord of sixty fathoms in length with a plummet at
+the end, which he cast into one of them, disappeared in the course of
+five minutes. His narrative is published in the fourteenth volume of the
+Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London.
+
+In spite of the glowing descriptions of ancient authors, the idea
+hitherto entertained of this region in modern times, has been that of a
+succession of desert plains and sand-hills, with nothing to give
+animation to the arid scene but solitary groups of Bedouins and
+occasionally a passing caravan. The recent explorations, however, of
+which the one just quoted is a specimen, show that this is far from
+being a correct view of the entire country. The coast is thickly studded
+with fishing-villages and small seaports, which still carry on, though
+on a diminished scale, the trade with India and the Persian gulf, which
+has existed ever since the dawn of history. It is true, the general
+appearance of the country along the coast, consisting as it does of
+successive ranges of sand-hills, is such as to naturally give rise to
+the views entertained and promulgated by navigators, who have had no
+opportunity of visiting the interior. But the deeper researches that
+have been made during the last ten or twelve years, show that these
+opinions are very erroneous; for besides that there are a number of
+green valleys running down to the coast, produced by streams provided
+with water for at least a good part of the year, no sooner has the
+traveller surmounted the first range of sand-hills, than his sight
+begins to be regaled with numerous well watered valleys and mountains
+covered with verdure. Besides this, even in those parts of the country
+where the surface is naturally a desert plain, the inhabitants have
+possessed from the remotest times the art of forming flourishing oases,
+in which to establish their hamlets and towns; an operation which, as
+Wellsted remarks, is effected with a labor and skill that seem more
+Chinese than Arabian. This traveller says: "The greater part of the face
+of the country being destitute of running streams on the surface, the
+Arabs have sought in elevated places for springs or fountains beneath
+it. A channel from this fountain-head is then, with a very slight
+descent, bored in the direction in which it is to be conveyed, leaving
+apertures at regular distances, to afford light and air to those who are
+occasionally sent to keep it clean. In this manner water is frequently
+conducted from a distance of six or eight miles, and an unlimited supply
+is thus obtained. These channels are usually about four feet broad and
+two feet deep, and contain a clear and rapid stream. Few of the large
+towns or oases but had four or five of these rivulets or feleji running
+into them. The isolated spots to which water is thus conveyed possess a
+soil so fertile, that nearly every grain, fruit, or vegetable, common to
+India, Arabia, or Persia, is produced almost spontaneously; and the
+tales of the oases will be no longer regarded as an exaggeration, since
+a single step conveys the traveller from the glare and sand of the
+desert into a fertile tract, watered by a hundred rills, teeming with
+the most luxuriant vegetation, and embowered by lofty and stately trees,
+whose umbrageous foliage the fiercest rays of a noontide sun cannot
+penetrate."[65]
+
+These oases and the towns situated in them, date from various periods;
+some of those already discovered being evidently of considerable
+antiquity. In describing some of these towns, Wellsted says: "The
+instant you step from the Desert within the Grove, a most sensible
+change of the atmosphere is experienced. The air feels cold and damp;
+the ground in every direction is saturated with moisture; and from the
+density of the shade, the whole appears dark and gloomy. To avoid the
+damp and catch an occasional beam of the sun above the trees, the
+houses are usually very lofty. A parapet encircling the upper part is
+turreted; and on some of the largest houses guns are mounted. The
+windows and doors have the Saracenic arch; and every part of the
+building is profusely decorated with ornaments of stucco in bas relief,
+some in very good taste. The doors are also cased with brass, and have
+rings and other massive ornaments of the same metal." These descriptions
+relate to the province of Oman, the eastern extremity of Southern
+Arabia. The glimpses already obtained of this ancient and famous land,
+sufficiently prove that the fortunate traveller who shall succeed in
+obtaining access into the interior of the country, which has always been
+a _terra incognita_ to Europeans and their descendants, will find an
+abundance of objects of interest to reward his zeal and self-devotion.
+
+There is however another class of interesting objects, relating to the
+ancient history of the country, which I have not alluded to until now,
+because I wish to speak of them more particularly. These are the ancient
+_inscriptions_, of which a number have already been discovered and in
+part decyphered.
+
+Several Arabian writers have stated that there existed in the southern
+part of their country, before the time of Mohammed, a kind of writing
+which they call Himyaritic, after the name of the ancient inhabitants of
+the country, the Beni Himyar. But the confused nature of these accounts,
+together with the Arab practice of giving the name of Himyaritic to
+every ancient mode of writing which they were unable to read, caused the
+story to be regarded as little better than fabulous. In the year 1808
+the late Baron de Sacy published a learned treatise on the subject, in
+which he collected all the Arabian accounts; but no further progress was
+made in the enquiry, until the discovery of a number of inscriptions on
+various massy ruins situated along the coast and in the interior, by
+officers attached to the surveying expedition already spoken of, in the
+years 1834 and '5.
+
+Copies of these inscriptions were transmitted to the late Dr. Gesenius
+of Halle, one of the first Orientalists of Europe. After making some
+progress in the investigation, he gave up the subject to his colleague
+Dr. Roediger, who had devoted himself to it with great ardor and success.
+The latter published a copious dissertation containing the results he
+had arrived at, which he reprinted in 1842 by way of an appendix to his
+German edition of Wellsted's Travels in Arabia. By comparing the
+characters of the inscriptions with the Himyaritic alphabets contained
+in some Arabic manuscripts and with the present Ethiopic alphabet, he
+was enabled to ascertain the powers of the letters, and even to
+interpret, with various degrees of certainty, many portions of the
+inscriptions themselves. Thus, these venerable records, which in all
+probability have for many ages been dumb to every human being, are in a
+fair way of being made to yield up to modern scientific research
+whatever information they may contain. That this information must be
+interesting and valuable to the historian is inferred from the imposing
+nature of the structures on which they are found, and whose existence
+but a few years ago was as little looked for in this part of the world
+as in the forest wilds of Oregon. A full account of these discoveries
+and of the attempts at decyphering the inscriptions was published in
+1845 in the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society
+of this city. I will therefore merely proceed to state what has been
+accomplished in the matter since the time when that account closes.
+
+In the beginning of 1843, the same year in which M. Wrede made his
+exploration, a French physician of the name of Arnaud being then at
+Jiddah, received from M. Fresnel, the French consular agent at that
+port, accounts of the Himyaritic inscriptions discovered by the officers
+of the Indian Navy, and of the interest they had created in Europe. M.
+Arnaud's enthusiasm being excited on the subject, he resolved to take a
+share in these arduous researches. The grand object of his ambition was
+to reach Mareb, the ancient capital of Hadramaut and the residence of
+the famous Queen of Sheba, whose name according to the Arabians was
+Balkis. Two English officers had undertaken the journey several years
+ago, and had reached Sana, a town within three or four days' journey of
+it; but the suspicions of the native authorities becoming excited, their
+further progress was prevented.
+
+The mode of proceeding adopted by M. Arnaud, who spoke the Arabic
+fluently, was to travel as a Mussulman, in company with a caravan going
+to the place. His plan was happily crowned with success. In the middle
+of July he reached the city, where he saw the imposing remains of the
+ancient dam, said to have been built across the valley of Mareb by
+Balkis herself, and which, by collecting an immense body of water near
+the metropolis, whence the surrounding country was irrigated, had given
+rise to the fertility and beauty for which the region was celebrated in
+ancient times. On these remains M. Arnaud discovered a number of
+inscriptions, as also among the ruins of the former city; among the most
+remarkable of these is one called Harem Balkis, which is thought to be
+the remains of the palace of the ancient Sabean kings. The inscriptions
+of which Mr. Arnaud brought away copies with him amount to fifty-six in
+number. The tour of M. Wrede was also not unproductive in this respect.
+He copied, among others, a long inscription in Wadi Doan; which,
+according to the interpretations that have since been made of it,
+contains a list of kings more copious than those which have been left us
+by Albulfeda and other historians of the middle ages.
+
+When M. Arnaud returned to Jiddah from his hazardous and toilsome
+expedition, M. Fresnel, who had originally moved him to the undertaking,
+set about studying the new inscriptions, aided by the previous labors of
+the German scholars and his own knowledge of Arabic and the modern
+Himyaritic. Possessing a far more abundant supply of materials than had
+been collected before, he was able to assign to a few doubtful
+characters their proper values. He transmitted to Paris a fair copy of
+the original inscriptions, and also a transcription of them in the
+Arabic character, showing how they should be read. A fount of Himyaritic
+types having been constructed for the express purpose at the Imprimerie
+Royale, they were all published in the course of last year in the
+Journal Asiatique, together with several letters on the subject from M.
+Fresnel. The form of the characters in these inscriptions is essentially
+the same as in those discovered before; but, whereas the former ones all
+read from right to left like the Arabic of the present day, some of the
+new ones are found to read alternately from right to left and from left
+to right, like some of the inscriptions of ancient Greece. M. Fresnel's
+attention has been mainly directed to the collection and identification
+of the proper names of persons, deities, and places, in which the
+inscriptions abound, and in which he recognises many names mentioned in
+Scripture, and in Greek, Roman, and Arabian authors. Thus he identifies
+the deity 'Athtor with the Ashtoreth or Venus of the Hebrews. He finds
+in an inscription at Hisn Ghorab the word Kana, showing the correctness
+of the conclusion already arrived at that this is the _Cane emporium_ of
+Ptolemy. He identifies the ruins of Kharibeh, a day's journey to the
+west of Mareb, with the Caripeta of Pliny, the furthest point reached by
+the Roman commander, AElius Gallus, in his expedition into Arabia Felix,
+in the reign of Augustus Caesar. He has also recognised many names of
+Himyaritic sovereigns mentioned by Arabian writers, among others those
+of the grandfather and uncle of Queen Balkis. M. Fresnel has also begun
+to translate the inscriptions connectedly, a work of great labor and
+difficulty. He has already furnished an improved reading and translation
+of one at Sana, which had been copied before by English officers, and
+interpreted by Gesenius and Roediger, and has offered a translation of
+another found by M. Arnaud, on the Hiram Balkis at Mareb.
+
+The discoveries already brought to light, merely serve to show the
+richness of the mine that yet remains to be explored. Other expeditions
+are now planning, or in progress of execution, for penetrating into
+other parts of the country; and eminent scholars are busied in
+elucidating the treasures which the enterprize of travellers is bringing
+to light. Their united exertions cannot fail, at least, to accumulate
+many curious particulars relative to the history of one of the most
+remarkable and least known nations of past ages.
+
+The Rev. T. Brockman, who was sent by the Royal Geographical Society of
+England for the purpose of geographical and antiquarian research in the
+Arabian peninsula, had proceeded up the coast from Aden to Shehar,
+midway between Aden and Muscat, and had coasted along to Cape Ras
+al-Gat. Subsequently in attempting to reach Muscat, he was arrested by
+sickness at Wadi Beni Jabor, where after a few days he died. His papers,
+which will be sent to the Geographical Society, are thought to contain
+matters of interest respecting this region.[66]
+
+     The following list embraces all of consequence that has been
+     written on Southern Arabia and the Himyaritic Inscriptions.
+
+     Pococke, Specimina Historiae veterum Arabum. Oxford, 1649,
+     reprinted 1806.
+
+     De Sacy, sur divers Evenemens de l'histoire des Arabes avant
+     Mahomet, in Mem. de Lit. de l'Acad. Francaise, Vol. L. Paris,
+     1805.
+
+     Historia Jemanae, e cod. MS. arabico, ed. G.T. Johannsen. Bonn,
+     1828.
+
+     Travels in Arabia, by Lieut. Wellsted, 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+     1838.
+
+     Memoir on the south coast of Arabia, by Capt. Harris. Journal
+     Royal Geographical Society, Vol. VI. IX.
+
+     Narrative of a Journey from Mokha to Sana: by C.J.
+     Cruttenden.--Ibid. Vol. VIII.
+
+     Gesenius, Ueber die Himjaritischen Sprache und Schrift, Halle,
+     1841.
+
+     Roediger, Versuch ueber die Himjaritischen Schriftmonumente.
+     Halle, 1841. This was republished, with many improvements, in
+     an Appendix to the author's German translation of Wellsted's
+     Travels. 2 vols. Halle, 1842.
+
+     Ewald, on an inscription recently dug up in Aden, Zeitschrift
+     fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1843.
+
+     The Historical Geography of Arabia, or the Patriarchal
+     Evidences of Revealed Religion. By the Rev. Charles Forster, 2
+     vols. 8vo. London, 1844.
+
+     F. Fresnel. Letters to M. Jules Mohl, on the Himyaritic
+     Inscriptions. Paris, 1845.
+
+     Account of an excursion to Hadramaut, by Adolph Baron Wrede.
+     Journal Royal Geographical Society, Vol. XIV.
+
+     Memoir of the south and east coast of Arabia, by Capt. S.B.
+     Harris.--Ibid. Vol. XV.
+
+
+SCLAVONIC MSS.--It is stated in the Russian papers that M.
+Grigorowitsch, professor of the sclavonic tongues in the Imperial
+University of Kasan, has returned to that capital from a two year's
+journey in the interior of Turkey, by order of the Russian government,
+in search of the graphic monuments of the ancient Sclavonic nations. He
+has brought home fac-similes of many hundred inscriptions, and 2,138
+Sclavonian manuscripts--450 of which are said to be very ancient, and of
+great importance.
+
+
+THE CAUCASUS.--The results of a scientific expedition for the
+exploration of the Steppes of the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, and of
+Southern Russia, under the direction of M. Hommaire de Hell, has lately
+been published. This portion of the East has been little noticed by
+travellers, and the present work has therefore added much to our
+previous knowledge of the country. It is accompanied by a large map, on
+which the geographical and geological peculiarities are defined with
+great minuteness and elegance.[67]
+
+
+ASSYRIA AND PERSIA.
+
+The discoveries recently made, and the researches now in progress in
+those regions of the world known in ancient times as Assyria, Babylonia
+and Persia, are among the most interesting and important of the age. Of
+the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians we know nothing, but what we find
+in the Bible, or what has been preserved and handed down to us by the
+Greek historians. Unlike Egypt, who has left so many records of her
+greatness, of her knowledge of the arts, and of her advancement in
+civilization, in the numerous and wonderful monumental remains in the
+valley of the Nile, the Assyrians were supposed to have left nothing, no
+existing monuments as evidences that they ever had an existence, save in
+the vast and misshapen heaps along the banks of the Euphrates and
+Tigris, believed to wash the spots where the great cities of Nineveh and
+Babylon once stood. The site of Nineveh still remains doubtful; and so
+literally have the prophecies in regard to Babylon been fulfilled, that
+nothing but vast heaps of rubbish, of tumuli, and traces of numerous
+canals, remains. The language of the Assyrians is unknown, and the
+impressions of characters in the form of a wedge or arrow-head stamped
+upon the bricks and other relics dug from these heaps, have been looked
+upon as mysterious and cabalistic signs, rather than the representatives
+of sounds, or belonging to a regular form of speech. For more than
+twenty centuries, these countries have been as a blank on the page of
+history; and all we have gathered from them consists in the observations
+of curious travellers, who, at the risk of their lives, have ventured to
+extend their wanderings this way.
+
+Pietro della Valle, Le Brun, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, Rich, and Ouseley,
+have given us descriptions of the ancient remains in Persia and Assyria,
+particularly those at Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Babylon. These consist
+of views of the monuments and sculptures, together with copies of the
+inscriptions in the cuneiform, or arrow-head character. The object of
+the edifices, the subject of the sculptures, and the meaning of the
+inscriptions, were wholly matters of conjecture; and it seemed a
+hopeless task to arrive at any conclusions in relation to them, until
+some key should be discovered, by the means of which the language should
+be made known, and the numerous inscriptions decyphered. No bilingual
+tablet, such as the Rosetta stone of Egypt, had been discovered; and,
+although it appeared that many of the inscriptions were recorded in
+three different languages, no means seemed to exist by which
+philologists could obtain a clue to their meaning. With this dark
+prospect in view, the task of decyphering the arrow-headed characters
+was attempted by M. Grotefend, one of the most sagacious and
+distinguished philologists of Europe. The particulars of the attempt and
+its results, we shall briefly state.
