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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Beauty, by Alexander Walker
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Beauty
+       Illustrated Chiefly by an Analysis and Classificatin of Beauty in Woman
+
+Author: Alexander Walker
+
+Release Date: February 26, 2011 [EBook #35409]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEAUTY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  BEAUTY;
+  ILLUSTRATED CHIEFLY BY AN
+  ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION
+  OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN,
+
+  BY ALEXANDER WALKER,
+  AUTHOR OF "INTERMARRIAGE," "WOMAN," "PHYSIOGNOMY FOUNDED
+  ON PHYSIOLOGY," "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM," ETC.
+
+  EDITED BY AN AMERICAN PHYSICIAN
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  HENRY G. LANGLEY, 8 ASTOR-HOUSE.
+  1845.
+
+
+
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, BY J. & H. G.
+LANGLEY, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern
+District of New York
+
+STEREOTYPED BY J. S. REDFIELD,
+
+_13 Chambers Street, New York_
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION.
+
+
+TO GEORGE BIRBECK, M.D., F.G.S.,
+
+PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON MECHANICS' INSTITUTION, &c., &c., &c.
+
+
+A department of science, which in many respects must be regarded as new,
+cannot so properly be dedicated to any one as to the inventor of the best
+mode of diffusing scientific knowledge among the most meritorious and most
+oppressed classes of society.
+
+When the enemies of freedom, in order effectually to blind the victims of
+their spoliation, imposed a tax upon knowledge, you rendered the
+acquirement of science easy by the establishment of mechanics'
+institutions--you gave the first and greatest impulse to that diffusion of
+knowledge which will render the repetition of such a conspiracy against
+humanity impossible.
+
+You more than once also wrested a reluctant concession, in behalf of
+untaxed knowledge, from the men who had evidently succeeded, in some
+degree, to the spirit, as well as to the office, of the original
+conspirators, and who unwisely hesitated between the bad interest which is
+soon felt by all participators in expensive government, and their dread of
+the new and triumphant power of public opinion, before which they know and
+feel that they are but as the chaff before the whirlwind.
+
+For these services, accept this respectful dedication, as the expression
+of a homage, in which I am sure that I am joined by thousands of Britons.
+
+Nor, in writing this, on a subject of which your extensive knowledge
+enables you so well to judge, am I without a peculiar and personal motive.
+
+I gratefully acknowledge that, in one of the most earnest and strenuous
+mental efforts I ever made, in my work on "The Nervous System," I owed to
+your cautions as to logical reasoning and careful induction, an anxiety at
+least, and a zeal in these respects, which, whatever success may have
+attended them, could not well be exceeded.
+
+I have endeavored to act conformably with the same cautions in the present
+work. He must be weak-minded, indeed, who can seek for aught in philosophy
+but the discovery of truth; and he must be a coward who, believing he has
+discovered it, has any scruple to announce it.
+
+ALEXANDER WALKER.
+
+APRIL 10, 1836.
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT.
+
+
+The present volume completes the series of Mr. Walker's anthropological
+works. To say that they have met with a favorable reception from the
+American public, would be but a very inadequate expression of the
+unprecedented success which has attended their publication.
+"INTERMARRIAGE," the first of the series, passed through six large
+editions within eighteen months, and "WOMAN," has met with a sale scarcely
+less extensive. The numerous calls for the present work, have compelled
+the publishers to issue it sooner than they had contemplated; and, it is
+believed, that it will be found not less worthy of attention than the
+preceding.
+
+All must acknowledge the interesting nature of the subject treated in the
+present work, as well as its intimate connexion with those which have
+already passed under discussion. The analysis of beauty on philosophical
+principles, is attended with numerous difficulties, not the least of which
+arises from the want of any fixed and acknowledged standard. The term
+Beauty is, indeed, generally considered as a vague generality, varying
+according to national, and even individual taste and judgment.
+
+Mr. Walker claims, in his advertisement, numerous points of originality,
+some of which, on examination, may perhaps prove to have been proposed
+previously by other writers. Enough, however, will remain to entitle him
+to the credit of great ingenuity and acuteness. As treated by him, the
+subject assumes an aspect very different from that exhibited in any other
+publication. To trace the connexion of beauty with, and its dependance on,
+anatomical structure and physiological laws--to show how it may be
+modified by causes within our control--to describe its different forms and
+modifications, and defects, as indicated by certain physical signs--to
+analyze its elements, with a view to its influence on individuals and
+society, in connexion with its perpetration in posterity--all these were
+novel topics of vast and exciting interest, and well adapted to the
+genius, taste, and research of our author.
+
+In preparing the present edition, it has been thought expedient to make
+some verbal alterations, and omit a few paragraphs, to which a refined
+taste might perhaps object, and to bring together in the Appendix such
+collateral matter, as might serve to correct, extend, or illustrate the
+views presented in the text. With these explanations, the work is
+confidently commended to the popular as well as philosophical reader, as
+worthy of studious examination.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  PRELIMINARY ESSAY                                                Page ix
+
+  English Advertisement                                                  1
+
+      CHAPTER I.--Importance of the Subject                             11
+
+     CHAPTER II.--Urgency of the Discussion of this Subject in
+                  relation to the Interests of Decency and Morality     21
+
+    CHAPTER III.--Cautions to Youth                                     35
+
+     CHAPTER IV.--Nature of Beauty                                      46
+
+      CHAPTER V.--Standard of Taste in Beauty                           56
+
+     CHAPTER VI.--The Elements of Beauty                                72
+
+                  SECTION I.--Elements of Beauty in Inanimate Beings    74
+
+                  SECTION II.--Elements of Beauty in Living Beings      88
+
+                  SECTION III.--Elements of Beauty in Thinking Beings   93
+
+                  SECTION IV.--Elements of Beauty as employed in
+                               Objects of Art                          103
+
+                               Beauty of Useful Objects                104
+
+                               Beauty of Ornamental Objects            108
+
+                               Beauty of Intellectual Objects          113
+
+                  Summary of this Chapter                              120
+
+  APPENDIX to the Preceding Chapters                                   123
+
+                  SECTION I.--Nature of the Picturesque                123
+
+                  SECTION II.--Cause of Laughter                       125
+
+                  SECTION III.--Cause of the Pleasure received from
+                                Representations exciting Pity          131
+
+    CHAPTER VII.--Anatomical and Physiological Principles              139
+
+   CHAPTER VIII.--Of the Ages of Women in relation to Beauty           152
+
+     CHAPTER IX.--Of the Causes of Beauty in Woman                     166
+
+      CHAPTER X.--Of the Standard of Beauty in Woman                   171
+
+     CHAPTER XI.--Of the Three Species of Female Beauty generally
+                  viewed                                               185
+
+    CHAPTER XII.--First Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Locomotive
+                  System                                               189
+
+                  First Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               191
+
+                  Second Variety or Modification of this Species
+                  of Beauty                                            197
+
+                  Third Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               198
+
+   CHAPTER XIII.--Second Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Nutritive
+                  System                                               203
+
+                  First Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               208
+
+                  Second Variety or Modification of this Species
+                  of Beauty                                            210
+
+                  Third Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               212
+
+    CHAPTER XIV.--Third Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Thinking
+                  System                                               225
+
+                  First Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               226
+
+                  Second Variety or Modification of this Species
+                  of Beauty                                            227
+
+                  Third Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               229
+
+     CHAPTER XV.--Beauty of the Face in particular                     233
+
+    CHAPTER XVI.--Combinations and Transitions of the Three
+                  Species of Female Beauty                             254
+
+   CHAPTER XVII.--Proportion, Character, Expression, &c.               259
+
+  CHAPTER XVIII.--The Greek Ideal Beauty                               280
+
+    CHAPTER XIX.--The Ideal of Female Beauty                           307
+
+     CHAPTER XX.--Defects of Beauty                                    320
+
+                  Defects of the Locomotive System                     320
+
+                  Defects of the Vital System                          323
+
+                  Defects of the Mental System                         327
+
+    CHAPTER XXI.--External Indications, or Art of Determining the
+                  precise Figure, the degree of Beauty, the Mind,
+                  the Habits, and the Age of Women, notwithstanding
+                  the Aids and Disguises of Dress                      329
+
+                  External Indications of Figure                       329
+
+                  External Indications of Beauty                       332
+
+                  External Indications of Mind                         335
+
+                  External Indications of Habits                       337
+
+                  External Indications of Age                          339
+
+  Appendix                                                             343
+
+
+
+
+PRELIMINARY ESSAY,
+
+BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.
+
+  Her beauty hangs upon the cheek of night
+  Like a rich jewel in an Ethiop's ear:
+
+     *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Death hath no power yet upon thy beauty--
+  Thou art not conquered; beauty's ensign yet
+  Is crimson on thy lips, and in thy cheeks.--SHAKSPEARE.
+
+
+It maybe set down, we suppose, as a matter sufficiently settled to become
+a principle, that men are moved by nothing more generally and certainly
+than by the power of Beauty--particularly Beauty in Woman. That it has an
+influence upon _all_ of one sex, like that which Master Shakspeare has
+given picture of in the lines we have set upon our front, we would not
+pretend to say: but that the wild bard was no freshman in his knowledge of
+humanity so far as heart and mind matters were concerned, we feel safe to
+assert--and feel confident that the passionate language of Romeo
+trespasses no bounds, and is but a faithful declaration of a power that
+rules with a milder or a mightier sway in the bosoms of all who answer to
+the distinctive name of Man.
+
+This may seem a wide assertion. But it is no less true. The reason of the
+slow belief in this universality is, that men are not always subject to
+the influence, while the principle of it is always a tenant within them.
+There is a time--and with the time comes the development. The mind, as it
+unfolds, becomes acquainted with nothing so calculated to excite its
+wonder, as its own properties and capabilities--its new perceptions--its
+new affections. Till progress brings with it this knowledge of ourselves,
+we remain ignorant of half that is within us to affect us like a spell,
+and within whose reach we have been unconsciously passing onward and
+upward, by a Providential ordering, from our childhood at least, if not
+from our cradles.
+
+Keeping this in view, let us consider for a moment something of the
+elements of Beauty, and their influence, as a principle, upon the
+principles of our nature.--And first it must be admitted that they are
+good--of a good origin--and tend to a good result. They are good elements,
+we believe, for we find them almost ever associated with what is pleasing,
+improving, and satisfactory to us. Indeed, in this connexion, we find them
+a source of consolation and delight, where all else has failed to minister
+or even suggest them. They are of a good origin--for, if they were not, no
+such effect would be wrought upon a system so sadly prone to evil and
+villanous principles, and so little open to pure, and elevating, and
+comforting ones, that they may be said to come about it, most
+emphatically, like "angel-visits." They are elements, again, that tend to
+a good result, in their operation, for their consequences are almost ever,
+to make men better satisfied with their condition--where they come in, as
+an influence upon it, at all--better satisfied with almost everything
+about them, so long as they are conscious they are creatures of
+proportions and proprieties, and affected intrinsically by them.
+
+If what we here set down respecting the _elements_ of Beauty be true, it
+is certainly of an interesting importance in view of the influence of that
+quality upon the principles of our nature. We call it _quality_. Perhaps
+this is not name enough for something so peculiar and powerful in its
+connexion with the _total_ of our spirits. We will term it such, however,
+for want of a wider language--and leave men to _feel_ out such definition
+as they may deem more good and grateful.
+
+Implanted, then, so deeply as Beauty is in the human heart--so universal,
+that millions bow to it as something to fear while they worship--so
+certain, as a principle, that scarcely a human being can be said to walk
+without the sphere of its influence--it would be needless as well as
+unphilosophical to deny that the great object of its fixture--its
+enthronement upon its high place, should be one of no common character, or
+of a tendency and effect within us, which it would be wrong and
+inexcusable to overlook.
+
+What then is the design of this singular and mysterious power, in
+connexion with this sad and unaccountable nature--so often the theme of
+eulogy and lament--of lofty, long, and desperate satire, among men? The
+best answer, we think, is rendered in the influence, where operation is
+open to every one who thinks, observes, reasons, acts, among his
+fellows.--To enter into particular definitions here, would be needless as
+well as wearisome. The general effect upon man, as a sentient and moral
+being, must be the point to which our simple remarks and reasons must be
+confined.
+
+We have somewhere seen it observed--and have little doubt in the publicity
+and good sense of the thought--that there was perhaps no one thing which
+tended so materially to awaken lofty and good sentiments among the
+people--to qualify the rough outline of character--and soften and
+harmonize the untaught elements of their nature, as the frequent,
+unrestrained, and encouraged contemplation of the perfect statuary, which
+their master sculptors were continually erecting in their temples. This
+freedom was a perpetual lesson to a nation. The principle was developed,
+and the power of Beauty had a new, and forming, and mastering sway. A
+people were coming into the light of better feeling--better
+society--better government, under the gradual but no less certain
+operation of a living principle, brought into great and beautiful action,
+under the commanding hand of Genius, that seemed to pass at once from the
+sky, whose perfect things it presented to the sons of earth!--It is not
+singular, we think, that such a leading forth of Beauty to the
+contemplation of awakened man, should produce effects like those to which
+we have adverted. It strikes us that it would have been strange had this
+consequence not been generated, and noble sculpture thus have stood before
+a world as cold as the marble from which it was stricken. We believe that
+Beauty saw a renovating power in the wonder of the Venus--and it would be
+a sad thing to feel that it had ever ceased in its progress where woman or
+the chisel were doing such things to advance it. Nor has it ceased.
+History presents too many instances of the monarch power of Beauty in
+woman, to permit us to doubt upon this subject. It has passed upon the
+spirit of Man like a thing of necromance--winning him to its command, and
+bowing him to its will, until royalty itself has stood powerless in its
+presence, and the poor mass of mortals, stricken and panting like cornered
+deer before the inexorable hunter. It has been the salvation and ruin of
+nations, as well as families and individuals--for queens have obeyed its
+supremacy as well as maidens, and kings squared their mandates, and
+regulated their course, by the "line of beauty." All this is matter of
+record. Sacred and profane story abounds with instances which admit of no
+denial, while they excite our wonder. But the wonder ceases,
+notwithstanding, when we turn from record to our own experience, and _see_
+the effect, on others and ourselves, of what we once _read_ about in the
+curious annals of our species. We now see the finished sculpture that
+delighted and softened the people of an age, gazed on and admired by every
+being whom we are accustomed to regard as rational. No one pretends to
+question, much less to deny the beauty of the lovely statue, in which the
+perfection of woman is portrayed in the finished feature or the swelling
+form. Insensibility here would properly be regarded as a thing to be
+ashamed of--as little better than a moral paralysis, which might well
+exclude the questionable man from the circle of reasonable, enlightened,
+and rising people, as a sad fellow, and a poor pilgrim on the earth. You
+will rarely find the roughest nature with a cuticle that will not confess
+some sensibility in a presence such as this--and I think we may set it
+down as a thing well ascertained, that the picture or chiselling of a
+beautiful woman will command the tribute of delight--the
+acknowledgment--and loud one too--of a whole and hearty worship from the
+tar, as well as the amateur. The galleries of our artists, in which the
+principle of Beauty is made to speak and command, sufficiently prove that
+there is no passing away of this power which has moved, ruled, and
+regulated, to a degree almost incredible, the world of Man, from the time
+he came to this school, and this trial of the passions and affections. Let
+the question be asked of any one, whose spirit is in healthful action, if
+his experience before the work of art, imbodying the Beauty we speak of,
+is not of a humanizing--and we will add civilizing, as well as elevating
+character, and we are willing to abide the issue of his answer, in full
+support of the position we have taken. Such is our belief on the
+universality of this influence or element. We have heard it denied, it is
+certain--but it was even by those who have never tested the power by an
+application of it to themselves, or a surrender to its mysteries, by an
+approach to the real presence--and who, like bachelors upon the fearful
+subject of matrimony, only betray a silliness just in proportion to their
+ignorance. These are the men who have not yet unfolded. They are in the
+chrysalis condition--and to be pitied accordingly. They may depend upon
+it, when they pass from the _slough_, they will be ready to confess they
+are, alas! too deep in that other "Slough of Despond," which is too well
+represented by a sad sensitiveness to the magic of Beauty, and as sad a
+consciousness that there is no approach for them, which can be crowned by
+a capture of the citadel, or the least enjoyment of the glorious delights
+it encloses. When we hear men deteriorating this power, or thanking the
+gods they never bent knee or uttered vow at its shrine, we are ever ready
+to believe they have either bowed all their days to far other and sadder
+principles, and made oath to idols of bad material and worse sculpture, or
+that they are as much beyond the reach of any good, and proper, and
+beautiful influence, as the clod of the valley to which they are
+hastening. They may take pride in denial of such influence--but what is
+there to boast of in insensibility of any kind, where the very betrayal of
+admiration is the best evidence of a good taste--a good feeling--a good
+faith--a good principle? It cannot have escaped common observation, we
+presume, that a love of Beauty--or, at least, any peculiar sensitiveness
+to that quality in the female sex, has been held--and by sensible men,
+too--as a weakness, or an index only of a weak mind, or a feminine spirit.
+This is certainly very foolish--and a lamentable mistake. But it is easily
+accounted for. It will be observed that the doctrine is never held save by
+men who see beauty in things which other persons would hold abhorrent.
+They are men who are in love with metaphysics, or glory in a mathematical
+existence. They like, beyond all, the _features_ of a problem, and think
+only of the _good face_ of a speculation. They see, as they profess, at
+least, no proportions, save in some cold system of an absurd philosophy,
+and are only fit for judgment in things either too abstract for the mass
+of men, or too decidedly "earthy" to be worthy the attention of beings
+made for a better sphere, and capable of seeing something in much that is
+around us, which intimates the order and beauty by which that sphere is
+distinguished. This is enough to put an end to this objection, in
+reference to the subtle element of which we are venturing our humble, but
+we believe, orthodox sentiments. For ourselves, we know of no more sad or
+senseless mental condition in which we could be placed--we mean in the
+social relation--than this one of such ungraceful stupidity, as this of
+which a boast is made by such weary fellows as we have adverted to. If
+Beauty is an _outside_ principle, which they argue is of no utility, and
+quite unworthy of one who should look beyond the mere _coating_ of this
+existence for his reward or his satisfaction, then we say that even an
+_outside_ of loveliness and grace, is better than an _interior_ of
+deformity, uselessness, indefiniteness, chaos--even though it pretend to
+be all spiritual, while it suggests little but nonsense, and is quite
+certain to end in nothing.
+
+There is another thought in connexion with this element of Beauty in
+Woman, which certainly deserves consideration. We believe the philosophy
+which it intimates is founded in very good sense, and withal, in
+propriety. Insensibility to the power, we have observed, is no index of
+anything virtuous or elevated. It is rather, in all cases, a bad omen. Men
+look upon it--and that very rationally--as indicative of something
+unhealthy in the moral system. It seems to tell of a hardness--bad
+propensities--a crustaceous nature. In short, man regards his fellow, who
+is dead to this influence, as rather to be suspected at all times, than to
+be trusted at any. But this is not his saddest trial--or what should be
+regarded as such, if he can sign himself a man, with any conscience
+whatever. His estimation by woman is unqualified and unquestioned. He is
+set down by her as a creature as unworthy of regard by the sisterhood, as
+he is devoid of warmth or wit in anything that has to do with the social
+relations, and, above all, with the mysteries of the passions and
+affections. He is marked by them with a timble brand. He is set apart as
+a poor thing, who knows nothing of what he was made for, and whose ideas
+of the graceful and lovely in life are about as defined and worthy as
+those of the brutes that perish. He is run upon and laughed at by the
+playful, and satirised and scathed by the witty. In the circle he is
+treated--not pitied--as a piece of circulating insensibility; in the
+street he is pointed at as one who might be well set up as a mark at its
+corners. And this is right. It is well he should be visited by rebuke from
+her who presents so continually around him the elements of that power he
+is foolish to resist, and unable, after all, to depreciate. Woman's
+opinion, here, is a part of the great system which the influence she
+defends is meant to support--and we truly hope that she will maintain it
+aloud as long as she can utter it. Of the power of Beauty, both the world
+of fact, and the world of fancy, are abounding in instances. The records
+of ancient story present us with their Helens and their Cleopatras, who
+wrought upon nations by the magic of their faces. Later times show us the
+wonder of the power in Mary of Scotland, and many a page might be adverted
+to, full of the adventures which marked the love passages of kings as well
+as clowns, originating in this mysterious influence, as developed in the
+graces and glories of woman.
+
+The power of Beauty operates widely, and everywhere. It takes the good man
+captive as well as the miscellaneous one, who has no definite rule to
+guide him on his wanderings. It bows the masters and teachers of men at
+its shrine, as well as the scholars and children of life. It draws the
+merchant from his desk--the philosopher from his chair. It gives new
+utterance to the poet, while it wins the statesman to confess that there
+is some virtue in the outside of the world, after all, and some attraction
+apart from the chaos of cabinets and broad seals.
+
+There is a beautiful exemplification of this power given by Florian, in
+his story of a Theban sculptor. He is a wandering orphan in the streets
+of his native city, and his first entrance into the workshop of the
+celebrated Praxitiles well proves the truth of what we have set down in
+the foregoing pages.--"He is suddenly transported on beholding so many
+masterpieces of art! He gazes upon them--he is lost in admiration! and
+turning to Praxitiles with an air of grace and juvenile freedom, "Father,"
+cried he, "give _me_ the chisel, and teach me to become as great as thou
+art." Praxitiles stared at the boy, astonished at the fire of enthusiasm
+which kindled in his eyes, and embracing him with affection, "Yes!" said
+he, "remain with me; I will now be _your_ master, but my hope shall be
+that you may soon be _mine_."
+
+The pupil soon becomes worthy of his teacher. He becomes the heir of his
+fortune, and removes to Miletus. There, the daughter of the governor
+visits his statuary, and from the time of that visit, his destiny is
+sealed. Love usurps the place of every other passion, and the chisel is
+cast aside in silence, under that supremacy. The Venus of marble that
+adorned his study, was no longer a Venus before that living one which
+filled his eye and his bosom. He felt that he must tell his love, or die.
+He declares it, in a hurried letter--a slave betrays him--and the
+indignant father accuses him before the council. He is banished from the
+city--and embarks in a Cretan vessel.
+
+At this time pirates surprise the city, and pillage the temple of Venus.
+The statue of that goddess is torn from its pedestal. It was the Palladium
+of the island, and on its possession hung the happiness of the Milesians.
+The oracle of Delphos was consulted, and it was answered that Miletus
+would not be safe till a new statue of Venus, beautiful as the Goddess
+herself, should replace that ravished by the pirates. The inhabitants were
+in despair. They accused the governor of unjustly banishing the only man
+who might now save the city. He is seized, and hurried in chains to a
+dungeon. Now came the trial of the daughter, whose beauty had brought on
+this fearful crisis. She equips her vessel, and with treasures about her,
+determines to go in person to Athens--Corinth--Thebes--to find some artist
+who should emancipate her father. Tempted to land on a delicious island,
+she there comes suddenly upon her lover, whom she had been taught to
+believe had been long laid under the waters that lashed the heights of
+Naxos.
+
+The story is soon told. In the humble cabin of his solitude he had
+prepared a statue which he said would meet the demand of the sybil. But he
+claimed to have it placed veiled upon the pedestal in the temple of
+Miletus, before she should even look upon the marble. She consents--and
+they embark for that island. The artist is received with shoutings and
+joy. The statue is borne to its trial on the altar of Venus. It stands
+erect. He fears nothing--and it is unveiled. The features are not
+mistaken--and the people utter cries of joy as they behold the image of
+his mistress! The enamored sculptor had made her, in his loneliness, the
+model of his Venus!--He is called on to claim his reward. "Release him you
+have imprisoned," he cried--"release her father--and I ask no more."--It
+is done--and the father gives up the daughter to his preserver, at the
+foot of her statue.
+
+Can the power of Beauty be better illustrated than in this simple tale? We
+are not shown simply its effect upon an uneducated, artless
+individual--upon a mind in its singleness, and just awakened to its own
+capabilities of suffering and joy--but we see it operating in a wide and
+unquestioned influence, upon the spirit of a whole people. It was not
+demanded by fate that there should be merely a replacing of the piece of
+marble upon the pedestal from which it had been torn--it was required that
+the statue should be as royal in its _Beauty_ as that was whose place it
+should supply. Beauty was the spirit-word of the destiny of Miletus. It
+was Beauty which had been guardian of the city--and it was Beauty which
+must now restore it, by her return to her temple.
+
+But we will not dwell upon this story, though it so beautifully
+exemplifies the position we maintain. There are many instances of frequent
+occurrence in the world, which tell as strong a tale, of the influence of
+Grace and Beauty, as is here presented in the Grecian record. We may not
+witness them--but the power is working ever like fate in the mingled
+material of our life; and it only requires a sober faith, together with a
+moderate observation, to convince all men that they are the creatures of
+Beauty, as much as they are of destiny and dust.
+
+But there is another consideration connected with this subject--an
+important one, too--and for that reason we have reserved it to the last.
+
+We are settled in our conviction that there is something in Personal
+Beauty, of a representative and correspondent character. It represents a
+spiritual beauty--corresponds with a moral symmetry. Though we call it an
+_outward_ property, still it must be a picture of the _internal_. It would
+seem impossible that there can be a speaking expression of grace and
+loveliness, upon a face that is but a telegraph of an inward deformity and
+ugliness. Perhaps all this may seem somewhat ideal in its philosophy--and,
+perhaps, almost transcendental. But we hold it to be true. It certainly
+appears to us reasonable that the minor should reflect the reality, as
+well in this heaven-made humanity, as amid the earthy art of our
+drawing-rooms. That the spirit should speak out in the language of the
+countenance, is to us as excellent sense as that it should tell its story
+in protuberances and indentations. Who can deny this--and where will the
+argument fail? We pause for a reply.
+
+Let us be understood, however. We have no idea of going beyond reason in a
+theory, which, though it may appear more than plausible to us, may seem
+far this side of plausible to others. Yet we think we are borne out by
+example. We do not maintain, it will be remembered, that beauty of person
+must necessarily be the representative of _moral beauty_, according to the
+best and highest definition of that term. That definition, we presume,
+would include the virtuous and the heavenly. That these traits are
+unfailing accompaniments of noble features--the beautiful countenance--the
+finished form--it would be hazardous and foolish to assert. What we intend
+to say is this--that we believe external beauty is the representation of
+an internal and spiritual quality of the same nature. That Beauty may be
+spiritual, though it may not be moral--the Beauty of Virtue. It may be the
+beauty of superior and surpassing powers--the Beauty of Genius. It may be
+the beauty of a mind, uncommon in its attractions, and in its proportions
+beyond fault or question. It may be the beauty of intellectual
+symmetry--and this may find its speaking resemblance in the chiseled face
+and figure, as certainly as the moral loveliness of the
+heaven-inspired--the emphatically _good_ man. Of what more perfect mental
+proportions could the human countenance have been indicative, than the
+countenance of Napoleon? The symmetry of Genius spake there, if it _was_
+true--as it certainly was--that moral beauty had no telegraph in that
+splendid sculpture of the man.
+
+But we have said as much as we can afford to--though the more particular
+subject of our remarks--or what in good faith should have been, if it has
+not--Beauty in Woman, would seem to be one on which it would not be deemed
+unknightly to give way to a pretty expression. We must, however, leave all
+considerations of gallantry on this score, to others who can amplify
+better than we can, when we have got to the end of our chapter.
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENT.
+
+
+There is perhaps no subject more universally or more deeply interesting
+than that which is the chief subject of the present work. Yet no book,
+even pretending to science or accuracy, has hitherto appeared upon it. The
+forms and proportions of animals--as of the horse and the dog--have been
+examined in a hundred volumes: not one has been devoted to woman, on whose
+physical and moral qualities the happiness of individuals, and the
+perpetual improvement of the human race, are dependant.
+
+The cause of this has been, probably, the neglect on the part of
+individuals, to combine anatomical and physiological knowledge with the
+critical observation of the external forms of woman; and, perhaps, some
+repugnance to anthropological knowledge on the part of the public. The
+last obstacle, if ever it existed, is now gone by, as many circumstances
+show; and it will be the business of the author, in this work, to endeavor
+to obviate the former.
+
+The present work, beside giving new views of the theory of beauty, and of
+its application to the arts, presents an analysis and classification of
+beauty in woman. A subsequent work will apply the principles here
+established to intermarriages and crossings among mankind, and will
+explain their results in relation to the happiness of individuals, and to
+the beauty and the freedom from insanity of their offspring. A final work
+will examine the relations of woman in society, will expose the
+extravagant hypothesis of writers on this subject who have been ignorant
+of anthropology, and will describe the reforms which the common interests
+of mankind demand in this respect.
+
+It is now to be seen, whether a branch of science which is strictly
+founded on anatomy and physiology--one which entangles the reader in no
+mystical and delusive hypothesis, and presents to him only indisputable
+facts--one which is applicable to the subject most universally and deeply
+interesting to mankind, the critical judgment of female beauty, as founded
+on necessary functions--and one which unravels the greater difficulties
+which that subject presents--may not excite and permanently command a
+great degree of public interest.
+
+A preliminary view of the importance of this subject is given in the first
+chapter; the urgency of its discussion, in relation to the interests of
+decency and morality, is established in the second; and some useful
+cautions as to youth are offered in the third.
+
+In regard to the importance of the subject, I may, even here, avail myself
+of the highest authorities.
+
+THOMAS MORE, speaking of the people of his commonwealth, says: "They do
+greatly wonder at the folly of all other nations, which, in _buying a
+colt_ (whereas, a little money is in hazard), be so chary and circumspect,
+that, though he be almost all bare, yet they will not buy him, unless the
+saddle and all the harness be taken off--lest, under those coverings, be
+hid some gall or sore. And yet, in _choosing a wife_, which shall be
+either pleasure or displeasure to them all their life after, they be so
+reckless, that, all the residue of the woman's body being covered with
+clothes, they esteem her scarcely by one hand-breadth (for they can see no
+more but her face), and so to join her to them, not without great jeopardy
+of evil agreeing together--if anything in her body afterward should chance
+to offend and mislike them."[1]
+
+FRANCIS BACON is of similar opinion.
+
+Happily, the advancement of anthropological science in modern times, may,
+as is here shown, be so applied as to render quite unnecessary the
+_objectionable methods_ proposed by both these philosophers, in order to
+carry their doctrines into practice.
+
+_Shall I be blamed, because I avail myself of the progress of knowledge to
+render all that these great men desired on this subject of easy attainment
+and inoffensive to woman? Shall I be blamed, because I first facilitate
+that which the still farther advancement of knowledge will inevitably
+render an everyday occurrence, and the guide of the most important act of
+human life?_--I care not.
+
+In the details as to female beauty, it will be seen how incorrectly
+Winckelmann says: "In female figures, the forms of beauty are not so
+different, nor the gradations so various, as in those of males; and
+therefore in general they present no other difference than that which is
+dependant upon age.... Hence, in treating of female beauty, few
+observations occur as necessary to be made, and the study of the artist is
+more limited and more easy.... It is to be observed, that, in speaking of
+the resemblance of nude female figures, I speak solely of the body,
+without concluding from it that they also resemble each other in the
+distinctive characters of the head, which are particularly marked in each,
+whether goddess or heroine."--The differences, even in the bodies of
+females, are here shown to be both numerous and capable of distinct
+classification.
+
+It is right to observe, that this work has nothing to do with an early
+production of the writer, a consciousness of the small value of which
+prevented his attaching his name to it, which he now knows to be utterly
+worthless, and which has since been vamped up with things which are more
+worthless still.
+
+The most valuable features of the present work are entirely new and
+original. Others are such as the writer thought not unworthy of
+preservation from earlier essays. He has also, throughout this work,
+adopted from other writers, with no other alteration than accuracy
+required, every view, opinion, or remark, which he thought applicable to
+a department of science, of which all the great features are new.
+
+Such being the case, he thinks it just, at once to himself and others, to
+indicate here the only points on which he can himself lay any claim to
+originality. These are as follows:--
+
+The more complete establishment of the truth that, in relation to man and
+woman in particular, beauty is the external sign of goodness in
+organization and function, and thence its importance.--Chapter I., and the
+work generally.
+
+The showing that the discussion of this subject, though involving the
+examination of the naked figure, is urgent in relation to decency (the
+theory of which is discussed), morality, and happy intermarriage.--Chapter
+II.
+
+The showing that the ancient religion was the cause of the perfection of
+the fine arts in Greece, by its personification of simple attributes or
+virtues, as objects of adoration.--Chapter II.
+
+The exposition of the nature, the kinds, and the characteristics of
+beauty; and of some errors of Burke, Knight, &c., on this
+subject.--Chapter IV.
+
+The showing that there are elements of beauty invariable in their nature
+and effect, and that these are modified and complicated in advancing from
+simple to complex beings, and the arts relating to them.--Chapter VI.
+
+The pointing out these elements of beauty, and their mode of operation in
+inanimate beings; and the errors of Knight and Allison on this
+subject.--Sect. I., Chapter VI.
+
+The pointing out these elements, and others which are superadded, in
+living beings; and the errors of Allison on this subject.--Sect. II.,
+Chapter VI.
+
+The pointing out these elements, and others which are farther superadded,
+in thinking beings; and the errors of Burke and Knight on this
+subject.--Sect. III., Chapter VI.
+
+The exposition of these elements, as differing, or variously modified, in
+the useful, ornamental, and intellectual arts, respectively; and some
+remarks on ornament in architecture, and in female dress.--Sect. IV.,
+Chapter VI.
+
+The explanation of the nature of the picturesque, after the failure of
+Knight and Price in this respect.--Sect. I., Appendix to preceding
+chapters.
+
+The vindication of the doctrine of Hobbes, as to the cause of laughter;
+and exposition of the errors of Campbell and Beattie on this
+subject.--Sect. II., Appendix.
+
+The explanation of the cause of the pleasure received from representations
+exciting pity; and of the errors of Burke, &c., on that subject.--Sect.
+III., Appendix.
+
+The arrangement of anatomy and physiology, and the application of the
+principles of these sciences to the distinguishing and judging of
+beauty.--Chapter VII.
+
+The explanation of the difference in the beauty of the two sexes even in
+the same country.--Chapter IX.
+
+Various arguments establishing the standard of beauty in woman; and
+exposure of the sophistry of Knight, on this subject.--Chapter X.
+
+The showing, by the preceding arrangements, that the ancient temperaments
+are partial or complex views of anthropological phenomena.--Chapter XI.,
+et seq.
+
+The description of the first species of beauty, or that of the locomotive
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.--Chapter XII.
+
+The description of the second species of beauty, or that of the nutritive
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.--Chapter XIII.
+
+The description of the third species of beauty, or that of the thinking
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.--Chapter XIV.
+
+The explanation of the cause of the deformity produced by the obliquely
+placed eyes of the Chinese, &c.--Chapter XV.
+
+The explanation of the mode in which the action of the muscles of the face
+becomes physiognomically expressive.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the physiognomical character of the different kinds of
+the hair.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the cause of the different effects of the same face,
+even in a state of repose.--Ibid.
+
+The indication of the faulty feature, and its gradual increase, even in
+beautiful faces.--Ibid.
+
+The exposition of the different organization of Greek and Roman
+heads.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the combinations and transitions of beauty.--Chapter
+XVI.
+
+The explanation of the numerical, geometrical, and harmonic methods of
+proportion, employed by the ancient Greeks.--Chapter XVII.
+
+Some remarks on character, expression, and detail in art.--Ibid.
+
+Some observations on the Greek forehead, actual as well as ideal.--Chapter
+XVIII.
+
+The explanation of the reason of the Greek ideal rule, as to the
+proportion between the forehead and the other parts of the face.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the reason of the Greek ideal rule, as to the profile
+of the forehead and nose, or as to the direction of the mesial line which
+they form, and the exposition of Winckelmann's blunder respecting
+it.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the reason why the Greeks suppressed all great degrees
+of impassioned expression.--Ibid.
+
+The mere indication of the Greek idealizations as applied to the nutritive
+and locomotive systems, and the explanation of the latter in the
+Apollo.--Ibid.
+
+The replies to the objections of Burke and Alison, as to ideal
+beauty.--Ibid.
+
+The enunciation of the ideal in attitude.--Ibid.
+
+Various views as to the Venus de Medici, the conformation of the nose, and
+the connexion of odor with love, in animals and plants.--Chapter XIX.
+
+Some remarks on the Venus de Medici.--Ibid.
+
+The pointing out and explanation of various defects in beauty.--Chapter
+XX.
+
+The pointing out and explanation of various external indications of
+figure, beauty, mind, habits, and age.--Chapter XXI.
+
+The writer may possibly be mistaken as to the originality of one or two of
+these points; but, leaving the critical reader to deduct as many of these
+as it is in his power to do, enough of novelty would remain for the
+writer's ambition, in this respect, if he had done no more than exposed
+the errors of Burke, Knight, Alison, &c., and established the true
+doctrine of beauty, in the first chapters--given an analysis and
+classification of beauty in woman, in the chapters which follow--and
+applied this to the fine arts, and solved the difficulty of Leonardo da
+Vinci, &c., in the last chapters.
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT.
+
+
+It is observed by Home, in his "Elements of Criticism," that a perception
+of beauty in external objects is requisite to attach us to them; that it
+greatly promotes industry, by promoting a desire to possess things that
+are beautiful; and that it farther joins with utility, in prompting us to
+embellish our houses and enrich our fields. "These, however," he says,
+"are but slight effects, compared with the connexions which are formed
+among individuals in society by means of this singular mechanism: the
+qualifications of the head and heart are undoubtedly the most solid and
+most permanent foundations of such connexions; but as external beauty lies
+more in view, and is more obvious to the bulk of mankind, than the
+qualities now mentioned, the sense of beauty possesses the more universal
+influence in forming these connexions; at any rate, it concurs in an
+eminent degree, with mental qualifications, to produce social
+intercourse, mutual good-will, and, consequently, mutual aid and support,
+which are the life of society."
+
+Dr. Pritchard similarly observes, that "the perception of beauty is the
+chief principle in every country which directs men in their marriages."
+
+Advancing a step farther, Sir Anthony Carlisle thinks a taste for beauty
+worthy of being cultivated. "Man," he observes, "dwells with felicity even
+on ideal female attributes, and in imagination discovers beauties and
+perfections which solace his wearied hours, far beyond any other resource
+within the scope of human life. It cannot, then, be unwise to cultivate
+and refine this natural tendency, and to enhance, if possible, these
+charms of life. We increase and heighten all our pleasures by awakening
+and cultivating reflections which do not exist in a state of ignorance.
+Thus, the botanist perceives elegances in plants and flowers unknown and
+unfelt by the vulgar, and the landscape-painter revels in natural or
+imaginary scenery, with feelings which are unknown to the multitude. It
+would be absurd to pretend that the more exquisite and more deeply
+attractive beauty of woman is not worthy of more profound, as well as more
+universal cultivation."
+
+Such are the observations of philosophical anthropologists, who,
+nevertheless, in these remarks, consider mere physical beauty independent
+of its connexion with corresponding functions or moral qualities.
+
+If, however, the external beauty of woman, calculated as it is to flatter
+the most experienced eye, limited its effect to a local impression, to an
+optical enjoyment, the sentiment of beauty would be far from having all
+its extent and value. Happily, ideas of goodness, of suitableness, of
+sympathy, of progressive perfection, and of mutual happiness, are, by an
+intimate and inevitable association, connected with the first impression
+made by the sight of beauty.
+
+The foundation of this feeling is well expressed by Dr. Pritchard, in his
+observation that "the idea of beauty of person is synonymous with that of
+health and perfect organization."
+
+Hence, it has been observed, the great ideal models of beauty please us,
+not merely because their forms are disposed and combined so as to affect
+agreeably the organ of sight, but because their exterior appears to
+correspond to admirable qualities, and to announce an elevation in the
+condition of humanity. Such do the Greek monuments appear to physiologists
+and philosophical artists, whose minds pass rapidly from the beauty of
+forms to that locomotive, vital, or mental excellence which it compels
+them to suppose.
+
+Goodness and beauty in woman will accordingly be found to bear a strict
+relation to each other; and the latter will be seen always to be the
+external sign of the former.
+
+There are, however (slightly to anticipate what must afterward be
+explained), different kinds, both of beauty and of goodness, which are
+confounded by vulgar observers; or rather there are beauty and goodness
+belonging to different systems of which the body is composed, and which
+ought never to be confounded with each other.
+
+Where, consequently, one of these kinds of beauty and of goodness is
+wanting, even in a remarkable degree, others may be found; and, as the
+vulgar do not distinguish, it is this which leads to the gross error that
+these qualities have no strict relations to their signs.
+
+Want of beauty, then, in any one of the systems of which the body is
+composed, indicates want of goodness only in that system; but it is not
+less a truth, and scarcely of less importance, on that account.--I will
+now illustrate this by brief examples.
+
+There may, in any individual, exist deformity of limbs; and this will
+assuredly indicate want of goodness in the locomotive system, of that or
+general motion. There may exist coarseness of skin, or paleness of
+complexion; and either of these will as certainly indicate want of
+goodness in the vital system, or that of nutrition. There may exist a
+malformation of the brain, externally evident; and this no less certainly
+will indicate want of goodness in the mental system, or that of thought.
+
+It follows that even the different kinds and combinations of beauty, which
+are the objects of taste to different persons, are founded upon the same
+general principle of organic superiority. Nay, even the preferences which,
+in beauty, appear to depend most on fancy, depend in reality on that
+cause; and the impression which every degree and modification of beauty
+makes on mankind, has as a fundamental rule only their sentiment, more or
+less delicate and just, of physical advantage in relation to each
+individual. Such is the foundation of all our sentiments of admiration and
+of love.
+
+The existence or non-existence of these advantages, and the power of
+determining this, or the judgment of beauty, are therefore of transcendent
+importance to individuals and to families. Such judgment can be attained
+by analysis and classification alone. Nothing, therefore, can more nearly
+affect all human interests than that analysis and classification of beauty
+which are here proposed.
+
+To place beyond a doubt, and to illustrate more minutely, the
+extraordinary importance of this subject, as regards advantages real to
+the species, I may anticipate some of the more minute applications of my
+doctrine.
+
+If, in the locomotive system of the female, much of the delicacy of form,
+and the ease and grace of her movements, depend upon the more perfect
+development of the muscles of the pelvis, and its easily adapting itself
+to great and remarkable changes, how important must be the ability to
+determine, even by walk or gesture, the existence of this condition!
+
+If, in the vital system, the elasticity and freshness of the skin are the
+characteristics of health, and their absence warns us that the condition
+of woman is unfavorable to the plan of nature relatively to the
+maintenance of the species--or, if the capacity of the pelvis, and the
+consequent breadth of the haunches, are necessary to all those functions
+which are most essentially feminine, impregnation, gestation, and
+parturition, without danger either to parent or to child--of what extreme
+importance must be the ability to determine this with certainty and ease!
+
+If, in the mental system, the capacity and delicacy of the organs of
+sense, and the softness and mobility of the nervous system, are necessary
+to the vivid and varying sensibility of woman--if it is in consequence of
+this, that woman is enabled to act on man by the continual observation of
+all that can captivate his imagination or secure his affection, and by the
+irresistible seduction of her manners--if it is these qualities which
+enable her to accommodate herself to his taste, to yield, without
+constraint, even to the caprice of the moment, and to seize the time when
+observations, made as it were accidentally, may produce the effect which
+she desires--if it is by these means that she fulfils her first duty,
+namely, to please him to whom she has united her days, and to attach him
+to her and to home by rendering both delightful--if all this is the case,
+of what inexpressible importance must be the ability to determine, in each
+individual, the possession of the power and the will to produce such
+effects!
+
+If (descending to still more minute inquiries) external indications as to
+figure are required as to parts concealed by drapery--if such indications
+would obviate deception even with regard to those parts of the figure
+which are more exposed to observation by the closer adaptation of
+dress--if, even when the face is seen, the deception as to the degree of
+beauty, is such that a correct estimate of it is perhaps never formed--if
+indications as to mind may be derived from many external circumstances--if
+external indications as to the personal habits of women are both numerous
+and interesting--if such indications even of age and health are sometimes
+essential--if all this be the case, let the reader say what other object
+of human inquiry exceeds this in importance.
+
+Let us not then deceive ourselves respecting the source of those
+impressions which one sex experiences from the sight of the other. It is
+evidently nothing else than the more or less delicate and just perception
+of a certain conformity of means with a want which has been created by
+nature, and which must be satisfied.
+
+"It is very obvious," says Dr. Pritchard, "that this peculiarity in the
+constitution of man must have considerable effects on the physical
+character of the race, and that it must act as a constant principle of
+improvement, supplying the place in our own kind of the beneficial control
+[in the crossing of races] which we exercise over the brute creation." And
+he adds: "This is probably the final cause for which the instinctive
+perception of human beauty was implanted by Providence in our nature."
+
+We need not wonder, then, that the Greeks should have preferred beauty to
+all other advantages, should have placed it immediately after virtue in
+the order of their affections, or should have made it an object of
+worship.
+
+Even the practical application of this principle to the improvement of the
+human race is not a matter of conjecture. We have seen both families and
+nations ameliorated by the means which it affords. Of this, the Turks are
+a striking example. Nothing, therefore, can better deserve the researches
+of the physiologist, or the exertions of the philanthropist, than the fact
+that there are laws, of which we have yet only a glimpse, according to
+which we may influence the amelioration of the human race in a manner the
+most extensive and profound, by acting according to a uniform and
+uninterrupted system.
+
+Well might Cabanis exclaim: "After having occupied ourselves so curiously
+with the means of rendering more beautiful and better the races of animals
+or of plants which are useful or agreeable--after having remodelled a
+hundred times that of horses and dogs--after having transplanted, grafted,
+cultivated, in all manners, fruits and flowers--how shameful is it to have
+totally neglected the race of man! As if it affected us less nearly! as if
+it were more essential to have large and strong oxen than vigorous and
+healthy men, highly odorous peaches or finely striped tulips, than wise
+and good citizens!"
+
+I actually know a man who is so deeply interested in the doctrine of
+crossing, that every hour of his life is devoted to the improvement of a
+race of bantam fowls and curious pigeons, and who yet married a mad
+woman, whom he confines in a garret, and by whom he has some insane
+progeny.
+
+Let it not be imagined that the discovery of the precise laws of crossing
+or intermarriage, and the best direction of physical living forces, in
+relation both to the vital faculties and to those of the mind, upon which
+knowledge and skill may operate for the improvement of our race, is a
+matter of difficulty.
+
+It will be shown in this work, that there exist not only an influence of
+beauty and defects on offspring, but peculiar laws regulating the
+resemblance of progeny to parents--laws which regard the mode in which the
+organization of parents affects that of children, or regulates the organs
+which each parent respectively bestows.
+
+It will accordingly be shown, that, as, on the size, form, and proportion,
+of the various organs, depend their functions, the importance of such laws
+is indescribable--whether we regard intermarriages, and that immunity from
+mental or bodily disease which, when well directed, they may ensure, or
+the determination of the parentage of a child--or the education of
+children, in conformity with their faculties--or the employment of men in
+society.
+
+I conclude this brief view in the words of the writer just quoted: "It is
+assuredly time for us to attempt to do for ourselves that which we have
+done so successfully for several of our companions in existence, to
+review and correct this work of nature--a noble enterprise, which truly
+merits all our cares, and which nature itself appears to have especially
+recommended to us by the sympathies and the powers which it has given
+us."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+URGENCY OF THE DISCUSSION OF THIS SUBJECT IN RELATION TO THE INTERESTS OF
+DECENCY AND MORALITY.
+
+
+It has now been seen that beauty results from the perfection, chiefly of
+external forms, and the correspondence of that perfection with superiority
+of internal functions; on the more or less perfect perception of which,
+love, intermarriage, and the condition of our race, are dependant.
+
+This mode of considering the elements, the nature, and the consequences of
+beauty, is equally applicable to the two sexes; but, in woman, the form of
+the species presents peculiar modifications.
+
+In this work, it is the form of woman which is chosen for examination,
+because it will be found, by the contrast which is perpetually necessary,
+to involve a knowledge of the form of man, because it is best calculated
+to ensure attention from men, and because it is men who, exercising the
+power of selection, have alone the ability thus to ensure individual
+happiness, and to ameliorate the species; which are the objects of this
+work.
+
+Let it not be imagined that the views now taken are less favorable to
+woman than to man. Whatever ensures the happiness of one ensures that of
+the other; and as the variety of forms and functions in man requires as
+many varieties in woman, it is not to exclusion or rejection with regard
+to woman that this work tends, but to a reasoned guidance in man's choice,
+to the greater suitableness of all intermarriages, and to the greater
+happiness of woman as well as man, both in herself and in her progeny.
+
+But notwithstanding the importance of any work which is in any degree
+calculated to promote such an object, some will tell us that the analysis
+of female beauty, on which it can alone be founded, is indelicate.--I
+shall, on the contrary, show that decency demands this analysis; that the
+interests of nature, of truth, of the arts, and of morality, demand it.
+
+Our present notions of sexual decency belong more to art than to nature,
+and may be divided into artificial and artful decencies.
+
+Artificial decencies are illustrated in the habits of various nations.
+They have their origin in cold countries, where clothing is necessary, and
+where a deviation from the degree or mode of clothing constitutes
+indecency. They could not exist in hot climates, where clothing is
+scarcely possible.
+
+In hot climates, natural decency can alone exist; and there is not, I
+believe, one traveller in such countries whose works do not prove that
+natural decency there exists as much as in cold countries. In
+exemplification of this, I make a single quotation: it would be easy to
+make thousands. Burchell, speaking of the Bushmen Hottentots, says: "The
+natural bashful reserve of youth and innocence is to be seen as much among
+these savages, as in more polished nations; and the young girls, though
+wanting but little of being perfectly naked, evinced as just a sense of
+modesty as the most rigid and careful education could have given them."
+
+In mild climates, the half-clothed or slightly-clothed people appear to be
+somewhat at a loss what to do. Fond of decorations, like all savage or
+half-civilized people, they seem to be divided between the tatooing and
+painting of hot climates, and the clothing of cold ones; and when they
+adopt the latter, they do not rightly know what to conceal.
+
+The works of all travellers afford the same illustrations of this fact. I
+quote one. Kotzebue describes the custom among the Tartar women of Kasan,
+of flying or of concealing their countenance from the sight of a stranger.
+The necessity of conforming to this custom threw into great embarrassment
+a young woman who was obliged to pass several times before the German
+traveller. She at first concealed her face with her hands; but, soon
+embarrassed by that attitude, she removed the veil which covered her
+bosom, and threw it over her face. "That," adds Kotzebue, "was, as we say,
+uncovering Paul to cover Jacques: the bosom remained naked. To cover that,
+she next showed what should have been concealed; and if anything escaped
+from her hands, she stooped, and then," says Kotzebue, "I saw both one
+and the other."
+
+In colder or more uncertain climates, the greatest degree of covering
+constitutes the greatest degree of artificial decency: fashion and decency
+are confounded. Among old-fashioned people, of whom a good example may be
+found in old countrywomen of the middle class in England, it is indecent
+to be seen with the head unclothed; such a woman is terrified at the
+chance of being seen in that condition; and if intruded on at such a time,
+she shrieks with terror and flies to conceal herself. In the equally
+polished dandy of the metropolis, it is indecent to be seen without
+gloves. Which of these respectable creatures is the most enlightened, I do
+not take upon me to say; but I believe that the majority of suffrages
+would be in favor of the old woman.
+
+So entirely are these decencies artificial, that any number of them may
+easily be created, not merely with regard to man or woman, but even with
+regard to domesticated animals. If it should please some persons partially
+to clothe horses, cows, or dogs, it would ere long be felt that their
+appearing in the streets without trowsers or aprons was grossly indecent.
+We might thus create a real feeling of indecency, the perception of a new
+impurity, which would take the place of the former absence of all impure
+thought, and once established, the evil would be as real as our whims have
+made it in other respects.
+
+Moral feeling is deeply injured by this substitution of impure thoughts,
+however fancifully founded, for pure ones, or rather for the entire
+absence of thought about worthless things. Artificial crimes are thus
+made, which are not the less real because artificial; for if aught of this
+kind is believed to be right, there is weakness or wrong in its violation.
+But violated it must be, if it were but accidentally.
+
+To corrupt minds, this very violation of artificial decency in the case of
+woman affords the zest for the sake of which many of these decencies seem
+to have been instituted; and thus are created the artful decencies.
+
+The purpose and the zest of artful decency are well illustrated by
+coquetry. Coquetry adopts a general concealment, which it well knows can
+alone give a sensual and seductive power to momentary exposure. Coquetry
+eschews permanent exposure as the bane of sensuality and seduction; and
+where these are great, as among the women of Spain, the concealment of
+dress is increased, even in warm climates. Nothing can throw greater light
+than this does on the nature of these decencies.
+
+That coquetry has well calculated her procedure, does not admit of a
+doubt. She appeals to imagination, which she knows will spread charms over
+even ugly forms; she seeks the concealment under which sensuality and lust
+are engendered; and, in marriage, she at last lifts the veil which
+gratifies, only to disgust, and repays a sensual hallucination by years of
+misery.
+
+Ought religion to claim the right of saying grace to such unveiling of
+concealment and the nuptial rites that follow it? Ought religion to profit
+by the impurities of sexual association? Marriage is a civil ceremony in
+other countries, even in Scotland. Such profane and profitable sanctions
+have nothing to do with primitive Christianity: they are abhorrent to its
+letter as well as to its spirit. But worldly and profitable religion is
+connected in business with government, under the firm of Church and State,
+and drives a thriving trade, in which the junior partner is contented with
+the profit arising from the common acts of life, while the senior one
+draws much of his living from other rites.[2]
+
+What is said here, is no argument for living nudity: that, our climate and
+our customs forbid; and, in so doing, we can only regret that they are
+unfavorable to natural purity; while perfect familiarity with the figure
+ensures that feeling in the highest degree.
+
+A distinguished artist informs me that greater modesty is nowhere to be
+seen than at the Life academy; and it was an observation of the great
+Flaxman, that "the students, in entering the academy, seemed to hang up
+their passions with their hats." I can, from personal experience, give the
+same testimony in behalf of medical students at the dissecting-rooms. The
+familiarity of both these classes with natural beauty leads them only to
+seek to inform their minds and to purify their taste.[3]
+
+Sinibaldi observes, that "nothing is more injurious to morals and to
+health, than the incitements of the women who in such numbers walk our
+streets," and that "the laws as to offences against morals ought certainly
+to affect them the moment their language or actions can be deemed
+offensive." But it is not to those who are critically conversant with the
+highest beauty of the human figure, that defective forms, ill-painted
+skins, rude manners, and contagious diseases, are at all seductive.
+
+Nothing, then, can be more favorable to virtue than the decoration of
+every house with the beautiful copies of the glorious works of ancient
+Greece; and it is only humiliating to think that what has been so
+extensively done in this respect in the best houses, is less owing to our
+own taste than to the poor wanderers from Lucca or Barga. Experiment on
+this subject is peculiarly easy in London: let any one spend an hour in
+the shop of the very able Mr. Sarti, of Dean street, where he will meet
+the most liberal attention, and let him ask himself, in coming out,
+whether his moral feeling, as well as his taste, is not improved.
+
+Those who cannot make this experiment, will perhaps be satisfied with the
+assurance of Hogarth, who says: "The rest of the body, not having
+advantages in common with the face, would soon satiate the eye, were it
+to be as constantly exposed, nor would it have more effect than a marble
+statue." Surely this is decisive enough in its way! Now let them mark what
+follows. "But," he continues, "when it is artfully clothed and decorated,
+the mind at every turn resumes its imaginary pursuits concerning it. Thus,
+if I may be allowed a simile, the angler chooses not to see the fish he
+angles for, until it is fairly caught." He meant of course--"the _fish_
+chooses not to see the _angler_, until it is fairly caught!"
+
+Be it known then to all, even the most aristocratic as to sexual
+association--I say the most aristocratic, and not the most religious,
+because religion is in some countries made the pander to aristocracy--be
+it known that the critical judgment and pure taste for beauty are the sole
+protection against low and degrading connexions.
+
+Home observes that "the sense of beauty does not tend to advance the
+interests of society, but when in a due mean with respect to strength.
+Love in particular arising from a sense of beauty, loses, when excessive,
+its sociable character: the appetite for gratification, prevailing over
+affection for the beloved object, is ungovernable, and tends violently to
+its end, regardless of the misery that must follow. Love in this state is
+no longer a sweet agreeable passion: it becomes painful, like hunger or
+thirst, and produces no happiness but in the instant of fruition. This
+discovery suggests a most important lesson, that moderation in our desires
+and appetites, which fits us for doing our duty, contributes at the same
+time the most to happiness: even social passions, when moderate, are more
+pleasant than when they swell beyond proper bounds." Payne Knight says:
+"When, at the age of puberty, animal desire obtrudes itself on a mind
+already qualified to feel and enjoy the charms of intellectual merit, the
+imagination immediately begins to form pictures of perfection, by
+exaggerating and combining in one hypothetic object every excellence that
+can possibly belong to the whole sex; and the first individual that meets
+the eye, with any exterior signs of any of these ideal excellences, is
+immediately decorated with them all, by the creative magic of a vigorous
+and fertile fancy. Hence, she instantaneously becomes the object of the
+most fervent affection, which is as instantaneously cooled by possession:
+for, as it was not the object herself, but a false idea of her raised in
+heated imagination, that called forth all the lover's raptures, all
+immediately vanish at the detection of his delusion; and a degree of
+disgust proportioned to the disappointment, of which it is the inevitable
+consequence, instantly succeeds. Thus it happens that what are called
+love-matches are seldom or ever happy."
+
+Now, nothing can more effectually prevent even the existence of the mania
+described by these two philosophers than a critical judgment and a pure
+taste for beauty, which again therefore are the sole protection against
+low and degrading connexions.
+
+A just sense of this truth will give high encouragement to sculpture and
+painting--arts which may everywhere be looked upon as the best tests, as
+well as the best records, of civilization. Such encouragement they need in
+truth; for the monstrous monopoly of landed property and the accumulation
+of wealth in few hands--the great aim of our political economy--renders
+art poor, indeed.
+
+I am aware that the vulgar among artists think otherwise; from the few
+rich they obtain employment; and, like the dog with his master, they look
+not beyond the hand that doles out their pittance. But the rich are few;
+and their palaces are already filled. A diffusion of wealth alone can give
+encouragement to art; nor can this ever be while British industry is
+crushed under the weight of enormous taxation.
+
+Having removed some objections to art, I would add a few words to artists
+on the cause of the fine arts in Greece, from a paper I, two years ago,
+contributed to a monthly periodical.[4]
+
+That the mythology of Greece had an influence over its arts, is generally
+granted; but I am not aware, that it has either been shown to be
+exclusively their cause, or that its mode of operation has ever been
+explained.
+
+Religion, I may observe, is as natural to man as his weakness and
+helplessness. There is not one of its systems, not even the vilest, which
+has not afforded him consolation. Of its higher and better systems, some
+are equally admirable for the grandeur and the beauty of the truths on
+which they are founded, the simplicity and the elegance of their
+ostensible forms, the power and applicability of their symbols, and their
+sympathy with, and control over, the affections and the imagination.
+
+These high characteristics peculiarly distinguished the religion of
+ancient Greece.
+
+By bigots, we are indeed told, that, though Homer is our model in epic,
+Anacreon in lyric, and Æschylus in dramatic poetry--though the music of
+Greece doubtless corresponded to its poetry in beauty, pathos, and
+grandeur--though the mere wreck of her sculpture is never overlooked in
+modern war and negotiation--though the mere sight of her ruined Parthenon
+is more than a reward for the fatigue or the peril of a journey to the
+Eternal city--though these products of art are the test of the highest
+civilization which the world has witnessed--though to these chiefly Rome
+owed the little civilization of which she was capable, and we ourselves
+the circumstance that, at this hour, we are not, like our ancestors,
+covered only with blue paint or the skins of brutes--though all this is
+true as to the arts of Greece, we are told that, by the strangest
+exception, the religion of Greece was a base superstition.
+
+That religion, however, was the creator of these arts. They not only could
+not have existed without it, but they probably could never have been
+called into existence by any other religion.
+
+The personification of _simple_ Beauty, Valor, Wisdom, or Omnipotence, in
+Venus, Mars, Minerva, or Jupiter, respectively, was essential to the
+_purity_ and the _power_ of expression of these attributes in the worship
+of the deities to whom they respectively belonged. The union of absolute
+beauty and valor in one being, is not more impossible than their union in
+one expression of homage and admiration. Delicacy, elegance, and grace,
+were as characteristic of the statue, the worship, and the temple, of the
+goddess of beauty, as attributes nearly opposite to these were of the
+statue, the worship, and the temple, of the god of war. Thus, were the
+fine arts in Greece created by the personification of _simple_ attributes
+or virtues as objects of adoration; and thus is excellence in these fine
+arts incapable of being elicited by any system of religion in which more
+than one attribute is ascribed to the god.
+
+They must be ignorant, indeed, of the wonderful people of whom I now
+speak, who allege, that the Greeks worshipped the mere statue of the god
+and not the personified virtue. Even the history of their religion proves
+the reverse. It was the tomb which became the altar, and retained nearly
+its form. It was the expression of love, of regret, and of veneration for
+departed virtue, which became divine adoration; and, as individual acts
+and even individual names were ultimately lost in one transcendent
+attribute, so were individual forms and features, in its purified and
+ideal representation. Here, then, instead of finding the worship of men or
+of their representations, we discover a gradual advance from beings to
+attributes--from mortal man to eternal virtue--and a corresponding and
+suitable advance from simple veneration to divine adoration.
+
+When, in great emergencies of the state, the sages and the soldiers of
+Athens, in solemn procession repaired to the temple of Minerva, turned
+their faces toward the statue of the goddess, and prostrated themselves in
+spirit before her--let the beautiful history of Grecian science tell,
+whether in the statue they worshipped the mere marble structure, or, in
+its forms and attributes, beheld and adored a personification of eternal
+truth and wisdom, and so prepared the mind for deeds which have rendered
+Greece for ever illustrious. Or, when returning from a Marathon, or a
+Salamis, the warriors of Athens, followed by trains of maidens, and
+matrons, and old men, returned thanks to the god of victories--let the
+immortal record of the long series of glorious achievements which
+succeeded these, tell, whether gratitude to their heroes was not there
+identified with homage to the spirit or the divinity that inspired them.
+
+True it is, that, whenever physical or moral principles are personified,
+the ignorant may be led to mistake the sign for that which is signified;
+but one of the most admirable characteristics of the Grecian religion is,
+that, with little effort, every external form may be traced to the spirit
+which it represents, and every fable may be resolved into a beautiful
+illustration of physical or moral truth. So that when mystic influences,
+with increasing knowledge, ceased to sway the imagination, all-powerful
+truths directed the reason.
+
+The natural and poetical religion of Greece, therefore, differed from
+false and vulgar religions in this, that it was calculated to hold equal
+empire over the minds of the ignorant and the wise; and the initiations of
+Eleusis were apparently the solemn acts by which the youths and maidens of
+Greece passed from ignorance and blind obedience to knowledge and
+enlightened zeal. Thus, in that happy region, neither were the priests
+knaves, nor the people their dupes.[5]
+
+And what has been the result of this fundamental excellence?--that no
+interpolated fooleries have been able to destroy it;--that the religion of
+Greece exists, and must ever exist, the religion of nature, genius, and
+taste;--and that neither poetry nor the arts can have being without it.
+Schiller has well expressed this truth in the following lines:--
+
+  "The intelligible forms of ancient poets,
+  The fair humanities of old religion,
+  The power, the beauty, and the majesty,
+  That had their haunts in dale, or piny mountains,
+  Or forest, by slow stream, or pebbly spring,
+  Or chasms, and watery depths--all these have vanished;
+  They live no longer in the faith of reason;
+  But still the heart doth need a language; still
+  Doth the old instinct bring back the old names;
+   * * And even, at this day,
+  'Tis Jupiter who brings whate'er is great,
+  And Venus who brings everything that's fair."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+CAUTIONS AS TO YOUTH.
+
+
+In relation to _early_ sexual association, it cannot be doubted, that,
+when the instinct of reproduction begins to be developed, the reserve
+which parents, relatives, and instructers, adopt on this subject, is often
+the means of producing injurious effects; because, a system of concealment
+on this subject, as observed in the preceding chapter, is quite
+impracticable. Discoveries made by young persons in obscene books, the
+unguarded language or shameless conduct of grown-up persons, even the wild
+flights of an imagination which is then easily excited, will have the most
+fatal consequences.
+
+Parents or instructers ought, therefore, at that critical period, to give
+rational explanations as to the nature and the object of the propensity,
+the mechanism of reproduction in various vegetable and animal beings, and
+the fatal consequences to which this propensity may lead. Such procedure,
+if well conducted, cannot but have the most beneficial results; because,
+in order that a sane person should avoid any danger, it is only necessary
+that he should see it distinctly.
+
+The advantage, it has been observed, which the parent, relative, or
+instructer, derives, from himself in forming the adolescent in the new
+faculty which is developed in him, is to prevent his choosing, among
+corrupt servants or ignorant youths of his own age, the confidants of his
+passion. The parent or instructer, moreover, is then justly entitled to,
+and has gratefully given to him, the entire confidence of the adolescent;
+and he is thereby enabled exactly to appreciate the degree of power of the
+propensity which he desires to divert or to guide.
+
+Such being the case, it is the business of the parent to present a true
+picture of the effects of too early association of this kind, on the
+stature, the various development of the figure, the muscular power, the
+quality of the voice, the health, the moral sense, and especially on the
+acuteness, the power, the dignity, and the courage, of the mind.
+
+In doing this, it would be as stupid as injurious to employ the slightest
+degree of false representation, of unjust reprimand, or too much of what
+is called moralizing, which is often only the contemptible cant of a being
+who cannot reason, especially when it takes the place of a simple and
+powerful statement of facts. All of these would only render the young man
+a dissembler, and would compel him to choose another confidant.
+
+Among other considerations, varying according to the circumstances of the
+case, those stated below may with advantage be presented.
+
+At a certain period in the life both of plants and animals, varying
+according to their kind and the climate they live in, they are fit for
+and disposed to the reproduction of their species. The sexes in both are
+then attracted to each other. In plants, the powder termed pollen, in
+animals a peculiar liquid which, deriving its name by analogy from the
+seeds of plants, is termed seminal, is secreted by the male plant or
+animal, and, by organs differently formed in each kind, is cast upon ova
+or eggs either contained within, or deposited by, the female. The details
+of this process are among the most beautiful and interesting of the living
+economy. In mankind, the attainment of this period is termed puberty.
+
+It is with this critical period, and his conduct during it, that all that
+the youth deems most valuable, all that can decide his fortunes and his
+happiness in the world, his stature, figure, strength, voice, health, and
+mental powers, are most intimately connected.
+
+In regard to stature, the body appears to complete its increase in height
+chiefly at the age of puberty, and during the first years which succeed
+that age. To be assured of the powerful influence of his own conduct, at
+this period, upon his stature, the youth has only to compare the tall men
+and women of the country as in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland,
+Cumberland, and the Scottish borders, where they have not been overworked,
+with the stunted and dwarfed creatures of the metropolis, where a
+stranger, when he first enters it, is apt to think he sees so many ugly
+boys and girls, whereas, they are full-grown London men and women. Half
+the population of the metropolis is affected in this way; and it is the
+obvious consequence of the acceleration of puberty by confinement,
+stimulating food, indecent plays, and sexual association.
+
+In regard to the perfect development and beauty of the figure, the youth
+is probably aware that the most beautiful races of horses and dogs rapidly
+deteriorate, if men do not carefully maintain them by continence as well
+as by crossing. The too early employment, the depraved abuses, the injury,
+or the removal, of the sexual organs, are all of them causes still more
+certain of deformity. The latter of these causes acts, of course, most
+obviously; and it is evidenced in the almost universal malformation of
+eunuchs, geldings, &c.
+
+That, in regard to bodily strength, sexual continence adds energy to the
+muscular fibre, is clearly seen by observing the most ardent quadrupeds
+previous to the time of the union of their sexes. But, this being past,
+precisely in the same proportion does the act of reproduction debilitate
+and break down the strongest animal. Many male animals even fall almost
+exhausted by a single act of union with the opposite sex.
+
+Every classical student has read the beautiful allegory of Hercules, who,
+having spun at the knees of Omphale ([Greek: omphalos] the navel, here put
+for the most essential part of the female generative organ), thereby lost
+his strength: this beautifully expresses the abasement of power amid the
+indulgences of love. Euripides also depicts the terrible Achilles as timid
+before women, and respectful with Clytemnestra and Iphigenia. Hence, when
+a foolish lord reproached the poet Dryden with having given too much
+timidity toward women to a personage in one of his tragedies, and added
+that he knew better how to employ his time with the ladies, the poet
+answered: "You now acknowledge that you are no hero, which I intended that
+personage to be."
+
+As to voice, which depends on the muscles of respiration, and more
+immediately on those of the mouth and throat, as general strength does on
+the muscles of the whole body, both merely affording expressions of the
+mind, the influence of the sexual union upon it is prodigious. How
+entirely it is altered by the removal of the testes in eunuchs is known to
+every one: in corresponding proportion, is it altered by every act of the
+generative organs, but especially by sexual indulgence during puberty. The
+horrible voice of early libertines and prostitutes presents an alarming
+example of this. To those who value voice in conversation, in the
+delightful and humanizing exercise of music, or in the grander efforts of
+public speaking, nothing more need be said.
+
+As to health, the less we are prodigal of life, the longer we preserve it.
+Every one capable of observing may see that the stag loses his horns and
+his hair after procreation; that birds fall into moulting and sadness; and
+that male insects even perish after this effort, as if they yielded their
+individual life to their progeny. Indeed, everything perishes so much the
+more readily, as it has thus transmitted life to its descendants, or has
+cast it away in vain pleasures.
+
+In mankind, as in other animals, to procreate is in effect to die to one's
+self, and to leave one's life to posterity; especially, if this takes
+place in early life. It is then that man becomes bald and bent; and that
+the charms of woman fade. Even in advanced age, epicures are so well aware
+of this, that they are known to abstain from amorous excess, as the
+acknowledged cause of premature death.
+
+In relation to mind--as the generative power is the source of several
+characteristics of genius, the exhaustion of that power at an early age
+must take away these characteristics. Genius as surely languishes and is
+extinguished amid early sexual indulgence, as do the faculties of voice
+and locomotion, which are merely its signs and expressions.
+
+It is thus with all our faculties, locomotive, vital, mental, at an early
+age. They are strengthened by all that they do not dissipate; and that
+which their organs too abundantly dispense is not only taken immediately
+from their own power, and mediately from that of the other organs, but it
+ensures the permanent debility of the whole.
+
+It is true that the strong passions which are modified or characterized by
+the sexual impulse, excite the imagination and impel the mind to sublime
+exertions; but the sole means of either obtaining or preserving such
+impulsion is, to shun the indulgence of pleasure in early life, and its
+waste at later periods.
+
+It has accordingly been observed, that the passion of love appears to be
+most excessive in animals which least excel in mental faculties. Thus the
+beasts which are the most lascivious, the ass, the boar, &c., are also the
+most stupid; and idiots and cretins display a sensuality which brutifies
+them still more. Hence, the Homeric fable that Circe transformed men into
+beasts.
+
+It would also appear that the most stupid animals, swine, rabbits, &c., in
+general produce the greatest number of young; while men of genius have
+engendered the fewest. It is remarked that none of the greatest men of
+antiquity were much given to sexual pleasure.
+
+It is, then, of the greatest importance to young men who are ambitious of
+excellence, to mark well this truth, that the most powerful and
+distinguished in mental faculties, other things being equal, will be he
+who wastes them least in early life by sexual indulgence--who most
+economizes the vital stimulant, in order to excite the mental powers on
+great occasions. By such means may a man surely surpass others, if he have
+received from his parents proportional mental energy.
+
+Beside the means already indicated, there is one proposed by an able
+writer, as serving to divert the instinct of propagation when too early
+and excessive, and consequently dangerous: that is, the sentiment of love.
+To employ this means, he observes, "it is necessary to search early, after
+knowing the character of the adolescent whom it is wished to direct, for a
+young woman whose beauty and good qualities may inspire him with
+attachment. This means will serve, more than can easily be imagined, to
+preserve the adolescent both from the grosser attractions of libertinism
+and the disease it entails, and from _the more dangerous snares of
+coquetry_. It is," he adds, "a virtuous young woman and a solid
+attachment that are here spoken of."--At some future period I shall
+probably show how wise this recommendation is, as well as the necessity
+and the advantages of early marriages, under favorable circumstances.
+
+Having now shown the evils of early sexual association, I may briefly
+notice those of later libertinism.
+
+If, even in more advanced life, and when the constitution is stronger, the
+instinct of propagation be not restrained within just limits, it
+degenerates into inordinate lewdness or real mania: "Repperit obscænas
+veneres vitiosa libido." By such depravation, nobleness of character is
+utterly destroyed.
+
+This scarcely evitable consequence of great fortune and of the facility of
+indulgence, it has been justly observed, will ever be the ruin of the
+rich, and a mode of enervating the most vigorous branches of the most
+powerful house.
+
+The libertine, then, owing to exhaustion, by sexual indulgence, is
+characterized by physical and moral impotence, or has a brain as incapable
+of thinking, as his muscles are of acting.
+
+As libertines are enfeebled by indulgence, it follows that they are
+proportionally distinguished by fear and cowardice. Nothing, indeed,
+destroys courage more than sexual abuses.