+
+At Persepolis it is known are extensive ruins, chiefly belonging to a
+large edifice, with every indication that this edifice was originally a
+royal palace. History and tradition supported this belief; and the
+general character of the sculptures and architecture, together with the
+inscriptions, would carry its origin back to a period some centuries
+before the Christian era. It was doubtless the work of one of the great
+monarchs of Persia; of Cyrus, Cambyses, Xerxes, Darius, or some other
+with whom history is familiar.[68] On some of the monuments at
+Persepolis, are inscriptions in the Pehlvi character, parts of which
+have been decyphered by M. de Sacy. In one of these, the titles and name
+of a king are often repeated; these titles M. Grotefend thought might be
+repeated in the same manner in the arrow-head characters.[69]
+
+Over the doorways and in other parts of this edifice, are portraits,
+evidently of kings, as there is always enough in the dress and insignia
+of a monarch to enable one to detect him on any ancient monument. Over
+these portraits are inscriptions; these it was natural to suppose
+related to the person represented, and if so, contained the name of the
+king and his titles. Such would be the conclusion of any one who
+reflected on the subject, and such was the belief of M. Grotefend and
+other philologists. In these inscriptions one group of characters was
+repeated more frequently than any other, and all agreed that the
+decyphering of this group would furnish a key to the whole. On this
+group of characters then our Savans set to work.
+
+According to the analogy of the Pehlvi inscriptions, decyphered by De
+Sacy, it was believed that the inscriptions then under consideration,
+mentioned the name of a king son of another king, that is the names of
+father and son. M. Grotefend first examined the bas-reliefs at
+Persepolis, to ascertain the particular age of the Persian kings to
+which they belonged, in order that he might discover the names
+applicable to the inscription. A reference to the Greek historians
+convinced him that he must look for the kings of the dynasty of the
+Achaemenides, and he accordingly applied their names to the characters of
+the inscriptions. "These names could obviously not be Cyrus and
+Cambyses, because the names occurring in the inscriptions do not begin
+with the same letter; Cyrus and Artaxerxes were equally inapplicable,
+the first being too short and the latter too long; there only remained
+therefore the names of Darius and Xerxes;" and these latter agreed so
+exactly with the characters, that Mr. Grotefend did not hesitate to
+select them. The next step was to ascertain what these names were in the
+old Persian language, as they come to us through the Greek, and would of
+course differ somewhat from the original. The ancient Zend, as preserved
+in the Zendavesta, furnished the only medium through which the desired
+information could be obtained.[70] He next ascertained that Xerxes was
+called _Kshershe_ or _Ksharsha_; and Darius, _Dareush_. A farther
+examination gave him the name of _Kshe_ or _Ksheio_ for 'king.'[71] The
+places or groups of characters corresponding with these names, were then
+analyzed and the value of each character ascertained. These were then
+applied to other portions of the inscriptions, and led to the
+translation of two short ones, as well as to the formation of a
+considerable portion of the alphabet.
+
+Such was the result of Professor Grotefend's labors up to the year 1833.
+His first discovery was made and announced as early as 1802, but an
+account of his system of interpretation did not appear until 1815, in
+the appendix to the third German edition of Heeren's Researches. This
+was afterwards enlarged in the translation of Heeren published at Oxford
+in 1833, when it was first made known to English readers. In 1837 he
+published a treatise containing an account of all the Persepolitan
+inscriptions in his possession, and another in 1840 on those of Babylon.
+
+The brilliant success which attended Grotefend's earlier efforts, soon
+attracted the attention of other philologists to the subject. M. Saint
+Martin read a memoir before the Asiatic Society of Paris in 1822, but
+did not make any additions to our previous knowledge. Professor Rask
+next took it up, and discovered the value of two additional characters.
+M. Burnouf followed in 1836, with an elaborate memoir, in which he
+disclosed some important discoveries.[72] Professor Lassen, in his
+Memoir published in 1836, and in a series of papers continued up to the
+present day,[73] has identified at least twelve characters, which had
+been mistaken by all his predecessors, and which, says Maj. Rawlinson,
+"may entitle him almost to contest with Professor Grotefend the palm of
+alphabetical discovery."
+
+In 1835, Major Rawlinson, then residing in Persia, turned his attention
+to the subject, and decyphered some of the proper names on the tablets
+at Hamadan. In the following year he applied himself to the great
+inscription at Behistun, the largest and most remarkable that is known
+in Persia, and succeeded in making out several lines of its contents.
+
+The result of Major Rawlinson's first attempt at decyphering the
+Behistun inscription, was the identification of several proper names,
+and consequently the values of additional characters towards the
+completion of the alphabet.[74] But more was wanted than the alphabet,
+which only enabled the student to make out proper names, but not to
+advance beyond; and it was the lack of this knowledge which prevented
+the sagacious and indefatigable Grotefend from carrying out to any great
+extent, the discoveries which he had so well begun.
+
+The language of the inscriptions must next be studied; and as the Zend
+had been the medium through which the first links in the chain of
+interpretation had been obtained, it was naturally resorted to for aid
+to farther progress. The Zendavesta, with the researches of Anquetil du
+Perron, and the commentary at the Yacna by M. Burnouf, wherein the
+language of the Zendavesta is critically analyzed, and its grammatical
+structure developed, furnished the necessary materials. To the latter
+work, and the luminous critique of M. Burnouf, Major Rawlinson owes the
+success of his translations; as he acknowledges that by it he "obtained
+a general knowledge of the grammatical structure of the language of the
+inscriptions."
+
+But the Zend was not of itself sufficient to make out all the words and
+expressions in the Behistun and other inscriptions. Other languages
+contemporary with that of the inscription and of the Zend must be sought
+for, to elucidate many points which it left obscure.[75] The Sanscrit
+was the only one laying claim to a great antiquity, whose grammatical
+structure was sufficiently developed to render it useful in this
+enquiry. A knowledge of this language had previously been acquired by
+Major Rawlinson, and he was therefore fully prepared for the arduous
+task he had undertaken. Neither of these, it must be observed, was the
+language of the inscriptions, which it is believed had ceased to be a
+living form of speech, at the period when the Sanscrit and Zend were in
+current use.
+
+It is unnecessary to note in detail the difficulties and great labor
+attending the decyphering of the Behistun tablets, on which Major
+Rawlinson was occupied from time to time during a space of ten years.
+His discoveries were announced in London, in a memoir read before the
+Royal Asiatic Society in 1839, but were not published in extenso until
+1846.
+
+Briefly to sum up the results of his labors, it will suffice to state
+that they present "a correct grammatical translation of nearly four
+hundred lines of cuneiform writing, a memorial of the time of Darius
+Hystaspes, the greater part of which is in so perfect a state as to
+afford ample and certain grounds for a minute orthographical and
+etymological analysis, and the purport of which to the historian, must
+be of fully equal interest with the peculiarities of the language to the
+philologist." In a few cases it may be found necessary to alter or
+modify some of the significations assigned; but there is no doubt but
+that the general meaning of every paragraph is accurately determined,
+and that the learned Orientalist has thus been enabled "to exhibit a
+correct historical outline, possessing the weight of royal and
+contemporaneous recital, of many great events which preceded the rise
+and marked the career of one of the most celebrated of the early
+sovereigns of Persia."
+
+Such is the history of this great discovery, which has placed the name
+of Major Rawlinson among the most distinguished Oriental scholars of the
+age. He will rank among the laborers in cuneiform writing, where
+Champollion does among the decypherers of Egyptian hieroglyphics; for
+though, like Champollion, he did not make the first discoveries in his
+branch of Palaeography, he is certainly entitled to the honor of reducing
+it to a system, by ascertaining the true powers of a large portion of
+the alphabet, and by elucidating its grammatical peculiarities, so that
+future investigators will find little difficulty in translating any
+inscription in the particular class of characters in question.
+
+The cuneiform (wedge-shaped) or arrow-headed character is a system of
+writing peculiar to the countries between the Euphrates and the Persian
+frontier on the East. Various combinations of a figure shaped like a
+wedge, together with one produced by the union of two wedges, constitute
+the system of writing employed by the ancient Assyrians, Babylonians,
+Medes, and the Achaemenian kings of Persia. The character seems to have
+been as extensively employed in this portion of the world, as the Roman
+letters now are in Europe. Particular arrangements or combinations of
+these characters apparently belonged to different nations, speaking
+different languages. When and where this system of writing originated is
+not known. Professor Westergaard[76] thinks that "Babylon was its
+cradle, whence it spread in two branches, eastward to Susiana, and
+northward to the Assyrian empire, from whence it passed into Media, and
+lastly into ancient Persia, where it was much improved and brought to
+its greatest perfection."
+
+Major Rawlinson makes of the arrow-headed writing three great classes or
+divisions, the _Babylonian_, _Median_ and _Persian_. The first of these
+he thinks is unquestionably the oldest. "It is found upon the bricks
+excavated from the foundations of all the buildings in Mesopotamia,
+Babylonia, and Chaldea, that possess the highest and most authentic
+claims to antiquity;" and he thinks it "not extravagant therefore to
+assign its invention to the primitive race which settled in the plain of
+Shinar."[77] In the recent excavations made by M. Botta and Mr. Layard,
+on or near the site of ancient Nineveh, numerous inscriptions in this
+form of the arrow-head character were found. It also occurs in detached
+inscriptions from the Mediterranean to the Persian mountains.
+
+A comparison of the various inscriptions in the Babylonian class of
+writing has led Major Rawlinson to believe that it embraces five
+distinct varieties, which he calls the Primitive Babylonian, the
+Achaemenian Babylonian, the Medo-Assyrian, the Assyrian, and the
+Elymaean.[78] The peculiarities of these several varieties, with the
+countries in which they are found, are pointed out in the second chapter
+of our author's learned Memoir on cuneiform writing. The Median and
+Persian classes are peculiar to the trilingual tablets of Persia, and
+are better known than the first class or Babylonian.
+
+Mr. Westergaard[79] divides the cuneiform writing into five classes: the
+_Assyrian_; the _Old Babylonian_; and the three kinds on the trilingual
+tablets of Persia, which embrace the _Median_ and _Persian_ varieties,
+and the one called by Rawlinson the _Achaemenian Babylonian_.
+
+The history we have already given of the progress made in decyphering
+these characters applies exclusively to one of the varieties on the
+tablets of Persia. The inscriptions on these monuments are almost
+invariably repeated in three sets of characters, and doubtless in three
+different languages. The characters of what appears in each case to be
+the primary or original inscription, of which the others are
+translations, are of the simplest construction, and consequently were
+the first to attract the attention of decypherers, and to yield to their
+efforts. The language in which they are written has been found to
+exhibit close affinities both to the Sanscrit and to the Zend, and is
+now termed by philologists the Old Persian. The system of writing is
+alphabetic, that is to say, each character represents a single
+articulate sound; whereas that of the other two species is at least in a
+great measure syllabic, which renders the task of decyphering them much
+more difficult.
+
+For our knowledge of the second variety of characters on the Persian
+trilingual tablets, we are indebted to the labors and sagacity of
+Professor Westergaard.[80] These characters had remained entirely
+undecyphered until the first kind had been completely made out. It was
+evident that the inscriptions in the second kind of character were but a
+translation of those in the first; and with this supposition, this
+learned Orientalist began the task of decyphering, by identifying the
+proper names Darius, Hystaspes, Cyrus, Xerxes, Persians, Ionians, &c.,
+which frequently occur in the inscriptions decyphered by Major
+Rawlinson. Having obtained these, he next analyzed each and ascertained
+the phonetic values of the several characters of which they are
+composed. By this means, he was enabled to construct an alphabet. He
+next examined the introductory words and the titles of the sovereigns,
+and finally the entire inscriptions, all of which he has most
+satisfactorily made out, and with them has reconstructed the language in
+which they are written. In his learned and elaborate article detailing
+the process of this discovery, Professor Westergaard gives a systematic
+classification of the characters, one hundred in number, of which
+seventy-four are syllabic, twenty-four alphabetic, and two signs of
+division between words. The character of the language, which for
+convenience sake he terms Median, he does not pretend to decide, though
+he considers that it belongs to the Scythian rather than to the Japhetic
+class of languages; in which opinion Major Rawlinson coincides. The
+Oriental Journal alluded to in the second note to p. 90, contains
+several learned papers by Professors Westergaard and Lassen, on the
+arrow-headed inscriptions.
+
+In the third sort of Persepolitan characters, termed the Achaemenian
+Babylonian, some advances have been made by Major Rawlinson. The
+contents of the other portions of these tablets being known, he pursued
+the course adopted by Professor Westergaard, namely that of identifying
+the groups of characters corresponding with the proper names in the
+other inscriptions. He has thus been enabled to ascertain the phonetic
+values of a large number of characters which must in time lead to a
+knowledge of the rest of the alphabet. A beginning in this direction was
+also made by Professor Grotefend, who in his Memoirs of 1837 and 1840,
+singles out and places in juxtaposition the names of Cyrus, Hystaspes,
+Darius and Xerxes, in the first and third species of Persepolitan
+writing. There is every reason to hope that the labors of the three
+accomplished Oriental scholars, Rawlinson, Lassen, and Westergaard,
+which have been so far crowned with success, will add to their fame by
+making out the characters and language of this species of writing also.
+A high degree of interest is attached to it, not only on account of the
+information it embodies, but in regard to the nation to which it is
+assignable.
+
+It will be recollected, that besides these three sorts of Persepolitan
+writing, there are two other distinct classes of arrow-head characters,
+called Babylonian and Assyrian. Little or nothing has yet been
+accomplished towards decyphering them; which is owing to the fact that
+they are of a very complicated nature, and that they have hitherto been
+found alone, that is to say not accompanied by a version in any other
+language or character. A Parisian savant, M.J. Loewenstern, who has
+applied himself to the study of the Assyrian tablets, published in 1845
+an Essay on the monument recently discovered by M. Botta at Khorsabad
+near Mosul, in which he thinks he has made out the groups which stand
+for the words _great king_, and also several alphabetical characters.
+Further investigations can alone determine whether or not his
+conclusions are correct.
+
+It will be necessary to state some of the historical facts brought to
+light by the labors of Major Rawlinson, to which we have alluded. The
+great tablet at Behistun relates exclusively to Darius. "To this
+monarch," says Major Rawlinson, "insatiable in his thirst of conquest,
+magnificent in his tastes, and possessed of an unlimited power, we are
+indebted for all that is most valuable in the palaeography of Persia.
+Imbued, as it appears, with an ardent passion for monumental fame, he
+was not content to inscribe the palaces of his foundation at Persepolis
+with a legend commemorative of their erection, or with prayers invoking
+the guardianship of Ormuzd and his angels, but he lavished an elaborate
+workmanship on historic and geographic records in various quarters of
+his empire, which evince considerable political forethought, an earnest
+regard for truth, and an ambition to transmit the glories of his reign
+to future generations, to guide their conduct and invite their
+emulation. At Persepolis, the high place of Persian power, he aspired
+to elevate the moral feelings of his countrymen, and to secure their
+future dominancy in Asia, by displaying to them their superiority over
+the feudatory provinces of the empire,[81] while upon the sacred rock of
+Baghistan, he addressed himself in the style of an historian, to collect
+the genealogical traditions of his race, to describe the extent and
+power of his kingdom, and to relate, with a perspicuous brevity worthy
+of imitation, the leading incidents of his reign. His grave relation of
+the means by which, under the care and favor of a beneficent Providence,
+the crown of Persia first fell into his hands, and of the manner in
+which he subsequently established his authority, by the successive
+overthrow of the rebels who opposed him, contrasts strongly but most
+favorably with the usual emptiness of Oriental hyperbole."
+
+The following are some of the translations from the great inscription at
+Behistun, which embraces upwards of four hundred lines in the
+arrow-headed characters. In Major Rawlinson's Memoir, are given
+fac-similes of the original inscriptions, a transcription of the same in
+Roman letters with an interlineal translation in Latin, and a
+translation in English. Accompanying these, is a critical commentary on
+each line, together with notes, rendering the whole as clear as
+possible.
+
+     "I am Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of
+     Persia, the king of (the dependent) provinces, the son of
+     Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenian.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--My father was Hystaspes; of Hystaspes,
+     the father was Arsames; of Arsames, the father was Ariyaramnes;
+     of Ariyaramnes, the father was Teispes; of Teispes, the father
+     was Achaemenes.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--On that account, we have been called
+     Achaemenians: from antiquity we have been unsubdued; from
+     antiquity those of our race have been kings.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--There are eight of my race who have
+     been kings before me, I am the ninth; for a very long time we
+     have been kings.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--By the grace of Ormuzd, I am king;
+     Ormuzd has granted me the empire.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--These are the countries which have fallen
+     into my hands--by the grace of Ormuzd, I have become king of
+     them--Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt; those
+     which are of the sea, Sparta and Ionia; Armenia, Cappadocia,
+     Parthia, Zarangea, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, the Sacae,
+     the Sattagydes, Arachosia, and the Mecians; the total amount being
+     twenty-one countries.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--These are the countries which have come to
+     me; by the grace of Ormuzd, they have become subject to me--they
+     have brought tribute to me. That which has been said unto them by
+     me, both by night and by day, it has been performed by them.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--Ormuzd has granted me the empire. Ormuzd
+     has brought help to me until I have gained this empire. By the
+     grace of Ormuzd, I hold this empire.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:-- ... He who was named Cambyses, the son of
+     Cyrus of our race, he was here king before me. There was of that
+     Cambyses a brother named Bartius; he was of the same father and
+     mother as Cambyses. Cambyses slew this Bartius. When Cambyses slew
+     that Bartius, the troubles of the state ceased which Bartius had
+     excited. Then Cambyses proceeded to Egypt. When Cambyses had gone
+     to Egypt, the state became heretical; then the lie became abounding
+     in the land, both in Persia and in Media, and in the other
+     provinces."
+
+He then goes on to speak of the rebellions in his dominions after the
+death of Cambyses, of the Magian who declared himself king, and that no
+one dared to resist him. He continues:
+
+     "every one was standing obediently around the Magian, until I
+     arrived. Then I abode in the worship of Ormuzd; Ormuzd brought
+     help to me. On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, I slew the
+     Magian and the chief men who were his followers. By the grace
+     of Ormuzd, I became king; Ormuzd granted me the sceptre."
+
+He then says, he "established his race on the throne, as in the days of
+old," prohibited the sacrificial worship introduced by the Magian, and
+restored the old families to office,--all of which was accomplished by
+the aid of Ormuzd. The people of Susiana and Babylon then became
+rebellious. He slew the leader of the former.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--Then I proceeded to Babylon against
+     that Natitabirus, who was called Nabokhadrosser
+     (Nebuchadnezzar). The forces of Natitabirus held the Tigris;
+     there they had come and they had boats. Then I placed
+     a detachment on rafts. I brought the enemy into difficulty; I
+     assaulted the enemy's position. Ormuzd brought help to me; by
+     the grace of Ormuzd, I succeeded in passing the Tigris. Then I
+     entirely defeated the army of that Natitabirus. On the 27th day
+     of the month of Atriyata, then it was that we thus fought."
+
+Darius then continued his march to Babylon, where he was met by the army
+of Natitabirus; he gave him battle and defeated him, driving his army
+into the water. He then took Babylon. It would appear from what this
+monarch relates, that he had a pretty rebellious set of subjects, who
+took advantage of his absence at Babylon. The inscription continues.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--whilst I was at Babylon, these are the
+     countries that revolted against me; Persis, Susiana, Media,
+     Assyria, Armenia, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia and Sacia."
+
+He then gives the names of the rebellious leaders and of the officers
+sent to subjugate them; the forts, villages, or cities, where battles
+were fought; the day of the month when they took place, and the result,
+in every case, by the help of Ormuzd. One example will suffice. After
+speaking of the revolt of Armenia, the inscription continues.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--Then Dadarses by name, an Armenian, one
+     of my servants, him I sent to Armenia. I thus said to him:
+     'Greeting to thee, the rebel state that does not obey me, smite
+     it.' Then Dadarses marched. When he reached Armenia, then the
+     rebels having collected came before Dadarses arraying their
+     battle ... by name, a village of Armenia, there they engaged.
+     Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, my forces
+     entirely defeated that rebel army. On the 8th of the month
+     Thurawahara, then it was a battle was fought by them."
+
+In this manner we have the whole history of the reign of Darius king of
+Persia, who filled the throne 550 B.C. And it may truly be said that no
+monument of remote antiquity which has been preserved to modern times,
+at all equals it in importance. The inscriptions of Egypt are far more
+ancient, but consist of fragments, which, excepting the tables of kings,
+do not throw much light on history. Nothing is more interesting in the
+details given by the Persian king of his successes, than his
+acknowledgment of an overruling power, a Supreme Being, who protected
+him and aided him in all his battles. From the closing part of this
+remarkable tablet, which consists of twenty paragraphs, we select the
+following.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--This is what I have done. By the grace
+     of Ormuzd have I achieved the performance of the whole. Thou
+     whoever hereafter may peruse this tablet, let it be known to
+     thee, that which has been done by me, that it has not been
+     falsely related.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--Ormuzd is my witness, that this record
+     I have faithfully made of the performance of the whole.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--By the grace of Ormuzd, there is much
+     else that has been done by me that upon this tablet has not
+     been inscribed.... If thou publish this tablet to the world,
+     Ormuzd shall be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be
+     numerous.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--If thou shalt conceal this record, thou
+     shalt not thyself be recorded; may Ormuzd be thy enemy, and
+     mayest thou be childless.
+
+     "Says Darius the King:--As long as thou mayest behold this
+     tablet and these figures, thou mayest not dishonor them; and if
+     from injury thou shalt preserve them, may Ormuzd be a friend to
+     thee, and may thy offspring be numerous, and mayest thou be
+     long lived, and that which thou mayest do may Ormuzd bless for
+     thee in after times."
+
+The great inscription from which we have made these extracts, is
+sculptured in three languages, and in three different forms of the
+arrow-headed character, the particulars of which have been stated. There
+are a few imperfections and cracks in the stone which made certain words
+and sentences unintelligible; these will be corrected when the other two
+inscriptions are decyphered. In the midst of these records is a piece of
+sculpture in relief, representing Darius followed by two of his
+officers, with his foot upon a man, who raises his hands before him, and
+nine other figures representing the rebellious leaders whom he had
+severally conquered. They are connected by a rope around their necks and
+have their hands tied behind, and are probably portraits of the persons
+they represent. Beneath each is engraved his name, as in the extract
+given.
+
+     "This Natitabirus was an impostor: he thus declared, I am
+     Nabokhadrosser, the son of Nabonidas; I am king of Babylon."
+
+The discoveries of Professor Westergaard, to whom we are indebted for
+the key to the second or Median form of the arrow-headed character,
+require notice. This accomplished Orientalist, on his return from an
+archaeological tour in India and Persia, under the patronage of the king
+of Denmark, brought with him, among other literary treasures, copies of
+a great number of inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. While in
+Persepolis he carefully examined all the inscriptions which those
+wonderful ruins still retain. Those which had already been published, he
+accurately compared with the original monuments, and the remainder he
+copied entire. This gentleman went thoroughly furnished with all the
+preparatory knowledge that could be gained in Europe to ensure success.
+He had shown himself by his publications to be an excellent Sanscrit
+scholar; besides which he had acquired as complete a knowledge of the
+Zend language as it is possible to do at present, and was well
+acquainted with all that had been effected in the way of decyphering the
+inscriptions. Having thus so greatly the advantage of his predecessors,
+Niebuhr, Ker Porter, and Rich, it is not to be wondered at that his
+transcripts are proportionably more accurate and complete.
+
+It has long been known that all the inscriptions at Persepolis are
+triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of
+the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor
+Lassen,[82] to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying
+his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving
+conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and
+near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical
+value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but
+consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of
+himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The
+following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense
+portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.[83]
+
+     "Ormuzd (is) the great God. He created this earth; he created
+     the heavens; he created mortals; he created the fortune of
+     mortals. He made king Xerxes the only king of many, the only
+     emperor of many.
+
+     "I Xerxes (am) the great king, the king of kings, the king of
+     realms inhabited by many nations; the sustainer, the author of
+     this great land; the son of king Darius, the Achaemenide.
+
+     "I (am) the noble Xerxes, the great king. By the will of
+     Ormuzd, I have built this portal to be entered by the people.
+     Let the Persians abide, let them congregate under this portal,
+     and in this palace--the palace which my father built for
+     abiding in. By the will of Ormuzd we built them.
+
+     "I (am) the noble king Xerxes. Protect me O Ormuzd; and also
+     this kingdom, and this my palace, and my father's palace
+     protect, O admirable Ormuzd."
+
+No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first
+son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G.
+Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three
+species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and
+its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longperier,
+who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or
+Longimanus, whose names and titles have been made out both in the
+hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.[84]
+
+An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has
+been found at Persepolis.[85] It is in only one species of the
+Achaemenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a
+most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone
+in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a
+philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early
+a decline of the Persian language.
+
+But the most important part of this inscription consists of the
+genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the
+father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian
+historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far
+decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them,
+and the several sovereigns acknowledge their gratitude to him as to an
+all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.
+
+NINEVEH. We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the
+researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,[86] on or near the site of ancient
+Nineveh.
+
+This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his
+discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues,
+and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound,
+where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were
+covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and
+scenes illustrating the manners and customs of the Assyrians. The
+drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments
+of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the
+anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the
+Egyptians--they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head,
+and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their
+dresses are exceedingly rich and profuse in ornaments and trimmings.
+Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately
+wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The
+discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground
+in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened
+a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It
+contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at
+Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of
+chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and
+inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the
+class usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was
+built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by the
+Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered
+by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as
+though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged
+lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance
+to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the
+highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the Assyrians. There
+are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs
+consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads--others entirely
+human but winged--with battle-pieces and sieges."[87]
+
+Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned,
+announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and
+every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh,
+whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic
+dream, is astonishing the world by her buildings her sculptures, and
+her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by
+the explorations of Mr. Layard.[88] "He has opened fourteen chambers and
+uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance
+previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty
+feet long and thirty broad--entirely built of slabs of marble covered
+with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the
+highest interest--battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &c.; many of them in the
+finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary
+spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the
+Assyrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines
+of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans--such as
+the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &c. Nothing
+can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords,
+daggers, bows, spears, &c. In this great hall are several entrances,
+each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.[89] These lead to other
+chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every
+chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or
+inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a
+great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand
+eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to
+light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be
+looked forward to with intense interest.
+
+All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by
+Asshur, (whence the name Assyria), and of the first empire under
+Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political
+institutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly
+disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A
+learned author of the last century[90] has endeavored to throw distrust
+on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries,
+because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus
+and other prominent characters which fill important places in the
+Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the
+arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate
+in a remarkable degree the assertions of the Greek writers. The
+observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this
+subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and
+civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to
+have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can
+but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent
+revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such
+scanty documents have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a
+testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted
+with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger
+is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with
+severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a
+predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is
+repelled into the tomb of oblivion."[91]
+
+A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was
+directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the
+Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical,
+and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont.
+The latest accounts from this intrepid traveller left him in the
+inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his
+intention to pass through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China
+on the north.[92]
+
+In the same distant region we hear of the journeys of H.R.H. Prince
+Waldemar, of Prussia (cousin to the king). "Consulting only his ardor
+for science, and burthened with the usual load carried by a traveller on
+foot, he scaled the lofty Himmalayah, crossed the frontier of the
+Celestial Empire, and reached the table-land of Thibet."[93] The prince
+has already transmitted a large collection of objects of natural
+history, many of which are new, to Berlin. It is his intention to return
+to Europe by way of Affghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor.
+
+     The following list embraces the late works on Assyria and
+     Persia, as well as those relating to the arrow-head
+     inscriptions.
+
+     The Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions at Behistun, decyphered and
+     translated; with a Memoir on Persian cuneiform inscriptions in
+     general, and on that of Behistun in particular, by Major H.C.
+     Rawlinson, 8vo., in the journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
+     Vol. 10. London, 1846.
+
+     On the Decyphering of the second Achaemenian or Median species
+     of Arrow-headed Writing; by N.L. Westergaard, 8vo., in the
+     Memoires de la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord.
+     Copenhagen, 1844.
+
+     Lettres de M. Botta sur les Decouvertes a Khorsabad, pres de
+     Ninive, publiees par M.J. Mohl, 8vo., with 56 plates. Paris,
+     1845.
+
+     Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapies et de la Phenicie, sous
+     les rois Achaemenides, par H. de Luynes, 4to. Paris, 1846.
+
+     The Manual, Formation and early Origin of the Hebrew letters
+     and points, demonstrated and explained; also an Elucidation of
+     the so-called Arrow-headed or Cuneiform characters. 8vo.
+     London, 1847.
+
+     Essai de Dechiffrement de l'Ecriture Assyrienne pour servir a
+     l'explication du Monument de Khorsabad. Par J. Loewenstern. 8vo.
+     Paris, 1846.
+
+     Die Grabscrift des Darius zu Nakschi Rustum erlaeutert. Von F.
+     Hitzig. Zurich, 8vo. 1846.
+
+     Remarks on the Wedge Inscription recently discovered on the
+     upper Euphrates by the Prussian engineer, Capt. Von Muelbach.
+     Being a commentary on certain fundamental principles in the art
+     of decyphering the "cuneatic" characters of the ancient
+     Assyrians, by G.F. Grotefend. 8vo. In the papers of the
+     Syro-Egyptian Society. Vol. I. London, 1845.
+
+     Voyage en Perse. de MM. Eugene Flandin et P. Coste. Recueil
+     d'Architecture ancienne, Bas reliefs, inscriptions cuneiformes
+     et Pehlvis, plans topographiques et vues pittoresques. Folio.
+     250 plates and text.
+
+     This magnificent work, the result of an expedition sent out by
+     order of the French government, under the directions of the
+     Institute, and now published by a commission of savans,
+     consisting of Messrs Burnouf, Le Bas, and Leclerc, is in the
+     course of publication. It will unquestionably be the most
+     complete work ever published on this interesting country and
+     will include the antiquities of Babylon and Nineveh.
+
+     G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beitraege zur Erlaeuterung der
+     Persopolitanischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange ueber die
+     Vollkommenheit der ersten Art-derselben. Hanover, 1837.
+
+     G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beitraege zur Erlaeuterung der
+     Babylonischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange ueber die
+     Beschaffensheit des aeltesten Schriftdruck. Hanover, 1840.
+
+     The valuable Oriental Journal edited by Prof. Lassen, entitled
+     "Zeitschrift fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes," contains many
+     papers of great interest on these subjects.
+
+
+SIBERIA. To the love of science which the enlightened Emperor of Russia,
+has always manifested, we are indebted for an expedition, the most
+successful which has yet been undertaken for the exploration of the
+northern and eastern parts of Siberia. The results of this extensive
+exploration of a region not before examined by scientific men, are of
+the greatest interest to science, and have earned for its distinguished
+and undaunted leader, Prof. Von Middendorff, the applause of the savans
+of Europe. Not having seen any detailed account of this journey, I am
+indebted to Sir R. Murchison for some particulars of its results.[94]
+
+The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west,
+and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of
+Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in
+obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next
+undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast
+continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and
+thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey
+through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers,
+was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to
+St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region
+never previously explored by a man of science."
+
+"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M.
+Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and
+perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild
+regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by
+_following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of
+underwood and birch trees_" In his return journey, he examined the
+frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and
+ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the
+Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and
+China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to
+either Emperor.
+
+In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid
+traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were
+investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these
+respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen
+subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the
+shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below
+the surface, the cold is 2 deg. 4'' Reaumur, and that it is probable the
+frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet!
+Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of
+which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye
+succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions,
+and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M.
+Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation.
+He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow
+on the Yenisei to latitude 61 deg. 40', indigenous plants, requiring less
+warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical
+stems reach to about 72 deg. north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!"
+This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of
+vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to
+climatological and local conditions.
+
+In regard to the mammoths, the fossil bones of which have been found in
+Siberia, M. Middendorff has shown that, in accordance with the views of
+Professor Owen, (who states that these quadrupeds were specially
+organized to live on the branches and leaves of such shrubs and trees as
+grow in boreal latitudes) there are still trees in latitude 72 deg. which
+would suffice for their sustenance.
+
+The Ethnology of this region has been elucidated by our traveller, who
+by investigating the languages and physical characteristics of these
+remote tribes, has been enabled to affiliate them with their parent
+stocks.