+
+But, from cowardice, spring cunning, duplicity, lying, and perfidy. These
+common results of cowardice are uniformly found in eunuchs, slaves,
+courtiers, and sycophants; while boldness, frankness, and generosity,
+belong to virtuous, free, and magnanimous men.
+
+Again, cowardice, artifice, falsehood, and perfidy, are the usual elements
+of cruelty. Men feel more wounded in self-love, as they are conscious of
+being more contemptible; and they avenge themselves with more malignity
+upon their enemy, as they find themselves more weak and worthless, and as
+they consequently dread him more.
+
+These are the causes of that malignant revenge which princes have often
+shown, as, in ancient times, Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian,
+Heliogabalus, &c. In later times, Catharine de Medici solicited the
+massacre of the Protestants; Paul, Constantine, and Nicholas, of Russia,
+were happy only when they wallowed in blood; Charles X., equally
+effeminate and bigoted, perpetrated the massacre of the Parisians; Don
+Miguel covered Portugal with his assassinations; and nearly all the
+sovereigns and sycophants in Europe upheld or palliated his atrocities.[7]
+
+The strong and brave man, on the contrary, scarcely feels hurt, and scorns
+revenge.
+
+It is not cruelty only with which we may reproach these effeminate
+individuals: it is every vice which springs from baseness of character.
+
+Libertinism, moreover, is not hurtful only to the health and welfare of
+these individuals: it is so also to those of their posterity.
+
+Finally, the results of libertinism have constantly marked, not merely the
+ruin of families, but the degeneration of races, and the decay of empires.
+The delights of Capua caused the ruin of Hannibal; and the Roman, once so
+proud before kings, finally transformed himself into the wretched slave of
+monsters degraded far below the rank of humanity.
+
+So little, however, do men look to remote consequences that perhaps the
+most frightful punishments of libertinism are the diseases which it
+inflicts. Man may, then, be said to meet only death on the path of life.
+
+The dangers of promiscuous love are, indeed, far beyond what young men
+will easily believe. I do not exaggerate when I state, that, out of every
+three women, and those the least common of the promiscuous, two at least
+are certainly in a state of disease capable of the most destructive
+infection. A surgeon in the habit of receiving foul patients at a public
+hospital tells me, I might safely say that nine out of every ten are in
+this state.[8]
+
+While writing this, Sir Anthony Carlisle observes to me, that, "the
+special disease which appears to be a punishment for sexual profligacy, is
+not only malignant, painful, and hideous, in every stage of it, but the
+only remedy known for its cure, mercury, is a poison which generally
+leaves its own evils for the venom which it destroys. This frightful
+disease has no natural termination but in a disgusting disgraceful death,
+after disfiguring the countenance, by causing blindness, loss of the nose,
+the palate and teeth, and by the spoliation of the sinning organs. The
+miserables, who thus perish in public hospitals, are so offensive to the
+more respectable patients, that they are confined to appointed rooms,
+termed foul wards, where they linger and die in the bloom of life, either
+of the penalty inflicted by their profligacy, of the poison administered
+to them, or of incurable consequent diseases, such as consumption, palsy,
+or madness."
+
+Hence, it has been observed, that, if we have to deal with a young man
+incapable of guidance by the nobler motives, of feeling contempt for vice,
+and horror for debauchery, there yet remain means to be employed. Let him
+be conducted to the hospital, where he will find collected the poor
+victims of debauchery--the unhappy women whom, even the day before, he may
+have seen in the streets, with faces dressed in smiles, amid the torments,
+the corrosion, and the contagion of disease. This may leave an impression
+sufficiently deep. But let him also know that these unhappy creatures are
+a thousand times more pitiable than the libertine who destroys them, and
+who forfeits the only good we cannot refuse to other wretches, compassion
+for the misery he endures.[9]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+NATURE OF BEAUTY.
+
+
+In this chapter, my aim is to show that there is more than one kind of
+beauty, and that much confusion has arisen among writers, from not clearly
+distinguishing the characteristics of these kinds.
+
+An essential condition, then, of all excitement and action in animal
+bodies, is a greater or less degree of novelty in the objects impressing
+them--even if this novelty should arise only from a previous cessation of
+excitement.
+
+Now, objects of greater or less novelty are the causes of excitement,
+pleasurable or painful, by means of their various relations.
+
+The lowest degree of bodily pleasure (though, owing to its constancy,
+immense in its total amount) is that which arises, during health, from
+those relations of bodies and that excitement which cause the mere local
+exercise of the organs--a source of pleasure which is seldom the object of
+our voluntary attention, but which seems to me to be the chief cause of
+attachment to life amid its more definite and conspicuous evils.
+
+All higher mental emotions consist of pleasure or pain superadded to more
+or less definite ideas. Pleasurable emotions arise from the agreeable
+relations of things; painful emotions, from the disagreeable ones.
+
+The term by which we express the influence which objects, by means of
+their relations, possess of exciting emotions of pleasure in the mind, is
+BEAUTY.
+
+Beauty, when founded on the relations of objects, or of the parts of
+objects, to each other, forms a first class, and may be termed _intrinsic
+beauty_.
+
+When beauty is farther considered in relation to ourselves, it forms a
+second class, and may be termed _extrinsic_ beauty.
+
+We are next led (hitherto this has apparently been done without analyzing
+or defining the operation) to a division of the latter into two genera;
+namely, the _minor beauty_, of which prettiness, delicacy, &c., are
+modifications, and that which is called _grandeur_ or _sublimity_.
+
+The characters of the minor beauty or prettiness, with relation to
+ourselves, are smallness, subordination, and subjection. Hence female
+beauty, in relation to the male.
+
+The characters of grandeur or sublimity, with relation to ourselves, are
+greatness, superordination, and power. Hence male beauty, in relation to
+the female.
+
+By the preceding brief train of analysis and definition, is, I believe,
+answered the question--"whether the emotion of grandeur make a branch of
+the emotion of beauty, or be entirely distinct from it."
+
+Having, by this concise statement of my own views on these subjects, made
+the reader acquainted with some of the materials of future consideration
+here employed, I may now examine the opinions of some philosophers, in
+order to see how far they accord with these first principles, and what
+answer can be given to them where they differ.
+
+That _beauty_, _generally considered_, has nothing to do with particular
+size, is very well shown by Payne Knight, who, though he argues
+incorrectly about it in many other respects, here truly says: "All degrees
+of magnitude contribute to beauty in proportion as they show objects to be
+perfect in their kind. The dimensions of a beautiful horse are very
+different from those of a beautiful lapdog; and those of a beautiful oak
+from those of a beautiful myrtle; because, nature has formed these
+different kinds of animals and vegetables upon different scales.
+
+"The notion of objects being rendered beautiful by being gradually
+diminished, or tapered, is equally unfounded; for the same object, which
+is small by degrees, and beautifully less, when seen in one direction, is
+large by degrees, and beautifully bigger, when seen in another. The stems
+of trees are tapered upward; and the columns of Grecian architecture,
+having been taken from them, and therefore retaining a degree of analogy
+with them, were tapered upward too: but the legs of animals are tapered
+downward, and the inverted obelisks, upon which busts were placed, having
+a similar analogy to them, were tapered downward also; while pilasters,
+which had no analogy with either, but were mere square posts terminating a
+wall, never tapered at all."
+
+Speaking of beauty generally, and without seeing the distinctions I have
+made above, Burke, on the contrary, states the first quality of beauty to
+be comparative smallness, and says: "In ordinary conversation, it is usual
+to add the endearing name of little to everything we love;" and "in most
+languages, the objects of love are spoken of under diminutive epithets."
+
+This is evidently true only of the objects of _minor_ or _subordinate
+beauty_, which Burke confusedly thought the only kind of it, though he
+elsewhere grants, that beauty may be connected with sublimity! It shows,
+however, that relative littleness is essential to that first kind of
+beauty.
+
+With greater knowledge of facts than Burke possessed, and with as feeble
+reasoning powers, but with less taste, and with a perverse whimsicality
+which was all his own, Payne Knight similarly, making no distinction in
+beauty, considered smallness as an accidental association, failed to see
+that it characterized a kind of beauty, and argued, that "if we join the
+diminutive to a term which precludes all such affection, or does not even,
+in some degree, express it, it immediately converts it into a term of
+contempt and reproach: thus, a bantling, a fondling, a darling, &c., are
+terms of endearment; but a witling, a changeling, a lordling, &c., are
+invariably terms of scorn: so in French, '_mon petit enfant_,' is an
+expression of endearment; but '_mon petit monsieur_,' is an expression of
+the most pointed reproach and contempt."
+
+Now, this chatter of grammatical termination and French phrase, though
+meant to look vastly clever, is merely a blunder. There is no analogy in
+the cases compared: a "darling" or little dear unites _dear_, an
+expression of love, with _little_, implying that dependance which enhances
+love; while "witling" or little wit unites _wit_, an expression of talent,
+with _little_, meaning the small quantity or absence of the talent alluded
+to; and it is because the latter term means, not physical littleness,
+which well associates with love, but moral littleness and mental
+degradation, that it becomes a term of contempt.
+
+Even from the little already said, it seems evident that much of the
+confusion on this subject has arisen from not distinguishing the two
+genera of beauty, and not seeing that "the emotion of grandeur" is merely
+"a branch of the emotion of beauty."
+
+The other genus of beauty, _grand_ or _sublime beauty_, is well described
+by the names given to it, grandeur or sublimity. Some have considered
+sublimity as expressing grandeur in the highest degree: it would perhaps
+be as well to express the cause of the emotion by grandeur, and the
+emotion itself by sublimity.
+
+Nothing is sublime that is not vast or powerful, or that does not make him
+who feels it sensible of its physical or moral superiority.
+
+The simplest cause of sublimity is presented by all objects of vast
+magnitude or extent--a seemingly boundless plain, the sky, the ocean,
+&c.; and the particular direction of the magnitude or extent always
+correspondingly modifies the emotion--height giving more especially the
+idea of power, breadth of resistance, depth of danger, &c. Of the objects
+mentioned above, the ocean is the most sublime, because, to vastness in
+length and breadth, it adds depth, and a force perpetually active.
+
+Now, that these objects, though sublime, are beautiful, is very evident;
+and it is therefore also evident how much Burke erred in asserting
+comparative smallness to be the first character of beauty generally
+considered. This and similar errors, as already said, have greatly
+obscured this subject, and have led Burke and others so to modify and
+qualify their doctrines, as to take from them all precision and certainty.
+
+Hence, in one place, Burke says: "As, in the animal world, and in a good
+measure in the vegetable world likewise, the qualities that constitute
+_beauty_ may _possibly_ be united to things of _greater dimensions_ [that
+is, littleness may be united with bigness!]; when they are so united they
+constitute _a species something different both from the sublime and
+beautiful_, which I have before called, Fine."
+
+So also he says: "Ugliness I imagine likewise to be consistent enough with
+an idea of the sublime. But I would by no means insinuate that ugliness of
+itself is a sublime idea, unless united with such qualities as excite a
+strong terror."
+
+Here, he confounds sublimity with terror, as do Blair and other writers,
+when they say that "exact proportion of parts, though it enters often
+into the beautiful, is much disregarded in the sublime." It is a fact,
+that exactly in proportion as ugliness is substituted for beauty in vast
+objects, is sublimity taken away, until at last it is utterly lost in the
+terrible.
+
+Even Blair shows that sublimity may exist without terror or pain. "The
+proper sensation of sublimity appears," he observes, "to be
+distinguishable from the sensation of either of these, and, on several
+occasions, to be entirely separated from them. In many grand objects,
+there is no coincidence with terror at all; as in the magnificent prospect
+of wide-extended plains, and of the starry firmament; or in the moral
+dispositions and sentiments, which we view with high admiration; and in
+many painful and terrible objects also, it is clear, there is no sort of
+grandeur. The amputation of a limb, or the bite of a snake, is exceedingly
+terrible, but is destitute of all claim whatever to sublimity."
+
+Payne Knight shows that terror is even opposed to sublimity: "All the
+great and terrible convulsions of nature; such as storms, tempests,
+hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanoes, &c., excite sublime ideas, and impress
+sublime sentiments by the prodigious exertions of energy and power which
+they seem to display: for though these objects are, in their nature,
+terrible, and generally known to be so, it is not this attribute of terror
+that contributes, in the smallest degree to render them sublime.... Timid
+women fly to a cellar, or a darkened room, to avoid the sublime effects of
+a thunder-storm; because to them they are not sublime, but terrible. To
+those only are they sublime, '_qui formidine nulla imbuti spectant_,' who
+behold them without any fear at all; and to whom, therefore, they are in
+no degree terrible."
+
+This farther confirms the distinction which I made of beauty into minor or
+subordinate, and grand or sublime beauty, although Knight adopted other
+principles, if principles they may be called, and neglected such
+distinction.
+
+There is but one other error on this subject which I need to notice. Burke
+says: "To make anything very terrible, obscurity seems in general to be
+necessary. When we know the full extent of any danger, when we can
+accustom our eyes to it, a great deal of the apprehension vanishes. Every
+one will be sensible of this, who considers how greatly night adds to our
+dread, in all cases of danger.... Those despotic governments which are
+founded on the passions of men, and principally upon the passion of fear,
+keep their chief as much as may be from the public eye. The policy has
+been the same in many cases of religion. Almost all the heathen temples
+were dark."
+
+From what has already been said, it is evident that all this contributes
+to terror, not to sublimity; and that the same error is made by Blair when
+he says, "As obscurity, so disorder, too, is very compatible with
+grandeur, nay, frequently heightens it."
+
+To expose the weakness and to destroy the authority of some writers on
+this subject, can only set the mind free for the investigation of truth.
+I may, therefore, conclude this chapter by quoting the shrewd remarks of
+Knight on some of the principles of Burke. I shall afterward be forced
+critically to examine the notions of Knight in their turn.
+
+Burke states that the highest degree of sublime sensation is astonishment;
+and the subordinate degrees, awe, reverence, and respect; all which he
+considers as modes of terror. And Knight observes that this graduated
+scale of the sublime, from respect to astonishment, cannot, perhaps be
+better illustrated than by applying it to his own character.
+
+"He was certainly," says Knight, "a very respectable man, and reverenced
+by all who knew him intimately. At one period of his life, too, when he
+became the disinterested patron of remote and injured nations, who had
+none to help them, his character was truly sublime; but, unless upon those
+whom he so ably and eloquently arraigned, I do not believe that it
+impressed any awe.... If, during this period, he had suddenly appeared
+among the managers in Westminster Hall without his wig and coat, or had
+walked up St. James's street without his breeches, it would have
+occasioned great and universal astonishment; and if he had, at the same
+time, carried a loaded blunderbuss in his hands, the astonishment would
+have been mixed with no small portion of terror: but I do not believe that
+the united effects of these two powerful passions would have produced any
+sentiment or sensation approaching to sublime, even in the breasts of
+those who had the strongest sense of self-preservation and the quickest
+sensibility of danger."
+
+Thus, I believe, it now appears that novelty[10] is the exciting cause of
+pleasurable emotion, and of the consequent perception of beauty in the
+relations of things, and that the two genera of beauty--the minor or
+subordinate beauty, and grandeur or sublimity--have distinct
+characteristics, the confounding of which by writers has led to the
+obscurity of this part of the subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+STANDARD OF TASTE IN BEAUTY.
+
+
+The expression, "standard of taste," is used to signify the basis or
+foundation of our judgments respecting beauty and deformity, and their
+consequent certainty.
+
+Setting aside such objection as might be raised to a standard of taste on
+the doctrine of Berkeley (which I refuted in 1809, and which I need not
+enter into here), this matter was long ago settled by David Hume; and I
+have nothing new to say upon the subject (there is probably enough of
+novelty in other chapters, whatever its worth may be), except that Burke
+appears to have borrowed all he knew about it from that incomparably more
+profound philosopher.
+
+As I ought not, however, to omit here a view of the subject, I cannot do
+better than transcribe the words of Hume and Burke respectively. While
+this will put the reader in possession of all that I think necessary upon
+this subject, it will farther tend to show in what Burke's ability as a
+philosopher consisted.
+
+I must first, however, observe that the word "taste," as expressing our
+judgment of beauty, is a metaphor whimsically borrowed from the lowest of
+our senses, and is applied to our exercise of that faculty, as regards
+both natural objects, and the fine arts which imitate these.
+
+It is not wonderful that the variety and inconstancy of tastes respecting
+the attributes and the characters of beauty, should have led many
+philosophers to deny that there exist any certain combinations of forms
+and of effects to which the term beauty ought to be invariably attached.
+
+In his "Philosophical Dictionary," Voltaire, after quoting some nonsense
+from the crazy dreamer who did so much injury to Greek philosophy, says:
+"I am willing to believe that nothing can be more beautiful than this
+discourse of Plato; but it does not give us very clear ideas of the nature
+of the beautiful. Ask of a toad what is beauty, pure beauty, the [Greek:
+to kalon]; he will answer you that it is his female, with two large round
+eyes projecting from her little head, a large and flat throat, a yellow
+belly, and a brown back. Ask the devil, and he will tell you that the
+beautiful is a pair of horns, four claws, and a tail. Consult, lastly, the
+philosophers, and they will answer you by rigmarole: they want something
+conformable to the archetype of the beautiful in essence, to the [Greek:
+to kalon]." This is wit, not reason: let us look for that to a deeper
+thinker--as proposed above.
+
+David Hume says: "It appears that, amid all the variety and caprice of
+taste, there are certain general principles of approbation or blame, whose
+influence a careful eye may trace in all operations of the mind. Some
+particular forms or qualities from the original structure of the internal
+fabric, are calculated to please, and others to displease.... If they fail
+of their effect in any particular instance, it is from some apparent
+_defect_ or imperfection in the organ.
+
+"In each creature there is a sound and a defective state; and the former
+alone can be supposed to afford us a true standard of taste and sentiment.
+If, in the sound state of the organ, there be an entire or a considerable
+uniformity of sentiment among men, we may thence derive an idea of the
+perfect beauty; in like manner as the appearance of objects in daylight,
+to the eye of a man in health, is denominated their true and real color."
+
+To the same purpose writes Burke, after some preliminary observations:--
+
+"All the natural powers in man, which I know, that are conversant about
+external objects, are the senses, the imagination, and the judgment.
+
+"First, with regard to the senses. We do and we must suppose, that, as the
+conformations of their organs are nearly or altogether the same in all
+men, so the manner of perceiving external objects is in all men the same,
+or with little difference.
+
+"As there will be little doubt that bodies present similar images to the
+whole species, it must necessarily be allowed, that the pleasures and the
+pains which every object excites in one man, it must raise in all mankind,
+while it operates naturally, simply, and by its proper powers only.
+
+"Custom, and some other causes, have made many deviations from the natural
+pleasures or pains which belong to these several tastes; but then the
+power of distinguishing between the natural and the acquired relish
+remains to the very last.
+
+"There is in all men a sufficient remembrance of the original natural
+causes of pleasure, to enable them to bring all things offered to their
+senses to that standard, and to regulate their feelings and opinions by
+it.
+
+"Suppose one who had so vitiated his palate as to take more pleasure in
+the taste of opium than in that of butter or honey, to be presented with a
+bolus of squills; there is hardly any doubt but that he would prefer the
+butter or honey to this nauseous morsel, or to any other bitter drug to
+which he had not been accustomed; which proves that his palate was
+naturally like that of other men in all things, that it is still like the
+palate of other men in many things, and only vitiated in some particular
+points."
+
+In the same manner, Payne Knight observes that "things, naturally the most
+nauseous, become most grateful; and things, naturally most grateful, most
+insipid.
+
+"This extreme effect, however, only takes place where the palate has
+become morbid and vitiated by continued, and even forced gratification;
+and even when the metaphors taken from this sense, and employed to express
+intellectual qualities, show that it is always felt and considered as a
+corruption, even by those who are most corrupted: for though there are
+many who prefer port wine to malmsey, and tobacco to sugar, yet no one
+ever spoke of a sour or bitter temper as pleasant, or of a sweet one as
+unpleasant." By this concession, Knight answers several of his own
+objections.
+
+"When it is said," farther observes Burke, very properly, "taste cannot be
+disputed, it can only mean, that no one can strictly answer what pleasure
+or pain some particular man may find from the taste of some particular
+thing. This indeed cannot be disputed; but we may dispute, and with
+sufficient clearness too, concerning the things which are naturally
+pleasing or disagreeable to the sense. But when we talk of any peculiar or
+acquired relish, then we must know the habits, the prejudices, or the
+distempers of this particular man, and we must draw our conclusions from
+those."
+
+Hume proceeds to a second point, by observing that "one obvious cause, why
+many feel not the proper sentiment of beauty, is the want of that
+_delicacy_ of imagination which is requisite to convey a sensibility of
+those finer emotions.
+
+"Where the organs are so fine, as to allow nothing to escape them, and at
+the same time so exact, as to perceive every ingredient in the
+composition; this we call delicacy of taste, whether we employ these terms
+in the literal or metaphorical sense."
+
+Burke enlarges on this, after preliminary observing that "the power of the
+imagination is incapable of producing anything absolutely new; it can only
+vary the disposition of those ideas which it has received from the
+senses. Now, the imagination is the most extensive province of pleasure
+and pain, as it is the region of our fears and our hopes, and of all our
+passions that are connected with them.
+
+"Since the imagination is only the representation of the senses, it can
+only be pleased or displeased with the images, from the same principle on
+which the sense is pleased or displeased with the realities; and
+consequently there must be just as close an agreement in the imaginations
+as in the senses of men.
+
+"There are some men formed with feelings so blunt, with tempers so cold
+and phlegmatic, that they can hardly be said to be awake during the whole
+course of their lives. Upon such persons, the most striking objects make
+but a faint and obscure impression. There are others so continually in the
+agitation of gross and merely sensual pleasures, or so occupied in the low
+drudgery of avarice, or so heated in the chase of honors and distinction,
+that their minds, which had been used continually to the storms of these
+violent and tempestuous passions, can hardly be put in motion by the
+delicate and refined play of the imagination. These men, though from a
+different cause, become as stupid and insensible as the former; but
+whenever either of these happen to be struck with any natural elegance or
+greatness, or with these qualities in any work of art, they are moved upon
+the same principle."
+
+On a third point, Hume says: "But though there be naturally a wide
+difference in point of delicacy between one person and another, nothing
+tends farther to increase and improve this talent, than _practice_ in a
+particular art, and the frequent survey or contemplation of a particular
+species of beauty.
+
+"So advantageous is practice to the discernment of beauty, that, before we
+can give judgment on any work of importance, it will even be requisite
+that that very individual performance be more than once perused by us, and
+be surveyed in different lights with attention and deliberation."
+
+This is well illustrated by Burke, who observes: "It is known that the
+taste (whatever it is) is improved exactly as we improve our knowledge, by
+a steady attention to our object, and by frequent exercise.
+
+"To illustrate this--(that there is a difference, not in the causes, nor
+in the manner of men's being affected, but in the degree, owing to natural
+sensibility, or greater attention to the object)--to illustrate this by
+the procedure of the senses in which the same difference is found, let us
+suppose a very smooth marble-table to be set before two men; they both
+perceive it to be smooth, and they are both pleased with it because of
+this quality. So far they agree.
+
+"But suppose another, and after that another table, the latter still
+smoother than the former, to be set before them. It is now very probable
+that these men, who are so agreed upon what is smooth, and in the pleasure
+thence, will disagree when they come to settle which table has the
+advantage in point of polish.... Nor is it easy, when such a difference
+arises, to settle the point, if the excess or diminution be not glaring.
+
+"In these nice cases, supposing the acuteness of the sense equal, the
+greater attention and habit in such things will have the advantage. In the
+question about the tables, the marble-polisher will unquestionably
+determine the most accurately.
+
+"In the imagination, beside the pain or pleasure arising from the
+properties of the natural object, a pleasure is perceived from the
+resemblance which the imitation has to the original.
+
+"All men are nearly equal in this point, as far as their knowledge of the
+things represented or compared extends.
+
+"The principle of this knowledge is very much accidental, as it depends
+upon experience and observation, and not on the strength or weakness of
+any natural faculty; and it is from this difference in knowledge that what
+we commonly, though with no great exactness, call a difference in taste,
+proceeds.
+
+"A man to whom sculpture is new sees a barber's block, or some ordinary
+piece of statuary; he is immediately struck and pleased, because he sees
+something like a human figure; and entirely taken up with this likeness,
+he does not at all attend to its defects. No person, I believe, at the
+first time of seeing a piece of imitation, ever did. Some time after, we
+suppose that this novice lights upon a more artificial work of the same
+nature; he begins to look with contempt on what he admired at first; not
+that he admired it even then for its unlikeness to a man, but for that
+general though inaccurate resemblance which it bore to the human figure.
+What he admired at different times in these so different figures, is
+strictly the same; and though his knowledge is improved, his taste is not
+altered. Hitherto his mistake was from a want of knowledge in art, and
+this arose from his inexperience; but he may be still deficient, from a
+want of knowledge in nature. For it is possible that the man in question
+may stop here, and that the masterpiece of a great hand may please him no
+more than the middling performance of a vulgar artist; and this not for
+want of better or higher relish, but because all men do not observe with
+sufficient accuracy on the human figure, to enable them to judge properly
+of an imitation of it."
+
+On other points, Hume makes the following observations:--
+
+"Without being frequently obliged to form _comparisons_ between the
+several species and degrees of excellence, and estimating their proportion
+to each other ... a man is indeed totally unqualified to pronounce an
+opinion with regard to any object presented to him. By comparison alone,
+we fix the epithets of praise or blame, and learn how to assign the due
+degree of each.
+
+"But to enable a critic more fully to execute this undertaking, he must
+preserve his mind free from all _prejudice_ and allow nothing to enter
+into his consideration, but the very object which is submitted to his
+examination.
+
+"It is well known, that, in all questions submitted to the understanding,
+prejudice is destructive of sound judgment, and perverts all operations of
+the intellectual faculties: it is no less contrary to good taste; nor has
+it less influence to corrupt our sentiments of beauty. It belongs to _good
+sense_ to check its influence in both cases; and in this respect, as well
+as in many others, reason, if not an essential part of taste, is at least
+requisite to the operations of this latter faculty. In all the nobler
+productions of genius, there is a mutual relation and correspondence of
+parts; nor can either the beauties or blemishes be perceived by him whose
+thought is not capacious enough to comprehend all those parts, and compare
+them with each other, in order to perceive the consistence and uniformity
+of the whole. Every work of art has also a certain end or purpose for
+which it is calculated; and is to be deemed more or less perfect, as it is
+more or less fitted to attain this end."
+
+To a repetition of this, Burke adds some useful remarks:--
+
+"As many of the works of imagination are not confined to representation of
+sensible objects, nor to efforts upon the passions, but extend themselves
+to the manners, the characters, the actions, and designs of men, their
+relations, their virtues and vices, they come within the province of the
+judgment, which is improved by attention and by the habit of reasoning.
+
+"The cause of a wrong taste is a defect of judgment. And this may arise
+from a natural weakness of understanding (in whatever the strength of
+that faculty may consist), or which is much more commonly the case, it
+may arise from a want of proper and well-directed exercise, which alone
+can make it strong and ready. Beside that ignorance, inattention,
+prejudice, rashness, levity, obstinacy, in short, all those passions, and
+all those vices which pervert the judgment in other matters, prejudice it
+no less in this its more refined and elegant province. These causes
+produce different opinions upon everything which is an object of the
+understanding, without inducing us to suppose, that there are no settled
+principles of reason.
+
+"A rectitude of judgment in the arts, which may be called a good taste,
+does in a great measure depend upon sensibility; because, if the mind has
+no bent to the pleasures of the imagination, it will never apply itself
+sufficiently to works of that species to acquire a competent knowledge in
+them. But though a degree of sensibility is requisite to form a good
+judgment, yet a good judgment does not necessarily arise from a quick
+sensibility of pleasure; it frequently happens that a very poor judge,
+merely by force of a greater complexional sensibility, is more affected by
+a poor piece, than the best judge by the most perfect; for as everything
+new, extraordinary, grand, or passionate, is well calculated to affect
+such a person, and that the faults do not affect him, his pleasure is more
+pure and unmixed.
+
+"In the morning of our days, when the senses are unworn and tender, when
+the whole man is awake in every part, and the gloss of novelty fresh upon
+all the objects that surround us, how lively at that time are our
+sensations, but how false and inaccurate the judgments we form of things!
+
+"Every trivial cause of pleasure is apt to affect the man of too sanguine
+a complexion: his appetite is to keen to suffer his taste to be
+delicate.... One of this character can never be a refined judge; never
+what the comic poet calls '_elegans formarum spectator_.'
+
+"The rude hearer is affected by the principles which operate in these arts
+even in their rudest condition; and he is not skilful enough to perceive
+the defects. But as arts advance toward their perfection, the science of
+criticism advances with equal pace, and the pleasure of judges is
+frequently interrupted by the faults which are discovered in the most
+finished compositions."
+
+The chief idea above expressed, is again repeated by Sir J. Reynolds, who
+says: "The principles of these (the imagination and the passions) are as
+invariable as the former (the senses), and are to be known and reasoned
+upon in the same manner, by an appeal to _common sense_ deciding upon the
+common feelings of mankind."
+
+These views are thus summed by Hume: "The organs of internal sensation are
+seldom so perfect as to allow the general principles their full play, and
+produce a feeling correspondent to those principles. They either labor
+under some defect, or are vitiated by some disorder; and by that means,
+excite a sentiment, which may be pronounced erroneous. When the critic has
+no delicacy, he judges without any distinction, and is only affected by
+the grosser and more palpable qualities of the object: the finer touches
+pass unnoticed and disregarded. Where he is not aided by practice, his
+verdict is attended with confusion and hesitation. Where no comparison has
+been employed, the most frivolous beauties, such as rather merit the name
+of defects, are the object of his admiration. Where he lies under the
+influence of prejudice, all his natural sentiments are perverted. Where
+good sense is wanting, he is not qualified to discern the beauties of
+design and reasoning, which are the highest and most excellent. Under some
+or other of these imperfections, the generality of men labor; and hence, a
+true judge in the finer arts is observed, even during the most polished
+ages, to be so rare a character: strong sense, united to delicate
+sentiment, improved by practice, perfected by comparison, and cleared of
+all prejudice, can alone entitle critics to this valuable character; and
+the joint verdict of such, wherever they are to be found, is the true
+standard of taste and beauty."
+
+Taking the principal ideas above, Burke also concludes: "On the whole it
+appears to me, that what is called taste, in its most general acceptation,
+is not a simple idea, but is partly made up of a perception of the primary
+pleasures of sense, of the secondary pleasures of the imagination, and of
+the conclusions of the reasoning faculty, concerning the various relations
+of these, and concerning the human passions, manners, and actions."
+
+"It is sufficient for our present purpose," Hume farther observes, "if we
+have proved that the taste of all individuals is not upon an equal
+footing, and that some men in general, however difficult to be
+particularly pitched upon, will be acknowledged by universal sentiment to
+have a preference above others.
+
+"Though men of delicate taste be rare, they are easily to be distinguished
+in society by the soundness of their understanding, and the superiority of
+their faculties above the rest of mankind. The ascendant which they
+acquire, gives a prevalence to that lively approbation, with which they
+receive any productions of genius, and renders it generally predominant.
+Many men, when left to themselves, have but a faint and dubious perception
+of beauty, who yet are capable of relishing any fine stroke which is
+pointed out to them. Every convert to the admiration of the real poet or
+orator, is the cause of some new conversion. And though prejudices may
+prevail for a time, they never unite in celebrating any rival to the true
+genius, but yield at last to the force of nature and just sentiment."
+
+Hume finally obviates some apparent difficulties:--
+
+"But notwithstanding all our endeavors to fix a standard of taste, and
+reconcile the discordant apprehensions of men, there still remain two
+sources of variation, which are not sufficient indeed to confound all the
+boundaries of beauty and deformity, but will often serve to produce a
+difference in the degrees of our approbation or blame. The one is the
+different humors of particular men; the other, the particular manner and
+opinions of our age and country.
+
+"A young man, whose passions are warm, will be more sensibly touched with
+amorous and tender images, than a man more advanced in years, who takes
+pleasure in wise, philosophical reflections concerning the conduct of life
+and moderation of the passions. At twenty, Ovid may be the favorite
+author; Horace at forty; and perhaps Tacitus at fifty. Vainly would we, in
+such cases, endeavor to enter into the sentiments of others, and divest
+ourselves of those propensities which are natural to us. We choose our
+favorite author as we do our friend, from a conformity of humor and
+disposition.
+
+"Such preferences are innocent and unavoidable, and can never reasonably
+be the object of dispute, because there is no standard by which they can
+be decided.
+
+"For a like reason, we are more pleased, in the course of our reading,
+with pictures and characters that resemble objects which are found in our
+own age or country, than with those which describe a different set of
+customs.
+
+"A man of learning and reflection can make allowance for these
+peculiarities of manners; but a common audience can never divest
+themselves so far of their usual ideas and sentiments, as to relish
+pictures which nowise resemble them."
+
+Thus I believe the reader has before him a view, sufficiently clear, of
+that popular topic, the standard of taste, as well as of the agreement
+which subsists among the best writers on the subject. In the next chapter,
+we proceed to a more fundamental and difficult inquiry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY.[11]
+
+
+On the subject of the preceding chapter, even the reasonings of Hume
+appear to me to be of too vague and indefinite a kind. It requires the
+more minute scrutiny into which I shall now enter, in order to place it
+upon a deeper and more scientific foundation. If I can here show that, in
+the material qualities of the objects of nature and art, there exist
+elements of beauty equally invariable in themselves and in the kind of
+effect they produce upon the mind, it is evident there can be no farther
+dispute about a standard of beauty.
+
+Many attempts have been made to determine the material elements of beauty,
+by Hogarth, Home, and others. All have more or less failed, from not
+observing that these elements are modified, varied, and complicated, as we
+advance from the most simple to the most complex class of natural beings,
+or of the arts which relate to these respectively. Many partial views of
+perfect truth and great interest have been taken, and by every one of
+these it will be my duty here to profit: but, from the failure just
+pointed out, no philosophical and systematic doctrine of beauty, ascending
+from its origin in elements through its higher combinations, has ever been
+attained by any of the numerous, deep, acute, and elegant thinkers who
+have devoted their time to this subject, as the foundation of taste and of
+the fine or intellectual arts.
+
+Profiting, as I ought to do, by the partial views of these philosophers, I
+pretend here only to take one larger view--to analyze, to generalize, to
+systematize, the materials which they present to me.
+
+In the hope of accomplishing this, I shall now endeavor successively to
+trace the elements of beauty which belong respectively to inanimate,
+living, and thinking beings, and to the useful, ornamental, and
+intellectual arts which have a reference to these, the neglect of all
+which I have described as the fundamental cause of previous failure.
+
+Again, I repeat, it is to this analysis and generalization alone, and to
+the systemization founded upon it, that I make any pretence. The materials
+have long been presented by all the great writers on the subject: they
+have only left them in confusion, and without conclusion. I shall now
+proceed to employ them.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN INANIMATE BEINGS.
+
+Though Burke did not accurately trace the elements of beauty in any one
+class of the objects of nature or art, he yet states a preliminary truth
+on this subject so well, that I here quote it: "It would be absurd," he
+observes, "to say that all things affect us by association only; since
+some things must have been originally and naturally agreeable or
+disagreeable, from which the others derive their associated powers; and it
+would be, I fancy, to little purpose to look for the cause of our passions
+in association, until we fail of it in the natural properties of things."
+
+Home, advancing farther, says: "If a tree be beautiful by means of its
+color, its figure, its size, its motion, it is in reality possessed of so
+many different beauties, which ought to be examined separately, in order
+to have a clear notion of the whole.
+
+"When any body is viewed as a whole, the beauty of its figure arises from
+regularity[12] and simplicity; and viewing the parts with relation to each
+other, from uniformity[12], proportion, and order."
+
+I will here only observe that these are the qualities, as will speedily
+appear, which Burke should have set down as the fundamental and first
+characteristics of beauty, instead of relative littleness, which belongs
+not to beauty generally, but only to the minor or subordinate beauty.
+
+Even Home, having arrived thus far, says: "To inquire why an object, by
+means of the particulars mentioned, appears beautiful, would, I am afraid,
+be a vain attempt."
+
+But he truly adds: "One thing is clear, that regularity, uniformity,
+order, and simplicity, contribute each of them to readiness of
+apprehension, and enable us to form more distinct images of objects than
+can be done, with the utmost attention, where these particulars are not
+found." And he subjoins: "This final cause is, I acknowledge, too slight,
+to account satisfactorily for a taste that makes a figure so illustrious
+in the nature of man; and that this branch of our constitution has a
+purpose still more important, we have great reason to believe."
+
+Now had Home seen that the characteristics of general beauty always are,
+with regard to the object, accordant and agreeable relations, the
+importance of the qualities he has just enumerated would have been
+evident; for, without them, these characteristics of the object could not
+exist: simplicity, regularity, uniformity, order, &c., are the very
+elements of accordant and agreeable relations. This is in reality the
+still more important purpose in which Home believed, and to which the
+readiness of apprehension he now alludes to eminently contributes.
+
+As to simplicity, he observes, that "a multitude of objects crowding into
+the mind at once, disturb the attention, and pass without making any
+impression, or any lasting impression; and in a group, no single object
+makes the figure it would do apart, when it occupies the whole attention.
+For the same reason, even a single object, when it divides the attention
+by the multiplicity of its parts, equals not, in strength of impression, a
+more simple object comprehended in a single view: parts extremely complex
+must be considered in portions successively; and a number of impressions
+in succession, which cannot unite because not simultaneous, never touch
+the mind like one entire impression made as it were at one stroke.
+
+"A square is less beautiful than a circle, because it is less simple: a
+circle has parts as well as a square; but its parts not being distinct
+like those of a square, it makes one entire impression; whereas, the
+attention is divided among the sides and angles of a square.... A square,
+though not more regular than a hexagon or octagon, is more beautiful than
+either, because a square is more simple, and the attention less divided.
+
+"Simplicity thus contributes to beauty."
+
+By regularity is meant that circumstance in a figure by which we perceive
+it to be formed according to a certain rule. Thus, a circle, a square, a
+parallelogram, or triangle, pleases by its regularity.
+
+"A square," says Home--(who here furnishes the best materials to a more
+general view, because he most frequently assigns physical causes, and
+whom, with some abbreviation, I therefore continue to quote)--"a square is
+more beautiful than a parallelogram, because the former exceeds the latter
+in regularity and in uniformity of parts. This is true with respect to
+intrinsic beauty only; for in many instances, utility comes in to cast the
+balance on the side of the parallelogram: this figure for the doors and
+windows of a dwelling-house, is preferred because of utility; and here we
+find the beauty of utility prevailing over that of regularity and
+uniformity."
+
+Thus regularity and uniformity contribute to intrinsic beauty.
+
+"A parallelogram, again, depends for its beauty on the proportion [or
+relation of quantity] of its sides. Its beauty is lost by a great
+inequality of these sides: it is also lost by their approximating toward
+equality; for proportion there degenerates into imperfect uniformity, and
+the figure appears an unsuccessful attempt toward a square."
+
+Thus proportion contributes to beauty.
+
+"An equilateral triangle yields not to a square in regularity nor in
+uniformity of parts, and it is more simple. Its inferiority in beauty is
+at least partly owing to inferiority of order in the position of its
+parts: the sides of an equilateral triangle incline to each other in the
+same angle, which is the most perfect order they are susceptible of; but
+this order is obscure, and far from being so perfect as the parallelism of
+the sides of a square."
+
+Thus order contributes to the beauty of visible objects.
+
+"A mountain, it may be objected, is an agreeable object, without so much
+as the appearance of regularity; and a chain of mountains is still more
+agreeable, without being arranged in any order. But though regularity,
+uniformity, and order, are causes of beauty, there are also other causes
+of it, as color; and when we pass from small to great objects, and
+consider grandeur instead of beauty, very little regularity is required."
+
+It follows, from all that has been here said, and this has been shown by
+Burke, that any rugged, any sudden projection, any sharp angle, is in the
+highest degree contrary to the idea of beauty. Such projections and angles
+are destitute of all the qualities which have just been
+enumerated--simplicity, regularity, uniformity, proportion, order; and
+conformably to the principles I have laid down in a previous chapter, they
+can present only relations which are naturally disagreeable. This view is
+corroborated by the fact, that all very sharp, broken, or angular objects,
+were disagreeable to the boy couched by Cheselden, as they are to all eyes
+of very nice sensibility.
+
+Now, as angular forms give, to the sense of touch, sharpness, roughness,
+or harshness, so do opposite forms give smoothness or fineness. Hence,
+Burke makes smoothness his second characteristic of beauty, and that far
+more truly than he makes littleness its first, for, as he observes,
+"smoothness is a quality so essential to beauty, that I do not now
+recollect anything beautiful that is not smooth."
+
+Such being really the case, I am bound to expose Knight's sophistry on
+this point. "This elegant author," says he, "has expatiated upon the
+gratifications of feeling smooth and undulating surfaces in general: but,
+I believe, these gratifications have been confined to himself; and
+probably to his own imagination acting through the medium of his favorite
+system: for, except in the communication of the sexes, which affords no
+general illustration, and ought therefore to be kept entirely out of the
+question, I have never heard of any person being addicted to such
+luxuries; though a feeling-board would certainly afford as cheap and
+innocent a gratification, as either a smelling-bottle, a picture, or a
+flute, provided it were capable of affording any gratification at all."
+
+This is a good specimen of the kind of perverted reasoning, which
+peculiarly distinguishes Knight.
+
+A man affecting the character of philosopher, ought calmly to have
+observed that, by young people before puberty, and, consequently, when
+there is not the slightest sexual bias, smooth objects are generally found
+to be agreeable, and rough or harsh ones to be the reverse. This would at
+once have set him right upon this point.
+
+If, to such a man, it should for a moment have appeared worth while to ask
+why we do not make use of feeling-boards, as well as of smelling-bottles,
+he ought to have sought the solution of his difficulty in the nature of
+the senses; and then, with a trifle more of ability than Payne Knight
+hereby shows himself to have possessed, he would have seen that smoothness
+affords us as much pleasure as any smell, but that, as it would have been
+always troublesome, and often impossible, to apply our fingers to smooth
+surfaces, we generally receive the varied and incessant pleasure it
+affords, by means of sight; that it is borne by light to the eye, as smell
+is by the air; and that this is the reason why, except when contact is
+indispensable, we have no need of anything in the way of a feeling-board.
+
+But Knight says: "Smoothness being properly a quality, perceivable only by
+the touch, and applied metaphorically to the objects of the other senses,
+we often apply it, very improperly, to those of vision; assigning
+smoothness as a cause of visible beauty, to things which, though smooth to
+the touch, cast the most sharp, harsh, and angular reflections of light
+upon the eyes; and these reflections are all that the eye feels, or
+naturally perceives.... Such are all objects of cut-glass or polished
+metal; as may be seen by the manner in which painters imitate them: for,
+as the imitations of painting extend only to the visible qualities of
+bodies, they show those visible qualities fairly and impartially.... Yet
+the imitative representation of such objects in painting is far less harsh
+and dazzling than the effects of them in reality: for there are no
+materials that a painter can employ, capable of expressing the sharpness
+and brilliancy of those angular reflections of the collected and
+condensed rays, which are emitted from the surfaces of polished metals."
+
+It seems, to me, scarcely possible to find sophistry more worthless than
+this, or rather a more contemptible quibble; for that which, availing
+himself of our technicalities about light, he calls angularity, sharpness,
+&c., has no analogy with disagreeable angularity of form. To produce the
+brilliance and splendor which he calls angular, and describes as so
+_offensive_, we polish crystalline and metallic bodies in the highest
+degree!--we value precisely those which thus admit of greatest
+splendor!--and, on that very account, the diamond (rightly or wrongly, is
+not the question) is deemed the most valuable object on earth!
+
+So much for those elements of beauty, in inanimate things, which fall
+under the cognizance of our fundamental sense, or that of touch.
+
+As to sight and its objects, it is true that, as this organ varies in
+different persons, their taste is modified, with regard to colors. But the
+preference of light and delicate colors to dark and glaring ones, is
+almost universal among persons of sensibility.
+
+Alison, indeed, ascribes the effects of all colors to association.
+"White," he says, "as it is the color of day, is expressive to us of the
+cheerfulness or gayety which the return of day brings: black, as the color
+of darkness [night], is expressive of gloom and melancholy." And he adds:
+"Whether some colors may not of themselves produce agreeable sensations,
+and others disagreeable sensations, I am not anxious to dispute." But
+this is the very point into which Alison ought to have inquired. Nature
+does nothing without foundation in the simplest principles; and this
+foundation is not only anterior to, but is the cause of all association.
+
+That, independent of any association, blackness is naturally disagreeable,
+if not painful, is happily determined by the case of the boy restored to
+sight by Cheselden, who tells us that the first time the boy saw a black
+object, it gave him great uneasiness; and that, some time after, upon
+accidentally seeing a negro-woman, he was struck with great horror at the
+sight. This appears to be perfectly conclusive.
+
+Knight indeed says: "As to the uneasiness which the boy, couched by
+Cheselden, felt at the first sight of a black object, it arose either from
+the harshness of its outline, or from its appearing to act as a partial
+extinguisher applied to his eyes, which, as every object that he saw,
+seemed to touch them, would, of course, be its effect." It is highly
+probable that black operates in both these ways; and it has therefore
+natural effects, independent of all association.
+
+As to sounds, Alison observes, that the cries of some animals are sublime,
+as the roar of the lion, the scream of the eagle, &c.; and he thinks they
+become so, because we associate them with the strength and ferocity of the
+animals which utter them. By opposite associations, he accounts for the
+beauty of the notes of birds. And he says, that there is a similar
+sublimity or beauty, in the tones of the human voice, and that "such
+sounds are associated, in our imaginations, with the qualities of mind of
+which they are in general expressive, and naturally produce in us the
+conception of these qualities."
+
+This writer endeavors to establish his views on this subject, by
+observing, that "grandeur or sublimity of sound, can no otherwise arise
+from its loudness, than as that loudness excites an idea of power in the
+sonorous object, or in some other associated with it in the mind: for a
+child's drum, close to the ear, fills it with more real noise, than the
+discharge of a cannon a mile off; and the rattling of a carriage in the
+street, when faintly and indistinctly heard, has often been mistaken for
+thunder at a distance. Yet no one ever imagined the beating of a child's
+drum, or the rattling of a carriage over the stones, to be grand or
+sublime; which, nevertheless, they must be, if grandeur or sublimity
+belong at all to the sensation of loudness. But artillery and lightning
+are powerful engines of destruction; and with their power we sympathize,
+whenever the sound of them excites any sentiments of sublimity."
+
+Now, all this is directly opposed to the doctrine it is meant to support.
+It distinctly implies that loudness is so natural and so frequent a result
+of the violent contact of bodies, that we sometimes mistakenly ascribe
+power to objects, of which we have not correctly distinguished the sounds,
+owing to imitation, distance, &c. The occasional mistake implies the
+general truth.
+
+Alison, himself, notwithstanding his doctrine of association, is
+accordingly led to observe, that "there are some philosophers who consider
+these as the natural signs of passion or affection, and who believe that
+it is not from experience, but by means of an original faculty, that we
+interpret them: and this opinion is supported by great authorities."
+
+He adds the following observations, which, notwithstanding the error they
+involve, are too much to the purpose to be omitted here, and which in
+reality illustrate a natural and true theory, better than they do his
+own:--
+
+"It is natural, however, to suppose, that in this, as in every case, our
+experience should gradually lead to the formation of some general rules,
+with regard to this expression.
+
+"The great divisions of sound are into loud and low, grave and acute, long
+and short, increasing and diminishing. The two first divisions are
+expressive in themselves: the two last, only in conjunction with others.
+
+"Loud sound is connected with ideas of power and danger. Many objects in
+nature which have such qualities, are distinguished by such sounds; and
+this association is farther confirmed from the human voice, in which all
+violent and impetuous passions are expressed in loud tones.
+
+"Low sound has a contrary expression, and is connected with ideas of
+weakness, gentleness, and delicacy. This association takes its rise, not
+only from the observation of inanimate nature, or of animals, where, in a
+great number of cases, such sounds distinguish objects with such
+qualities, but particularly from the human voice, where all gentle, or
+delicate, or sorrowful affections are expressed by such tones.
+
+"Grave sound is connected with ideas of moderation, dignity, solemnity,
+&c., principally, I believe, from all moderate, or restrained, or
+chastened affections being distinguished by such tones in the human voice.
+
+"Acute sound is expressive of pain, or fear, or surprise, &c., and
+generally operates by producing some degree of astonishment. This
+association, also, seems principally to arise from our experience of such
+connexions in the human voice.
+
+"Long or lengthened sound seems to me to have no expression in itself, but
+only to signify the continuance of that quality which is signified by
+other qualities of sound. A loud or a low, a grave or an acute sound
+prolonged expresses to us no more than the continuance of the quality
+which is generally signified by such sounds.
+
+"Short or abrupt sound has a contrary expression, and signifies the sudden
+cessation of the quality thus expressed.
+
+"Increasing sound signifies, in the same manner, the increase of the
+quality expressed.
+
+"Decreasing sound signifies the gradual diminution of such qualities.
+
+"Motion furnishes another sort of beauty.
+
+"Figure, color, and motion, readily blend in one object, and one general
+perception of beauty. In many beautiful objects they all unite, and
+render the beauty greater."
+
+These characteristics are too universal not to support the doctrine of
+natural appropriation and power, of which association is merely a
+consequence.
+
+It may be said, that all this chiefly regards mere geometrical forms, not
+objects in nature. But, on referring to inanimate objects, it will be
+found that they everywhere present these forms.
+
+The round, the simplest form appears to characterize all elementary bodies
+and all that are free from compression, to be in fact the most elementary
+and the most readily assumed in nature. This form, accordingly, is
+presented by the drops of water and of every liquid, by every atom
+probably of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote, by the smallest as well as the
+largest bodies, even the innumerable celestial orbs.
+
+All the other, the angular forms are presented by inanimate bodies under
+compression, or by mineral crystals.
+
+Thus, then, do these simple geometrical forms characterize the simplest
+bodies in nature; and it appears that this first kind of beauty is
+peculiarly their own. It will, in the sequel, be as clearly seen, that
+each of the other classes of natural beings presents beauty of a different
+kind, which similarly characterizes it. Hence, no rational theory of
+beauty could be formed by writers, who indiscriminatingly jumbled together
+the characteristics of all the kinds of beauty, and expected to find them
+everywhere.
+
+As, then, from all that has been said, it appears that all the elements of
+beauty which have thus been noticed, belong to inanimate beings, and as
+this is shown by the passages I have quoted from the best writers, it
+seems surprising, not merely that they should not have seen this to be the
+case, but, that it should not have led them to observe, that there exists
+also a second beauty, of living beings, and third, of thinking beings, as
+well as others of the useful, the ornamental, and the intellectual arts
+respectively, in each of which some new element was only added to the
+characters of the preceding species.
+
+It seems still more surprising that Alison, who deviates so widely from
+all fundamental principles, should have actually stumbled upon an
+observation of a few of the characteristics of inanimate beings, and
+traced them as they pass upward through some living and thinking
+beings--whose new characteristics, however, he did not discriminate. He
+observes, that "the greater part of those bodies in nature, which possess
+hardness, strength, or durability, are distinguished by angular forms. The
+greater part of those bodies, on the contrary, which possess weakness,
+fragility, or delicacy, are distinguished by winding or curvilinear forms.
+In the mineral kingdom, all rocks, stones, and metals, the hardest and
+most durable bodies we know, assume universally angular forms. In the
+vegetable kingdom, all strong and durable plants are in general
+distinguished by similar forms. The feebler and more delicate race of
+vegetables, on the contrary, are mostly distinguished by winding forms. In
+the animal kingdom, in the same manner, strong and powerful animals are
+generally characterized by angular forms; feeble and delicate animals, by
+forms of the contrary kind."[13]
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN LIVING BEINGS.
+
+I have now to show that, in living beings, while the characters of the
+first and fundamental beauty, that of inanimate beings, are still
+partially continued, new characteristics are added to them.
+
+Plants accordingly possess both rigid parts, like some of those described
+in the preceding section, and delicate parts, which, in ascending through
+the classes of natural beings from the simplest to the most complex, are
+the very first to present to us new and additional characters totally
+distinct from those of the preceding class.
+
+I. To begin as nature does, then, we find the trunks and stems of plants,
+which are near the ground, resembling most in character the inanimate
+bodies from among which they spring. They assume the simplest and most
+universal form in nature, the round one; but as growth is their great
+function, they extend in height and become cylindrical.
+
+Even the branches, the twigs, and the tendrils, continue this elementary
+character; but it is in them, or in the stem when, like them, it is
+tender, that such elementary characters give way to the purposes of life,
+namely, growth and reproduction, and that we discover the new and
+additional characters of beauty which this class presents to us.
+
+II. To render this matter plain, I must observe that the formation of
+rings, which unite in tubes, appears to be almost universally the material
+condition of growth and reproduction. Every new portion of these tubes,
+moreover, and every superadded ring, is less than that which preceded it.
+
+It is from this that results the first characteristic of this second kind
+of beauty, namely, fineness or delicacy. Hence, Burke made the possession
+of a delicate frame, without any remarkable appearance of strength, his
+fifth condition in beauty; and he here erred only from that want of
+discrimination which led him to confound together all the conditions of
+beauty, and prevented his seeing that they belonged to different genera.
+
+Now, as fine and delicate bodies, which are growing, will shoot in that
+direction where space, air, and light, can best be had, and as this, amid
+other twigs and tendrils, will greatly vary, so will their productions
+rarely continue long in the same straight line, but will, on the contrary,
+bend. Hence, the curved or bending form is the second characteristic of
+this kind of beauty.
+
+It is worthy of remark, that, as the trunks, stems, twigs, and tendrils,
+of plants assume the simplest and most universal form in nature, the round
+one, so their more delicate parts have again the tendency to bend into a
+similar form.
+
+In the young and feeble branches of plants, it is observed by Alison, that
+the bending form is "beautiful, when we perceive that it is the
+consequence of the delicacy of their texture, and of their being
+overpowered by the weight of the flower.... In the smaller and feebler
+tribe of flowers, as in the violet, the daisy, or the lily of the valley,
+the bending of the stem constitutes a very beautiful form, because we
+immediately perceive that it is the consequence of the weakness and
+delicacy of the flower."
+
+From the circumstances now described, it results that all the parts of
+plants present the most surprising variety. They vary their direction
+every moment, as Burke observes, and they change under the eye by a
+deviation continually carrying on, but for whose beginning or end you will
+find it difficult to ascertain a point.
+
+Variety is therefore the third characteristic of this second kind of
+beauty; and in the indiscriminating views of Burke, he made two similar
+conditions, viz: "Thirdly, to have a variety in the direction of the
+parts; but, fourthly, to have those parts not angular, but melted as it
+were into each other;" thus applying these to beauty generally, to which
+they are not applicable, but in a confused and imperfect way.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to observe that variety, as a character of
+beauty, owes its effect to the need of changing impressions, in order to
+enliven our sensibility, which does not fail to become inactive under the
+long-continued impression of the same stimulant.
+
+It is connected with this variety that unequal numbers are preferred, as
+we see in the number of flowers and of their petals, in that of leaves
+grouped together, and in the indentations of these leaves.
+
+From all this springs the fourth and last characteristic of this second
+species of beauty, namely, contrast. This strikes us when we at once look
+at the rigid stem and bending boughs, and all the variety which the latter
+display.
+
+It will be observed, that, of all the characteristics of beauty, none tend
+to render our perceptions so vivid as variety and contrast.
+
+I conclude this section with a few remarks on the errors which Alison has
+committed on this subject.
+
+"In the rose," says that writer, "and the white lily, and in the tribe of
+flowering shrubs, the same bending form assumed by the stem is felt as a
+defect; and instead of impressing us with the idea of delicacy, leads us
+to believe the operation of some force to twist it into this
+direction."--This, however, is no defect arising from the bending form not
+being abstractly more beautiful, but from its being contrary to the nature
+of the stem of flowering shrubs to bend, from its being, as he himself
+observes, the result of some force to twist it.
+
+He asserts, however, that in plants, angular forms are beautiful, when
+they are expressive of fineness, of tenderness, of delicacy, or such
+affecting qualities; and he thinks that this may perhaps appear from the
+consideration of the following instances:--
+
+"The myrtle, for instance, is generally reckoned a beautiful form, yet the
+growth of its stem is perpendicular, the junction of its branches form
+regular and similar angles, and their direction is in straight or angular
+lines. The known delicacy, however, and tenderness of the vegetable, at
+least in this climate, prevail over the general expression of the form,
+and give it the same beauty which we generally find in forms of a contrary
+kind."--The mistake here committed is in supposing the beauty of the
+myrtle to depend on its angularity, instead of its being evergreen,
+fragrant, and suggesting pleasures of association.
+
+"How much more beautiful," he says, "is the rose-tree when its buds begin
+to blow, than afterward, when its flowers are full and in their greatest
+perfection! yet, in this first situation, its form has much less winding
+surface, and is much more composed of straight lines and of angles, than
+afterward when the weight of the flower weighs down the feeble branches,
+and describes the easiest and most varied curves."--But he answers himself
+by adding: "The circumstance of its youth, a circumstance in all cases so
+affecting, the delicacy of its blossom, so well expressed by the care
+which Nature has taken in surrounding the opening bud with leaves, prevail
+so much upon our imagination, that we behold the form itself with more
+delight in this situation than afterward, when it assumes the more general
+form of delicacy."
+
+"There are few things in the vegetable world," he says, "more beautiful
+than the knotted and angular stem of the balsam, merely from its singular
+transparency, which it is impossible to look at without a strong
+impression of the fineness and delicacy of the vegetable."--But it is its
+transparency, not its angularity, that is beautiful.
+
+The beauty of color is not less conspicuous than that of form in this
+class of beings.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN THINKING BEINGS.
+
+I have next to show that, in thinking beings, while the characters of
+inanimate, and those of living beauty, are still more or less continued,
+new characteristics are also added to them.
+
+I. In animals, accordingly, the bones bear a close analogy to the wood of
+plants. They generally assume the same rounded form; but, as thinking
+beings are necessarily moving ones, their bones are hollow to combine
+lightness with strength, and they are separated by joints to permit
+flexion and extension.
+
+II. As animals, like plants, grow and reproduce, a portion of their
+general organization, their vascular system, which serves the purpose of
+growth and reproduction, consists, like plants, of trunks, branches, &c.;
+and the surface of their bodies, the skin, is formed by a tissue of these
+vessels. Accordingly, both the vessels themselves, and the tissue which
+they form, present the delicacy, the bending, the variety, and the
+contrast, which are the characters of the preceding species of beauty.
+
+The undulating and serpentine lines which art seeks always to design in
+its most beautiful productions, exist in greater number at the surface of
+the human body than at that of any other animal. Wherever, as Hogarth
+observes, "for the sake of the necessary motion of the parts, with proper
+strength and agility, the insertions of the muscles are too hard and
+sudden, their swellings too bold, or the hollows between them too deep,
+for their outlines to be beautiful; nature softens these hardnesses, and
+plumps up these vacancies with a proper supply of fat, and covers the
+whole with the soft, smooth, springy, and, in delicate life, almost
+transparent skin, which, conforming itself to the external shape of all
+the parts beneath, expresses to the eye the idea of its contents with the
+utmost delicacy of beauty and grace."
+
+It is principally in the features of the face, as has often been observed,
+and on the surface of the torso and of the members of a beautiful woman,
+that these delicate, bending, varied, and contrasted lines are multiplied:
+by their union, they mark the outlines of different parts, as in the
+region of the neck, of the bosom, at the shoulders, on the surface of the
+abdomen, on the sides, and principally in the gradual transitions from the
+head to the neck, and from the loins to the inferior extremities.
+
+These lines vary under different circumstances; much enbonpoint producing
+round lines, and leanness or old age producing straight ones.
+
+Woman and man stand pre-eminent among animals as to this kind of beauty;
+and to them succeed the swifter animals, as the horse, the stag, &c.
+
+The animals, on the contrary, of which the surface presents right lines
+and square forms, are correspondingly deprived of beauty; as the toad, the
+hog, and all the animals which seem to us ugly.
+
+In all animals, also, the beauty of color, even when slightly varied,
+becomes extremely interesting.--In human beauty, considerable variety is
+produced by the different shades of the skin.
+
+Such, indeed, is the variety resulting from all this, that some degree
+even of intricacy is produced. The undulating lines which cross in every
+direction, and the tortuous paths of the eye, are the means of an
+agreeable complication.
+
+Hence Burke, following Hogarth, says: "Observe that part of a beautiful
+woman where she is perhaps the most beautiful, about the neck and breasts:
+the smoothness, the softness, the easy and insensible swell, the variety
+of the surface, which is never for the smallest space the same, the
+deceitful maze, through which the unsteady eye slides giddily, without
+knowing where to fix, or whither it is carried. Is not this a
+demonstration of that change of surface, continual, and yet hardly
+perceptible at any point, which forms one of the great constituents of
+beauty?
+
+The hair affords an excellent instance of this agreeable complication.
+Soft curls agitated by the wind have been the theme of every poet. And
+yet, says Hogarth, "to show how excess ought to be avoided in intricacy,
+as well as in every other principle, the very same head of hair, wisped
+and matted together, would make the most disagreeable figure; because the
+eye would be perplexed, and at a fault, and unable to trace such a
+confused number of uncomposed and entangled lines."
+
+III. But animals have a higher system of organs and functions which
+peculiarly distinguishes them, and which presents new and peculiar
+characteristics of beauty. This consists of the organs by which they
+receive impressions from, and react upon the objects around them--the
+first organs which Nature presents having altogether external relations,
+and the first, consequently, in which we look for fitness for any purpose.
+
+The importance of fitness to the beauty of such objects is learned
+imperceptibly. Lines and forms, though the most elegant, fail to please
+us, if ill distributed in this respect: and objects, to a great extent
+destitute of the other characters of natural beauty, become beautiful when
+regarded in relation to fitness. Thus would this sense appear to be so
+powerful, as in some measure to regulate our other perceptions of beauty.
+
+It is fitness which leads us to admire in one animal, what would displease
+us if found in another. "The variety," says Barry, "and union of parts,
+which we call beautiful in a greyhound, are pleasing in consequence of the
+idea of agility which they convey. In other animals, less agility is
+united with more strength; and, indeed, all the different arrangements
+please because they indicate either different qualities, different degrees
+of qualities, or the different combinations of them."
+
+In relation to the various fitness of the human body, the same writer
+says: "We should not increase the beauty of the female bosom, by the
+addition of another protuberance; and the exquisite undulating transitions
+from the convex to the concave tendencies, could not be multiplied with
+any success. In fine, our rule for judging of the mode and degree of this
+combination of variety and unity, seems to be no other than that of its
+fitness and conformity to the designation of each species."
+
+But it is less necessary for me to adduce authorities in support of this
+truth, than to answer the objections that have been made to it by some of
+the ablest writers on the subject--objections which have generally their
+origin in the narrow views which these men have taken, and in those
+partial hypotheses which, even when true, led them to reject all other
+truth.
+
+"It is said," observes Burke, "that the idea of a part's being well
+adapted to answer its end, is one cause of beauty, or indeed beauty
+itself.... In framing this theory, I am apprehensive that experience was
+not sufficiently consulted. For, on that principle, the wedgelike snout of
+a swine with its tough cartilage at the end, the little sunk eyes, and
+the whole make of the head, so well adapted to its offices of digging and
+rooting, would be extremely beautiful."--And so they are, when the beauty
+of fitness for their purpose is considered; but that purpose being the
+mere growth and fattening of an animal of sensual and dirty habits, it is
+a fallacy to represent this, without explanation, as a fair proof of the
+absence of connexion between fitness and beauty.
+
+"If beauty in our species," says the same writer, "was annexed to use, men
+would be much more lovely than women; and strength and agility would be
+considered as the only beauties."--Burke was a stringer of fine words, not
+for woman, but for queens, when that served a selfish and venal purpose.
+The sentence just quoted shows that his gallantry was as ignorant as it
+was mean. He here asserts by implication that women are less useful than
+men, although it is to women that the care of the whole human race, during
+its most helpless years, is committed, and although they take upon
+themselves all that half of the duties of life which men are as little
+capable of performing, as women are of performing the portion suited to
+men.
+
+"And," says he, "I appeal to the first and most natural feelings of
+mankind, whether, on beholding a beautiful eye, or a well-fashioned mouth,
+or a well-turned leg, any ideas of their being well fitted for seeing,
+eating, or running, ever present themselves."--Is running, then, the
+proper use of the leg in woman! Rousseau more truly thought its use was
+to _fail_ in running, or _not_ to run! Is eating the only use of her
+mouth! This, too from the man who deplored that "the age of chivalry was
+gone!"--Nevertheless, I will venture to assert that such things never were
+and never will be seen, without suggesting ideas of fitness of some kind
+or other.
+
+"There is," he proceeds, "another notion current, pretty closely allied to
+the former; that perfection is the constituent cause of beauty. This
+opinion has been made to extend much farther than to sensible objects. But
+in these, so far is perfection, considered as such, from being the cause
+of beauty, that this quality, where it is highest in the female sex,
+almost always carries with it an idea of weakness and imperfection."--For
+this plain reason, that female perfection is utterly incompatible with
+great muscular perfection or strength, which would indeed be injurious to
+the performance of every feminine function.
+
+We may now advance another step in the subject under discussion. What,
+then, are the peculiar physical characters of beings thus possessing sense
+and motion, and thus characterized by fitness?
+
+"It must be remembered," says Knight, "that irregularity is the general
+characteristic of trees, and regularity that of animals."--It would have
+been more correct to say that symmetry is this peculiar characteristic.
+There is little resemblance between the parts of one side; and it is
+symmetry which results from the uniform disposition of double parts, and
+from the regular division of single ones.
+
+Hence an agreeable impression is produced by the corresponding disposition
+and the exact resemblance of the eyes, of the eyebrows, of the ears, of
+the hemispheres of the bosom, and of the different parts of which the
+limbs are composed; and the forehead, the nose, the mouth, the abdomen,
+the back, are agreeably distinguished by means of the median line which
+divides them.
+
+It appears that the eye is pleased by the exactness of corresponding
+parts; and that symmetry is the first character of beauty in thinking
+beings.
+
+Occasional irregularity makes us better appreciate the importance of
+symmetry. The oblique direction of the eyes, squinting, twisting of the
+nose or lips, unequal magnitude of the hemispheres of the bosom, or
+unequal length of the limbs, disfigure the most beautiful person.
+
+But how does symmetry contribute to fitness, or why is it necessary?
+
+"All our limbs and organs," says Payne Knight, "serve us in pairs, and by
+mutual co-operation with each other: whence the habitual association of
+ideas has taught us to consider this uniformity as indispensable to the
+beauty and perfection of the animal form. There is no reason to be deduced
+from any abstract consideration of the nature of things, why an animal
+should be more ugly and disgusting for having only one eye, or one ear,
+than for having only one nose or one mouth; yet if we were to meet with a
+beast with one eye, or two noses, or two mouths, in any part of the world,
+we should, without inquiry, decide it to be a monster, and turn from it
+with abhorrence: neither is there any reason, in the nature of things, why
+a strict parity, or relative equality, in the correspondent limbs and
+features of a man or a horse, should be absolutely essential to beauty,
+and absolutely destructive of it in the roots and branches of a tree. But,
+nevertheless, the Creator having formed the one regular, and the other
+irregular, we habitually associate ideas of regularity to the perfection
+of one, and ideas of irregularity to the perfection of the other; and this
+habit has been so unvaried, as to have become natural."
+
+This is the common cant of every weak man at loss for a reason. Now, it is
+not by any "habitual association" with "our limbs and organs serving us in
+pairs," that we are "taught to consider this uniformity indispensable to
+beauty," but because, independent of all association, we could not
+conveniently walk upon one leg, or, indeed, on any unequal number of legs:
+and there being two sides in the moving organs, there are necessarily two
+in the sensitive organs, which are mere portions of the same general
+system. Thus it is locomotion to be performed that renders "a strict
+parity, or relative equality, in the correspondent limbs and features of a
+man or a horse" absolutely essential to beauty; and it is the absence of
+locomotion which renders it utterly worthless, and therefore very rare, in
+"the roots and branches of a tree."
+
+In animals, proportion is not less essential than symmetry. It is indeed
+the second character of this kind of beauty. As this part of the subject
+has been perfectly well treated by Mr. Alison, I need only quote what he
+has said:--
+
+"It is this expression of fitness which is, I apprehend, the source of the
+beauty of what is strictly and properly called proportion in the parts of
+the human form.
+
+"We expect a different form, and a different conformation of limbs, in a
+running footman and a waterman, in a wrestler and a racing groom, in a
+shepherd and a sailor, &c.
+
+"They who are conversant in the productions of the fine arts, must have
+equally observed, that the forms and proportions of features, which the
+sculptor and the painter have given to their works, are very different,
+according to the nature of the character they represent, and the emotion
+they wish to excite. The form or proportions of the features of Jove are
+different from those of Hercules; those of Apollo, from those of Ganymede;
+those of the Fawn, from those of the Gladiator. In female beauty, the form
+and proportions in the features of Juno are very different from those of
+Venus; those of Minerva, from those of Diana; those of Niobe, from those
+of the Graces. All, however, are beautiful; because all are adapted with
+exquisite taste to the characters they wish the countenance to express."
+
+In "the Hercules and the Antinous, the Jupiter and the Apollo, we find
+that not only the proportions of the form, but those of every limb, are
+different; and that the pleasure we feel in these proportions arises from
+their exquisite fitness for the physical ends which the artists were
+consulting.
+
+"The illustration, however, may be made still more precise; for, even in
+the same countenance, and in the same hour, the same form of feature may
+be beautiful or otherwise."
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY AS EMPLOYED IN OBJECTS OF ART.
+
+I divide the arts into the useful, the ornamental, and the intellectual,
+commonly called the fine arts; and I shall endeavor to show, that the
+objects of each of these are characterized by a peculiar kind of beauty,
+corresponding to one of those already described.
+
+I shall endeavor to show that the objects of the useful arts are
+characterized by the simple geometrical forms which belong to inanimate
+beings; that those of the ornamental arts are characterized by the
+delicate, bending, varied, and contrasted forms of living beings; and that
+those of the intellectual arts are, in their highest efforts,
+characterized chiefly by thinking forms, as in gesture, sculpture,
+painting, or by functions of mind actually exercised, in oratory, poetry,
+music.
+
+In all these arts, purpose is implied--not purpose in the hypothetical
+sense, as applied to the existence, conditions, and objects, of natural
+beings--but in the common intelligible sense of the word, as expressing
+the intention of men in the pursuit of these arts.
+
+
+_Beauty of Useful Objects._
+
+Here the purpose being utility, this kind of beauty arises from the
+perception of means as adapted to an end, which of course implies, the
+parts of anything being fitted to answer the purpose of the whole.
+
+This implies an act of understanding and judgment; for of no product of
+useful art can we perceive the extrinsic beauty, until we know its
+destination, and the relations which that involves.
+
+When these are known, so powerful is the sense of utility, that, though
+deviation from the elementary beauty never ceases to be felt, yet that
+sense sanctions it to a great extent. Hence it is that an irregular
+dwelling-house may become beautiful, when its convenience is striking.
+Hence it is that, in the forms of furniture, machines, and instruments,
+their beauty arises chiefly from this consideration; and that every form
+becomes beautiful by association, where it is perfectly adapted to its
+end.
+
+The greater, however, the elementary beauty, that can be introduced in
+useful objects, the more obvious will their utility be, and the more
+beautiful will they universally appear. This will be granted the moment I
+mention simplicity.
+
+Of all the elements of beauty already spoken of--of all the means of
+producing accordant and agreeable relations--simplicity appears to be the
+most efficient; and in all the useful arts, no elementary consideration
+recommends their objects so much.
+
+This implies all the rest, regularity, uniformity, proportion, order, &c.,
+as far as is compatible with purpose.
+
+Thus, in regard to uniformity, says some one, a number of things destined
+for the same purpose, as chairs, spoons, &c., cannot be too uniform,
+because they are adapted to uniform purposes; but it would be absurd to
+give to objects destined for one purpose the form suited to those destined
+for another.
+
+So also the objects of useful art will resemble in form precisely as they
+resemble in purpose; and where the purpose is similar, and the deviation
+which is admissible is slight, this becomes a subject of great nicety,
+and, if ornament be at the same time admissible, a subject of exquisite
+taste.
+
+It was by the transcendent exercise of these qualities, that the Greeks
+succeeded in fixing the orders of architecture. The most beautiful columns
+would have shocked the sight, if their mass had not corresponded to that
+of the edifice which they sustained; and the difference which existed in
+this respect, required a difference of ornament.
+
+Home indeed observes, that "writers on architecture insist much upon the
+proportions of a column, and assign different proportions to the Doric,
+Ionic, and Corinthian; but no architect will maintain, that the most
+accurate proportions contribute more to use, than several that are less
+accurate and less agreeable."
+
+That such a man should have committed such an error is surprising. It
+seems evident that the different proportion in the columns of these orders
+is admirably suited to the different quantity of matter in their
+entablatures. A greater superincumbent mass, required shorter and thicker
+columns; a less superincumbent mass, longer and slender ones. Many
+experiments, much observation, were requisite to determine this; but the
+Greeks had the means of making them, and solved every problem on the
+subject; and the result of the perfection they attained is, that all err
+who depart from the truth they have determined.
+
+It was, again, the differing quantities of matter in the entablatures, and
+the accurately-corresponding dimensions of the columns that determined, of
+course amid infinite experiment and observation, the nature of their
+ornaments. Hence, the Doric is distinguished by simplicity; the Ionic by
+elegance; and the Corinthian by lightness, in ornament as well as in
+proportion.