+
+Our knowledge of the geology and geography of the northern and
+southeastern extremities of Siberia have been greatly extended by this
+journey; in fact no enquiry for the advancement of science and a
+knowledge of this far distant and hitherto unknown region, seems to have
+been neglected.[95]
+
+Another scientific expedition of an Ethnological character is employed
+in Siberia under the direction of M. Castren, who has devoted much of
+his first report to the geography of the country. After speaking of the
+river Irtisch and its fisheries, he gives some account of the Ostiaks,
+the most ancient people of its banks. Surrounded by Russians and
+Tartars, they have lost all their nationality except their language. The
+Tartar influence is feeble, but that of Russia is felt in their
+religion, their manners, their customs and even in their general mode of
+thinking.
+
+A paper containing "Ethnological Notes on Siberia," by Prof. Von
+Middendorff, was read at the late meeting of the British Association for
+the advancement of science. "In this paper, the geographical boundaries
+of the different tribes were set forth, the tribes were enumerated and
+some of the characteristic peculiarities described. The 1st, was the
+Ostiaks; these were stated to be of Finnish origin, on both
+physiological and philological evidence. 2d, the Samoiedes, who were of
+Mongol descent. 3rd, the Tunguses. 4th, the Yakuts; the extent to which
+Mongol features were found in a nation speaking a language akin to
+Turkish, was insisted on. 5th, the Yukagins; the physical peculiarities
+of which placed them along with the Samoiedes. 6th, the Ainos; these
+were the inhabitants of the Kinule islands at the mouth of the Arnus; of
+these there were two types, the Finnish and the Japanese. 7th, the
+Kachkell; these were only known through the Ainos."
+
+A geographical Society has lately been founded at St. Petersburg, to
+which the emperor proposed to give ten thousand silver rubles annually.
+The first great exploratory expedition under the directions and
+patronage of this Society will be directed along the eastern flank of
+the Ural mountains, from the parallel of 60 deg. north (Bogoslafsk) to the
+Glacial sea. This survey is to be conducted by Count A. Von Keyserling,
+already known to the public through his valuable geological co-operation
+in the work on Russia, by Sir R.I. Murchison; and who by his sound
+acquirements in geology, zoology and geography, will it is presumed,
+during the ensuing three years, throw great additional light on the wild
+Arctic Ural which separates Europe from Asia, and which, inhabited by
+Ostiaks and Samoiedes, extends beyond the limits of arboreal vegetation.
+Among numerous other objects, it is hoped that this expedition will
+elicit new results concerning the entombment and preservation of the
+mammoths.[96]
+
+
+INDIA. The obstacles which have existed in India, and which have
+retarded the extension of European civilization, will now be effectually
+removed by the noble step taken by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General,
+for promoting education in that country.[97] This benevolent and
+excellent man, whose well earned laurels on the field of battle are not
+more honorable than his philanthropic efforts in extending education
+among the natives of India, and in improving their social condition,
+"has directed the Council of Education and other authorities charged
+with the duty of superintending public instruction throughout the
+provinces subject to the government of Bengal, to submit returns of the
+students who may be fitted according to their degrees of merit and
+capacity, for such of the various public offices, as with reference to
+their age, abilities and other circumstances, they may be deemed
+qualified to fill." As this order recognizes no distinction of schools,
+or castes, or religion, it will have a great influence on the people,
+towards inducing them to give their children the benefit of a good
+education, which to a great extent must be obtained through the
+Christian missionaries. "It is," says the Friend of India, "the most
+powerful impulse which the cause of education has received during the
+last twenty-five years. It makes the seminaries the nursery of the
+service, and the service the stimulant of the seminaries. It introduces
+the enlightened principles adopted by European governments, of
+recruiting the public service in every department from those who have
+earned distinctions in the public schools. At the same time it will be
+found instrumental in the highest degree in the general elevation of the
+country. It will transplant into the interior that European knowledge
+and science which has hitherto been confined to Calcutta, and diffuse
+their influence through every district."
+
+The renunciation of idolatry must necessarily follow the first steps in
+this great work of reform, and we already see it noticed that in
+southern India, within the short period of three months, eight hundred
+and thirty-two persons renounced idolatry and embraced Christianity.
+This large number was a part of the population of seven villages.[98]
+
+Such changes are not without their effects on the great mass of the
+natives, indeed it is only by removing from their minds the gross
+superstition in which they have been for ages immersed, that there can
+be a hope of improving their social condition. The wealthy Hindoos cling
+to their ancient religion with greater tenacity as it totters towards
+its downfall, than when in its most flourishing state. Alarmed at the
+innovations which European civilization and Christianity have made, they
+are printing by subscription, a series of popular religious books in
+monthly numbers, on their doctrines, rites, superstitions and idolatry.
+Fearing that the Europeans and such as have been taught to observe these
+things with ridicule, might controvert them, they have confined the
+subscription to Hindoos, and have directed that their books shall be
+rigidly kept from the hands of Christians.
+
+The Mahommedans too, in Bengal, are greatly alarmed at the danger to
+which their religion is exposed. They have prepared tracts and books in
+opposition to Christianity, and have sent, or are sending emissaries in
+every direction, with a view to strengthen the tottering cause of their
+false prophet.[99] A Mahommedan merchant in Bombay has printed at his
+own expense, two thousand copies of the Koran for gratuitous
+distribution, at a cost of several thousand dollars.
+
+In former times the efforts of the missionaries were directed to
+proselyting among the Hindoos and other idolaters of the East, without
+first making themselves acquainted with the fabric which they were
+laboring so earnestly to demolish. Nursed and educated as the natives
+were in the doctrines and superstitions which for ages their forefathers
+had venerated and professed, the efforts of the missionaries and
+of others who labored to improve their condition were unattended
+with success--and a conflict between Oriental and European
+civilization--between Hindooism and Christianity--between the false
+science of the shastres and the enlightenment of Europe, for a long time
+existed; and it seemed doubtful whether truth or falsehood would
+triumph. Now, the system is changed, and a course is pursued which bids
+fair to produce the most wonderful effects on the people of India and
+China.
+
+It has been asserted that the missionary enterprise in India was a
+failure, and did not warrant the large sums expended there. Those who
+are unfriendly to the cause do not see that more than half the amount
+there expended was for educating the people, for improving their social
+condition, for translating valuable books into their various languages
+and for establishing among them that mighty engine of civilization and
+reform, the printing press.[100]
+
+But it is not merely in the translation and distribution of these books,
+that the missionaries have rendered so much service. In this labor it is
+true they have contributed greatly towards disseminating Christian truth
+and useful knowledge among a large class of people, and have improved
+their religious, their moral and their social condition. But to Europe
+and to the learned world they have also furnished a vast deal of
+philological knowledge, elucidating and developing languages scarcely
+known beyond the precincts of the several countries in which they were
+spoken. Many of these languages, too, were previously unwritten; and
+from this rude state the missionaries have trained and moulded them into
+forms adapted to written speech.
+
+While speaking of the labors of the missionaries in the East, I should
+do great injustice to Catholics not to speak of their efforts to improve
+the moral and religious condition of the people in these distant
+countries. In the most barbarous and secluded portions of the earth do
+we find these devoted men diligently laboring to elevate the condition
+of the natives. In many do we see a zeal and devotedness, an endurance
+of hardships, of the most severe privations, and often martyrdom itself,
+which has never been surpassed in the annals of missionary enterprise.
+Neither Francois Xavier, nor Ignatius Loyola, so famous among the
+pioneers of the Eastern missions, ever exhibited a greater zeal or
+devotedness than we now witness among the Catholic missionaries in
+Thibet, China, Corea, the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and
+Oceanica. They too have added much to our stock of knowledge of the
+inhabitants, their manners and customs, and their languages. Their
+narratives give us particular accounts of the productions of the
+countries in which they reside, their trade, commerce, and all that
+interests us.
+
+
+SIAM. An interesting fact connected with the progress of European
+civilization, and the extension of Christianity in the kingdom of Siam,
+seems deserving of notice in this place. It was communicated by the
+American Mission in that country.
+
+"The king of Siam despatched one of his ships to Ceylon about the close
+of last year, to carry back some Ceylonese Boodhists whom he had invited
+to Siam, two or three years before, and also to send a fresh
+ecclesiastical embassy to that island--regarded by all Boodhists as very
+sacred--to make further religious researches in the primitive nursery of
+their faith. That embassy fulfilled its mission, and returned to Siam in
+June, bringing a letter to his Majesty from a high priest of Boodh in
+Ceylon, written in English, and stating in substance, that the religion
+of Boodh had become almost extinct in Ceylon, chiefly through the
+influence of the Christian religion, and the schools and seminaries of
+the missionaries and English residents in that part of the world; and
+that, if some aid from abroad could not be obtained to prop up crumbling
+Boodhism in that island, it must soon become utterly extinct. The
+writer expressed much pain at the thought, that the very birth place of
+his religion should not have some permanent witness of it; and requested
+that his Majesty, in his pious zeal for Boodhism, would send him funds,
+with which he might build a _Wat_ (Religious house) and support priests
+in honor of his god. He suggested that this would be a noble work for a
+great king, and one that would confer upon him the highest honors of
+Boodhism."[101]
+
+     The following list embraces the recent works on India.
+
+     Travels in the Kashmir and the Punjab; containing a particular
+     account of the Sikhs. From the German of Baron Hugel, with
+     notes by Major Jervis, royal 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     The Punjaub; being a brief account of the country of the Sikhs,
+     its extent, history, commerce, productions, religion, &c., to
+     the recent campaign of the Sutelege. By Lt. Col. Steinbach,
+     post, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     A Peep into Turkistan; by Capt. R. Burslem, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     Travels in the Punjab, Affghanistan and Turkistan, to Balk,
+     Bokhara and Herat, by Mohan Lal, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     History of the Punjab, and of the rise, progress and present
+     condition of the Sikhs, 2 vols. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
+
+     The history of the Sikhs, with a personal narrative of the war
+     between the British and the Sikhs. By W.L. McGregor, 2 vols.
+     8vo. London, 1847.
+
+     The Sikhs and Affghans, immediately before and after the death
+     of Runjeet Singh. By Shahamat Ali, post, 8vo. London, 1847.
+
+     The Hindoo Castes; or history, manners and customs of the 42
+     castes or sects of the Brahmins of British India, with highly
+     colored plates: By E.A. Rodriguez, 24 numbers.
+
+
+COCHIN-CHINA, CHINA, MANCHURIA, COREA, AND JAPAN.
+
+COCHIN-CHINA. M. Hedde has published a few notices of a visit to Turon
+in Annam in 1844, on his passage from Singapore to Macao.[102] He
+represents the country as altogether in a wretched, declining condition,
+misgoverned and beggared by despotic officers, presenting a painful
+contrast in its general prosperity with the Chinese empire. The present
+monarch is named Thieufri (or Yuen-fuh-siuen in Chinese) and succeeded
+his father Ming-ming or Minh-menh in 1841, but no improvement in the
+domestic or foreign administration of the government has taken place.
+Several Cochin-Chinese youth have been educated at Singapore, and the
+king purchased two steamers several years ago from the Dutch, but the
+natives probably were too little acquainted with the machinery and
+motive power to make the least use of them, as nothing has since been
+heard of them. The country is highly favored by its natural advantages
+and navigable rivers for maintaining a large population, but oppression
+on the part of the rulers and ignorance among the people, vitiate the
+sources of national prosperity. The port of Turon alone, is open in
+Annam for foreign trade, but no American vessels have been there for a
+cargo since Lieut. White's unsuccessful voyage in the Franklin in 1804.
+Capt. Percival of the U.S. ship Constitution anchored there in May,
+1845, but no official account of his visit has been published, which if
+the rumors of his firing upon the town are true, is not strange. The
+Peacock and Enterprize also anchored there in 1836, but Mr. Roberts, the
+American diplomatic agent, was too ill to have any communications with
+the authorities.
+
+
+CHINA. The late war between England and China has directed the attention
+of other nations towards that empire in an unusual degree. Except the
+immediate details of the contest and the personal incidents connected
+with it, however, the works of those officers who have written upon that
+war, have not contained so much information as was expected by some, but
+quite as much as could be collected under the circumstances. The war was
+almost wholly a maritime one, confined to attacks upon cities and forts
+upon the coast and rivers, by both the army and navy, and few or none of
+the officers were acquainted with the language of the people, so that
+little information could be obtained from those natives whom suspicion
+or terror did not drive away. The region around Ningpo, Chusan and the
+mouth of the Yangtsz kiang, has been described with more minuteness than
+any other part of the maritime provinces; and the careful survey of the
+coast from Amoy to Shanghai, with the Chusan and Pescadore archipelagoes
+by Captains Collinson, and Kellet and others, has left little to be done
+for the navigator's benefit, in making known the hydrography of this
+part of China. The general topography of China is, however, but little
+better known now than it was at the close of the general survey of the
+Jesuits in 1714, and their maps form the basis of the best extant.
+
+The embassy sent by the French government in 1844, under M. Th. de
+Lagrene, to form a commercial treaty with China, was furnished on a most
+liberal scale with everything necessary to make the greatest improvement
+of the opportunities offered to examine into the mechanical arts and
+productions of the land. Four gentlemen were attached to the
+ambassador's suite, to make inquiries into the various agricultural and
+mechanical arts of the Chinese, one of whom, M. Isidore Hedde, was
+especially designated to investigate everything relating to the growth
+and preparation of silk. In pursuance of this object, he visited the
+city of Tuchan fu, which lies a few miles northwest of Shanghai, and is
+the capital of the province of Kiangsu. This place is probably the
+second or third city in the empire, Canton or Hangchau fu being the only
+ones which can compete with it for wealth and beautiful manufactures. It
+lies in a highly cultivated region, and is connected with Peking and
+other large places, through the Grand canal and the Yangtsz kiang. M.
+Hedde went in a Chinese dress, and succeeded in visiting the principal
+buildings in the city, such as the provincial mint, the hall of
+examination, an establishment for the education of unhappy females
+destined for sale for the amusement of the opulent, and some
+manufactories. The suburbs of Suchau, as is the case with most Chinese
+cities, exceed that part within the walls, and here he found most of the
+craftsmen in iron, ivory, gold, silver, wood, bone, horn, glass, earth,
+paper, cotton and silk. His errand being chiefly to examine the silken
+fabrics, he noticed whatever was peculiar in spinning, dyeing and
+weaving, in the shops he entered. The Chinese have no such immense
+establishments as are found in this country, where large buildings
+accommodate an immense quantity of machinery and numerous workmen, but
+all their products are made by manual labor in small establishments. M.
+Hedde was struck with the immense population of the city and its
+environs, including a floating suburb of great extent, the whole
+comprising a population of not far from two millions. The Chinese census
+gives an average of over nine hundred souls to a square mile in the
+province of Kiangsu, and every opportunity which has been offered for
+examining it, has added new evidence to the truth of this statement,
+though closer investigation and further travel is necessary before we
+can give implicit reliance to the assertions made on this subject.
+
+Two English missionaries have lately gone long journeys into the
+interior, but as Protestants have no coadjutors among the people away
+from the ports, who would be willing to receive and conceal them; and as
+their system of operations aims rather to impart a true knowledge of
+Christianity than to make many converts to a form of worship, these
+excursions have not been frequently made. One of the two here referred
+to, was across the country from Ningpo to Canton, by the same route Lord
+Macartney came, and the other was up the Yangtsz kiang. Two American
+missionaries visited the large city of Changchau fu near Amoy in 1844,
+where they were received with civility though not with kindness.
+
+Mr. Robert Fortune, sent out to China by the Horticultural Society, has
+lately returned to England, with new plants of great beauty, and a large
+collection of botanical and ornithological specimens, among which are
+doubtless many not heretofore described. Mr. Fortune visited all the
+ports, and made excursions in their neighborhoods, and his reception
+among the people was generally kind. The people in the cities of Ningpo
+and Shanghai, and their vicinities, compare favorably for their kindness
+and general courtesy, with the coarse mannered natives of Canton.
+
+The opening of this great empire to the commercial enterprise of western
+nations, has given rise to anticipations of an extensive trade, and the
+importation of cotton and woolen fabrics during the last few years has
+been increasing; and if it was not for the abominable traffic in opium,
+which is both impoverishing and destroying the Chinese, there would be
+every reason for believing the commerce with China would soon be one of
+the largest branches of trade. The principal articles in which it is
+most likely to increase are tea and silk, but there is a great
+assortment of other productions, which can be taken in exchange for the
+cloths, metals and wares of the west. Mr. Montgomery Martin for a short
+time colonial treasurer of Hongkong, has collected all the statistics
+bearing on this subject in his work, which will aid in forming an
+opinion on this point. Commercially, politically and religiously, the
+Chinese empire now presents a most interesting spectacle, and the
+experiment of regenerating it and introducing it into the family of
+nations, without completely disorganizing its present form of government
+and society, will constantly go on and attract still more and more the
+notice of Christendom. The probabilities at present are in favor of a
+successful issue, but it is impossible to contemplate the desolating
+effects of the use of opium, brought to the people in such quantities,
+without great apprehension as to the result. The lava like progress of
+the power of Great Britain in Asia, has just commenced on the borders of
+China, and when the country is drained of specie in payment for this
+drug, there is reason to fear that the native government will be unable
+to carry on its operations and maintain its authority.
+
+
+COREA. Since the extermination of the Catholic priests from Corea in
+1839, the most rigid measures have been adopted to exclude all
+foreigners; in fact, the determination on the part of the government of
+Corea to prevent all intercourse between its people and those of other
+countries seems to have been adopted from its neighbor of Japan. These
+measures are even extended to the Chinese, against whom a strong natural
+antipathy exists, growing out of the persecutions formerly inflicted on
+the Coreans by them. Accurate descriptions of Europeans are kept at the
+various posts on the frontier, and from their well known characteristics
+they are easily distinguished. The Coreans themselves on leaving their
+country for China for purposes of trade, receive a passport, which on
+returning must be given back or they are not permitted to enter. Many
+Christians still remain in Corea, and though they are subject to
+persecution, the minds of the people are well disposed towards the
+Christian religion. The literary class hold it in the highest
+estimation, and seem only to be waiting for the moment when they will be
+free to declare in its favor.[103]
+
+Farther accounts from this country have lately appeared in the Annals of
+the Propaganda Society,[104] in a letter from Keemay Kim a native of
+Corea, and a Christian, who had just completed his studies at Macao in
+China. He was sent on a mission to the Christians in Corea, but owing to
+the vigilance observed on the frontiers of that country, was unable to
+enter it. Determined to persevere in the attempt, he posted on to
+Hoong-tchoong, a small frontier town near the mouth of a river which
+separates Corea from Manchuria, where he waited until the period arrived
+when the great fair was to take place at Kee-eu-Wen, the nearest town in
+Corea, four leagues distant. "They supply the Coreans with dogs, cats,
+pipes, leather, stag's horns, copper, horses, mules and asses; and
+receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice, corn, swine,
+paper, mats, oxen, furs and small horses." A few officers are permitted
+to trade every year, but they are closely guarded. All others who pass
+the frontier are made slaves or massacred at once. Our traveller here
+met a few Corean Christians in the immense crowd which had come to
+traffic, and whom he recognised by a badge previously agreed upon; but
+so great was the confusion and hurry on the occasion, added to the fear
+of being recognized, that the interview does not seem to have been
+productive of good, or increased our information of the people or
+country. Since the great persecution a few years since, the church had
+been at rest; and though a few converts had been made, the faithful had
+retired to the southern provinces for better security. They still
+entertained the idea of introducing a European missionary through the
+north, though with the knowledge that if discovered by the authorities,
+instant death would follow. Such is the zeal and perseverance with which
+these men pursue their philanthropic and Christian labors.
+
+The fair to which allusion has been made, is thus described by our
+Corean. The traders cannot begin their operations until a signal is
+given, by hoisting a flag and beating the gong, "when the immense and
+densely packed crowd rush to the market place; Coreans, Chinese, and
+Manchus, are all mingled together. Each speaks in his own tongue, and so
+great is the uproar produced by this mass of people, that the echoes of
+the neighboring mountains repeat their discordant shouts."
+
+"Four or five hours is the whole time allowed for buying and selling;
+consequently, the tumult which takes place, the quarrels which arise,
+the blows which are exchanged, and the plundering which goes on, give
+the place more the look of a city taken by storm and given up to
+pillage, than that of a fair." At evening, when the signal is given,
+the strangers are driven out by the soldiers with the points of their
+lances.
+
+
+MANCHURIA. The vast regions of Manchuria, lying north of Corea to the
+Hing-an or Yablonoi mountains, and east of the Sialkoi to the ocean, are
+inhabited by various tribes speaking different dialects and subsisting
+principally by hunting and fishing. The Manchus are now the dominant
+race, but some of the tribes near the sea and in Taraka island, bear no
+tributary relations to them, if indeed they are much acquainted. Since
+the conquest of China, the Manchus have gone on steadily improving this
+part of their possessions by stationing agricultural troops at the
+principal ports of observation, and collecting the hunters around these
+points as much as possible. Criminals are also constantly banished
+there, who carry with them their arts, and by their industry both
+maintain themselves and set an example to the nomads. The southern part
+called Shingking, has become well cultivated in many parts, and
+considerable trade is carried on at Kinchau with other parts of China.
+
+Manchuria produces pulse, maize, (Indian corn), millet, barley and
+buckwheat; pulse, drugs and cattle, form the leading articles of trade.
+The climate of this country is so inhospitable, as to prove a serious
+obstacle in the way of its settlement and cultivation.
+
+The Manchus have no national literature; all the books written in their
+language are translations of Chinese works, made under the
+superintendence of the Academies at Moukden and Peking. Their written
+characters are derived from the Mongols, but have undergone many
+changes. The emperors have taken great pains to elevate their countrymen
+by providing them with the best books in Chinese literature, and
+compelling them to go through the same examinations before they can
+attain any office; but the numerical superiority of the Chinese and
+their active habits, give them so much the advantage, that except in
+their own country, the Manchus find it difficult to preserve their
+native tongue to the second generation.
+
+
+MONGOLIA. The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda Society
+contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia, by the
+Rev. Mr. Huc.[105] This vast country, covering a million of square
+miles, consists of barren deserts and boundless steppes. In the limits
+allotted each corps, there is seldom more than one town, where the chief
+resides. The people live in tents, without any permanent residence. They
+move from place to place, with the changes of the seasons, or when their
+immense herds of oxen, camels and horses have exhausted the grass around
+their encampment. To-day presents an animated scene of hundreds of
+tents, filled with an active population; the children playing as happy
+and contented as though surrounded with every luxury a civilized life
+affords; the women cooking their food and drawing water from a well just
+dug; and the men, mounted on horseback, are galloping over the plain,
+keeping their countless herds from straying away. To-morrow, this
+picturesque and animated scene will be changed to a dreary and
+forbidding desert. Men, flocks, and tents have vanished, and nought
+remains to mark the visit of this wandering race, but the curling smoke
+of their unquenched fires, or the birds of prey hovering over the
+carcase of some dying camel, or feeding on the remains of their late
+repast. The Mongols are irreclaimable nomads, though some tribes of
+them, as the Tsakhars, Ortous, and Solous, cultivate the soil. The four
+khanates of the Kalkas are called Outer Mongolia, and comprise within
+their borders, several well built towns, though none of any size,
+compared with the cities in China. Few Chinese have settled among the
+Mongols, except near the Great Wall, nor will they allow them to do so,
+as there is a deep antipathy between the two races. The Mongols of the
+present day have probably made no advances in civilization over their
+ancestors in the days of Genghis and Kublai.
+
+The approaches of the British power up the valley of the Sutlej, into
+the regions lying along the base of the western Himalayas, are such that
+they will ere long come in contact with Tibet through Ladak, and with
+Yarkand through Badakshan. But there is probably more geographical than
+ethnological information to be gained by traversing these elevated
+regions, where stupendous mountains and arid deserts offer nothing to
+tempt man from the fertile plains of India and China. Two Romish
+missionaries have lately arrived in Canton from H'lassa in Tibet, by the
+overland route through Patang in Sz'chuen to the capital of Kwangsi, and
+thence to Canton. This route has never been described by any traveller.
+
+
+LEWCHEW ISLANDS. This group of islands, including the Madjico sima,
+lying between it and Formosa, form a dependency of the principality of
+Satzuma, in the southwest of Japan, though the rulers are allowed a
+limited intercourse with China through Fuhchau fu. During the late war
+between England and China, the transport Indian Oak was lost on
+Lewchew,[106] August 14, 1840, and the crew were treated with great
+kindness, and provided with a vessel, in which they returned to Chusan.
+Every effort was made by the authorities to prevent the officers and men
+from examining the island, but their kindness to the unfortunate people
+thus cast on their shores, made such an impression, that a mission to
+the islanders was determined upon in London, by some naval gentlemen
+connected with the expedition, and a society formed. The Rev. B.J.
+Bettelheim was appointed to the post, and had reached Canton in March,
+1846. He afterwards proceeded on his voyage, and his journal received at
+Hongkong, from Napa, contains a few details of interest, but shows
+plainly that the authorities are decided in refusing to allow foreigners
+to settle in their territories.
+
+An attempt has been made by the Romish missionaries to establish a
+mission in this group.[107] The Rev. W. Forcade and an associate were
+left on Lewchew in May, 1844, and after a residence of fifteen months
+were able to transmit some notices of their treatment to the directors,
+through Sir Edward Belcher, R.N. who stopped at Napa in August, 1845.
+On their arrival, M. Forcade and his companion were conducted to their
+dwelling, where they were surrounded by a numerous guard under the
+control of officers, and attended by domestics, as they were told, "to
+charm their leisure moments." Their table was bountifully supplied, and
+everything they could ask to make them comfortable was granted them,
+except their liberty. Whenever they went abroad, they were accompanied
+by a guard, but allowed to hold no intercourse with the natives; they
+had not been able to proceed beyond twelve miles into the interior, but
+as far as they had opportunities of conversing with the natives, found
+them simple and courteous in their manners, and disposed to talk when
+not under surveillance. It is probable, however, that under such
+restraint as these gentlemen were placed, it is not likely that they had
+attained to such fluency in the language as to be able to hold very
+ready communication with natives met in this hasty manner. The
+intentions of the government were plain, however, not to allow them to
+disseminate their doctrines, (if it had learned their real object), nor,
+by intercourse with the people, become acquainted with their character,
+or the state of the country. No assistance was granted them in learning
+the language, and they were forbidden to adopt the native costume.
+Notwithstanding this opposition, they had been able to acquire a partial
+knowledge of the language, and to compile a vocabulary of six thousand
+words. Permission to preach the Christian religion was not granted them,
+lest, as the authorities said, the Chinese, to whom they are tributary,
+would break off all intercourse; but the real reason was doubtless their
+fear of the Japanese. Yet these obstacles did not dishearten them, and
+they seem determined to persevere in their attempts, though it is not
+unlikely that when Mr. Bettelheim arrives, the authorities will take
+measures for deporting them all.
+
+The Lewchewans are intimately connected with the Japanese. The language
+is the same, with unimportant dialectical variations, and Chinese
+letters and literature are in like manner cultivated by both. In
+personal appearance, however, the two people are very unlike. The
+Lewchewans are not on an average over five feet four inches high,
+slightly built, and approach the Malayan cast of features more than the
+Chinese. They are darker than the Chinese, and their mild traits of
+character, unwarlike habits, and general personal appearance, suggests
+the idea that they are akin to the aborigines of Formosa and Luconia by
+descent, while their proximity and subjugation to their powerful
+neighbors on the north and west, have taught them a higher civilization,
+and introduced arts and sciences unknown to their early conquerors. When
+Lewchew was subjugated by the Japanese, it was agreed that embassies
+with tribute might be sent to Peking, and according to the Chinese
+account, they come to that court twice in three years.[108] The
+secretary or deputy embassador in 1841, was drowned in his passage from
+Peking to Fuhchau. This embassy is a source of considerable profit to
+the Lewchewans, for their junks, which are built on the Chinese model,
+have free entrance to Fuhchau, and all the goods they import and export,
+are passed without duty. The travelling expenses of the embassy to and
+from the capital are also defrayed, and permission is given them to
+study Chinese when in the country. This intercourse is therefore both
+honorable and profitable to the Lewchewans, but the Chinese are not
+allowed to trade there, and the only act of sovereignty the emperor
+exercises, according to M. Forcade, is to send a delegate to sanction
+the accession of a new incumbent of the throne--whom, however, it would
+be ridiculous for him to refuse. He adds, "In conversation, if one is a
+stranger, the Lewchewans will be continually dwelling on China, they
+will boast about it, they will relate its history, they will describe
+its provinces and its cities; but Japan is never mentioned! Such are the
+words, but the facts are quite another thing."
+
+The real character of the connection between Lewchew and Japan is not
+well ascertained. No Japanese officers are seen on landing, and the
+officers appointed to attend the people of the Indian Oak, exhibited the
+greatest alarm when a few were seen at a distance, while the party were
+taking a walk. The trade between the two countries is confined to the
+ports of Napa and Kagosima, between which the vessels of both nations
+pass; the junks from other parts of Japan are not permitted to resort to
+Napa, but it is not probable that the prince of Satzuma has the right of
+appointing the residents, or whatever authorities are sent thither.
+M. Forcade says there were from ten to fifteen Japanese vessels in the
+port, but when the American ship Morrison was there, in 1837, there were
+only five. Lackered-ware, grass cloth, sugar, and earthen-ware, are
+exported to Kagosima, and a great assortment of metallic articles,
+cloths, provisions, and stationery taken in exchange. The country in the
+vicinity of Napa, and towards Shudi, the capital, is highly cultivated,
+and the people appear to be as well clothed, and possess as many of the
+comforts and elegancies of life as their neighbors. They still retain
+enough of their own customs, however, to distinguish them from the
+Japanese, even if their physical appearance did not point them out as
+distinct. M. Forcade says that there is reason for supposing
+Christianity to have been implanted in Lewchew at the same time it was
+introduced into Japan, but Lewchew at that time seems to have been much
+less dependant upon Japan than subsequently; and it is not probable that
+much was done to proselyte its inhabitants. He mentions that a cross is
+cut on the end of the rampart where foreigners land, who are thus
+obliged to trample on this symbol; but no other visitors mention any
+such sculpture or custom. The landing place at Napa is a long stone
+jetty, stretching across the beach, which at low tide, prevents boats
+approaching the shore.
+
+
+JAPAN.
+
+This country has recently attracted increased attention on the part of
+commercial nations, and several foreign ships have lately appeared on
+the coasts, whose reception has only shown the vigilance of the
+authorities in taking every precaution neither to offend nor receive
+their unwelcome visitors. The Dutch and Chinese are still the only
+nations allowed to trade with the Japanese, and the news brought by the
+latter people of the troubles they have lately gone through with their
+foreign customers, has probably only more strongly convinced the siogoun
+and his ministers of the propriety of their seclusive policy. Nor is
+there much reason to doubt that the Chinese and Japanese have avoided
+the fate of the natives of Luconia, Java, and India, by shutting out
+foreigners from free access and intercourse with their people, and owing
+to their seclusion, have remained independent to this day. The works of
+Siebold upon the natural history and political condition of the country
+and its inhabitants, are now slowly publishing in Paris, but with such
+luxury of execution as to place them beyond the reach of most persons
+who might be desirous to examine them. The visits of two American ships
+to the bay of Yedo, has directed the public eye again to the empire. The
+first was that of the whaler Manhattan, Captain Cooper, who was led to
+think of going into the port by having taken eleven shipwrecked men off
+a small island near the Bonin islands, in April, 1845, lying southeast
+of Nippon. As he was going north, he fell in with a water-logged junk
+from Nambu, laden with rice and fish, from which he received eleven
+more, and soon after made the eastern coast in the principality of
+Simosa. Here he landed two men, and proceeding towards Cape King, landed
+two more, who made their way to Yedo. Owing to north winds, he was blown
+off the coast twice, and when he approached the estuary leading to the
+capital, he was taken in tow and carried up to the anchorage.