+
+Even, therefore, if we were to destroy all the associations of elegance,
+of magnificence, of costliness, and, still more than all, of antiquity,
+which are so strongly connected with such forms, the pleasure which their
+proportions would afford, would remain, as in all cases where means are
+best adapted to their end.
+
+In his objections to proportion as an element of beauty, Burke only
+confounds this kind of beauty with that which I have next to describe.
+
+"The effects of proportion and fitness," he says, "at least so far as they
+proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produce approbation,
+the acquiescence of the understanding, but not love, nor any passion of
+that species. When we examine the structure of a watch, when we come to
+know thoroughly the use of every part of it, satisfied as we are with the
+fitness of the whole, we are far enough from perceiving anything like
+beauty in the watchwork itself; but let us look on the case, the labor of
+some curious artist in engraving, with little or no idea of use, we shall
+have a much livelier idea of beauty than we ever could have had from the
+watch itself, though the masterpiece of Graham."
+
+It is an emotion of pleasure which is the inevitable result of the
+perception of beauty, not love, nor any passion of the kind. These will or
+will not follow, according to the nature of the object, and of the mind of
+the observer. A hill, a valley, or a rivulet, may be beautiful, and it
+will excite an emotion of pleasure when its beauty is discerned; but it
+may produce no desire or passion of love. There may exist, then, the
+beauty of utility, as to the structure of the watch, and that of ornament
+as to its case; and some minds will more readily perceive the one; others,
+the other.
+
+When Burke adds, "In beauty, the effect is previous to any knowledge of
+the use; but to judge of proportion, we must know the end for which any
+work is designed;" he forgets, that, in the instance of the barber's
+block, &c., he showed that the perception of beauty, as well as
+proportion, required observation, experience, and reflection.
+
+
+_Beauty of Ornamental Objects._
+
+There are three great arts which, under circumstances of high
+civilization, become ornamental, namely, landscape-gardening,
+architecture, and dress--the particular arts by which our persons are more
+or less closely invested;[14] and all of them, then, require beauty of the
+second kind, that which belongs particularly to vegetable beings, and is
+characterized by delicate, bending varied, and contrasted forms.
+
+All these, regarded as ornamental arts, have chiefly bodily and sensual
+pleasures for their purpose; and this I consider as distinguishing them
+from the intellectual arts, which have a higher purpose.
+
+Of landscape-gardening, the materials are plants, and therefore its beauty
+is evidently dependant on, or rather composed of, theirs.
+
+The same kind of beauty will be found in every ornamental art. Hence,
+Alison says: "The greater part of beautiful forms in nature, are to be
+found in the vegetable kingdom, in the forms of flowers, of foliage, of
+shrubs, and in those assumed by the young shoots of trees. It is from
+them, accordingly, that almost all those forms have been imitated, which
+have been employed by artists for the purposes of ornament and elegance."
+
+On this kind of beauty, mistaking it for the only one, Hogarth founded his
+peculiar doctrine. "He adopts two lines, on which, according to him, the
+beauty of figure principally depends. One is the waving line, or a curve
+bending gently in opposite directions. This he calls the line of beauty;
+and he shows how often it is found in flowers, shells, and various works
+of nature; while it is common also in the figures designed by painters and
+sculptors, for the purpose of decoration. The other line, which he calls
+the line of grace, is the former waving line, twisted round some solid
+body. Twisted pillars and twisted horns exhibit it. In all the instances
+which he mentions, variety plainly appears to be so important an element
+of this kind of beauty, that he states a portion of the truth, when he
+defines the art of drawing pleasing forms to be the art of varying well;
+for the curve line, so much the favorite of painters, derives much of its
+beauty from its perpetual bending and variation from the stiff regularity
+of the straight line." It is evident, however, that in this, he mistakes
+one kind of beauty for all.
+
+Of architecture, considered as a fine art, much of the beauty depends on
+the imitation of vegetable forms. Employing materials which require the
+best characteristics of the first kind of beauty, it, in its choicest and
+ornamented parts, imitates both the rigid trunks, and the delicate and
+bending forms of plants. Its columns, tapering upward, are copied from the
+trunks of trees; and their decorations are suited with consummate art to
+their dimensions, and the weight they support. The simple Doric has little
+ornament; the elegant Ionic has more; the light Corinthian has most.
+
+On the subject of these finely-calculated ornaments, some observations
+have struck me, which I have not seen mentioned elsewhere. The Doric
+presents only columns, without any other ornament than that of which their
+mere form admits. The Ionic expresses increased lightness, by the
+interposition of its volute, as if the superincumbent weight had but
+gently pressed a soft solid into a scroll. The Corinthian expresses the
+utmost lightness, by forming its capitals of foliage, as if the weight
+above them could not crush even a leaf. The Composite expresses gayety, by
+adding flowers to the foliage. It is from imperfect views of this, that
+the meaning and effect of caryatides have been mistaken: instead of being
+oppressed by weight, they seem, when well employed, to have no weight to
+support.
+
+In nearly all internal architectural decorations, it is the delicate,
+bending, varied, and contrasted vegetable forms which are imitated.
+
+"There is scarce a room, in any house whatever," says Hogarth, "where one
+does not see the waving line employed in some way or other. How inelegant
+would the shapes of all our moveables be without it? how very plain and
+unornamental the mouldings of cornices and chimney-pieces, without the
+variety introduced by the ogee member, which is entirely composed of
+waving lines."
+
+The distinctions I have here made, are farther illustrated by the remarks
+of Alison, who says: "These ornaments being executed in a very hard and
+durable substance, are in fact only beautiful when they appear but as
+minute parts of the whole. The great constituent parts of every building
+require direct and angular lines, because in such parts we require the
+expression of stability and strength. It is only in the minute and
+delicate parts of the work, that any kind of ornament is attempted with
+propriety; and whenever ornaments exceed in size, in their quantity of
+matter, or in the prominence of their relief, that proportion which, in
+point of lightness or delicacy, we expect them to hold with respect to the
+whole of the building, the imitation of the most beautiful vegetable forms
+does not preserve them from the censure of clumsiness and deformity."
+
+In dress, considered as an ornamental art, and, as practised by the sex
+which chiefly studies it, the chief beauty depends on the adoption of
+winding forms in drapery, and of wreaths of flowers for the head, &c.
+These are essential to the variety and contrast, as well as to the gayety
+which that sex desires.
+
+"Uniformity," says Hogarth, "is chiefly complied with in dress, on account
+of fitness, and seems to be extended not much farther than dressing both
+arms alike, and having the shoes of the same color. For when any part of
+dress has not the excuse of fitness or propriety for its uniformity of
+parts, the ladies always call it formal."
+
+These irregular, varying, and somewhat complicated draperies excite that
+active curiosity, and those movements of imagination, to which skilful
+women never neglect to address themselves in modern costume.
+
+It is with the same feeling and intention, whether these be defined or
+not, that, in the head-dress, they seek for bending lines and
+circumvolutions, and that they combine variously the waves and the tresses
+of the hair.
+
+For the same reason, a feather or a flower is never placed precisely over
+the middle of the forehead; and if two are employed, great care is taken
+that their positions are dissimilar.
+
+It has sometimes struck me as remarkable, that precious stones are almost
+always arranged differently from flowers. While the latter are placed
+irregularly, and in waving lines, not only on the head, but the bosom, and
+the skirt of the dress, the former are in general regularly placed, either
+on the median line of the person, as the middle of the forehead and, in
+Eastern countries, of the nose, or symmetrically in similar pendants from
+each ear, and bracelets on the arms and wrists.
+
+The instinctive feeling which gives origin to this is, that flowers adorn
+the system of life and reproduction, and by their color and smell,
+associate with its emotions, which they also express and communicate to
+others--they, therefore, assume the varied forms of that system; whereas,
+diamonds, attached generally to mental organs, or organs of sense, are
+significant of mental feelings, love of splendor, distinction, pride,
+&c.--they, therefore, assume the symmetrical form of these organs. Hence,
+too, flowers are recommended to the young; diamonds are permitted only to
+the old.
+
+
+_Beauty of Intellectual Objects._
+
+I have already said, that the intellectual arts are, in their highest
+efforts, characterized chiefly by animal forms, as in gesture, sculpture,
+and painting, or by animal functions actually exercised, in oratory,
+poetry, and music.
+
+In the useful arts, the purpose is utility; in the ornamental arts, it is
+bodily or sensual pleasure; and in the intellectual arts, it is the
+pleasure of imagination.
+
+The first elements of beauty, however, are not forgotten in these arts. As
+simplicity is conspicuous in the works of nature, so is it a condition of
+beauty in all the operations of mind. In philosophy, general theorems
+become beautiful from this simplicity; and polished manners receive from
+it dignity and grace. The intellectual arts are especially dependant upon
+it: it has been a striking character of their most illustrious
+cultivators, and of their very highest efforts.
+
+How much the characters and accidents of elementary beauty influence
+intellectual art, has been well shown by Mr. Knight.
+
+"In the higher class of landscapes," he says, "whether in nature or in
+art, the mere sensual gratification of the eye is comparatively so small,
+as scarcely to be attended to: but yet, if there occur a single spot,
+either in the scene or the picture, offensively harsh and glaring--if the
+landscape-gardener, in the one, or the picture-cleaner, in the other, have
+exerted their unhappy talents of polishing, all the magic instantly
+vanishes, and the imagination avenges the injury offered to the sense. The
+glaring and unharmonious spot, being the most prominent and obtrusive,
+irresistibly attracts the attention, so as to interrupt the repose of the
+whole, and leaves the mind no place to rest upon."
+
+"It is, in some respects," he observes, "the same with the sense of
+hearing. The mere sensual gratification, arising from the melody of an
+actor's voice, is a very small part, indeed, of the pleasure which we
+receive from the representation of a fine drama: but, nevertheless, if a
+single note of the voice be absolutely cracked and out of tune, so as to
+offend and disgust the ear, it will completely destroy the effect of the
+most skilful acting, and render all the sublimity and pathos of the finest
+tragedy ludicrous."
+
+This, I may observe, is a concession of much that he elsewhere
+inconsistently contends for; for sensual beauty could never act thus
+powerfully, if it possessed not fundamental importance as an element even
+in the most complex beauty.
+
+That the second kind of beauty also enters into the acts or products of
+intellectual beauty, is sufficiently illustrated by the observation of
+Hogarth, who on this subject observes, that all the common and necessary
+motions for the business of life are performed by men in straight or plain
+lines, while all the graceful and ornamental movements are made in waving
+lines.
+
+As Alison has given the best view of the history and character of beauty
+in the intellectual arts, as that indeed constitutes the most valuable
+portion of his work, I shall conclude this section by a greatly abridged
+view of these as nearly as possible in his own words.
+
+There is no production of taste, which has not many qualities of a very
+indifferent kind; and our sense of the beauty or sublimity of every object
+accordingly depends upon the quality or qualities of it which we consider.
+
+This, Mr. Alison might have observed, is in great measure dependant upon
+our will. We can generally, when we please, confine our consideration of
+it to the qualities that least excite pleasurable or painful emotion, and
+that can least interest the imagination.
+
+It is in consequence of this, that the exercise of criticism always
+destroys, for the time, our sensibility to the beauty of every
+composition, and that habits of this kind generally destroy the
+sensibility of taste.
+
+When, on the other hand, the emotions of sublimity or beauty are produced,
+it will be found that some affection is uniformly first excited by the
+presence of the object; and whether the general impression we receive is
+that of gayety, or tenderness, or melancholy, or solemnity, or terror,
+&c., we have never any difficulty of determining.
+
+But whatever may be the nature of that simple emotion which any object is
+fitted to excite, if it produce not a train of kindred thought in our
+minds, we are conscious only of that simple emotion.
+
+In many cases, on the contrary, we are conscious of a train of thought
+being immediately awakened in the imagination, analogous to the character
+of expression of the original object.
+
+"Thus, when we feel either the beauty or sublimity of natural scenery--the
+gay lustre of a morning in spring, or the mild radiance of a
+summer-evening--the savage majesty of a wintry storm, or the wild
+magnificence of the tempestuous ocean--we are conscious of a variety of
+images in our minds, very different from those which the objects
+themselves present to the eye. Trains of pleasing or of solemn thought
+arise spontaneously within our minds; our hearts swell with emotions, of
+which the objects before us seem to afford no adequate cause; and we are
+never so much satiated with delight, as when, in recalling our attention,
+we are unable (little able, perhaps, and less disposed) to trace either
+the progress or the connexion of those thoughts, which have passed with so
+much rapidity through our imagination.
+
+"The effect of the different arts of taste is similar. The landscapes of
+Claude Lorraine, the poetry of Milton, the music of the greatest masters,
+excite feeble emotions in our minds when our attention is confined to the
+qualities they present to our senses, or when it is to such qualities of
+their composition that we turn our regard. It is then only we feel the
+sublimity or beauty of their productions, when our imaginations are
+kindled by their power, when we lose ourselves amid the number of images
+that pass before our minds, and when we waken at last from this play of
+fancy, as from the charm of a romantic dream.
+
+"The degree in which the emotions of sublimity or beauty are felt, is in
+general proportioned to the prevalence of those relations of thought in
+the mind, upon which this exercise of imagination depends. The principal
+relation which seems to take place in those trains of thought that are
+produced by objects of taste, is that of resemblance; the relation, of all
+others the most loose and general, and which affords the greatest range of
+thought for our imagination to pursue. Wherever, accordingly, these
+emotions are felt, it will be found, not only that this is the relation
+which principally prevails among our ideas, but that the emotion itself is
+proportioned to the degree in which it prevails.
+
+"What, for instance, is the impression we feel from the scenery of spring?
+The soft and gentle green with which the earth is spread, the feeble
+texture of the plants and flowers, the young of animals just entering into
+life, and the remains of winter yet lingering among the woods and
+hills--all conspire to infuse into our minds somewhat of that fearful
+tenderness with which infancy is usually beheld. With such a sentiment,
+how innumerable are the ideas which present themselves to our
+imagination! ideas, it is apparent, by no means confined to the scene
+before our eyes, or to the possible desolation which may yet await its
+infant beauty, but which almost involuntarily extend themselves to
+analogies with the life of man, and bring before us all those images of
+hope or fear, which, according to our peculiar situations, have the
+dominion of our heart!--The beauty of autumn is accompanied with a similar
+exercise of thought.
+
+"Whatever increases this exercise or employment of imagination, increases
+also the emotion of beauty or sublimity.
+
+"This is very obviously the effect of all associations. There is no man
+who has not some interesting associations with particular scenes, or airs,
+or books, and who does not feel their beauty or sublimity enhanced to him
+by such connexions. The view of the house where one was born, of the
+school where one was educated, and where the gay years of infancy were
+passed, is indifferent to no man.
+
+"In the case of those trains of thought, which are suggested by objects
+either of sublimity or beauty, it will be found, that they are in all
+cases composed of ideas capable of exciting some affection or emotion; and
+that not only the whole succession is accompanied with that peculiar
+emotion which we call the emotion of beauty or sublimity, but that every
+individual idea of such a succession is in itself productive of some
+simple emotion or other.
+
+"Thus the ideas suggested by the scenery of spring, are ideas productive
+of emotions of cheer fulness, of gladness, and of tenderness. The images
+suggested by the prospect of ruins, are images belonging to pity, to
+melancholy, and to admiration. The ideas, in the same manner, awakened by
+the view of the ocean in a storm, are ideas of power, of majesty, and of
+terror."
+
+To prevent circumlocution, such ideas may be termed ideas of emotion; and
+the effect which is produced upon the mind, by objects of taste, may be
+considered as consisting in the production of a regular or consistent
+train of ideas of emotion.
+
+"In those trains which are suggested by objects of sublimity or beauty,
+however slight the connexion between individual thoughts may be, it will
+be found, that there is always some general principle of connexion which
+pervades the whole, and gives them some certain definite character. They
+are either gay, or pathetic, or melancholy, or solemn, or awful, or
+elevating, &c., according to the nature of the emotion which is first
+excited. Thus the prospect of a serene evening in summer, produces first
+an emotion of peacefulness and tranquillity, and then suggests a variety
+of images corresponding to this primary impression. The sight of a
+torrent, or of a storm, in the same manner, impresses us first with
+sentiments of awe or solemnity, or terror, and then awakens in our minds a
+series of conceptions allied to this peculiar emotion."
+
+The intellectual, or fine arts are those whose objects are thus addressed
+to the imagination; and the pleasures they afford are described, by way of
+distinction, as the pleasures of the imagination.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THIS CHAPTER.
+
+Thus, by analysis, generalization, and systematization, of the materials
+which the best writers present, I have, in this chapter, endeavored to
+take new and larger views; and, by an examination of the elements of
+beauty, I have endeavored to fix its doctrines upon an immoveable basis.
+
+I have shown that there exist elements of beauty equally invariable in
+themselves, and in the kind of effect they produce upon the mind; that
+these elements are modified, varied, and complicated, as we advance from
+the most simple to the most complex class of natural beings, or of the
+arts which relate to these respectively; that the elements of beauty in
+inanimate beings, consist in the simplicity, regularity, uniformity,
+proportion, order, &c., of those geometrical forms which are so intimately
+connected with mere existence; that the elements of beauty in living
+beings, consist in adding to the preceding the delicacy, bending, variety,
+contrast, &c., which are connected with growth, and reproduction; that the
+elements of beauty in thinking beings, consist in adding to the preceding
+the symmetry, proportion,[15] &c., which are connected with fitness for
+sense, thought, and motion; that the elements of beauty in the objects of
+useful art, consist in the same simplicity, regularity, uniformity,
+proportion, order, of geometrical forms which belong to inanimate beings;
+that the elements of beauty in the objects of ornamental art consist in
+the same delicacy, bending, variety, contrast, which belong to living
+beings; and that the elements of beauty in the objects of intellectual art
+consist in thinking forms, in gesture, sculpture, and painting, or in
+functions of mind actually exercised, in oratory, poetry, and music.
+
+The elements of beauty have hitherto been confounded by many writers, as
+more or less applicable to objects of all kinds; and as this general and
+confused application was easily disproved as to many objects, uncertainty
+and doubt have been thrown over the whole. The remaining writers have
+consequently been led to adopt, as characters of beauty, only one or two
+of these elements, which were consequently capable of application only to
+one or two classes of its objects. Hence, no subject of human inquiry has
+hitherto been left in a more disgraceful condition than this, the very
+foundation of taste.
+
+I do not hesitate to state that, owing to the near approximations to
+truth, and the insensible transitions into error, which I have found in
+every writer, and the immense mass of confused materials which they
+present, this subject has cost me more trouble than any one I have ever
+investigated, except that of my work on the mind;[16] nor without some
+physiological knowledge, do I think tasks of this kind at all practicable.
+Generally speaking, each branch of knowledge is most surely advanced by
+acquaintance with its related branches; and philosophers cannot too much
+bear in mind the words of Cicero: "Etenim omnes artes quæ ad humanitatem
+pertinent, habent quoddam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione quadam
+inter se continentur."
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+NATURE OF THE PICTURESQUE.[17]
+
+In landscape, the nature of the beautiful and the sublime seems to be
+better understood than that of the picturesque. There are few disputes as
+to the former; many as to the latter. These disputes, moreover, are not as
+to _what is picturesque_, but as to _what picturesque is_.
+
+Payne Knight asserts, that the picturesque has no distinctive character,
+and merely designates what a painter would imitate. Price, on the
+contrary, has given so many admirable illustrations of it, that its
+characteristics are before every reader. Strange to tell, its nature or
+essence has not been penetrated, because these characteristics have not
+been rigidly analyzed.
+
+Price has, indeed, generalized considerably on this subject, by showing
+that irregularity, roughness, &c., enter into all scenes of a picturesque
+description; and the examination of any one of them will certainly verify
+the truth of his observation.
+
+Thus, on a remote country-road, we often observe the deep ruts on its
+surface which in winter would render it impassable--the huge and loose
+moss-grown stone, ready to encumber it by falling from the bank--the
+stunted pollard by its side, whose roots are exposed by the earth falling
+away from it, and which must itself be swept away by the first wind that
+may blow against it in an unfavorable direction--the almost ruined
+cottage, above and beyond these, whose gable is propped up by an old and
+broken wheel, and whose thatched roof, stained with every hue of moss or
+lichen, has, at one part, long fallen in--the shaggy and ragged horse that
+browses among the rank weeds around it--and the old man, bent with age,
+who leans over the broken gate in front of it.
+
+Here, in every circumstance, is verified the irregularity and roughness
+which Price ascribes to the picturesque. But he has failed to observe,
+that _the irregularity and roughness are but the signs of that which
+interests the mind far more deeply_, namely, the universal DECAY which
+causes them. This is the essence of the picturesque--the charm in it which
+begets our sympathy.
+
+Confining his remark merely to ruins, the author of "Observations on
+Gardening," says: "At the sight of a ruin, reflections on the change, the
+decay, and the desolation, before us naturally occur; and they introduce a
+long succession of others, all tinctured with that melancholy which these
+have inspired; or if the monument revive the memory of former times, we do
+not stop at the simple fact which it records, but recollect many more
+coeval circumstances which we see, nor perhaps as they were, but as they
+are come down to us, venerable with age, and magnified by fame."--What is
+here said of ruins, and is indeed as to them sufficiently striking, is
+true of the picturesque universally, and it is only surprising that, amid
+such disputes, this simple and obvious truth should not have been
+observed.
+
+In landscape, therefore, the picturesque stands in the same relation to
+the beautiful and sublime, that the pathetic does to them in poetry.
+Hence, speaking also of ruins only, Alison says: "The images suggested by
+the prospect of ruins, are images belonging to pity, to melancholy, and to
+admiration."
+
+A thousand illustrations might be given in support of this truth and the
+principle which it affords; but I think it better to leave these to the
+suggestion or the choice of every reader.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+CAUSE OF LAUGHTER.
+
+This has been partly explained by Beattie, partly by Hobbes; and it is
+chiefly to vindicate the latter, who knew much more of the human mind than
+the people who have attacked him, that I write the pages immediately
+following.
+
+Speaking of the quality in things, which makes them provoke the pleasing
+emotion or sentiment of which laughter is the external sign, Beattie says:
+"It is an uncommon mixture of relation and contrariety, exhibited, or
+supposed to be united, in the same assemblage." And elsewhere he says:
+"Laughter arises from the view of two or more inconsistent, unsuitable, or
+incongruous parts or circumstances, considered as united in one complex
+object or assemblage, or as acquiring a sort of mutual relation from the
+peculiar manner in which the mind takes notice of them."
+
+"The latter may arise from contiguity, from the relation of cause and
+effect, from unexpected likeness, from dignity and meanness, from
+absurdity, &c.
+
+"Thus, at first view, the dawn of the morning and a boiled lobster seem
+utterly incongruous, but when a change of color from black to red is
+suggested, we recognise a likeness, and consequently a relation, or ground
+of comparison.
+
+"And here let it be observed, that the greater the number of incongruities
+that are blended in the same assemblage, the more ludicrous it will
+probably be. If, as in the last example, there be an opposition of dignity
+and meanness, as well as of likeness and dissimilitude, the effect of the
+contrast will be more powerful, than if only one of these oppositions had
+appeared in the ludicrous idea."
+
+The first part of the subject seems, indeed, so clear as to admit of no
+objection.
+
+Hobbes, viewing more particularly the act of the mind, defines laughter to
+be a "sudden glory, arising from a sudden conception of some eminency in
+ourselves, by comparison with the infirmity of others, or with our own
+formerly." And elsewhere he says: "Men laugh at jests, the wit whereof
+always consisteth in the elegant discovering and conveying to our minds,
+some absurdity of another."[18]
+
+Dr. Campbell objects that "contempt may be raised in a very high degree,
+both suddenly and unexpectedly, without producing the least tendency to
+laugh." But if there exist that incongruity in the same assemblage
+described as the fundamental cause of this sudden conception of our own
+superiority, laughter, as Beattie has shown, "will always, or for the most
+part, excite the risible emotion, unless when the perception of it is
+attended with some other emotion of greater authority," dependant on
+custom, politeness, &c.
+
+Dr. Campbell also observes, that "laughter may be, and is daily, produced
+by the perception of incongruous associations, when there is no contempt.
+
+"We often smile at a witty performance or passage, such as Butler's
+allusion to a boiled lobster, in his picture of the morning, when we are
+so far from conceiving any inferiority or turpitude in the author, that
+we greatly admire his genius, and wish ourselves possessed of that very
+turn of fancy which produced the drollery in question.
+
+"Many have laughed at the queerness of the comparison in these lines,
+
+  'For rhyme the rudder is of verses,
+  With which like ships they steer their courses,'
+
+who never dreamed that there was any person or party, practice or opinion,
+derided in them.
+
+"If any admirer of the Hobbesian philosophy should pretend to discover
+some class of men whom the poet here meant to ridicule, he ought to
+consider, that if any one hath been tickled with the passage to whom the
+same thought never occurred, that single instance would be sufficient to
+subvert the doctrine, as it would show that there may be laughter where
+there is no triumph or glorying over anybody, and, consequently, no
+conceit of one's own superiority.
+
+Now, the class of men laughed at in both cases is the same, namely, poets,
+whose lofty allusions are ridiculed by the former, and silly rhymes by the
+latter; nor can any one duly appreciate or be pleased with either, to whom
+this intention of the writer is not obvious. Who ever dreamed of
+"turpitude in the author," as Dr. Campbell supposes!
+
+"As to the wag," says Beattie, "who amuses himself on the first of April
+with telling lies, he must be shallow, indeed, if he hope, by so doing, to
+acquire any superiority over another man whom he knows to be wiser and
+better than himself; for, on these occasions, the greatness of the joke,
+and the loudness of the laugh, are, if I rightly remember, in exact
+proportion to the sagacity of the person imposed on."--No doubt; but it is
+because he is thrown into an apparent and whimsical, though momentary
+inferiority; and the greater his sagacity, the more amusing does this
+appear.
+
+"Do we not," says he, "sometimes laugh at fortuitous combinations, in
+which, as no mental energy is concerned in producing them, there cannot be
+either fault or turpitude? Could not one imagine a set of people jumbled
+together by accident, so as to present a laughable group to those who know
+their characters?"--Undoubtedly; but then the slouch of one, and the
+rigidity of the other, &c., make both contemptible, as to physical
+characteristics at least, and there is no need of turpitude in either.
+
+The strongest apparent objection, however, is that of Dr. Campbell, who
+says: "Indeed, men's telling their own blunders, even blunders recently
+committed, and laughing at them, a thing not uncommon in very risible
+dispositions, is utterly inexplicable upon Hobbes's system. For, to
+consider the thing only with regard to the laugher himself, there is to
+him no subject of glorying, that is not counterbalanced by an equal
+subject of humiliation (he being both the person laughing, and the person
+laughed at), and these two subjects must destroy one another."
+
+But he overlooks the precise terms employed by Hobbes, who says: "The
+passion of laughter is nothing else but sudden glory, arising from a
+sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves, by comparison with the
+infirmity of others, or with _our own formerly_. For men laugh at _the
+follies of themselves past_, when they come suddenly to remembrance,
+_except they bring with them any present dishonor_."
+
+It is not therefore true, as Dr. Campbell says, that "with regard to
+others, he appears solely under the notion of inferiority, as the person
+triumphed over." He, on the contrary, appears as achieving a very glorious
+triumph, that, namely, over his own errors.
+
+This shows also the error of Addison's remarks, that "according to this
+account, when we hear a man laugh excessively, instead of saying that he
+is very merry, we ought to tell him that he is very proud."--A man may
+contemn the errors both of himself and others, without pride: and, indeed,
+in contemning the former, he proves himself to be far above that
+sentiment, and verifies Dr. Campbell's remark that no two characters more
+rarely meet in the same person, than that of a very risible man, and a
+very self-conceited supercilious man.
+
+It is curious to see a great man, like Hobbes, thus attacked by less ones,
+who do not even understand him.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+CAUSE OF THE PLEASURE RECEIVED FROM REPRESENTATIONS EXCITING PITY.
+
+Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain this cause.
+
+According to the Abbé Du Bos,[19] in order to get rid of listlessness, the
+mind seeks for emotions; and the stronger these are the better. Hence, the
+passions which in themselves are the most distressing, are, for this
+purpose, preferable to the pleasant, because they most effectually relieve
+the mind from the less endurable languor which preys upon it during
+inaction.
+
+The sophistry of this explanation is evident. Pleasant passions, as Dr.
+Campbell has shown, ought in every respect to have the advantage, because,
+while they preserve the mind from this state of inaction, they convey a
+feeling which is agreeable. Nor is it true that the stronger the emotion
+is, so much the fitter for this purpose; for if we exceed a certain
+measure, instead of a sympathetic and delightful sorrow, we excite only
+horror and aversion. The most, therefore, that can be concluded from the
+Abbé's premises, is, that it is useful to excite passion of some kind or
+other, but not that the distressing ones are the fittest.
+
+According to Fontenelle,[20] theatrical representation has almost the
+effect of reality: but yet not altogether. We have still a certain idea of
+falsehood in the whole of what we see. We weep for the misfortunes of a
+hero to whom we are attached. In the same instant, we comfort ourselves by
+reflecting, that it is nothing but a fiction.
+
+The short answer to this is, that we are conscious of no such alternation
+as that here described.
+
+According to David Hume, whose hypothesis is a kind of supplement to the
+former two, that which "when the sorrow is not softened by fiction, raises
+a pleasure from the bosom of uneasiness, a pleasure which still retains
+all the features and outward symptoms of distress and sorrow, is that very
+eloquence with which the melancholy scene is represented."
+
+In reply, Dr. Campbell has shown that the aggravating of all the
+circumstances of misery in the representation, cannot make it be
+contemplated with pleasure, but must be the most effectual method for
+making it give greater pain; that the detection of the speaker's talents
+and address, which Hume's hypothesis implies, is in direct opposition to
+the fundamental maxim, that "it is essential to the art to conceal the
+art;" and that the supposition that there are two distinct effects
+produced by the eloquence on the hearers, one the sentiment of beauty, or
+of the harmony of oratorical numbers, the other the passion which the
+speaker purposes to raise in their minds, and that when the first
+predominates, the mixture of the two effects becomes exceedingly pleasant,
+and the reverse when the second is superior, is altogether imaginary.
+
+According to Hawkesworth,[21] the compassion in question may be "resolved
+into that power of imagination, by which we apply the misfortunes of
+others to ourselves;" and we are said "to pity no longer than we fancy
+ourselves to suffer, and to be pleased only by reflecting that our
+sufferings are not real; thus indulging a dream of distress, from which we
+can awake whenever we please, to exult in our security, and enjoy the
+comparison of the fiction with the truth."
+
+This hypothesis is evidently too gross to need reply.
+
+Dr. Campbell has answered the preceding hypotheses at great length, and
+quite satisfactorily. I regret to say that his own is as worthless, as
+well as remarkably confused and unintelligible.
+
+To Burke, who wrote at a later period, it falls to my lot to reply at
+greater length.
+
+"To examine this point concerning the effect of tragedy in a proper
+manner," says that writer, "we must previously consider how we are
+affected by the feelings of our fellow-creatures in circumstances of real
+distress. I am convinced we have a degree of delight, and that no small
+one, in the real misfortunes and pains of others; for, let the affection
+be what it will in appearance, if it does not make us shun such objects,
+if on the contrary it induces us to approach them, if it makes us dwell
+upon them, in this case I conceive we must have a delight or pleasure of
+some species or other in contemplating objects of this kind.... Our
+delight in cases of this kind is very greatly heightened, if the sufferer
+be some excellent person who sinks under an unworthy fortune.... The
+delight we have in such things hinders us from shunning scenes of misery;
+and the pains we feel, prompt us to relieve ourselves, in relieving those
+who suffer.... In imitated distress, the only difference is the pleasure
+resulting from the effects of imitation."
+
+A more monstrous doctrine than this was never perhaps enunciated. A very
+little analysis will expose its fallacy.
+
+In relation to events of this kind, there are three very distinct
+cases--real occurrence, subsequent inspection or historical narration, and
+dramatic representation; in each, the affection of the mind is very
+different; and nearly all the errors on this subject seem to have occurred
+from confounding them. Burke has done this in the greatest degree.
+
+The real occurrence of unmerited suffering is beheld with no delight, but
+with unmixed pain, by every well-constituted mind. Hume,[22] therefore,
+justly observes, that "the same object of distress, which pleases in a
+tragedy, were it really set before us, would give the most unfeigned
+uneasiness." It is only by confounding this with the next case, of
+subsequent inspection or historical narration, that Burke gets into error
+here.
+
+"We do not," says Burke, "sufficiently distinguish what we would by no
+means choose to do [or _to see done_--he should have added] from what we
+should be eager enough to see if it was once done. We delight in seeing
+things [_after they are done_--he should have added], which, so far from
+doing, our heartiest wishes would be to see redressed."
+
+That the additions I have made, more truly state the case, seems as
+evident, as it is, that they afford a very different conclusion from
+Burke's, of our beholding unmerited suffering with delight. But he himself
+proves this by the very instance which he gives in illustration of his
+doctrine.
+
+"This noble capital," he says, "the pride of England and of Europe, I
+believe _no man is so strangely wicked as to desire to see destroyed_ by a
+conflagration or an earthquake, though he should be removed himself to the
+greatest distance from the danger. But _suppose such a fatal accident to
+have happened_, what numbers from all parts would crowd to behold the
+ruins, and among them many who would have been content never to have seen
+London in its glory!"
+
+Here the words which I have put in italics clearly show that I was right
+in the additions I suggested in his previous statement, and that he there
+confounded delight in seeing the infliction of unmerited suffering, with
+delight in seeing it after infliction, or of seeing it historically
+narrated; for, in this his illustration, it is the latter, and not the
+former, that he supposes--nay he now says "no man is so strangely wicked
+as to desire to see destroyed!" &c. Indeed, it is quite plain that,
+supposing an attempt made to destroy London, so far would every one be
+from being delighted to see it done, that he would eagerly prevent it.
+There is here, therefore, on the part of this writer, only his common and
+characteristic confusion of ideas.
+
+"Choose a day," he says, "on which to represent the most sublime and
+affecting tragedy we have; appoint the most favorite actors; spare no cost
+upon the scenes and decorations; unite the greatest efforts of poetry,
+painting, and music; and when you have collected your audience, just at
+the moment when their minds are erect with expectation, let it be reported
+that a state-criminal, of high rank, is on the point of being executed in
+the adjoining square; in a moment the emptiness of the theatre would
+demonstrate the comparative weakness of the imitative arts, and proclaim
+the triumph of the real sympathy."
+
+This presents only another instance of want of discrimination. If the
+"state-criminal, of high rank," were not a real criminal--if he were an
+unmerited sufferer, the place of execution, supposing his rescue
+impossible, would assuredly be fled from by every person of feeling and
+honor; as we read of in the public papers, lately, when a murder of that
+kind was perpetrating by some one of the base little jailor-princes of
+Germany. And we know that, in the case of legal perpetrations of that kind
+in England, even upon real criminals, none but the most degraded wretches
+go to witness such scenes.
+
+In tragic representation, then, we know that the suffering is not real,
+else should we fly. There have, indeed, in such cases, been instances of a
+sort of momentary deception, but it is only children, and very simple
+people, utter strangers to theatrical amusements, who are apt to be so
+deceived; and as their case always excites the surprise and laughter of
+every one, it clearly proves that others are under no sort of deception.
+
+Even Burke, notwithstanding his want of discrimination, and his monstrous
+hypothesis, says: "Imitated distress is never so perfect, but we can
+perceive it is imitation, and on that principle are somewhat pleased with
+it." And his case of desertion of the theatre, if it occur under any
+circumstances, illustrates this.
+
+Burke adds, indeed: "But then I imagine we shall be much _mistaken_ if we
+attribute any considerable part of our satisfaction in tragedy to the
+consideration that tragedy is _a deceit_, and its representations _no
+realities_. [We seek no satisfaction of the kind: we know it to be a
+deceit throughout!] The nearer it approaches the reality, and the farther
+it removes us from all idea of fiction, the more perfect is its power."
+
+The nearest possible _approach_ to reality, is only necessary to the
+success of fiction, to the pleasure of imagination. He himself has said:
+"Imitated distress is never so perfect, but we can perceive it is
+imitation!" Again, therefore, here is only Burke's characteristic
+confusion of ideas.
+
+My own doctrine on this subject is already obvious from the remarks made
+on others. _We never cease to know that tragic representation is a mere
+deception; our reason is never imposed upon; our imagination is alone
+engaged; we are perfectly conscious that it is so; and we have all the
+sensibility, fine feeling, and generosity of pity, as well as the
+satisfaction of being thereby raised wonderfully in our own esteem, at the
+small cost of three shillings!_
+
+It is not a little curious, that this should not have been evident to
+those who have written so much about it. Dr. Campbell, alone, has
+approached it. "So great," he says, "is the anomaly which sometimes
+displays itself in human characters, that it is not impossible to find
+persons who are quickly made to cry at seeing a tragedy, or reading a
+romance, which they know to be fictions, and yet are both inattentive and
+unfeeling in respect of the actual objects of compassion who live in their
+neighborhood, and are daily under their eye.... Men may be of a selfish,
+contracted, and even avaricious disposition, who are not what we should
+denominate hard-hearted, or unsusceptible of sympathetic feeling. Such
+will gladly enjoy the luxury of pity (as Hawkesworth terms it) when it
+nowise interferes with their more powerful passions; that is, when it
+comes unaccompanied with a demand upon their pockets."--This should have
+led him to the simple truth, and should have prevented his framing the
+most confused, unintelligible, and worthless hypothesis upon this
+subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES.
+
+
+To any inquiry respecting the beauty of woman, the replies are, in
+general, various, inconsistent, or contradictory. The assertion might,
+therefore, appear to be true, that, even under the same climate, beauty is
+not always the same.
+
+Our vague perceptions, however, and our vague expressions respecting
+beauty, will be found to be, in a great measure, owing to the inaccuracy
+of our mode of examining it, and, in some measure, to the imperfect
+nomenclature which we possess for describing it.
+
+Beauty, and even true taste, respecting it, are always the same; but, in
+the first place, we observe beauty partially and imperfectly; and in the
+second place, our actual preferences are dependant on our particular
+wants, and will be found to differ only because these wants differ in
+every individual, and even in the same individual at different periods of
+life.
+
+The laws regulating beauty in woman, and taste respecting it in man, have
+not been attempted to be explained, except in the worthless work alluded
+to in the advertisement. Yet nothing perhaps is more universally
+interesting.
+
+As, in this view, the kinds of beauty demand the first and chief
+attention, the following illustrations are necessary:--
+
+We observe a woman possessing one species of beauty:--Her face is
+generally oblong; her neck is rather long and tapering: her shoulders,
+without being angular, are sufficiently broad and definite; her bosom is
+of moderate dimensions; her waist, remarkable for fine proportion,
+resembles in some respects an inverted cone; her haunches are moderately
+expanded; her thighs, proportional; her arms, as well as her limbs, are
+rather long and tapering; her hands and feet are moderately small; her
+complexion is often rather dark; and her hair is frequently abundant,
+dark, and strong.--The whole figure is precise, striking, and brilliant.
+Yet, has she few or none of the qualities of the succeeding species.
+
+We observe, next, another species of beauty:--Her face is generally round;
+her eyes are generally of the softest azure; her neck is often rather
+short; her shoulders are softly rounded, and owe any breadth they may
+possess rather to the expanded chest, than to the size of the shoulders
+themselves; her bosom, in its luxuriance, seems laterally to protrude on
+the space occupied by the arms; her waist, though sufficiently marked, is,
+as it were, encroached on by the enbonpoint of all the contiguous parts;
+her haunches are greatly expanded; her thighs are large in proportion; but
+her limbs and arms, tapering and becoming delicate, terminate in feet and
+hands which, compared with the ample trunk, are peculiarly small; her
+complexion has the rose and lily so exquisitely blended, that we are
+surprised it should defy the usual operation of the elements; and she
+boasts a luxuriant profusion of soft and fine flaxen or auburn hair.--The
+whole figure is soft and voluptuous in the extreme. Yet has she not the
+almost measured proportions and the brilliant air of the preceding
+species; nor has she the qualities of the succeeding one.
+
+We observe, then, a beauty of a third species:--Her face is generally
+oval; her high and pale forehead announces the intellectuality of her
+character; her intensely expressive eye is full of sensibility; in her
+lower features, modesty and dignity are often united; she has not the
+expanded bosom, the general embonpoint, or the beautiful complexion, of
+the second species; and she boasts easy and graceful motion, rather than
+the elegant proportion of the first.--The whole figure is characterized by
+intellectuality and grace.
+
+Such are the three species of beauty of which all the rest are varieties.
+
+Now, as it is in general one only of these species which characterizes any
+one woman, and as each of these species is suited to the wants of, and is
+consequently agreeable to, a different individual, it is obvious why the
+common vague reports of the beauty of any woman are always so various,
+inconsistent, or contradictory.
+
+In the more accurate study of this subject, it is indispensable that the
+reader should understand the scientific principles on which the preceding
+brief analysis of female beauty, as reducible to three species, is
+founded.
+
+To attain this knowledge, and to acquire facility in the art of
+distinguishing and judging of beauty in woman, a little general knowledge
+of anatomy is absolutely essential. The writer begs, therefore, attention
+to the following sketch. It may not at first seem interesting to the
+general reader; but it is the sole basis of a scientific knowledge of
+female beauty; the study of it during one hour is sufficient to apprehend
+it in all its bearings; and it will obviate every future difficulty.
+
+In viewing the human organs in a general manner, a class of these organs
+at once obtrudes itself upon our notice, from its consisting of an
+apparatus of levers, from its performing motion from place to place or
+locomotion, and from these motions being of the most obvious kind.--A
+little more observation presents to us another class, which is
+distinguished from the preceding by its consisting of cylindrical tubes,
+by its transmitting and transmuting liquids, performing vascular action or
+nutrition, and by its motions being barely apparent.--Farther
+investigation discovers a third, which differs essentially from both
+these, in its consisting of nervous particles, in its transmitting
+impressions from external objects, performing nervous action or thought,
+and in that action being altogether invisible.
+
+Thus, each of these classes of organs is distinguished from another by the
+structure of its parts, by the purposes which it serves, and by the
+greater or less obviousness of its motions.
+
+The first consists of levers; the second, of cylindrical tubes; and the
+third, of nervous particles. The first performs motion from place to place
+or locomotion; the second transmits and transmutes liquids, performing
+vascular action or nutrition; and the third transmits impressions from
+external objects, performing nervous action or thought. The motion of the
+first is extremely obvious; that of the second is barely apparent; and
+that of the third is altogether invisible.
+
+Not one of them can be confounded with another: for, considering their
+purposes only, it is evident that that which performs locomotion, neither
+transmits liquids nor sensations; that which transmits liquids, neither
+performs locomotion nor is the means of sensibility; and that which is the
+means of sensibility, neither performs locomotion nor transmits liquids.
+
+Now, the organs employed in locomotion are the bones, ligaments, and
+muscles; those employed in transmitting liquids or in nutrition, are the
+absorbent, circulating, and secreting vessels; and those employed about
+sensations or in thought, are the organs of sense, cerebrum, and cerebel,
+with the nerves which connect them.
+
+The first class of organs may, therefore, be termed locomotive, or (from
+their very obvious action) mechanical; the second, vascular or nutritive,
+or (as even vegetables, from their possessing vessels, have life) they may
+be termed vital; and the third may be named nervous or thinking, or (as
+mind results from them) mental.
+
+The human body, then, consists of organs of three kinds. By the first
+kind, locomotive or mechanical action is effected; by the second,
+nutritive or vital action is maintained; and by the third, thinking or
+mental action is permitted.
+
+Anatomy is, therefore, divided into three parts, namely, that which
+considers the mechanical or locomotive organs; that which considers the
+nutritive or vital organs; and that which considers the thinking or mental
+organs.
+
+Under the mechanical or locomotive organs are classed, first, the bones or
+organs of support; second, the ligaments or organs of articulation; and
+third, the muscles or organs of motion.
+
+Under the nutritive or vital organs are classed, first, the absorbent
+vessels or organs of absorption; second, the bloodvessels, which derive
+their contents from the absorbed lymph, or organs of circulation; and
+third, the secreting vessels, which separate various matters from the
+blood, or organs of secretion.[23]
+
+Under the thinking or mental organs are classed, first, the organs of
+sense, where impressions take place; second, the cerebrum or organ of
+thought, properly so called, where these excite ideas, emotions, and
+passions; and third, the cerebel or organ of volition, where acts of the
+will result from the last.[24]
+
+We may now more particularly notice the functions of these organs, which
+are the subject of physiology.
+
+In the locomotive functions, the bones at once give support, and form
+levers for motion; the ligaments form articulations, and afford the points
+of support; and the muscles are the moving powers. To the first, are owing
+all the symmetry and elegance of human form; to the second, its beautiful
+flexibility; and to the third, all the brilliance and grace of motion
+which fancy can inspire, or skill can execute.
+
+In the nutritive functions, the food, having passed into the mouth, is,
+after mastication, aided by mixture with the saliva, thrown back, by the
+tongue and contiguous parts, into the cavity behind, called fauces and
+pharynx; this contracting, presses it into the oesophagus or gullet;
+this also contracting, propels it into the stomach, which, after its due
+digestion aided by the gastric juice, similarly contracting, transmits
+whatever portion of it, now called chyme, is sufficiently comminuted to
+pass through its lower opening, the pylorus, into the intestines; these,
+at the commencement of which it receives the bile and pancreatic juice,
+similarly pressing it on all sides, urge forward its most solid part to
+the anus; while its liquid portion partly escapes from the pressure into
+the mouths of the absorbents. The absorbents arising by minute openings
+from all the internal surfaces, and continuing a similar contractile
+motion, transmit it, now called chyle, by all their gradually-enlarging
+branches, and through their general trunk, the thoracic duct, where it is
+blended with the lymph brought from other parts, into the great veins
+contiguous to the heart, where it is mixed with the venous or returning
+and dark-colored blood, and whence it flows into the anterior side of that
+organ. The anterior side of the heart, forcibly repeating this
+contraction, propels it, commixed with the venous blood, into the lungs,
+which perform the office of respiration, and in some measure of
+sanguification; there, giving off carbonaceous matter, and assuming a
+vermilion hue and new vivifying properties, it flows back as arterial
+blood, into the posterior side of the heart. The posterior side of the
+heart, still similarly contracting, discharges it into the arteries;
+these, maintaining a like contraction, carry it over all the system; and a
+great portion of it, impregnated with carbon, and of a dark color, returns
+through the veins in order to undergo the same course. Much, however, of
+its gelatinous and fibrous parts is retained in the cells of the
+parenchyma, or cellular, vascular, and nervous substance forming the basis
+of the whole fabric, and constitutes nutrition, properly so called; while
+other portions of it become entangled in the peculiarly-formed labyrinths
+of the glands, and form secretion and excretion--the products of the
+former contributing to the exercise of other functions, and those of the
+latter being rejected. As digestion precedes the first, so generation
+follows the last of these functions, and not only continues the same
+species of action, but propagates it widely to new existences in the
+manner just described.
+
+In the thinking functions, the organs of sense receive external
+impressions, which excite in them sensations; the cerebrum, having these
+transmitted to it, performs the more complicated functions of mental
+operation, whence result ideas, emotions, and passions; and the cerebel,
+being similarly influenced, performs the function of volition, or causes
+the acts of the will.
+
+It is not unusual to consider the body as being divided into the head, the
+trunk, and the extremities; but, in consequence of the hitherto universal
+neglect of the natural arrangement of the organs and functions into
+locomotive, nutritive, and thinking, the beauty and interest which may be
+attached to this division, have equally escaped the notice of anatomists.
+
+It is a curious fact, and strongly confirmative of the preceding
+arrangements, that one of these parts, the extremities, consists almost
+entirely of locomotive organs, namely, of bones, ligaments, and muscles;
+that another, the trunk, consists of all the greater nutritive organs,
+namely, absorbents, bloodvessels, and glands; and that the third, the
+head, contains all the thinking organs, namely, the organs of sense,
+cerebrum, and cerebel.[25]
+
+It is a fact not less curious, nor less confirmative of the preceding
+arrangements, that, of these parts, those which consist chiefly of
+locomotive or mechanical organs--organs which, as to mere structure, and
+considered apart from the influence of the nervous system over them, are
+common to us with the lowest class of beings, namely, minerals[26]--are
+placed in the lowest situation, namely, the extremities; that which
+consists chiefly of nutritive or vital organs--organs common to us with a
+higher class of beings, namely, vegetables[27]--is placed in a higher
+situation, namely, the trunk; and that which consists chiefly of thinking
+or mental organs--organs peculiar to the highest class of beings, namely,
+animals[28]--is placed in the highest situation, namely, the head.
+
+It is not less remarkable, that this analogy is supported even in its
+minutest details; for, to choose the nutritive organs contained in the
+trunk as an illustration, it is a fact, that those of absorption and
+secretion, which are most common to us with plants, a lower class of
+beings, have a lower situation--in the cavity of the abdomen; while those
+of circulation, which are very imperfect in plants,[29] and more peculiar
+to animals, a higher class of beings, hold a higher situation--in the
+cavity of the thorax.
+
+It is, moreover, worthy of remark, and still illustrative of the preceding
+arrangements, that, in each of these three situations, the bones differ
+both in, position and in form. In the extremities, they are situated
+internally to the soft parts, and are generally of cylindrical form; in
+the trunk, they begin to assume a more external situation and a flatter
+form, because they protect nutritive and more important parts, which they
+do not, however, altogether cover; and, in the head, they obtain the most
+external situation and the flattest form, especially in its highest part,
+because they protect thinking and most important organs, which, in some
+parts, they completely invest.
+
+The loss of such general views is the consequence of arbitrary
+methods.[30]
+
+We may now apply these anatomical and physiological views to the art of
+distinguishing and judging of beauty in woman.
+
+It is evidently the locomotive or mechanical system which is highly
+developed in the beauty whose figure is precise, striking, and brilliant.
+
+It is evidently the nutritive or vital system which is highly developed in
+the beauty whose figure is soft and voluptuous.
+
+It is not less evidently the thinking or mental system which is highly
+developed in the beauty whose figure is characterized by intellectuality
+and grace.
+
+Thus can anatomical principles alone at once illustrate and establish the
+accuracy of the three species of beauty which I have analytically
+described.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+OF THE AGES OF WOMAN IN RELATION TO BEAUTY.
+
+
+The variations of the organization of woman do not distinctly mark the
+seasons of life. Many connected phenomena glide on imperceptibly; and we
+can distinguish the strong characters of different and distinct ages, only
+at periods remote from each other. Although, therefore, woman is
+perpetually changing, it requires some care to discriminate the principal
+epochs of her life.
+
+The first age of woman extends from birth to the period of puberty.
+
+In beginning the career of life, woman is not yet truly woman; the
+characters of her sex are not yet decided; she is an equivocal being, who
+does not differ from the male of the same age even by the delicacy of the
+organs; and we observe between them a perfect identity of wants,
+functions, and movements. Their existence is, then, purely individual; we
+perceive none of the relations which afterward establish between them a
+mutual dependance; each lives only for self.
+
+This conformity and independence of the sexes are the more remarkable, the
+earlier the age and the less advanced the development.
+
+Confining our view to woman alone, it is not only in dimensions that, at
+this age, her person differs from that in which the growth is terminated:
+it presents another model. The various parts have not, in relation to each
+other, the same proportions.
+
+The head is much more voluminous; and this is not a result of the extent
+of the face, for that is small and contracted, because the apparatus of
+smell and of mastication are not yet developed. Nor is the head only more
+voluminous; it is also more active, and forms a centre toward which is
+directed all the effort of life.
+
+The spine of the back has not either the minuter prominences or the
+general inflexions which favor the action of the extensor muscles, a
+circumstance which is opposed to standing perpendicularly during the first
+months. The infant consequently can only crawl like a quadruped.
+
+Little distinction can then be drawn, and that with difficulty, from the
+comparative width of the haunches, and magnitude of the pelvis. That part
+is scarcely more developed in the female than in the male; its general
+form is the same; and its different diameters have similar relations to
+each other.
+
+The length of the trunk is great in proportion to the limbs, which are
+slightly and imperfectly developed.
+
+Owing to the great length of the chest, and the imperfection of the
+inferior members, the middle of the body then corresponds to the region of
+the umbilicus. An infant having other proportions, would appear to be
+deprived of the characters of its age.
+
+In the locomotive system, the muscles have not yet acted with sufficient
+power and frequency to modify the direction of the bones, and to bestow a
+peculiar character upon their combination in the skeleton. The fleshy and
+other soft parts do not yet appear to differ from those of the male,
+either as to form or as to relative volume.
+
+The vital functions of digestion, of circulation and respiration, of
+nutrition, secretion, and excretion, are performed in the same manner. The
+want of nourishment is unceasingly renewed, and the movements of the
+pulse, and of inspiration and expiration, are rapidly performed, owing to
+the extreme irritability of all the organs.
+
+The mental functions present the same resemblance; the ideas, the
+appetites, the passions, have the greatest analogy; and similar moral
+dispositions prevail. Little girls, it has been observed, have in some
+measure the petulance of little boys, and these have in some measure the
+mobility and the inconstancy of little girls.
+
+Owing to the pelvis not being yet developed, little girls walk nearly like
+children of the other sex.
+
+These points of resemblance do not continue during a long period: the
+female begins to acquire a distinct physiognomy, and traits which are
+peculiar to her, long before we can discern any of the symptoms of
+puberty; and although the especial marks which distinguish her sex do not
+yet show themselves, the general forms which characterize it may be
+perceived. These differences, however, are only slight modifications, more
+easily felt than determined.
+
+The cartilaginous extremities of the bones appear to enlarge; and the
+mucous substance, which ultimately gives the soft reliefs which
+distinguish woman, is not yet secreted. She is now perhaps more easily
+distinguished by the nature of her inclinations and the general character
+of her mind: while man now seeks to make use of his strength, woman
+endeavors to acquire agreeable arts. The movements, the gait, of the
+little girl begin to change.
+
+These shades are so much the more sensible as the development is more
+advanced. Still, woman, in advancing toward puberty, appears to remove
+less than man from her primitive constitution; she always preserves
+something of the character proper to children; and the texture of her
+organs never loses all its original softness.
+
+At the near approach to puberty, woman becomes daily more perfect.
+
+We observe a predominance of the action of the lungs and the arteries; the
+pelvis enlarges; the haunches are rounded; and the figure acquires
+elegance.
+
+There is in particular a remarkable increase of the capacity of the
+pelvis, of which the circumference at last presents the circular form; it
+being no longer, as in the little girl and in man, the anteroposterior
+diameter which is the greatest, but the transverse one. It has been
+observed that the same occurs in the females of the greater quadrupeds.
+The pelvis, however, does not acquire, till the moment of perfect puberty,
+its proper form and dimensions.
+
+The changes which the same cause produces at the surface, are a general
+development of the cellular tissue, the delicacy of all the outlines, the
+fineness and the animation of the skin, and the new state of the bosom.
+
+The fire of the eyes, and the altogether new expression of the
+physiognomy, show that there now also exists the sensation of a new want,
+which various circumstances may for a time enfeeble or silence, but can
+never entirely stifle; and with it come those tastes, that direction of
+the mind, and those habits, which are the effect of an internal power now
+called into activity.
+
+The gait and bearing of woman are now no longer the same; and the voice
+changes as well as the physiognomy.
+
+In all that has yet occurred, it will be observed that nutrition and
+growth take place with great rapidity in woman. Her internal structure,
+her external form, her faculties, are all developed promptly. It would
+appear that the parts which compose her body, being less, less compact,
+and less strong, than those of man, require less time to attain their
+complete development.
+
+Woman consequently arrives earlier at the age of puberty, and her body is
+commonly, at twenty years of age, as completely formed as that of a man
+at thirty. Thus beauty and grace, as has been observed, seem to demand of
+nature less labor and time than the attributes of force and grandeur.
+
+In many women, however, nutrition languishes even until the sexual organs
+enter into action, and determine a revolution under the influence of which
+growth is accomplished.
+
+Still it is certain that, for several years, the locomotive system
+predominates in young women, even in figures promising the ultimate
+development of the vital system in the highest degree.
+
+The second age of woman extends from puberty to the cessation of the
+menses, or, we may say, from the period of full growth, the general time
+of bearing children, to the time of ceasing to bear--generally perhaps
+from twenty to forty.
+
+It is at the beginning of this period that woman has acquired all her
+attributes, her most seducing graces. She is not now distinguished merely
+by the organs which are the direct instruments of reproduction: many other
+differences of structure, having a relation to her part in life, present
+themselves to our view.
+
+At this maturer age, the whole figure is, in the female, smaller and
+slenderer than in the male. The ancients accordingly gave seven heads and
+a half to the Venus, and eight heads and some modules to the Apollo.
+
+The relations between the dimensions of the different parts differ also in
+the two sexes.
+
+In woman, the head, shoulders, and chest, are small and compact, while
+the haunches, the hips, the thighs, and the parts connected with the
+abdomen, are ample and large. Hence, her body tapers upward, as her limbs
+taper downward. And this is the most remarkable circumstance in her
+general form.
+
+Owing to smaller stature, and to greater size of the abdominal region, the
+middle point, which is at the pubis in the male, is situated higher in the
+female. This is the next remarkable circumstance in a general view.
+
+The inferior members still continue shorter.
+
+In general, woman is not only less in stature, and different in her
+general proportions, but her haunches are more apart, her hips more
+elevated, her abdomen larger, her members more rounded, her soft parts
+less compact, her forms more softened, her traits finer.
+
+During youth, especially, and among civilized nations, woman is farther
+distinguished by the softness, the smoothness, the delicacy, and the
+polish, of all the forms, by the gradual and easy transitions between all
+the parts, by the number and the harmony of the undulating lines which
+these present in every view, by the beautiful outline of the reliefs, and
+by the fineness and the animation of the skin.
+
+The soft parts which enter into the composition of woman, and the cellular
+tissue which serves to unite them, are also more delicate and more supple
+than those of man.
+
+All these circumstances indicate very clearly the passive state to which
+nature has destined woman, and which will be fully illustrated in a future
+volume.
+
+If, in a living body, any part liable to be distended had too much
+firmness, or even elasticity, it might press against some essential organ;
+and the liquids being impeded in their course, would in that case be
+speedily altered, if the neighboring parts offered not flexible vessels
+for their reception.
+
+Now, in the body of woman, certain parts are exposed to suffer great
+distentions and compressions. It is therefore necessary that her organs
+should be of such structure as to yield readily to these impressions, and
+to supply each other when their respective functions are impeded.
+
+From this it follows, that woman never enjoys existence better, than when
+a moderate plumpness bestows on her organs, without too much weakening
+them, all the suppleness of which they are capable.
+
+This leads to the consideration of the natural mobility of the organs of
+woman.
+
+Their mobility is a necessary consequence, in the first place, of their
+littleness. The movements of all animals, appear to be executed with more
+rapidity, the less their bulk. It has been observed, that the arteries of
+the ox beat only thirty-five times, while those of the sheep beat sixty,
+and that the pulse of women is smaller and more rapid than that of men.
+
+A second physical quality, which concurs to render more mobile the
+various parts of woman, is their softness.
+
+A certain feebleness is the necessary consequence of these two
+circumstances. But it is thence that spring woman's suppleness and
+lightness of movement, and her capacity for grace of attitude.
+
+It has been conjectured, that even the elements of the parts which
+constitute woman, have a particular organization, on which depends the
+elegance of the forms, the vivacity of the sensations, and the lightness
+of the movements, which characterize her.
+
+The result of these circumstances is that, while man possesses force and
+majesty, woman is distinguished by beauty and grace. The characteristics
+of woman are less imposing and more amiable; they inspire less admiration
+than love. As has been observed, a single trait of rudeness, a severe air,
+or even the character of majesty, would injure the effect of womanly
+beauty. Lucian admirably represents to us the god of love frightened at
+the masculine air of Minerva.
+
+While man, by force and activity, surmounts the obstacles which embarrass
+him, woman, by yielding, withdraws from their action, and adds to beauty,
+a gentle and winning grace which places all the vaunted power of man at
+her disposal.
+
+It is evidently the influence of the organs distinguishing the two sexes,
+which is the primary cause of their peculiar beauty.
+
+As the liquid which, in man, is secreted in certain vessels for the
+purpose of reproduction, communicates a general excitement and activity to
+the character, so when, in woman, the periodical excretion appears, the
+breasts expand, the eyes sparkle, the countenance becomes more expressive,
+but at the same time more timid and reserved, and a character of
+flexibility and grace distinguishes every motion.
+
+Conformably with this view, the appearance and the manners of eunuchs
+approach to those of women, by the softness and feebleness of their
+organization, as well as by their timidity, and by their acute voice.
+
+The very opposite is naturally the result of the extirpation of the
+ovaries in women. Pott, giving an account of the case of a female, in whom
+both the ovaries were extirpated, says, the person "has become thinner,
+and more apparently muscular; her breasts, which were large, are gone; nor
+has she ever menstruated since the operation, which is now some years."
+Haighton found that, by dividing the Fallopian tubes, which connect the
+ovaries with the womb, sexual feelings were destroyed, and the ovaries
+gradually wasted.
+
+The women, also, in whom the uterus and the ovaries remain inert during
+life, approximate in forms and habits to men. It is stated, in the
+Philosophical Transactions for 1805, that an adult female, in whom the
+ovaries were defective, presented a corresponding defect in the state of
+the constitution.
+
+To the same general principle, it has been observed, we must refer the
+partial growth of a beard on females in the decline of life, and the
+circumstance that female-birds, when they have ceased to lay eggs,
+occasionally assume the plumage, and, to a certain extent, the other
+characters of the male.
+
+Under the influence of this cause, the first exercise of her new faculty
+determines remarkable modifications in woman. Her neck swells and augments
+in size--
+
+  "Non illam nutrix orienti luce revisens
+  Hesterno collum poterit circumdare filo;[31]
+
+her voice assumes another expression; her moral habits totally change: and
+many women owe to love and marriage more splendid beauty.
+
+The women thus happily constituted are not those of hot climates, but
+those of cooler regions and calmer temperament, whose placid features and
+more elastic forms announce a gentler and more passive love.
+
+Impassioned women, on the contrary, do not so long preserve their
+freshness: the expansive force, from which the organs derived their form
+and coloring, abates; and a less agreeable flaccidity succeeds to the
+elasticity with which they were endowed, if the plumpness which adult age
+commonly brings does not sustain them.
+
+During pregnancy and suckling, the firstmentioned class of women retain a
+remarkable freshness and plumpness.
+
+The lastmentioned class of women most frequently become meager, and lose
+their freshness during the continuance of these states.
+
+If, however, during these states, suitable precautions and preservative
+cares be not employed, it is the first class who most suffer from traces
+of maternity.
+
+Conception, pregnancy, delivery, and suckling, being renewed more or less
+frequently during the second age, hasten debility in feeble and
+ill-constituted women; especially if misery or an improper mode of life
+increase the influence of these causes.
+
+In the third age of woman, extending generally from forty to sixty, the
+physical form does not suddenly deteriorate; and, as has often been
+observed, "when premature infirmities or misfortunes, the exercise of an
+unfavorable profession, or a wrong employment of life, have not hastened
+old age, women during the third age preserve many of the charms of the
+preceding one."
+
+At this period, in well-constituted women, the fat, being absorbed with
+less activity, is accumulated in the cellular tissue under the skin and
+elsewhere; and this effaces any wrinkles which might have begun to furrow
+the skin, rounds the outlines anew, and again restores an air of youth and
+freshness. Hence, this period is called "the age of return."
+
+This plumpness, though juvenile lightness and freshness be wanting,
+sustains the forms, and sometimes confers a majestic air, which, in women
+otherwise favorably organized, still interests for a number of years.
+
+The shape certainly is no longer so elegant; the articulations have less
+elasticity; the muscles are more feeble; the movements are less light; and
+in plump women we observe those broken motions, and in meager ones that
+stiffness, which mark the walk or the dance at that age.
+
+At this period occurs a remarkable alteration in the organs of voice.
+Women, therefore, to whom singing is a profession, ought to limit its
+exercise.
+
+When women pass happily from the third to the fourth age, their
+constitution, as every one must have observed, changes entirely; it
+becomes stronger: and nature abandons to individual life all the rest of
+existence.
+
+Beauty, however, is no more; form and shape have disappeared; the
+plumpness which supported the reliefs has abandoned them; the sinkings and
+wrinkles are multiplied; the skin has lost its polish; color and freshness
+have fled for ever.
+
+These injuries of time, it has been observed, commonly begin by the
+abdomen, which loses its polish and its firmness; the hemispheres of the
+bosom no longer sustain themselves; the clavicles project; the neck
+becomes meager; all the reliefs are effaced; all the forms are altered
+from roundness and softness to angularity and hardness.
+
+That which, amid these ruins, still survives for a long time, is the
+entireness of the hair, the placidity or the fineness of the look, the air
+of sentiment, the amiable expression of the countenance, and, in women of
+elegant mind and great accomplishments, caressing manners and charming
+graces, which almost make us forget youth and beauty.
+
+Finally, and especially in muscular or nervous women, the temperament
+changes, and the constitution of woman approaches to that of man; the
+organs become rigid; and, in some unhappy cases, a beard protrudes.
+
+Old age and decrepitude finally succeed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+OF THE CAUSES OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN.
+
+
+The crossing of races is often spoken of as a means of perfecting the form
+of man, and of developing beauty; and we are told that it is in this
+manner that the Persians have become a beautiful people, and that many
+tribes of Tartar origin have been improved, especially the Turks, who now
+present to us scarcely anything of the Mongol.
+
+In these general and vague statements, however, the mere crossing of
+different races is always deemed sufficient; whereas, every improvement
+depends on the circumstance that the organization of the races subjected
+to this operation is duly suited to each other. It is in that way only,
+that we can explain the following facts stated by Moreau:--
+
+In one of the great towns of the north of France, the women, half a
+century ago, were rather ugly than pretty; but a detachment of the guards
+being quartered there, and remaining during several years, the population
+changed in appearance, and, favored by this circumstance, the town is now
+indebted to strangers for the beauty of the most interesting portion of
+its inhabitants.
+
+The monks of Citeaux exercised an influence no less remarkable upon the
+beauty of the inhabitants of the country around their monastery; and it
+may be stated, as the result of actual observation, that the young
+female-peasants of their neighborhood were much more beautiful than those
+of other cantons. And, adds this writer, "there can be no doubt that the
+same effect occurred in the different places whither religious houses
+attracted foreign inmates, whom love and pleasure speedily united with the
+indigenous inhabitants!"
+
+The other circumstances which contribute to female beauty, are, a mild
+climate, a fertile soil, a generous but temperate diet, a regular mode of
+life, favorable education, the guidance and suppression of passions, easy
+manners, good moral, social, and political institutions, and occupations
+which do not injure the beautiful proportions of the body.
+
+Beauty, accordingly, is more especially to be found in certain countries.
+Thus, as has often been observed, the sanguine temperament is that of the
+nations of the north; the phlegmatic is that of cold and moist countries;
+and the bilious is that of the greater part of the inhabitants of southern
+regions. Each of these has its degree and modification of beauty.
+
+The native country of beauty is not to be found either in regions where
+cold freezes up the living juices, or in those where the animal structure
+is withered by heat. A climate removed from the excessive influence of
+both these causes constitutes an essential condition in the production of
+beauty; and this, with its effect, we find between the 35th and 65th
+degree of northern latitude, in Persia, the countries bordering upon
+Caucasus, and principally Tchercassia, Georgia and Mongrelia, Turkey in
+Europe and Asia, Greece, Italy, some part of Spain, a very small part of
+France, England, Holland, some parts of Germany, Poland, Denmark, Sweden,
+and a part of Norway and even of Russia.
+
+Even under the same degree of latitude, it is observed that the position
+of the place, its elevation, its vicinity to the sea, the direction of the
+winds, the nature of the soil, and all the peculiarities of locality which
+constitute the climate proper to each place, occasion great differences in
+beauty.
+
+In relation to the causes of beauty, some observations which seem to be
+important, arise out of the remarks of de Pauw on the Greeks.
+
+De Pauw endeavored to show, that, though the men of ancient Greece were
+handsome, the women of that country were never beautiful. He thence
+accounted for the excessive admiration which there prevailed of courtesans
+from Ionia, &c.
+
+This, however, was so contrary to the notions formed of the beauty of that
+people from what was known of their taste, that it was considered as a
+paradox. Travellers, accordingly, sought for such beauty in the women of
+modern Greece. They were disappointed in not finding it.
+
+What rendered this the more remarkable was, that in various places they
+found the ancient and beautiful cast of countenance among the men, and not
+among the women of that country--thus corroborating in all respects the
+doctrine of de Pauw.
+
+On considering that doctrine, however, and comparing it with more extended
+observations, it would seem to be only a particular application of a more
+general law unknown to de Pauw--that, in most countries, one of the sexes
+excels the other in beauty.
+
+Thus, in some parts of the highlands of Scotland, we find the men as
+remarkable for beauty as the women for ugliness; while, in some eastern
+counties of England, we find precisely the reverse. The strong features,
+the dark curled hair and the muscular form, of the highlander, are as
+unsuitable to the female sex, as the soft features, the flaxen hair, and
+the short and tapering limbs, of the woman of the eastern coast, are
+unsuitable to the male.
+
+If the soil, climate, and productions, of these countries be considered,
+we discover the causes of the differences alluded to. The hardships of
+mountain life are favorable to the stronger development of the locomotive
+system, which ought more or less to characterize the male; and the
+luxuriance of the plains is favorable to those developments of the
+nutritive system, which ought to characterize the female.
+
+This is illustrated even in inferior animals. Oxen become large-bodied and
+fat in low and rich soils, but are remarkable for shortness of legs;
+while, in higher and drier situations, the bulk of the body is less, and
+the limbs are stronger and more muscular.
+
+The quantity and quality of the aliments are another cause, not less
+powerful in regard to beauty. Abundance, or rather a proper mediocrity, as
+to nutritious food, contributes to perfection in this respect.
+
+Beauty is also, in some measure, a result of civilization. Women,
+accordingly, of consummate beauty, are found only in civilized nations.
+
+Professions can rarely be said to favor beauty; but they do not impede its
+development when their exercise does not compel to laborious employments
+an organization suited only to sedentary occupations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+OF THE STANDARD OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN.
+
+
+The ideas of the beautiful vary in different individuals, and in different
+nations. Hence, many men of talent have thought them altogether relative
+and arbitrary.
+
+"Ask," says Voltaire, "a Negro of Guinea [what is beauty]: the beautiful
+is for him a black oily skin, deep-seated eyes, and a broad flat nose."
+
+"Perfect beauty," says Payne Knight, "taking perfect in its most strict,
+and beauty in its most comprehensive signification, ought to be equally
+pleasing to all; but of this, instances are scarcely to be found: for, as
+to taking them, or, indeed, any examples for illustration, from the other
+sex of our own species, it is extremely fallacious; as there can be little
+doubt that all male animals think the females of their own species the
+most beautiful productions of nature. At least we know this to be the case
+among the different varieties of men, whose respective ideas of the beauty
+of their females are as widely different as those of man, and any other
+animal, can be. The sable Africans view with pity and contempt the marked
+deformity of the Europeans; whose mouths are compressed, their noses
+pinched, their cheeks shrunk, their hair rendered lank and flimsy, their
+bodies lengthened and emaciated, and their skins unnaturally bleached by
+shade and seclusion, and the baneful influence of a cold humid climate....
+Who shall decide which party is right, or which is wrong; or whether the
+black or white model be, according to the laws of nature, the most perfect
+specimen of a perfect woman?... The sexual desires of brutes are probably
+more strictly natural inclinations, and less changed or modified by the
+influence of acquired ideas, or social habits, than those of any race of
+mankind; but their desires seem, in general, to be excited by smell,
+rather than by sight or contact. If, however, a boar can think a sow the
+sweetest and most lovely of living creatures, we can have no difficulty in
+believing that he also thinks her the most beautiful."
+
+"Among the various reasons," says Reynolds, "why we prefer one part of
+nature's works to another, the most general, I believe, is habit and
+custom; custom makes, in a certain sense, white black, and black white; it
+is custom alone determines our preference of the color of the Europeans to
+the Ethiopians, and they, for the same reason, prefer their own color to
+ours. I suppose nobody will doubt, if one of their painters were to paint
+the goddess of beauty, but that he would represent her black, with thick
+lips, flat nose, and woolly hair; and it seems to me, he would act very
+unnaturally if he did not; for by what criterion will any one dispute the
+propriety of his idea? We indeed say, that the form and color of the
+European are preferable to those of the Ethiopian; but I know of no other
+reason we have for it, but that we are more accustomed to it."
+
+The coquetry of several tribes, it has been observed, leads them to
+mutilate and disfigure themselves, to flatten their forehead, to enlarge
+their mouth and ears, to blacken their skin, and cover it with the marks
+of suffering.--We make ugliness in that way, says Montaigne.
+
+But, to confine our observations to individual nations, and these
+civilized ones; we every day see irregular or even common figures
+preferred to those which the enlightened judge deems beautiful.
+
+How, then, it is asked, amid these different tastes, these opposite
+opinions, are we to admit ideas of absolute beauty?
+
+These are the strongest objections against all ideas of absolute and
+essential beauty in woman.
+
+To establish, in opposition to these objections, a standard of womanly
+beauty, equal talent has been employed; but the reasoning, though
+sufficient for such objections, has been rather of a vague description.