+Interpreters came off to the vessel, who could speak English
+sufficiently well to carry on an imperfect communication, who informed
+Captain Cooper that his wants would be supplied, but none of his company
+allowed to land. A triple cordon of boats was placed around the ship,
+consisting of upwards of a thousand small boats, displaying numerous
+flags, and containing as many armed men as if the country was in danger
+of attack. The ship was visited by crowds of natives of all ranks, who
+behaved with great decorum while gratifying their curiosity, but no
+trade was allowed. Many officers of high rank came on board and examined
+the ship, and took an inventory of every article belonging to the
+rescued seamen, before they were allowed to land. The ship was
+gratuitously supplied with provisions and a few spars, to the value of
+about $500, but the captain was again and again enjoined not to return
+there on any account. When he inquired what he should do if he again
+came across the siogoun's subjects in like distress, and exposed to a
+cruel death, he was told, "leave them to their fate, or take them where
+the Dutch can get them." The men rescued from starvation and death,
+were, however, deeply sensible of the kindness which had been shown
+them. After a stay of eight or ten days, Captain Cooper was towed out of
+the port, and down the bay to the coast, and the last injunction was
+only a repetition of the first order, not to come again. This
+reception, though it presents no encouragement to hope for a relaxation
+of the policy, deemed by the siogoun at once his safety and his profit,
+is less likely to call for summary chastisement than the rude repulse
+the American ship Morrison received in 1837, when she entered the bay of
+Yedo on the same errand, and was driven away by cannon balls and armed
+gunboats.
+
+Captain Cooper represents the country in this portion of it as clothed
+with verdure, and under a high state of cultivation. The proximity of
+the mountains in Idzu, produces constant showers, which covers the
+highest peaks with forests and shrubbery. Terrace cultivation is
+extensively practiced, and constant labor is demanded to supply
+subsistence to the dense population, who still at times suffer severely
+for want of food. The capital could not well be seen from the ship, and
+its enceinte was so filled with trees, that its dimensions could not
+accurately be defined. No towers or pagodas were seen elevating
+themselves above the dull monotony of the buildings. The harbor was
+covered with vessels, at anchor and moving about; some of them unwieldy,
+open-stern junks, designed for the coast trade, others light skiffs and
+boats, used for communicating with vessels in the harbor and the shore.
+The greatest part of the coasting trade centres at Yedo, owing to the
+large amount of taxes paid the siogoun in kind, and the supplies the
+princes receive from their possessions while they reside in the capital,
+both of which causes operate to develope the maritime skill of the
+people, and increase the amount of tonnage. The shortsighted policy
+which confines the energies and capital of a seagoing people like the
+Japanese, within their own shores is, however, less a matter of wonder
+than the despotic power which could compel them to stay at home two
+centuries ago, at a time when their merchants and agents were found from
+Acapulco to Bangkok.
+
+The Japanese empire presents the greatest feudal government now
+existing, and on that account is peculiarly interesting to the student
+of political science. In some respects, the people are superior to the
+Chinese, but are inferior in the elements of national wealth and
+progress. They belong to the Mongolian race, but are darker than the
+Chinese, and not as tall, though superior in stature to the Lewchewans.
+They approximate to the Kamtschatdales in their square build, short
+necks, large heads, and short lower limbs. They are of a light olive
+complexion, but seldom exhibit a florid, ruddy countenance.
+
+Among the articles obtained from the junk by Captain Cooper, was a map
+of Japan, including part of Yesso. It is four feet square, drawn on the
+proportion of less than one degree to two inches, and contains the names
+of all the places there is room for. It is cut on wood, and painted to
+show the outlines of the chief principalities; the relative importance
+of the places is shown by writing their names in different shaped
+cartouches, but from the space occupied by the Chinese characters, there
+is probably not one-tenth of all the towns inserted. The distances
+between the principal points along the coast are stated, and on some of
+the leading thoroughfares inland. The map is evidently the original of
+Krusenstern's "Carte de Nippon," published by the Russian Board of
+Longitude, and is drawn up from trigonometrical surveys. The degrees of
+latitude bear the same numbers as upon European maps; the meridians are
+reckoned from Yedo. The existence of such maps among the people
+indicates that a good knowledge of their own country is far more
+extensively diffused than among the Chinese, whose common maps are a
+standing reproach to them, while they have others so much more accurate.
+The coast from Cape King northward to Simosa, for the space of two
+degrees, was found by captain Cooper to be better delineated upon this
+map than upon his own charts. These seas present a fine field for
+hydrographic surveys, and it would greatly advance the security of
+navigation on the eastern shores of Asia, and redound to the honor of
+our own land, if the American government would despatch two small
+vessels to survey the seas and shores between Luconia and Kamtschatka.
+
+The visit of Commodore Biddle to the bay of Yedo, has added nothing to
+our knowledge of its shores. His polite dismissal, and the refusal of
+the government to entertain any commercial relations with the Americans,
+only add force to the injunction to captain Cooper the year before, not
+to return, and shows more strongly that while the Japanese rulers are
+determined to maintain their secluded policy, they wish to give no cause
+for retaliatory measures on the part of their unwelcome visitors, and
+mean to keep themselves as well informed as they can upon foreign
+politics. The subject of foreign intercourse between the two great
+nations of Eastern Asia and Europeans since it commenced three centuries
+since, is an instructive one; and the general impression left upon the
+mind of the candid reader, is that foreign nations have themselves
+chiefly to thank for their present seclusion from those shores, and the
+restrictions in their commerce. Rear-Admiral Cecille has also paid a
+visit to some part of Japan, quite recently, but met with no success in
+his endeavors to enter into negotiation.
+
+The great object in view in making these attempts to improve the
+intercourse with Japan, is to find new markets for western manufactures.
+It is quite doubtful, however, whether the Japanese have many articles
+suitable for foreign markets. Their lackered-ware is exceedingly
+beautiful, but it would not be so prized when it became more common.
+Copper and tea would form the basis of exports, and perhaps some silk
+fabrics, but China furnishes now all that is wanted of them both, and
+can do so to any extent. Until a taste for such foreign manufactures, as
+woolens, cutlery, glass-ware, calicoes, &c., is created among them, and
+they are willing to adapt their own products to the tastes of their
+customers, it does not seem likely that a trade at all proportioned to
+the estimated population and riches of the country, would soon be
+established. The Japanese are afraid of the probable results of a more
+extended intercourse, and deem it to be the safest course to run no
+risks; and if they read the pages of their early intercourse with the
+Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch, they must feel they would run many
+serious risks by granting a trade. If the siogoun and his advisers could
+be rightly informed, however, there are grounds for believing the
+present policy would be considerably relaxed.
+
+Learning is highly honored in Japan, and books are as cheap and common
+as in China. The written language is a singular and most difficult
+mixture of Chinese characters, with the syllabic symbols adopted by the
+Japanese, rendering its perusal a great labor, more so than that of
+Chinese, because Chinese must first be mastered. The spoken language is
+polysyllabic and harmonious, and possesses conjugations, tenses, cases,
+&c., to facilitate its perspicuity, and increase its variety of
+expressions. The arts in which they chiefly excel are in the manufacture
+of silken and linen goods, copper-ware, lackered-ware, porcelain and
+basket work. Their cutlery is despicable, and the specimens of their
+carving, which are seen abroad, do not equal those produced by the
+Chinese. Agriculture is pursued on much the same system as in
+China--minute subdivision of the soil and constant manuring, together
+with frequent watering. Rice and fish are the staples of food;
+vegetables are used in great abundance, but meats only sparingly. The
+habits and sports of the people are influenced so much by the peculiar
+notions attending a feudal society, such as adherence to the local
+prince, and maintenance of his honor, wearing coats of arms, privileged
+orders, and hereditary titles, that there is little similarity in the
+state of society in Japan and China, notwithstanding a similar religion
+and literature. The Japanese were called the Spaniards of the East by
+Xavier, and the comparison is good at this day. They have, perhaps,
+more genius and imagination than the Chinese, but are not as peaceable
+or industrious.
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF THE LANGUAGES OF THE JAPANESE, COREANS, CHINESE AND
+COCHINCHINESE. The four nations here briefly noticed; viz., the
+Japanese, Coreans, Chinese and Cochinchinese, have been collectively
+called the _Chinese language nations_, from the peculiar relations and
+connections they have had through the medium of that language. The
+relation has throughout been one of a literary character, fostered to
+some extent by religious prejudices, but depending chiefly for its
+permanence and extension upon the superiority of the writings of the
+Chinese. It is, in some respects, without a parallel in the history of
+man. While European languages have all been indebted for many of their
+words to the two leading ancient tongues of that continent, their bases
+have been diverse, and the words they have imported from Greek and Latin
+have undergone various changes, so much so as sometimes hardly to be
+recognized. This is not the case with these four nations of eastern
+Asia. They have all adopted the characters used by the leading nation
+without alteration, and with them, of course, have to a very great
+degree, taken her authors, her books, her knowledge and her opinions, as
+their own.
+
+One of the most observable features of the national character of the
+Chinese, is its conservative inclinations. Not only is it seen in the
+actions of government and in the writings of scholars, but still more in
+the habits of the people and their modes of thinking. It has been
+cherished by that government, as it is by all governments, as a sure and
+safe principle of preservation, but it is also advocated by the people.
+The geographical position of China has isolated it from all western
+nations, while the political, literary and social superiority of its
+people over the contiguous nations, has combined to foster their conceit
+and affectation of supremacy, and make them disinclined to have any
+intimate or equal relations with others. But one of the strongest and
+most comprehensive of these conservative influences has arisen from the
+nature of the language, strengthened by the extent to which education
+has been diffused among the people. The language is of such a character,
+combining mystery and difficulty with elegance and ingenuity, as greatly
+to captivate a people who have time and inclination to trace out the
+marks and veins on the pavement in the temple of science, but not the
+invention or investigation to seek out and explore its hidden chambers.
+The character of this language and the nature of the connection between
+the nations who use it, may here be briefly exhibited.
+
+The Chinese ascribe the invention of their characters to Tsang Kieh, one
+of the principal ministers or scholars in the reign of Hwangti, about
+2650 years before Christ; and although there is no very certain
+information recorded respecting their origin, there is nothing which
+seems to be fabulous or supernatural. The characters first depicted were
+the common objects in nature and art, as the sun, rain, man, parts of
+the body, animals, a house, &c., and were probably drawn sufficiently
+accurate to be detected without much if any explanation. They were all
+described in outline, and generally with far less completeness than the
+Egyptian symbols. It is not known how many of the primitive characters
+were made, but one feature attached to them all,--none of them contained
+any clue to the sound. The inventors must necessarily, one would
+suppose, have soon perceived this radical defect in their symbols, but
+they either saw the incompatibility of uniting the phonetic and
+pictorial modes, or else were so pleased with their varied pictures and
+symbols, that they cared very little how the reader acquired the sounds.
+At first, too perhaps, the number of persons who spoke this language was
+so small, that there was little difficulty in making them all acquainted
+with the meaning of the symbols, and when once their meaning was
+learned, they were of course called by the name of the thing
+represented, which everybody knew. The necessity of incorporating some
+clue to the sound of the thing, or idea denoted, became more and more
+evident, however, as the variety of the symbols multiplied, and the
+number of people increased. One of the strongest evidences, that the
+designing of these symbols was contemporary with the earliest days of
+the Chinese as a people, is deduced from the fact that they are all
+monosyllabic; the radical words in all languages are mostly of this
+character, but in nearly all others, the single sounds soon coalesce and
+combine, while in Chinese this has been prevented by the nature of the
+written language. There is not, so far as the nature of the case goes,
+any reason why the sounds of Chinese characters should all be
+monosyllabic, any more than the Arabic numerals. But not only was the
+increase of inhabitants, as we suppose, a reason for making the symbols
+phonetic, the need of reducing the labor of learning the ever growing
+list, and the difficulty of distinguishing between species of the same
+genus and things of the same sort, was a still stronger motive. This was
+done by the combination of a leading type with some other well
+understood character, chosen quite arbitrarily, but possessing the _same
+sound_ as the new object to be represented. Thus, supposing a new fish
+called _pih_ was to be represented by a character; by taking the symbol
+for _fish_ and joining it to any well known character pronounced _pih_,
+no matter what was its meaning, the compound symbol clearly expressed,
+to those who understood its elementary parts, the _fish pih_. But
+neither does this compound contain any more clue to its sound to those
+unacquainted with the component elements, than its marks and hooks do of
+its meaning to those who have never learned them. When once the form and
+meaning of the primitive symbols have been learned, however, the meaning
+and sounds of the compound ones can, in many cases, be inferred to a
+greater or less degree; but so varied has been the principle of
+combination, that no dependence can be placed upon such etymologies for
+the meaning. In the various mutations the written language has
+undergone, the sound is not now so certain as it was probably at first;
+but in the majority of characters, it can be inferred with a
+considerable degree of certainty, though the idea is exhibited so
+indefinitely as to afford almost no assistance in guessing at it. A
+dictionary is indispensable in ascertaining the meaning, and almost as
+necessary to learn the sound of all Chinese characters. The meaning can
+be explained without any greater trouble than in other languages, but
+the sounds of characters can only be given by quoting other characters
+of the same sound, which the scholar is supposed to know, if he knows
+enough to use the dictionary.
+
+These remarks will, perhaps, explain the general composition of Chinese
+characters. By far the greater part of them are now formed, either of
+the original pictorial symbols, greatly modified, indeed, and changed
+from their likeness to the things they stand for, or of those joined to
+each other in a compound character, partly symbolical and partly
+phonetic. The former part is called the _radical_, the latter the
+_primitive_. The Chinese divide the characters into six classes, viz.,
+imitative symbols, or those original figures which bore a resemblance to
+the forms of material objects; indicative symbols, where the position of
+the two parts point out the idea; symbols combining ideas, a class not
+very unlike the preceding, but more complex; inverted symbols;
+metaphoric symbols, as that of the natural heart, denoting the
+affections; and lastly, phonetic symbols. Out of twenty-four thousand
+two hundred and thirty-five characters, (nearly all the different ones
+there are in the language), twenty-one thousand eight hundred and ten of
+them are phonetic, or as much so as the nature of their composition
+would allow, though there is no other clue to the sound than to learn
+the sound of the parts or of the whole, either from the people
+themselves or from a dictionary. The Chinese tyro learns the sounds of
+most of the characters, as boys do the names of minerals, by tradition.
+As he stands before his master, he and the whole class hear from his
+mouth their names, and repeat them until they are remembered.
+Consequently, almost an infinite variety in the sounds of the characters
+arise from this mode of learning them, while the meanings remain fixed;
+though there still remains enough resemblance in the sounds to show
+their common origin, as, _bien_, _meen_, _mien_, and _meeng_, all
+meaning _the face_, and written with the same character. The local
+differences in pronunciation are so great within a few hundred miles, in
+some parts of China, that the people barely understand each other when
+they speak; and even in two towns fifty miles apart, the local patois
+can be detected, though the dissimilarity is not so great as to prevent
+their inhabitants conversing together. For purposes of intercourse among
+civilians, who being from distant parts of the empire, might otherwise
+find considerable difficulty in making themselves understood if each
+spoke his own local patois, there is a court dialect which not only
+civilians, but all educated men are obliged or expected to understand.
+This is the common pronunciation over the northeastern provinces of
+Chihli, Shantung, Nganhwui, and Kiangsu, and somewhat in the contiguous
+provinces also, though everywhere in these regions with some slight
+local variations. This dialect is called _kwan hwa_, and has been
+usually termed the _mandarin[109] dialect_, but it is properly the
+Chinese spoken language, and the variations from it are the dialects and
+patois. It is evident, however, that one sound of a character is no
+more correct than another; for there being no sound in any character,
+each one calls it as he has been taught, while all give it the same
+meaning, exactly as Europeans do with the numerals. Of course, no one
+can read or write Chinese before he has studied it, and the apparent
+singularity of people from China, Japan, and Annam all being able to
+communicate by writing but not converse by speech, is easily explained
+by the different sounds they give the characters. It is, however, really
+no more singular than that scholars in all Christian nations understand
+each others' music and arithmetic, after they have learned those
+sciences and the mode of notation.
+
+The diversity of pronunciations tends naturally to break up the nation
+into small communities, and the Chinese owe their present homogeneity
+and grandeur in no small degree to their written language; for, however,
+a man may differ in his speech, he is sure that he will be everywhere
+understood when he writes, and will understand every one who writes to
+him. It has also been a bond of union from its extensive literature, at
+once the pride of its own scholars, and the admiration of surrounding
+nations. It is perhaps owing to the fact that the literature of China
+contains the canons of the Budhist religion and the ethics of Confucius,
+that it was adopted by the Japanese, Coreans and Annamese. These nations
+have taken the characters of the Chinese language, and given them such
+names as pleased them. In Japan and Corea, there has been no uniform
+rule of adoption, but the Annamese, who formerly had more intimate
+connexions with China than at present, approach much nearer to the
+sounds spoken by the Chinese.