+As, however, the subject is of great importance, I shall endeavor to
+abridge and concentrate the arguments of which it consists, before I point
+out the surer method which is founded on the Elements of Beauty already
+established.
+
+To refute these objections, it has been thought sufficient to examine the
+chief conditions which are necessary, in order to appreciate properly the
+impression of those combinations, which woman presents, and to expose the
+principal circumstances which are opposed to the accuracy of opinions, and
+judgments respecting them.
+
+The conditions necessary to enable us to pronounce respecting the real
+attributes of beauty, are, first, a temperate climate, under which nature
+brings to perfection all her productions, and gives to their forms and
+functions, generally, and to those of man in particular, all the
+development of which they are capable, without excess in the action of
+some, and defect in that of others;--secondly, in man in particular, a
+brain capable of vigorous thought, sound judgment, and exquisite
+taste;--and thirdly, a very advanced civilization, without which these
+faculties cannot be duly exercised or attain any perfection.
+
+It is evident enough that none of these conditions are to be met with in
+the whimsical judgments and tastes of many nations.
+
+The consequence of the absence of these conditions, in relation to the
+uncivilized and ignorant inhabitants of hot climates, is marked in their
+deeming characteristics of beauty, the thick lips of Negresses, the long
+and pendent mammæ of the women in several nations both of Africa and
+America, or the gross forms of those of Egypt.
+
+The consequence of the absence of these conditions, in relation to the
+uncivilized and ignorant inhabitants of cold climates, is equally marked
+in their deeming characteristics of beauty the short figures of the women
+of icy regions, in which, deprived of the vivifying action of heat and
+light, living beings appear only in a state of deformity and alteration;
+and in their similarly deeming beautiful the obliquely-placed eyes of the
+Chinese and Japanese, and the crushed nose of the Calmucs, &c., &c.
+
+Those who take these views, which are true, though somewhat vague and
+inconclusive, should, I think, have seen and added, that the deviations
+from beauty in the forms of the women of hot climates are commonly in
+_excess_, owing to the great development of organs of sense or of sex;
+while the deviations from beauty, in the forms of the women of cold
+climates, are commonly in _defect_, owing to the imperfect development of
+organs of sense, and of the general figure.
+
+This view renders it more clear that both these kinds of deviation are
+deformities, incompatible with the consistent and harmonious development
+of the whole. And without this view, the preceding arguments are indeed
+too vague to be easily tenable.
+
+In relation more especially to the second of the preceding conditions, the
+possession of a brain capable of vigorous thought, sound judgment, and
+exquisite taste, Hume observes that the same excellence of faculties which
+contributes to the improvement of reason, the same clearness of
+conception, the same exactness of distinction, the same vivacity of
+apprehension, are essential to the operations of true taste.
+
+Here, again, those who take these true, but vague and inconclusive views,
+should, I think, have seen and added that this excellence of the thinking
+faculties is incompatible with the obviously constricted brain, which is
+a defect common both to the Negro and the Mongol--a _defect_ which is
+incompatible with beauty either of form or function, and which I have
+shown, in my work on physiognomy, to be intimately connected with climate.
+This renders the argument sufficiently strong.
+
+Those who employ these arguments as to a standard of beauty in woman,
+proceed to show the modes in which defects of this kind unfit persons to
+judge of beauty; and though their farther arguments are similarly vague,
+they nevertheless tend to support the truth.
+
+If, say they, among the forms and the features which we compare, some are
+associated by us with certain qualities or sentiments which please us,
+they equally lead us to a predilection or prejudice, in consequence of
+which the most common or the least beautiful figure is preferred to the
+most perfect. In this case, the imagination has perverted the judgment.
+
+Winckelmann truly observes, that young people are most exposed to such
+errors: placed under the influence of sentiment and of illusion, they
+often regard, as very beautiful, women who have nothing capable of
+charming, but an animated physiognomy, in which breathe desire,
+voluptuousness, and languor. The results of this as to life may easily be
+foreseen.
+
+Of the excess to which such prejudice may go, a good instance is adduced
+in Descartes, who preferred women who squinted to the most perfect
+beauties, because squinting was one of the most remarkable features of
+the woman who was the first object of his affections.
+
+Winckelmann observes that even artists themselves have not always an
+exquisite sentiment of beauty: their first impressions have often an
+influence which they cannot overcome, nor even weaken, especially when, at
+a distance from the admirable productions of the ancients, they cannot
+rectify their first judgments.
+
+Circumstances of profession, it is truly observed, may also lead to
+associations of ideas capable of deceiving us in our opinions respecting
+beauty. Men are apt to refer everything to their exclusive knowledge and
+the mode of judging which it employs. The "what does that prove" of the
+mathematician, when judging the finest products of imagination, has passed
+into a proverb. And every one knows of that other cultivator of the same
+science, who declared that he never could discover anything sublime in
+Milton's Paradise Lost, but that he could never read the queries at the
+end of one of the books in Newton's Optics, without his hair standing on
+end and his blood running cold.
+
+The necessity of the third condition, namely, advanced civilization, to a
+right judgment respecting a standard of beauty in woman, is evident, when
+we consider that it requires a taste formed by the habit of bringing
+things together and of comparing them.
+
+One accustomed to see, says Hume, "and examine, and weigh the several
+performances, admired in different ages and nations, can alone rate the
+merits of a work exhibited to his view, and assign its proper rank among
+the productions of genius."
+
+From all this, it is certainly evident--not merely that that which pleases
+us is not always beautiful; that numerous causes may form so many sources
+of diversity and of error on this subject; and that we cannot thence
+conclude that the ideas of beauty are relative and arbitrary--but that
+certain conditions are indispensable to form the judgment respecting
+beauty; and that the principal of these conditions are, a temperate
+climate and fertile soil, a well-developed brain, sound judgment, and
+delicate taste, and a highly-advanced civilization.
+
+This is perfectly conformable with the practical fact that it was under a
+most delightful climate, among a people of unrivalled judgment, genius,
+and taste, and amid a civilization which the world has never since
+witnessed, that the laws of Nature as to beauty were discovered, and
+applied to the production of those immortal forms which the unfavorable
+accidents occurring to the existence of all beings, have never permitted
+Nature herself to combine in any one individual.
+
+Though I have endeavored to amend these arguments respecting a standard of
+beauty in woman, I prefer those which may be founded on the doctrine I
+have laid down respecting the Elements of Beauty. It will be found that
+the greatest number of these elements are combined in the woman whom we
+commonly deem the most beautiful.
+
+To illustrate this, it will be sufficient to examine their most striking
+and distinctive characteristic, namely, their fair complexion, which is
+intimately connected with all their other characteristics, and which gives
+increased splendor and effect to their form and features.
+
+It is remarkable that even Alison, though the advocate of all beauty being
+dependant on association, grants that the pure white of the countenance is
+expressive to us, according to its different degrees, of purity, fineness,
+gayety; that the dark complexion, on the other hand, is expressive to us
+of melancholy, gloom, or sadness; and that so far is this from being a
+fanciful relation, that it is generally admitted by those who have the
+best opportunities of ascertaining it, the professors of medical science.
+He also observes that black eyes are commonly united with the dark, and
+blue eyes with the fair complexion; and that, in the color of the eyes,
+blue, according to its different degrees, is expressive of softness,
+gentleness, cheerfulness, or severity; and black, of thought, or gravity,
+or of sadness.
+
+Even this, however, is less conclusive than the pathological or
+physiological facts stated by Cheselden, as to the boy restored by him to
+sight, namely, that the first view of a black object gave him great pain,
+and that that of a negro-woman struck him with horror.
+
+Independently of this, white, as every one is aware, is the color which
+reflects the greatest number of luminous rays; and, for that reason, it
+bestows the brilliance and splendor upon beautiful forms with which all
+are charmed.
+
+Winckelmann, indeed, observes that the head of Scipio the elder, in the
+Palazzo Rospigliosi, executed in basalt of a deep green, is very
+beautiful. But, in that case, it is the form, not the color, of the head,
+that is beautiful. While greenness of complexion would not be beautiful in
+a man, it would certainly be hideously ugly in a woman.
+
+Moreover, while, in a dead black or any dark color of face, it cannot be
+pretended that, considering its color only, we should have more than
+blackness or darkness for admiration, it is evident that, in a fair
+complexion, we have, in addition to its general brilliance or splendor,
+the infinite variety of its teints, their exquisite blendings, and the
+beautiful expression of every transient emotion.
+
+I have now only to expose the sophistry which Payne Knight has employed
+upon this subject.
+
+"I am aware," he says, "indeed, that it would be no easy task to persuade
+a lover that the forms upon which he dotes with such rapture, are not
+really beautiful, independent of the medium of affection, passion, and
+appetite, through which he views them. But before he pronounces either the
+infidel or the skeptic guilty of blasphemy against nature, let him take a
+mould from the lovely features or lovely bosom of this masterpiece of
+creation, and cast a plum-pudding in it (an object by no means disgusting
+to most men's appetite), and I think he will no longer be in raptures with
+the form, whatever he may be with the substance."
+
+Now, it happens that a grosser incongruity can scarcely be supposed than
+that which exists between lovely features or a lovely bosom and a
+plum-pudding, or between the sentiment of love and the propensity to
+gluttony; and therefore to place the substance of the pudding, in which
+internal composition is alone of importance, and shape of none, under the
+form of features or a bosom, in which internal structure is unknown or
+unthought of, and shape or other external properties are alone considered,
+is a gross and offensive substitution, intended, not to enlighten judgment
+respecting form, but to pervert it, and to degrade the higher object by
+comparison with the lower one. The shape, moreover, is a true sign in the
+one case, and a false one in the other.--Of nearly similar character is
+the following:--
+
+"If a man, perfectly possessed both of feeling and sight--conversant with,
+and sensible to the charms of women--were even to be in contact with what
+he conceived to be the most beautiful and lovely of the sex, and at the
+moment when he was going to embrace her, he was to discover that the parts
+which he touched only were feminine or human; and that, in the rest of her
+form, she was an animal of a different species, or a person of his own
+sex, the total and instantaneous change of his sentiments from one extreme
+to another, would abundantly convince him that his sexual desires depended
+as little upon that abstract sense of touch, as upon that of sight."
+
+That, in detecting an imposture of this kind, admiration would give place
+to disgust, only proves that the external qualities which were admired
+were the natural and appropriate signs of the internal qualities expected
+to be found under them, and that they now cease to interest only because
+they have become, not naturally less the signs of these qualities, but
+because they have by a mere trick been rendered insignificant, because
+truth and nature have been violated, and because the mind feels only
+disgust at the imposture. I cannot help saying that if Knight was in
+earnest when he framed such arguments, his mind was sometimes dull as well
+as perverse.
+
+"The redness of any morbid inflammation," he says, "may display a
+gradation of teint, which, in a pink or a rose, we should think as
+beautiful as 'the purple light of love and bloom of young desire;' and the
+cadaverous paleness of death or disease, a degree of whiteness, which, in
+a piece of marble or alabaster, we should deem to be as pure, as that of
+the most delicate skin of the fairest damsel of the frigid zone:
+consequently, the mere visible beauty is in both the same; and the
+difference consists entirely in mental sympathies, excited by certain
+internal stimuli, and guided by habit."
+
+There is here the same confusion of heterogeneous and inconsistent
+objects, as in the preceding cases. To judge of beauty in simple objects,
+each quality may be separately considered; and in this view, if the
+inflammation presented the same teint as the pink or the rose, then, as a
+mere teint, abstracted from every other quality of the respective
+objects, it would be precisely as beautiful in the one as in the other;
+but as the color of a rose on the human body would indicate that flow of
+blood to the skin which can result only from excessive action, it ceases
+to be considered intrinsically, and is regarded only as a sign of disease.
+The same observations are applicable to the other case here adduced.
+
+"The African black," he says, "when he first beholds an European
+complexion, thinks both its red and white morbid and unnatural, and of
+course disgusting. His sunburnt beauties express their modesty and
+sensibility by variations in the sable teints of their countenances, which
+are equally attractive to him, as the most delicate blush of red to us."
+
+In treating of the Elements of Beauty, I have endeavored to show, that the
+more those simpler elements of beauty, which characterize inanimate
+bodies, are retained in more compound ones, the more beautiful these
+become; but that the latter retain these elements in very different
+degrees, dependant upon internal or external circumstances, and that such
+elementary beauty is often sacrificed to the higher ones of life or mind.
+Now, in the case of the African, he is born whitish, like the European,
+but he speedily loses such beauty for that of adaptation, by his color, to
+the hot climate in which he exists. The latter beauty is the higher and
+more important one, and forms for the African a profitable exchange; but
+the European is still more fortunate, because, in the region he inhabits,
+the simple and elementary beauty is compatible with that of adaptation to
+climate. The climate of Africa, the cerebral structure of its inhabitants,
+and the degree of their civilization, are as unfavorable to the existence
+of beauty as to the power of judging respecting it. What he adds as to
+variation in sable countenances is a mere exaggeration.
+
+"Were it possible for a person to judge of the beauty of color in his own
+species, upon the same principles and with the same impartiality as he
+judges of it in other objects, both animal, vegetable, and mineral, there
+can be no doubt that mixed teints would be preferred; and a pimpled face
+have the same superiority over a smooth one, as a zebra has over an ass, a
+variegated tulip over a plain one, or a column of jasper or porphyry over
+one of a common red or white marble."
+
+Here the same mistake is committed. Elementary beauty is preferred to that
+of adaptation to climate, fitness for physiognomical expression, &c.
+Knight's other arguments all involve similar errors, and admit of similar
+answers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE THREE SPECIES OF FEMALE BEAUTY GENERALLY VIEWED.
+
+
+These have been already briefly mentioned. They are repeated and
+illustrated here.
+
+The view which is given of them will throw light on the celebrated
+temperaments of the ancients. It will appear that all the disputes which
+have occurred respecting these, have arisen from their being founded, not
+on precise data, but on empirical observation, at a time when the great
+truths of anatomy and physiology were unknown; that, to the rectification
+of the doctrine of temperaments, the arrangement of these sciences, laid
+down in a preceding chapter, is indispensable; that some of these
+temperaments are comparatively simple, and consist in an excessive or a
+defective action of locomotive, nutritive, or thinking organs; that
+others, which have been confounded with these, are, on the contrary,
+compound; and that, from this want of classification, their nature has
+been imperfectly understood.
+
+To make this clear, it is necessary to lay before the reader a succinct
+view of the doctrine of temperaments.
+
+The ancients classed individuals in one or other of four temperaments,
+founded on the hypothesis of four humors, of which the blood was supposed
+to be composed--the red part, phlegm, yellow and black bile. These were
+regarded as the elements of the body, and their respective predominance
+passed for the cause of the differences which it presented. Hence were
+derived the names of the sanguine, the phlegmatic, the choleric, and the
+melancholic temperament.
+
+Although the hypothesis on which this doctrine was founded is universally
+discarded, the phenomena which observation had taught the ancients, and
+which they had hypothetically connected with these elements, were so true,
+that that classification has been more or less employed in all the
+hypotheses which have since been invented to explain their cause; and
+their nomenclature has continued in use to the present day.
+
+A temperament may be defined a peculiar state of the system, depending on
+the relative proportion of its different masses, and the relative energy
+of its different functions, by which it acquires a tendency to certain
+actions.
+
+The predominance of any particular organ or system of organs, its excess
+of force, extends its sphere of activity to all the other functions, and
+modifies them in a peculiar manner. Thus, conforming in the illustration
+to the preceding arrangement, in one person, the muscles are more
+frequently employed than the brain; in another, the stomach or the organs
+of reproduction are more employed than the muscles; and in a third, the
+brain and nerves are more employed than either. This predominance or
+excess establishes the temperament.
+
+The relative feebleness of any organ or system of organs, similarly forms
+modifications not less important. Thus in one person, the organs of the
+abdomen are less employed; in another, those of the chest; in a third, the
+brain.
+
+Disease, it is observed, "commonly enters into the organization by these
+feeble points: death even attacks them first; extends afterward from one
+to another; and makes progress more or less rapid, according to the
+importance of the organ primitively affected."
+
+Temperaments, however, vary infinitely. It may be said that every
+individual has a peculiar one, to which he owes his mode of existence and
+his degree of health, ability, and happiness.
+
+The temperament, moreover, of each individual is not always characterized
+by well-marked symptoms; and even where it has been strongly marked by
+nature, education, age, the influence of climate, the exercise of
+professions and trades, and various habits, produce in it infinite
+changes.
+
+Temperaments also combine together, so that all men are, in some degree,
+at once sanguine and bilious, or otherwise compound. Thus all intermediate
+shades of temperament are produced; and it is often difficult, or, under
+particular circumstances, impossible, to determine under which temperament
+individuals may be classed.
+
+The simple temperaments are therefore abstractions, which it is difficult
+to realize; and the influence of any temperament is sometimes
+undiscoverable except in some extraordinary circumstances of disorder or
+disease, during which it may be observed.
+
+Cullen admits the four temperaments of Hippocrates, and remarks concerning
+them, that it is probable they were first founded upon observation, and
+afterward adapted to the theory of the ancients, since we find they "have
+a real existence."
+
+Dr. Prichard remarks, that "this division of temperaments is by no means a
+fanciful distinction."
+
+To the four temperaments of Hippocrates, Gregory adds a fifth, the nervous
+temperament.
+
+Thus are formed five temperaments generally admitted, namely, 1st, the
+phlegmatic or relaxed; 2d, the sanguine arterial; 3d, the sanguine venous
+or bilious; 4th, the nervous; and, 5th, the muscular or athletic.
+
+Some writers join to these the partial temperaments which determine the
+ascendency of the functions exercised by particular organs; whence
+principally come the temperaments which they call the cerebral,
+epigastric, abdominal, hepatic, genital, &c.
+
+As already said, it will in the sequel appear that some of these
+temperaments are comparatively simple, that others are compound, and that
+from this want of classification, their nature has been imperfectly
+understood.[32]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FIRST SPECIES OF BEAUTY--BEAUTY OF THE LOCOMOTIVE SYSTEM.
+
+
+The average stature of woman, as already said, is two or three inches less
+than that of man.
+
+The bones of woman remain always smaller than those of man; the
+cylindrical ones being more slender, and the flat ones thinner, while the
+former are also rounder. The muscles render the surfaces of the bones less
+uneven; the projections of the latter are less; and all their cavities and
+impressions have less depth. The bones of woman have likewise less
+hardness than those of man.
+
+Such being the solid and fundamental parts of this system in woman, the
+most remarkable circumstances in their combination should next be noticed.
+
+In woman, the magnitude of the pelvis or lower part of the trunk, has the
+greatest influence on the apparent proportion of parts, and on the general
+figure.
+
+The most remarkable differences between the two sexes, in relation to this
+system, are consequently those presented by the inferior and superior part
+of the trunk in each. The breast and the haunches are in an inverse
+proportion in the two sexes. Man has the breast larger and wider than that
+of woman: woman has the haunches less circumscribed than those of man.
+
+The upper part of the body is also less prominent, and the lower part more
+prominent, in woman than in man; and therefore, when they stand upright,
+or lie on the back, the breast is most prominent in the male, and the
+pubes in the female. The indication this affords of the fitness of woman
+for impregnation, gestation, and parturition, is obvious.
+
+From the same cause, the back of woman is more hollow.
+
+Still farther to increase the capacity of the lower part of the body,
+woman has the loins more extended than man. This portion of her body is in
+every way enlarged at the expense of neighboring parts. Hence, the chest
+is shorter above; and the thighs and legs are shorter below.
+
+The thigh-bones of woman are also more separated superiorly; the knees are
+more approximated; the feet are smaller; and the base of support is less
+extended.
+
+The reader desirous of thoroughly understanding these matters, should
+compare the beautiful plates of the male and female skeletons by Albinus
+and Soemmerring.
+
+Beauty of the locomotive system in woman, depends especially upon these
+fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure which thus
+distinguish her from man.
+
+In the woman possessing THIS SPECIES of beauty, therefore, the face is
+generally somewhat bony and oblong;--the neck, less connected with the
+nutritive system, is rather long and tapering;--the shoulders, without
+being angular, are sufficiently broad and definite for muscular
+attachments;--the bosom, a vital organ, is of but moderate
+dimensions;--the waist, enclosing smaller nutritive organs, is remarkable
+for fine proportion, and resembles, in some respects, an inverted
+cone;--the haunches, for the same reason, are but moderately
+expanded;--the thighs are proportional;--the arms, as well as the limbs,
+being formed chiefly of locomotive organs, are rather long and moderately
+tapering;--the hands and feet are moderately small;--the complexion, owing
+to the inferiority of the nutritive system, is often rather dark;--and the
+hair is frequently dark and strong.--The whole figure is precise,
+striking, and often brilliant.--From its proportions, it sometimes seems
+almost aerial; and we would imagine, that, if our hands were placed under
+the lateral parts of the tapering waist of a woman thus characterized, the
+slightest pressure would suffice to throw her into the air.
+
+To this class belong generally the more firm, vigorous, and even
+actively-impassioned women: though it may doubtless boast many of greatly
+modified character.
+
+
+_First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+It may here be observed, that the varieties or modifications of each
+species of beauty naturally correspond with the greater or less
+development of some one of the various organs on which the species is
+founded. Thus, the modifications of beauty of the locomotive system
+correspond with the greater or less development of the bones, the
+ligaments, or the muscles; those of the nutritive system correspond with
+the greater or less development of the absorbents, the bloodvessels, or
+the glands; and those of the thinking system correspond with the greater
+or less development of the organs of sense, the brain, or the cerebel. A
+little reflection will show, that some of these modifications will be
+more, and others less beautiful.
+
+To understand the present variety, the bony structure on which it
+especially depends, must now be more minutely described.
+
+Commencing with the trunk of the body--the chest in woman is shorter but
+more expanded; the breast-bone is shorter but wider; the two upper ribs
+are flatter; the collar-bones are more straight or less curved, and do not
+present that prominent relief which appears on the chest of man; the
+shoulders are carried farther back, and project less from the trunk.
+
+The haunches, as already stated, are proportionally wider in woman than in
+man, and the interior cavity of the pelvis, which is between them, being
+adapted to gestation, is more capacious. This greater capacity of the
+pelvis arises from the lateral parts having in woman more convexity
+outward; from the bones called ossa pubis, which form the anterior part,
+touching at a smaller number of points, and running obliquely or forming
+a greater angle, to enlarge the space which is between them and the
+inferior extremity of the posterior part of the pelvis; from the arch of
+the pubis being larger; from the greater concavity and breadth of the os
+sacrum or posterior bone of the pelvis, its posterior part forming a
+greater prominence outward; and from the whole pelvis being thus wider and
+less deep, its circumference approaching more to the circular form. The
+cavities, it may be added, in which the heads of the thigh-bones are
+received, are of course farther apart: they are also oblique and less
+deep.
+
+The arms of woman are shorter than in man.--As these members are well
+marked in beauty of the locomotive system, they may the more fully be
+considered here.--The arms, and especially their extremities, are
+susceptible of a degree of beauty of which we see few examples. Their
+bases, the bones, ligaments, and muscles, belong to the locomotive system;
+and their fundamental beauty consequently depends upon its proportions;
+but to the nutritive system are owing the circumstances that, in woman,
+the arm is fatter and more rounded, has softer forms and more flowing and
+purer outlines. The hand in woman is smaller, more plump, more soft, and
+more white. It is peculiarly beautiful when full; when it is gently
+dimpled over the first joints; when the fingers are long, round, tapering
+toward the ends; when the other joints are marked by slight reliefs and
+shadows; and when the fingers are delicate and flexible. Beauty of the
+hand becomes the more precious, because it is the principal organ of a
+sense which may be considered as the most valuable of all.
+
+In regard to the lower extremities, it has been observed, that the lateral
+convexity of the pelvis causes the bones of the thighs attached to them to
+be farther separated from each other; and this separation of the bones of
+the thighs causes an increase of the size of the haunches. It is over the
+posterior part of the space thus produced, that we observe the reliefs
+which the inferior members present superiorly, and which unite them with
+the trunk, by forms so beautifully rounded. The thighs are also
+proportionally larger, on account of this separation: they are more
+rounded, as well as much more voluminous: they are also more curved before
+than in man. At their inferior part, they approximate; and the knees
+project a little inward. It has been truly observed, that this
+conformation manifests, relatively to gestation and parturition,
+advantages of which the exterior expression is not found in the women who
+are commonly regarded as well made, and who, however, are not so, if the
+best conformation or beauty result from a direct and well-marked relation
+between the form of the organs and their functions. It is owing to the
+thighs of woman being thus carried more inward when she walks, that the
+change of the point of gravity which marks each step, is in her much more
+remarkable. All the other parts of the inferior members are in general
+distinguished by forms more softly rounded; the leg is remarkable for its
+delicacy; the long line of the anterior bone is entirely hid under its
+envelope; its inferior part is shaped with more elegance; the foot is
+smaller; and the base of support is less extended. The feet, like the
+hands, are susceptible of a kind of beauty of which nature is sparing.
+
+From all this it appears that the only bones which nature tends to enlarge
+in woman are those of the pelvis; that all the rest are small; and that
+they proportionally diminish in size, as we pass from that central part to
+the extremities.
+
+The FIRST MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the bones, those of the pelvis excepted, is
+proportionally small.
+
+This character will be especially apparent where the long bones approach
+the surface; as in the arm immediately above the wrist, and, in the leg,
+immediately above the ankle. Its effect will be proportionally delicate
+and feminine.
+
+Various subordinate modifications of this kind of beauty are found in
+various countries, and under the influence of various circumstances.
+
+The women of Rome, we are told, present beauty of the shoulders in the
+highest degree, when they arrive at that period of life in which plumpness
+succeeds to juvenile elasticity.
+
+It has been suggested, that the Greek or Ionian women, whose arms were of
+so perfect a form, owed that beauty in some measure to the custom of
+leaving them nude, or covered only by loose drapery: as in that case, no
+pressure constricted the roundness of the fleshy parts, and prevented
+their development; no ligature, binding the upper part of the arm, altered
+the color of the skin; and the arm, being always uncovered, received at
+the toilet the same attention as other parts. Hence, it is supposed
+antique statuary has left us such admirable models of the beauty of this
+part.
+
+It is certainly not improbable that we may attribute the absence of this
+beauty, in some measure, to a custom which, in many cases, medicine may
+approve, but which is unfavorable to the arm, that of wearing long
+sleeves; but want of exercise is its great cause.
+
+The form of the hand often announces the occupation of the person to whom
+it belongs, and sometimes even her particular capabilities. There
+certainly are hands that we may call intellectual; and there are others
+that we may call foolish or stupid. Of the hand, Lavater says, that,
+whether in movement or in repose, its expression cannot be mistaken: its
+most tranquil position indicates our natural dispositions; its flexions,
+our actions and our passions.
+
+The ancients, it has been observed, attached much importance to the form
+of the feet: the philosophers did not neglect it in the general view of
+the physiognomy; and the historians as well as the poets made mention of
+their beauty, in speaking of Polyxene, Aspasia, and others; as they did of
+their deformities in speaking of the emperor Domitian.
+
+Perfection or deformity of the feet is no doubt in general hereditary; but
+good management will preserve the former of these, and repair the latter.
+We commonly deform these parts by means of our shoes: the second toe,
+observes a writer on this subject, which naturally projects most, as we
+see from the antique, is arrested in its development, and the foot, which
+ought, in the outline of its extremity, to approach to the elegant form of
+the ellipsis, is rounded without beauty, and is disfigured by our
+ridiculous compressions.[33]
+
+
+_Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+The joints generally are small in woman, and especially so in the
+extremities. The elbow joint is softly rounded; and the various joints of
+the fingers are marked chiefly by little reliefs and faint shadows. The
+articulation of the knee is feebly indicated; the ankles are disposed in
+such a manner as to offer only agreeable outlines; and there are dimples
+over the first joints of the toes, with exceedingly gentle indications of
+the other joints.
+
+The SECOND MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the ligaments and the articulations they form, is
+proportionally small.
+
+This conformation will be especially apparent--in the arm, at the
+wrist--and, in the leg, at the ankle. Its effect will be proportionally
+handsome.
+
+
+_Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+The muscles of women are more slender and feeble than those of man; their
+bundles are rounder; their fibres are finer, more humid, soft, and
+delicate, and less compact; their central parts or bellies are less
+prominent; their reliefs do not appear in any strength at the surface of
+the body; but being, on the contrary, surrounded on all sides by a loose
+cellular tissue, they only render that surface beautifully rounded.
+
+Although, however, the muscular system of woman is weaker, and the muscles
+proportionally smaller, yet, as already said, in some parts the muscular
+system is more developed than in man. This, owing to the magnitude of the
+pelvis, is most remarkable about the thighs. The muscles of these parts
+having larger origins from the pelvis, and being less compressed by
+reciprocal contact, have more liberty to extend themselves. It is from
+this, that results much of the delicacy of the female form, as well as the
+ease, suppleness, and capability of grace in its movements.
+
+It is otherwise in all parts remote from the pelvis. Women, accordingly,
+can less be said to have calves, than legs which, like their arms and
+fingers, gently taper.
+
+The THIRD MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the muscles is proportionally large around the
+pelvis, and delicate elsewhere.
+
+This conformation being concealed by the drapery, may nevertheless be
+conjectured from the imperfect view of the hip, or of the calf of the leg,
+or more accurately by means of the external indications of forms which are
+given in a subsequent chapter. Its effect will be proportionally elegant.
+
+Woman's power of muscular motion being thus limited to the vicinity of the
+pelvis, that of her extremities is generally feeble.
+
+Other causes contribute to this. Thus, with regard to the upper
+extremities, it has been observed, that the collar-bone, not separating so
+much the arm from the axis of the body, the extent of its movements is
+limited; and this circumstance explains why women, who wish to overcome
+great resistances with the superior members, experience difficulty in
+doing so--why, for example, when they wish to throw a stone, they are
+obliged to turn the body on the foot opposite to the arm with which they
+throw.
+
+Thus also the largeness of the pelvis, and the approximation of the knees,
+influence the gait of woman, and render it vacillating and unsteady.
+Conscious of this, women, in countries where the nutritive system in
+general and the pelvis in particular are large, affect a greater degree of
+this vacillation and unsteadiness. An example of this is seen in the
+lateral and rotary motion which is given to the pelvis in walking, by
+certain classes of the women of London.
+
+For the same reason, united to a smaller foot, and some other
+circumstances, women, it is observed, who execute gentle and light
+movements with so much skill, do not attempt with advantage great
+evolutions, run with difficulty and without grace, and fly--in order to be
+caught, as Rousseau has said.
+
+In woman, however, the muscular fibre is thus soft, yielding, feeble, and
+incapable of great evolutions, because it is necessary that it should
+easily adapt itself to remarkable changes.
+
+From all this, from women having more address in the use of their fingers,
+from their aptitude for little and light domestic works, the care of
+children, and sedentary occupations, it is evident that they cannot devote
+themselves to toilsome labors without struggling against their
+organization, and suffering proportionally.
+
+The voice being connected with the motive organs, it may here be noticed
+that the larynx or flute part of the throat in woman is more contracted
+and less prominent than in man; that the glottis does not enlarge in the
+same proportion; that the tongue-bone is much smaller; and that the
+tongue, its muscles, and the organs of speech in general, being, like all
+the other parts, more mobile, young girls articulate and pronounce much
+more quickly. Their voice is also so much more acute, that if man and
+woman sing in unison, there is always between them the relation of an
+octave, which forms the most natural and most agreeable consonance.
+
+It is evidently the UNION of all that is good in these varieties which
+renders beauty in the locomotive system perfect.
+
+This is perfectly represented in the Diana of Grecian sculpture, in which,
+with admirable taste, it is neither the nutritive nor the thinking, but
+the locomotive system, which is developed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have already said, that the temperaments of the ancients are only
+partial views of some of the varieties I am now describing. The _athletic
+temperament_ falls under the _last of these varieties_; and it is the only
+one that falls under this species. Happily, it does not occur in woman.
+
+This temperament results from a great development of the bones and
+muscles, and it is that of mere physical strength. It is marked by all the
+outward signs of strength: the head is small, the neck thick behind, the
+shoulders broad, the chest expanded, the haunches firm, the intervals of
+the muscles deeply marked, the tendons apparent through the skin, and all
+the joints not covered by muscles, seemingly small.
+
+In this temperament, muscular strength prevails over the functions of the
+other organs, and especially usurps the energies necessary to the
+production of thought; the perceptions are deficient in quickness,
+delicacy, accuracy, and strength; and all the mental functions are with
+difficulty excited; but the body is capable of great exertion, and it
+surmounts great physical resistance when roused.
+
+The Farnese Hercules, says a French physiologist, exhibits a model of the
+physical attributes of this constitution; and that which fabulous
+antiquity relates of the exploits of this demi-god, gives us the idea of
+the moral dispositions that accompany it. In the history of his twelve
+labors, without reflection, and as by instinct, we see him courageous,
+because he is strong, seeking obstacles to conquer them, certain of
+overwhelming whatever resists him, but joining to such strength so little
+subtlety, that he is cheated by all the kings he serves, and by all the
+women he loves.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+SECOND SPECIES OF BEAUTY--BEAUTY OF THE NUTRITIVE SYSTEM.
+
+
+With the vital system of woman, the capacity of the pelvis, and the
+consequent breadth of the haunches, are still more connected than with the
+locomotive system; for, with these, all those functions which are most
+essentially feminine--impregnation, gestation, and parturition--are
+intimately connected.
+
+Camper, in a memoir on physical beauty, read to the Academy of Design, at
+Amsterdam,[34] showed, that, in tracing the forms of the male and female
+within two elliptical areas of equal size, the female pelvis extended
+beyond the ellipsis, while the shoulders were within; and the male
+shoulders reached beyond their ellipsis, while the pelvis was within.--The
+pelvis of the African woman is said by some to be greater than that of the
+European.
+
+The abdominal and lumbar portion of the trunk, as already said, is longer
+in woman. In persons above the common stature, there is almost half a
+face more in the part of the body which is between the mammæ and the
+bifurcation of the trunk.
+
+The abdomen, placed below the chest, has more projection and roundness in
+woman than in man: but it has little fulness in a figure capable of
+serving as a model; and the slightest alteration in its outlines or its
+polish is injurious.
+
+The waist, which is most distinctly marked in the back and loins, owes all
+its advantages to its elegance, softness, and flexibility.
+
+The neck should, by the gentlest curvature, form an almost insensible
+transition between the body and the head. It should also present fulness
+sufficient to conceal the projection of the flute part of the throat in
+front, and of the two large muscles which descend from behind the ears
+toward the pit above the breast-bone.[35]
+
+Over all these parts, the predominance of the cellular tissue, and the
+soft and moderate plumpness which is connected with it, are a remarkable
+characteristic of the vital system in woman. While this facilitates the
+adaptation of the locomotive system to every change, it at the same time
+obliterates the projection of the muscles, and invests the whole figure
+with rounded and beautiful forms.
+
+It has been well observed that the principal effect of such forms upon
+the observer must be referred to the faculties which they reveal; for, as
+remarked by Roussel, if we examine the greater part of the attributes
+which constitute beauty, if reason analyze that which instinct judges at a
+glance, we shall find that these attributes have a reference to real
+advantages for the species. A light shape, supple movements, whence spring
+brilliance and grace, are qualities which please, because they announce
+the good condition of the individual who possesses them, and the greater
+degree of aptitude for the functions which that individual ought to
+fulfil.
+
+Beauty, then, of the nutritive system in woman, depends especially upon
+these fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure which thus
+distinguish her from man.
+
+In the woman possessing THIS SPECIES of beauty, therefore, the face is
+generally rounded, to give greater room to the cavities connected with
+nutrition;--the eyes are generally of the softest azure, which is
+similarly associated;--the neck is often rather short, in order intimately
+to connect the head with the nutritive organs in the trunk;--the shoulders
+are softly rounded, and owe any breadth they may possess rather to the
+expanded chest, containing these organs, than to any bony or muscular size
+of the shoulders themselves;--the bosom, a vital organ, in its luxuriance
+seems laterally to protrude on the space occupied by the arms;--the waist,
+though sufficiently marked, is, as it were, encroached on by that
+plumpness of all the contiguous parts, which the powerful nutritive
+system affords;--the haunches are greatly expanded for the vital purposes
+of gestation and parturition;--the thighs are large in proportion;--but
+the locomotive organs, the limbs and arms, tapering and becoming delicate,
+terminate in feet and hands which, compared with the ample trunk, are
+peculiarly small;--the complexion, dependant upon nutrition, has the rose
+and lily so exquisitely blended, that we are surprised it should defy the
+usual operation of the elements;--and there is a luxuriant profusion of
+soft and fine flaxen or auburn hair.--The whole figure is soft and
+voluptuous in the extreme.
+
+To this class belong all the more feminine, soft, and exquisitely-graceful
+women.
+
+The kind of beauty thus characterized is seen chiefly in the Saxon races
+of our eastern coast; and it is certainly more frequent in women of short
+stature.
+
+The vital system is peculiarly the system of woman; and so truly is this
+the case, that any great employment, either of the locomotive or mental
+organs, deranges the peculiar functions of woman, and destroys the
+characteristics of her sex.
+
+Women who greatly occupy the locomotive organs, acquire a coarse and
+masculine appearance; and so well is this incompatibility of power, in the
+use of locomotive organs with the exercise of vital ones, known to the
+best female dancers, that, during the time of their engagements, they
+generally live apart from their husbands.
+
+As to intellectual ladies, they either seldom become mothers, or they
+become intellectual when they cease to be mothers.
+
+These few facts are worth a thousand hypotheses and dreams, however
+amiable they may be.
+
+The vital system is relatively largest in little women, especially after
+they have been mothers. The shorter stature of woman ensures, indeed, in
+almost all, a relative excess of the vital system after, if not before,
+they become mothers; for, whatever the stature, the mammæ, abdomen, &c.,
+necessarily expand. In those of short stature, these parts, of course,
+become nearly as large as in the tall; and this circumstance causes them
+to touch on the limits of each other in little women.
+
+As, in pregnancy and suckling, the abdomen and mammæ necessarily expand,
+and as they would afterward collapse and become wrinkled, were not a
+certain degree of plumpness acquired, that acquisition is essential to
+beauty in mothers. Meagerness in them, accordingly, becomes deformity.
+
+A French writer indeed says: "Most of our fashionables are extremely
+slender; they have constituted this an essential to beauty; leanness is in
+France necessary to the _air élégant_." It must be remembered, however,
+that the vital system--that which we have just said is peculiarly the
+system of woman--is, in its most beautiful parts, peculiarly defective in
+France; and that, owing in a great measure to that circumstance, the women
+of France are among the ugliest in Europe.--But of that in its proper
+place.
+
+
+_First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+It may here be observed, that the varieties of beauty of the locomotive
+system, and also those of beauty of the mental system, are easily
+explicable, because these systems are, in some respects, more limited and
+simple. The varieties of beauty of the vital system are, on the contrary,
+more difficult of explanation, because that system is, in some respects,
+more diffused and complicated.
+
+Even the preparatory vital organs and functions differ somewhat in the two
+sexes.
+
+Woman has frequently a smaller number of molar teeth than man; those
+called wisdom teeth not always appearing. Mastication is also less
+energetic in woman.
+
+The stomach, in woman, is much smaller; the appetite for food is less;
+hunger does not appear to press her so imperiously; and her consumption of
+food is much less considerable.[36] Hence, indubitable cases of long
+abstinence from food, have generally occurred in females.
+
+In the choice and the preference of certain aliments, woman also differs
+much from man. In general, women prefer light and agreeable food, which
+flatters the palate by its perfume and its savor. Their appetites are also
+much more varied.
+
+Women, whom vicious habits have not depraved, use also beverages less
+abundantly than men. Fermented, vinous, and spirituous beverages are
+indeed used only by the monsters engendered in the corruptions of
+towns--amid the insane dissipation of the rich, or the wretched and
+pitiable suffering of the poor; and both are then brought to one
+humiliating level, marked by the red and pimpled, or the pallid face, the
+swimming eye, the haggard features, the pestilential breath. The
+scarf-skin in these cases divides all that may be worthy from all that is
+utterly worthless: the worthy part may be external to the cuticle, in
+substantial, though polluted clothing; the worthless is the yet living
+portion, which, whether called body or soul, is no longer worth picking
+off a dunghill.[37]
+
+Digestion in woman is made, however, with great rapidity; and the whole
+canal interested in that process, possesses great irritability.
+
+The absorbent vessels in woman are much more developed, and seem to enjoy
+a more active vitality. The circumstances of pregnancy and suckling,
+appear also to augment the energy of these vessels.
+
+The FIRST MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the digestive and absorbent system is small but active; for the
+great purpose of life in woman is secretion, whether it regard the
+formation of the superficial adipose substance which invests her with
+beautiful and attractive forms, or the nutrition of the new being which
+is the object of her attractions and of her life.
+
+Hence it is, that women naturally and instinctively affect abstemiousness
+and delicacy of appetite. Hence it is, that they compress the waist, and
+endeavor to render it slender.
+
+
+_Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+Women have, in greater abundance than men, several of the fluids which
+enter into the composition of the body. They appear to have a greater
+quantity of blood; and they certainly have more frequent and more
+considerable hemorrhages. There is less force in the circulation and
+respiration; but the heart beats more rapidly. The pulse also is less
+full, but it is quicker.
+
+In woman, the purer lily and more vivid rose of complexion, depend on
+various causes.
+
+It would appear that, in women, the blood is in general carried less
+abundantly to the surface and to the extremities, where also the white
+vessels are more developed; and that, to this, as well as to the subjacent
+adipose substance, the skin owes its whiteness.
+
+In youth, however, one of the constituent parts of the skin, the reticular
+tissue, or whatever the substance under the scarf-skin may be called,
+appears to be more expanded, especially in women; and it would seem that
+this tissue is then filled with a blood which is less dark, and which
+forms the coloring of youth. This, differently modified by the
+scarf-skin, gives the blue, the purple, and all the teints formed by these
+and the color of the skin. Where the vessels are more patent, and the skin
+more thin, delicate, and transparent, as in the cheeks, the hue of the
+rose is cast over that of the lily. In addition to this, the slightest
+emotions of surprise, of pleasure, of love, of shame, of fear, often
+diversify all these teints.
+
+Lightness of complexion, however, is probably dependant more particularly
+on the arterial circulation, and darkness of complexion on the venous
+circulation; for we know that in fairer woman the arteries possess greater
+energy, while in darker man the veins are more developed, larger, and
+fuller.
+
+Farther confirmation of this is afforded by an observation, which
+physiologists have neglected to make, that the kidneys, receiving arterial
+blood, are the artery-relieving glands, while the liver, receiving venous
+blood, is the vein-relieving gland. Now, it is certain that, in cold
+climates, the urinary secretion and fairness prevail; while, in hot
+climates, the hepatic secretion and darkness prevail. Many physiologists
+have indeed made the insulated remark, that the dark complexion has much
+to do with the hepatic secretion. The more abundant urinary and hepatic
+secretions, however, may not be the causes, but only concomitant effects
+of the same cause with fairness and darkness of complexion.
+
+The SECOND MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the circulating vessels, being moderately active and finely
+ramified, bestow upon the skin a whiteness, a transparency, and a
+complexion, which are necessary to beauty.
+
+The whiteness, the transparency, and the color of the skin, have, in all
+highly civilized nations, been deemed essential conditions of beauty.
+
+The ancients regarded whiteness, in particular, as the distinctive
+character of beauty; and they estimated that character so highly, that the
+name of Venus, from the Celtic _ven_, _ben_, or _ban_, signifies white, or
+whiteness; and Venus herself is said to be fair and golden-haired.
+
+Among the civilized moderns, also a taste which women seek always to
+satisfy, is that for whiteness of the skin: hence, the white lily,
+new-fallen snow, white marble, or alabaster, are the images which poetry
+employs, when the color of a woman is its subject. So greatly, indeed,
+does whiteness contribute to beauty, that many women deemed beautiful by
+us, have little other right to that epithet except what they derive from a
+beautiful skin.
+
+
+_Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+The branches of the great artery of the body, the aorta, supplying the
+abdomen and pelvis, are larger in woman than in man, as well as more
+habitually liable to variation in the quantity of their contents. The
+quantity of blood, also, which passes to the abdomen, is greater.
+
+At the same time, the excretions are generally less in woman. Hippocrates
+says: "_Nam corpus muliebre minus dissipatur quam virile_;" the
+expenditure of the body of woman is less than that of man.
+
+It is evident, then, that the secretions, nutrition, in particular, must
+be greater. We actually know them to be so.
+
+But the nourishment of the organs concerned in locomotion is less active,
+and that of the cellular and adipose substance is generally more active,
+than in man. And on this, important consequences depend.
+
+Woman is subject to crises which would destroy all her organs, if they
+offered too powerful a resistance. Some parts of her body are exposed to
+great shocks, to alternate extensions, compressions, and reductions, which
+could not take place with impunity, but by means of this predominance of
+the cellular and adipose structure.
+
+The cellular expansion, the general basis of the structure, appears then
+to be more abundant in woman, more lax and yielding, more dilated and
+fuller of liquids; and it is by yielding gradually, by decomposing and
+weakening shocks by means of the general suppleness of the different
+organs, thus procured, that nature seems, in woman, to avoid, or to
+destroy, every hurtful effort.
+
+It is observed, moreover, that certain parts, naturally more loose,
+receive into all their vessels a more considerable quantity of liquid, and
+assume a particular enlargement, at the moment when their sympathy with
+the uterus causes them to enter into action in concert with it; and it is
+also observed that they dilate more easily during pregnancy.
+
+It is thus, then, that nature gives to all the parts of woman that
+suppleness which renders her capable of easily yielding to the great
+revolutions which affect her organization in regard to reproduction, as
+well as mark the different periods of her life.
+
+The great development of the cellular and fatty tissue in woman is
+illustrated by the remarkable fact, that anciently the Romans, in order to
+burn the bodies of dead men, were obliged to join to them those of women,
+the fat of which greatly facilitated combustion.
+
+Now, with the great purposes described above, beauty is naturally
+associated. It is principally this excess of the cellular and fatty
+tissues which gives to the members of woman those round and beautiful
+outlines, that soft and polished surface, which the body of man does not
+possess.
+
+In every part, however, of the human figure, as observed by Reynolds,
+"when not spoiled by too great corpulency, will be found distinctness, the
+parts never appearing uncertain or confused, or as a musician would say,
+slurred; and all those smaller parts which are comprehended in the larger
+compartment are still found to be there, however marked."
+
+Now, while all this is the case, it appears that the true skin is much
+thinner and more delicate in woman than in man, and that it derives more
+or less of its clear whiteness from the quantity of fat which is below
+it; for meagerness inevitably tarnishes and dries it. Hence, to possess a
+fine, soft, white, and fresh skin, it is also indispensable to possess
+plumpness.
+
+In relation to this purer white, it must also be observed, that
+transpiration, which might soil it, appears to be much less abundant in
+woman; and that the liver or vein-relieving gland, is very large. The
+excretions of the skin in women are indeed chiefly limited to certain
+parts; and it is thence that it has, in various parts, an odor which a
+French writer observes "it is difficult to describe, but which an
+exercised sense of smell easily succeeds in distinguishing in women who
+fully enjoy all the attributes of their sex, and who are women even in the
+atmosphere which exhales from them."
+
+While the skin is thus more white in women, it is also more transparent.
+The reticular tissue, or substance interposed between the true skin and
+scarf-skin, appears to have more clearness and turgescence, especially on
+the face, where, under the influence of various emotions, it easily
+permits a passage to the blood, as we see in blushing. It is in youth that
+this turgescence and clearness are most evident.
+
+Hence, the skin in woman less conceals the veins, of which the color, only
+enfeebled or modified by the skin, "gives all those shades of azure which
+the charmed eye follows with so much pleasure on the surface of the bosom
+and of all the parts where the skin has least of thickness."
+
+All this constitutes freshness, or animation, which is nearly synonymous
+with health, and without which there is no beauty. When that quality, as
+observed by Roussel, "is wanting, all other attractions strike but feebly,
+because the prompt judgment, which instinct suggests, warns us that the
+woman whose person does not present all the characters of perfect health,
+is in a disposition little favorable to the plan of nature, relatively to
+the maintenance of the species."
+
+The whiteness and the animation of the skin, however, do not alone
+constitute its beauty: there is still another quality which is absolutely
+necessary to it. This is the softness and the polish which, as the reader
+has seen, is one of the first conditions of physical beauty. In woman,
+this is probably derived from a slight degree of oleaginous secretion.
+Hence, she has few asperities of the skin, especially on the surface of
+the bosom, and other parts, where the skin is excessively smooth.
+
+Brown women, who probably have more of this oleaginous secretion, are said
+to possess in a greater degree the polish of skin which gives impressions
+so agreeable to the organ of touch; and hence, Winckelmann has said that
+persons who prefer brown women to fair ones allow themselves to be
+captivated by the touch rather than the sight. There is reason, however,
+to doubt the accuracy of this. Brown women appear to have greater
+softness, but less smoothness of skin.
+
+The body of woman is nearly deprived of hairs upon all parts, except the
+head, axillæ, &c.; and the hair of her head is generally long, fine, and
+flexible.
+
+The quantity and the color of the hair are always in relation to the
+constitution of the individual to which it belongs, and generally to the
+temperature of the place. The people of northern countries have the hair
+of a silken fineness and of surprising length.
+
+The hair which is most admired is not only very fine and flexible, but
+light colored. Fair golden hair was, of all its teints, that which the
+ancient artists preferred.
+
+In woman, the hair of the head whitens and falls later than in man.
+
+It is curious that, in regard to the hair, the distinctive characters of
+the sexes should not always have been preserved. Though nature gives long
+hair to woman, it has sometimes been the fashion to wear it short; and
+though man has naturally shorter hair, it has sometimes been the fashion
+to cherish its growth, and to shave the beard from his face. The latter
+has especially been the case in degenerate and effeminate times; and this
+has sometimes been accompanied by remarkable consequences.
+
+One of the greatest misfortunes, says a French writer, which France ever
+had to lament, the divorce of Louis le Jeune from Elinor of Guyenne,
+resulted from the fashion, which this prince wished to introduce, of
+shaving his chin and cropping his head. The queen, his wife, who appears
+to have possessed, with a masculine beauty, considerable acuteness of
+intellect, observed with some displeasure, that she imagined herself to
+have espoused a monarch, not a monk. The obstinacy of Louis in shaving
+himself, and the horror conceived by Elinor at the sight of a beardless
+chin, occasioned France the loss of those fine provinces which constituted
+the dowry of this princess; and which, devolving to England by a second
+marriage, became the source of wars which desolated France during four
+hundred years.
+
+The habit of wearing the beard is a manly and noble one. Nature made it
+distinctive of the male and female; and its abandonment has commonly been
+accompanied not only by periods of general effeminacy, but even by the
+decline and fall of states. They were bearded Romans who conquered the
+then beardless Greeks; they were bearded Goths who vanquished the then
+beardless Romans; and they are bearded Tartars who now promise once more
+to inundate the regions occupied by the shaven and effeminate people of
+western Europe.
+
+In farther illustration of the manliness of this habit we may observe,
+that throughout Europe, wars have generally led to its temporary and
+partial introduction, as at the present day. Those assuredly blunder, who
+ridicule the wearing of the beard. Silly affectation, on the contrary, is
+imputable only to those who, by removing the beard, take the trouble so
+far to emasculate themselves! and who think themselves beautified by an
+unnatural imitation of the smoother face of woman!
+
+As appendages of the skin, the nails may here be noticed. Their beauty
+consists in their figure, their surface, and their color.
+
+By their figure, they serve as a defence to the delicate extremities of
+the fingers, which would otherwise be easily hurt against hard bodies.
+They form at once shields and supporting arches to the fingers; and they
+give facility in laying hold of bodies which would escape from their
+smallness. They ought accordingly to be arched, and to extend as far as
+the flesh which terminates the fingers.--The form of the nails depends
+much on the care employed in cutting them during infancy, and still more
+on the mode of employing the hand.
+
+The nails ought also to be smooth and polished, somewhat transparent, and
+rose-colored. Their rosy color seems to show that their texture has less
+density and more transparence.
+
+It is in this view of the nutritive system and the characteristics which
+render it beautiful, and especially after this portion of it which regards
+the organs and functions of secretion, that the mammæ and their beauty
+should be considered.
+
+In woman, the bust is smaller and more rounded than in man; and it is
+distinguished by the volume and the elegant form of the bosom.
+
+The external and elevated position of the mammæ is by far the most
+suitable for a nursling, which, no longer deriving subsistence from within
+the mother, nor yet able of itself to find it without, must be gently and
+softly borne toward her; an admirable position, says a French writer,
+"which, in keeping the infant under the eyes and in the arms of the
+mother, establishes between them an interesting exchange of tenderness, of
+cares, and of innocent caresses, which enables the one the better to
+express its wants, and the other to enjoy the sacrifices which she makes,
+in continually contemplating their object."
+
+According to Buffon, in order that the mammæ be well placed, it is
+necessary that the space between them should be as great as that from the
+mammæ to the middle of the depression between the clavicles, so that these
+three points form an equilateral triangle.
+
+The two portions of the mammæ should be well detached. The whole presents,
+in beautiful models, more elegance than volume; and the areola, it may be
+observed, is red in fair women and deeper colored in brown ones.
+
+Winckelmann observes that, in the antique statues, the mammæ terminate
+gently in a point, and that they have always virginal forms, as a
+consequence of the system of the ancient artists, which consists in not
+recalling in the ideal the wants and the accidents of humanity.
+
+Finally on this particular head, I must observe that the reproduction of
+the species is, in woman, the most important object of life, and that
+every thing in her physical organization has evident reference to it. Of
+all the passions in woman, says Richerand, "love has the greatest sway: it
+has even been said to be her only passion. All the others are modified by
+it, and receive from it a peculiar cast, which distinguishes them from
+those of man.... Fontenelle used to say of the devotion of some women,
+'One may see that love has been here.' It has been said, in speaking of
+St. Theresa, '_To love God, is still to love_.' Thomas maintains that,
+'With women a man is more than a nation.'--'Love,' says Madame de Stael,
+'is but an episode in the life of man; it is the whole history of the life
+of woman.'"
+
+The THIRD MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the secreting vessels being active, not only cause the plumpness,
+&c., necessary to beauty, but furnish the mammary and uterine secretions,
+on which progeny is dependant. This must inevitably be followed by
+moderate excretions.
+
+It should not pass unobserved that there exist, in some women, a fair skin
+and dark hair, forming a rather extraordinary and striking combination. As
+such women have the skin remarkably smooth and moist, this is probably
+connected with some peculiarity of secretion and excretion.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is evidently the UNION of all that is good in these varieties which
+renders beauty in the vital system perfect.
+
+This union is nowhere so frequently to be seen, as in England and in
+Holland.
+
+It is curious that cleanliness among women seems necessarily to increase
+with the development of this system; and that, in general slovenliness and
+filth increase as we pass from England and Holland, toward France, Italy,
+Spain, and Portugal, even among women of the highest condition.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Of the temperaments of the ancients, which, as already said, are only
+partial views of some of the varieties I am now describing, two, the
+_phlegmatic temperament_ and the _sanguine temperament_, appear to belong
+fundamentally to _this species_. It has been supposed, that the first
+affects the absorbent, the second the circulating system. They appear to
+me to be exactly opposite affections of the whole nutritive system at
+least.
+
+The phlegmatic temperament may exist in both sexes. The causes which tend
+to develop it, are infancy, humidity with cold, the absence of light,
+indolence, and the feeble influence of the reproductive functions upon the
+general system.
+
+In this temperament, there exists an excess in the proportions of the
+absorbent vessels; the pulse is weak, slow, and soft; there is a
+turgescence of the cellular tissue, and a more marked development of the
+glands; the internal stimulants, having less energy than in the other
+temperaments, life is less active, and all its actions are more or less
+languid; even the uterus is not endowed with suitable energy.
+
+But these characteristics are not confined to the nutritive system: they
+extend to the thinking one. The attention is not continuous; the
+perceptions succeed with some difficulty; the memory is not to be trusted;
+the imagination is weak; and the propensities, the appetites, and the
+passions, are so languid, as to be scarcely capable of troubling the
+quietude and the indolence which depend on such a constitution.
+
+These characteristics of the phlegmatic temperament, present to us forms
+more rounded and less expressive, a general softness, a feeble color of
+the skin, a sort of etiolation, a pale countenance, a light and abundant
+hair, and, generally, an insurmountable inclination to sloth, averse alike
+to labors of the mind and body.
+
+It has been observed, that the sanguine temperament, so generally met with
+among northern nations, is the necessary consequence of the continual and
+very energetic reaction of the powers of circulation, against the effects
+of external cold; that it is only by the constant activity of the heart
+and vessels that calorification can be effected with the necessary vigor:
+and that the effects of this redoubled action are the same to the organs
+of circulation as to the muscles, under the influence of volition;
+exertion in both increasing the power of the organs exerted.
+
+In the sanguine temperament, the lymphatic, circulating, and secreting
+systems appear to be in a sort of equilibrium; the chest is larger, and
+the lungs more voluminous; the circulation is more rapid, the arterial
+predominance is obvious; the pulse is sharp, frequent, and regular; the
+complexion is ruddy; all the vital actions are extremely easy; and the
+health is rarely altered.
+
+The mental functions correspond. The conception is quick; the memory is
+prompt; the imagination is lively; the judgment has more readiness than
+depth and extent; the mind, easily affected by the impressions of outward
+objects, passes rapidly from one idea to another; the tastes,
+propensities, appetites, passions, are equally ephemeral; and there is
+much activity, but the strength is soon exhausted.
+
+In persons of this temperament, the countenance is animated; the hair is
+fair, and inclining to chestnut; the shape is good; the form is softened,
+though distinct; and the muscles are of tolerable consistence, and
+moderate development. The whole appearance is generally so amiable, that
+this temperament may be called that of health, beauty, and happiness.
+
+In the women who present the attributes of their sex with the greatest
+unity, we distinguish, especially during youth and adult age, the traits
+of the sanguine temperament, which may be regarded as the most suitable to
+the organization of woman.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THIRD SPECIES OF BEAUTY--BEAUTY OF THE THINKING SYSTEM.
+
+
+In woman, the organs of sense are proportionally larger, and the
+sensibility is more quick and delicate than in man.
+
+Hence, also, the mental quickness and delicacy of woman are greater. Her
+perceptions succeed with rapidity and intenseness; and the last of them
+generally predominates. In well-organized women, accordingly, the forehead
+and the observing faculties are peculiarly developed.
+
+The general nervous system of woman is likewise far more mobile than that
+of man.
+
+Beauty of the thinking system in woman depends especially upon these
+fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure, which thus
+distinguish her from man.
+
+In the woman possessing THIS SPECIES of beauty, accordingly, the greater
+development of its upper part gives to the head, in every view, a pyriform
+appearance;--the face is generally oval;--the high and pale forehead
+announces the excellence of the observing faculties;--the intensely
+expressive eye is full of sensibility;--in the lower features, modesty and
+dignity are often united;--she has not the expanded bosom, the general
+plumpness, or the beautiful complexion, of the second species of
+beauty;--and she boasts easy and graceful motion, rather than the elegant
+proportion of the first.--The whole figure is characterized by
+intellectuality and grace.
+
+This species of beauty is less proper to woman, less feminine, than the
+preceding. It is not the intellectual system, but the vital one, which is,
+and ought to be most developed in woman.
+
+
+_First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+In woman, the nervous extremities appear to be larger than in man; a pulpy
+appearance is more remarkable in them; and the papillæ in which they
+terminate, appear to have less rigidity.
+
+The organs of sense are proportionally larger, and more delicately
+outlined. There is indeed in woman more development in the organs of
+sensation, than in that of understanding, reasoning, and judging; while
+the contrary is the case in man. The sensations, accordingly, are in woman
+more acute, and their minute differences are more easily discerned. Man
+reflects more than he feels: woman always feels more than she reflects.
+
+The FIRST MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the organs of sense is proportionally large, and
+the sensibility greater.
+
+It ought to be observed, that though, in woman, when well organized, the
+whole head is proportionally less than in man, yet, the organs of sense
+will be found to be proportionally larger. This sufficiently indicates the
+importance of such proportional development. Upon it, indeed, depend that
+increased sensibility and quickness of observation, which are essential to
+the female character.
+
+
+_Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+Of all parts of the brain in woman, when well formed, the forehead,
+especially, is found to be large. Without this, she would have sensibility
+without observation, a most unhappy condition of the nervous system.
+
+In woman, the brain partakes of the softness of all the other parts of her
+structure. The cellular tissue which covers it, and which descends between
+its convolutions, is more abundant, mucous, and loose.
+
+The mind, correspondingly, is more impressed by any new object of thought;
+the whole nervous system is more extensively affected by impressions on
+the brain; the propensity to emotion is stronger, and women are more
+habitually under its influence.
+
+The intimate connexion of the thinking, with a peculiar modification of
+the reproductive faculties, inspires in woman the want of maternity, which
+is more powerful than life, and which renders her capable of every
+sacrifice. Associated with this, are her affection, tenderness, and
+compassion.
+
+Upon the whole, sensibility in woman is greater than understanding; the
+involuntary play of the imagination, more active than its regulated
+combinations; and passion, generally of the gentler kind, predominates
+rather than resolve or determination. She has, therefore, more finesse and
+activity, than depth or force of thought; and her nervous system is also
+more frequently deranged by accidents unknown to man.
+
+The extent of the brain, anteriorly, is measured by the different degrees
+of the opening of an angle, which Camper has called the facial angle; and
+so far it is favorable to woman well conformed; but it gives no notion of
+the magnitude of the brain superiorly, posteriorly, or laterally.[38]
+
+The brain of woman, however, in general, extends a good deal posteriorly
+as well as anteriorly, though it narrows in the former of these
+directions; and, to the proportional length thus acquired, is owing that
+intensity in her functions, which I have just described. Superiorly,
+centrally, and laterally, the brain of woman is generally much less than
+that of man; and hence the want of elevation, depth, and endurance, in her
+mental faculties.[39]
+
+Upon the whole, the brain of woman is less than that of man, and it is
+especially less in its superior, central, and, intellectually considered,
+more important portions.
+
+The SECOND MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the brain is proportionally small. This is an
+evident corollary from what we have just stated as to the first
+modification of this species; for it is not possible that the organs of
+sense should be proportionally large, without the rest of the head being
+proportionally small.
+
+This is not quite conformable with the wishes of phrenology; but we must
+leave any dispute between that art and nature to its own issue. A Venus,
+moreover, with a small, yet beautifully proportioned head, is often seen
+to be the mother of a boy who has a large head; the difference of sex
+causing a vast modification and difference of development.
+
+
+_Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+From what has been already said, it may be concluded that, in action or
+conduct, women are less guided by intellect, and are more biased by
+feeling and emotion; and it may also be concluded, that all their
+movements to fulfil the purposes of feeling and emotion, are made in a
+manner more easy and more prompt, though less sustained. This is increased
+by the ready obedience of the muscular fibre, and the relative shortness
+of the stature.
+
+This more easy and less forcible action is perfectly conformable
+physically with the small and elongated form of the cerebel, or organ of
+the will, in woman; as it is morally with the part which woman performs in
+life, and her desire to please, while it is that of man to protect and to
+defend.
+
+Conformably with the smaller size of the cerebel, and especially with its
+smaller breadth (the influence of which is explained in the work last
+referred to), the disposition of woman to sustained exertion, whether
+mental or bodily, is much less; and hence the character "_varium et
+mutabile semper foemina_."
+
+It is, then, the prompt and easily-affected sensibility of woman, not her
+understanding or force of mind, which renders her so eminently fit to be
+interested in infancy, which enables her to surmount maternal pains by the
+sentiment of affection and pity, and which makes agreeable to her the
+cares and the details of housekeeping; and it is this which sometimes
+renders nothing too irksome or too painful for a mother, a wife, or a
+mistress, to endure.
+
+Hence, the constitution of woman is perfectly adapted to these functions;
+hence, her existence is more sedentary than man's; hence, she has more
+gentleness of character than he; and hence, she is less acquainted with
+great crimes.
+
+The THIRD MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the cerebel or organ of the will, as well as the
+muscles which it actuates, is proportionally small.
+
+The situation of this considerable organ is in the back and lower part of
+the head, and may be pretty accurately indicated by saying, that a line
+passing through it would complete, posteriorly, a longer line passing
+backward from the nose through the lower part of the ear.
+
+When this organ, which is that of the will, is high, and more especially
+when it is large, a determination and force seem to be given by it to the
+character, which render it the reverse of feminine.
+
+Having spoken here of the ready exercise of the will in woman, and its
+adaptation to her wish to please, it seems to be here that some
+circumstances dependant on these should be noticed.
+
+With this ready exercise of the will and desire to please, are evidently
+connected the light carelessness, the graceful ease, and the gentle
+softness, which add so much to the power of beauty. Hence, artists give to
+woman the bending form which associates so well with all her
+characteristics; for all feel with Hogarth that undulating lines are more
+or less formed in all movements executed with the intention of expressing
+sentiments of courtesy, respect, benevolence, or love.
+
+But it is grace that we must especially consider here--grace which
+directly emanates from this ready exercise of the will and desire to
+please, especially when combined with observing faculties so perfect and
+so perpetually active as those of woman.
+
+"Gracefulness," says Burke, "is an idea not very different from beauty; it
+consists in much the same thing.... Gracefulness is an idea belonging to
+posture and motion. In both these, to be graceful, it is requisite that
+there be no appearance of difficulty; there is required a small inflexion
+of the body; and a composure of the parts in such a manner, as not to
+encumber each other, nor to appear divided by sharp and sudden angles. In
+this ease, this roundness, this delicacy of attitude and motion, it is
+that all the magic of grace consists, and what is called '_je ne scais
+quoi_.'"
+
+It is not in these mere physical qualities, that all the magic of grace
+consists, which, in the state of Burke's knowledge, he might indeed well
+call "_je ne scais quoi_!" Let the reader hear what is said on this
+subject by a man who could look a little deeper than Burke, and who owed
+no fame to the little art of substituting a flash of words for depth of
+thought, and serving by it a venal purpose as little as the art itself.
+
+"What grace," says Smith, "what noble propriety do we not feel in the
+conduct of those who exert that recollection and self-command which
+constitute the dignity of every passion, and which bring it down to what
+others can enter into! We are disgusted with that clamorous grief, which,
+without any delicacy, calls upon our compassion with sighs and tears, and
+importunate lamentation. But we reverence that reserved, that silent and
+majestic sorrow, which discovers itself only in the swelling of the eyes,
+in the quivering of the lips and cheeks, and in the distant, but affecting
+address of the whole behavior. It imposes the like silence upon us; we
+regard it with respectful attention, and watch over our whole behavior,
+lest, by any impropriety, we should disturb that concerted tranquillity
+which it requires so great an effort to support." This is eloquence,
+indeed.
+
+Alison duly appreciates this earliest definition of grace. "It is," he
+says, "this 'recollection and self-command,' which in such scenes
+constitute what even in common language is called the graceful in behavior
+or deportment; and it is the expression of the same qualities in the
+attitude and gesture, which constitutes, in my apprehension, the grace of
+such gestures or attitudes.... Wherever, in the movements of the form,
+self-command or self-possession is expressed, some degree of grace, at
+least, is always produced.... Whenever in such motions grace is actually
+perceived, I think it will always be found to be in slow, and, if I may
+use the expression, in restrained or measured motions.
+
+"The motions of the horse, when wild in the pasture, are beautiful; when
+urged to his speed, and straining for victory, they may be felt as
+sublime; but it is chiefly in movements of a different kind that we feel
+them as graceful, when, in the impatience of the field, or in the
+curvetting of the manege, he seems to be conscious of all the powers with
+which he is animated, and yet to restrain them, from some principle of
+beneficence or of dignity. Every movement of the stag almost is beautiful,
+from the fineness of his form and the ease of his gestures; yet it is not
+in these or in the heat of the chase that he is graceful: it is when he
+pauses upon some eminence in the pursuit, when he erects his crested head,
+and when, looking with disdain upon the enemy who follows, he bounds to
+the freedom of his hills. It is not, in the same manner, in the rapid
+speed of the eagle when he darts upon his prey, that we perceive the
+grace of which his motions are capable. It is when he soars slowly upward
+to the sun, or when he wheels with easy and continuous motion in airy
+circles in the sky.
+
+"In the personification which we naturally give to all inanimate objects
+which are susceptible of movement, we may easily perceive the influence of
+the same association. We speak commonly, for instance, of the graceful
+motions of trees, and of the graceful movements of a river. It is never,
+however, when these motions are violent or extreme, that we apply to them
+the term of grace. It is the gentle waving of the tree in slow and
+measured cadence which is graceful, not the tossing of its branches amid
+the storm. It is the slow and easy winding which is graceful in the
+movements of the river, and not the burst of the cataract, or the fury of
+the torrent.
+
+"It is only in the perfection of the human system, in the age when the
+form has assumed all its powers, and the mind is awake to the
+consciousness of all the capacities it possesses, and the lofty
+obligations they impose, that the reign of physical grace commences; and
+that the form is capable of expressing, under the dominion of every
+passion or emotion, the high and habitual superiority which it possesses,
+either to the allurements of pleasure or the apprehensions of pain. It is
+this age, accordingly, which the artists of antiquity have uniformly
+represented, when they sought to display the perfection of grace, and when
+they succeeded in leaving their compositions as models of this perfection
+to every succeeding age."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is evidently the UNION of all that is good in the varieties now
+described which renders beauty, in the thinking system, perfect.
+
+This is well illustrated in the Minerva of the Giustiniani gallery, which,
+in this respect, is scarcely the less valuable because it is draped, for
+it is the head that ever bears the greatest impress of intellectuality.
+
+This union is by no means perfect in the English female head, although,
+from the considerable development of the forehead and the moderate one of
+the backhead, the general form of that head is beautiful. As to the French
+female head, a Frenchman, writing under the name of Count Stendhal,
+scruples not to say: "The form of the head in Paris is ugly; the cranium
+approaches to that of the ape; and this occasions the women to have the
+appearance of age very early in life." The women of Paris differ not, in
+this respect, from those of France generally. Nearly all have the
+character here described.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is under this species that the _nervous temperament_ falls, which is
+constituted by great sensibility and corresponding mobility, and therefore
+belongs to the _first and the last of those varieties_; a temperament
+chiefly to be found among women.
+
+This temperament scarcely exists in the athletic, is weak in the
+phlegmatic, is moderate in the sanguine, and is rather active in the
+bilious.
+
+It is characterized by the smallness and the emaciation of the muscles,
+the quickness and intensity of the sensations, and the suddenness and
+fickleness of the determinations.
+
+It is seldom natural, but commonly depends on a sedentary and inactive
+life, on a diseased condition of the brain produced by reading works of
+imagination, and on habits of sensual indulgence. In confirmation of this,
+we are told that the Roman ladies became subject to nervous affections
+only in consequence of those depraved manners which marked the decline of
+the empire; and that these affections were extremely common in France in
+the licentious times preceding the fall of the corrupt and corrupting
+monarchy.
+
+Another partial view falling under this species, and properly under the
+_second variety_, is the _cerebral temperament_, which results from the
+energy and influence of the brain.
+
+This temperament, being thus determined by an excess in the power of the
+brain, has been called the temperament of genius. When it is increased by
+education and habits, the other organs are generally more feeble.
+
+In woman, the cerebral temperament is more particularly characterized by a
+predominance of imagination, which is evidently dependant on the
+organization which has already been described.
+
+It has been truly observed, that to contribute to the perfection of reason
+as well as to the preservation of health, the brain ought to be exercised
+and developed in every direction; that the mere exercise of memory
+carried too far renders persons foolish; that the predominance of
+imagination disposes to nervous affections, and even to alienation; that
+meditation alters the digestive functions; and that the dry and minute
+contention which business requires, disposes, when joined to a defect of
+exercise (and I may add the vinous excesses in which men of business
+indulge), to apoplexy and to paralysis.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+BEAUTY OF THE FACE IN PARTICULAR.
+
+
+"It is probable," says Dr. Prichard, "that the natural idea of the
+beautiful in the human person has been more or less distorted in almost
+every nation. Peculiar characters of countenance, in many countries,
+accidentally enter into the ideal standard. This observation has been made
+particularly of the negroes of Africa, who are said to consider a flat
+nose and thick lips as principal ingredients of beauty; and we are
+informed by Pallas that the Kalmucs[40] esteem no face as handsome, which
+has not the eyes in angular position, and the other characteristics of
+their race. The Aztecs of Mexico have ever preferred a depressed
+forehead,[41] which forms the strongest contrast to the majestic contour
+of the Grecian busts: the former represented their divinities with a head
+more flattened than it is ever seen among the Caribs, and the Greeks, on
+the contrary, gave to their gods and heroes a still more unnatural
+elevation."
+
+Knowing, as the reader now does, what constitutes the worth, the dignity,
+and the beauty, of the various organs, this statement tends to show the
+value of that standard of beauty which we owe to the Greeks. I proceed to
+illustrate it in regard to the FACE.
+
+The beauty of the human countenance is described by various writers, as
+including the beauty of form, in the various features of the face; the
+beauty of color, in the shades of the complexion; the beauty of character,
+in some distinctive and permanent relations; and the beauty of expression,
+in some immediate and temporary feeling.
+
+In regard to the form of the face, considered as a whole, the opening of
+the facial angle of Camper, in measuring geometrically the extent of the
+upper part of the head, marks the development of the brain or organ of
+thought, and shows the proportion which it bears to the middle and lower
+part of the face, or to the organs of sense and expression.
+
+This development of the upper part of the head contributes essentially to
+beauty, by giving to the whole head that pyriform appearance already
+described, by which in every view it is larger at the superior part,
+diminishes gradually as it descends, and terminates by the agreeable
+outline of the chin.
+
+In the most beautiful race of men, the facial angle extends to eighty-five
+degrees, acquiring an increase of ten degrees above the inferior
+varieties; the face is diminished; the eyes are better placed; the nose
+assumes a more elegant form; and all appearance of muzzle vanishes.
+
+In the Greek ideal head, the development presenting a facial angle of
+ninety degrees, confers the highest beauty of the form of the head, the
+majesty of the forehead, the position of the eyes upon a line which
+divides the face into two equal parts, the elegant projection of the nose,
+the absence of all tumidity of the lips.--But of that, in the sequel.
+
+In the face, generally, as observed by Winckelmann, beauty of form depends
+greatly upon the profile, and particularly on the line described by the
+forehead and nose, by the greater or less degree of the concavity or
+declivity of which, beauty is increased or diminished. The nearer the
+profile approaches to a straight line, the more majestic, and at the same
+time softer, does the countenance appear, the unity and simplicity of this
+line being, as in everything else, the cause of this grand, yet soft
+harmony.
+
+The face being the seat of several organs, each must be examined in its
+turn.
+
+Winckelmann observes, that "a large high FOREHEAD [an excess, in this
+respect] was regarded by the ancients as a deformity."--And "Arnobius
+says, that those women who had a high forehead, covered a part of it with
+a fillet." The reason of this will afterward be pointed out.
+
+The sense of TOUCH resides in all parts of the face, but especially in
+the lips. It is most perfect, however, at the tips of the fingers.
+
+A thinner skin permits to the touch of woman, more vivacity, delicacy, and
+profoundness. It seizes the details which generally escape the touch of
+man. It is more easily hurt by hard, rough and angular, cold or hot
+bodies.
+
+Hence, woman requires vestments which are light and smooth; and she enjoys
+more than man the pleasure of reposing on flocculent substances which
+softly resist her pressure.
+
+In the face, the lips are peculiarly the organ of touch.
+
+Of all the organs of sense, the mouth admits, I believe, of the greatest
+beauty and the greatest deformity. Considered in repose, nothing certainly
+is more lovely than this organ when beautifully formed in a beautiful
+woman. And in action, during speech, the simplest words passing through it
+receive a charm altogether peculiar.
+
+The mouth ought to be small, and not to extend much beyond the nostrils: a
+large mouth and thick lips are contrary to beauty. The curve of the upper
+lip is said to have served as a model to the ancient artists for the bow
+of Love. The lower lip should be most developed, rounded and turned
+outward; so as to produce, between it and the chin, that beautiful hollow
+which assists so much in giving the latter a more perfect rotundity. Both,
+but especially the upper, should become thin toward the angle of the
+mouth.
+
+Although we see many lips without evident and offensive defects, there
+are very few of them really beautiful; and indeed it is only persons of
+great delicacy and of refined taste who attach the highest value to
+perfect beauty of the lips.
+
+Lips of beautiful form and of vermillion hue, teeth which are small,
+equal, slightly rounded, white, clean, and well arranged, and a pure
+breath, are the circumstances which constitute a beautiful mouth.
+
+The sense of TASTE is more delicate and more exquisite in woman than in
+man. She accordingly seeks for savors which are less rough and irritating
+than those which are agreeable to him.
+
+The NOSE is the most prominent and conspicuous feature of the face; it is
+the central fixed point around which are arranged all its other parts; and
+it is thus essential to the regularity of the features. When these,
+moreover, are in action, the nose, by its immobility, marks the degree of
+change which they undergo, and renders intelligible all the movements
+produced by admiration, joy, sadness, fear, &c.
+
+To perfect beauty of the nose, it is necessary that it should be nearly in
+the same direction with the forehead, and should unite with that part,
+without leaving more than a slight inflexion to be seen. This constitutes
+the Greek profile; and the various degrees of deviation from it
+constitute, as to this organ, the various degenerations from beauty the
+most consummate to ugliness the most disgusting.
+
+Nature says Winckelmann, is sparing of this beauty both in burning
+climates and in frozen regions.[42]
+
+The same writer says: "The flat compressed nose of the Kalmucs, Chinese,
+and other distant nations, is also a defect, because it destroys the
+harmony of forms, according to which all the other parts are constructed:
+nor is there any reason why nature should compress and hollow it, instead
+of continuing the straight line begun in the forehead." The fact is true;
+the reasoning false, as will be seen in a subsequent chapter, to which
+this point properly belongs.
+
+Under the influence of passion, the nostrils expand and are drawn upward;
+and these two motions are the only ones of which the lower and moveable
+part of the nose is capable.
+
+The sense of smell, like that of taste, is more delicate and more
+exquisite in woman than in man. Woman accordingly enjoys more, and suffers
+more, by that sense than man does; and its influence is said to dispose
+her more than man to those pleasures which have remarkable relations to
+that sense.
+
+To beauty of the EYE, magnitude and elongated form contribute more perhaps
+than color: if its form be bad, no color will render it beautiful. In
+woman, however, the most beautiful eyes, in relation to color, are those
+which appear to be blue, hazel, or black. But no color of the eye is
+beautiful without clearness in every part.
+
+"The more obliquely, and at an angle to each other," says Winckelmann,
+"that the eyes are placed, as in cats, the more their position is removed
+from the base, or from the fundamental lines of the human face, which form
+a cross that divides it into four parts, the nose dividing it
+perpendicularly into two equal parts, and the eyes dividing it
+horizontally. When the eyes are placed obliquely, they form an angle with
+a line parallel to that which we suppose to pass through their centre. And
+this indeed is doubtless the reason why it displeases us to see a mouth
+which goes awry, because it generally offends the eye to see two lines
+diverging from each other without any reason. Thus eyes placed obliquely,
+as may be seen sometimes among ourselves, and commonly among the Chinese,
+Japanese, and in Egyptian heads, are an irregularity and a deformity."
+
+Here, again, Winckelmann's fact is true, and his reasoning false, or
+rather, perhaps, superficial. The real cause of the deformity of
+obliquely-placed eyes is, that the vital parts of the head preponderate.
+The cavities of the upper jaw, which open into the internal nose, are, in
+the Mongelic races, so large, that they raise the cheek-bones, throw the
+orbit upward at its lateral part, and encroach apparently upon the space
+which should contain a nobler organ, the brain. The causes assigned by
+Winckelmann are but consequences of this.
+
+The eyelids in woman, when well formed, present the gentlest inflexions.
+The eyelashes, when long and silky, form a sign of gentleness, and
+sometimes of softness. The eyebrows ought to be furnished with fine hairs,
+arched, and separated: if they are too thin, they do not sufficiently
+protect the organ of sight: if they unite, they render the physiognomy
+sombre; their too-marked approximation, and their extreme separation, are
+real deformities.
+
+The sense of sight in woman is rapid and active; yet, in her, the slow and
+languid motion of the eye is generally employed, and is more beautiful
+than a brisk one. Woman requires a mild light, and colors of moderate
+vividness, rather than otherwise.
+
+The beauty of the EAR is too little regarded. To an experienced eye it
+presents great beauties, and great deformities, in form, magnitude, and
+projection.
+
+The size and prominence of the ear, which characterize several nomadic
+tribes, are contrary to beauty, not merely because they alter the
+regularity of the oval of the head, and surcharge its outline with
+prominences, but because they are in themselves ugly, indicating rather
+the coarse strength common to inferior animals than the delicacy to be
+found in man.
+
+In woman, the ear is also more delicate, more sensible, but more feeble,
+than in man. Strong sounds, loud noises, which may be agreeable to the ear
+of man, are offensive to her. She prefers soft and tender, gay, or
+pathetic music, to every other; and whatever may be the perfection of her
+musical education, she also prefers sweet and tender melody to the most
+complicated Sclavonic harmony.
+
+Such are the organs of sense or those of impression, which form the first
+and most important portion of the face of woman.--The organs of
+expression, the MUSCLES of the face, on the contrary, are feeble in her;
+and correspondingly feeble and rounded are the bony points to which they
+are attached.
+
+Woman presents very little prominence of the frontal sinuses; the
+cheek-bones display beautiful curves; the edges of the alveoli containing
+the teeth are much more elliptical than in man; and the chin is softly
+rounded. Of the chin, it should be observed that it is a distinctive
+character of the human species, and is not found in any other animal. When
+well formed, it is full, united, and generally without a dimple; and it
+passes gently and almost insensibly into the neighboring parts. In woman
+especially, the chin ought to be finely rounded; for when projecting, it
+expresses, owing to its connexion with muscular action and power, a
+firmness and a determination which we do not wish to discover in her
+character. "The apparent convexity of the cheeks," says Winckelmann,
+"which in many heads appears greater than natural, contributes to this
+rotundity: it is not, however, ideal, but taken from natural beauty."
+
+The muscles of the face express all the shades of emotion and passion, not
+because such expression is the primary, or the proper object of their
+motion, but because their various motions adapt the organs to the farther
+purposes required of them in consequence of preceding impressions; and
+these motions become expressive to us only because we are thus enabled to
+infer the feeling and purpose of the person in whom they occur. This is a
+fundamental principle of physiognomy; and its not being understood has led
+to many of our errors in that science.
+
+In woman, the countenance is more rounded, as well as more abundantly
+furnished with that cellular and, fatty tissue which fills all the chasms,
+effaces, all the angles, and unites all the parts by the gentlest
+transitions. At the same time, the muscles are feebler, more mobile,
+resigned for a shorter time to the same contraction, and as inconstant as
+the emotions and passions which their rapid play expresses.
+
+The result of all this is, that the muscles do not profoundly modify the
+face, which consequently has not so much of permanent character as that of
+a man, and which permits us more difficultly to discover, through the
+rounded, short, and shifting parts, the nature of her various feelings.
+As, however, the abundance of the cellular tissue diminishes with age, and
+as the sentiments become at the same time less ephemeral, the
+physiognomical character and expression of woman become more decided.
+
+As to COLOR of the face, it may be observed that the forehead, the
+temples, the eyelids, the nose, the upper part of the superior lip, and
+the lower part of the inferior lip, ought in woman to be of a beautiful
+and rather opaque white. The approach to the cheeks and the middle of the
+chin ought to have a slight teint of rose-color, and the middle of the
+cheeks ought to be altogether rosy, but of a delicate hue.--Cheeks of an
+animated white are preferable to those of a red color, although less
+beautiful than those of rosy hue.
+
+With regard to the HAIR, it may be observed, that sometimes, rising from
+its bulbs, it turns in irregular rings, and, by displaying a forehead
+rather large, confers a certain sanguine, as well as open air upon the
+physiognomy. This, however, is most frequently seen in men, and chiefly in
+men of exuberant vitality, rather than intellectuality: it indeed depends
+entirely on the former.
+
+In other men, and almost always in women, the hair generally divides in a
+line extending from the crown to the forehead, and falls over the temples.
+The line thus formed, uniting with the median line, of the face in
+general, and that of the nose in particular, gives to the whole of the
+features a peculiar symmetry and beauty.
+
+I have said, already, that symmetry is a characteristic of thinking
+beings, and I have explained the reason of this. The present case
+admirably illustrates it. This symmetrical arrangement of the hair bestows
+an intellectual air; and it well may, for, when natural, it derives its
+tendency to fall on each side, from the top of the head, either from the
+general elevation of the calvarium, or from the particular elevation of
+the forehead, which is characteristic of beauty in woman.
+
+It accordingly announces in the individual higher observing faculties:
+hence, the ancient sculptors never omitted this in their highest
+personages: hence, we find it in the heads of Raffaelle and Guido.
+
+"A fair hue, [Greek: xanthos]," says Winckelmann, "has ever been regarded
+as the most beautiful; and flaxen-colored hair was assigned to the most
+beautiful, not only among the gods, as Apollo [[Greek: chrysokoman
+Apollôna], golden-haired Apollo] and Bacchus, but also among the heroes:
+Alexander the Great had flaxen hair." The modern Italians call Cupid "Il
+biondo Dio."
+
+Having concluded what I have here to say of the parts of the face, I may
+observe, that the _different effects of the same face_, even in a state of
+repose, have often been observed, never explained. I have, however, in
+another work, shown that the face is composed of motive, nutritive, and
+thinking parts or organs. Now, circumstances bring these variously into
+action; and the different effects alluded to, in reality depend on the
+motive, or the nutritive, or the intellectual expression being at the
+time, respectively, most apparent, or most attended to by us. The study of
+this subject, which I have not space here to develop, is of infinite
+importance to the man of taste, the physiognomist, and the artist. The
+latter cannot easily excel without understanding it.
+
+Another curious fact, not hitherto observed, is, that though beauty of
+face is, owing to the power of the vital system, almost universal at a
+certain age, there is always a _faulty feature_, which the physiognomist
+may observe, and which ever continues to exaggerate, until it terminate in
+relative ugliness. Thus we scarcely observe the long upper lip during
+youth, in some women; and yet it afterward gives to them the sober grimace
+of baboons. We admire in youth the spirit of the piercing eye, and
+aquiline nose in others, to whom these afterward give the look of so many
+old hawks. In others, still, we are charmed with the round, rosy, and
+innocent cheeks, which, when they become paler and more pendent, confer on
+them the aspect either of seals or of mastiffs, according to other
+circumstances of temper and disposition. I could easily trace these, and
+many more, from youth to middle age, and illustrate them convincingly, by
+drawings: but I have no room for it here.
+
+Each, indeed, of the subjects of the two immediately preceding paragraphs,
+is worthy of a volume; for the first is as essential to all judgment of
+existing beauty at the instant of its being before us, as the second is to
+all prescience of what beauty will very soon be--to all who have no love
+for a leap in the dark.
+
+I add to this chapter but a few words on the very _different organization
+of the head and face_, and the very different mind, of the Greeks and
+Romans.
+
+Whoever, for the purpose of comparing the heads of these two nations, may
+walk into the British Museum, will be struck with the difference between
+them.
+
+The forehead is almost always rather narrow, and rather high, in the most
+illustrious Greeks; and this could not so uniformly have been so
+represented, in sculpture, unless it had been so also in fact. This is
+verified, in the third room of the Townley collection, by the heads of
+Homer, Hippocrates, Epicurus, Pericles, &c.--by the almost universal
+conformation of Greek heads, to which there are but few exceptions:
+Sophocles, in this room, and Demosthenes, in the eleventh, are rather
+broader.
+
+On the contrary, the forehead, the face, the jaws, are excessively broad,
+and the cranium is depressed and low, in the Romans--in Severus, Nero,
+Caracalla, &c., in the sixth room, and in Tiberius and Augustus, in the
+eleventh; nor is this owing to the circumstance that these generally were
+men degraded in feeling or intellect, for nearly the same configuration is
+found in Trajan, Hadrian, &c., in the fourth, sixth, and other rooms. The
+faces of the Romans are not less ugly than their heads; and those of their
+women are absolutely detestable, as may be seen in Faustina, Plautilla,
+Sabina, Domitia, &c., in the sixth of these rooms.
+
+If farther illustration of this be wanting, it may be found in the
+circumstance that, while the Greeks preferred the rather high forehead,
+and invented the ideal one, the Romans, on the contrary, preferred a
+little forehead and united eyebrows. Ovid assures us that the women of his
+time painted their eyebrows in such a manner, that they might appear to
+form only one.
+
+In the work so often referred to, I have shown that the intensity of
+functions is as the length of their organs, and the permanence of
+functions as the breadth of their organs. No truth can be better
+illustrated than this is, in the organization and the faculties of the
+Greeks and Romans. With the higher and larger head of the Greeks was
+united an intensity of genius, which no other people has yet rivalled; and
+with the broader head of the Romans, a perseverance, equally obstinate and
+unfeeling, which has been similarly unrivalled.
+
+A good illustration of the vaunted Roman virtue is recorded in Porcia, the
+daughter of Cato, the wife of Brutus, who plunged a toilet-knife into her
+thigh, and kept it eight days in the wound, without complaining, to prove
+to her husband that her courage and her discretion rendered her worthy of
+entering into the conspiracy, which he meditated; and who also destroyed
+herself by swallowing burning coals, when she heard of his defeat.
+Obstinacy and insensibility were great sources of the crimes either
+perpetrated, or, by their lying historians, pretended to be perpetrated,
+under the name of Roman virtue.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It would be out of place, here, to enter farther into the character and
+expression of the face. Those whom these remarks dispose to do so, may
+refer to the physiognomical work, which I have been so often compelled to
+allude to.[43] To those who are satisfied, neither with the vague, though
+tasteful inspirations of Lavater, nor with the empyrical or unreasoned
+manifestations of Gall and Spurzheim, but who desire _the assignment of a
+reason for every description of physiognomical character or expression_,
+that work may afford some satisfaction.
+
+That the Greeks, either intuitively or reasonedly, distinguished the three
+species of beauty as to the figure, has been already seen. The heads of
+Diana, Venus, and Minerva, respectively present beauty of the locomotive,
+vital, and mental systems.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+COMBINATIONS AND TRANSITIONS OF THE THREE SPECIES OF FEMALE BEAUTY.
+
+
+As to the COMBINATIONS of beauty, it must now be observed, that some one
+of these species of beauty always characterize the same individual during
+every stage of life; and, to the experienced observer, it never is
+difficult to say which of them predominates. Attention to the preceding
+principles will render this easy.
+
+It is right to mention here the cause of this general predominance of one
+species of beauty over the rest. It depends on this, that the slightest
+original or accidental preponderance of strength in one system above that
+of the rest, though unobserved at first, leads to a more frequent
+employment of its functions, and therefore to a more perfect development
+of its organs, until at last the disproportion between these and those of
+the other systems, becomes characteristic of the individual.
+
+In a truly beautiful woman, none of the systems described can exist in a
+great degree of degradation; but of the three, the nutritive or vital
+system is to woman the most essential. In England, from thirty to forty is
+generally the age of its highest perfection.
+
+It often, however, occurs, that two, or even the whole of these species of
+beauty, are blended in considerable perfection. In those females in which
+it is found, the locomotive system is well developed in the length and
+elegance of the limbs; the vital or nutritive system everywhere presents
+soft forms, and rounds both body and limbs; and the mental or thinking
+system displays a capability of grace in action, notwithstanding the
+constrained attitude assumed to conceal the face.
+
+Although there can indeed be no great degree of beauty in which this
+combination is not more or less the case, yet a union of all the three
+species of beauty, in the greatest compatible degree, is to be found only
+in some of those immortal images of ideal beauty, which were created by
+the genius and the chisel of the Greeks.
+
+Having briefly spoken of these combinations, I may notice also those
+_combinations which similarly occur among the temperaments_, which, as
+already said, constitute partial views of the varieties I have been
+describing.
+
+In relation to a combination of the _phlegmatic_ and _nervous_
+temperament, I may refer to Richerand, who says, that, "among the moderns,
+the easy Michael Montaigne, all of whose passions were so moderate, who
+reasoned on everything, even on feeling, was truly pituitous. But in him
+the predominance of the lymphatic system was not carried so far, but that
+he joined to it a good deal of nervous susceptibility."
+
+Of women, more especially, it is observed, that they rarely present
+examples of the lymphatic temperament, unmodified by nervous mobility;
+whence come extreme vivacity in the sensations with great feebleness,
+determinations equally precipitate and unsteady, excited imagination and
+ephemeral tastes, absolute will, &c.
+
+The _sanguine_ temperament is similarly combined with the _nervous_ one.
+Hence, the physiologist above quoted says, that "to the extreme love of
+pleasure, sanguine men join, when circumstances require it [he should have
+said, in some cases], great elevation of thought and character, and can
+bring into action the highest talents in every department: the history of
+Henry IV., of Mirabeau, and others, proves that."
+
+The ancients gave the name of _bilious_, to a temperament in which the
+sanguineous system is energetic, the pulse strong, hard, and frequent, the
+subcutaneous veins prominent, the development of the liver excessive, the
+superabundance of bile remarkable, the sensibility easily excited, yet
+capable of dwelling upon one object, the passions violent, the movements
+abrupt and impetuous, and the character inflexible. This is evidently a
+very compound temperament, and should never have been classed, any more
+than the two preceding, with the simple temperaments, the athletic or
+muscular, the phlegmatic or lymphatic, the sanguine, and the nervous,
+which I have noticed under the heads to which they belong.
+
+In persons of this temperament, the skin is of a yellowish brown, the hair
+black, the muscles marked, the form harshly expressed. "Bold in the
+conception of a project," says Richerand, "constant and indefatigable in
+its execution, it is among men of this temperament, that we find those
+who, in different ages, have governed the destinies of the world: full of
+courage, boldness, and activity, they have signalized themselves by great
+virtues or great crimes, and have been the terror or admiration of the
+universe. Such were Alexander, Julius Cesar, Brutus, Mahomet, Charles
+XII., the Czar Peter, Cromwell, Sixtus V., Cardinal Richelieu [and, he
+should have added, Bonaparte].... To attain to results of such importance,
+the profoundest dissimulation and the most obstinate constancy are equally
+necessary; and these are the most eminent qualities of the bilious."
+
+A still more compound temperament is the _melancholic_, in which disease
+is added to the bilious temperament, a derangement of the functions of the
+nervous system, and the diseased obstruction of some one of the organs of
+the abdomen, so that the nutritive functions are feebly or irregularly
+performed, the bowels sluggish, the pulse hard and contracted, the
+excretions difficult, the imagination gloomy, the disposition suspicious.
+
+In persons of this temperament, the skin is of a still deeper hue, and the
+look uneasy and gloomy. Rousseau and Tiberius are excellent examples of
+this temperament, as associated with genius and virtue in one, and with
+truly royal vice in the other. In women, this temperament is rarely so
+intense as in men.
+
+Of the TRANSITIONS of beauty, I have now to observe, that, though one
+species of beauty always characterizes the same individual during every
+stage of life, yet it is remarkable, that the young woman (whatever
+species of beauty predominates) has always a tendency to beauty of the
+locomotive system;--that the middle-aged woman has always a tendency to
+beauty of the nutritive system;--and that the woman of advanced age has
+always a tendency to beauty of the thinking system.
+
+Some women would seem, in the progress of life, to pass through all these
+systems (and the more perfect the whole organization, the more will this
+seem to be the case); but the accurate observer will always see the
+predominance of the same system.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PROPORTION, CHARACTER, EXPRESSION, ETC.
+
+
+Winckelmann says: "I cannot imagine beauty without the PROPORTION which is
+always its foundation.--The drawing of the naked figure is founded upon
+the idea and the knowledge of beauty; and this idea consists partly in
+measures and relations, and partly in forms, the beauty of which was, as
+Cicero observes, the object of the first Grecian artists: the latter
+determine the figure; the former fix the proportions."
+
+The great variety of proportions presented by the human body causes much
+difficulty in determining with precision what are the best. The difficulty
+becomes quite insurmountable if we attempt to assign precise dimensions to
+the details of configuration or to minute parts.
+
+Many circumstances are opposed to the exactness of these measures. Even in
+the same person, one part is rarely in all respects similar to the
+corresponding part; we are taller in the morning than in the evening; and
+the proportions change at different periods of life. In different
+individuals, the differences are still more evident. Moreover, habits,
+professions, trades, all unite to oppose regularity in the proportions.
+
+It has farther been observed that, in the conformation of woman, both as
+regards the whole and as regards the various parts, nature still more
+rarely approaches determinate proportions than in man.
+
+It is remarked by Hogarth, whose views I now abridge, that in society we
+every day hear women pronounce perfectly correct opinions as to the
+proportions of the neck, the bosom, the hands, and the arms of other
+women, whom they have an interest in observing with severity. It is
+evident that, for such an examination, they ought to be capable of
+seizing, with great precision, the relation of length and thickness, and
+of following the slight sinuosities, the swellings, the depressions,
+almost insensible and continually varying, at the surface of the parts
+observed. If so, it is certainly in the power of a man of science, with as
+observing an eye, to go still farther, and conceive many other necessary
+circumstances concerning proportion.
+
+But he says: "Though much of this matter may be easily understood by
+common observation, assisted by science, still I fear it will be difficult
+to raise a very clear idea of what constitutes or composes the utmost
+beauty of proportion.... We shall soon find that it is chiefly to be
+effected by means of the nice sensation we naturally have of what certain
+quantities or dimensions of parts are fittest to produce the utmost
+strength for moving or supporting great weights, and of what are most fit
+for the utmost light agility, as also for every degree, between these two
+extremes."
+
+After some illustrations of this, which naturally leave the method very
+vague, he adds: "I am apprehensive that this part of my scheme, for
+explaining exact proportion, may not be thought so sufficiently
+determinate as could be wished." So that Hogarth's method as to
+proportions, both general and particular, reduces itself to the employment
+of the eye and the nice sensation we have of quantities or dimensions.
+
+But the Greek artists had not only done what Hogarth thus vaguely speaks
+of, but advanced much farther; and indeed all that has been done on this
+important subject belongs rather to the history of art than that of
+nature.
+
+"It is not," says Buffon, "by the comparison of the body of one man with
+that of another man, or by measures actually taken in a great number of
+subjects, that we can acquire this knowledge [that of proportion]: it is
+by the efforts which have been made exactly to copy and imitate nature; it
+is to the art of design that we owe all that we know in this respect.
+Feeling and taste have done all that mechanics could not do; the rule and
+the compass have been quitted in order to profit by the eye; all the
+forms, all the outlines, and all the parts of the human body, have been
+realized in marble; and we have known nature better by the representation
+than by nature itself. It is by great exercise of the art of design and by
+an exquisite sentiment, that great statuaries have succeeded in making us
+feel the just proportions of the works of nature. The Greeks have formed
+such admirable statues, that with one consent they are regarded as the
+most exact representation of the most perfect human body. These statues,
+which were only copies from man, are become originals, because these
+copies were not made from any individual, but from the whole human species
+well observed, so well indeed, that no man has been found whose figure is
+so well proportioned as these statues: it is then from these models that
+the measures of the human body have been taken."
+
+It is now necessary to lay before the reader the principles of the Greeks,
+as to the proportions of the human body. Much has been well done on this
+subject by Winckelmann, Bossi, and others; but, at the same time, from
+want of enlarged anatomical and physiological views, they have overlooked
+some fundamental considerations, and have failed to unravel the greatest
+difficulties which the subject presents. That the reader may be satisfied
+of the accuracy of my representations, I shall lay the statements of these
+writers before him in their own words, rendering them only as succinct as
+possible.[44]
+
+Of the first epoch of art among the Etruscans and Greeks, Mengs says:
+"They preferred the most necessary things to those which were less so; and
+therefore they directed their attention first to the muscles, and next to
+_proportion_, these constituting the two parts the most useful and
+necessary of the human form; and this is, throughout, the character of
+their primitive taste. All this we observe in history, and in the divine
+and human figures which they have represented.
+
+"In these figures," he farther observes, "we find a proportion, impossible
+to be known and practised, without an art which furnishes sure _rules_.
+These rules could not be founded otherwise than in proportion, which was
+invented and practised by the Greeks."
+
+In this, Flaxman agrees, when he says: "It must not be supposed that those
+simple geometrical forms of body and limbs, in the divinities and heroes
+of antiquity, depended upon accidental choice, or blind and ignorant
+arbitration. They are, on the contrary, a consequence of the strict and
+extensive examination of nature, of rational inquiry into its most perfect
+organization and physical well-being, expressed in outward appearance."
+
+"That the Greeks," says Bossi, "wrote much on this subject [their doctrine
+respecting symmetry] we have ample evidence in Pliny, Vitruvius himself,
+Philostratus the younger, and others.
+
+"Polycletus did not confine himself to giving a commentary upon this
+fundamental point, but, in illustration of his treatise, according to
+Galen, made an admirable statue that confirmed the precepts laid down in
+the work; and 'The Rule of Polycletus,' the name given to this statue,
+became so famous for its beauty, that it passed into a proverb to express
+a perfect body, as we may find in Lucian.
+
+"But of so many writings, which ought at least to equal the works that
+remain to us, and probably were superior, inasmuch as it is easier to lay
+down precepts than to put them in execution--of so many treatises, I say,
+not a fragment remains [except the few lines of Vitruvius], nor is there,
+now, any hope that a vestige will be found, unless something may remain
+for posterity among the papyri of Herculaneum."
+
+Now, to approach to the ancients in excellence is quite impossible, until
+some one shall explain the great principles on which they acted. Assuredly
+they are, in some of the most important respects, unknown at present.
+Servile imitation will never answer the purpose; and to learn as the
+ancients did, and reach perfection, perhaps, in as many ages, is not very
+rational, when we can avail ourselves of their practice to discover their
+principles. I will, in this chapter, endeavor to point out some of these
+principles in the practice of art, as I have already done in the general
+theory of beauty.
+
+"It is probable," says Winckelmann, "that the Grecian artists, in
+imitation of the Egyptians, had fixed, by well-determined rules, not only
+the largest, but even the very smallest proportions, and the measure of
+the length proper to every age and to every kind of contour; and probably
+all these rules were learned by young persons, from books that treated of
+symmetry."
+
+These rules, we know, were of three kinds--numerical, geometrical, and
+harmonic; and we shall see, in the sequel, that the loss of them has been
+much deplored. It is not a little curious, however, that the numerical and
+geometrical methods are, in some measure, actually practised even at the
+present day, and that the harmonic method (the loss of which has caused
+the greatest confusion) is easily deducible from anatomical and
+physiological principles, as I shall endeavor to show.
+
+As to the NUMERICAL METHOD, it is evidently that of which Vitruvius has
+preserved some notions, and which is at present practised by artists.
+
+"As it is the painter's business," says Bossi, "to imitate a great variety
+of human bodies, and as the difference of parts in beautiful bodies is
+generally slight, and becomes, as it were, imperceptible, in the most
+usual imitations less than life, Leonardo perceived it was necessary for
+the artist to use a general measure, for the purpose of preparing
+historical compositions quickly. He required that the figure to be
+employed should be carefully selected on the model of some natural body,
+the proportions of which were generally considered beautiful.--This
+measure, he required, should be employed solely for _length_, and not for
+width, which requires more evident variety."
+
+"It has been observed," says Flaxman, "that Vitruvius, from the writings
+of the most eminent Greek painters and sculptors, informs us that they
+made their figures eight heads high, or ten faces, and he instances
+different parts of the figure measured according to that rule, which the
+great Michael Angelo adopted, as we see by a print from a drawing of
+his."
+
+Winckelmann, however, shows that the foot served the Greeks as a measure
+for all their larger dimensions, and that their sculptors regulated their
+proportions by it, in giving six times its length, as the model of the
+human figure. Vitruvius says, "_Pes vero altitudinis corporis sextæ_."
+
+"The foot," says Winckelmann, "which among the ancients was used as the
+standard of measures of every magnitude (for a given measure of fluids was
+also called by this name), was very useful to sculptors in fixing the
+proportions of the body, and with reason; for the foot was a more
+determinate measure than that of the head or face, of which the moderns
+generally make use. The ancient artists regulated the size of their
+statues by the length of the foot, making them, according to Vitruvius,
+six times the length of the foot. Upon this principle, Pythagoras
+determined the height of Hercules, by the length of the feet with which he
+measured the Olympic stadium at Elis.
+
+"This proportion of six to one between the foot and the body, is founded
+upon experience of nature, even in slender figures: it is found correct,
+not only in the Egyptian statues, but also in the Grecian; and it will be
+discovered in the greater part of the ancient figures where the feet are
+preserved."
+
+"We would not omit mentioning," says Bossi, "the erroneous opinion of
+those, who esteem the feet of females beautiful in proportion to their
+smallness. The beauty of the feet consists in the handsomeness and
+neatness of their shape, not in their being short, or extremely small:
+were it otherwise, the feet of the Chinese and Japanese women would be
+beautiful, and those of the Venus de Medici frightful."
+
+Such, then, is evidently the numerical method of the ancients.--Of the
+GEOMETRICAL METHOD, we have many illustrations.
+
+A man standing upright, with his arms extended, is, as Leonardo da Vinci
+has shown, enclosed in a square, the extreme extent of his arms being
+equal to his height. This is evidently the most general measure of the
+latter kind.
+
+Of the latter kind, also, is Camper's ellipsis for measuring the relative
+size of the shoulders in the male, and the pelvis in the female.
+
+So also is the measure from the centre of one mammæ to that of the other,
+as equal to the distance from each to the pit over the breast-bone.
+
+We now approach the chief difficulty, which evidently formed a
+stumbling-block even to Leonardo da Vinci--that HARMONIC METHOD which,
+strange as it may appear, will be found to afford rules that are at once
+perfectly _precise_, and yet infinitely _variable_. The apparent
+impossibility indeed of such a rule seems to have embarrassed every one.
+And the statement which Bossi makes in regard to Leonardo da Vinci, in
+this respect, is exceedingly interesting.
+
+"He thought," says Bossi, "but little of any general measure of the
+species; and that _the true proportion_ admitted by him, and acknowledged
+to be of difficult investigation, is solely _the proportion of an
+individual in regard to himself_, which, according to true imitation,
+should be _different in all the individuals of a species_, as is the case
+in nature. Thus, says he, '_all the parts of any animal should correspond
+with the whole_; that which is short and thick, should have every member
+short and thick; that which is long and thin, every member long and thin;
+and that which is between the two, members of a proportionate size.' From
+this and other precepts, it follows, that, when he speaks of proportion,
+he is to be understood as referring to the _harmony of the parts of an
+individual_, and not to the general rule of imitation in reference to
+dimensions."--How clearly (notwithstanding the error as to _all_ being
+short and thick) does this point to the harmonic method of proportion
+forthwith to be explained?
+
+"It would seem he felt within himself that he did not reach the perfection
+of those wonderful ancients of whom he professed himself the admirer and
+disciple.
+
+"It became, therefore, Leonardo's particular care and study to approach as
+nearly as he could to the ancients in the true imitation of beautiful
+nature under the guidance of philosophy.
+
+"But whether from want of great examples, or from not sufficiently
+penetrating, as he himself thought, into these artifices, or from
+comprehending them too late, he modestly laments that he did not possess
+the ancient art of proportions. He then protests that he has done the
+little he was able to do, and asks pardon of posterity that he has not
+done more. Such are the sentiments that Platino exhibits in the following
+epitaph:
+
+           "Leonardus Vincia (sic) Florentinus
+           Statuarius Pictor que nobilissimus
+                    de se parce loquitur.
+
+  "Non sum Lysippus; nec Apelles; nec Policletus,
+    Nec Zeuxis; nec sum nobilis ære Myron.
+  Sum Florentinus Leonardus Vincia proles;
+    Mirator veterum discipulusque memor.
+  _Defuit una mihi symmetria prisca_: peregi
+    Quod potui: veniam da mihi posteritas."
+
+"It is evident that these sentiments are not to be attributed to the
+imagination of the poet."
+
+Bossi, having no glimpse of the great principles for which Leonardo sought
+in vain, says: "Since, then, this great man could not satisfy himself in
+the difficult task of dimensions, while on other points he seems to dread
+no censure, it should give us a strong idea of the difficulty of
+determining the laws of beautiful symmetry, and preserving it in works
+with _that harmony which is felt, but cannot be explained, and which
+varies in every figure, according to the age, circumstances, and
+particular character of each_.
+
+"And when we recollect that, though Leonardo sought successfully in
+Vitruvius the proportions which Vitruvius himself seems to have drawn from
+the Greeks, he yet lamented that he did not possess the ancient symmetry,
+it is easily seen that he did not mean by this science, as already stated,
+a determinate general measure for man, but _that harmony of parts which
+is suited to each individual, according to the respective circumstances of
+sex, age, character, and the like_." Again, how clearly does this point to
+the harmonic method of proportion to be presently explained!
+
+"But," Bossi proceeds, "how difficult it is to combine the beautiful and
+elegant, with easy and harmonic measures, may be judged from the vain
+attempts of many otherwise ingenious men, as I will here relate for the
+benefit of artists. The difficulty will be still more evident if we
+reflect how arduous a task it is to make the proportions that the Greeks
+denominated numerical, harmonic, and geometrical, agree together, and to
+apply them thus agreeing, to the formation of rules and measures of a
+visible object so various in its component parts as the human body."--In
+despair, Bossi tries to show its absolute impossibility!
+
+"In the second place, to penetrate completely the natural reason of the
+proportions of the human body, would require a knowledge of physics, which
+it is not in man's power to obtain. The universal equilibrium of the
+numerous constituent parts of the human machine, every one of which
+eminently attains the end for which it was destined, without interrupting
+the course that every other part takes to its respective end, in which
+true proportion seems to consist, is more easily stated than understood.
+And even if an artist could arrive at such a knowledge of man as to be
+able, so to speak, to compose him, he would have done but little, because
+he would have made but one man. By the alteration of only one of the
+infinite parts that compose the human frame, the equilibrium and
+respective relation of the others are necessarily altered: in short, each
+separate individual would be the subject of a totally new study.
+
+"Every human habit, of whatever nature it may be, has an influence over
+the human figure, and from the indefinable variety and incalculable
+mixture of such habits, there results an infinite variety of figures.
+Thus, it is evident that true general proportions cannot be laid down
+without violating nature, which it is the object of art to imitate."--If,
+by "general proportions," Bossi here means proportions applicable to all
+or to a great number, he completely loses sight of the object of the great
+man on whose opinions he comments; for he sought _a rule for the harmony
+of parts in each distinct individual_!
+
+Again, Bossi abandons, as impossible, the finding of the harmonic rule,
+which was the great object of Leonardo.--"From what has been said, we may
+finally conclude that large proportions only can be established, and that
+placing too much confidence in measures, retards, rather than favors the
+arts.
+
+"It was written of Raphael, and is seen, that he had as many proportions
+as he made figures. Michael Angelo did the same, and it was his saying,
+that he who had not the compasses in his eye, would never be able to
+supply the deficiency by artificial means. Vincentio Danti, who treasured
+the doctrine of Michael Angelo, asserts in his work, that the proportions
+do not fall under any measure of quantity. We have seen the infinite
+exceptions of Leonardo, respecting the measurement of man, and his own few
+works confirm it. I speak no more of inferior persons among the moderns;
+but turning to the ancients, I find that the proportions of every good
+statue are different."--And this will be found conformable to the harmonic
+rule.
+
+"And speaking generally of works in relievo, what canons can determine the
+largeness or smallness of some parts, so as to obtain a greater effect
+according to the circumstances of light, distance, material, visual point,
+&c.? Certainly none."--This was not to be expected from the rule sought
+for.
+
+"I shall deem that I have gained some recompense for the toil of wading
+through so many tedious works, if it shall induce any faith in the advice
+I now give, namely, that 'every student of painting should himself measure
+many bodies of acknowledged beauty, compare them with the finest
+imitations in painting and sculpture, and from these measures make a canon
+for himself, dividing it in the manner best suited to his genius and
+memory. If this plan were more generally adopted, art and its productions
+would both be gainers.'"--It might do so, among as ingenious a people as
+the Greeks, in as many ages as the same method cost them to do it in!
+Leonardo da Vinci wanted to abridge the time, instead of beginning again!
+
+Winckelmann as little understands this great man's object, when, after
+saying, "As the ancients made ideal beauty their principal study, they
+determined its relations and proportions," he adds "from which, however,
+they allowed themselves to deviate, when they had a good reason, and
+yielded themselves to the guidance of their genius." Why, the whole
+purpose of the rule sought for was to regulate every possible deviation,
+as will now be seen.
+
+The harmonic method of the Greeks--that measure which Leonardo calls the
+"true proportion"--"the proportion of an individual in regard to
+himself"--"which should be different in all the individuals of a species,"
+but in which "all the parts of any animal should correspond with the
+whole," which constitutes "the harmony of the parts of an individual," and
+which, as Bossi adds, "varies in every figure, according to the age,
+circumstances, and particular character of each"--in short, _this method
+for the harmony of parts in each distinct individual--this method
+presenting rules, perfectly precise, and yet infinitely variable_, has, in
+all its elements, been clearly laid before the reader (though not
+enunciated as a rule)--in the relative proportions of the locomotive,
+nutritive, and thinking systems, or, generally speaking, of the limbs,
+trunk, and head, and in the three species of beauty which are founded on
+them.
+
+These, it is evident, present to the philosophic observer, the sole means
+of judging of beauty by harmonic rule, the great object of Leonardo da
+Vinci's desires and regrets. They present the great features of the Greek
+method--if that method conformed to truth and nature, as it undoubtedly
+did. This will be rendered still clearer by a single example.
+
+Thus, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+nutritive system, this harmonic rule of nature demands not only that, as
+in the Saxon-English, the Dutch, and many Germans, the trunk shall be
+large, but consequently, that the other two portions, the head and the
+limbs, shall be relatively small; that the calvarium shall be small and
+round, and the intellectual powers restricted; that the head shall,
+nevertheless, be broad, because the vital cavities of the head are large,
+and because large jaws and muscles of mastication are necessary for the
+supply of such a system; that the neck shall be short, because the
+locomotive system is little developed; that it shall be thick, because the
+vessels which connect the head to the trunk are large and full, the former
+being only an appendage of the latter; that the lower limbs shall be both
+short and slender; that the calves of the legs shall be small and
+high;[45] that the feet shall be little turned out, &c., &c.
+
+So also, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+locomotive system, the harmonic rule demands, not only that the limbs
+shall be large, but, consequently, that the other two portions, the head
+and the trunk, shall be relatively small; that the calvarium shall be
+small and long, and the intellectual powers limited; that the head shall
+be long, because the jaws and their muscles are extended, &c., &c.
+
+So likewise, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+thinking system, the harmonic rule demands, not only that the head shall
+be large, but, consequently, that the other two portions, the trunk and
+limbs, shall be relatively small; that the head shall not only be large,
+but that its upper part, the calvarium, shall be largest, giving a
+pyramidal appearance to the head; that the trunk and limbs, however
+elegantly formed, shall be relatively feeble, the former often liable to
+disease, the latter to accident, as we have seen in the most illustrious
+examples, &c., &c.
+
+It must be borne in mind, however, as already explained, that there may be
+innumerable combinations and modifications of these characteristics;
+certain greater ones, nevertheless, generally predominating.
+
+Such, doubtless, was the harmonic method of the Greeks; whether, by them,
+it was thus clearly founded on anthropology, or not.
+
+It is curious that several writers, and Winckelmann among the rest, should
+have adopted a triple division of the body--without, however, duly
+founding it in anthropology. Thus Winckelmann says "the entire body is
+divided into three parts, and the principal members are also divided into
+three. The parts of the body are the trunk, the thighs, and the legs!"--a
+distribution and division founded neither in nature nor in truth.
+
+That the Greeks were more or less aware of the principles here stated,
+though their writings have not descended to us, is proved by their
+idealizations founded upon them.
+
+"If different proportions," says Winckelmann, "are sometimes met with in
+any figure, as for example, in the beautiful trunk of a naked female
+figure in the possession of Signior Cavaceppi at Rome, in which the body
+from the navel to the sexual parts is of an uncommon length, it is most
+probable that such figures have been copied from nature, that is, from
+persons so formed."--Nothing certainly would be better founded in natural
+tendency than such idealization.
+
+All the three Greek methods of proportion being now before the reader, I
+must briefly notice other circumstances.
+
+In the head in particular, may be observed CHARACTER, or a permanent and
+invariable form, which defines its capabilities, and EXPRESSION, or
+temporary and variable forms, which indicate its actual functions.
+
+The teachers of anatomy for artists have not, that I know of, clearly
+described the causes of these. I may therefore observe, that as character
+is permanent and invariable, it depends _fundamentally_ on permanent and
+invariable parts--the bones; and as expression is temporary and variable,
+it depends on shifting and variable parts--the muscles.
+
+It is well observed by Mengs that, in relation to character, "the
+peculiar distinction of the ancients is, that from one part of the face,
+we may know the character of the whole." And, of expression, Winckelmann
+observes that "the portion which possesses beauty of expression or action,
+or beauty of both added to the figure of any person, is like the
+resemblance of one who views himself in a fountain; the reflection is not
+seen plainly unless the surface of the water be still, limpid, and clear;
+quiet and tranquillity are as suitable to beauty as to the sea. Expression
+and action being, in art as in nature, the evidence of the active or
+passive state of the mind, perfect beauty can never exist in the
+countenance unless the mind be calm and free from all agitation, at least
+from everything likely to change and disturb the lineaments of which
+beauty is composed."
+
+Now the details which, during the period of perfection in art, were so
+skilfully employed, were these very means of expression or circumstances
+attending and indicating them--minuter forms which are universal, and
+without which nature is imperfectly represented--minuter forms of the
+highest order, because the means of expressing intellect, emotion, and
+passion, if required.
+
+These higher details we find, for instance, in the turn of the inner end
+of the eyebrow, or constriction and elevation of the under eyelid, or a
+hundred other traits dependant on subjacent muscles. We find them in
+slight risings of mere cutaneous parts, when they lie over and are
+elevated by the attachment of muscles, as at the inner angles of the
+eyes, the corners of the mouth, and elsewhere. We find them in
+depressions or furrows, when they are drawn down by contiguous muscles.
+These are of higher character, because they belong to expression or its
+means; and there is a corresponding want of completeness, of truth, of
+nature, without them.
+
+Between these intellectual means, these higher details, and those of a
+lower order, accidental details, the great artists of Greece
+distinguished. Accidental details have nothing to do with expression or
+the means of expression; they depend upon an inferior system, that merely
+of life, and constitute all the depositions, excrescences, and growths,
+which confuse the vision of the inexperienced, and embarrass that of the
+most discriminating, in the examination of higher beauty.
+
+These lower details we find, for instance, in the puffings of adipose
+substance which project from the spaces between the muscles of the face,
+and from other accidents of the vital system, as wrinkles or folds from
+the absence of adipose substance, fulness or emptiness of the vessels,
+projecting veins, peculiar conditions of the skin, turbidity of the eyes,
+hairs of the head, beard, or skin, &c. These have always characterized
+inferior artists and inferior periods of art.
+
+From these observations, it will be seen that such unqualified statements
+as the following by Azara, lead only to misconception: "A human face, for
+example, is composed of the forehead, brows, eyes, nose, cheeks, mouth,
+chin, and beard. These are the great parts; but each of these contains
+many other minor parts, which also contain an infinity of others still
+less. If the painter will content himself to express well the great parts
+which I have taken notice of, he will have a grand style; if he depicts
+also the second, his style will be that of mediocrity; and if he pretends
+to introduce the last, his style will be insignificant and ridiculous."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE GREEK IDEAL BEAUTY.
+
+
+On this important doctrine of art, of which Winckelmann says: "The ideal
+is as much more noble than the mechanical as the mind is superior to the
+body," I shall follow, so far as I can advantageously, the great writers
+on this subject, in order that the reader may have all the confidence in
+its recognised portions that authority can bestow, and that he may the
+better distinguish them from the new views which are here added.
+
+"There are," says Winckelmann, "two kinds of beauty, individual and ideal:
+the former is a combination of the beauties of an individual; the latter,
+a selection of beautiful parts from several.
+
+"The formation of beauty was begun from some beautiful individual, that
+is, from the imitation of some beautiful person, as in the representation
+of some divinity. Even in the ages when the arts were flourishing, the
+goddesses were formed from the models of beautiful women, and even from
+those who publicly sold their charms: such was Theodota, of whom Xenophon
+speaks. Nor was any one scandalized at it, for the opinion of the ancients
+on these matters was very different from ours."
+
+Winckelmann adds: "There is rarely or never, a body without fault, all the
+parts of which are such that it is impossible to find or draw them more
+perfect in other persons. The wisest artists, being aware of this ... did
+not confine themselves to copying the forms of beauty from one individual
+... but seeking what is beautiful from various objects, they endeavored to
+combine them together, as the celebrated Parrhasius says in his discourse
+with Socrates. Thus, in the formation of their figures, they were not
+guided by any personal affections, by which we are frequently led, in the
+pursuit of beauty that pleases us, to abandon true beauty.
+
+"From the selection of the most beautiful parts and their harmonious union
+in one figure, arises ideal beauty: nor is this a metaphysical idea,
+because all the portions of the human figure taken separately are not
+ideal; but merely the entire figure." And he elsewhere says: "It is called
+ideal, not as regards its parts, but as a whole, in which nature can be
+surpassed by art."
+
+With deeper observation still, he adds that, "though nature tends to
+perfection in the formation of individuals, yet she is so constantly
+thwarted by the numerous accidents to which humanity is subject, that she
+cannot attain the end proposed; so that it is in a manner impossible to
+find an individual in whom all parts of the body are perfectly beautiful."
+
+It was to the same purport that Proclus had in ancient times said: "He who
+takes for his model such forms as nature produces, and confines himself
+to an exact imitation of them, will never attain to what is perfectly
+beautiful. For the works of nature are full of disproportion, and fall
+very short of the true standard of beauty. So that Phidias, when he formed
+his Jupiter, did not copy any object ever presented to his sight, but
+contemplated only that image which he had conceived in his mind from
+Homer's description."[46]
+
+In short, while the Greek artists perpetually studied nature, they
+discovered her best and highest tendencies even in her most perfect forms;
+their works accordingly present nothing foreign to that which is strictly
+beautiful; they present not only no inferior forms, but no idle ornaments;
+and everything in them is accordingly at once simple and sublime.
+
+Barry[47] affords me the means of continuing the view I now wish to
+present. "In all individuals," he says, "of every species, there is
+necessarily a visible tendency to a certain point or form. In this point
+or form, the standard of each species rests. The deviations from this,
+either by excess or deficiency, are of two kinds: first, deviations
+indicating a more peculiar adaptation of certain characters of advantage
+and utility, such as strength, agility, and so forth; even mental as well
+as corporeal, since they sometimes result from habit and education, as
+well as from original conformation. In these deviations, are to be found
+those ingredients which, in their composition and union, exhibit the
+abstract or ideal perfection in the several classes or species of
+character. The second kind of deviation is that which, having no reference
+to anything useful or advantageous, but rather visibly indicating the
+contrary, as being useless, cumbersome, or deficient, is considered as
+deformity; and this deformity will be always found different in the
+several individuals, by either not being in the same part, in the same
+manner, or in the same degree. The points of agreement which indicate the
+species, are therefore many; of difference which indicate the deformity,
+few."
+
+Barry, however, wrongly says: "Mere beauty, then, though always
+interesting, is, notwithstanding, vague and indeterminate; as it indicates
+no particular expression either of body or mind." But it indicates the
+highest character, the capability of all noble expression, and this is
+better than its sacrifice to actuality in one.
+
+I am now led to the greater rules which their ideal method suggested to
+the Greeks. Payne Knight indeed says: "Precise rules and definitions, in
+matters of this sort, are merely the playthings or tools of
+system-builders;" and, unchecked by any recollection of the practical and
+unrivalled excellence of the founders of these rules, he adds a great deal
+of narrow-minded and mistaken nonsense upon the subject, never
+distinguishing between rules in themselves rational, and the stretching of
+them to utter inapplicability. On this subject, even Reynolds properly
+observes, that "some of the greatest names of antiquity, and those who
+have most distinguished themselves in works of genius and imagination,
+were equally eminent for their critical skill. Plato, Aristotle, Cicero,
+and Horace; and among the moderns, Boileau, Corneille, Pope, and Dryden,
+are at least instances of genius not being destroyed by attention or
+subjection to rules and science."
+
+But the grossest errors on this subject have been committed by Alison, who
+says: "Artists, in every age, have taken pains to ascertain the most exact
+measurement of the human form, and of all its parts.... If the beauty of
+form consisted in any original proportion, the productions of the fine
+arts would everywhere have testified it; and, in the works of the statuary
+and the painter, we should have found only this sole and sacred system of
+proportion. The fact however is, as every one knows, that, in such
+productions, no such rule is observed; that there is no one proportion of
+parts which belongs to the most beautiful productions of these arts; that
+the proportions of the Apollo, for instance, are different from those of
+the Hercules, the Antinous, the Gladiator, &c.; and that there are not,
+in the whole catalogue of ancient statues, two, perhaps, of which the
+proportions are actually the same."
+
+Now, I believe, we may say that this original or most perfect proportion
+is presented in the Apollo, which is not, as generally supposed, an
+example of _peculiar_, but of _universal_ beauty--the locomotive system
+presenting as much strength as is compatible with agility, and as much
+agility as is compatible with strength, and any other modification of
+either ensuring diminution of power; while the vital and mental systems
+are equally perfect. Wherever this model is deviated from by the ancient
+artists it is _peculiar_ beauty, I believe, that is represented.
+
+He farther says: "They have imagined also various standards of this
+measurement; and many disputes have arisen, whether the length of the
+head, of the foot, or of the nose, was to be considered as this central
+and sacred standard. Of such questions and such disputes, it is not
+possible to speak with seriousness, when they occur in the present times."
+So also Burke says: "It must be likewise shown, that these parts stand in
+such a relation to each other, that the comparison between them may be
+easily made, and that the affection of the mind may naturally result from
+it."
+
+Now, no man in his senses ever cared which of these measures was adopted,
+except as a matter of convenience, or ever imagined that peculiar virtue
+resided in any of them.
+
+The following are some of the principal rules which either by intuition
+or with due definition, resulted from and guided the practice of the
+ancient Greeks.
+
+First, in regard to the THINKING SYSTEM, when the ancient artists, either
+from taste or from principle, gave greater opening to the facial angle
+than eighty degrees, they believed that an increase of intelligence
+corresponded to that conformation. By increasing the angle beyond
+eighty-five degrees, they impressed upon their figures the grandest
+character, as we see in the heads of the Apollo, the Venus, and others
+whose facial angle extends to or exceeds ninety degrees.
+
+In regard to _the forehead_, then, this afforded their rule for
+distinguishing beings of a superior kind. How well they observed the
+tendency of nature to increase that angle with the increase of some of the
+thinking faculties, we now know. This ideal rule was, therefore, admirably
+founded.
+
+Whoever reflects on the nature of this angle will perceive that its
+increase tended nowise to raise the forehead, but to throw it forward, and
+therefore to lengthen the head. This conforms to the metaphor by which a
+_long head_ is used for a _wise head_, and which has not yet given place
+to a _broad head_, preferred by the German craniologists, in compliment to
+their own organization.
+
+With regard to the height of the forehead, it has already been observed
+that it was, among the ancient Greeks, more considerable than its breadth,
+as may be seen by the busts of their most illustrious men. Still, neither
+the natural nor the ideal forehead much exceeded the space from the
+forehead to the bottom of the nose, or that from the nose to the bottom of
+the chin.
+
+Winckelmann accordingly says: "The forehead to be beautiful should be low
+[meaning, as his expressions elsewhere show, no higher than the other two
+spaces just mentioned]; and its lowness was so fixed among the ideas of
+beauty by the Grecian artists, that it serves as a mark to distinguish
+modern heads from ancient. The reason of this appears founded in the very
+rules of proportion, which, as in the whole human body, was among the
+ancients tripartite: thus, the face also was divided into three parts; so
+that the forehead should be of the same length as the nose, and the
+remainder of the face to the chin of the same length likewise. This
+proportion was founded on observation, and we may at any time convince
+ourselves of it in any individual with a low forehead, by covering with a
+finger the hair at the top of the forehead, so as to render it so much
+higher, and we shall then see a want of harmony of proportion and how
+detrimental a high forehead is to beauty."
+
+These views of Winckelmann, the ideal rule which they illustrate, and,
+above all, the actual dimension of the forehead among the philosophers,
+the poets, and the legislators of Greece, whose genius has been unequalled
+in modern times, show the folly of the craniological hypothesis. The
+reason of the ideal rule has not, indeed, been assigned: it appears to me
+to be this, that the three parts of the face which, as I have shown both
+here and in my work on physiognomy, are respectively connected with
+ideas, emotions, and passions, should be equal one to another, or that
+these acts of the organs of sense and brain should be in due proportion
+and harmony. While, therefore, I do not, with the craniologists, seek the
+predominance of any one of them, neither do I, with Giovani de Laet, take
+no notice of the space between the top of the head and the commencement of
+the forehead, and say this part is not to be considered in the height of a
+man, _quia pars excrementosa est_!
+
+Their next rule regarded the form of _the nose_, in nearly the same line
+with the forehead, and with little indentation between these parts.
+
+The foundation of this rule I have not seen pointed out; and it was indeed
+difficult of discovery, without previous knowledge of the physiological
+fact first mentioned in my physiognomical work, namely, that the nose is
+the inlet of vital emotion or pleasure, as the eye is of mental emotion;
+while the passions connected with nutrition and thought respectively,
+depend upon other organs, the mouth and the ear. Anatomists know how
+closely associated are the nose and the eyes, and the mouth and the ears,
+respectively.
+
+Now, as in these ideal representations, their object was to increase the
+means of emotion, but not those of passion, the organs of the former, the
+nose and the eyes, were all, at the same time, enlarged by raising the
+junction of the forehead and the nose; while those of passion, the mouth
+and the ears, were relatively decreased. Not only was the passage of nose
+or of the olfactory nerves to the brain strikingly dilated by this
+elevation of the intermediate part, but the orbits of the eyes were
+enlarged. As then we naturally associate the increase of organs with the
+increase of their sensations and with corresponding effects upon the
+brain, and as the tendency to such configuration is as conspicuous in the
+countries they inhabited, as is the energy of the emotions with which they
+are connected, this rule was as admirably founded as the former in natural
+tendencies.
+
+I deem this a pendant to Camper's discovery of the facial angle, and one
+too which was not quite so obvious or so easy to be made. It disposes of
+this middle or intermediate part of the face, and shows that the Greeks in
+beings of the highest character, desired the gradual predominance of
+emotion over passion, and of ideas or intellect over emotion.
+
+A vague feeling of the curious fact I have here explained, Alison, as a
+man of taste, had, when he said: "Apply, however, this beautiful form, to
+the countenance of the warrior, the bandit, the martyr, &c., or to any
+countenance which is meant to express deep or powerful _passion_, and the
+most vulgar spectator would be sensible of dissatisfaction, if not
+disgust."
+
+In endeavoring to assign a reason for the configuration which I have just
+explained, Winckelmann, in ascribing it to the mere production of effect,
+is driven into a ridiculous inconsistency. He thinks that for large
+statues seen at a distance, it was necessary, and so came to be used for
+small medals seen near, for which it was not necessary.
+
+"In the heads of statues, and particularly in ideal heads, the eyes are
+deeper set: the bulb remains more deep than is usual in nature, in which
+sunken eyes render the countenance austere and cunning instead of calm and
+joyful. In this respect, art has departed with reason from nature; for, in
+figures placed to be seen at a distance, if the bulb of the eye were level
+with the edge of the orbit, there would be no effect produced of light and
+shade; and the eye itself, placed under the eyebrows which do not project,
+would be dull and inexpressive. This maxim, adopted for large statues,
+became in time universal; so that it may be observed even on medals, not
+only in ideal heads but in portraits." And elsewhere he says: "Art
+subsequently established it as a rule to give this form to the eyes even
+in small figures, as may be seen in the heads on coins."
+
+Thus Winckelmann's reason avowedly explains only the half of that to which
+it is applied, and in reality explains nothing, because it leaves a gross
+inconsistency, of which Greek genius was incapable.
+
+Of the general outline thus formed of the face, Winckelmann more truly
+says: "In the formation of the face, the Greek profile is the principal
+characteristic of sublime beauty. This profile is produced by the straight
+line, or the line but very slightly indented, which the forehead and nose
+form in youthful faces, especially female ones. Nature seems less
+disposed to accord this form to the face in cold than in mild and
+temperate climes; but wherever this profile is found, it is always
+beautiful. The straight full line expresses a kind of greatness, and,
+gently curved, it presents the idea of agreeable delicacy. That in these
+profiles exists one cause of beauty is proved by the character of the
+opposite line; for the greater the inflection of the nose, the less
+beautiful is the face; and if, when seen sidewise, it presents a bad
+profile, it is useless to look for beauty in any other view."
+
+A _third rule_ of the Greek artists, in heads of the highest character, is
+greatly illustrated by the new views just stated. If, in these, they
+desired to render ideas and intellect more dominant than emotions of
+pleasure or pain, and emotions more dominant than passion, it becomes
+evident why they equally sought to avoid the convulsions of impassioned
+expression.
+
+A very beautiful object of this, is mistaken by Winckelmann. I quote his
+words:--
+
+"Taken in either sense [of action or of passion], expression changes the
+features of the face, and the disposition of the body, and, consequently,
+the forms which constitute beauty; and the greater the change, the greater
+the loss of beauty. Therefore, the state of tranquillity and repose was
+considered as a fundamental point in the art. Tranquillity is the state
+proper to beauty.
+
+"The handsomest men are generally the most mild and the best disposed.
+
+"Besides, tranquillity and repose, both in men and animals, is the state
+which allows us best to examine and represent their nature and qualities;
+as we can see the bottom of the sea or rivers only when the waves are
+tranquil and the stream runs smoothly.
+
+"Therefore, the Grecian artists, wishing to depict, in their
+representations of their deities, the perfection of human beauty, strove
+to produce, in their countenances and actions, a certain placidity without
+the slightest change or perturbation, which, according to their
+philosophy, was at variance with the nature and character of the gods. The
+figures produced in this state of repose, expressed a perfect equilibrium
+of feeling.
+
+"But, as complete tranquillity and repose cannot exist in figures in
+action, and even the gods are represented in human form, and subject to
+human affections, we must not always expect to find in them the most
+sublime idea of beauty. This is then compensated for by expression. The
+ancient artists, however, never lost sight of it: it was always their
+principal object, to which expression was in some sort made subservient.
+
+"Beauty without expression would be insignificant, and expression without
+beauty would be unpleasing; but, from their influence over each other,
+from combining together their apparently discordant qualities, results an
+eloquent, persuasive, and interesting beauty."
+
+Some of these remarks are true and beautiful; but _the great object of the
+Greeks, in suppressing the convulsions of impassioned expression, was the
+bestowal of grace_, the highest quality in all representation. It is
+surprising that this should have been so universally overlooked, that,
+even among artists, nothing is more common than to hear regrets that the
+Greeks gave so little expression to their figures! Let the reader now
+peruse again Dr. Smith's and Mr. Alison's account of grace, and if he is
+acquainted with the productions of ancient art, he will see that the
+Greeks suppressed impassioned expression only to bestow the highest degree
+of grace. Those, therefore, who complain of this, show themselves ignorant
+of the best object of their art.
+
+If the explanation of this great purpose be clearly borne in mind, the
+remaining observations of Winckelmann will receive a better application
+than that to which he limited them:--
+
+"Repose and tranquillity may be regarded as the effect of that composed
+manner which the Grecians studied to show in their actions and gestures.
+Among them, a hurried gait was regarded as contrary to the idea of decent
+deportment, and partaking somewhat of expressive boldness.... While on the
+other hand, slow and regulated motions of the body were proofs among the
+ancients of a great mind.
+
+"The highest idea of tranquillity and composure is found expressed in the
+representations of the divinities; so that from the father of the gods to
+the inferior deities, their figures appear free from the influence of any
+affection. The greatest of the poets thus describes Jupiter as making all
+Olympus tremble by merely moving his eyebrow or shaking his locks.... All
+the figures of Jupiter are not however made in the same style.
+
+"The Vatican Apollo represents this god quiet and tranquil after the death
+of the serpent Python which he had slain with a dart, and should also
+express a certain contempt for a victory so easy to him. The skilful
+artist, who wished to imbody the most beautiful of the gods, has depicted
+anger in the nose, which according to the most ancient poets was the seat
+of it, and contempt in the lips: contempt is expressed by the drawing up
+of the under lip, and anger by the expansion of the nostrils.
+
+"The expression of the passions in the face should accord with the
+attitude and gestures of the body; and the latter should be suitable to
+the dignity of the gods in their statues and figures: from this results
+its propriety.
+
+"In representing the figures of heroes, the ancient artist exercised equal
+care and judgment; and expressed only those human affections which are
+suitable for a wise man, who represses the violence of his passions, and
+scarcely allows a spark of the internal flame to be seen, so as to leave
+to those who are desirous of it, the trouble of finding out what remains
+concealed.
+
+"We have examples of this in two of the most beautiful works of antiquity,
+one of which is the image of the fear of certain death, the other of
+suffering exceeding anguish.
+
+"Niobe and her daughters, against whom Diana shot her fatal arrows, are
+represented as seized with terror and horror, in that state of
+indescribable anguish, when the sight of instant and inevitable death
+deprives the mind of the power of thought. Of this state of stupor and
+insensibility, the fable gives us an idea in the metamorphosis of Niobe
+into a stone; and hence Æschylus introduces her in his tragedy as stunned
+and speechless. In such a moment, when all thought and feeling ceases, in
+a state bordering upon insensibility, the appearance is not altered nor
+any feature of the face disturbed, and the mighty artist could here depict
+the most sublime beauty, and has indeed done so. Niobe and her daughters
+are, and ever will be, the most perfect models of beauty.
+
+"Laocoon is the image of the most acute grief, that puts the nerves, the
+muscles, and the veins, in action. His blood is in a state of extreme
+agitation from the venomous bite of the serpents; every part of his body
+evinces pain and suffering; and the artist has put in motion, so to speak,
+all the springs of nature, and thus made known the extent of his art and
+the depth of his knowledge. In the representation, however, of this
+excessive torment, we can still recognise the conduct of a brave man
+struggling against his misfortunes, stifling the emotions of his anguish,
+and striving to repress them."
+
+"The ancient artists have preserved this air of composure even in their
+dancing figures, except the Bacchanals; and thus an opinion obtained that
+the action of their figures should be modelled on the manners adopted in
+their ancient dances, and therefore, in their later dances, the ancient
+figures served as a model to the performers to prevent their overstepping
+the bounds of a modest deportment:
+
+      Molli diducunt candida gestu
+  Brachia.                   _Propert._
+
+"No immoderate or violent passions are ever found expressed in the public
+works of the ancients.
+
+"The knowledge of the ancients cannot be better known than by comparing
+their performances with the majority of those of the moderns, in which a
+little is expressed by much, instead of much by a little. This is what the
+Greeks call [Greek: parenthyrsos]; a word that aptly expresses the defect
+produced by too much expression in modern artists. Their figures resemble
+in action the comedians of the ancient theatre, who, to render themselves
+visible even to the most distant portion of the audience, were compelled
+to exceed the limits of nature and truth; and the faces of modern figures
+are like the ancient masks, which for the same reason, the increase of
+expression, became hideous.
+
+"This excess of expression is taught in a book which goes into the hands
+of all young artists, 'A Treatise on the Passions,' by Carlo Le Brun, and
+in the annexed drawings, not only is the highest degree of passion
+expressed on the face, but in some even to madness."
+
+Hence, we may say with Azara, that "the Greeks possessed that art in such
+perfection, that in their statues one scarcely discovers that they had
+thought of expression, and nevertheless each says that which it ought to
+say. They are in a repose which shows all the beauty without any
+alteration; and a soft and sweet motion, of the mouth, the eyes, or the
+mere action, expresses the effect, enchanting at once the mind and the
+senses."
+
+In the inferior beings, however, when passion is expressed, the features
+are varied by the Greek artists as they are in nature.
+
+Such are the great ideal rules with regard to the head and the functions
+of thought.
+
+With regard to the body and the NUTRITIVE SYSTEM, the Greeks similarly
+idealized. "Seeking for images of worship, consequently of a nature
+superior to our own, so that they might awaken in the mind veneration and
+love, they thought that the representations most worthy of the Divinity,
+and most likely to attract the attention of man, would be those expressing
+the continuance of the gods in eternal youth and in the prime of life.
+
+"To the idea derived from the poets, of the eternal youth of the deities,
+whether male or female, was added another by which they supposed the
+female divinities should have all the appearance of virgins.
+
+"The form of the breast in the figures of the divinities, is like that of
+a virgin, which, to be beautiful, must possess a moderate fulness. This
+was particularly shown in the breasts, which the artists represented
+without nipples, like those of young girls, whose cincture, in the poet's
+phrase, Lucina has not yet undone.
+
+On their treatment of the limbs and LOCOMOTIVE SYSTEM, Hogarth throws
+light; and, as I am not aware that he was anticipated in this respect, I
+quote him:--
+
+"May be," he says, "I cannot throw a stronger light on what has been
+hitherto said of proportion, than by animadverting on a remarkable beauty
+in the Apollo Belvidere, which hath given it the preference even to the
+Antinous: I mean a superaddition of greatness, to at least as much beauty
+and grace as is found in the latter.
+
+"These two masterpieces of art are seen together in the same apartment at
+Rome, where the Antinous fills the spectator with admiration only, while
+the Apollo strikes him with surprise, and, as travellers express
+themselves, with an appearance of something more than human; which they of
+course are always at a loss to describe: and this effect, they say, is the
+more astonishing, as, upon examination, its disproportion is evident even
+to a common eye. One of the best sculptors we have in England, who lately
+went to see them, confirmed to me what has been now said, particularly as
+to the legs and thighs being too long, and too large for the upper parts.
+
+"Although, in very great works, we often see an inferior part neglected,
+yet here it cannot be the case, because, in a fine statue, just proportion
+is one of its essential beauties: therefore, it stands to reason, that
+these limbs must have been lengthened on purpose, otherwise it might have
+been easily avoided.
+
+"So that if we examine the beauties of this figure thoroughly we may
+reasonably conclude, that what has been hitherto thought so unaccountably
+excellent in its general appearance, has been owing to what has seemed a
+blemish in a part of it: but let us endeavor to make this matter as clear
+as possible, as it may add more force to what has been said.
+
+"Statues, by being bigger than life (as this one is, and larger than the
+Antinous), always gain some nobleness in effect, according to the
+principle of quantity, but this alone is not sufficient to give what is
+properly to be called greatness in proportion.... Greatness of proportion
+must be considered as depending on the application of quantity to those
+parts of the body where it can give more scope to its grace in movement,
+as to the neck for the larger and swanlike turns of the head, and to the
+legs and thighs, for the more ample sway of all the upper parts together.
+
+"By which we find that the Antinous being equally magnified to the
+Apollo's height, would not sufficiently produce that superiority of
+effect, as to greatness, so evidently seen in the latter. The additions
+necessary to the production of this greatness in proportion, as it there
+appears added to grace, must then be, by the proper application of them to
+the parts mentioned only.
+
+"I know not how farther to prove this matter than by appealing to the
+reader's eye, and common observation, as before.... The Antinous being
+allowed to have the justest proportion possible, let us see what addition,
+upon the principle of quantity, can be made to it, without taking away
+any of its beauty.
+
+"If we imagine an addition of dimensions to the head, we shall immediately
+conceive it would only deform--if to the hands or feet, we are sensible of
+something gross and ungenteel--if to the whole lengths of the arms, we
+feel they would be dangling and awkward--if, by an addition of length or
+breadth to the body, we know it would appear heavy and clumsy--there
+remains then only the neck, with the legs and thighs to speak of; but to
+these we find, that not only certain additions may be admitted without
+causing any disagreeable effect, but that thereby greatness, the last
+perfection as to the proportion, is given to the human form, as is
+evidently expressed in the Apollo."
+
+This is well done by Hogarth. It required but a little anatomical
+knowledge to see the reason of this. The length of the neck, by which the
+head is farther detached from the trunk, shows the independence of the
+higher intellectual system upon the lower one of mere nutrition; and the
+length of limbs shows that the mind had ready obedience in locomotive
+power.
+
+I have now to obviate some OBJECTIONS to the existence of simple, pure,
+high, and perfect ideal beauty, objections, which writers on this subject
+have hitherto neglected.
+
+Alison says: "The proportions of the form of the infant are very different
+from those of youth; these again from those of manhood; and these again
+perhaps still more from those of old age and decay.... Yet every one
+knows, not only that each of these periods is susceptible of beautiful
+form, but, what is much more, that the actual beauty in every period
+consists in the preservation of the proportions peculiar to that period,
+and that these differ in every article almost from those that are
+beautiful in other periods of the life of the same individual."
+
+But the beauty of the infant is not perfect beauty: it is that, on the
+contrary, of mere promise, not that of fulfilment. So also the beauty of
+old age is not perfect beauty: it is that, on the contrary, which affects
+and interests us chiefly by the regret we feel that its perfection has
+passed, or is gradually vanishing.
+
+"The same observation," says Alison, "is yet still more obvious with
+regard to the difference of sex. In every part of the form, the
+proportions which are beautiful in the two sexes are different; and the
+application of the proportions of the one to the form of the other, is
+everywhere felt as painful and disgusting." So also says Burke: "Let us
+rest a moment on this point; and consider how much difference there is
+between the measures that prevail in many similar parts of the body, in
+the two sexes of this single species only. If you assign any determinate
+proportions to the limbs of man, and if you limit human beauty to these
+proportions, when you find a woman who differs in the make and measure of
+almost every part, you must conclude her not to be beautiful in spite of
+the suggestions of your imagination; or in obedience to your imagination
+you must renounce your rules; you must lay by the scale and compass, and
+look out for some other cause of beauty. For, if beauty be attached to
+certain measures which operate from a principle in nature, why should
+similar parts with different measures of proportion be found to have
+beauty, and this, too, in the very same species?"
+
+To this I might say the beauty of woman is not the highest beauty: it is
+beauty of the nutritive more than of the higher thinking system. But there
+is another and a better answer: the difference of sex which affects all
+the higher animals is a greater difference than that which subsists
+between some of their varieties or even of their species; and the same
+laws of ideal beauty are as inapplicable to different sexes as to
+different species.
+
+"We see, every day, around us," says Alison, "some forms of our species
+which affect us with sentiments of beauty. In our own sex, we see the
+forms of the legislator, the man of rank, the general, the man of science,
+the private soldier, the sailor, the laborer, the beggar, &c. In the other
+sex, we see the forms of the matron, the widow, the young woman, the
+nurse, the domestic servant, &c.... We expect different proportions of
+form from the painter, in his representation of a warrior and a shepherd,
+of a senator and of a peasant, of a wrestler and a boatman, of a savage
+and of a man of cultivated manners.... We expect, in the same manner, from
+the statuary, very different proportions in the forms of Jove and of
+Apollo [this should have been excepted], of Hercules and of Antinous, of a
+Grace and of Andromache, of a Bacchanal and of Minerva," &c.