+
+The nature of the relations between these three nations and China,
+therefore, somewhat resembles that which European nations, we may
+suppose, now would have towards ancient Greece and Rome, if they still
+existed as independent powers, and should be visited by scholars from
+the shores of the Baltic, whose native countries, however, had risen no
+higher in civilization and morals than their source. The comparison is
+not complete in all respects, but near enough for analogy. The Japanese
+have never paid tribute to China, but have been invaded by her armies,
+and in their turn have ravaged the eastern coasts of the continent. The
+isolated policy their rulers have adopted, has prevented our tracing
+those philological comparisons between their original language and those
+of Siberia or central Asia, which would elucidate its origin. The
+Japanese up to the time of the sixteenth dairi, named Ouzin Tenwo, had
+no written character, all the orders of government being proclaimed viva
+voce. In the year B.C. 284, this monarch sent an embassy to the
+southern part of Corea, to obtain learned persons who could introduce
+the civilization and literature of China into his dominions, and
+obtained Wonin, who fulfilled the royal wishes so satisfactorily, that
+the Japanese have since accorded him divine honors. Since his day, the
+Chinese characters have been employed among the Japanese. However, as
+the construction of the Japanese language differs materially from that
+of the Chinese, and as the same Chinese character has many meanings,
+which would be expressed by different words in the native Japanese,
+confusion and difficulty arose in the use of the symbolic characters.
+But it was not until the eighth century, that a remedy was provided by
+the invention of a syllabary, a middle contrivance, partaking chiefly of
+the nature of an alphabet but containing some traces of hieroglyphics.
+The characters of this syllabary were formed by taking Chinese
+characters, either in whole or in part, and using them phonetically, but
+as indivisible syllables. Consequently, every one of them contained a
+vowel sound, rendering the language very euphonous. The characters in
+this syllabary were called _katakana_, i. e. "parts of letters." There
+were at first forty-seven, but another was added some years after in
+order to express the final _n_, as _ma-mo-ra-n_, instead of
+_ma-mo-ra-nu_, making forty-eight, the present number. This syllabary
+and that invented for the Cherokees by Guess, are the only two in the
+world. The number of sounds has been increased from forty-eight to
+seventy-three, by the addition of diacritical marks to some of the
+syllables. This syllabary enabled the Japanese to express the sounds of
+their vernacular without difficulty. But the long use of the Chinese had
+already introduced a great number of sounds from that language into it,
+besides giving the people a liking for the elegant and ingenious
+combinations of that unwieldy medium of thought, so that the scholars in
+the country still cultivated the more difficult language, and wrote
+their books in it. The incorporation of Chinese sounds into the native
+Japanese, seems to have arisen from the necessity of distinguishing
+between the various meanings of the Chinese character, so that while the
+native word would express one, the original sound would express another,
+but the unchangeable symbol stand for both to the eye.
+
+The admiration of the Chinese characters, led in time to the invention
+of a second syllabary, having the same sounds but far more difficult to
+learn from the number of characters in it and their complicated forms.
+It is called _hirakana_, or "equal writing," because it is intelligible
+without the addition of Chinese characters; it is now the common medium
+of communication, in epistolary composition of all kinds, story books,
+and other everyday uses. There are one hundred and one characters in the
+_hirakana_, or nearly three modes of writing each of the forty-eight
+syllables, and they are run together as rapidly and far more fancifully
+than in our own running-hand, when that is compared with the Roman
+character. The characters are mostly contractions of Chinese characters
+used simply as phonetic symbols, without any more reference to their
+meaning than in the _katakana_. The more ancient of the two is now
+usually employed in dictionaries, by the side of Chinese characters in
+books to explain them to the reader, or at their bottom to indicate the
+case of the word. In reading a Chinese book, a good Japanese scholar
+makes a kind of running translation into his own vernacular, sometimes
+giving the sound, and sometimes giving the sense, and the _katakana_ is
+used in the latter case, to indicate the tense, or case of the native
+word. Having the Chinese language as well as its native stores to draw
+from, the Japanese is both copious and flexible, and by its syllabic
+construction, also euphonious and mellifluous, in these respects being
+far superior to the Chinese. The following stanza is from one of the
+Dutch writers; it is written with thirty-one syllables.
+
+    Kokorodani makotono,
+    Michi ni kanai naba,
+    Inorazu totemo kamiya
+    Mamoran.
+
+There are still two other syllabaries, one called _Manyo-kana_, and the
+other _Yamato-kana_, both of which are formed of still more complicated
+Chinese characters, also used phonetically. Neither of these syllabaries
+is generally used entirely alone, but the three are joined together or
+interchanged somewhat according to the fancy of the writer, in a manner
+similar to Archdeacon Wrangham's famous echo poem. Such a complicated
+mode of writing has this unfortunate result, however, of so seriously
+obstructing the avenues to the temple of science, that the greatest part
+of the common people are unable to enter, and must be content with
+admiring the structure afar off. Most of them content themselves with
+learning to write and read in the _hirakana_, and get as much knowledge
+of Chinese as will enable them to read the names of places, signs,
+people, &c., for which those characters are universally used. Besides
+the phonetic use of Chinese characters in these syllabaries, they are
+employed very extensively as words, with their own meanings, partly
+because they are more nervous and expressive in the estimation of the
+writer than the vernacular, and partly to show his learning and shorten
+his labor. Commonly, characters so used are called by their Japanese
+meanings, but sometimes too by their Chinese names.[110]
+
+The connection between the Chinese and Japanese, therefore, is very
+intimate, and presents a curious instance of assimilation between a
+symbolic and syllabic language, though at the cost of much hard study
+and labor to acquire the mongrel compound. It is another example of
+Asiatic toil upon the media of thought, rather than investigations in
+the world of thought and science itself; for no people who possessed
+invention, research, or science, would ever have encumbered themselves
+with so burdensome a vehicle of communication. The Chinese do not attend
+to the Japanese language, and have no knowledge of its structure, or the
+principles on which it has combined with their own. Their intercourse
+with Japan is entirely commercial; that of the Japanese with them,
+chiefly literary.
+
+The Coreans have also adopted the Chinese character, but without many of
+the elaborate modifications in use among the Japanese. They have had
+more intercourse with the Chinese, but have not been able to make their
+polysyllabic words assimilate with the monosyllables of the Chinese.
+They have invented an alphabet, the letters of which combine to form
+syllables, and these syllabic compounds are then used like the Japanese
+characters to express their own words. The original letters consist of
+fifteen consonants, called _ka_, _na_, _ta_, _la_ or _ra_, _ma_ or _ba_,
+_pa_, _sa_ or _sha_, _nga_, _tsa_ or _cha_, _ts'a_ or _ch'a_, _k'a_,
+_t'a_, _p'a_, _ha_, and _wa_; and eleven vowels, _a_, _ya_, _o_, _yo_,
+_oh_, _yoh_, _u_, _yu_, _u_, _i_, and _ah_. The combinations of these
+form altogether one hundred and sixty-eight syllables, the last
+fourteen of which are triply combined by introducing the sound of _w_
+between the consonants and some of the vowels, as _kwa_, _ts'hwo_, &c.
+The sounds and meanings of Chinese characters are expressed in this
+syllabary in the duoglott works prepared by the Coreans for learning
+Chinese; while it is used by itself in works intended for the natives.
+The Coreans have not, like the Japanese, unnecessarily increased the
+difficulty of their own language by employing a great number of signs
+for the same sound, but are content with one series. It is to be hoped
+that this facility results in a greater diffusion of knowledge among the
+people. The Japanese have the inflections of cases, moods, tenses and
+voices, in their language; but these features are denoted in Corean by
+the collocation of the words, and the words themselves remain unchanged
+as in Chinese. The sounds of the Corean are pleasant, and both it and
+the Japanese allow many alterations and elisions for the sake of
+euphony. Further investigation will probably show some connection
+originally between the Corean and Manchu languages, though the former of
+these has been more modified by the Chinese than the latter.[111]
+
+The people of Annam have adopted the Chinese characters without making a
+syllabary or alphabet to express their own vernacular. The inhabitants
+of this country are evidently of the same race as the Chinese, and now
+acknowledge a nominal subjection to the emperor of China by sending a
+triennial embassy to Peking, partly commercial and partly tributary. The
+sounds given to the Chinese characters are, however, so unlike those
+given them in China, that the two nations cannot converse with each
+other. The Annamese have many sounds in their spoken language which no
+Chinese can enunciate. The court dialect is learned by educated men, and
+books are written and printed in Chinese. The sounds given to the
+characters are all monosyllabic, and slight analogies can be traced
+running through the variations; but they offer very little assistance to
+any one, who, knowing only one mode of pronunciation, wishes to learn
+the other.
+
+Much of the interest connected with the investigation of the Chinese and
+its cognate tongues, arises from the immense multitudes which speak and
+write them; and from the influence which China has, through the writings
+of her sages, exerted over the minds and progress of her neighbors.
+There is nothing like it in European history; but the spell cast over
+the intellects of the millions in eastern Asia, by the writings of
+Confucius, Mencius, and their disciples, is likely erelong to be broken
+by the infusion of Christian knowledge, the extension of commerce, and a
+better understanding of their political and social rights by the
+multitudes who now adopt them.
+
+For much of the information embraced in this memoir on China, Japan, and
+the adjacent countries, I am indebted to the Chinese Repository, (a
+monthly journal printed at Canton), and more especially to one of its
+accomplished editors, Mr. S. Wells Williams. This gentleman during a
+residence of twelve years in China, has made himself familiar with the
+written and spoken language of the Chinese, and is ranked, by some of
+the eminent Sinologists of Europe, among the profoundest adepts in that
+branch of literature and philology. Mr. Williams has also studied the
+Japanese language, which he reads and speaks; and is probably the only
+man in America familiar with the languages of China and Japan. Several
+natives of Japan, driven by adverse winds from their native shores,
+found their way to China, and were subsequently taken by an American
+ship to Yedo, but were not permitted to land. From these men, Mr.
+Williams has learned the spoken Japanese, and as much of the written
+language as they could impart. This gentleman is at present in New York
+making arrangements for getting founts of Chinese, Japanese, and Manchu
+type, for printing in these languages.
+
+The Chinese Repository is a monthly journal, printed at Canton, and is
+edited by the Rev. Dr. Bridgman and Mr. Williams. It contains much
+valuable information relating to China, Japan, and the eastern
+Archipelago, and frequently memoirs, translated from the Japanese and
+Chinese. On the whole, it may with truth be said to embody more
+information than any other work extant, on these countries.
+
+Mr. Williams has now in press a new work on the Chinese empire, which
+will contain an account of its general political divisions, including
+Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili and Tibet, their geographical and topographical
+features. The natural history of China; its government, laws,
+literature, language, science, industry and arts. Social and domestic
+life--History and Chronology--Religion; Christian missions; intercourse
+with other nations; and a full account of the late war with England.
+
+The history of the introduction of Christianity into China, in the
+seventh century of the Christian era, the traces of which still exist;
+and of the Jews in China, are subjects which are now attracting
+attention. It would occupy too much space to give any particulars in
+this brief memoir. In the list of late works on China, will be found
+references to such books as treat of the subject, to which the attention
+of the reader is directed.
+
+The Syrian monument which has been often referred to, is one of great
+interest, and is believed by all who have examined the subject, to be
+genuine. This monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, in the
+year 1625, in or near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of
+Shensi, and once the metropolis of the empire. The monument was found
+covered with rubbish, and was immediately reported to the magistrate,
+who caused it to be removed to a pagoda, where it was examined by both
+natives and foreigners, Christians and Pagans. It was a slab of marble,
+about ten feet long and five broad. It contained on one side a Chinese
+inscription, which was translated by Father Kircher into Latin, and by
+Dalquie into French. Mr. Bridgman has given an English translation, and
+has published the three versions, accompanied by the original Chinese,
+with explanatory notes. This inscription commemorates the progress of
+Christianity in China, and was erected in the year of the Christian era
+718. Mr. Bridgman who is one of the most learned in the Chinese
+language, says in conclusion, that "there are strong internal evidences
+of its being the work of a professor of Christianity, and such we
+believe it to be."[112]
+
+Other portions of this memoir might be very much enlarged, but would
+extend it beyond the bounds of the _resume_, which it is intended to
+give. There are besides other countries and people, accounts of which it
+would be desirable to give place to, particularly those of Central Asia,
+but they are unavoidably passed over from the space that would be
+required to do them justice. The object of this paper is to awaken the
+attention of readers to the geographical and ethnographical discoveries
+made within the last few years, all of which have a bearing on the
+history and progress of the human race. If the author has succeeded in
+so doing, he will feel abundantly repaid for his labor.
+
+     The recent works on China are embraced in the following list.
+
+     China; Political, Commercial and Social; with descriptions of
+     the consular ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghai, etc.,
+     etc. By R. Montgomery Martin. London, 1847.
+
+     Chinese Commercial Guide. Macao, 1844.
+
+     Voyage of the Nemesis; By W.D. Barnard. 2 vols. 8vo. London,
+     1843. 2d ed. 12mo. 1846.
+
+     Events in China. By Granville Loch, R.N. 1844.
+
+     War in China. By Lieut. Ochterlony. 1844.
+
+     The Land of Sinim, with a brief account of the Jews and
+     Christians in China, By a missionary. 12mo. N.Y., 1846.
+
+     Sketches of China. By J.F. Davis. 2 vols. 12mo. 1845.
+
+     The Jews in China. By J. Finn. 12mo. London, 1844.
+
+     Les Juifs de la Chine, par H. Hirsch, (extrait des Israelites
+     de France). 1844.
+
+     Relation des Voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans
+     l'Inde et a la Chine, dans le IXth siecle de l'ere Chretienne,
+     par M. Reinaud. Paris, 1845. 2 vols. 18mo.
+
+     Three years wanderings in China. By Robert Fortune. 8vo.
+     London, 1847.
+
+     The philological and other works on China, by M. Pauthier, a
+     distinguished French scholar, are among the most valuable works
+     in this department of learning. They embrace the following.
+
+     Sinico-AEgyptiaca, essai sur l'origine et la formation similaire
+     des ecritures figuratives Chinoise et Egyptienne, etc. 8vo.
+
+     De l'origine des differents systemes d'ecriture. 4to.
+
+     Examen methodique des faits qui concernent le Thian-Tchu ou
+     l'Inde; traduit du Chinois. 8vo.
+
+     Documents statistiques officiels sur l'empire de la Chine;
+     traduits du Chinois. 8vo.
+
+     La Chine, avec 73 planches. 8vo.
+
+     La Chine ouverte, aventures d'un Fan-kouei dans le pays de
+     Tsin; illustre par Auguste Borget. 8vo. Paris, 1845.
+
+     La Chine et les Chinois, par le meme. 8vo. Paris, 1844.
+
+     Systema Phoneticum Scripturae Sinicae, auctore. J.M. Callery. 2
+     vols. royal 8vo. Macao, 1842.
+
+     Narrative of the second campaign in China, by R.S. Mackenzie.
+     12mo. London.
+
+     A work by G. Tradescant Lay; and another by Professor Kid, have
+     also been published on China.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] In a paper read by Mr. Schoolcraft before the American Ethnological
+Society, it was clearly shown by existing remains, in Michigan and
+Indiana, plans of which were exhibited, that vast districts of country,
+now covered by forests and prairies, bear incontestable proofs of having
+been subject to cultivation at a remote period and before the forest had
+begun its growth.
+
+[2] This figure of an extended hand is the most common of all the
+symbols of the aboriginal tribes of America. It is found on the ancient
+temples, and within the tombs of Yucatan. At the earliest period it was
+used by the Indians, in the United States, and at the present time, it
+is employed by the roving bands and large tribes from the Mississippi to
+the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas northward.
+
+[3] "Bottoms" and "bottom lands," are terms applied to the flat lands
+adjoining rivers. In the State of New York they are called "flats"--as
+the "Mohawk flats."
+
+[4] Second Note sur une pierre gravee trouve dans un ancien tumulus
+Americain, et a cette occasion, sur l'idiome Libyen, par M. Jomard. 8vo.
+Paris, 1846.
+
+[5] See Mr. Catherwood's paper on the Thugga monument and its
+inscriptions, in the Ethnolg. Trans. Vol. I. p. 477.
+
+[6] Notes on Africa. p.
+
+[7] The essay here alluded to, was the reply of Mr. Jomard to a note
+addressed to him by Mr. Eugene Vail, in 1839, announcing the discovery
+of the inscribed tablet in the Grave-creek mound, and requesting his
+opinion in relation to it. In this reply, Mr. Jomard stated that they
+were of the same character with the inscriptions found by Major Denham
+in the interior of Africa, as well as in Algiers and Tunis. This note
+was inserted in Mr. Vail's work entitled "_Notice sur les Indiens de
+l'Amerique du Nord_." Paris, 1840. This work is scarcely known in the
+United States.
+
+[8] I am aware that many believe the sculptures on the Dighton rock to
+contain several alphabetic characters. Prof. Rafn in his learned and
+ingenious memoir on this inscription, supports this view. In fact, Mr.
+Jomard himself hints at their Phoenician origin.
+
+[9] Histoire Naturelle des Canaries. Tom. I. p. 23
+
+[10] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, &c., by a New
+Englander. p. 198.
+
+[11] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, California, &c. by a New Englander.
+p. 180.
+
+[12] Auburn (New York) Banner, 1837.
+
+[13] Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed. in 4
+vols. 8vo.)
+
+[14] Life and Travels in California. p. 372.
+
+[15] Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American trader
+with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country, built
+a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished
+Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which
+ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh
+in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon
+commenced a brisk business."
+
+[16] Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316. On the
+testimony of the missionaries of the _Collegio de Queretaro_, versed in
+the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language spoken by the
+Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican language. In the
+seventeenth century, missionaries were established among the Moquis and
+Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of the Indians in 1680.
+
+[17] Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit. Essay on
+New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these remains, may
+be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "_Relation du Voyage de Cibola
+en 1540_," published in the "_Relations et memoirs originaux_" of
+Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners and customs of
+the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are given at
+length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the "_Grande
+Maison, dite de Moctezuma_," is extracted from the journal of Father
+Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the Pacific, in
+1775.
+
+[18] Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9, 1846.
+
+[19] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.
+
+[20] London Athenaeum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed account of
+this journey.
+
+[21] Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.
+
+[22] There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which would
+give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at
+Ghizeh.
+
+[23] London Athenaeum, Nov. 9. 1846.
+
+[24] Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.
+
+[25] Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.
+
+[26] London Athenaeum, March 7, 1846.
+
+[27] Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.
+
+[28] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie. Rapport par M. Roger. 1846.
+p. 321.
+
+[29] London Athenaeum, July 4, 1846.
+
+[30] London Athenaeum, July, 1845.
+
+[31] The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa,
+investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza, in
+Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by Wm.
+Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,
+London. Vol. xv.
+
+[32] Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.--_Ibid._
+Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in
+Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.
+
+[33] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p. 371.
+
+[34] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.
+
+[35] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie de France, for 1845, p. 251.
+
+[36] Notice sur le Progres des decouvertes Geographiques pendant
+l'annee, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Societe de
+Geographie, p. 245.
+
+[37] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la race
+blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.
+
+[38] Comptes-Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.
+
+[39] Revue Archaeologique, Nov. 1845.
+
+[40] The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet is
+deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja,
+who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of
+Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji
+Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in
+conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name of _romouz_.
+
+Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had
+lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime
+Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of
+Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he
+discovered at the top (_en vedette_) two groups of signs, which, from
+their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the
+Arab sacramental words, _Praise be to God_, with which all good
+Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied
+the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of
+six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these
+documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended
+making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and
+on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters.
+Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but
+more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.
+
+Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian
+characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by
+him, and the result is known.--_Revue Archaeologique_, November, 1845.
+
+[41] See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.
+
+[42] The accident which led to this second discovery deserves to be
+mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while
+examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a
+tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a
+window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves
+which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A
+farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.
+
+[43] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.
+
+[44] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.
+
+[45] Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.
+
+[46] Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the committee on
+foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting the present
+state, productions, trade, commerce, &c. of the Comoro Islands,
+Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago, and
+Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the government
+of the United States, to make treaties and extend our commercial
+relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer, councillor of the
+Supreme Court of the United States.
+
+[47] See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.
+
+[48] Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of much
+interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.
+
+[49] Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.
+
+[50] London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.
+
+[51] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, 1846. Extrait d'une
+description de l'archipel des iles Solo, p. 311.
+
+[52] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, for 1846, p. 365.
+
+[53] Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land.
+
+[54] Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on presenting him
+with the medal.
+
+[55] Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.
+
+[56] p. 394.
+
+[57] vol. 2. p. 10.
+
+[58] London Athenaeum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.
+
+[59] Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial Magazine,
+vol. 2, 1845.
+
+[60] London Athenaeum. Nov. 3, 1846.
+
+[61] Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.
+
+[62] Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by Cyrus and
+Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus, the Lycians
+boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in numbers, behaved
+with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued into their city,
+they collected their wives, children and valuable effects, into the
+citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense fire.... Of those
+who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians, _the whole are
+foreigners_, eighty families excepted."--_Clio_, 176. See also _Clio_,
+171-173.
+
+Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a
+branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from
+Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had
+settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of
+Mylians and Solymi.
+
+Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy,
+assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are
+mentioned.--_Iliad_, b. v. and xii.
+
+[63] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. IX.
+
+[64] Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.
+
+[65] Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.
+
+[66] Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical Society of
+London, November 9, 1846.--London Ath.
+
+[67] Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimee et la Russie
+meridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique; par X.
+Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates. Paris,
+1845.
+
+[68] I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of these
+discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The
+translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only
+accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent
+publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much
+has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in
+antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A
+full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present
+state, seems therefore necessary.
+
+[69] Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in Heeren's
+Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.
+
+[70] The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as remarkable
+books that has come down to us from the East. It was first made known in
+Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who brought it from
+Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for the ancient
+books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is said) in making
+a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes, illustrative of
+the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the Zend language, in
+which this book was written. A great sensation was produced in Europe
+among the learned at the appearance of the work. Examined as a monument
+of the ancient religion and literature of the Persians, it was
+differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones[A] and others, not
+only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the translator in very
+harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of the most
+distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it rank among
+the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an antiquity at least
+six centuries anterior to the Christian era.
+
+The Zendavesta (from _zend_ living, and _avesta_ word, i. e. "the living
+word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions,
+and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our
+breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five
+books. 1. The _Izechne_, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2.
+the _Vispered_, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. the
+_Vendidad_, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. the
+_Yeshts Sades_, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5.
+the book _Siroz_, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the
+Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]
+
+The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great
+first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This
+incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of
+the universe--Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the
+principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by
+the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful,
+active, benevolent,--in a word, the precise image of the Element; the
+centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the
+opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every
+thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and
+govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became
+an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]
+
+"The first created man was composed of the four elements,--fire, air,
+water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal
+spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of
+separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of
+sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of
+practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of
+animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with
+the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of
+the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and
+are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still
+professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the
+Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman
+and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of
+Surat."[D] The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo
+superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books
+of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.
+
+Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the
+Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur
+le Yacna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning,
+illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient
+Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.
+
+  [A] Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.
+
+  [B] See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations
+      Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.
+
+  [C] Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.
+
+  [D] Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.
+
+[71] The modern title of the sovereign of Persia, _Shah_, is at once
+recognised in the ancient name _Kshe_ or _Ksha_ of the monuments.
+
+[72] Memoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvees pres d'Hamadan.
+Paris, 1836.
+
+[73] Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn, 1836. The
+other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift fuer die
+Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn,
+exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on
+Oriental Philology and Archaeology published in Europe.
+
+[74] While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject was
+attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf and
+Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their
+investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with
+those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the
+others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the
+correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.
+
+[75] The Zend language is known to us chiefly by the "Zendavesta." Of
+its antiquity there is doubt. Some philologists believe that it grew up
+with the decline of the old Persian, or was formed on its basis, with an
+infusion from the Sanscrit, Median, and Scythic languages. It was used
+in the time of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 550, at which period Zoroaster
+lived, who employed the Zend in the composition of the "Zendavesta." Its
+antiquity has formed the subject of many memoirs; but late writers,
+among whom are Rask, Eugene Burnouf, Bopp, and Lassen, have decided from
+the most severe tests of criticism, that the Zend was an ancient
+language derived from the same source as the Sanscrit, and that it was
+spoken before the Christian era, particularly in the countries situated
+west of the Caspian Sea, in Georgia, Iran proper, and northern Media.
+Note to the Dabistan, Vol. I. p. 222. The only specimen of this language
+yet known, with the exception of a few MSS. of little importance among
+the Parsees, is the Zendavesta. Major Rawlinson[A] adopts views at
+variance with those of the distinguished German philologists, in regard
+to the antiquity of the Zend language. Its "very elaborate vocalic
+organization," he thinks, "indicates a comparatively recent era for the
+formation of its alphabet;" and of the Zend-Avesta, he is of opinion
+that "the disfigurement of authentic history affords an argument of
+equal weight against the antiquity of its composition." He fully agrees,
+however, with all others as to the very remote composition of the books
+generally ascribed to Zoroaster. In fact this is beyond all question,
+for Plato mentions them (Pol. B. XXX.). Clemens of Alexandria says they
+were known in the 5th century B.C. and many other ancient writers could
+be cited in proof of the same.[B]
+
+  [A] See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to page 42.
+
+  [B] See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a list
+      of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.
+
+[76] On the Decyphering of the Median species of Arrow-headed Writing,
+by N.L. Westergaard, in the Memoires de la Societe Royale des
+Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.
+
+[77] Memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, p. 20.
+
+[78] Ibid. p. 28.
+
+[79] On the Median variety of Arrow-headed Writing. Memoires de la
+Societe des Antiquaires du Nord, for 1844. p. 272.
+
+[80] Zeitschrift fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 1844-45. Prof.
+Westergaard has also published his paper in English, in the Memoires de
+la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844, prefixing
+to it Lassen's alphabet of the first sort of Persepolitan writing. He
+was probably induced to do this by observing the limited extent to which
+the German language is cultivated by English scholars, insomuch that
+even Rawlinson complains that he was unable to read any more of Lassen's
+papers than his translations of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.
+
+[81] Memoir on the Persian cuneiform inscriptions. p. 47.
+
+[82] Zeitschrift fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.
+
+[83] For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate 24, and
+page 254.
+
+[84] Revue Archaeologique. October, 1844.
+
+[85] Westergaard in Mem. de la Socie. Royale des Antiq. du Nord, p. 419.
+Ibid. p. 423.
+
+[86] Lettres de M. Botta sur les decouvertes a Khorsabad, pres de
+Ninive; publiees par M.J. Mohl.
+
+[87] London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr. Layard,
+dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read before
+the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February, giving
+further accounts of his discoveries.
+
+[88] See London Athenaeum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from Constantinople
+dated Sept. 10.
+
+[89] The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The first
+was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings thereof
+were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon
+the feet as a man." _Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4._ The resemblance between the
+animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at Nineveh is
+striking.
+
+[90] Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.
+
+[91] Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans.
+Fund:--by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.
+
+[92] Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.
+
+[93] Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical
+Society, 1846.
+
+[94] Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
+at its meeting, September, 1846.
+
+[95] The Royal Geographical Society of London has conferred its Victoria
+Gold Medal on Prof. Middendorff for his successful exploration.
+
+[96] Lord Colchester's Address before the Royal Geog. Society. London,
+1846.
+
+[97] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 138.
+
+[98] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 206.
+
+[99] English Baptist Missionary Report for 1845. p. 9.
+
+[100] It appears that the Baptist Missionary Society in the year ending
+in March, 1845,[A] expended in India $29,500, of which sum nearly
+$15,000, or rather more than one half, was expended in making
+translations of books into various languages. The remainder was for the
+support of the missionaries, their outfits and passages, the support of
+native teachers--schools &c. The languages and dialects which have been
+studied and elucidated and into which books have been translated may be
+summed up as follows.
+
+  32 languages and dialects in India,
+   4    do.            do.  in Persia and the Caucasian countries,
+   5    do.                 in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,
+   4    do.                 in Polynesia.
+
+The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures;
+books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science,
+popular Histories, geography, &c. Elementary books in the several
+departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety,
+though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament
+constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist
+Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845,
+fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit,
+Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed
+and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for
+Foreign Missions was as follows.
+
+MADRAS MISSION. In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or
+portions of them--books of a religious character--elementary school
+books--tracts--periodicals and reports of benevolent associations
+bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual
+improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this
+single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of
+pages--or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one
+hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was
+doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large
+establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are
+printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.
+
+CEYLON MISSION. In the Tamil and English languages were printed during
+the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes,
+and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million
+one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.
+
+SIAM MISSION. In the Siamese language were printed in two years two
+million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.
+
+When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the
+influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged
+in the same cause.
+
+  [A] Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.
+
+[101] Missionary Herald, Vol. XLV. p. 47.
+
+[102] Chinese Repository. Vol. XV. p. 113.
+
+[103] Annals of the Propaganda for 1846. p. 55.
+
+[104] Ibid. July, 1846.
+
+[105] Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845.
+
+[106] Chinese Repository, Vol. xii. p. 78.
+
+[107] Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, July, 1846.
+
+[108] Chinese Repository, Vol. xiv. p. 155.
+
+[109] It is desirable that this word be expunged from all works on China
+and eastern Asia, and the proper words _officers_, _authorities_,
+_magistrates_, &c., be used instead. Every officer, from a prime
+minister to a constable or tide-waiter, is called a mandarin by
+foreigners, partly because those who write do not know the rank of the
+person, and partly from the common custom of calling many things in
+China by some peculiar term, as if they were unlike the same things
+elsewhere.
+
+[110] Chinese Repository, Vol. X, pp. 205-215.
+
+[111] Chinese Repository. Vol. I., p. 276; Vol. II., pp. 135-138.
+
+[112] Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 202.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected. Obvious spelling errors
+in foreign language references have been corrected. Inconsistencies in
+spelling have been normalized unless otherwise noted below. Questionable
+or vintage spelling has been left as printed in the original
+publication.
+
+Footnotes in the original publication were marked with symbols at the
+page level. Sequential footnote numbering has been applied and all
+footnotes have been relocated to the end of the text.
+
+Variations in spelling for Musselman/Mussulman left as printed in
+original publication.
+
+Punctuation marks to establish phrasing (i. e., commas and semi-colons)
+that were placed inside a closing parenthesis have been moved outside
+the parenthesis.
+
+  Page 3: A chapter heading entitled "NORTH AMERICA." has been added for
+  consistency with chapters listed in the publication's Contents pages.
+
+  Page 14 (footnote 6): Page number reference for "Notes on Africa"
+  missing in original text.
+
+  Page 20 (footnote 17): "Grande Maison, dite de Moetezuma" changed to
+  "Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma".
+
+  Page 26: The second footnote on this page has been converted to appear
+  as block text, consistent with the remainder of the publication in
+  which lists of "Recent Works" appear at the conclusion of a given
+  section. The footnote marker has been removed.
+
+  Page 30: Removed stray opening quotation mark mid-sentence that was
+  not closed. 'From the base of this structure "commences an inclined'.
+
+  Page 48: The footnote on this page has been converted to appear as
+  block text, consistent with the remainder of the publication in which
+  lists of "Recent Works" appear at the conclusion of a given section.
+  The footnote marker has been removed.
+
+  Page 69: A chapter heading entitled "ASIA." has been added for
+  consistency with chapters listed in the publication's Contents pages.
+
+  Page 87 (footnote 70): The paragraph beginning "The first created man
+  was composed of the four elements..." contains unmatched quotation
+  marks in the original publication and has been left as printed.
+
+  Page 92 (footnote 75B): Opening text 'See a note to the "Dabistan,"
+  Vol. I. p. in which...' is missing the page number ("p.") in the
+  original publication.
+
+  Page 93: Changed "Archaemenian" to "Achaemenian" in the following
+  sentence (as originally printed): "Various combinations of a figure
+  shaped like a wedge, together with one produced by the union of two
+  wedges, constitute the system of writing employed by the ancient
+  Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and the Archaemenian kings of Persia."
+
+  Page 107: Original publication is missing a numeral in what is
+  presumably a year in the 1800's. Transcribed here as "18_3".
+
+  Page 126: Added a footnote marker for footnote 105 at the end of
+  this sentence: "The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda
+  Society contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia,
+  by the Rev. Mr. Huc."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Progress of Ethnology, by John Russell Bartlett
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