+
+That, in all these cases, the beauty is partial, is evident from the
+circumstance that what is found in one is wanting in another; and partial
+beauty is not perfect beauty. But this last point has been well stated by
+Reynolds and Barry.
+
+"To the principle I have laid down," says Reynolds, "that the idea of
+beauty in each species of being is an invariable one, it may be objected,
+that in every particular species there are various central forms which are
+separate and distinct from each other, and yet are undeniably beautiful;
+that in the human figure, for instance, the beauty of Hercules is one, of
+the Gladiator another, of the Apollo another [again the same error]; which
+makes so many different ideas of beauty.... It is true, indeed, that these
+figures are each perfect in their kind, though of different character and
+proportions; but still none of them is the representation of an
+individual, but of a class. And as there is one general form, which, as I
+have said, belongs to the human kind at large, so in each of these classes
+there is one common idea and central form, which is the abstract of the
+various individual forms belonging to that class. Thus, though the forms
+of childhood and age differ exceedingly, there is a common form in
+childhood, and a common form in age, which is the more perfect, as it is
+more remote from all peculiarities. But I must add farther, that though
+the most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the human
+figure are ideal, and superior to any individual form of that class, yet
+the highest perfection of the human figure is not to be found in any one
+of them. It is not in the Hercules, nor in the Gladiator, nor in the
+Apollo, but in that form which is taken from all, and which partakes
+equally of the activity of the Gladiator, of the delicacy of the Apollo,
+and of the muscular strength of the Hercules. For perfect beauty in any
+species must combine all the characters which are beautiful in that
+species. It cannot consist in any one to the exclusion of the rest: no
+one, therefore, must be predominant, that no one may be deficient."
+
+"A high degree of particular character," says Barry, "cannot be
+superinduced upon pure or simple beauty without altering its constituent
+parts; this is peculiar to grace only; for particular characters consist,
+as has been observed before, in those deviations from the general standard
+for the better purpose of effecting utility and power, and become so many
+species of a higher order; where nature is elevated into grandeur,
+majesty, and sublimity."
+
+There is AN IDEAL IN ATTITUDE as well as in the form of the head and body.
+
+This ideal is exactly opposed to the academical rule mentioned by
+Dufresnoy, Reynolds, and others, namely, that the right leg and left arm,
+or the left leg and right arm, should be advanced or withdrawn together.
+These are the mere attitudes of progression, not those of expression; and
+the academical rule is only an academical blunder. To anything but
+walking--to the free and unembarrassed expressions of the body, it is,
+indeed, quite inapplicable, and could produce only contortion.
+
+The rule of ideal attitude, which I long ago deduced, both from
+physiological principles, and from the practice of the Greek artists, is
+that all the parts of one side of the body should be advanced or withdrawn
+together; that when one side is advanced, the other should be withdrawn;
+and that when the right arm is elevated, extended, or bent forward, the
+left leg should be elevated, extended, or bent backward--in all respects
+the reverse of the academical rule, so complacently mentioned by
+Dufresnoy, Reynolds, &c.
+
+The foundation of this rule in the necessary balance of the body, and that
+distribution of motion which equally animates every part, must be obvious
+to every one. It is illustrated by the finest statues of the Greeks,
+wherever the expression intended was free and unembarrassed, and even in
+those, as the Laocoon and his sons, where, though the action was
+constrained and convulsive, the sculptor was yet at liberty to employ the
+most beautiful attitude. It is abandoned in these great works, when either
+action embarrassed by purpose, or clownishness, as in the Dancing Faun,
+are expressed.[48]
+
+I have now only to add, with Moreau, that individual beauty, the most
+perfect, differs always greatly from the ideal, and that which is least
+removed from it, is very difficult to be found. Hence, in all languages,
+the epithet _rare_ is attached to beauty; and the Italians even call it
+_pellegrina_, foreign, to indicate that they have not frequently an
+opportunity of seeing it: they speak of "_bellezze
+pellegrine_,"--"_leggiadria singolare e pellegrina_."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE IDEAL OF FEMALE BEAUTY.
+
+"Hominum divûmque voluptas, alma Venus."
+
+
+Of this, the most perfect models have been created by Grecian art. Few, we
+are told, were the living beauties, from whom such ideal model could be
+framed. The difficulty of finding these among the women of Greece, must
+have been considerable, when Praxiteles and Apelles were obliged to have
+recourse, in a greater or less degree, to the same person, for the
+beauties of the Venus of Cnidos, executed in white marble, and the Venus
+of Cos, painted in colors. It is asserted by Athenæeus, that both these
+productions were, in some measure, taken from Phryne of Thespia, in
+Boeotia, then a courtesan at Athens.
+
+Both productions are said to have represented Phryne coming out of the
+sea, on the beach of Sciron, in the Saronic gulf, between Athens and
+Eleusis, where she was wont to bathe.
+
+It is said, that there, at the feast of Neptune, Phryne, in the presence
+of the people of Eleusis, having cast aside her dress, and allowing her
+long hair to fall over her shoulders, plunged into the sea, and sported
+long amid its waves. An immense number of spectators covered the shore;
+and when she came out of it, all exclaimed, "It is Venus who rises from
+the waters!" The people would actually have taken her for the goddess, if
+she had not been well known to them.
+
+Apelles and Praxiteles, we are told, were both upon the shore; and both
+resolved to represent the birth of Venus according to the beautiful model
+which they had just beheld.
+
+Such is said to have been the origin of two of the greatest works of
+antiquity. The work of Apelles, known under the name of Venus Anadyomene,
+was placed by Cesar in the temple of Venus Genitrix, after the conquest of
+Greece. An idea of the sculpture of Praxiteles is supposed to have been
+imperfectly preserved to modern times in the Venus de Medici.
+
+We are farther told, that, after having studied several attitudes, Phryne
+fancied to have discovered one more favorable than the rest for displaying
+all her perfections; and that both painter and sculptor were obliged to
+adopt her favorite posture. From this cause, the Venus of Cnidos, and the
+Venus of Cos, were so perfectly alike, that it was impossible to remark
+any difference in their features, contour, or more particularly in their
+attitude.
+
+The painting of Apelles, it is added, was far from exciting so much
+enthusiasm among the Greeks, as the sculpture of Praxiteles. They fancied
+that the marble moved; that it seemed to speak; and their illusion, says
+Lucian, was so great, that they ended by applying their lips to those of
+the goddess.[49]
+
+"Praxiteles," says Flaxman, "excelled in the highest graces of youth and
+beauty. He is said to have excelled not only other sculptors, but himself,
+by his marble statues in the Ceramicus of Athens; but his Venus was
+preferable to all others in the world, and many sailed to Cnidos for the
+purpose of seeing it. This sculptor having made two statues of Venus, one
+with drapery, the other without, the Coans preferred the clothed figure,
+on account of its severe modesty, the same price being set upon each. The
+citizens of Cnidos took the rejected statue, and afterward refused it to
+King Nicomedes, who would have forgiven them an immense debt in return;
+but they were resolved to suffer anything so long as this statue by
+Praxiteles ennobled Cnidos.... This figure is known by the descriptions of
+Lucian and Cedrenus, and it is represented on a medal of Caracalla and
+Plautilla, in the imperial cabinet of France. This Venus was still in
+Cnidos during the reign of the emperor Alcadius, about four hundred years
+after Christ. This statue seems to offer the first idea of the Venus de
+Medici, which is likely to be the repetition of another Venus, the work of
+this artist." He elsewhere says of the Venus of Praxiteles, it was "the
+most admired female statue of all antiquity, whose beauty is as perfect as
+it is elevated, and as innocent as perfect; from which the Medicean Venus
+seems but a deteriorated variety."
+
+Flaxman states that he himself had seen, in the stables of the Braschi
+palace, a statue which he supposed might be the original work of
+Praxiteles. Strange to tell, nothing is now known of its fate! A supposed
+cast from this, or from a copy of it, conforming to the figure on the
+model of Caracalla, is to be seen at the Royal Academy.
+
+Of the VENUS DE MEDICI, Flaxman says, it "was so much a favorite of the
+Greeks and Romans, that a hundred ancient repetitions of this statue have
+been noticed by travellers. The individual figure is said to have been
+found in the forum of Octavia. The style of sculpture seems to have been
+later than Alexander the Great.
+
+Let us now briefly examine this Model of Female Beauty.
+
+The Venus de Medici represents woman at that age when every beauty has
+just been perfected. "The Venus de Medici at Florence," says Winckelmann,
+"is like a rose which, after a beautiful daybreak, expands its leaves to
+the first ray of the sun, and represents that age when the limbs assume a
+more finished form and the breast begins to develop itself."
+
+The size of the head is sufficiently small to leave that predominance to
+the vital organs in the chest, which, as already said, makes the nutritive
+system peculiarly that of woman. This is the first and most striking proof
+of the profound knowledge of the artist, the principles of whose art
+taught him that the vast head, on the contrary, was the characteristic of
+a very different female personage.[50]--In mentioning the head, it is
+scarcely possible to avoid noticing the rich curls of the hair.
+
+The eyes next fix our attention by their soft, sweet, and glad expression.
+This is produced with exquisite art. To give softness, the ridges of the
+eyebrows are rounded. To give sweetness, the under eyelid, which I would
+call the expressive one, is slightly raised. "The eyes of Venus," says
+Winckelmann, "are smaller, and the slight elevation of the lower eyelid
+produces that languishing look called by the Greeks [Greek: hygron]." To
+give the expression of gladness or of pleasure, the opening of the eyelids
+is diminished, in order to diminish, or partially to exclude, the excess
+of those impressions, which make even pleasure painful. Other exquisite
+details about those eyes, confer on them unparalleled beauty. Still, as
+observed by the same writer, this look is far from those traits
+indicative of lasciviousness, with which some modern artists have thought
+to characterize their Venuses. Love was considered by the ancient masters,
+as by the wise philosophers of those times, to use the expression of
+Euripides, as the counsellor of wisdom: [Greek: tê sophia paredrous
+erôtas]. One thing must be observed: there is not here, as in some less
+happy representations of Venus, any downcast look, but that aspect of
+which Metastasio, in his Inno a Venere, says:
+
+  "Tu colle lucide
+  Pupille chiare,
+  Fai lieta e fertile
+  La terra e'l mare."
+
+And again:
+
+  "Presto à tuoi placidi
+  Astri ridenti,
+  Le nubi fuggono,
+  Fuggono i venti."[51]
+
+Art still profounder was perhaps shown in the configuration of the nose.
+The peculiar connexion of this sense with love was evidently well
+understood by the great artist; and it is only gross ignorance that has
+made some persons question the appropriateness of that development of the
+organ which is here represented. Not only is smell peculiarly associated
+with love, in all the higher animals, but it is associated with
+reproduction in plants, the majority of which evolve delicious odors only
+when the flowers or organs of fructification are displayed.[52]--Connected,
+indeed, with the capacity of the nose, and the cavities which open into
+it, is the projection of the whole middle part of the face.
+
+In the mouth, also, is transcendent art displayed. It is rendered sweet
+and delicate by the lips being undeveloped at their angles,[53] and by the
+upper lip continuing so, for a considerable portion of its length. It
+expresses love of pleasure by the central development of both lips, and
+active love by the especial development of the lower lip.[54] By the
+slight opening of the lips, it expresses desire.[55]
+
+These exquisite details, and the omission of nothing intellectually
+expressive that nature presents, have led some to imagine the Venus de
+Medici to be a portrait. In doing so, however, they see not the profound
+calculation required for nearly every feature thus imbodied. More
+strangely still, they forget the ideal character of the whole: the notion
+of this ideal head being too small, is especially opposed to such an
+opinion. If more is wanting, it will surely be enough that the other works
+which we are supposed to possess of Praxiteles, the Faun and the Cupid,
+present similar fine details.[56]
+
+Withal, the look is amorous and languishing, without being lascivious, and
+is as powerfully marked by gay coquetry, as by charming innocence.
+
+The young neck is exquisitely formed. Its beautiful curves show a thousand
+capabilities of motion; and its admirably-calculated swell over the organ
+of voice, results from, and marks, the struggling expression of still
+mysterious love.
+
+In short, I know no antique figure that displays such profound knowledge,
+both physiological and physiognomical, even in the most minute details;
+and all who are capable of appreciating these things, may well smile at
+those who pretend to compare with this any other head of Venus now known
+to us.
+
+"With regard to the rest of the figure, the admirable form of the mammæ,
+which, without being too large, occupy the bosom, rise from it with
+various curves on every side, and all terminate in their apices, leaving
+the inferior part in each precisely as pendent as gravity demands; the
+flexile waist gently tapering little farther than the middle of the trunk;
+the lower portion of it beginning gradually to swell out higher even than
+the umbilicus; the gradual expansion of the haunches, those expressive
+characteristics of the female, indicating at once her fitness for the
+office of generation and that of parturition--expansions which increase
+till they reach their greatest extent at the superior part of the thighs;
+the fulness behind their upper part, and on each side of the lower part of
+the spine, commencing as high as the waist, and terminating in the still
+greater swell of the distinctly-separated hips; the flat expanse between
+these, and immediately over the fissure of the hips, relieved by a
+considerable dimple on each side, and caused by the elevation of all the
+surrounding parts; the fine swell of the broad abdomen which, soon
+reaching its greatest height, immediately under the umbilicus, slopes
+gently to the mons veneris, but, narrow at its upper part, expands more
+widely as it descends, while, throughout, it is laterally distinguished by
+a gentle depression from the more muscular parts on the sides of the
+pelvis; the beautiful elevation of the mons veneris; the contiguous
+elevation of the thighs which, almost at their commencement, rise as high
+as it does; the admirable expansion of these bodies inward, or toward each
+other, by which they almost seem to intrude upon each other, and to
+exclude each from its respective place; the general narrowness of the
+upper, and the unembraceable expansion of the lower part thus exquisitely
+formed;--all these admirable characteristics of female form, the mere
+existence of which in woman must, one is tempted to imagine, be, even to
+herself, a source of ineffable pleasure--these constitute a being worthy,
+as the personification of beauty, of occupying the temples of Greece;
+present an object finer, alas! than nature seems even capable of
+producing; and offer to all nations and ages a theme of admiration and
+delight.
+
+Well might Thomson say:--
+
+  "So stands the statue that enchants the world,
+  So bending tries to veil the matchless boast,
+  The mingled beauties of exulting Greece."
+
+And Byron, in yet higher strain:--
+
+    "There, too, the goddess loves in stone, and fills
+    The air around with beauty;
+                             within the pale
+    We stand, and in that form and face behold
+    What Mind can make, when Nature's self would fail;
+    And to the fond idolaters of old
+  Envy the innate flash which such a soul could mould:
+
+    We gaze and turn away, and know not where,
+    Dazzled and drunk with beauty, till the heart
+    Reels with its fulness; there--for ever there--
+    Chained to the chariot of triumphal Art,
+    We stand as captives, and would not depart."
+
+
+PROPORTIONS OF THE VENUS DE MEDICI.
+
+     Has seven heads, seven parts, and three minutes in height.
+
+     From the top of the head to the root of the hair, three parts.
+
+     From the root of the hair to the eyebrows, three parts.
+
+     From the eyebrows to the bottom of the nose, three parts.
+
+     From the bottom of the nose, to that of the chin, three parts.
+
+     From the bottom of the chin to the depression between the clavicles,
+     four parts, three minutes and a half.
+
+     From the depression between the clavicles to the lowest part of the
+     breast, ten parts, five minutes.
+
+     From the lowest part of the breast to the middle of the navel, eight
+     parts, three minutes.
+
+     From the middle of the navel to the base of the belly and beginning
+     of the thighs, eleven parts, four minutes and a half.
+
+     From the bottom of the belly to the middle of the kneepan, eighteen
+     parts, two minutes.
+
+     From the middle of the kneepan to the beginning of the flank,
+     twenty-seven parts, three minutes.
+
+     From the middle of the kneepan to the ground, twenty-five parts,
+     three minutes.
+
+     The greatest height of the foot, three parts, five minutes and a
+     half.
+
+     From the neck of the leg to the end of the toes, nine parts and half
+     a minute.
+
+     From the commencement of the humerus to the elbow, twenty parts, two
+     minutes.
+
+     From the elbow to the beginning of the hand, fourteen parts.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the forearm, five parts.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the arm, four parts, five minutes.
+
+     From the depression between the clavicles to the beginning of the
+     deltoid, six parts, four minutes.
+
+     From the depression between the clavicles to the point of the nipple,
+     ten parts and half a minute.
+
+     Between the points of the nipples, eleven parts, two minutes.
+
+     The breadth of the torso, at the level of the lowest part of the
+     breast, fifteen parts, four minutes and a half.
+
+     The least breadth of the torso, at the commencement of the flanks,
+     fourteen parts, one minute.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the torso, at the bottom of the flanks,
+     seventeen parts, five minutes.
+
+     The breadth from the trochanter of one thigh to that of the other,
+     nineteen parts, three minutes.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the thigh, nine parts, five minutes.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the knee, six parts.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the calf of the leg, six parts, three minutes
+     and a half.
+
+     The breadth from one ankle to another, four parts.
+
+     The least breadth of the foot, three parts, three minutes and a half.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the foot, five parts and one minute.
+
+The arms of the Venus de Medici, it should be observed, are of modern
+construction, and unworthy of the figure.
+
+The VENUS OF NAPLES is of altogether a different species of beauty.
+
+That figure represents an ample and rather voluptuous matron, in an
+attitude of scarcely surpassable grace. The character of the face is
+beautiful, in profile especially, and its expression is grave. The mouth
+has much of nature about it, resembling greatly in character that feature
+as seen in Southern Europe; but its expression, though tender, is
+somewhat serious or fretful.
+
+It presents, however, many faults. The head is monstrous. The neck is
+equally so, as well as coarse. The forehead, eyes, nose, and cheeks,
+present none of the finely-calculated details, which surprise and delight
+us in the Venus de Medici. The mammæ are not true.
+
+After these, the androgynous being, called the VENUS OF ARLES, is scarcely
+worthy of being mentioned. She derives some grandeur from antique
+character and symmetry, and some from her masculine features. The head is
+monstrous; the neck horrid; the nose heavy; the mouth contemptuous.
+
+Upon the whole, neither the graceful matron of Naples, nor the manlike
+woman of the Louvre, can be brought into competition with the Venus de
+Medici.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+DEFECTS OF BEAUTY.
+
+
+_Defects of the Locomotive System._
+
+1. If the whole figure be either too broad or too tall; because, the first
+is inelegant, and the last unfeminine. Persons who are too tall are
+generally ill at ease and destitute of grace, a greater misfortune to a
+woman than to a man.--Too low a stature is a defect less disagreeable,
+especially for women. If, however, on the one side, it gives prettiness,
+on the other, it deprives of all imposing appearance.
+
+2. If the bones, except those of the pelvis, be not proportionally small;
+because, in woman, this portion of the locomotive system ought to be
+completely subordinate to the vital.
+
+3. If the ligaments, and the articulations they form, be not
+proportionally small; because, in woman, this portion of the locomotive
+system ought also to be completely subordinate to the vital.
+
+Either of the last two defects will produce what is termed clumsiness.
+
+4. If the muscles, generally more slender, feeble, soft and yielding than
+in man, be not large around the pelvis, and delicate elsewhere; because,
+this is necessary, for reasons which will be afterward assigned, as well
+as to permit the ease and suppleness of the movements.
+
+5. If, in a mature female, the length of the neck, compared with the
+trunk, be not proportionally somewhat less than in the male; because, in
+her, the subordination of the locomotive system, the predominance of the
+vital, and the dependance of the mental, are naturally connected with the
+shorter vertebrae and shorter course of the vessels of the neck.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+(The following defects, from 6 to 15 inclusive, have necessarily a
+reference also to the vital system; because, the form and capacity of the
+cavities here spoken of, as formed by the osseous frame of the locomotive
+system, have an obvious relation to the vital organs, which these cavities
+are destined to contain.)
+
+6. If the upper part of the body (exclusive of the bosom) be
+proportionally more, and the lower part of the body less prominent, than
+in man, so that, when she stands perfectly upright or lies on the back,
+the space between the breasts is more prominent than the mons veneris;
+because, such conformation is injurious to impregnation, gestation, and
+parturition.
+
+7. If the shoulders seem wider than the haunches; because, this appearance
+generally arises from the narrowness of the pelvis, and its consequent
+unfitness for gestation and parturition.
+
+8. If, on the contrary, the shoulders be much narrower than the pelvis;
+because, this indicates extreme weakness of the locomotive system.
+
+9. If the shoulders do not slope from the lower part of the neck; because,
+this shows that the upper part of the chest is not sufficiently wide of
+itself, but is rendered angular by the muscularity, &c., of the shoulders.
+
+10. If the upper part of the chest be not relatively short and wide, and
+if it owe not its width rather to itself than to the size of the
+shoulders; because, this shows that the vital organs contained in the
+chest are not sufficiently expanded.
+
+11. If, in youth, the upper part of the trunk, including the muscles
+moving the shoulders, do not form an inverted cone, whose apex is the
+waist; because, in that case, the lightness and beauty of the locomotive
+system are destroyed by the unrestrained expansion of the vital.
+
+12. If the loins be not extended at the expense of the chest above and of
+the limbs below; because, on this depends their capacity to receive organs
+enlarged or displaced during gestation.
+
+13. If the back be not hollow; because, this shows that the pelvis is not
+sufficiently deep to project posteriorly, nor consequently of sufficient
+capacity for gestation and parturition.
+
+14. If the haunches be not widely expanded (as already implied in speaking
+of the shoulders); because, the interior cavity of the pelvis is then
+insufficient for gestation and parturition.
+
+15. If, in consequence of the form of the pelvis, and the arch of the
+pubis being larger, the mons veneris be not more prominent than the
+chest; because, the pelvic cavity is then also insufficient for gestation
+and parturition.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+16. If the thighs of woman be not wider than those of man; because, the
+width of the female pelvis, and the purposes which it serves, require
+this.
+
+17. If the size of the thighs be not large, the haunches as it were
+increasing till they reach their greatest extent at the upper part of the
+thigh, which anteriorly rises as high as the mons veneris, and if the
+knees do not approximate.
+
+18. If the arms and the limbs be not relatively short, if they do not
+taper greatly as they recede from the trunk, and if the hands and feet be
+not small; because, it is the vital system and the trunk, which is by far
+the most important part in the female.
+
+19. If the larynx or flute part of the throat be not small; because their
+magnitude indicates a masculine character.
+
+
+_Defects of the Vital System._
+
+(Defects of the contained vital parts, which have been already implied in
+enumerating those of the containing locomotive parts, are not again
+mentioned here, as the intelligent reader can easily supply these and
+similar omissions.)
+
+1. If, in consequence of marriage taking place before their full growth,
+women remain always of diminished stature, weak, and pale.
+
+2. If the digestive organs being large rather than active, is inconsistent
+with the greater activity and less permanence of all the other functions,
+secretion, gestation, &c., excepted.
+
+3. If the absorbing vessels, being inactive, are insufficient for large
+secretions.
+
+4. If the circulating vessels, being inactive and imperfectly ramified,
+leave the skin cold, opaque, and destitute of complexion.
+
+5. If the secreting vessels, being inactive, furnish neither the plumpness
+necessary to beauty, nor those ovarian, uterine, and mammary excretions on
+which progeny is dependant.
+
+6. If the neck form not an insensible transition between the body and
+head, being sufficiently full to conceal the muscles of the neck and the
+flute part of the throat.
+
+7. If, in a young woman, the mammæ, without being too large, do not occupy
+the bosom, and rise from it with nearly equal curves on every side, which
+similarly terminate in their apices; or if, in the mature woman, they do
+not, when supported, seem laterally to protrude somewhat on the space
+occupied by the arms; because, these show that this important part of the
+vital system is insufficiently developed.
+
+8. If the waist, tapering little farther than the middle of the trunk, and
+being sufficiently marked, especially in the back and loins, by the
+approximation of the expanded pelvis, be not also slightly encroached on
+by the plumpness of all the contiguous parts, without however destroying
+its elegance, softness and flexibility; because, this similarly shows
+feebleness in a portion of that system, which is by far the most important
+to woman.
+
+9. If the waist be broader than the upper part of the trunk, including the
+muscles moving the shoulders; because, this indicates that expansion of
+the stomach, liver, and other glands, which is generally the result of
+their excessive use or excitement. It is attended with a common look and
+an inelegant appearance.
+
+10. If the abdomen be not moderately expanded, its upper portion beginning
+to swell out, higher even than the umbilicus, and its greatest projection
+being almost immediately under that point; because, this shows a weakness
+of the vital system, and a disproportion to the parts immediately above.
+
+11. If the abdomen, which should be highest immediately under the
+umbilicus, slope not gently toward the mons veneris, and be more prominent
+elsewhere; because this is the result of that excessive expansion which
+takes place during parturition.
+
+12. If the abdomen, which, as well as being elevated, should be narrow at
+its upper part, become as broad there as below, and lose that gentle
+lateral depression by which it is distinguished from the more muscular
+parts on the sides of the pelvis; because, this indicates the operation of
+the causes mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
+
+13. If a remarkable fulness exist not behind the upper part of the
+haunches, and on each side of the lower part of the spine, commencing as
+high as the waist, and terminating in the still greater swell of the
+distinctly separated hips; the flat expanse between these and immediately
+over the fissure of the hips, being relieved by a considerable dimple on
+each side, caused by the elevation of all the surrounding parts; because,
+it indicates feebleness in that system which is most essential to woman.
+
+14. If the cellular tissue and the plumpness which is connected with it,
+do not predominate, so as to obliterate all distinct projection of the
+muscles; because, this likewise shows that an important portion of the
+vital system is feeble, and it deprives woman of the forms which are
+necessary to love. Nothing can completely compensate, in woman, for the
+absolute want of plumpness. The features of meager persons are hard; they
+have a dry and arid physiognomy; the mouth is without charm; the color is
+without freshness; their limbs seem ill united with their body; and all
+their movements are abrupt and coarse.
+
+15. If plumpness be too predominant; because, it then destroys the
+distinctness of parts, and constitutes an excess productive of
+inconvenience.
+
+16. If that excessive plumpness be broken, as it were, into masses;
+because, it constitutes coarseness of the vital system.
+
+17. If former plumpness have left the previously-filled cellular tissue
+and expanded integuments enfeebled; because, that constitutes flaccidity.
+
+18. If the almost entire absorption of adipose substance have finally left
+the bones angular, the muscles and other parts permanently rigid, and the
+skin dry; because, that indicates decay of the vital system, and
+characterizes age.
+
+19. If the skin be not fine, soft, and white, delicate, thin, and
+transparent, fresh and animated, if the complexion be not pure and vivid,
+if the hair be not fine, soft, and luxuriant, and if the nails be not
+smooth, transparent, and rose-colored; because, these likewise show the
+feebleness of that system which is most important to woman.
+
+
+_Defects of the Mental System._
+
+1. If the head, compared with the trunk, be not less than that of the
+male; because, the mental system, in the female, ought to be subordinate
+to the vital, and the reverse is inconsistent with the healthful and happy
+exercise of her faculties as woman.
+
+2. If the organs of sense be not proportionally larger, when compared with
+the brain, and more delicately outlined than in the male; because,
+sensibility should exceed reasoning power, in the female.
+
+3. If the brain (in other words) be not proportionally smaller, when
+compared with the organs of sense, than in the male; because, reasoning
+power should be subordinate to sensibility in the female.
+
+4. If the cerebel be not proportionally smaller, when compared with the
+organs of sense, than in the male; because, voluntary power should also be
+subordinate to sensibility, in the female.
+
+5. If the cerebel be not narrow and pointed posteriorly, that is, long
+rather than broad (its general form in woman); because, the volitions of
+woman should be intense, not permanent.
+
+6. If the forehead be not large in proportion to the backhead, but on the
+contrary low, or very narrow; because, the former being the seat of
+observation, if the organ be small, the function must be correspondingly
+so, and in that case passion will probably predominate.
+
+7. If the delicacy of the skin permit not to the touch of woman
+corresponding delicacy.
+
+8. If the mouth be not small, or extend much beyond the nostrils, and if
+the lips be not delicately outlined and of vermillion hue.
+
+9. If the nose be not nearly in the same direction with the forehead, or
+if more than a slight inflexion is to be seen.
+
+10. If the eyes be not relatively large and perfectly clear in every part.
+
+11. If the eyelids, instead of an oblong, form nearly a circular aperture,
+resembling somewhat the eye of monkeys, cats, or birds; because, this
+round eye, when large, and especially when dark, is always indicative of a
+bold, and, when small, of a pert insensibility of character.
+
+12. If the eyelashes be not long and silky, and if the eyebrows be not
+furnished with fine hairs, and be not arched and distinctly separated.
+
+13. If the ears be prominent, so as to alter the regularity of the oval of
+the head, or surcharge its outline with prominences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+EXTERNAL INDICATIONS; OR ART OF DETERMINING THE PRECISE FIGURE, THE DEGREE
+OF BEAUTY, THE MIND, THE HABITS, AND THE AGE OF WOMAN, NOTWITHSTANDING THE
+AIDS AND DISGUISES OF DRESS.
+
+
+_External Indications of Figure._
+
+External indications as to figure are required chiefly as to the limbs
+which are concealed by drapery. Such indications are afforded by the walk,
+to every careful observer.
+
+In considering _the proportion of the limbs to the body_--if, even in a
+young woman, the walk, though otherwise good, be heavy, or the fall on
+each foot alternately be sudden, and rather upon the heel, the limbs,
+though well formed, will be found to be slender, compared with the body.
+
+This conformation accompanies any great proportional development of the
+vital system; and it is frequently observable in the women of the Saxon
+population of England, as in the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, &c.
+
+In women of this conformation, moreover, the slightest indisposition or
+debility is indicated by a slight vibration of the shoulders, and upper
+part of the chest, at every step, in walking.
+
+In considering _the line or direction of the limbs_--if, viewed behind,
+the feet, at every step, are thrown out backward, and somewhat laterally,
+the knees are certainly much inclined inward.
+
+If, viewed in front, the dress, at every step, is as it were, gathered
+toward the front, and then tossed more or less to the opposite side, the
+knees are certainly too much inclined.
+
+In considering _the relative size of each portion of the limbs_--if, in
+the walk, there be a greater or less approach to the marching pace, the
+hip is large; for we naturally employ the joint which is surrounded with
+the most powerful muscles, and, in any approach to the march, it is the
+hip-joint which is used, and the knee and ankle-joints which remain
+proportionally unemployed.
+
+If, in the walk, the tripping pace be used, as in an approach to walking
+on tiptoes, the calf is large; for it is only by the power of its muscles
+that, under the weight of the whole body, the foot can be extended for
+this purpose.
+
+If, in the walk, the foot be raised in a slovenly manner, and the heel be
+seen, at each step, to lift the bottom of the dress upward and backward,
+neither the hip nor the calf is well developed.
+
+Even with regard to the parts of the figure which are more exposed to
+observation by the closer adaptation of dress, much deception occurs. It
+is, therefore, necessary to understand the arts employed for this purpose,
+at least by skilful women.
+
+A person having a narrow face, wears a bonnet with wide front, exposing
+the lower part of the cheeks.--One having a broad face, wears a closer
+front; and, if the jaw be wide, it is in appearance diminished, by
+bringing the corners of the bonnet sloping to the point of the chin.
+
+A person having a long neck has the neck of the bonnet descending, the
+neck of the dress rising, and filling more or less of the intermediate
+space. One having a short neck has the whole bonnet short and close in the
+perpendicular direction, and the neck of the dress neither high nor wide.
+
+Persons with narrow shoulders have the shoulders or epaulets of the dress
+formed on the outer edge of the natural shoulder, very full, and both the
+bosom and back of the dress running in oblique folds, from the point of
+the shoulder to the middle of the bust.
+
+Persons with waists too large, render them less before by a stomacher, or
+something equivalent, and behind by a corresponding form of the dress,
+making the top of the dress smooth across the shoulders, and drawing it in
+plaits to a narrow point at the bottom of the waist.
+
+Those who have the bosom too small, enlarge it by the oblique folds of the
+dress being gathered above, and by other means.
+
+Those who have the lower posterior part of the body too flat, elevate it
+by the top of the skirt being gathered behind, and by other less skilful
+adjustments, which though hid, are easily detected.
+
+Those who have the lower part of the body too prominent anteriorly,
+render it less apparent by shortening the waist, by a corresponding
+projection behind, and by increasing the bosom above.
+
+Those who have the haunches too narrow, take care not to have the bottom
+of the dress too wide.
+
+Tall women have a wide skirt, or several flounces, or both of these:
+shorter women, a moderate one, but as long as can be conveniently worn,
+with the flounces, &c., as low as possible.[57]
+
+
+_External Indications of Beauty._
+
+Additional indications as to beauty are required chiefly where the woman
+observed precedes the observer, and may, by her figure, naturally and
+reasonably excite his interest, while at the same time it would be rude to
+turn and look in her face on passing.
+
+There can, therefore, be no impropriety in observing, that the conduct of
+those who may happen to meet the woman thus preceding, will differ
+according to the sex of the person who meets her.--If the person meeting
+her be a man, and the lady observed be beautiful, he will not only look
+with an expression of pleasure at her countenance, but will afterward turn
+more or less completely to survey her from behind.--If the person meeting
+her be a woman, the case becomes more complex. If both be either ugly or
+beautiful, or if the person meeting her be beautiful and the lady observed
+be ugly, then it is probable, that the approaching person may pass by
+inattentively, casting merely an indifferent glance: if, on the contrary,
+the woman meeting her be ugly, and the lady observed be beautiful, then
+the former will examine the latter with the severest scrutiny, and if she
+sees features and shape without defect, she will instantly fix her eyes on
+the head-dress or gown, in order to find some object for censure of the
+beautiful woman, and for consolation in her own ugliness.
+
+Thus he who happens to follow a female may be aided in determining whether
+it is worth his while to glance at her face in passing, or to devise other
+means of seeing it.
+
+Even when the face is seen, as in meeting in the streets or elsewhere,
+infinite deception occurs as to the degree of beauty. This operates so
+powerfully, that a correct estimate of beauty is perhaps never formed at
+first. This depends on the forms and still more on the colors of dress in
+relation to the face. For this reason, it is necessary to understand the
+principles according to which colors are employed at least by skilful
+women.[58]
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much yellow, then yellow
+around the face is used to remove it by contrast, and to cause the red and
+blue to predominate.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much red, then red around
+the face is used to remove it by contrast, and to cause the yellow and
+blue to predominate.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much blue, then blue around
+the face is used to remove it by contrast, and to cause the yellow and red
+to predominate.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much yellow and red, then
+orange is used.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much red and blue, then
+purple is used.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much blue and yellow, then
+green is used.
+
+It is necessary to observe that the linings of bonnets reflect their color
+on the face, and transparent bonnets transmit that color, and equally
+tinge it. In both these cases, the color employed is no longer that which
+is placed around the face, and which acts on it by contrast, but the
+opposite. As green around the face heightens a faint red in the cheeks by
+contrast, so the pink lining of the bonnet aids it by reflection.
+
+Hence linings which reflect, are generally of the teint which is wanted in
+the face; and care is then taken that these linings do not come into the
+direct view of the observer, and operate prejudicially on the face by
+contrast, overpowering the little color which by reflection they should
+heighten. The fronts of bonnets so lined, therefore, do not widen greatly
+forward, and bring their color into contrast.
+
+When bonnets do widen, the proper contrast is used as a lining; but then
+it has not a surface much adapted for reflection, otherwise it may
+perform that office, and injure the complexion.
+
+Understanding, then, the application of these colors in a general way, it
+may be noticed, that fair faces are by contrast best acted on by light
+colors, and dark faces by darker colors.
+
+Dark faces are best affected by darker colors, evidently because they tend
+to render the complexion fairer; and fair faces do not require dark
+colors, because the opposition would be too strong.
+
+Objects which constitute a background to the face, or which, on the
+contrary, reflect their hues upon it, always either improve or injure the
+complexion. For this and some other reasons, many persons look better at
+home in their apartments than in the streets. Apartments may, indeed, be
+peculiarly calculated to improve individual complexions.
+
+
+_External Indications of Mind._
+
+External indications as to mind may be derived from figure, from gait, and
+from dress.
+
+As to figure, a certain symmetry or disproportion of parts (either of
+which depends immediately upon the locomotive system)--or a certain
+softness or hardness of form (which belongs exclusively to the vital
+system)--or a certain delicacy or coarseness of outline (which belongs
+exclusively to the mental system)--these reciprocally denote a locomotive
+symmetry or disproportion--or a vital softness or hardness--or a mental
+delicacy or coarseness, which will be found also indicated by the
+features of the face.
+
+These qualities are marked in pairs, as each belonging to its respective
+system; for, without this, there can be no accurate or useful observation.
+
+As to gait, that progression which advances, unmodified by any lateral
+movement of the body, or any perpendicular rising of the head, and which
+belongs exclusively to the locomotive system--or that soft lateral rolling
+of the body, which belongs exclusively to the vital system--or that
+perpendicular rising or falling of the head at every impulse to step,
+which belongs exclusively to the mental system--these reciprocally
+indicate a corresponding locomotive, or vital, or mental character, which
+will be found also indicated by the features of the face.
+
+To put to the test the utility of these elements of observation and
+indication, let us take a few instances.--If, in any individual,
+locomotive symmetry of figure is combined with direct and linear gait, a
+character of mind and countenance not absolutely repulsive, but cold and
+insipid, is indicated.--If vital softness of figure is combined, with a
+gentle lateral rolling of the body in its gait, voluptuous character and
+expression of countenance are indicated.--If delicacy of outline in the
+figure, be combined with perpendicular rising of the head, levity, perhaps
+vanity, is indicated.--But there are innumerable combinations and
+modifications of the elements which we have just described. Expressions
+of pride, determination, obstinacy, &c., are all observable.
+
+The gait, however, is often formed, in a great measure, by local or other
+circumstances, by which it is necessary that the observer should avoid
+being misled.
+
+Dress, as affording indications, though less to be relied on than the
+preceding, is not without its value. The woman who possesses a cultivated
+taste, and a corresponding expression of countenance, will generally be
+tastefully dressed; and the vulgar woman, with features correspondingly
+rude, will easily be seen through the inappropriate mask in which her
+milliner or dressmaker may have invested her.
+
+
+_External Indications of Habits._
+
+External indications as to the personal habits of women are both numerous
+and interesting.
+
+The habit of child-bearing is indicated by a flatter breast, a broader
+back, and thicker cartilages of the bones of the pubis, necessary widening
+the pelvis.
+
+The same habit is also indicated by a high rise of the nape of the neck,
+so that the neck from that point bends considerably forward, and by an
+elevation which is diffused between the neck and shoulders. These all
+arise from temporary distensions of the trunk in women whose secretions
+are powerful, from the habit of throwing the shoulders backward during
+pregnancy, and the head again forward, to balance the abdominal weight;
+and they bestow a character of vitality peculiarly expressive.
+
+The same habit is likewise indicated by an excess of that lateral rolling
+of the body in walking, which was already described as connected with
+voluptuous character. This is a very certain indication, as it arises from
+temporary distensions of the pelvis, which nothing else can occasion. As
+in consequence of this lateral rolling of the body, and of the weight of
+the body being much thrown forward in gestation, the toes are turned
+somewhat inward, they aid in the indication.
+
+The habit of nursing children is indicated, both in mothers and
+nursery-maids, by the right shoulder being larger and more elevated than
+the left.
+
+The habits of the seamstress are indicated by the neck suddenly bending
+forward, and the arms being, even in walking, considerably bent forward or
+folded more or less upward from the elbows.
+
+Habits of labor are indicated by a considerable thickness of the shoulders
+below, where they form an angle with the inner part of the arm; and, where
+these habits are of the lowest menial kind, the elbows are turned outward
+and the palms of the hands backward.
+
+The habits of many of the inferior female professions might easily be
+indicated; but they would be unsuitable to a work like this.
+
+
+_External Indications of Age._
+
+External indications of age are required chiefly where the face is veiled,
+or where the woman observed precedes the observer and may reasonably
+excite his interest.
+
+In either of these cases, if the foot and ankle have lost a certain
+moderate plumpness, and assumed a certain sinewy or bony appearance, the
+woman has generally passed the period of youth.
+
+If in walking, instead of the ball or outer edge of the foot first
+striking the ground, it is the heel which does so, then has the woman in
+general passed the meridian of life.--Unlike the last indication, this is
+apparent, however the foot and ankle may be clothed.--The reason of this
+indication is the decrease of power which unfits the muscles to receive
+the weight of the body by maintaining the extension of the ankle-joint.
+
+Exceptions to this last indication are to be found chiefly in women in
+whom the developments of the body are proportionally much greater, either
+from a temporary or a permanent cause, than those of the limbs, the
+muscles of which are consequently incapable of receiving the weight of the
+body by maintaining the extension of the ankle-joint.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+A.
+
+Mr. Walker's extravagant admiration of the Grecian mythology has led him
+to over-estimate its influence upon poetry and the arts. That these were
+influenced, in a very important degree, by the religion of Greece, no one
+acquainted with the history of that nation, can doubt; but, that the arts
+cannot exist where the Grecian mythology is not the popular religion, is
+an opinion unsupported by the history of the past, and altogether opposed
+to their present flourishing state in civilized countries. In no age or
+nation has the art of painting, for example, attained higher perfection,
+than in Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries; a period which has been
+called "the golden age of Italian art," and its high excellence has been
+justly attributed to the introduction of Christianity. "The walls and
+cupolas," says a late writer, "of new and splendid churches were
+immediately covered, as if by enchantment, with the miracles of paintings
+and sculpture--the eager multitude were not compelled to wait till genius
+had labored for years on what it had been years in conceiving. Those eager
+spirits seemed to breathe out their creations in full and mature
+beauty--performing at once, by the buoyant energies of well-disciplined
+genius, more than all the cold precision of mechanical knowledge can ever
+accomplish." Allan Cunningham, in his life of Flaxman, the artist,
+speaking of these paintings, remarks: "Into these Flaxman looked with the
+eye of a sculptor and of a Christian. He saw, he said, that the mistress
+to whom the great artists of Italy had dedicated their genius was the
+Church; that they were unto her as chief priests, to interpret her tenets
+and her legends to the world in a more brilliant language than that of
+relics and images. To her illiterate people, the Church addressed herself
+through the eye, and led their senses captive by the external
+magnificence with which she overwhelmed them."
+
+But it is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove this point. Flaxman
+never uttered a truer saying, than when he remarked, that "the Christian
+religion presents personages and subjects no less favorable to painting
+and sculpture than the ancient classics." Accordingly, we find among his
+own immortal productions, that the monument erected in memory of Miss
+Lushington, in Kent, representing a mother mourning for her daughter,
+comforted by a ministering angel, was inspired by that text of holy writ,
+"Blessed are they that mourn;" and the monument in memory of the family of
+Sir Francis Baring imbodies these words, "Thy will be done--thy kingdom
+come--deliver us from evil." To the first motto belongs a devotional
+figure as large as life--
+
+  "Her looks communing with the skies;"
+
+a perfect image of piety and resignation. On one side, imbodying "Thy
+kingdom come," a mother and daughter ascend to the skies welcomed rather
+than supported by angels; and on the other, expressing the sentiment
+"Deliver us from evil," a male figure, in subdued agony, appears in the
+air, while spirits of good and evil contend for the mastery. This has been
+considered one of the finest pieces of motionless poetry in England. We
+hold, then, that Mr. Walker's remark that "neither poetry nor the arts can
+have being, without the religion of Greece," is far from being sustained,
+either by history or observation.
+
+
+B.
+
+The remarks of Mr. Walker, in relation to the duty of parents and
+teachers, seem to us well-founded and judicious. If moral, as well as
+intellectual and physical education, be part of the parental duty, then it
+would seem to follow, that it should embrace those subjects which are of
+the most importance, both to the physical and moral well-being of the
+child; and surely, the relation of the sexes, and the due subjection of
+the animal propensities, are not the least important of these. There is a
+delicacy generally felt and observed on this point, which springs from a
+principle that we honor and respect, while, at the same time, we doubt
+whether it leads to favorable and auspicious results. No one, who looks
+back upon the years of his own childhood, can for a moment doubt that
+judicious advice and seasonable information on certain subjects, which
+were probably considered of a too delicate nature to be even hinted at,
+would have been highly useful. The young will inevitably become initiated
+into certain vices and evil practices, unless put on their guard, by the
+warning voice of those they love and respect. There are a variety of
+passions, affections, and appetites, which belong to our nature, and were
+intended when properly directed and indulged, to promote our interest and
+happiness. Those under consideration, early begin to manifest themselves,
+and, when left without the restraints of enlightened intellect and the
+moral sense, invariably lead to disastrous consequences. The question then
+is, shall the young and inexperienced be left to the mere accidents of its
+condition, without an effort to give it sound principles to govern it, or
+without bringing some conservative influence to bear upon it? We think,
+with Mr. Walker, that it should not. Both philosophy and reason prove the
+danger of such a course. The circumstances which are connected with sexual
+vices cannot be wholly kept out of view. They meet the eye, or are
+suggested to the imagination, at almost every turn. A thousand scenes and
+incidents occur to excite the passions, if the mind is not fortified
+against their influence. Those who are fastidious, and believe that
+delicacy forbids all allusion to such subjects, will say, "Keep the youth
+in ignorance--conceal, if possible, everything from his view, that may
+excite the passions." Still, there remain the constitutional
+susceptibilities; passion and appetite cannot be eradicated, and they will
+often be excited by incidents, which the most wakeful vigilance will not
+detect or suspect. The fact is, that long before parents are aware of it,
+the child has obtained knowledge on these subjects through many corrupt
+channels; and the associations first formed, are destined to exert, ever
+afterward, a powerful influence for evil. The early associations might, by
+judicious instruction on the part of parents, be of such character, as to
+throw around the youth a barrier almost impregnable. As to the _time_ and
+_manner_ of imparting this instruction, it must be left to the wisdom and
+prudence of teachers and parents and, perhaps, as a general rule, it
+should be left wholly to the latter.
+
+
+C.
+
+Much has been written on the nature of beauty, from the divine Plato, who
+dedicated one of his dialogues to this subject, to Lord Jeffries, the
+editor of the Edinburgh Review; who, in his celebrated article in the
+Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, has excelled all previous
+efforts in its elucidation, and produced an essay, which will stand an
+imperishable monument of his taste, learning, and genius. It is not our
+design to enter upon a consideration of beauty in the abstract, or to
+attempt its analysis, as this has been done by our author in a very able,
+if not satisfactory manner. We take it, however, to denote that quality,
+or assemblage and union of qualities in the objects of our perception,
+whether material, intellectual, or moral, which we contemplate with
+emotions of pleasure; and we refer it to that internal sense, which is
+usually called _taste_. When it is asked, why a thing is beautiful, it is
+not always easy to find a satisfactory answer. We find beauty in color, in
+sound, in form, in motion, in everything. We have beauties of speech,
+beauties of thought, beauties in art, in nature, in the sciences, in
+actions, in affections, and in characters. Dr. Reid well asks, "In things
+so different, and so unlike, is there any quality, the same in all, which
+we may call by the name of beauty?" We shall not attempt to fathom this
+difficulty; indeed, it could not be done, without entering upon a
+metaphysical discussion, dry in detail, and uninteresting in result.
+
+When we come to inquire in what _female beauty_ consists, we shall find
+that there is something which enters into it, beside physical goodness. It
+is not a mere matter of flesh and blood; but color, form, expression, and
+grace, are all essential to its perfection. The two first have been called
+the _body_, the two latter, the _soul_ of beauty--and without the soul,
+the body is but a mass of deformed and inanimate matter:--
+
+  "Mind, mind, alone! bear witness earth and heaven,
+  The living fountains in itself contains
+  Of beauteous and sublime. Here, hand-in-hand,
+  Sit paramount the Graces. Here, enthroned,
+  Celestial Venus, with divinest airs,
+  Invites the soul to never-failing joy."
+
+  AKENSIDE
+
+Color and form are only beautiful, because they are expressive of health,
+delicacy, and softness, in the female sex. It has been remarked, that
+expression has greater power than either beauty or form, as it is only the
+expression of the tender and kind passions that gives beauty; that all the
+cruel and unkind ones add to deformity, and that, on their account,
+good-nature may very properly be said to be the best feature, even in the
+finest face. Modesty, sensibility, and sweetness, blended together, so as
+either to enliven or correct each other, give almost as much attraction as
+the passions are capable of adding to a very pretty face. It is owing to
+this force of pleasingness, which attends all the kinder passions, that
+lovers not only seem, but really are, more beautiful to each other than to
+the rest of the world; and in their mutual presence and intercourse, says
+a French writer, there is a soul upon their countenances, which does not
+appear when they are absent from each other or even in company that lays a
+restraint upon their features. Indeed, it will appear that all the
+ingredients of beauty terminate in expression, and this may be, either
+perfection of the body, or the qualities of the mind. Dr. Reid indeed goes
+so far as to say, that beauty originally dwells in the moral and
+intellectual perfections of mind, and in its active powers. Thus beauty
+may be ascribed to all those qualities which are the natural objects of
+love and kind affections, as the moral virtues, innocence, gentleness,
+condescension, humanity, natural affections, and the whole train of soft
+and gentle virtues--qualities amiable in their nature, and on account of
+their moral worth. So also do intellectual talents excite our love and
+esteem of those who possess them; these are knowledge, good sense, wit,
+humor, cheerfulness, good taste, excellence in any of the fine arts--as
+music, painting, sculpture, embroidery, &c. Thus, for example, the beauty
+of good breeding is not originally in the external behavior in which it
+consists, but is derived from the qualities of mind which it expresses;
+for it has been well observed, that though there may be good breeding
+without the amiable qualities of mind, its beauty is still derived from
+what it naturally expresses.
+
+Flaxman has truly said, that neither mind nor any one of its qualities or
+powers, is an immediate object of perception to men. These are perceived
+through the medium of material objects, on which their signatures are
+impressed. The signs of these qualities are immediately perceived by the
+senses, and by them reflected to the understanding; and we are apt to
+attribute to the sign, the beauty which is properly and originally in the
+thing signified. Thus, the invisible Creator hath stamped on his works
+signatures of his divine wisdom, power, and benignity, which are visible
+to all men. The works of men in science, in the arts of taste, and in the
+mechanical arts, bear the signatures of those qualities of mind which were
+employed in their production. Their external behavior or conduct in life,
+expresses the good or bad qualities of their minds. In every species of
+animals we perceive, by visible signs, their instincts, appetites,
+affections, or sagacity; and even in the inanimate world, there are many
+things analogous to the qualities of mind; so that there is hardly
+anything belonging to mind which may not be represented by images taken
+from objects of sense; and, on the other hand, every object of sense is
+beautiful, by borrowing attire from attributes of the mind. Thus, the
+beauties of mind, though invisible in themselves, are perceived in the
+objects of sense, in which their beauty is impressed. Thus, also, in those
+qualities of sensible objects to which we ascribe beauty, we discover in
+them some relation to mind, and the greatest in those that are most
+beautiful. Every beauty in the vegetable creation, of which we can form
+any rational judgment, expresses some perfection in the object, or some
+wise contrivance in the author. In the animal kingdom we perceive superior
+beauties, resulting from life, sense, activity, various instincts and
+affections, and, in many cases, great sagacity; which are attributes of
+mind, and possess an original beauty. In their manner of life, we observe
+that they possess powers, outward form, and inward structure, exactly
+adapted to it; and the more perfectly any individual is fitted for its end
+and manner of life, the greater is its beauty. This, also, was manifestly
+Milton's theory of beauty; for, in his unrivalled description of our first
+parents in Paradise, he derives their beauty from those expressions of
+moral and intellectual qualities which shone forth in their outward form
+and demeanor:--
+
+  "Two of far nobler shape, erect and tall,
+  God-like erect! with native honor clad,
+  In naked majesty, seemed lords of all,
+  And worthy seemed, for, in their looks divine,
+  The image of their glorious Maker, shone
+  Truth, wisdom, sanctitude, severe and pure;
+  Severe, but in true filial freedom placed,
+  Whence true authority in man; though both
+  Not equal, as their sex not equal seemed,
+  For contemplation he, and valor formed,
+  _For softness she, and sweet attractive grace_."
+
+From these remarks, it will appear that we do not regard novelty alone as
+being "the exciting cause of pleasurable emotions, and of the consequent
+perception of beauty in the relation of things." The beautiful, both in
+statuary and painting, we believe to depend chiefly on the perfection with
+which the artist succeeds in expressing the qualities of the mind, whether
+good or evil; and it is worthy of notice, that Plato, in his Dialogues,
+declares that the good and the beautiful are one and the same. Hence, the
+Greeks called the beautiful [Greek: KALOS].
+
+The influence of novelty has been so well illustrated in an Essay by the
+author of a Treatise on Happiness, that we trust no apology will be
+required for transferring a portion of it to our pages:--
+
+"The term novelty applies to everything new--either newly invented, or
+newly exhibited to us; in the former case the thing is novel to the world,
+in the latter it is novel to ourselves. Novelty powerfully influences the
+senses, the passions, and the manners of human beings; it furnishes
+amusement, employment, and maintenance for man; it accompanies him in his
+progress through this variable being, from the commencement of life to the
+period of dissolution.
+
+"Novelty may be either pleasing or unpleasing. When it affects the senses
+by grateful influences, it occasions admiration and delight. How
+powerfully must the vision of Adam have been affected, when he was
+introduced to being! Everything which he beheld was new. There was drawn
+out before him, the plain, the fruitful valley, the verdant hill. Shrubs
+and trees were distributed around him. The earth was strewed with flowers:
+rivulets and rivers diversified the scene--
+
+  'Rolling on orient pearl, and sands of gold.'
+
+The ocean, perhaps, was stretched out as a plain of silver in the distant
+view; the heavens were robed in splendor; the sun shone brilliantly. His
+own person--himself, was an inextricable mystery. He could move; he could
+think; he could behold the display of creation; he could close his eyes,
+and exclude every impression. All was new; and everything, he might
+naturally have fancied, would remain the same; but, he was destined to
+behold a series of novelties. In a short time, he saw the sun sinking
+below the horizon. The heavens were adorned in their most splendid robes,
+like the gorgeous display of an Eastern monarch. A shade was cast over the
+valleys, and darkness began to gather among the trees, while their tops
+and branches were still illumined in the sunbeams. The shadows of evening
+are now gathered around him; the twinkling stars adorn the heavens; but
+the beauties of hill, vale, waters, trees, and flowers, are departed! How
+sensibly must he have been affected! He would now conclude that his future
+time must be spent in darkness; but he looks toward the East, and across
+the wide expanse of waters he beholds a gleam of light, which leads the
+eye to some great luminary, rising above the horizon, to cheer the nightly
+solitude; and, as it mounts to the zenith, new beauties delight the vision
+of this lonely and astonished inhabitant of the earth. After a short
+period the moon sinks, the sun rises in the heavens, and the same
+delightful scenery is exhibited which was beheld the previous day.
+
+"We can imagine the effect of novelty in producing admiration; when
+travellers, who having been toiling for many days or weeks on the burning
+sands of interminable deserts, come suddenly upon some lovely valley,
+watered by cooling streams, shaded by groves of trees, and beautified with
+clusters of flowers. Or, we can fancy the pleasure which would be produced
+on wayworn voyagers, who had been long toiling on the great deep and they
+come to some blest isle,
+
+        ----'Where the voluptuous breeze
+  The peaceful native breathes, at eventide,
+  From nutmeg-groves, and bowers of cinnamon.'
+
+To the infant everything is novel, and almost everything is a source of
+admiration. The people who move to and fro; the walls and furniture of the
+room; the fire and the candles; the bustle and movement of men and
+carriages; the heavens, sunshine, and rain. These occasion interest and
+surprise. Dr. Brown has inquired, 'What metaphysician is there, however
+subtile and profound in his analytical inquiries, and however successful
+in the analyses which he has made, who would not give all his past
+discovery, and all his hopes of future discovery, for the certainty of
+knowing, with exactness, what every infant feels?" But he would, probably,
+meet with few who would sacrifice so much for the purpose; and yet the
+feelings of an infant must be exceedingly interesting.
+
+"We can easily suppose the effect which would be produced on a company of
+savages, if, in the midst of their woods, one of our best military bands
+were to strike up a powerful strain of martial music. At first they would
+sit motionless, or stand as statues; then look toward the place whence the
+sounds proceeded, where they would behold a company of persons, in
+many-colored dresses, and splendid ornaments, with curious musical
+instruments, dropped, as they would fancy, from the clouds.
+
+"But the effect of novelty may be painful; and this feeling will be
+powerful in the same proportion as the circumstances are important and
+new. Suppose, for instance, a person who had been trained in the ways of
+propriety and virtue were introduced, for the first time, to a
+village-wake, or some such brutal holyday, where he would behold
+bull-baiting and cock-fighting, boxing and drunkenness; where he would
+listen to quarrelling and profane swearing; how would his feelings be
+shocked! He would scarcely have fancied that a spot so small, on the
+surface of the globe, could have exhibited so great a variety of
+wickedness.
+
+"Or, we may imagine some one endowed with a delicate ear for music, who
+had been accustomed to the practice of delightful harmony, obliged, for
+the first time, to listen to the harsh scraping of some barbarous laborer
+on the violin, or the useless attempts of some tasteless practitioners to
+perform a piece of music! How irksome and insufferable must such an ordeal
+be to a man of refinement; and how would its painfulness be increased by
+its novelty!
+
+"By the same rule, a person who may have been accustomed to luxury and
+dainty food, but is obliged, for the first time, to feed on loathsome
+bread and nauseous water, feels doubly the misery of his condition. And
+thus the man who has been used to salubrious air and grateful scents, will
+be the more effected by disgusting smells.
+
+"Novelty operates also in powerfully exciting the passions. Suppose a
+general to be usually unfortunate in his combats with the enemy, and his
+army to be consequently dispirited; but, upon some particular occasion,
+the favors of fortune and of Providence are bestowed upon them, their
+efforts are successful, and the main body of the enemy begin to waver, how
+would this inspirit them, and brighten their courage! They would rush
+forward, unconscious and careless of danger, and the foe must fly before
+such unconquerable ardor!
+
+"If a man who had lived in poverty, in dependance on others for a
+subsistence, had constantly wished for independence and comparative
+influence, and had endeavored to swim against the stream of adversity but
+had never succeeded, and, all at once, a handsome fortune were left to
+him, how would his eyes sparkle with exultation! If a person had been
+separated from his friends and doomed to spend his days in the solitude of
+a foreign land and he met, unexpectedly, with some of his nearest and
+kindest friends, how would his countenance beam with delight! The novelty
+of the circumstance would increase the amount of his joy!
+
+"A traveller in a foreign country would be exceedingly pleased to discover
+some trinket which had been made in his native city; and especially if he
+saw on it the name of an intimate friend as the manufacturer. A toy, a
+dog, or a cat, under some circumstances, has occasioned tears. A beautiful
+female has appeared more lovely, when interesting events have introduced
+her to our notice; and one who is not usually attractive, has appeared so,
+when novelty has thrown its fascinations around her.
+
+"The feeling of hope may be excited most powerfully by novel and
+unexpected circumstances. When the mariner has been long toiling in storms
+and dangers; when the heavens have been covered with darkness, and no
+information or guidance could be gained from the stars or the sun, the
+tempest suddenly ceases, the cheering sunbeams break upon him, and he
+finds himself, unexpectedly, near the haven where he would be--how does
+his heart exult with hope, and the consciousness of security!
+
+"The passions may be excited, also, in an unpleasing manner; the feeling
+of fear may be powerfully produced by novelty. Suppose, for instance, a
+youth, who was trained in the ways of tranquillity and enjoyment, with a
+feeling heart for the sufferings of others, to be brought, all at once, on
+the field of war and bloodshed. Suppose him passing along some narrow
+defile, where the distant scenes could scarcely affect him, and where he
+would perceive only a din of discordant sounds. But, on a sudden, he
+reaches the termination of the passage, and all the pomp, and
+circumstance, and horror of war, are exhibited before him. Here he beholds
+rank opposed to rank, in deadly conflict; troops of horsemen butchering
+each other; forests of deadly weapons gleaming in the sunbeams. Now he
+listens to the shouts of victors, the cries of the vanquished, the groans
+of the wounded and dying; to the swelling notes of some musical band; the
+discordant sounds of the drum; the clashing of arms, and the shrill clamor
+of trumpets; to the rattling of musketry and the roaring of artillery! How
+would his heart sink within him at these novel scenes!
+
+"Novelty will also occasion sorrow; as, when a man has been accustomed to
+independence, and the comforts which wealth, judiciously managed, may
+produce, and his riches are suddenly swept away, he is reduced from
+affluence to dependance, from comforts to privations. And when a person
+has been used to the society of pleasant friends, and these are removed by
+the hand of death, and the clay-cold body alone remains as the
+representative of a cheerful and amiable companion, the novelty of this
+event will occasion heartfelt sorrow.
+
+"When those who have been accustomed to associate as faithful friends; or,
+when a monarch has been surrounded by persons who have pretended feelings
+of attachment, and evinced much hypocritical fidelity, and, all at once,
+the veil of deception has been drawn aside, and an aspect has presented
+itself of a new and treacherous kind, how powerful have been the feelings
+of abhorrence and anger!
+
+"And when a person, who has been nurtured in the lap of ease and comfort,
+and blessed with that best of all blessings (if it be rightly managed),
+the gift of liberty, is torn from his home, and his family, and his
+engagements, and carried into a land of slavery, where he is laden with
+oppressive chains, and insulted by a cruel task-master, with no chance of
+freedom, nor any ray of happiness, how will his spirits sink, and how will
+the haggard lineaments of despair be drawn on that countenance which was
+formed for cheerfulness! Or, suppose a person who was accustomed to a
+dwelling in some verdant valley, undisturbed by storms or the hazards of
+the sea; and he was introduced, for the first time, to some of the most
+aggravated dangers of that boisterous element. Suppose the winds were
+driving furiously over the ocean, and the huge billows were breaking on
+the helpless bark, while the darkness of the night was varied only by the
+gleam of the lightning, which exhibited breakers, and rocks, and
+over-hanging precipices, how would this new and dangerous condition
+agitate his mind, and drive him to despair!
+
+"Novelty influences the customs or habits of mankind. On some occasions
+novel engagements are pleasing; and thus we practise them again, and
+acquire a habit of performing them. For instance, the citizen who has
+walked into the country as a novelty, has been pleased with his ramble,
+and induced to practise it daily. It sometimes occasions a progress in the
+arts; and thus the first attempts at music, at painting, and at sculpture,
+have produced a pleasure which has stimulated the person to future and
+continued labors.
+
+"Sometimes, when the first impression has been rather unpleasing, a custom
+has been acquired, because, afterward, it had been found pleasing or
+advantageous. Thus there are many kinds of food, which were originally
+ungrateful, but are now esteemed delicious. Port wine is nauseous for a
+child, but it is pleasing to the taste of a person who has been accustomed
+to it. Smoking, the taking of snuff, and masticating of tobacco, with many
+other useless and dirty customs, are not produced by the pleasing
+influence of novelty; but they are rather opposed to it. They arise
+principally from the inclination of following injurious examples. In some
+cases ladies have set their faces against such customs, and have
+prohibited the practice among those who would gain their esteem: in other
+cases they have been more lenient, because they have found that a flame of
+love may burn amid volumes of smoke from cigars or tobacco-pipes. Novelty
+has occasioned a sensation of unpleasantness, with regard to particular
+modes of dress; but afterward these fashions have become necessary to our
+comfort.
+
+"In some instances, the very things which we commonly hate most, become
+essential to our happiness. When Louis XVI. ascended the throne of France,
+the doors of some of the dark cells in the Bastile were opened, and the
+hapless residents were allowed once more to breathe the pure air of
+heaven. Among the rest, there was one man who had been immured for nearly
+fifty years in a wretched cell, the area of which was so small as scarcely
+to allow him room to move about; but, having a vigorous body and a firm
+mind, he supported himself, until he had almost forgotten the world in
+which he lived, having had no intercourse with any one but the jailer, who
+brought him his daily food. When he received the summons to depart, which
+seemed like a message in a dream, he was astonished; but when he walked
+through the spacious passages and the open courts, and saw the heavens
+extended above him, and the sun shining in his splendor, he was overcome
+by his feelings. He could badly walk, and badly speak, and he seemed as if
+he had entered a new world. He went into the city, and found the street in
+which he had formerly lived, but his friends were dead; there was no
+living being in the world that knew him, and the poor man wept with
+sorrow. He was a stranger in a strange country. He went to the minister
+who had given him his freedom, and said: 'Sir, I can bear to die, but to
+live in a world unknown and forlorn, the last human being of my race, is
+insupportable; do, therefore, send me to my cell, that I may finish my
+days there!' No blessing of Providence will be felt as a benefit, unless
+it be possessed by a person for whom it is adapted.
+
+"Impressions of a novel and pleasing kind soon lose their attraction; and
+thus the honors which are acquired by civil and literary eminence, quickly
+fade away. They are like a beautiful cloud in the heavens, or a dew-drop
+on a leaf, which glitters and exhibits its beauties for a while, but the
+fervent sun absorbs both; or, they are like a gaudy flower, which a man
+fixes in his bosom--very lovely at first, but its attractions soon vanish.
+On the other hand, painful occurrences leave but a faint impression.
+Although, at first, a man may be bowed down with trouble, yet he will soon
+regain an erect position and a smiling countenance. A few weeks or months
+hide most of our sorrows from us; and this is an eminent proof of the
+wisdom and beneficence of the Deity: for the general amount of human
+happiness is by this means more equally divided. A state of elation is
+temporary, and so is a state of depression; and thus, whether a man rises
+or sinks in worldly possessions and honors, although there will be some
+difference in the amount of enjoyment, yet there will be much less than we
+are generally disposed to imagine.
+
+"A taste for novelty affects the engagements of society: it is the source
+of fashion; it gives labor to the mechanic, to the artist, and to almost
+every man who obtains his maintenance by industry. And thus there are new
+buildings, new vehicles, new machines, and new methods of doing most
+things. There are dresses of various kinds the result of ingenuity and
+taste. One thing is new and attractive, but it soon becomes stale, and
+then we look for something novel. Some kinds of food are scarce and
+costly: these are approved by the great, but they become plentiful and
+cheap, and then the rich man looks for something rare, some new discovery
+in the art of cookery. The round of pleasures and amusements is
+continually varying. Formerly the men, and even the ladies, were delighted
+by exhibitions of combats among savage beasts--lions, elephants, and
+tigers; they feasted their eyes on the bloody combats of human beings with
+each other, or with bulls and other furious animals. They attended
+dog-fights, cock-fights, and other barbarous diversions. But the taste has
+become improved; novelty has taken a praiseworthy direction: boxing,
+wrestling, and other disgraceful exhibitions, are now transferred to the
+vulgar and disreputable; many innocent amusements have been introduced,
+and these also have been regulated by the universal love of novelty. The
+same variety has existed in language. A certain style of speech, and
+certain phrases, are fashionable in the best society; these are gradually
+introduced among the lower ranks, and then the better classes look for
+something novel. Many words and phrases originally introduced for the
+purpose of expressing things delicately, become vulgar: terms which were
+primarily intended as a reproach become a designation of honor, and those
+once deemed honorable become reproachful.
+
+"The love of novelty occasions the great variety of tunes which we
+possess, and the diversity of musical skill. A newly-constructed
+instrument, a new or superior mode of performing on it and the last new
+tune, are objects of universal attraction. The same disposition arises
+with respect to books. Novelty has occasioned all the variety which the
+history of literature exhibits, from the bulky folio to the penny
+pamphlet, and the annual publication to the daily newspaper: it has
+occasioned, also, in a great degree, the multitude of opinions which have
+deluged the world. Something new, as the loungers of Athens demanded, has
+been the requirement of the public in all ages. If it be new, it will be
+attractive, and if pleasing or convenient, it will be embraced, and then
+its strength and consistency will soon be deemed demonstrated: but when
+the writers on the subject, and the readers of those writings, become
+cool; when reason takes the place of imagination, then the system will be
+often discovered to be defective, the vapory fabric will fade away, and
+some other will obtain its place. We are too frequently going round in our
+progress, rather than forward. In many respects we are not much farther
+advanced than the ancients, and yet we ought to be, and should be if we
+had pursued a direct course.
+
+"But one of the most pleasing sources of novelty is that which the
+Almighty has given us in the seasons of the year; and this distinctly
+shows us that the love of novelty is not only natural, but it is allowable
+and praiseworthy, if it be regulated by reason; for the Great Creator
+himself indulges us in this respect. And thus we have all the variety of
+summer and winter, of sultry and frosty days, of clear and cloudy skies;
+of the budding and blooming of spring, and the richness and luxuriance of
+autumn; the breaking forth of the sun in the morning, and the setting of
+that glorious luminary; the light of the stars; the silvery splendor of
+the moon; the glare of lightnings and meteors, the rolling of thunder,
+with vapors, rain, hail, and snow.
+
+"The love of novelty is injurious only when it is carried beyond what the
+Almighty intended; when it does not animate a person to perform his
+necessary engagements, but carries him away from them; when it makes him
+restless and wavering. Novelty accompanies man in infancy and in youth; it
+cheers and exalts him in the changing scenes of manhood; and when we
+leave this earthly sphere, and the soul bursts forth from its corporeal
+dwelling, it will fly upward to regions of still greater novelty, and
+never-failing interest!"
+
+
+D.
+
+Mr. Walker, in various places of his work, calls the _cerebel_ or
+cerebellum, "the organ of volition," and, at page 145, he attributes
+ideas, emotions, and passions, to the cerebrum, though he states that acts
+of the will result from these. Now, if there is any truth established, it
+is that the _will_ is the result of the simultaneous action of the higher
+intellectual powers, and supposes attention, reflection, comparison, and
+judgment, mental operations, which Mr. Walker himself attributes to the
+cerebrum. Gall has made it very evident, that the _will_ is not the
+impulse that results from the activity of a single organ, but the
+concurrent action of many of the higher intellectual faculties--motives
+must be weighed, compared, and judged, before there can be any will, or
+determination of mind. The decision resulting from this determination, is
+called will. We consider it then proved, that there is no particular organ
+of the will. "Every fundamental faculty," says Dr. Gall, "accompanied by a
+clear notion of its existence, and by reflection, is intellect or
+intelligence. Each individual intelligence, therefore, has its proper
+organ; but reason supposes the concerted action of the higher faculties.
+It is the judgment pronounced by the higher intellectual faculties. A
+single one of these, however, could not constitute reason, which is the
+compliment, the result of the simultaneous action of all the intellectual
+faculties. It is _reason_ that distinguishes man from the brute;
+_intellect_ they have in common to a certain degree. There are many
+intelligent men, but few reasoning ones. Nature produces an intelligent
+man; a happy organization, cultivated by experience and reflection, forms
+the reasoning man." Nearly all physiologists deserving of the name, are
+now united in the opinion that the cerebellum is the organ of amativeness,
+as well as concerned in the regulation of voluntary motion. "It is
+impossible," says Dr. Spurzheim, "to unite a greater number of proofs in
+demonstration of any natural truth than may be presented to determine the
+function of the cerebellum."--"Mr. Scott," says George Combe, "in an
+excellent essay on the influence of amativeness on the higher sentiments
+and intellect, observes that it has been regarded by some individuals, as
+almost synonymous with pollution; and the notion has been entertained,
+that it cannot be even approached without defilement. This mistake has
+originated from attention being directed too exclusively to the abuses of
+the propensity. Like everything that forms part of the system of nature,
+it bears the stamp of wisdom and excellence in itself, although liable to
+abuse. It exerts a quiet but effectual influence in the general
+intercourse between the sexes, giving rise in each to a sort of kindly
+interest in all concerns the other. This disposition to mutual kindness
+between the sexes, does not arise from benevolence or adhesiveness, or any
+other sentiment or propensity alone; because, if such were its sources, it
+would have an equal effect in the intercourse of the individuals of each
+sex among themselves, which it has not. 'In this quiet and unobtrusive
+state of the feeling,' says Mr. Scott, 'there is nothing in the least
+gross or offensive to the most sensitive delicacy. So far the contrary,
+that the want of some feeling of this sort is required, wherever it
+appears, as a very palpable defect, and a most unamiable trait in the
+character. It softens all the proud, irascible, and antisocial principles
+of our nature, in everything which regards that sex which is the object of
+it; and it increases the activity and force of all the kindly and
+benevolent affections. This explains many facts which appear in the mutual
+regards of the sexes toward each other. Men are, generally speaking, more
+generous and kind, more benevolent and charitable, toward women, than they
+are to men, or than women are to one another.' The abuses of this
+propensity are the sources of innumerable evils in life; and as the organ
+and feeling exist, and produce an influence on the mind, independently of
+external communication, Dr. Spurzheim suggests the propriety of
+instructing young persons in the consequences of its improper indulgence
+as preferable to keeping them in a state of ignorance that may provoke a
+fatal curiosity, compromising in the end their own and their descendants'
+bodily and mental constitution."
+
+It may be proper in this place, to point out some of the anatomical
+differences of the sexes more definitely than has been done by Mr. Walker,
+as they are intimately connected with the form and contour of the body,
+and must be understood to appreciate fully the bearing of much that is
+laid down by our author:--
+
+
+ANATOMICAL SEXUAL DIFFERENCES.
+
+DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
+
+The stomach is the only portion of the alimentary canal which presents
+sexual differences. It is larger, shorter, and broader, in the male;
+smaller, narrower, and longer, in the female. Its muscular coat, like that
+in the whole alimentary canal, is generally also thinner in the female.
+
+
+OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
+
+_Ribs._--The ribs of the female are generally straighter than those of the
+male. The posterior segment unites sooner with the anterior; its curve
+differs less from that of the last, and disappears sooner in the female;
+hence, the chest is narrower. The ribs are usually thinner; hence, the
+edges are sharper. Sometimes, however, this is far from being true. Their
+length is nearly the same; but according to Mechel, the length of the two
+upper ribs is proportionally, and when the subject is short, absolutely
+greater in the female than in the male.
+
+_Clavicle._--The clavicle is generally straighter, and proportionably
+smaller in the female than in the male. The greater straightness depends
+particularly on the lesser curve of its external portion, while in man it
+extends far backward, and then comes forward. The internal anterior half
+presents nearly the same curve in both sexes. The clavicle of the female
+is rounder than that of the male; we however find clavicles of females
+perfectly like those of males, and _vice versa_. Sometimes, of the two
+clavicles in the same body, one is constructed in the type of the male,
+and the other in that of the female.
+
+_Pelvis._--The chief points of difference between the male and female
+skeleton, beside the disparity in the size and the greater smoothness of
+the bones, lie in the _pelvis_. In the female this is less strong and
+thick, and contains less osseous matter than that of the male. In the
+female, the arch of the _pubis_ is much the greatest, and the long
+diameter of the brim of the pelvis is from side to side; in the male it is
+from before backward; in the female, the brim is more of the oval shape,
+in the male more triangular; in the female, the _ilia_ are more distant;
+the tuberosities of the _ischia_ are also more remote from each other, and
+from the _os coccygis_, and as these three points are farther apart, the
+notches between them are consequently wider, and there is of necessity a
+considerably greater space between the _os coccygis_ and _pubis_ than in
+the male. The female _sacrum_ is broader and less curved than in the other
+sex. The ligamentous cartilage at the symphysis pubis is broader and
+shorter. In consequence of the cavity of the pelvis being wider in woman,
+the superior articulations of their thigh bones are farther removed from
+each other, which circumstance occasions their peculiarity in walking;
+they seem to require a greater effort than men to preserve the centre of
+gravity, when the leg is raised; owing to the greater length of the crural
+arch, there is less resistance to the pressure of the abdominal viscera;
+consequently females are more subject to femoral hernia than males. The
+angle of union of the ossa pubis in the male is from sixty to eighty
+degrees, whereas, in the female it is ninety degrees. The mean height of
+the male, at the period of maturity, is about five feet eight and a half
+inches, and that of the female about five feet five inches; a well-formed
+pelvis has a circumference equal to one-fourth of the height of the
+female.
+
+
+ORGAN OF VOICE.
+
+The _larynx_ is one of the organs which presents most manifestly the
+differences of sex. That of the female is usually one third, and sometimes
+one half smaller than that of the male: all its constituent cartilages are
+much thinner; the thyroid cartilage also is even flatter, because its two
+lateral halves unite at a less acute angle. Hence the reason why the
+larynx in the male forms at the upper part of the neck a prominence which
+is not visible in the female. The glottis in the female is much smaller
+than in the male, and the vocal cords are shorter. These sexual
+differences do not appear till puberty; until then the larynx has
+precisely the same form in the two sexes, and consequently the voice is
+nearly the same in both. In eunuchs it is small as in females.
+
+
+PHYSIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF THE BEAUTY OF FORM.
+
+A very ingenious Physiological explanation of the beauty of form, has been
+suggested by Professor B. T. Joslin, of the University of the city of New
+York, which is published in the Transactions of the New York State Medical
+Society for 1836. As this theory is characterized by great originality and
+genius, and but little known, we shall present our readers with some
+extracts from the Essay, calculated to elucidate the views of the talented
+author.
+
+Speaking of material objects, not including the human form, Dr. J.
+remarks:--
+
+"There is in objects a kind of beauty which is intrinsic and physical,
+which belongs to them in every association, and whether at rest or in
+motion; such is the beauty of color, and that of configuration. The
+contemplation of the beauty of coloring and of form gives physical
+pleasure, i. e., physical as opposed to mental, but physiological as
+opposed to physical. Employing physical in its comprehensive sense, I say
+that this physical pleasure attending vision is of two distinct kinds;
+1st, that which depends on the character of the impression on the retina,
+and consequently on the intensity and nature of the light; and 2dly, that
+which depends upon the form of the object, and, consequently, on the
+muscular actions employed in tracing its outlines. As the latter
+constitutes the proper subject of this essay, I shall dismiss the former
+with a single remark.
+
+"Some colors are more agreeable than others, but these differ with
+different eyes, and with the nature of the color to which the eyes have
+been previously exposed. A bluish green relieves the eye when over-excited
+with red, and a mild red is agreeable after the protracted action of
+intense green; and in general, the complementary colors are most agreeable
+in succession. Again, it is well known, that no kind of light is painful,
+unless excessively vivid; we are pleased with a mild radiance in objects
+of every hue, from the whiteness of the moon to the crimson of the setting
+sun. But is there no other physical property by which these luminaries
+directly contribute to the gratification of taste? It is true that light,
+abstractedly from all objects is agreeable, and agreeable on the same
+principle that sweetness is to the taste, i. e., from the mere character
+of the nervous impression. But this is a pleasure merely passive, and in
+an active being it is, perhaps, on that account, one grade lower than the
+gratification afforded by the beauty of form, and is more allied to the
+gross pleasure of literal taste. Hence, we scarcely employ a figurative
+expression, in declaring that light is sweet. But the highest degree of
+physical gratification is not enjoyed by the eye, unless this agreeable
+excitant proceeds from an object of beautiful form. "Light is sweet," but
+"it is a pleasant thing for the eyes to behold the sun." What is the
+source of this additional pleasure which we receive, when light proceeds
+either by radiation or reflection from regular curvilinear objects?
+
+"I shall offer what I believe to be an original and satisfactory
+explanation of the beauty of form, on principles purely physiological. It
+is based on the proposition, that the action of every muscle is attended
+with a sensation which, is at first agreeable, but which, if the action is
+continued for a short time with intensity, and without intermission,
+becomes painful. That there is pleasure attending those varied motions
+which depend upon the actions of different muscles in succession after
+intervals of rest in each, we know from our own consciousness as well as
+from that instinctive propensity to play which we observe in children and
+young animals. That the prolonged action of a muscle is painful, we may
+readily convince ourselves by endeavoring to hold the arm for some time at
+right angles with the erect trunk. With the arm in this position, a pound
+weight on the hand or even the weight of the arm itself becomes in a few
+minutes almost insupportable. We presently begin to feel pain in the
+shoulder and anterior part of the arm, the former from fatigue of those
+muscles which originate from the scapula and keep the os humeri elevated,
+and the latter from fatigue of the muscles which originate from the
+scapula and os humeri, whose muscular fibres are in front of the os humeri
+and by their contraction elevate the fore-arm in consequence of their
+tendinous attachment to its bones. Yet a man may labor all day with his
+arms without this painful sensation; because a muscle requires but a
+momentary rest, in order to regain that degree of energy which is
+momentarily lost by action.
+
+"None but an anatomist can duly appreciate the variety of separate
+actions, on which depend the motions of a single limb, and the
+consequently numerous opportunities of rest which the muscles enjoy. To
+the superficial and unscientific observer, an arm is an arm; it is a
+single member which may be fatigued by a day's work and recruited by a
+night's rest. But to the anatomist the arm is a complex object, and its
+muscular energy is that of its component muscles, each of which may be
+fatigued by a minute's action and recruited by a minute's repose. It would
+be easy to extend this farther, and state reasons for believing that the
+component fasciculi and fibres of an individual muscle act still more
+transiently, and that their momentary and successive actions constitute
+the action of a single muscle.
+
+"But waiving this refinement, it will be sufficient for our purpose to
+consider a single muscle as having a simple action, an action which cannot
+be sustained with uniformity a minute of time without actual pain, nor a
+second of time with positive pleasure. This, however, is not to be
+understood as an attempt to fix these limits with precision. To express
+the law in more general terms, as we diminish the duration of a muscle's
+action we diminish the pain until we arrive at an action whose attendant
+sensation is neutral, i. e., neither painful nor pleasurable; as soon as
+we have passed that point and have begun to execute motions a little more
+transient, the attendant sensation becomes positively pleasurable, and the
+pleasure increases as the separate actions become more transient. It is
+not necessary to infer that there is attending each action of shorter
+duration a pleasure exceeding that which attends each action of greater
+duration; for the more transient actions are, in a given time, more
+numerous; so that with the same amount of pleasure for each muscular
+contraction, the amount of pleasurable sensation in a given time--say a
+second--would exceed the amount attending the less frequent and more
+prolonged actions in the same period: a greater number of separate
+impressions become--so to speak--crowded together and condensed, and thus
+produce a more vivid pleasure. Several contiguous impressions thus
+conspire to heighten the contemporaneous effect, inasmuch as we are unable
+to distinguish those impressions which are made at very short intervals on
+the muscular sense, any more than we are those made at very short
+intervals on the retina. We have an example of the latter in the familiar
+experiment of swinging a coal of fire in a circle, and in various optical
+instruments for combining colors and images.
+
+"The proposition which I have endeavored to establish is, that there is a
+neutral point to which, if constant action is prolonged, its pleasurable
+character begins to be reversed; that the vividness of the sensation
+increases with the distance from this point, being on the one side
+pleasurable, on the other painful; the more transient the actions are, the
+more pleasurable; the more prolonged they are, the more painful.
+
+"I am of opinion that this physiological principle is susceptible of
+interesting applications to a class of pleasures, which metaphysicians
+have regarded as exclusively mental, and dependant upon certain supposed
+ultimate principles of the constitution of mind, principles not resolvable
+into others more elementary. As physiology shall advance, it may be
+expected that many of these imaginary elements will yield to its searching
+analysis. Whether the writer has been so fortunate as to resolve any of
+the generally admitted elements of mental taste, the reader will be able
+to judge from the sequel.
+
+As preparatory to the consideration of the beauty of form, it will be
+necessary to give an explanation of the _gracefulness of motion_. Although
+this has been vaguely and in part referred to ease of execution, yet, the
+physiological principle on which ease of execution depends, not having
+been clearly understood and distinctly stated, the gracefulness of _all_
+motions could not be referred to their true source. Thus, writers on taste
+have been under the necessity of admitting, as a distinct and independent
+source of gracefulness, the _curvilinear direction_ of motions, and have
+been able to generalize this fact no farther than by referring it to the
+beauty of curved forms, which beauty was considered an _ultimate_ fact. In
+applying the principles above developed, to the explanation of the
+pleasure or pain attending the contemplation of particular motions, we
+shall defer for the present the investigation of the intrinsic beauty of
+curved motions, which is the same as that of curved lines, and assume that
+in general those motions which are physically pleasurable to the agent are
+agreeable to the observer. The pleasure or pain of the agent will engage
+the sympathy of the observer; for he associates the observed action with
+his own experience. To make a single application, suppose a public speaker
+extend his arm horizontally and move it slowly in a horizontal position,
+through one third of a circle. This motion would not appear graceful. That
+it would not be performed with perfect ease, any one might prove by
+experiment. The principal difficulty is in preserving for a long time the
+horizontal position."
+
+"In the ordinary state of the muscular system, and within certain limits,
+the motion of the eye in any direction is pleasurable. Whenever the power
+of directing the eye is acquired, the tracing of a line will, to a certain
+extent and for a certain time, afford some degree of positive pleasure; in
+other words, any short line will possess some degree of positive beauty,
+and the infant becomes conscious of an emotion of which he was previously
+ignorant--the emotion of beauty of form. A point awakens no such emotion;
+it never will; it can possess no beauty. It must be recollected, that this
+has been restricted to minute points of inappreciable form. Circular dots
+will be considered under the head of figures. The colorific property of a
+dot as compared with that of the ground on which it is placed, may afford
+that kind of ocular pleasure which is foreign to the present inquiry.
+
+"From points as compared with lines, we naturally proceed to _lines as
+compared with each other_.
+
+"When the head is erect, in examining a _straight horizontal_ line we
+employ one of the lateral recti; if the line be vertical we employ the
+rectus inferior or superior. In either case, but one muscle acts, and that
+continuously. The muscle is not relieved, and its action is not attended
+with the maximum amount of pleasurable sensation. When the vision has been
+extended along the whole line, if we then immediately proceed to examine
+it in the opposite direction, the opposite rectus must at one exert a
+force sufficient to overcome the _momentum_ of the eyeball, and then exert
+a _continuous_ action. Both these circumstances are unfavorable to
+pleasure. If the line is _oblique_, one lateral together with one inferior
+or one superior muscle is exerted, and the same principles which have been
+applied to the single muscles, apply to the muscles acting in pairs.
+
+"_The Beauty of Curved Lines._--As from the foregoing analysis of the
+vision of straight lines in general, it results that they are deficient in
+the elements of ocular agreeableness, in other words, of beauty; little
+more need be said of regular and gentle curves, than that the survey of
+them is not attended with the abovementioned disadvantages. In viewing a
+regular curve, no muscle of the eyeball acts continuously and uniformly,
+but enjoys partial relief by remissions, or total relief by intermissions
+of its action; and the regularity of these remissions and intermissions,
+as well as the equal distribution of exercise, is promoted by the
+regularity of the curve. Acting in succession, the muscles afford mutual
+relief after actions of such short duration and variable intensity, as to
+afford positive pleasure; and in this _muscular pleasure_ of the eye
+consists the _beauty of configuration_.
+
+"The successive and accurate survey of distant points is not, however,
+invariably requisite to a degree of similar pleasure, in viewing a figure
+of such small angular extent as to be instantly recognised by one location
+of its image, as analogous to a larger one whose survey has directly
+afforded muscular pleasure. Although I thus recognise the influence of
+association, the facts of this very case afford an interesting
+confirmation of the physiological theory; for a large circle or ellipse is
+more beautiful than one of diminutive size. The beauty of the one is
+original, its influence is direct; the beauty of the other is in part
+borrowed, and this part is weakened by reflection. Or, to express it more
+literally, the one excites a pleasurable sensation, the other suggests a
+similar idea; the one affords a _perception_, the other a _conception_, of
+beauty. Such, even with similar color and brilliancy, would be the
+difference between the full moon and a circular dot (·) or period; such
+the difference between a rainbow and a diminutive arc ([Illustration]), a
+short accent inverted. Here the critic might be inclined to charge us with
+confounding the beautiful with the sublime. But the fact is, that
+criticism has constructed the sublime--as it has the beautiful--from
+heterogeneous materials, one of which is identical with one of the
+elements of beauty, and should, in a physiological arrangement, be
+referred to the same class. In many instances a magnifying instrument will
+disclose minute irregularities and blemishes; but in every other case,
+physiology would show, that, within certain limits, to magnify a beautiful
+_object_ is to _magnify beauty_.
+
+"The foregoing statements of general principles preclude the necessity of
+minute details in relation to particular curves. I shall at present
+consider those which do not return into themselves, so as to constitute
+the outlines of figures in the geometrical sense. Let us first select a
+semi-circumference, for example, that of a rainbow of maximum dimensions.
+In tracing it once, we employ three out of the four muscles. They are
+brought into action successively and rapidly, but not abruptly. All these
+circumstances are favorable to pleasure. Yet they are not conducive to it
+in the highest possible degree; for each muscle acts only once unless the
+examination be repeated; and in case of its repetition, the momentum of
+the eyeball is destroyed in stopping and reversing its motion. The waving
+line, as Hogarth's line of beauty, obviates the first difficulty. This
+ensures not only the successive action of different muscles, but a
+repetition of action in the same. If the line forms a number of equal
+waves, these repetitions will be proportional to the number of waves, and
+will alternately and totally relieve, at least two muscles, and allow, in
+the action of a third, regular remissions of intensity at equal intervals.
+We have proved then, that on this physiological theory, a
+semi-circumference possesses more of the elements of beauty than any
+straight line, and a regular-waved line more than either. These results
+are conformable to experience. If there is any difficulty in admitting
+this, it will vanish on comparing the ocular with other muscles.
+
+"Let us select a joint, which, in its spherical form, and the circular
+arrangement of its muscles, is analogous to the eye; for example, the
+shoulder joint. I think it will be uniformly found, that in the use of
+this joint, the curves most readily traced, are those of gentle and nearly
+equal curvature, and being such as are most easily traced by the eye, they
+would appear more beautiful than those drawn by the fingers with the same
+education. For example, let a man, without bending his wrist or elbow,
+draw various lines with a light stick or cane on the surface of snow: the
+lines most easily drawn (or most easily traced if already drawn), will be
+curves of considerable beauty, and nearly equal curvature; such as waved
+lines and spirals and looped curves. Circles and ellipses would also be
+among the figures with most facility and precision traced, and especially
+in cases of repeated tracing; but we are not at present considering
+figures in the proper geometrical sense of the term. In writing letters by
+the above method, a succession of 'e's, would be more readily drawn than a
+succession of 'i's, or a zigzag line with acute angles.
+
+"To institute a fair comparison between terminated lines and figures, the
+component lines of the figures should be as beautiful as the terminated
+lines with which they are compared. With this precaution, physiology will
+conduct to the conclusion, that figures are more beautiful than terminated
+lines. For the survey of any figure requires the successive action of all
+these ocular muscles, and a repeated survey requires no reversal of the
+motion.
+
+"We may apply the same principles to _figures as compared with each
+other_. Here we shall find the advantage on the side of those which are
+geometrically regular. We perceive that the circle and ellipse must
+possess in great perfection the essentials of beauty.
+
+"From figures, the transition is natural and easy to _solids_ or bodies of
+three dimensions. The form of a body depends on those of all its faces and
+sections; and these last are plane figures. The elliptical sections of a
+regular spheroid are all highly beautiful, but its sections are not all
+elliptical. Unless the spheroid be in certain positions, the sphere
+possesses still higher beauty, as presenting the same circular and highly
+beautiful outline in every position; although a variety of positions is
+not essential to the perception of its peculiar beauty, whenever the
+observer has learned by different methods, and especially by different
+degrees of convergence of the two optic axes, to estimate the relative
+distances of the different points of the visible hemisphere, and thus to
+recognise the spherical form. I will only add, from the analysis of the
+beauty of the circle it is evident, that within certain limits, to magnify
+a sphere is to magnify its beauty.
+
+"The relative beauty of the sphere and spheroid, and of the spheroid as
+compared with itself in different positions, is modified by _symmetry_.
+The principle of symmetry, is in some measure distinct from any other
+heretofore considered. It may be treated under the heads of 1st,
+geometrical symmetry, or symmetry of form; 2d, of symmetry of position.
+
+"_Symmetry of form_, though implied in geometrical regularity, is not
+identical with it, and requires a separate consideration. The beauty of
+forms geometrically symmetrical, in contradistinction from those
+deficient in the correspondence of opposite halves, depends upon two
+similar series of actions in different pairs or muscles. For example, the
+survey of an ovate leaf, or indeed that of almost any vegetable leaf--so
+numerous are the provisions for our gratification--requires for its
+opposite halves two series of muscular actions, the different parts of the
+one corresponding with those of the other in duration, intensity, and
+order of succession. The gratification in this case results from the
+harmony of muscular sensations individually pleasurable. The agreeableness
+of this harmony may depend upon a principle more psychological than that
+of the agreeableness of its elementary sensations. Yet the former is to a
+certain extent susceptible of a physiological generalization. This harmony
+would probably have been impaired by any considerable inequality in the
+distances between the points of insertion of the recti muscles, or in the
+strength of the antagonists. It is a curious coincidence, that in both
+these respects, these muscles are more nearly symmetrical than any others
+in the human body. Physiology, then, explains, not only the agreeableness
+of the elementary sensations, which give rise to the perception of beauty
+in regular curves, but unfolds the provisions for two similar series of
+such sensations, not only in figures simply regular, but in those which
+are simply symmetrical, and in those which are both symmetrical and
+regular. The principles of muscular action explain the agreeableness of a
+rapid succession of varied actions equally distributed among the muscles,
+and the structure of the optical apparatus explains why the curvature and
+regularity of an object require such actions in vision. Again, we discover
+in the symmetrical structure and arrangement of the ocular muscles, a
+provision for two similar series of pleasurable sensations in the survey
+of a symmetrical figure, in whatever position it may be placed, provided
+it retains its symmetry with respect to some visual plane. The coincidence
+between the location of the ocular muscles diametrically opposite, on the
+one hand, and our propensity to compare the opposite halves of bodies, and
+the pleasure afforded by their similarity on the other hand, is curious,
+and to a certain extent affords a physiological explanation of the beauty
+of symmetrical forms.
+
+"The same principles which apply to the beauty of form of inanimate
+objects are applicable to the paths described by them in _motion_. The
+intrinsic beauty of their motions is exclusively referrible to sensations
+in the ocular muscles of the observer, while the gracefulness of human
+motions is referrible in part to these, and in part to sensations in other
+muscles.
+
+"It would be foreign to the subject of the present memoir, to consider the
+beauty of expression of the human countenance; although this species of
+beauty is in a great degree referrible to muscular action. That muscular
+action which belongs to the present topic is not that of the object, but
+that of the observer. It may be scarcely necessary again to disclaim any
+design of giving a complete analysis of beauty in general, or to repeat
+the concession that man's notions of beauty are modified by various
+associations.
+
+"_Final Cause._--The benevolence of the Author of nature is strikingly
+manifested in connecting present pleasure with obedience to the natural
+laws. It has been shown that vision is attended with muscular action which
+is generally pleasurable. If seeing had required no muscular action, we
+should have wanted one of our present stimuli to the acquisition of
+knowledge. This stimulus is especially necessary in infancy, and then
+powerfully prompts to observation, even anterior to the dawnings of
+intellectual curiosity, with which it subsequently co-operates. We see, in
+this arrangement, the exemplification of a principle which extensively
+pervades the laws under which we are placed by the Creator--which is, that
+mental attainments, as well as other acquisitions, shall require action;
+and that action shall be attended with pleasure. Whether the acquisition
+is to be made by the manual labor of the artisan, by the manipulations of
+the artist, the chymist, or the experimental philosopher, by the sedentary
+student of books, or by the observer of natural phenomena in his original
+survey of the universe--in every case it is muscular action.
+
+"This application to natural theology, has thus far had reference to that
+degree of intrinsic agreeableness which is common to forms in general. But
+the laws of nature specially tend to the production of curved, regular,
+and symmetrical objects and motions, in inorganic vegetable and animal
+bodies; and impose the necessity of similar forms in artificial
+structures. With a different structure and arrangement of the ocular
+muscles, those forms peculiarly conducive to our welfare and that of the
+universe, had possessed no peculiar attractions; and we had felt no
+special impulse of this kind to conform our own artificial structures to
+those laws of nature, or to investigate many of the most important works
+of the Creator. Yet neither gravity or any other law of the external world
+could have determined the peculiar formation of the muscles of the human
+eye. We must, therefore, refer their actual structure and location to
+that Being who gives to the objects of his creative power, and to the
+principles by which he governs them, such a mutual adaptation as conduces
+to the greatest achievable good. Thus, while muscular pleasure originally
+prompts to the observation of the Creator's works, this observation is
+rewarded and subsequently prompted by a pleasure of an incomparably higher
+order, of a character purely mental, by the discovery of _moral beauty_,
+which in rank and refinement surpasses all others. Still, the muscular
+pleasure of the eye strongly incites to the examination of the numberless
+forms of beauty in the organic and inorganic kingdoms, such as the
+symmetrical leaf, the bending bough, the symmetry of the tree itself that
+of inferior animals, and of the human form. Or we may extend our view to
+the circular or undulating horizon, the apparent limits of the apparently
+round world; or we may elevate the eyes to the arched dome of the
+firmament, on which the arches of the iris and aurora occasionally confer
+additional beauty. Or with the telescope we may pierce this apparent limit
+of upward vision, and discover beyond it a universe of spherical and
+spheroidal worlds, revolving in circular and elliptical orbits, worlds and
+orbits which present, even in our diminutive diagrams, a high order of
+beauty, designed to incite us to the contemplation of these most
+magnificent works of the Creator.
+
+"All this beauty had been lost to man, but for the property of the eye,
+which, on a superficial reflection, might seem a defect. It is no less
+true than paradoxical, that the perception of these beauties depends on
+_indistinctness of vision_. To a being so constituted as to see with equal
+distinctness by oblique and direct vision, the same forms might be
+presented, but not as forms of beauty. Has the Creator, then, sacrificed a
+portion of our perceptive powers to our sensual gratification? I answer
+no. Has he, then, sacrificed a portion of our _direct_ means of acquiring
+knowledge, to afford an incitement which should ultimately and indirectly
+enhance our attainments? Again I am compelled to answer in the negative.
+There is, in this arrangement, no intellectual sacrifice whatever, direct
+or indirect. This indistinctness of oblique vision, which might seem a
+defect, I consider an excellence. A simultaneous and distinct impression
+received from the whole field of vision, would distract the attention and
+preclude a minute and accurate examination of any particular part. But as
+our eyes are so constituted as to receive a strong and distinct impression
+only from the images of those objects toward which their axes are
+directed, and as our minds are so constituted that we can in a great
+measure neglect the weaker or less distinct impressions, we are able to
+acquire a more exact knowledge of any part of the field to which we choose
+to attend. To see every thing at once, would be to examine nothing. Such a
+constitution of the eye would be to vision what an indiscriminating memory
+is to the understanding.
+
+
+E.
+
+STANDARD OF BEAUTY.
+
+To show that the sentiments of mankind with regard to female beauty, have
+been very various in different ages and nations, and that it is not
+possible to establish a standard which shall comprehend all, without
+discriminations, a few facts may be mentioned. Among the ancients, a small
+forehead and joined eyebrows were much admired in a female countenance;
+and in Persia, large joined eyebrows are still highly esteemed. In some
+parts of Asia, black teeth and white hair, are essential ingredients in
+the character of a beauty; and in the Marian Islands, it is customary
+among the ladies to blacken their teeth with herbs, and to black their
+hair with certain liquors. Beauty, in China and Japan, is composed of a
+large countenance, small, and half-concealed eyes, a broad nose, little
+and useless feet, and a prominent belly. The Flat-head Indians compress
+the heads of their children between two boards, with a view to enlarge and
+beautify the face; some tribes compress the head laterally; others depress
+the crown, and others make the head as round as possible. "The Moors of
+Africa," says Park, "have singular ideas of female perfection; the
+gracefulness of figure and motion, and a countenance enlivened by
+expression, are by no means operative points in their standard; with them
+corpulency and beauty are terms nearly synonymous. Or women of even
+moderate pretensions, must be one who cannot walk without a slave under
+each arm to support her, and a perfect beauty is a load for a camel. In
+consequence of this prevalent taste for unwieldiness of bulk, the Moorish
+ladies take great pains to acquire it early in life, and for this purpose
+many of the young girls are compelled by their mothers to swallow a great
+quantity of _kouskous_, and drink a large bowl of camel's milk every
+morning. It is of no importance whether the girl has an appetite or not,
+the kouskous and milk must be swallowed, and obedience is frequently
+enforced by blows. I have seen a poor girl sit crying with the bowl at her
+lips for more than an hour, and her mother with a stick in her hand
+watching her all the while, and using the stick without mercy whenever she
+observed that her daughter was not swallowing. This singular practice,
+instead of producing indigestion and disease, soon covers the young lady
+with that degree of plumpness, which in the eye of a Moor, is perfection
+itself." These facts show that every nation almost has ideas of beauty
+peculiar to itself; and it is no less evident that nearly every individual
+has his own notions and taste concerning it. "The empire of beauty,
+however," says a writer already quoted, "amid these discordant ideas, with
+respect to the qualities in which it consists, has been very generally
+acknowledged, and particularly in all civilized countries; and when it is
+united with other accomplishments that tend to render females amiable, it
+contributes in no small degree, to give them importance and influence, to
+polish the manners of society, and to contribute to its order and
+happiness."
+
+
+F.
+
+TEMPERAMENT.
+
+The views of Mr. Walker in relation to Temperaments, correspond with those
+usually entertained by physiological writers. It is to be observed,
+however, that they rarely occur simple in any individual, two or more
+being generally combined. The _bilious_ and _nervous_, for example, is a
+common combination, which gives strength and activity; the _lymphatic_ and
+_nervous_, is also common, and produces sensitive delicacy of mental
+constitution, conjoined with indolence. The _nervous_ and _sanguine_
+combined, give extreme vivacity, but without corresponding vigor. Dr.
+Thomas of Paris, has advanced the following theory of the temperaments:
+When the digestive organs, filling the abdominal cavity, are large, and
+the lungs and brain small, the individual is _lymphatic_; he is fond of
+feeding, and averse to mental and muscular exertion. When the heart and
+lungs are large, and the brain and abdomen small, the individual is
+_sanguine_; blood abounds, and is propelled with vigor; he is therefore
+fond of muscular exercise, but averse to thought. When the brain is large,
+and the abdominal and thoracic viscera small, great mental energy is the
+consequence. These proportions may be combined in great varieties, and
+modified results will ensue.[59] Mr. Combe, in his late lectures in this
+city, laid great stress on the relative size of the three great visceral
+cavities, in determining the temperament. Thus, if the abdominal and
+thoracic cavities be small, and the cranial cavity large, the _nervous_
+temperament is indicated. If the abdomen and scull be comparatively small,
+and the chest large, the sanguine temperament is indicated. The
+predominance of the abdominal cavity indicates the lymphatic temperament.
+Mr. C. also pointed out the important changes produced in the temperament
+by a long continued course of training. It is common for the bilious, to
+be changed into the nervous temperament, by habits of mental activity, and
+close study; and, on the other hand, we often see the nervous or bilious
+changed into the lymphatic about the age of 40, when the nutritive system
+seems to acquire the preponderance. Spurzheim used to say, that he had
+originally a large portion of the lymphatic temperament, as had all his
+family; but that in himself the lymphatic had gradually diminished, and
+the nervous gradually increased; whereas, in his sisters, owing to mental
+inactivity, the reverse had happened, and when he visited them, after
+being absent many years, he found them, to use his own expression, "_as
+large as tuns_." The subject of temperament has been treated with
+consummate ability by Dr. Charles Caldwell of Kentucky; and as his essay
+is but little known, we shall present some extracts from it. It will be
+seen that his views bear a close resemblance to those of Dr. Thomas,
+already mentioned; but Dr. C. has shown that they were publicly maintained
+by him, at least two years before the appearance of Dr. Thomas's work.[60]
+After explaining the doctrine of the temperaments, as taught by the
+ancients, and showing that it is founded on the exploded hypothesis of
+humoralism, Dr. C. goes on to show, that it is the _solids_ of the body
+which make man what he is; that they form the _fluids_, and give them
+their character; that they are, in short, the _cause_, and the fluids the
+_effect_.
+
+"The difference," says Dr. C., "between individuals, or rather classes, of
+the human family, which temperament is made to designate, appears to
+depend on two causes; diversity of organization in parts or the whole of
+the bodies of different persons, giving rise to a corresponding diversity
+in the vital properties; and difference of size and vigor in certain
+ruling organs of the system. The existence and influence of the former of
+these causes are in the highest degree probable; those of the latter
+certain. The one is susceptible of strong support, the other of proof that
+may be termed positive. By 'organization' is here meant, the minute
+interior or radical structure of the tissues which compose the human body.
+That diversity in this creates a diversity in the vital properties, and
+that again a diversity in character, cannot I think be doubted. Whether
+the difference of organization here referred to, consists in different
+proportions of the element of living matter that form the tissues, united
+in the same way, or in their different modes of arrangement and union, or
+both, or whether it may not arise in part from different proportions of
+the simpler tissues entering into the formation of the more compound
+organs, is not known. Minute anatomy has not yet attained a degree of
+perfection competent to settle a point of such subtility."
+
+Dr. C. afterward goes on to prove that no single nerve, or organ, can
+perform two distinct functions, but that each is capable of one mode of
+action, and no more; that between a nerve, a muscle, and a gland, the only
+difference known to exist, is that of organization; and that if they are
+organized alike, and endowed with life, their properties will be similar,
+and they will act in the same way. So also between animals of the same
+race, we discover innumerable differences, which can be referred to
+nothing but differences in organization, and the same may be affirmed of
+vegetables. The conclusion to which Dr. C. arrives, and which he maintains
+with great ingenuity is, that independently of all other causes,
+differences in human temperament are to be attributed, in part, to
+corresponding differences in the organization of certain portions, or the
+whole of the body; and that, other things being equal, in consequence of
+this source of influence alone, one person differs from another in many of
+the qualities of both person and intellect. In other words, he is more
+highly gifted, sprightly, and vigorous, or the reverse; or he is more
+courageous or timid, generous or selfish, according to his organization.
+
+"But the second cause that was represented to be instrumental in
+diversifying the human temperaments is by far the most powerful. It will
+be remembered to have been, 'difference of size and vigor in certain
+ruling organs of the system.' The organs alluded to are those contained in
+the three great cavities of the body; the chylopoetic, situated in the
+abdomen, and including the stomach and intestines, with the liver,
+pancreas, mesentery, and lacteals; those of sanguification and
+circulation, situated in the thorax, and consisting of the lungs, heart,
+and bloodvessels; and the brain, with its appendages, the spinal cord and
+nerves. These three _groups_ (for the brain is _multiplex_ as well as the
+other two) are not only the ruling organs in the person of man; connected
+with the hard and soft parts that enclose them, they _constitute the
+person_. The upper and lower extremities are but appendages; important and
+necessary, it must be acknowledged; but still appendages. The individual
+can exist and be a human being without them. Nor have they any influence
+in imparting constitutional character to their possessors. Standing only
+in the capacity of subordinates to the controlling organs, they are not
+only nourished and put in motion by them; they labor mechanically for
+their uses, and serve as instruments to execute their purposes. They are
+composed of the extreme ends of the organized matter of the system,
+constitute only its outworks, and possess but little influence over its
+central parts. This representation rests on evidence that may be termed
+demonstrative. Many persons destitute of the upper or lower extremities,
+or both, have strong characters and well-marked temperaments. But the
+extremities, if deprived of the influence of any one group of the ruling
+organs, are converted not only into useless but lifeless masses. Of the
+skin, muscles, and bones, which compose the head, neck, and trunk of the
+body, the same is true. Of themselves they possess no character, and can
+therefore bestow none. They also are but appendages to the organs they
+cover, affording them a secure lodgment and protection from external
+injuries, and aiding them in the performance of some of their functions.
+And from this alone is their importance derived. Were it possible for them
+to exist apart from the viscera they contain, their grade of being would
+be below that of many vegetables. Most fatal diseases, moreover, have
+their original seat in the viscera of one of the three great cavities of
+the body, and no disease originating elsewhere can become fatal, until, by
+sympathy or metastasis, some of those parts are deeply affected. To
+enlightened physiologists this statement presents but a series of familiar
+truths. To the groups of organs exclusively, then, I repeat, contained in
+the abdomen, the thorax, and the cranium, must we look as the main source
+of human character. And that character is different according to the
+predominance, in different individuals, of one group or another, or of any
+two of them. An equilibrium between the three groups constitutes another
+variety, by bestowing on character a corresponding equilibrium. Let the
+word _temperament_ be substituted for 'character,' and what is true of the
+latter will be so of the former. As already mentioned, the organs referred
+to will be its source; and the differences in their predominance will give
+diversity to it."
+
+Dr. C. then shows that the strength and perfection of each of the senses
+are proportioned to the size of the nerve on which that sense depends.
+This is illustrated by a powerful array of facts, drawn from different
+orders of the animal kingdom, as well as from the different varieties of
+mankind. It is also stated, that where any nerve or set of nerves, is
+peculiarly large, the portion of the brain to which they belong, and by
+which they are influenced and commanded, is correspondingly large.
+
+"Inasmuch, then, as, other things being equal, size gives power to
+everything else, we are not only justified in believing, on grounds of
+analogy we are compelled to believe, that the same is true of the organs
+contained in the cranium, the thorax, and the abdomen. When they are in a
+sound and natural condition, their size is also the measure of their
+power. Were not this the case, they would be either altogether abnormal,
+or subject to laws that govern no other kind of matter, whether organic or
+inorganic, of which we have any knowledge. But the position I am
+contending for is not to be regarded as a mere inference in a process of
+reasoning. It will appear hereafter that it is a positive fact, which
+observation has discovered, and continues to confirm.
+
+I have alleged that the size of the three groups of ruling organs may be
+ascertained by that of the cases in which they are contained. Nor do I
+perceive on what ground any one, who is even moderately acquainted with
+the structure of the human body, can controvert the belief, or cherish the
+slightest doubt on the subject of it. In healthy persons (and my remarks
+relate only to such) the size of the brain is necessarily known by that of
+the head. As the viscus completely fills the cranium, the case cannot be
+otherwise. Although the bones of the head and the soft parts that cover
+them are thicker in some individuals than in others, the difference is so
+small as not materially to affect the result. The chest is filled by the
+lungs, heart, and large bloodvessels. Its measure, therefore, cannot fail
+to be the measure of them. Any deviation from exactness in this, that may
+be produced by varieties in the thickness of the skin, muscles, and other
+parts, is of no moment. Of the chylopoetic viscera the same is true. They
+also fill exactly the cavity prepared for them. The size of the abdomen,
+therefore, affords a knowledge of their size sufficiently accurate for all
+practical purposes. By a mere inspection of the person of man, then, the
+absolute measure of the groups of organs I am considering, as well as
+their magnitude in relation to each other, can be fairly ascertained. And
+it will appear on examination, as already stated, that the predominance in
+size and energy of any one or two of them, always imparts a corresponding
+diversity to the human character. Does the brain predominate? The
+individual to whom it belongs is more remarkable for the vigor of his
+intellect or feeling, or both, than for any other constitutional quality.
+These modes of mental manifestation constitute the natural functions of
+the brain; and when of an order unusually high, they give a peculiarity of
+character to the whole system. The person thus endowed feels more keenly,
+thinks more strongly, is more eager in pursuit of knowledge, and attains
+it with more facility. His relish for pleasure is also inordinately keen,
+and he pursues it at times with burning ardor. Such was the constitutional
+character of Mr. Fox, and also of our distinguished countryman the late
+Mr. Bayard. I need scarcely add, that this predominance of sensibility and
+mental action must necessarily modify the diseases the individual may
+sustain. But of this I shall speak hereafter. Do the lungs, heart, and
+bloodvessels predominate? A larger volume of highly arterialized blood is
+formed, and thrown more forcibly and in greater quantities throughout the
+system. From the abundance of that fluid, and the superior size of the
+vessels conveying it, those parts of the body nourished by the red blood
+will be comparatively most copiously supplied. But it is more especially
+the muscles that are thus nourished. They will be therefore large and
+powerful. Hence persons with broad and full chests have well-developed and
+vigorous muscles. In proportion to their size their animal strength is
+necessarily great. Nor can such constitutional peculiarities fail to be
+productive of peculiarities in disease? Do the chylopoetic viscera
+predominate? The amount of chyle formed is very large in proportion to the
+quantity of food eaten. But the lungs, heart, and bloodvessels being
+comparatively small, neither is sanguification abundant and perfect nor
+circulation vigorous. The blood is not either highly arterialized or
+animalized. Its amount of red globules is small, and it circulates feebly
+through vessels of a limited size. The consequence is, that the muscles
+receive less red blood, and are less fully nourished; the system at large
+is not so highly endued with life, and the soft parts generally have a
+lower tone. The individual thus marked is less robust and vigorous than
+one whose system is supplied abundantly with highly arterialized blood,
+and less intellectual and sprightly than those whose brain predominates.
+It is almost needless to say, that, under such circumstances, disease must
+be modified in conformity to the constitution.
+
+"From the preceding views it clearly appears, that the comparative
+standing of individual man, as relates to his race, is graduated by the
+predominance of his leading organs. Do his abdominal viscera preponderate?
+He has much of the animal in him, and his grade is low. Are his thoracic
+viscera most highly developed? His qualities are of a superior order; but
+he still partakes too much of the animal. Does his cerebral system
+predominate; and is it well developed in all its parts? He rises above the
+sphere of animal nature, and stands high in that of humanity. He is formed
+for an intellectual and moral being, with no more of animality in his
+constitution, than is necessary to give him practical energy of character.
+
+"This subject may be farther illustrated by a reference to some of the
+animals below us. The worm commonly denominated a grub is but little else
+than a mass of abdominal matter. It is therefore one of the humblest and
+grossest of worms. The insect has also a large abdomen, with a very small
+chest, and a smaller head. Hence, though superior to the grub, it is low
+in the scale of animal nature. Reptiles and fish are more elevated,
+because their abdominal viscera preponderate less. But still they do
+preponderate; and therefore the rank of the animals is humble. In the hog
+the abdominal viscera are most strongly developed, and hence his standing
+among quadrupeds is low. The same is true of the bear and the ox, and also
+of the sheep and the goat, but in an inferior degree. The horse,
+especially the barb and the racehorse, furnish no bad specimens of the
+mixed or balanced temperament. When the latter is undergoing preparation
+for the course, the object of his keeper is to make the thoracic
+temperament preponderate as much as possible, for the time, in order to
+increase his vigor and endurance; in the language of the turf, to give him
+more strength and 'better bottom.' The warhorse approaches the thoracic
+temperament. In the canine race, more especially in the greyhound, the
+thoracic viscera hold the ascendency. Hence the muscular power of the dog
+is greater, and his grade among quadrupeds higher than those of most of
+the preceding animals. The same is true of the wolf, the panther, and the
+tiger. In some dogs there is a considerable cerebral development, but it
+is never large enough to counterbalance the thoracic. Of all animals, the
+lion affords the most finished specimen of thoracic preponderance. In
+proportion to his size, his lungs and heart, especially the latter, are
+immensely large. And his muscular power corresponds to them. The magnitude
+of his heart is generally considered the cause of his boldness. Hence a
+very courageous man is said to have a _great_ heart, or to be
+_lion-hearted_. All this is popular error. The heart is but a muscle; and,
+in man, has no more connexion with courage than the gastrocnemii muscles;
+nor, in the lion, than the muscles that move his tail. Courage is
+exclusively a cerebral attribute, and has its seat in an organ
+specifically appropriated to it. In none of the inferior animals does the
+brain preponderate. That preponderance belongs to humanity, and, as
+already mentioned, indicates its highest grade. Of all the beings below
+us, some of the ape tribe have the highest cerebral development. And they
+approach nearest to man in their degree of intellect. This is farther
+proof that, other things being alike, the brain gives the measure of
+mental power. I have lately seen a publication, in which it is gravely
+asserted, that the large orang-outang catches crabs with a stick, and
+makes a rude basket of osiers to contain them. Notwithstanding the
+well-known sagacity of that animal, this statement savors strongly of the
+'tale of a traveller.'"
+
+"Considered in relation to these principles, temperament may be divided
+into seven varieties. 1, the mixed or balanced, in which the ruling organs
+are in fair proportion to each other; 2, the encephalic; 3, the thoracic;
+4, the abdominal; 5, the encephalo-thoracic; 6, the encephalo-abdominal;
+and 7, the thoracico-abdominal."
+
+"1. _The mixed or balanced variety._ In this the name explains the
+temperament. The external marks of it are plain. They consist in a
+well-adjusted proportion between the sizes of the head, thorax, and
+abdomen. If the limbs are in harmony, the symmetry of the entire person is
+complete. Although individuals, in whom this temperament prevails, are
+usually above the middle height, and well-formed, they are not necessarily
+so. They may be of any stature, and any shape, straight or crooked,
+provided the three great cavities and their contents be accurately
+balanced. This is not the temperament of either early life or old age. It
+commences with manhood, and continues until the fortieth or forty-fifth
+year, and then passes into somewhat of the abdominal. The Apollo
+Belvidere, by Phidias, is an exquisite specimen of it. But some modern
+artists have violated it, in painting that statue, by making the chest and
+the head loo large. Although the manifestation of strength, majesty, and
+intellect, is heightened by this, the beauty of the youthful god is
+marred. The figure, though more imposing, has lost its charm."
+
+"2. _The encephalic._ In this variety the head is relatively large, but is
+not always equally developed in every part, a circumstance which varies
+greatly, as will presently appear, the characters of those who possess the
+temperament. The development of the thorax and abdomen is moderate, the
+person lean, and the countenance expressive of intense feeling and deep
+passion. In some individuals, however, the countenance beams with
+intelligence, without much passion, while, in others, manifestations of
+powerful intellect and passion are united. The thoracic and abdominal
+activity is never high; yet in many instances the personal hardihood and
+endurance are invincible. It is men of this temperament alone that can
+immortalize themselves by great achievements, good or bad. All history and
+observation testify to this. Is the development very large in the moral
+and intellectual regions of the brain, and so moderate in the animal as to
+be held fully in check? The individual will distinguish himself by a
+dignified purity of deportment, and by the performance of great and good
+deeds."
+
+"Are the animal and mere knowing compartments largely developed, and the
+moral and reflecting very slightly? As relates to vice and profligacy in
+their foulest shapes, this is the worst of all temperaments. Nothing more
+prone to depravity can be imagined. The person possessed of it delights in
+some sort of animality alone; and if he ever engages in anything higher or
+purer, it is for a sinister purpose, that he may return to his chosen
+indulgences in more security, or on a broader scale."
+
+"Is the development very large, and equally so in all the departments of
+the brain, animal, moral, and intellectual, giving to the head unusual
+size? The individual possessing it has a lofty and powerful character, is
+capable of attaining the highest renown, and making an impression, not to
+be erased, on the age and country in which he lives. His career may be
+occasionally stained by irregularities and checkered with clouds, but will
+be brilliant in the main. His designs are vast, because he feels his
+power, the instruments with which he works are men, and he wields them in
+masses. The term _little_ has no place in his vocabulary, nor its
+prototype in his thoughts. His aim is greatness of some kind--high
+achievement or deep catastrophe."
+
+"3. _The thoracic._ Under this variety the head is small, usually round,
+and covered with thick curling hair, the abdomen of limited dimensions,
+the chest spacious and powerful, and the muscles swelling and firm.
+Whether fair and ruddy or otherwise, the complexion is strong. Respiration
+is full and deep, and the action of the heart regular and vigorous; and
+the pulse has great volume. Like the result, in every other kind of
+inordinate vital action, the animal temperature is high. This temperament,
+in which neither feeling nor intellect prevails, begins to show itself
+about puberty, and continues until the decline of life, when it undergoes
+a change. The Farnesian Hercules is the _beau ideal_ of it. This shows
+that it was known to the ancient Greeks, who were probably indebted for
+their acquaintance with it to observations made on the persons of their
+wrestlers. In modern times it is strongly developed in boxers and porters,
+and sufficiently so in bakers, wood-choppers, operative agriculturists,
+and others who have been habituated to labor from their boyhood. I have
+observed no little of it among the London boatmen, the occupation of whose
+life is to ply the oar, a mode of exercise well calculated to develop the
+chest, together with the muscles of the upper extremities. I have seen
+good specimens of it also in the African race."
+
+"4. _The abdominal._ This temperament is easily recognised by the
+character it imparts to the person and intellect. The pelvis is broad in
+proportion to the shoulders and thorax, the abdomen large and prominent,
+and the adipose matter abundant, filling up the interstices of the
+muscles, and often forming a layer between them and the skin, in
+consequence of which the limbs are round and smooth and soft to the touch.
+In such constitutions, ecchymosis succeeds with unusual readiness, to
+slight contusions. Circulation in the skin being feeble, the complexion
+may be fair and delicate, but never very ruddy or strong. The size of the
+head is limited, the intellectual moderate, the eye deficient in lustre
+and the countenance in expression, and the movements heavy and seldom
+graceful. The abdominal viscera seem to draw everything into the vortex of
+their action. The amount of vitality is evidently below its common measure
+in the human system, and, in some instances, the flesh seems to hang as a
+load on the spirit."
+
+"5. _The encephalo-thoracic._ This temperament is a type of power both
+bodily and mental. Its compound name expresses fully the external
+appearances that mark it, as well as the attributes that always accompany
+them. With an abdomen of moderate dimensions, the head of the individual
+who possesses it is large and vigorous to conceive and direct, and his
+chest and muscles powerful to execute, and hardy to endure. It is the
+temperament of masculine and comprehensive thought and strong propensity,
+united to energetic action, rather than of seclusion and profound
+meditation. As in all other cases, the character is varied in it according
+to the portion of the brain that is most largely developed. He to whom it
+belongs feels himself in his proper sphere when he is among men, and is
+well fitted to act his part in times of tumult and scenes of difficulty.
+Is his brain large in each of its compartments? If an occasion present
+itself, he not only mingles in the moral storm, but aspires to direct it.
+In case of his becoming a warrior, his genius and sword are alike
+formidable. In battle, previously to the invention of fire-arms, such a
+man was the terror of his enemies and the hope of his friends. Ulysses, as
+sketched by Homer, is as fairly the _beau ideal_ of this temperament, as
+Hercules is of the thoracic. That chieftain was alike wise to counsel,
+intrepid to dare, and powerful to perform. Plato, so called from the
+uncommon breadth of his chest, who had also a very large head, is another
+excellent model of the same. Even in times of peace the corporeal
+attributes of a man of this description add to his influence. Jupiter, the
+emblem of wisdom and power, as represented by the ancient statuaries, with
+an immense head and trunk, and arms of matchless strength, is as finished
+a specimen of the encephalo-thoracic temperament, as Apollo is of the
+mixed."
+
+"6. _The encephalo-abdominal._ Here again the name bespeaks sufficiently
+the development, form, and character of those who possess the temperament.
+The head and abdomen are comparatively large, the thorax small, and the
+shoulders narrow. Hence the sensibility is keen, and the intellect, if not
+powerful, active and respectable. For the reasons given, when the
+abdominal temperament was considered, the limbs and person, under the
+present one, are round and smooth, and the flesh is soft; but, owing to
+the influence of a well-developed brain, and nerves that correspond to it,
+the movements are sprightly and the air graceful. Though rarely powerful,
+the character is attractive. This is the temperament of childhood and
+woman, much more than of adult life and man. Fine genius, but elegant and
+playful, rather than strong and brilliant, is often connected with it. It
+is females, in whom the encephalic development is larger than usual, that
+possess minds truly masculine."
+
+"7. _The thoracico-abdominal._ In this temperament the head is
+comparatively small, and the thorax and abdomen large, with a
+corresponding size of the muscles and bones, and much adipose substance.
+It is the temperament of mere animal strength and patient endurance,
+without any of the elevated, sprightly, or attractive qualities of human
+nature. It forms good laborers and fatigue-men, but is entirely unfit for
+those whose province is to meditate, plan, and direct. It comports well
+enough with the character of soldiers of a certain description, but is
+altogether out of harmony with that of an officer. It is, I think, more
+favorable to health than any of the other temperaments, except perhaps the
+mixed. If those who possess it have weak intellects, their passions are
+usually moderate, and rarely hurry them into pernicious excesses. The
+tenor of their lives is but little interrupted by either irregularity or
+disease. Hence they retain their vigor uncommonly well, and are often
+day-laborers and industrious husbandmen at an advanced age. True, their
+appetite for food is strong; but they are not prone to an excessive
+indulgence of it; I mean at a single meal. Like those possessed of the
+abdominal temperament, they eat often rather than superabundantly at once.
+Besides, such is the strength of their chylopoetic viscera, that they
+subdue and digest without sustaining any injury, as much food as would
+produce disease in those of different constitutions. Nor are they so much
+endangered by vascular fulness as persons of the simple abdominal
+temperament. The reason of this is plain. Their bloodvessels are larger,
+and their excretions more copious, especially those by the skin and the
+organ of respiration. From the warmth of their constitutions, owing to an
+abundance of well-arterialized blood, and a concomitant vigorous
+circulation, they perspire freely, and secrete and exhale copiously from
+the lungs. This temperament is rarely found among women, and is not very
+common among men."
+
+Dr. C. maintains that at certain periods of life, one temperament passes
+into another, as the result of the natural changes which take place, in
+the progress of the growth and decay of the human body; and that every
+one, who attains longevity, partakes, in the progress of growth and
+decline, of five temperaments; the purely _abdominal_, which prevails
+before birth; the _encephalo-abdominal_, which exists at birth, and for
+some years afterward; the _encephalo-thoracic_; the _mixed_; and the
+_abdominal_ of real senility. Thus passes the circle of life, beginning
+with the abdominal temperament of the foetal state, and terminating in
+that of extreme old age.
+
+That there is an intimate connexion between temperament and personal
+beauty, will be manifest from the above view of the subject. Our limits,
+however, forbid an application of Dr. Caldwell's views in illustration of
+Mr. Walker's theory; these, however, have been given so much in detail,
+that the reader will be able to make the application for himself.
+
+
+G.
+
+There is hardly any habit relating to female dress more destructive of
+grace and beauty, at least of deportment, than that of compressing the
+foot in a shoe of one half the proper size. It would seem that our ladies
+were trying to ape the fashion of the Chinese, in this respect, and though
+they do not at present carry it to the same extent, yet they carry it
+sufficiently far to destroy their comfort. We look in vain for the
+sprightly, light, and elastic step, where the feet are bound tight, and
+cramped up in disproportionately tight shoes; and it would be strange in
+such a case, if we did not find an unhappy and distressed expression of
+countenance--the muscles of the face sympathizing with the distorted and
+painful feet. Such a custom, also, interferes materially with taking that
+measure of exercise which is necessary to health. Mrs. Walker, in her work
+on Female Beauty, remarks as follows: "Ladies are very apt to torture
+their feet to make them appear small. This is exceedingly ridiculous: a
+very small foot is a deformity. True beauty of each part consists in the
+proportion it bears to the rest of the body. A tight or ill-made shoe, not
+only destroys the shape of the foot, it produces corns and bunions; and it
+tends to impede the circulation of the blood. Besides, the foot then
+swells, and appears larger than it is, and the ankles become thick and
+clumsy."
+
+The pernicious effect of tight or ill-made shoes, is evident also in the
+stiff and tottering gait of these victims of a foolish prejudice; they can
+neither stand upright, walk straight, nor enter a room properly.
+
+To be too short, is one of the greatest defects a shoe can have; because
+it takes away all chance of yielding in that direction, and without
+offering any compensation for tightness in others, and in itself, it not
+only causes pain, and spoils the shape of the foot, by turning down the
+toes, and swelling of the instep, but is the cause of bad gait and
+carriage. Many diseases arise solely from the use of shoes of very thin
+materials in wet weather; but no female who has the slightest regard for
+her health, or indeed for the preservation of her beauty, will object to
+wear shoes thicker than are usually worn, if the pavement is at any time
+wet or damp.
+
+
+H.
+
+The effect of alcoholic drinks upon beauty, has not been over-estimated by
+Mr. Walker, though he is doubtless mistaken in supposing that none but
+those who reside amid the artificial customs of city life, experience the
+deleterious influence of such beverages. Not only alcoholic stimulants,
+but tea and coffee, and especially opium, which has of late come into very
+extensive use as a substitute for the former, tend to produce an unhealthy
+action of the skin, from their influence upon the secerent system, causing
+blotches, pimples, and discolorations, in a greater or less degree. Where
+used moderately, they produce either an unnatural paleness, deadness, or
+duskiness of complexion, or a bloated appearance, far removed from the
+fresh roseate hue of health. Such is the effect of wine, cordials, and
+malt liquors, which are extensively employed by ladies, particularly in
+cities, during the period of nursing, under a mistaken impression that
+they cause a greater flow of milk, and tend to invigorate the system.
+Whoever desires to attain health, strength, and beauty, should not seek
+them through the agency of bitters, tonics, and cordials, or distilled, or
+fermented liquors, which only inflame the blood, but from free exercise in
+the open air, regular occupations, tranquillity of mind, a mild diet, and
+a proper allotment of time for sleep.
+
+It has been remarked that the lower classes of females in cities, consume
+as much, and probably more intoxicating drinks, than men of the same
+class, and this is no doubt true. But to the honor of our countrywomen, a
+great change has been brought about within last few years, with respect to
+the use of alcoholic liquors, not only in this, but in other countries,
+with a corresponding improvement in health, happiness, and beauty. In
+advancing this blessed reform, the ladies have borne a conspicuous
+part--as they have in every other philanthropic work--and their _combined_
+influence is only needed, to banish such drinks entirely from civilized
+society.
+
+
+THE FACIAL LINE OF CAMPER.
+
+In order to determine the cerebral mass, and, consequently, the
+intellectual faculties, Camper draws a base line from the roots of the
+upper incisors, to the external auditory passage; then another straight
+line, from the upper incisors to the most elevated point of the forehead:
+according to him, the intellectual faculties of the man or animal, are in
+direct proportion to the magnitude of the angle, made by those two lines.
+Lavater, with this idea for a basis, constructed a scale of perfection
+from the frog to the Apollo Belvidere. As nature really furnishes many
+proofs in support of this opinion, it has been generally received, even by
+anatomists and physiologists; and, notwithstanding the arguments by which
+it is victoriously opposed, the learned cannot resolve to abandon it.
+Cuvier himself furnishes a list of men and animals, in support of this
+doctrine; few naturalists oppose it, but almost all give it their
+support.[61]
+
+Camper's attempt necessarily failed; for his manner of drawing the lines
+and measuring the facial angle, enabled him to take into consideration the
+anterior parts only of the brain situated near the forehead: he entirely
+neglects the posterior, lateral, and inferior cerebral parts. This method,
+then, at most, could decide upon those faculties only, whose organs are
+placed near the forehead.
+
+Cuvier estimates the facial angle of the new-born infant at ninety
+degrees; that of the adult, at eighty-five; that of decrepit old age, at
+fifty.
+
+From this statement it appears, that, at different ages, changes take
+place in the form, either of the brain or the cranium; hereafter I shall
+prove that such changes really occur.
+
+The forehead of the newborn infant is flattened; on the contrary, that of
+a child some months old, and until the age of eight or ten years,
+especially in the case of boys possessed of superior talents, it is
+projecting, and forms, notwithstanding the approximation to the age of
+puberty, a larger facial angle than in the adult; this angle, therefore,
+does not diminish in the inverse ratio of the age. In like manner we find
+decrepit old men, whose facial angle is as great as it was in the vigor of
+manhood; for, although in decrepitude the brain is subject to atrophy,
+there are old men, the exterior contour of whose crania undergoes no
+change. The angle, as stated by Cuvier, for different ages, were measured
+upon different individuals; if it were estimated upon the same persons at
+different epochs of his life, the result would be entirely different.
+
+In general, the proportion between the forehead and the face, is
+different in different individuals. No conclusion can be drawn from the
+proportions, which exist in one person, relative to those of another;
+among a hundred individuals of the same sex and age, no two can be found,
+in whom the same proportion exists between the forehead and the face; it
+necessarily follows, then, that no two will have the same facial angle.
+Physiologists seem to admit, that the proportion between the brain and the
+bones of the face, is different in different species of animals: but they
+appear to think that, in all the individuals of the same species, all the
+young, all the adults, all the old, there exists a constant proportion
+between the cerebral mass and the face.
+
+The researches of Blumenbach show that threefourths of the animals known,
+have nearly the same facial angle; and yet what a disparity between their
+instincts and faculties! What information, then, do we derive from
+Camper's facial angle?
+
+Moreover, as Cuvier himself observes, the cerebral mass is by no means
+placed in all animals, immediately behind or beneath what is called the
+forehead. In a great many species of animals, on the contrary, the
+external table of the frontal is at a considerable distance from the
+internal, and this distance increases with the age of the animal. The
+brain of the swine is placed an inch lower than the frontal bones seem to
+indicate; that of the ox, in some parts three inches; that of the
+elephant, from six to thirteen. In other animals, the measurement is
+generally commenced at the frontal sinus instead of the cerebrum. From
+these considerations, Cuvier was induced to draw a tangent to the internal
+instead of the external surface of the cranium. The cerebrum of the wolf
+and many species of dogs, especially when the individuals are very old, is
+placed directly behind the frontal sinuses. In the wolf, especially the
+large and most ferocious variety, it is depressed as in the hyena; in the
+dog it is situated higher or lower, according to the species; but,
+notwithstanding this difference in the situation of the brain, the facial
+angle, as it is commonly measured, must be the same; from this the
+inference would be, that the dog, the wolf, and the hyena, have the same
+qualities, and each in the same degree. In the greater part of the
+rodentia, the morse, &c., the brain is so depressed and so placed behind
+the frontal sinuses, that the facial line cannot be drawn. The facial line
+of the cetacea, on account of the singular conformation of the head, would
+lead to results absolutely false.
+
+I know many negroes, who, with very prominent jaws, are quite
+distinguished for their intellectual faculties; yet the projection of the
+jaws renders the facial angle much more acute, than it would be with the
+usual conformation of Europeans. In order that the same angle should exist
+in a European, the forehead must be flattened and retreating. But the
+foreheads of the negroes in question, on the contrary, are very
+projecting. Who, under these circumstances, would expect to find the same
+amount of intellect corresponding to the same facial angle?
+
+The facial line cannot be applied to birds, as many naturalists have
+already observed.
+
+From what has been said, we should expect that naturalists would at length
+renounce the facial angle of Camper; but the most ignorant are generally
+the most conceited.
+
+In spite of this complete refutation of Camper's facial line, Delpit
+extols it in the following terms:--
+
+"If ever a relation of this kind presented characters of generality and
+fixedness, adequate to excite a reasonable confidence in matters belonging
+to the domain of empiricism, rather than that of science, it is the
+relation or proportion of magnitude, which Camper first perceived and
+revealed, by comparing the brain of man with that of the different species
+of animals. We here see a successive decrease of intelligence,
+proportionate to the acuteness of the facial angle and the consequent
+diminution of the cerebral cavity. This affords a constant and fixed
+relation. It can be appreciated with a sufficient degree of exactness by
+the direct light of comparative anatomy, and by observation of the habits
+and intelligence of the different classes of animals; it can also be
+verified by the comparison of men very unequally endowed with intellectual
+faculties, in whom the contraction of the cerebral cavity and the
+magnitude of the facial angle exhibit the most remarkable diversities.
+Here the physiognomical sign has, if I may be allowed the expression, a
+wide extent of acceptation; it rests upon a broad basis, upon a definite
+division, and one of easy comprehension and verification; for, if there is
+some discrepancy of opinion, in regard to the number and nomenclature of
+the faculties of the mind, the sentiments of the soul, the modifications
+or shades of character which give birth to particular passions, moral
+dispositions, habits, whether virtuous or vicious; if these
+classifications are, in a great measure, arbitrary, and the language used
+somewhat vague; if, in short, the greater part of these nominal faculties
+are mere abstractions of the mind, purely imaginary existences, and
+therefore cannot be actually located in any part of the brain; the case is
+quite different, when we merely seek to establish a general relation
+between a constant sign manifested in the organization, and the degree of
+reason, mind, or intellect, attributed to different men, or the degrees of
+sagacity attributed to different species of animals. Here, no one is at a
+loss, because there is ample latitude for comparing and judging; in the
+system of Gall, on the contrary, the comparisons rest upon minute points,
+which are subject to discussion, exceptions, a thousand uncertainties in
+the signs and various applications."[62]
+
+If the reader will review what I have said against Camper's facial line,
+he will find a refutation of all this reasoning of Delpit; a proof that he
+defends it merely because it is in vogue. It is this very generality and
+fixedness, which render it, in almost all cases, inapplicable; this is the
+inherent defect in the supposed importance of Camper's facial angle. It is
+implicitly supposed, that no difference but that of degree, exists between
+the capacities of the different species and individuals of the human race,
+and the different species and individuals of the animal kingdom. Thus the
+intelligence of men and other animals would always be proportioned to the
+magnitude of the facial angle. This being premised, I ask, which, out of
+two, three, four, &c., has the most intelligence, the dog, ape, beaver,
+the ant, or the bee? Ants and bees live in an admirable republic, and form
+astonishing constructions, which they know how to modify according to
+circumstances. The beaver and penduline build with equally marvellous
+skill, and with a foresight which seldom errs; the dog and the ape have
+very little foresight, and are incapable of the most insignificant
+construction. Which has the greater intelligence, Voltaire or Descartes?
+Could the former have been a mathematician and the latter a poet? Which
+has the higher degree of intellect, Mozart or Lessing, who, with all his
+genius, detested music? In short, which has the most intelligence, my dog
+who retraces his steps through the most complicated routes, or myself, who
+am always going astray? Measure now the facial angle of the ant, bee,
+beaver, penduline, ape, my dog, and of myself, and estimate the result.
+Acknowledge, then, that your division, so definite, so easy to be
+apprehended, is absolutely useless, and that you are obliged to advert to
+divers instincts, propensities, faculties, and their different degrees of
+energy, to which your facial angle is wholly inapplicable. Your
+intelligence, instinct, address, are in reality mere abstractions,
+imaginary existences. Do you consider the propensity to procreation, the
+love of offspring, the carnivorous instinct, the talent for music, poetry,
+&c., as imaginary existences? You see, then, that it is more convenient to
+tread the beaten path, than to verify observations.--_Gall on the
+Functions of the Brain_, page 195.
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] Utopia, Book II., chap. viii.
+
+[2] I do not wish to be forced into any discussion of this last point.
+But, if necessary, I shall not decline it.
+
+[3] We fear that Mr. Walker's analogical reasoning here is not very
+conclusive. To reason from a living to a dead subject may be very logical
+but it is not altogether satisfactory.
+
+[4] "The Magazine of The Fine Arts," No. VI, for October 1833.
+
+[5] I am not here called upon to vindicate the errors and absurdities
+which poets and others introduced into mythology.
+
+[6] Appendix A.
+
+[7] George IV., though the "first gentleman" in England, was guilty of
+cheating at a horserace.--ED.
+
+[8] The above remark is true of the same class of females in this
+country.--ED.
+
+[9] Appendix B.
+
+[10] Appendix C.
+
+[11] To the reader unaccustomed to inquiries of this kind, it may save
+trouble to peruse first the brief Summary of the contents of this
+important chapter, beginning in page 120.
+
+[12] Regularity expresses the similarity of parts considered as
+constituting a whole; and uniformity, the similarity of parts considered
+separately.
+
+[13] Appendix D
+
+[14] The common character of these arts has been overlooked.
+
+[15] Proportion is here employed, not as expressing an intrinsic relation,
+as in the beauty of inanimate beings, but as expressing an extrinsic
+relation to fitness for ends.
+
+[16] "The Nervous System, Anatomical and Physiological: in which the
+Functions of the various Parts of the Brain are, for the first time,
+assigned."
+
+[17] Communicated by the writer to the "Magazine of the Fine Arts," No.
+11, for June, 1833.
+
+[18] "Human Nature," chap, ix., sec. 13.
+
+[19] "Reflexions Critiques sur la Poesie et sur la Peinture."
+
+[20] "Reflexions sur la Poetique."
+
+[21] "Adventurer," No. 110.
+
+[22] Essay on Tragedy.
+
+[23] To some it may appear, that the organs and functions of digestion,
+respiration, and generation, are not involved by this arrangement; but
+such a notion can originate only in superficial observation.
+
+Digestion is a compound function easily reducible to some of the simple
+ones which have been enumerated. It consists of the motion of the stomach
+and contiguous parts, of the secretion of a liquid from its internal
+surface, and of that heat, which is the common result of all action,
+whether mechanical, vital, or mental, and which is better explained by
+such motion, than by chymical theories. Similarly compound are respiration
+and generation.
+
+Thus, there is no organ nor function which is not involved by the simple
+and natural arrangement here sketched.
+
+Compound, however, as the organs of digestion, respiration, and
+generation, are, yet, as they form so important a part of the system, it
+may be asked, with which of these classes they are most allied. The answer
+is obvious. All of them consist of tubular vessels of various diameter;
+and all of them transmit and transmute liquids. Possessing such strong
+characteristics of the nutritive or vital system, they are evidently most
+allied to it.
+
+In short, digestion prepares the nutritive or vital matter, which is taken
+up by absorption--the first of the simple nutritive functions; respiration
+renovates it in the very middle of its course--between the two portions of
+the simple function of circulation; and generation, dependant on
+secretion--the last of these functions, communicates this nutritive
+matter, or propagates vitality to a new series of beings. In such
+arrangement, the digestive organs, therefore, precede, and the generative
+follow, the simple nutritive organs; while the respiratory occupy a middle
+place between the venous and the arterial circulation.
+
+Nothing can be more improper, as the preceding observations show, than
+considering any one of these as a distinct class.
+
+More fully, therefore, to enumerate the nutritive or vital organs, we may
+say, that, under them, are classed, first, the organs of digestion, the
+external and internal absorbent surfaces, and the vessels which absorb
+from these surfaces, or the organs of absorption; second, the heart,
+lungs, and bloodvessels, which derive their contents (the blood) from the
+absorbed lymph, or the organs of circulation; and third, the secreting
+cavities, glands, &c., which separate various matters from the blood, or
+the organs of secretion, and of which generation is the sequel.
+
+[24] Appendix E.
+
+[25] In perfect consistency with the assertion, that, though the organs of
+digestion, respiration, and generation, were really compound, still they
+were chiefly nutritive or vital, and properly belonged to that class, it
+is not less remarkable, that, in this division of the body, they are found
+to occupy that part, the trunk, in which the chief simple nutritive organs
+are contained. This also shows the impropriety of reckoning any of these a
+separate system from the vital.
+
+[26] The bones resemble these, in containing the greatest quantity of
+earthy mineral matter.
+
+[27] It is the possession of vessels which constitutes the vitality of
+vegetables.
+
+[28] In animals, alone, is nervous matter discoverable.
+
+[29] Plants have no real circulation, nor passage of their nutritive
+liquids through the same point.
+
+[30] This arrangement of anatomy and physiology was first published by me
+in 1806; and, notwithstanding its being the arrangement of nature, it has
+not been adopted by any one that I know of, until very lately, when it was
+in some measure used by Dr. Roget, without acknowledgment.
+
+The originality, as well as the truth and value, of this arrangement, will
+be illustrated by referring to any other published previous to 1806, or
+even to 1808, when I republished it in "Preliminary Lectures," Edinburgh.
+
+[31] The cause of this has never been explained; and it could not well be
+explained, without a perception of the views in my preceding physiological
+arrangement.--The brain, at this period, becomes more subservient to
+purposes connected with generation; the communication between the trunk
+and the head is more frequent, intense, and sustained; and the neck, which
+contains the communicating organs, necessarily increases in size. This
+unexplained circumstance led to the mistake of the craniologists
+respecting the cerebel. Here, therefore, as in other cases pointed out in
+my work on Physiognomy, Gall and Spurzheim ascribe to deeper-seated organs
+what belongs to more superficial ones.
+
+[32] Appendix F.
+
+[33] Appendix G.
+
+[34] Memoire sur le Beau Physique.
+
+[35] A curious but true remark is made by Moreau, namely, that if these
+conditions are met with without being united to a certain expression, and
+to the most complete combination of the elements of beauty of countenance,
+they frequently give an air of insensibility and of mental weakness, which
+greatly enfeebles the impression that a first view had caused.
+
+[36] Statistical results in relation to the supply of hospitals and
+prisons, carry the expense of a man much beyond that of a woman.
+
+[37] Appendix H.
+
+[38] Appendix I.
+
+[39] See the causes of this explained in my work on "Physiognomy."
+
+[40] Pallas--Voyages en Siberie.
+
+[41] Humboldt's Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain.
+
+[42] It is remarkable that, in infants, the nose is almost always flat,
+and that, in some members of the same family, it always remains so, while,
+in others, it rises. This is attended by difference of function.
+
+[43] "Physiognomy founded on Physiology, and applied to various Countries,
+Professions, and Individuals: with an Appendix on the Bones at Hythe--the
+Sculls of the ancient Inhabitants of Britain, and its Invaders:
+illustrated by Engravings."--Smith, Elder, & Co., Cornhill.
+
+[44] Of the best works on this subject, those of Mengs alone, I believe,
+have been translated; but the translation is so inaccurate as to be
+worthless.
+
+[45] Thus it is not correct, as stated by Leonardo, that when some parts
+are broad or thick, all are broad; though, in peculiar combinations, that
+may occur.
+
+[46] Lib. II. in Timæum Platonis.
+
+[47] This member of the Royal Academy was suspected of having written that
+"republics had done more for the advancement of the fine arts than
+monarchies." The late George III., who did not approve of truths of that
+kind, was thereby so much enraged, that he instantly sent for the list of
+the members of the academy, and therefrom erased the name of Barry. The
+academicians humbly submitted to the indignity which hereditary wisdom
+thus inflicted. It would appear, however, that bad principles are
+spreading among the Royal academicians; for the works of this expelled
+member are now daringly given by them as a prize to students at the
+academy!
+
+[48] This rule is well explained, and variously illustrated by Donald
+Walker, in his work, equally philosophical, instructive, and amusing,
+entitled "Exercises for Ladies," a knowledge of which, and the practice of
+its principles, would render beauty, and especially beauty of the
+shoulders and arms, far more common in every family.
+
+[49] It was at the extremity of the modern Cape Crio, anciently Triopium,
+a promontory of Doris, a province of Caria, that was built the celebrated
+city of Cnidos. Here Venus was worshipped: here was seen this statue of
+that goddess, the most beautiful of the works of Praxiteles. A temple, far
+from spacious, and open on all sides, contained it, without concealing it
+from view; and, in whatever point of view it was examined, it excited
+equal admiration. No drapery veiled its charms; and so uncommon was its
+beauty, that it inflamed with a violent passion another Pygmalion.
+
+[50] The phrenologists have told us that the head of this Venus is too
+small. They might as well have said, that the head of the Minerva, or of
+the Jupiter, is too large, or a hundred other ignorant inapplicabilities,
+and ridiculous pedantries. But to set aside ideal forms, I may observe,
+that sex makes a vast difference in the head, and a woman with a small
+head often produces a son with a large one.
+
+[51] This is beautiful, but is evidently borrowed from the great
+philosophical poet's
+
+  "Te, Dea, te fugiunt ventei, te nubila coeli,
+  Adventumque tuum."
+
+[52] That, in plants, these odors are even necessary to their
+reproduction, is proved by their uniform existence at that period. And if
+being affected by odors implies a sense of smell, or some modification of
+it, then must plants possess it.
+
+[53] In all grossly sensual nations and individuals, the lips are everted
+even at the angles.
+
+[54] See this explained in "Physiognomy."
+
+[55] "Venere suol tenere alquanto aperte le labbra, come per indicare un
+languido desiderio ed amore."--_Storia delle Arti._
+
+[56] In the Cupid, the form of the head is godlike. The hair not only
+curls with all the vigor of early years, but, with perfect knowledge of
+nature's tendency, is bent into a ridge along the middle of the upper
+head. The brow, full, open, and charmingly rounded, is the evident throne
+of young observation, and it flows with such beauty into the parts behind,
+as if it actually _said_ its purpose was to fling its observations back on
+thought and will. Its beginnings at the eyebrows display exquisite
+knowledge: the bony ridge is admirably shown to be yet unformed; and while
+its outer extremity forms but the orbital convexity, or shell for the
+globe of the eye, the inner extremity of the eyebrow is with infinite art
+drawn over soft and hollow space, as if the few hairs that composed it
+made there its only convexity. In short, in every part of the face, fine
+and faint as is every youthful feature, no detail is lost; and this, added
+to the pointed chin and upper lip, declare the purpose of the little god.
+
+[57] Appendix K.
+
+[58] I speak not of paint here. It is now used only by meretricious
+persons and by those harridans of higher rank who resemble them in every
+respect, except that the former are ashamed of their profession, and the
+latter advertise it.
+
+[59] Combe's Phrenology.
+
+[60] Physiologie des Temperamens on Constitutions. Paris, 1826.
+
+[61] This doctrine is revived, _Dict. des Sciences med._ Delpit and
+Reydellet.
+
+[62] Dictionnaire des Sciences Méd. t. xxxviii. p. 263.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+The misprint "and and" has been corrected to "and".
+
+Footnote 6 appears on page 34; however, it has no corresponding marker.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Beauty, by Alexander Walker
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Beauty; Illustrated Chiefly by an Analysis and Classification of Beauty in Woman, by Alexander Walker.
+    </title>
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Beauty, by Alexander Walker
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Beauty
+       Illustrated Chiefly by an Analysis and Classificatin of Beauty in Woman
+
+Author: Alexander Walker
+
+Release Date: February 26, 2011 [EBook #35409]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEAUTY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">BEAUTY;</span><br /><br />
+ILLUSTRATED CHIEFLY BY AN<br /><br />
+<span class="huge">ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION</span><br /><br />
+OF<br /><br />
+<span class="giant">BEAUTY IN WOMAN,</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="big">BY ALEXANDER WALKER,</span><br />
+<small>AUTHOR OF &#8220;INTERMARRIAGE,&#8221; &#8220;WOMAN,&#8221; &#8220;PHYSIOGNOMY FOUNDED<br />
+ON PHYSIOLOGY,&#8221; &#8220;THE NERVOUS SYSTEM,&#8221; ETC.</small></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">EDITED BY AN AMERICAN PHYSICIAN</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">NEW YORK:<br />HENRY G. LANGLEY, 8 ASTOR-HOUSE.<br />1845.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By</span> J. &amp; H. G. LANGLEY,<br />
+in the Clerk&#8217;s Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New<br />
+York<br />
+<br />
+STEREOTYPED BY J. S. REDFIELD,<br />
+<i>13 Chambers Street, New York</i></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>DEDICATION.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">TO</p>
+<p class="center"><br />GEORGE BIRBECK, M.D., F.G.S.,<br />
+<small>PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON MECHANICS&#8217; INSTITUTION, &amp;c., &amp;c., &amp;c.</small></p>
+
+<p><br />A department of science, which in many respects must be regarded as new,
+cannot so properly be dedicated to any one as to the inventor of the best
+mode of diffusing scientific knowledge among the most meritorious and most
+oppressed classes of society.</p>
+
+<p>When the enemies of freedom, in order effectually to blind the victims of
+their spoliation, imposed a tax upon knowledge, you rendered the
+acquirement of science easy by the establishment of mechanics&#8217;
+institutions&mdash;you gave the first and greatest impulse to that diffusion of
+knowledge which will render the repetition of such a conspiracy against
+humanity impossible.</p>
+
+<p>You more than once also wrested a reluctant concession, in behalf of
+untaxed knowledge, from the men who had evidently succeeded, in some
+degree, to the spirit, as well as to the office, of the original<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>
+conspirators, and who unwisely hesitated between the bad interest which is
+soon felt by all participators in expensive government, and their dread of
+the new and triumphant power of public opinion, before which they know and
+feel that they are but as the chaff before the whirlwind.</p>
+
+<p>For these services, accept this respectful dedication, as the expression
+of a homage, in which I am sure that I am joined by thousands of Britons.</p>
+
+<p>Nor, in writing this, on a subject of which your extensive knowledge
+enables you so well to judge, am I without a peculiar and personal motive.</p>
+
+<p>I gratefully acknowledge that, in one of the most earnest and strenuous
+mental efforts I ever made, in my work on &#8220;The Nervous System,&#8221; I owed to
+your cautions as to logical reasoning and careful induction, an anxiety at
+least, and a zeal in these respects, which, whatever success may have
+attended them, could not well be exceeded.</p>
+
+<p>I have endeavored to act conformably with the same cautions in the present
+work. He must be weak-minded, indeed, who can seek for aught in philosophy
+but the discovery of truth; and he must be a coward who, believing he has
+discovered it, has any scruple to announce it.</p>
+
+<p class="right">ALEXANDER WALKER.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">April 10, 1836.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT.</h2>
+
+<p>The present volume completes the series of Mr. Walker&#8217;s anthropological
+works. To say that they have met with a favorable reception from the
+American public, would be but a very inadequate expression of the
+unprecedented success which has attended their publication.
+&#8220;<span class="smcap">Intermarriage</span>,&#8221; the first of the series, passed through six large
+editions within eighteen months, and &#8220;<span class="smcap">Woman</span>,&#8221; has met with a sale scarcely
+less extensive. The numerous calls for the present work, have compelled
+the publishers to issue it sooner than they had contemplated; and, it is
+believed, that it will be found not less worthy of attention than the
+preceding.</p>
+
+<p>All must acknowledge the interesting nature of the subject treated in the
+present work, as well as its intimate connexion with those which have
+already passed under discussion. The analysis of beauty on philosophical
+principles, is attended with numerous difficulties, not the least of which
+arises from the want of any fixed and acknowledged standard. The term
+Beauty is, indeed, generally considered as a vague generality, varying
+according to national, and even individual taste and judgment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>Mr. Walker claims, in his advertisement, numerous points of originality,
+some of which, on examination, may perhaps prove to have been proposed
+previously by other writers. Enough, however, will remain to entitle him
+to the credit of great ingenuity and acuteness. As treated by him, the
+subject assumes an aspect very different from that exhibited in any other
+publication. To trace the connexion of beauty with, and its dependance on,
+anatomical structure and physiological laws&mdash;to show how it may be
+modified by causes within our control&mdash;to describe its different forms and
+modifications, and defects, as indicated by certain physical signs&mdash;to
+analyze its elements, with a view to its influence on individuals and
+society, in connexion with its perpetration in posterity&mdash;all these were
+novel topics of vast and exciting interest, and well adapted to the
+genius, taste, and research of our author.</p>
+
+<p>In preparing the present edition, it has been thought expedient to make
+some verbal alterations, and omit a few paragraphs, to which a refined
+taste might perhaps object, and to bring together in the Appendix such
+collateral matter, as might serve to correct, extend, or illustrate the
+views presented in the text. With these explanations, the work is
+confidently commended to the popular as well as philosophical reader, as
+worthy of studious examination.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table width="75%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Preliminary Essay</span></td><td align="right">Page <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>English Advertisement</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER I.&mdash;Importance of the Subject</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER II.&mdash;Urgency of the Discussion of this Subject in relation to the Interests of Decency and Morality</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER III.&mdash;Cautions to Youth</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER IV.&mdash;Nature of Beauty</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER V.&mdash;Standard of Taste in Beauty</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER VI.&mdash;The Elements of Beauty</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Section I.</span>&mdash;Elements of Beauty in Inanimate Beings</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Section II.</span>&mdash;Elements of Beauty in Living Beings</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Section III.</span>&mdash;Elements of Beauty in Thinking Beings</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Section IV.</span>&mdash;Elements of Beauty as employed in Objects of Art</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Beauty of Useful Objects</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Beauty of Ornamental Objects</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Beauty of Intellectual Objects</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Summary of this Chapter</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Appendix</span> to the Preceding Chapters</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Section I.</span>&mdash;Nature of the Picturesque</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Section II.</span>&mdash;Cause of Laughter</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Section III.</span>&mdash;Cause of the Pleasure received from Representations exciting Pity</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER VII.&mdash;Anatomical and Physiological Principles</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER VIII.&mdash;Of the Ages of Women in relation to Beauty</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER IX.&mdash;Of the Causes of Beauty in Woman</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER X.&mdash;Of the Standard of Beauty in Woman</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XI.&mdash;Of the Three Species of Female Beauty generally viewed</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XII.&mdash;First Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Locomotive System</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XIII.&mdash;Second Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Nutritive System</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XIV.&mdash;Third Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Thinking System</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XV.&mdash;Beauty of the Face in particular</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XVI.&mdash;Combinations and Transitions of the Three Species of Female Beauty</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XVII.&mdash;Proportion, Character, Expression, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XVIII.&mdash;The Greek Ideal Beauty</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XIX.&mdash;The Ideal of Female Beauty</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XX.&mdash;Defects of Beauty</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defects of the Locomotive System</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defects of the Vital System</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Defects of the Mental System</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>CHAPTER XXI.&mdash;External Indications, or Art of Determining the precise Figure, the degree of Beauty, the Mind, the Habits, and
+the Age of Women, notwithstanding the Aids and Disguises of Dress</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">External Indications of Figure</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">External Indications of Beauty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">External Indications of Mind</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">External Indications of Habits</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">External Indications of Age</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Appendix</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PRELIMINARY ESSAY,</h2>
+<p class="center">BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>Her beauty hangs upon the cheek of night<br />
+Like a rich jewel in an Ethiop&#8217;s ear:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="spacer">*</span><span class="spacer">*</span><span class="spacer">*</span><span class="spacer">*</span></span><br />
+Death hath no power yet upon thy beauty&mdash;<br />
+Thou art not conquered; beauty&#8217;s ensign yet<br />
+Is crimson on thy lips, and in thy cheeks.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Shakspeare.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It maybe set down, we suppose, as a matter sufficiently settled to become
+a principle, that men are moved by nothing more generally and certainly
+than by the power of Beauty&mdash;particularly Beauty in Woman. That it has an
+influence upon <i>all</i> of one sex, like that which Master Shakspeare has
+given picture of in the lines we have set upon our front, we would not
+pretend to say: but that the wild bard was no freshman in his knowledge of
+humanity so far as heart and mind matters were concerned, we feel safe to
+assert&mdash;and feel confident that the passionate language of Romeo
+trespasses no bounds, and is but a faithful declaration of a power that
+rules with a milder or a mightier sway in the bosoms of all who answer to
+the distinctive name of Man.</p>
+
+<p>This may seem a wide assertion. But it is no less true. The reason of the
+slow belief in this universality is, that men are not always subject to
+the influence, while the principle of it is always a tenant within them.
+There is a time&mdash;and with the time comes the development. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> mind, as it
+unfolds, becomes acquainted with nothing so calculated to excite its
+wonder, as its own properties and capabilities&mdash;its new perceptions&mdash;its
+new affections. Till progress brings with it this knowledge of ourselves,
+we remain ignorant of half that is within us to affect us like a spell,
+and within whose reach we have been unconsciously passing onward and
+upward, by a Providential ordering, from our childhood at least, if not
+from our cradles.</p>
+
+<p>Keeping this in view, let us consider for a moment something of the
+elements of Beauty, and their influence, as a principle, upon the
+principles of our nature.&mdash;And first it must be admitted that they are
+good&mdash;of a good origin&mdash;and tend to a good result. They are good elements,
+we believe, for we find them almost ever associated with what is pleasing,
+improving, and satisfactory to us. Indeed, in this connexion, we find them
+a source of consolation and delight, where all else has failed to minister
+or even suggest them. They are of a good origin&mdash;for, if they were not, no
+such effect would be wrought upon a system so sadly prone to evil and
+villanous principles, and so little open to pure, and elevating, and
+comforting ones, that they may be said to come about it, most
+emphatically, like &#8220;angel-visits.&#8221; They are elements, again, that tend to
+a good result, in their operation, for their consequences are almost ever,
+to make men better satisfied with their condition&mdash;where they come in, as
+an influence upon it, at all&mdash;better satisfied with almost everything
+about them, so long as they are conscious they are creatures of
+proportions and proprieties, and affected intrinsically by them.</p>
+
+<p>If what we here set down respecting the <i>elements</i> of Beauty be true, it
+is certainly of an interesting importance in view of the influence of that
+quality upon the principles of our nature. We call it <i>quality</i>. Perhaps
+this is not name enough for something so peculiar and powerful in its
+connexion with the <i>total</i> of our spirits. We will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> term it such, however,
+for want of a wider language&mdash;and leave men to <i>feel</i> out such definition
+as they may deem more good and grateful.</p>
+
+<p>Implanted, then, so deeply as Beauty is in the human heart&mdash;so universal,
+that millions bow to it as something to fear while they worship&mdash;so
+certain, as a principle, that scarcely a human being can be said to walk
+without the sphere of its influence&mdash;it would be needless as well as
+unphilosophical to deny that the great object of its fixture&mdash;its
+enthronement upon its high place, should be one of no common character, or
+of a tendency and effect within us, which it would be wrong and
+inexcusable to overlook.</p>
+
+<p>What then is the design of this singular and mysterious power, in
+connexion with this sad and unaccountable nature&mdash;so often the theme of
+eulogy and lament&mdash;of lofty, long, and desperate satire, among men? The
+best answer, we think, is rendered in the influence, where operation is
+open to every one who thinks, observes, reasons, acts, among his
+fellows.&mdash;To enter into particular definitions here, would be needless as
+well as wearisome. The general effect upon man, as a sentient and moral
+being, must be the point to which our simple remarks and reasons must be
+confined.</p>
+
+<p>We have somewhere seen it observed&mdash;and have little doubt in the publicity
+and good sense of the thought&mdash;that there was perhaps no one thing which
+tended so materially to awaken lofty and good sentiments among the
+people&mdash;to qualify the rough outline of character&mdash;and soften and
+harmonize the untaught elements of their nature, as the frequent,
+unrestrained, and encouraged contemplation of the perfect statuary, which
+their master sculptors were continually erecting in their temples. This
+freedom was a perpetual lesson to a nation. The principle was developed,
+and the power of Beauty had a new, and forming, and mastering sway. A
+people were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span> coming into the light of better feeling&mdash;better
+society&mdash;better government, under the gradual but no less certain
+operation of a living principle, brought into great and beautiful action,
+under the commanding hand of Genius, that seemed to pass at once from the
+sky, whose perfect things it presented to the sons of earth!&mdash;It is not
+singular, we think, that such a leading forth of Beauty to the
+contemplation of awakened man, should produce effects like those to which
+we have adverted. It strikes us that it would have been strange had this
+consequence not been generated, and noble sculpture thus have stood before
+a world as cold as the marble from which it was stricken. We believe that
+Beauty saw a renovating power in the wonder of the Venus&mdash;and it would be
+a sad thing to feel that it had ever ceased in its progress where woman or
+the chisel were doing such things to advance it. Nor has it ceased.
+History presents too many instances of the monarch power of Beauty in
+woman, to permit us to doubt upon this subject. It has passed upon the
+spirit of Man like a thing of necromance&mdash;winning him to its command, and
+bowing him to its will, until royalty itself has stood powerless in its
+presence, and the poor mass of mortals, stricken and panting like cornered
+deer before the inexorable hunter. It has been the salvation and ruin of
+nations, as well as families and individuals&mdash;for queens have obeyed its
+supremacy as well as maidens, and kings squared their mandates, and
+regulated their course, by the &#8220;line of beauty.&#8221; All this is matter of
+record. Sacred and profane story abounds with instances which admit of no
+denial, while they excite our wonder. But the wonder ceases,
+notwithstanding, when we turn from record to our own experience, and <i>see</i>
+the effect, on others and ourselves, of what we once <i>read</i> about in the
+curious annals of our species. We now see the finished sculpture that
+delighted and softened the people of an age, gazed on and admired by every
+being whom we are accustomed to regard as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>rational. No one pretends to
+question, much less to deny the beauty of the lovely statue, in which the
+perfection of woman is portrayed in the finished feature or the swelling
+form. Insensibility here would properly be regarded as a thing to be
+ashamed of&mdash;as little better than a moral paralysis, which might well
+exclude the questionable man from the circle of reasonable, enlightened,
+and rising people, as a sad fellow, and a poor pilgrim on the earth. You
+will rarely find the roughest nature with a cuticle that will not confess
+some sensibility in a presence such as this&mdash;and I think we may set it
+down as a thing well ascertained, that the picture or chiselling of a
+beautiful woman will command the tribute of delight&mdash;the
+acknowledgment&mdash;and loud one too&mdash;of a whole and hearty worship from the
+tar, as well as the amateur. The galleries of our artists, in which the
+principle of Beauty is made to speak and command, sufficiently prove that
+there is no passing away of this power which has moved, ruled, and
+regulated, to a degree almost incredible, the world of Man, from the time
+he came to this school, and this trial of the passions and affections. Let
+the question be asked of any one, whose spirit is in healthful action, if
+his experience before the work of art, imbodying the Beauty we speak of,
+is not of a humanizing&mdash;and we will add civilizing, as well as elevating
+character, and we are willing to abide the issue of his answer, in full
+support of the position we have taken. Such is our belief on the
+universality of this influence or element. We have heard it denied, it is
+certain&mdash;but it was even by those who have never tested the power by an
+application of it to themselves, or a surrender to its mysteries, by an
+approach to the real presence&mdash;and who, like bachelors upon the fearful
+subject of matrimony, only betray a silliness just in proportion to their
+ignorance. These are the men who have not yet unfolded. They are in the
+chrysalis condition&mdash;and to be pitied accordingly. They may depend upon
+it, when they pass from the <i>slough</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> they will be ready to confess they
+are, alas! too deep in that other &#8220;Slough of Despond,&#8221; which is too well
+represented by a sad sensitiveness to the magic of Beauty, and as sad a
+consciousness that there is no approach for them, which can be crowned by
+a capture of the citadel, or the least enjoyment of the glorious delights
+it encloses. When we hear men deteriorating this power, or thanking the
+gods they never bent knee or uttered vow at its shrine, we are ever ready
+to believe they have either bowed all their days to far other and sadder
+principles, and made oath to idols of bad material and worse sculpture, or
+that they are as much beyond the reach of any good, and proper, and
+beautiful influence, as the clod of the valley to which they are
+hastening. They may take pride in denial of such influence&mdash;but what is
+there to boast of in insensibility of any kind, where the very betrayal of
+admiration is the best evidence of a good taste&mdash;a good feeling&mdash;a good
+faith&mdash;a good principle? It cannot have escaped common observation, we
+presume, that a love of Beauty&mdash;or, at least, any peculiar sensitiveness
+to that quality in the female sex, has been held&mdash;and by sensible men,
+too&mdash;as a weakness, or an index only of a weak mind, or a feminine spirit.
+This is certainly very foolish&mdash;and a lamentable mistake. But it is easily
+accounted for. It will be observed that the doctrine is never held save by
+men who see beauty in things which other persons would hold abhorrent.
+They are men who are in love with metaphysics, or glory in a mathematical
+existence. They like, beyond all, the <i>features</i> of a problem, and think
+only of the <i>good face</i> of a speculation. They see, as they profess, at
+least, no proportions, save in some cold system of an absurd philosophy,
+and are only fit for judgment in things either too abstract for the mass
+of men, or too decidedly &#8220;earthy&#8221; to be worthy the attention of beings
+made for a better sphere, and capable of seeing something in much that is
+around us, which intimates the order and beauty by which that sphere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span> is
+distinguished. This is enough to put an end to this objection, in
+reference to the subtle element of which we are venturing our humble, but
+we believe, orthodox sentiments. For ourselves, we know of no more sad or
+senseless mental condition in which we could be placed&mdash;we mean in the
+social relation&mdash;than this one of such ungraceful stupidity, as this of
+which a boast is made by such weary fellows as we have adverted to. If
+Beauty is an <i>outside</i> principle, which they argue is of no utility, and
+quite unworthy of one who should look beyond the mere <i>coating</i> of this
+existence for his reward or his satisfaction, then we say that even an
+<i>outside</i> of loveliness and grace, is better than an <i>interior</i> of
+deformity, uselessness, indefiniteness, chaos&mdash;even though it pretend to
+be all spiritual, while it suggests little but nonsense, and is quite
+certain to end in nothing.</p>
+
+<p>There is another thought in connexion with this element of Beauty in
+Woman, which certainly deserves consideration. We believe the philosophy
+which it intimates is founded in very good sense, and withal, in
+propriety. Insensibility to the power, we have observed, is no index of
+anything virtuous or elevated. It is rather, in all cases, a bad omen. Men
+look upon it&mdash;and that very rationally&mdash;as indicative of something
+unhealthy in the moral system. It seems to tell of a hardness&mdash;bad
+propensities&mdash;a crustaceous nature. In short, man regards his fellow, who
+is dead to this influence, as rather to be suspected at all times, than to
+be trusted at any. But this is not his saddest trial&mdash;or what should be
+regarded as such, if he can sign himself a man, with any conscience
+whatever. His estimation by woman is unqualified and unquestioned. He is
+set down by her as a creature as unworthy of regard by the sisterhood, as
+he is devoid of warmth or wit in anything that has to do with the social
+relations, and, above all, with the mysteries of the passions and
+affections. He is marked by them with a timble brand. He is set apart<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> as
+a poor thing, who knows nothing of what he was made for, and whose ideas
+of the graceful and lovely in life are about as defined and worthy as
+those of the brutes that perish. He is run upon and laughed at by the
+playful, and satirised and scathed by the witty. In the circle he is
+treated&mdash;not pitied&mdash;as a piece of circulating insensibility; in the
+street he is pointed at as one who might be well set up as a mark at its
+corners. And this is right. It is well he should be visited by rebuke from
+her who presents so continually around him the elements of that power he
+is foolish to resist, and unable, after all, to depreciate. Woman&#8217;s
+opinion, here, is a part of the great system which the influence she
+defends is meant to support&mdash;and we truly hope that she will maintain it
+aloud as long as she can utter it. Of the power of Beauty, both the world
+of fact, and the world of fancy, are abounding in instances. The records
+of ancient story present us with their Helens and their Cleopatras, who
+wrought upon nations by the magic of their faces. Later times show us the
+wonder of the power in Mary of Scotland, and many a page might be adverted
+to, full of the adventures which marked the love passages of kings as well
+as clowns, originating in this mysterious influence, as developed in the
+graces and glories of woman.</p>
+
+<p>The power of Beauty operates widely, and everywhere. It takes the good man
+captive as well as the miscellaneous one, who has no definite rule to
+guide him on his wanderings. It bows the masters and teachers of men at
+its shrine, as well as the scholars and children of life. It draws the
+merchant from his desk&mdash;the philosopher from his chair. It gives new
+utterance to the poet, while it wins the statesman to confess that there
+is some virtue in the outside of the world, after all, and some attraction
+apart from the chaos of cabinets and broad seals.</p>
+
+<p>There is a beautiful exemplification of this power given by Florian, in
+his story of a Theban sculptor. He is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span> wandering orphan in the streets
+of his native city, and his first entrance into the workshop of the
+celebrated Praxitiles well proves the truth of what we have set down in
+the foregoing pages.&mdash;&#8220;He is suddenly transported on beholding so many
+masterpieces of art! He gazes upon them&mdash;he is lost in admiration! and
+turning to Praxitiles with an air of grace and juvenile freedom, &#8220;Father,&#8221;
+cried he, &#8220;give <i>me</i> the chisel, and teach me to become as great as thou
+art.&#8221; Praxitiles stared at the boy, astonished at the fire of enthusiasm
+which kindled in his eyes, and embracing him with affection, &#8220;Yes!&#8221; said
+he, &#8220;remain with me; I will now be <i>your</i> master, but my hope shall be
+that you may soon be <i>mine</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The pupil soon becomes worthy of his teacher. He becomes the heir of his
+fortune, and removes to Miletus. There, the daughter of the governor
+visits his statuary, and from the time of that visit, his destiny is
+sealed. Love usurps the place of every other passion, and the chisel is
+cast aside in silence, under that supremacy. The Venus of marble that
+adorned his study, was no longer a Venus before that living one which
+filled his eye and his bosom. He felt that he must tell his love, or die.
+He declares it, in a hurried letter&mdash;a slave betrays him&mdash;and the
+indignant father accuses him before the council. He is banished from the
+city&mdash;and embarks in a Cretan vessel.</p>
+
+<p>At this time pirates surprise the city, and pillage the temple of Venus.
+The statue of that goddess is torn from its pedestal. It was the Palladium
+of the island, and on its possession hung the happiness of the Milesians.
+The oracle of Delphos was consulted, and it was answered that Miletus
+would not be safe till a new statue of Venus, beautiful as the Goddess
+herself, should replace that ravished by the pirates. The inhabitants were
+in despair. They accused the governor of unjustly banishing the only man
+who might now save the city. He is seized, and hurried in chains to a
+dungeon. Now came the trial of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span> the daughter, whose beauty had brought on
+this fearful crisis. She equips her vessel, and with treasures about her,
+determines to go in person to Athens&mdash;Corinth&mdash;Thebes&mdash;to find some artist
+who should emancipate her father. Tempted to land on a delicious island,
+she there comes suddenly upon her lover, whom she had been taught to
+believe had been long laid under the waters that lashed the heights of
+Naxos.</p>
+
+<p>The story is soon told. In the humble cabin of his solitude he had
+prepared a statue which he said would meet the demand of the sybil. But he
+claimed to have it placed veiled upon the pedestal in the temple of
+Miletus, before she should even look upon the marble. She consents&mdash;and
+they embark for that island. The artist is received with shoutings and
+joy. The statue is borne to its trial on the altar of Venus. It stands
+erect. He fears nothing&mdash;and it is unveiled. The features are not
+mistaken&mdash;and the people utter cries of joy as they behold the image of
+his mistress! The enamored sculptor had made her, in his loneliness, the
+model of his Venus!&mdash;He is called on to claim his reward. &#8220;Release him you
+have imprisoned,&#8221; he cried&mdash;&#8220;release her father&mdash;and I ask no more.&#8221;&mdash;It
+is done&mdash;and the father gives up the daughter to his preserver, at the
+foot of her statue.</p>
+
+<p>Can the power of Beauty be better illustrated than in this simple tale? We
+are not shown simply its effect upon an uneducated, artless
+individual&mdash;upon a mind in its singleness, and just awakened to its own
+capabilities of suffering and joy&mdash;but we see it operating in a wide and
+unquestioned influence, upon the spirit of a whole people. It was not
+demanded by fate that there should be merely a replacing of the piece of
+marble upon the pedestal from which it had been torn&mdash;it was required that
+the statue should be as royal in its <i>Beauty</i> as that was whose place it
+should supply. Beauty was the spirit-word of the destiny of Miletus. It
+was Beauty which had been guardian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span> of the city&mdash;and it was Beauty which
+must now restore it, by her return to her temple.</p>
+
+<p>But we will not dwell upon this story, though it so beautifully
+exemplifies the position we maintain. There are many instances of frequent
+occurrence in the world, which tell as strong a tale, of the influence of
+Grace and Beauty, as is here presented in the Grecian record. We may not
+witness them&mdash;but the power is working ever like fate in the mingled
+material of our life; and it only requires a sober faith, together with a
+moderate observation, to convince all men that they are the creatures of
+Beauty, as much as they are of destiny and dust.</p>
+
+<p>But there is another consideration connected with this subject&mdash;an
+important one, too&mdash;and for that reason we have reserved it to the last.</p>
+
+<p>We are settled in our conviction that there is something in Personal
+Beauty, of a representative and correspondent character. It represents a
+spiritual beauty&mdash;corresponds with a moral symmetry. Though we call it an
+<i>outward</i> property, still it must be a picture of the <i>internal</i>. It would
+seem impossible that there can be a speaking expression of grace and
+loveliness, upon a face that is but a telegraph of an inward deformity and
+ugliness. Perhaps all this may seem somewhat ideal in its philosophy&mdash;and,
+perhaps, almost transcendental. But we hold it to be true. It certainly
+appears to us reasonable that the minor should reflect the reality, as
+well in this heaven-made humanity, as amid the earthy art of our
+drawing-rooms. That the spirit should speak out in the language of the
+countenance, is to us as excellent sense as that it should tell its story
+in protuberances and indentations. Who can deny this&mdash;and where will the
+argument fail? We pause for a reply.</p>
+
+<p>Let us be understood, however. We have no idea of going beyond reason in a
+theory, which, though it may appear more than plausible to us, may seem
+far this side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span> of plausible to others. Yet we think we are borne out by
+example. We do not maintain, it will be remembered, that beauty of person
+must necessarily be the representative of <i>moral beauty</i>, according to the
+best and highest definition of that term. That definition, we presume,
+would include the virtuous and the heavenly. That these traits are
+unfailing accompaniments of noble features&mdash;the beautiful countenance&mdash;the
+finished form&mdash;it would be hazardous and foolish to assert. What we intend
+to say is this&mdash;that we believe external beauty is the representation of
+an internal and spiritual quality of the same nature. That Beauty may be
+spiritual, though it may not be moral&mdash;the Beauty of Virtue. It may be the
+beauty of superior and surpassing powers&mdash;the Beauty of Genius. It may be
+the beauty of a mind, uncommon in its attractions, and in its proportions
+beyond fault or question. It may be the beauty of intellectual
+symmetry&mdash;and this may find its speaking resemblance in the chiseled face
+and figure, as certainly as the moral loveliness of the
+heaven-inspired&mdash;the emphatically <i>good</i> man. Of what more perfect mental
+proportions could the human countenance have been indicative, than the
+countenance of Napoleon? The symmetry of Genius spake there, if it <i>was</i>
+true&mdash;as it certainly was&mdash;that moral beauty had no telegraph in that
+splendid sculpture of the man.</p>
+
+<p>But we have said as much as we can afford to&mdash;though the more particular
+subject of our remarks&mdash;or what in good faith should have been, if it has
+not&mdash;Beauty in Woman, would seem to be one on which it would not be deemed
+unknightly to give way to a pretty expression. We must, however, leave all
+considerations of gallantry on this score, to others who can amplify
+better than we can, when we have got to the end of our chapter.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>ADVERTISEMENT.</h2>
+
+<p>There is perhaps no subject more universally or more deeply interesting
+than that which is the chief subject of the present work. Yet no book,
+even pretending to science or accuracy, has hitherto appeared upon it. The
+forms and proportions of animals&mdash;as of the horse and the dog&mdash;have been
+examined in a hundred volumes: not one has been devoted to woman, on whose
+physical and moral qualities the happiness of individuals, and the
+perpetual improvement of the human race, are dependant.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of this has been, probably, the neglect on the part of
+individuals, to combine anatomical and physiological knowledge with the
+critical observation of the external forms of woman; and, perhaps, some
+repugnance to anthropological knowledge on the part of the public. The
+last obstacle, if ever it existed, is now gone by, as many circumstances
+show; and it will be the business of the author, in this work, to endeavor
+to obviate the former.</p>
+
+<p>The present work, beside giving new views of the theory of beauty, and of
+its application to the arts, presents an analysis and classification of
+beauty in woman. A subsequent work will apply the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> principles here
+established to intermarriages and crossings among mankind, and will
+explain their results in relation to the happiness of individuals, and to
+the beauty and the freedom from insanity of their offspring. A final work
+will examine the relations of woman in society, will expose the
+extravagant hypothesis of writers on this subject who have been ignorant
+of anthropology, and will describe the reforms which the common interests
+of mankind demand in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>It is now to be seen, whether a branch of science which is strictly
+founded on anatomy and physiology&mdash;one which entangles the reader in no
+mystical and delusive hypothesis, and presents to him only indisputable
+facts&mdash;one which is applicable to the subject most universally and deeply
+interesting to mankind, the critical judgment of female beauty, as founded
+on necessary functions&mdash;and one which unravels the greater difficulties
+which that subject presents&mdash;may not excite and permanently command a
+great degree of public interest.</p>
+
+<p>A preliminary view of the importance of this subject is given in the first
+chapter; the urgency of its discussion, in relation to the interests of
+decency and morality, is established in the second; and some useful
+cautions as to youth are offered in the third.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the importance of the subject, I may, even here, avail myself
+of the highest authorities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thomas More</span>, speaking of the people of his commonwealth, says: &#8220;They do
+greatly wonder at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> the folly of all other nations, which, in <i>buying a
+colt</i> (whereas, a little money is in hazard), be so chary and circumspect,
+that, though he be almost all bare, yet they will not buy him, unless the
+saddle and all the harness be taken off&mdash;lest, under those coverings, be
+hid some gall or sore. And yet, in <i>choosing a wife</i>, which shall be
+either pleasure or displeasure to them all their life after, they be so
+reckless, that, all the residue of the woman&#8217;s body being covered with
+clothes, they esteem her scarcely by one hand-breadth (for they can see no
+more but her face), and so to join her to them, not without great jeopardy
+of evil agreeing together&mdash;if anything in her body afterward should chance
+to offend and mislike them.&#8221;<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Francis Bacon</span> is of similar opinion.</p>
+
+<p>Happily, the advancement of anthropological science in modern times, may,
+as is here shown, be so applied as to render quite unnecessary the
+<i>objectionable methods</i> proposed by both these philosophers, in order to
+carry their doctrines into practice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shall I be blamed, because I avail myself of the progress of knowledge to
+render all that these great men desired on this subject of easy attainment
+and inoffensive to woman? Shall I be blamed, because I first facilitate
+that which the still farther advancement of knowledge will inevitably
+render an everyday occurrence, and the guide of the most important act of
+human life?</i>&mdash;I care not.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>In the details as to female beauty, it will be seen how incorrectly
+Winckelmann says: &#8220;In female figures, the forms of beauty are not so
+different, nor the gradations so various, as in those of males; and
+therefore in general they present no other difference than that which is
+dependant upon age.... Hence, in treating of female beauty, few
+observations occur as necessary to be made, and the study of the artist is
+more limited and more easy.... It is to be observed, that, in speaking of
+the resemblance of nude female figures, I speak solely of the body,
+without concluding from it that they also resemble each other in the
+distinctive characters of the head, which are particularly marked in each,
+whether goddess or heroine.&#8221;&mdash;The differences, even in the bodies of
+females, are here shown to be both numerous and capable of distinct
+classification.</p>
+
+<p>It is right to observe, that this work has nothing to do with an early
+production of the writer, a consciousness of the small value of which
+prevented his attaching his name to it, which he now knows to be utterly
+worthless, and which has since been vamped up with things which are more
+worthless still.</p>
+
+<p>The most valuable features of the present work are entirely new and
+original. Others are such as the writer thought not unworthy of
+preservation from earlier essays. He has also, throughout this work,
+adopted from other writers, with no other alteration than accuracy
+required, every view, opinion, or remark, which he thought applicable to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+a department of science, of which all the great features are new.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the case, he thinks it just, at once to himself and others, to
+indicate here the only points on which he can himself lay any claim to
+originality. These are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The more complete establishment of the truth that, in relation to man and
+woman in particular, beauty is the external sign of goodness in
+organization and function, and thence its importance.&mdash;Chapter I., and the
+work generally.</p>
+
+<p>The showing that the discussion of this subject, though involving the
+examination of the naked figure, is urgent in relation to decency (the
+theory of which is discussed), morality, and happy intermarriage.&mdash;Chapter
+II.</p>
+
+<p>The showing that the ancient religion was the cause of the perfection of
+the fine arts in Greece, by its personification of simple attributes or
+virtues, as objects of adoration.&mdash;Chapter II.</p>
+
+<p>The exposition of the nature, the kinds, and the characteristics of
+beauty; and of some errors of Burke, Knight, &amp;c., on this
+subject.&mdash;Chapter IV.</p>
+
+<p>The showing that there are elements of beauty invariable in their nature
+and effect, and that these are modified and complicated in advancing from
+simple to complex beings, and the arts relating to them.&mdash;Chapter VI.</p>
+
+<p>The pointing out these elements of beauty, and their mode of operation in
+inanimate beings; and the errors of Knight and Allison on this
+subject.&mdash;Sect. I., Chapter VI.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>The pointing out these elements, and others which are superadded, in
+living beings; and the errors of Allison on this subject.&mdash;Sect. II.,
+Chapter VI.</p>
+
+<p>The pointing out these elements, and others which are farther superadded,
+in thinking beings; and the errors of Burke and Knight on this
+subject.&mdash;Sect. III., Chapter VI.</p>
+
+<p>The exposition of these elements, as differing, or variously modified, in
+the useful, ornamental, and intellectual arts, respectively; and some
+remarks on ornament in architecture, and in female dress.&mdash;Sect. IV.,
+Chapter VI.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the nature of the picturesque, after the failure of
+Knight and Price in this respect.&mdash;Sect. I., Appendix to preceding
+chapters.</p>
+
+<p>The vindication of the doctrine of Hobbes, as to the cause of laughter;
+and exposition of the errors of Campbell and Beattie on this
+subject.&mdash;Sect. II., Appendix.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the cause of the pleasure received from representations
+exciting pity; and of the errors of Burke, &amp;c., on that subject.&mdash;Sect.
+III., Appendix.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of anatomy and physiology, and the application of the
+principles of these sciences to the distinguishing and judging of
+beauty.&mdash;Chapter VII.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the difference in the beauty of the two sexes even in
+the same country.&mdash;Chapter IX.</p>
+
+<p>Various arguments establishing the standard of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> beauty in woman; and
+exposure of the sophistry of Knight, on this subject.&mdash;Chapter X.</p>
+
+<p>The showing, by the preceding arrangements, that the ancient temperaments
+are partial or complex views of anthropological phenomena.&mdash;Chapter XI.,
+et seq.</p>
+
+<p>The description of the first species of beauty, or that of the locomotive
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.&mdash;Chapter XII.</p>
+
+<p>The description of the second species of beauty, or that of the nutritive
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.&mdash;Chapter XIII.</p>
+
+<p>The description of the third species of beauty, or that of the thinking
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.&mdash;Chapter XIV.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the cause of the deformity produced by the obliquely
+placed eyes of the Chinese, &amp;c.&mdash;Chapter XV.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the mode in which the action of the muscles of the face
+becomes physiognomically expressive.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the physiognomical character of the different kinds of
+the hair.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the cause of the different effects of the same face,
+even in a state of repose.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The indication of the faulty feature, and its gradual increase, even in
+beautiful faces.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>The exposition of the different organization of Greek and Roman
+heads.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the combinations and transitions of beauty.&mdash;Chapter
+XVI.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the numerical, geometrical, and harmonic methods of
+proportion, employed by the ancient Greeks.&mdash;Chapter XVII.</p>
+
+<p>Some remarks on character, expression, and detail in art.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>Some observations on the Greek forehead, actual as well as ideal.&mdash;Chapter
+XVIII.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the reason of the Greek ideal rule, as to the
+proportion between the forehead and the other parts of the face.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the reason of the Greek ideal rule, as to the profile
+of the forehead and nose, or as to the direction of the mesial line which
+they form, and the exposition of Winckelmann&#8217;s blunder respecting
+it.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the reason why the Greeks suppressed all great degrees
+of impassioned expression.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The mere indication of the Greek idealizations as applied to the nutritive
+and locomotive systems, and the explanation of the latter in the
+Apollo.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The replies to the objections of Burke and Alison, as to ideal
+beauty.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The enunciation of the ideal in attitude.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>Various views as to the Venus de Medici, the conformation of the nose, and
+the connexion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> odor with love, in animals and plants.&mdash;Chapter XIX.</p>
+
+<p>Some remarks on the Venus de Medici.&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p>The pointing out and explanation of various defects in beauty.&mdash;Chapter
+XX.</p>
+
+<p>The pointing out and explanation of various external indications of
+figure, beauty, mind, habits, and age.&mdash;Chapter XXI.</p>
+
+<p>The writer may possibly be mistaken as to the originality of one or two of
+these points; but, leaving the critical reader to deduct as many of these
+as it is in his power to do, enough of novelty would remain for the
+writer&#8217;s ambition, in this respect, if he had done no more than exposed
+the errors of Burke, Knight, Alison, &amp;c., and established the true
+doctrine of beauty, in the first chapters&mdash;given an analysis and
+classification of beauty in woman, in the chapters which follow&mdash;and
+applied this to the fine arts, and solved the difficulty of Leonardo da
+Vinci, &amp;c., in the last chapters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="big">ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION</span><br />
+<small>OF</small><br />
+<span class="huge">BEAUTY IN WOMAN.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+<h3>IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT.</h3>
+
+<p>It is observed by Home, in his &#8220;Elements of Criticism,&#8221; that a perception
+of beauty in external objects is requisite to attach us to them; that it
+greatly promotes industry, by promoting a desire to possess things that
+are beautiful; and that it farther joins with utility, in prompting us to
+embellish our houses and enrich our fields. &#8220;These, however,&#8221; he says,
+&#8220;are but slight effects, compared with the connexions which are formed
+among individuals in society by means of this singular mechanism: the
+qualifications of the head and heart are undoubtedly the most solid and
+most permanent foundations of such connexions; but as external beauty lies
+more in view, and is more obvious to the bulk of mankind, than the
+qualities now mentioned, the sense of beauty possesses the more universal
+influence in forming these connexions; at any rate, it concurs in an
+eminent degree,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> with mental qualifications, to produce social
+intercourse, mutual good-will, and, consequently, mutual aid and support,
+which are the life of society.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Pritchard similarly observes, that &#8220;the perception of beauty is the
+chief principle in every country which directs men in their marriages.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Advancing a step farther, Sir Anthony Carlisle thinks a taste for beauty
+worthy of being cultivated. &#8220;Man,&#8221; he observes, &#8220;dwells with felicity even
+on ideal female attributes, and in imagination discovers beauties and
+perfections which solace his wearied hours, far beyond any other resource
+within the scope of human life. It cannot, then, be unwise to cultivate
+and refine this natural tendency, and to enhance, if possible, these
+charms of life. We increase and heighten all our pleasures by awakening
+and cultivating reflections which do not exist in a state of ignorance.
+Thus, the botanist perceives elegances in plants and flowers unknown and
+unfelt by the vulgar, and the landscape-painter revels in natural or
+imaginary scenery, with feelings which are unknown to the multitude. It
+would be absurd to pretend that the more exquisite and more deeply
+attractive beauty of woman is not worthy of more profound, as well as more
+universal cultivation.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Such are the observations of philosophical anthropologists, who,
+nevertheless, in these remarks, consider mere physical beauty independent
+of its connexion with corresponding functions or moral qualities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>If, however, the external beauty of woman, calculated as it is to flatter
+the most experienced eye, limited its effect to a local impression, to an
+optical enjoyment, the sentiment of beauty would be far from having all
+its extent and value. Happily, ideas of goodness, of suitableness, of
+sympathy, of progressive perfection, and of mutual happiness, are, by an
+intimate and inevitable association, connected with the first impression
+made by the sight of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of this feeling is well expressed by Dr. Pritchard, in his
+observation that &#8220;the idea of beauty of person is synonymous with that of
+health and perfect organization.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Hence, it has been observed, the great ideal models of beauty please us,
+not merely because their forms are disposed and combined so as to affect
+agreeably the organ of sight, but because their exterior appears to
+correspond to admirable qualities, and to announce an elevation in the
+condition of humanity. Such do the Greek monuments appear to physiologists
+and philosophical artists, whose minds pass rapidly from the beauty of
+forms to that locomotive, vital, or mental excellence which it compels
+them to suppose.</p>
+
+<p>Goodness and beauty in woman will accordingly be found to bear a strict
+relation to each other; and the latter will be seen always to be the
+external sign of the former.</p>
+
+<p>There are, however (slightly to anticipate what must afterward be
+explained), different kinds, both of beauty and of goodness, which are
+confounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> by vulgar observers; or rather there are beauty and goodness
+belonging to different systems of which the body is composed, and which
+ought never to be confounded with each other.</p>
+
+<p>Where, consequently, one of these kinds of beauty and of goodness is
+wanting, even in a remarkable degree, others may be found; and, as the
+vulgar do not distinguish, it is this which leads to the gross error that
+these qualities have no strict relations to their signs.</p>
+
+<p>Want of beauty, then, in any one of the systems of which the body is
+composed, indicates want of goodness only in that system; but it is not
+less a truth, and scarcely of less importance, on that account.&mdash;I will
+now illustrate this by brief examples.</p>
+
+<p>There may, in any individual, exist deformity of limbs; and this will
+assuredly indicate want of goodness in the locomotive system, of that or
+general motion. There may exist coarseness of skin, or paleness of
+complexion; and either of these will as certainly indicate want of
+goodness in the vital system, or that of nutrition. There may exist a
+malformation of the brain, externally evident; and this no less certainly
+will indicate want of goodness in the mental system, or that of thought.</p>
+
+<p>It follows that even the different kinds and combinations of beauty, which
+are the objects of taste to different persons, are founded upon the same
+general principle of organic superiority. Nay, even the preferences which,
+in beauty, appear to depend most on fancy, depend in reality on that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+cause; and the impression which every degree and modification of beauty
+makes on mankind, has as a fundamental rule only their sentiment, more or
+less delicate and just, of physical advantage in relation to each
+individual. Such is the foundation of all our sentiments of admiration and
+of love.</p>
+
+<p>The existence or non-existence of these advantages, and the power of
+determining this, or the judgment of beauty, are therefore of transcendent
+importance to individuals and to families. Such judgment can be attained
+by analysis and classification alone. Nothing, therefore, can more nearly
+affect all human interests than that analysis and classification of beauty
+which are here proposed.</p>
+
+<p>To place beyond a doubt, and to illustrate more minutely, the
+extraordinary importance of this subject, as regards advantages real to
+the species, I may anticipate some of the more minute applications of my
+doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>If, in the locomotive system of the female, much of the delicacy of form,
+and the ease and grace of her movements, depend upon the more perfect
+development of the muscles of the pelvis, and its easily adapting itself
+to great and remarkable changes, how important must be the ability to
+determine, even by walk or gesture, the existence of this condition!</p>
+
+<p>If, in the vital system, the elasticity and freshness of the skin are the
+characteristics of health, and their absence warns us that the condition
+of woman is unfavorable to the plan of nature relatively to the
+maintenance of the species&mdash;or, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> the capacity of the pelvis, and the
+consequent breadth of the haunches, are necessary to all those functions
+which are most essentially feminine, impregnation, gestation, and
+parturition, without danger either to parent or to child&mdash;of what extreme
+importance must be the ability to determine this with certainty and ease!</p>
+
+<p>If, in the mental system, the capacity and delicacy of the organs of
+sense, and the softness and mobility of the nervous system, are necessary
+to the vivid and varying sensibility of woman&mdash;if it is in consequence of
+this, that woman is enabled to act on man by the continual observation of
+all that can captivate his imagination or secure his affection, and by the
+irresistible seduction of her manners&mdash;if it is these qualities which
+enable her to accommodate herself to his taste, to yield, without
+constraint, even to the caprice of the moment, and to seize the time when
+observations, made as it were accidentally, may produce the effect which
+she desires&mdash;if it is by these means that she fulfils her first duty,
+namely, to please him to whom she has united her days, and to attach him
+to her and to home by rendering both delightful&mdash;if all this is the case,
+of what inexpressible importance must be the ability to determine, in each
+individual, the possession of the power and the will to produce such
+effects!</p>
+
+<p>If (descending to still more minute inquiries) external indications as to
+figure are required as to parts concealed by drapery&mdash;if such indications
+would obviate deception even with regard to those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> parts of the figure
+which are more exposed to observation by the closer adaptation of
+dress&mdash;if, even when the face is seen, the deception as to the degree of
+beauty, is such that a correct estimate of it is perhaps never formed&mdash;if
+indications as to mind may be derived from many external circumstances&mdash;if
+external indications as to the personal habits of women are both numerous
+and interesting&mdash;if such indications even of age and health are sometimes
+essential&mdash;if all this be the case, let the reader say what other object
+of human inquiry exceeds this in importance.</p>
+
+<p>Let us not then deceive ourselves respecting the source of those
+impressions which one sex experiences from the sight of the other. It is
+evidently nothing else than the more or less delicate and just perception
+of a certain conformity of means with a want which has been created by
+nature, and which must be satisfied.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is very obvious,&#8221; says Dr. Pritchard, &#8220;that this peculiarity in the
+constitution of man must have considerable effects on the physical
+character of the race, and that it must act as a constant principle of
+improvement, supplying the place in our own kind of the beneficial control
+[in the crossing of races] which we exercise over the brute creation.&#8221; And
+he adds: &#8220;This is probably the final cause for which the instinctive
+perception of human beauty was implanted by Providence in our nature.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>We need not wonder, then, that the Greeks should have preferred beauty to
+all other advantages,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> should have placed it immediately after virtue in
+the order of their affections, or should have made it an object of
+worship.</p>
+
+<p>Even the practical application of this principle to the improvement of the
+human race is not a matter of conjecture. We have seen both families and
+nations ameliorated by the means which it affords. Of this, the Turks are
+a striking example. Nothing, therefore, can better deserve the researches
+of the physiologist, or the exertions of the philanthropist, than the fact
+that there are laws, of which we have yet only a glimpse, according to
+which we may influence the amelioration of the human race in a manner the
+most extensive and profound, by acting according to a uniform and
+uninterrupted system.</p>
+
+<p>Well might Cabanis exclaim: &#8220;After having occupied ourselves so curiously
+with the means of rendering more beautiful and better the races of animals
+or of plants which are useful or agreeable&mdash;after having remodelled a
+hundred times that of horses and dogs&mdash;after having transplanted, grafted,
+cultivated, in all manners, fruits and flowers&mdash;how shameful is it to have
+totally neglected the race of man! As if it affected us less nearly! as if
+it were more essential to have large and strong oxen than vigorous and
+healthy men, highly odorous peaches or finely striped tulips, than wise
+and good citizens!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>I actually know a man who is so deeply interested in the doctrine of
+crossing, that every hour of his life is devoted to the improvement of a
+race<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> of bantam fowls and curious pigeons, and who yet married a mad
+woman, whom he confines in a garret, and by whom he has some insane
+progeny.</p>
+
+<p>Let it not be imagined that the discovery of the precise laws of crossing
+or intermarriage, and the best direction of physical living forces, in
+relation both to the vital faculties and to those of the mind, upon which
+knowledge and skill may operate for the improvement of our race, is a
+matter of difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>It will be shown in this work, that there exist not only an influence of
+beauty and defects on offspring, but peculiar laws regulating the
+resemblance of progeny to parents&mdash;laws which regard the mode in which the
+organization of parents affects that of children, or regulates the organs
+which each parent respectively bestows.</p>
+
+<p>It will accordingly be shown, that, as, on the size, form, and proportion,
+of the various organs, depend their functions, the importance of such laws
+is indescribable&mdash;whether we regard intermarriages, and that immunity from
+mental or bodily disease which, when well directed, they may ensure, or
+the determination of the parentage of a child&mdash;or the education of
+children, in conformity with their faculties&mdash;or the employment of men in
+society.</p>
+
+<p>I conclude this brief view in the words of the writer just quoted: &#8220;It is
+assuredly time for us to attempt to do for ourselves that which we have
+done so successfully for several of our companions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> in existence, to
+review and correct this work of nature&mdash;a noble enterprise, which truly
+merits all our cares, and which nature itself appears to have especially
+recommended to us by the sympathies and the powers which it has given
+us.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+<h3>URGENCY OF THE DISCUSSION OF THIS SUBJECT IN RELATION TO THE INTERESTS OF DECENCY AND MORALITY.</h3>
+
+<p>It has now been seen that beauty results from the perfection, chiefly of
+external forms, and the correspondence of that perfection with superiority
+of internal functions; on the more or less perfect perception of which,
+love, intermarriage, and the condition of our race, are dependant.</p>
+
+<p>This mode of considering the elements, the nature, and the consequences of
+beauty, is equally applicable to the two sexes; but, in woman, the form of
+the species presents peculiar modifications.</p>
+
+<p>In this work, it is the form of woman which is chosen for examination,
+because it will be found, by the contrast which is perpetually necessary,
+to involve a knowledge of the form of man, because it is best calculated
+to ensure attention from men, and because it is men who, exercising the
+power of selection, have alone the ability thus to ensure individual
+happiness, and to ameliorate the species; which are the objects of this
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Let it not be imagined that the views now taken are less favorable to
+woman than to man. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>Whatever ensures the happiness of one ensures that of
+the other; and as the variety of forms and functions in man requires as
+many varieties in woman, it is not to exclusion or rejection with regard
+to woman that this work tends, but to a reasoned guidance in man&#8217;s choice,
+to the greater suitableness of all intermarriages, and to the greater
+happiness of woman as well as man, both in herself and in her progeny.</p>
+
+<p>But notwithstanding the importance of any work which is in any degree
+calculated to promote such an object, some will tell us that the analysis
+of female beauty, on which it can alone be founded, is indelicate.&mdash;I
+shall, on the contrary, show that decency demands this analysis; that the
+interests of nature, of truth, of the arts, and of morality, demand it.</p>
+
+<p>Our present notions of sexual decency belong more to art than to nature,
+and may be divided into artificial and artful decencies.</p>
+
+<p>Artificial decencies are illustrated in the habits of various nations.
+They have their origin in cold countries, where clothing is necessary, and
+where a deviation from the degree or mode of clothing constitutes
+indecency. They could not exist in hot climates, where clothing is
+scarcely possible.</p>
+
+<p>In hot climates, natural decency can alone exist; and there is not, I
+believe, one traveller in such countries whose works do not prove that
+natural decency there exists as much as in cold countries. In
+exemplification of this, I make a single quotation: it would be easy to
+make thousands. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>Burchell, speaking of the Bushmen Hottentots, says: &#8220;The
+natural bashful reserve of youth and innocence is to be seen as much among
+these savages, as in more polished nations; and the young girls, though
+wanting but little of being perfectly naked, evinced as just a sense of
+modesty as the most rigid and careful education could have given them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In mild climates, the half-clothed or slightly-clothed people appear to be
+somewhat at a loss what to do. Fond of decorations, like all savage or
+half-civilized people, they seem to be divided between the tatooing and
+painting of hot climates, and the clothing of cold ones; and when they
+adopt the latter, they do not rightly know what to conceal.</p>
+
+<p>The works of all travellers afford the same illustrations of this fact. I
+quote one. Kotzebue describes the custom among the Tartar women of Kasan,
+of flying or of concealing their countenance from the sight of a stranger.
+The necessity of conforming to this custom threw into great embarrassment
+a young woman who was obliged to pass several times before the German
+traveller. She at first concealed her face with her hands; but, soon
+embarrassed by that attitude, she removed the veil which covered her
+bosom, and threw it over her face. &#8220;That,&#8221; adds Kotzebue, &#8220;was, as we say,
+uncovering Paul to cover Jacques: the bosom remained naked. To cover that,
+she next showed what should have been concealed; and if anything escaped
+from her hands, she stooped, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> then,&#8221; says Kotzebue, &#8220;I saw both one
+and the other.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In colder or more uncertain climates, the greatest degree of covering
+constitutes the greatest degree of artificial decency: fashion and decency
+are confounded. Among old-fashioned people, of whom a good example may be
+found in old countrywomen of the middle class in England, it is indecent
+to be seen with the head unclothed; such a woman is terrified at the
+chance of being seen in that condition; and if intruded on at such a time,
+she shrieks with terror and flies to conceal herself. In the equally
+polished dandy of the metropolis, it is indecent to be seen without
+gloves. Which of these respectable creatures is the most enlightened, I do
+not take upon me to say; but I believe that the majority of suffrages
+would be in favor of the old woman.</p>
+
+<p>So entirely are these decencies artificial, that any number of them may
+easily be created, not merely with regard to man or woman, but even with
+regard to domesticated animals. If it should please some persons partially
+to clothe horses, cows, or dogs, it would ere long be felt that their
+appearing in the streets without trowsers or aprons was grossly indecent.
+We might thus create a real feeling of indecency, the perception of a new
+impurity, which would take the place of the former absence of all impure
+thought, and once established, the evil would be as real as our whims have
+made it in other respects.</p>
+
+<p>Moral feeling is deeply injured by this substitution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> of impure thoughts,
+however fancifully founded, for pure ones, or rather for the entire
+absence of thought about worthless things. Artificial crimes are thus
+made, which are not the less real because artificial; for if aught of this
+kind is believed to be right, there is weakness or wrong in its violation.
+But violated it must be, if it were but accidentally.</p>
+
+<p>To corrupt minds, this very violation of artificial decency in the case of
+woman affords the zest for the sake of which many of these decencies seem
+to have been instituted; and thus are created the artful decencies.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose and the zest of artful decency are well illustrated by
+coquetry. Coquetry adopts a general concealment, which it well knows can
+alone give a sensual and seductive power to momentary exposure. Coquetry
+eschews permanent exposure as the bane of sensuality and seduction; and
+where these are great, as among the women of Spain, the concealment of
+dress is increased, even in warm climates. Nothing can throw greater light
+than this does on the nature of these decencies.</p>
+
+<p>That coquetry has well calculated her procedure, does not admit of a
+doubt. She appeals to imagination, which she knows will spread charms over
+even ugly forms; she seeks the concealment under which sensuality and lust
+are engendered; and, in marriage, she at last lifts the veil which
+gratifies, only to disgust, and repays a sensual hallucination by years of
+misery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>Ought religion to claim the right of saying grace to such unveiling of
+concealment and the nuptial rites that follow it? Ought religion to profit
+by the impurities of sexual association? Marriage is a civil ceremony in
+other countries, even in Scotland. Such profane and profitable sanctions
+have nothing to do with primitive Christianity: they are abhorrent to its
+letter as well as to its spirit. But worldly and profitable religion is
+connected in business with government, under the firm of Church and State,
+and drives a thriving trade, in which the junior partner is contented with
+the profit arising from the common acts of life, while the senior one
+draws much of his living from other rites.<small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>What is said here, is no argument for living nudity: that, our climate and
+our customs forbid; and, in so doing, we can only regret that they are
+unfavorable to natural purity; while perfect familiarity with the figure
+ensures that feeling in the highest degree.</p>
+
+<p>A distinguished artist informs me that greater modesty is nowhere to be
+seen than at the Life academy; and it was an observation of the great
+Flaxman, that &#8220;the students, in entering the academy, seemed to hang up
+their passions with their hats.&#8221; I can, from personal experience, give the
+same testimony in behalf of medical students at the dissecting-rooms. The
+familiarity of both these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> classes with natural beauty leads them only to
+seek to inform their minds and to purify their taste.<small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Sinibaldi observes, that &#8220;nothing is more injurious to morals and to
+health, than the incitements of the women who in such numbers walk our
+streets,&#8221; and that &#8220;the laws as to offences against morals ought certainly
+to affect them the moment their language or actions can be deemed
+offensive.&#8221; But it is not to those who are critically conversant with the
+highest beauty of the human figure, that defective forms, ill-painted
+skins, rude manners, and contagious diseases, are at all seductive.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing, then, can be more favorable to virtue than the decoration of
+every house with the beautiful copies of the glorious works of ancient
+Greece; and it is only humiliating to think that what has been so
+extensively done in this respect in the best houses, is less owing to our
+own taste than to the poor wanderers from Lucca or Barga. Experiment on
+this subject is peculiarly easy in London: let any one spend an hour in
+the shop of the very able Mr. Sarti, of Dean street, where he will meet
+the most liberal attention, and let him ask himself, in coming out,
+whether his moral feeling, as well as his taste, is not improved.</p>
+
+<p>Those who cannot make this experiment, will perhaps be satisfied with the
+assurance of Hogarth, who says: &#8220;The rest of the body, not having
+advantages in common with the face, would soon <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>satiate the eye, were it
+to be as constantly exposed, nor would it have more effect than a marble
+statue.&#8221; Surely this is decisive enough in its way! Now let them mark what
+follows. &#8220;But,&#8221; he continues, &#8220;when it is artfully clothed and decorated,
+the mind at every turn resumes its imaginary pursuits concerning it. Thus,
+if I may be allowed a simile, the angler chooses not to see the fish he
+angles for, until it is fairly caught.&#8221; He meant of course&mdash;&#8220;the <i>fish</i>
+chooses not to see the <i>angler</i>, until it is fairly caught!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Be it known then to all, even the most aristocratic as to sexual
+association&mdash;I say the most aristocratic, and not the most religious,
+because religion is in some countries made the pander to aristocracy&mdash;be
+it known that the critical judgment and pure taste for beauty are the sole
+protection against low and degrading connexions.</p>
+
+<p>Home observes that &#8220;the sense of beauty does not tend to advance the
+interests of society, but when in a due mean with respect to strength.
+Love in particular arising from a sense of beauty, loses, when excessive,
+its sociable character: the appetite for gratification, prevailing over
+affection for the beloved object, is ungovernable, and tends violently to
+its end, regardless of the misery that must follow. Love in this state is
+no longer a sweet agreeable passion: it becomes painful, like hunger or
+thirst, and produces no happiness but in the instant of fruition. This
+discovery suggests a most important lesson, that moderation in our desires
+and appetites, which fits us for doing our duty, contributes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> at the same
+time the most to happiness: even social passions, when moderate, are more
+pleasant than when they swell beyond proper bounds.&#8221; Payne Knight says:
+&#8220;When, at the age of puberty, animal desire obtrudes itself on a mind
+already qualified to feel and enjoy the charms of intellectual merit, the
+imagination immediately begins to form pictures of perfection, by
+exaggerating and combining in one hypothetic object every excellence that
+can possibly belong to the whole sex; and the first individual that meets
+the eye, with any exterior signs of any of these ideal excellences, is
+immediately decorated with them all, by the creative magic of a vigorous
+and fertile fancy. Hence, she instantaneously becomes the object of the
+most fervent affection, which is as instantaneously cooled by possession:
+for, as it was not the object herself, but a false idea of her raised in
+heated imagination, that called forth all the lover&#8217;s raptures, all
+immediately vanish at the detection of his delusion; and a degree of
+disgust proportioned to the disappointment, of which it is the inevitable
+consequence, instantly succeeds. Thus it happens that what are called
+love-matches are seldom or ever happy.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now, nothing can more effectually prevent even the existence of the mania
+described by these two philosophers than a critical judgment and a pure
+taste for beauty, which again therefore are the sole protection against
+low and degrading connexions.</p>
+
+<p>A just sense of this truth will give high encouragement to sculpture and
+painting&mdash;arts which may everywhere be looked upon as the best tests, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+well as the best records, of civilization. Such encouragement they need in
+truth; for the monstrous monopoly of landed property and the accumulation
+of wealth in few hands&mdash;the great aim of our political economy&mdash;renders
+art poor, indeed.</p>
+
+<p>I am aware that the vulgar among artists think otherwise; from the few
+rich they obtain employment; and, like the dog with his master, they look
+not beyond the hand that doles out their pittance. But the rich are few;
+and their palaces are already filled. A diffusion of wealth alone can give
+encouragement to art; nor can this ever be while British industry is
+crushed under the weight of enormous taxation.</p>
+
+<p>Having removed some objections to art, I would add a few words to artists
+on the cause of the fine arts in Greece, from a paper I, two years ago,
+contributed to a monthly periodical.<small><a name="f4.1" id="f4.1" href="#f4">[4]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>That the mythology of Greece had an influence over its arts, is generally
+granted; but I am not aware, that it has either been shown to be
+exclusively their cause, or that its mode of operation has ever been
+explained.</p>
+
+<p>Religion, I may observe, is as natural to man as his weakness and
+helplessness. There is not one of its systems, not even the vilest, which
+has not afforded him consolation. Of its higher and better systems, some
+are equally admirable for the grandeur and the beauty of the truths on
+which they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> founded, the simplicity and the elegance of their
+ostensible forms, the power and applicability of their symbols, and their
+sympathy with, and control over, the affections and the imagination.</p>
+
+<p>These high characteristics peculiarly distinguished the religion of
+ancient Greece.</p>
+
+<p>By bigots, we are indeed told, that, though Homer is our model in epic,
+Anacreon in lyric, and &AElig;schylus in dramatic poetry&mdash;though the music of
+Greece doubtless corresponded to its poetry in beauty, pathos, and
+grandeur&mdash;though the mere wreck of her sculpture is never overlooked in
+modern war and negotiation&mdash;though the mere sight of her ruined Parthenon
+is more than a reward for the fatigue or the peril of a journey to the
+Eternal city&mdash;though these products of art are the test of the highest
+civilization which the world has witnessed&mdash;though to these chiefly Rome
+owed the little civilization of which she was capable, and we ourselves
+the circumstance that, at this hour, we are not, like our ancestors,
+covered only with blue paint or the skins of brutes&mdash;though all this is
+true as to the arts of Greece, we are told that, by the strangest
+exception, the religion of Greece was a base superstition.</p>
+
+<p>That religion, however, was the creator of these arts. They not only could
+not have existed without it, but they probably could never have been
+called into existence by any other religion.</p>
+
+<p>The personification of <i>simple</i> Beauty, Valor, Wisdom, or Omnipotence, in
+Venus, Mars, Minerva, or Jupiter, respectively, was essential to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+<i>purity</i> and the <i>power</i> of expression of these attributes in the worship
+of the deities to whom they respectively belonged. The union of absolute
+beauty and valor in one being, is not more impossible than their union in
+one expression of homage and admiration. Delicacy, elegance, and grace,
+were as characteristic of the statue, the worship, and the temple, of the
+goddess of beauty, as attributes nearly opposite to these were of the
+statue, the worship, and the temple, of the god of war. Thus, were the
+fine arts in Greece created by the personification of <i>simple</i> attributes
+or virtues as objects of adoration; and thus is excellence in these fine
+arts incapable of being elicited by any system of religion in which more
+than one attribute is ascribed to the god.</p>
+
+<p>They must be ignorant, indeed, of the wonderful people of whom I now
+speak, who allege, that the Greeks worshipped the mere statue of the god
+and not the personified virtue. Even the history of their religion proves
+the reverse. It was the tomb which became the altar, and retained nearly
+its form. It was the expression of love, of regret, and of veneration for
+departed virtue, which became divine adoration; and, as individual acts
+and even individual names were ultimately lost in one transcendent
+attribute, so were individual forms and features, in its purified and
+ideal representation. Here, then, instead of finding the worship of men or
+of their representations, we discover a gradual advance from beings to
+attributes&mdash;from mortal man to eternal virtue&mdash;and a corresponding and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+suitable advance from simple veneration to divine adoration.</p>
+
+<p>When, in great emergencies of the state, the sages and the soldiers of
+Athens, in solemn procession repaired to the temple of Minerva, turned
+their faces toward the statue of the goddess, and prostrated themselves in
+spirit before her&mdash;let the beautiful history of Grecian science tell,
+whether in the statue they worshipped the mere marble structure, or, in
+its forms and attributes, beheld and adored a personification of eternal
+truth and wisdom, and so prepared the mind for deeds which have rendered
+Greece for ever illustrious. Or, when returning from a Marathon, or a
+Salamis, the warriors of Athens, followed by trains of maidens, and
+matrons, and old men, returned thanks to the god of victories&mdash;let the
+immortal record of the long series of glorious achievements which
+succeeded these, tell, whether gratitude to their heroes was not there
+identified with homage to the spirit or the divinity that inspired them.</p>
+
+<p>True it is, that, whenever physical or moral principles are personified,
+the ignorant may be led to mistake the sign for that which is signified;
+but one of the most admirable characteristics of the Grecian religion is,
+that, with little effort, every external form may be traced to the spirit
+which it represents, and every fable may be resolved into a beautiful
+illustration of physical or moral truth. So that when mystic influences,
+with increasing knowledge, ceased to sway the imagination, all-powerful
+truths directed the reason.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>The natural and poetical religion of Greece, therefore, differed from
+false and vulgar religions in this, that it was calculated to hold equal
+empire over the minds of the ignorant and the wise; and the initiations of
+Eleusis were apparently the solemn acts by which the youths and maidens of
+Greece passed from ignorance and blind obedience to knowledge and
+enlightened zeal. Thus, in that happy region, neither were the priests
+knaves, nor the people their dupes.<small><a name="f5.1" id="f5.1" href="#f5">[5]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>And what has been the result of this fundamental excellence?&mdash;that no
+interpolated fooleries have been able to destroy it;&mdash;that the religion of
+Greece exists, and must ever exist, the religion of nature, genius, and
+taste;&mdash;and that neither poetry nor the arts can have being without it.
+Schiller has well expressed this truth in the following lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;The intelligible forms of ancient poets,<br />
+The fair humanities of old religion,<br />
+The power, the beauty, and the majesty,<br />
+That had their haunts in dale, or piny mountains,<br />
+Or forest, by slow stream, or pebbly spring,<br />
+Or chasms, and watery depths&mdash;all these have vanished;<br />
+They live no longer in the faith of reason;<br />
+But still the heart doth need a language; still<br />
+Doth the old instinct bring back the old names;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">* * And even, at this day,</span><br />
+&#8217;Tis Jupiter who brings whate&#8217;er is great,<br />
+And Venus who brings everything that&#8217;s fair.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+<h3>CAUTIONS AS TO YOUTH.</h3>
+
+<p>In relation to <i>early</i> sexual association, it cannot be doubted, that,
+when the instinct of reproduction begins to be developed, the reserve
+which parents, relatives, and instructers, adopt on this subject, is often
+the means of producing injurious effects; because, a system of concealment
+on this subject, as observed in the preceding chapter, is quite
+impracticable. Discoveries made by young persons in obscene books, the
+unguarded language or shameless conduct of grown-up persons, even the wild
+flights of an imagination which is then easily excited, will have the most
+fatal consequences.</p>
+
+<p>Parents or instructers ought, therefore, at that critical period, to give
+rational explanations as to the nature and the object of the propensity,
+the mechanism of reproduction in various vegetable and animal beings, and
+the fatal consequences to which this propensity may lead. Such procedure,
+if well conducted, cannot but have the most beneficial results; because,
+in order that a sane person should avoid any danger, it is only necessary
+that he should see it distinctly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>The advantage, it has been observed, which the parent, relative, or
+instructer, derives, from himself in forming the adolescent in the new
+faculty which is developed in him, is to prevent his choosing, among
+corrupt servants or ignorant youths of his own age, the confidants of his
+passion. The parent or instructer, moreover, is then justly entitled to,
+and has gratefully given to him, the entire confidence of the adolescent;
+and he is thereby enabled exactly to appreciate the degree of power of the
+propensity which he desires to divert or to guide.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the case, it is the business of the parent to present a true
+picture of the effects of too early association of this kind, on the
+stature, the various development of the figure, the muscular power, the
+quality of the voice, the health, the moral sense, and especially on the
+acuteness, the power, the dignity, and the courage, of the mind.</p>
+
+<p>In doing this, it would be as stupid as injurious to employ the slightest
+degree of false representation, of unjust reprimand, or too much of what
+is called moralizing, which is often only the contemptible cant of a being
+who cannot reason, especially when it takes the place of a simple and
+powerful statement of facts. All of these would only render the young man
+a dissembler, and would compel him to choose another confidant.</p>
+
+<p>Among other considerations, varying according to the circumstances of the
+case, those stated below may with advantage be presented.</p>
+
+<p>At a certain period in the life both of plants and animals, varying
+according to their kind and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> climate they live in, they are fit for
+and disposed to the reproduction of their species. The sexes in both are
+then attracted to each other. In plants, the powder termed pollen, in
+animals a peculiar liquid which, deriving its name by analogy from the
+seeds of plants, is termed seminal, is secreted by the male plant or
+animal, and, by organs differently formed in each kind, is cast upon ova
+or eggs either contained within, or deposited by, the female. The details
+of this process are among the most beautiful and interesting of the living
+economy. In mankind, the attainment of this period is termed puberty.</p>
+
+<p>It is with this critical period, and his conduct during it, that all that
+the youth deems most valuable, all that can decide his fortunes and his
+happiness in the world, his stature, figure, strength, voice, health, and
+mental powers, are most intimately connected.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to stature, the body appears to complete its increase in height
+chiefly at the age of puberty, and during the first years which succeed
+that age. To be assured of the powerful influence of his own conduct, at
+this period, upon his stature, the youth has only to compare the tall men
+and women of the country as in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland,
+Cumberland, and the Scottish borders, where they have not been overworked,
+with the stunted and dwarfed creatures of the metropolis, where a
+stranger, when he first enters it, is apt to think he sees so many ugly
+boys and girls, whereas, they are full-grown London men and women.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> Half
+the population of the metropolis is affected in this way; and it is the
+obvious consequence of the acceleration of puberty by confinement,
+stimulating food, indecent plays, and sexual association.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the perfect development and beauty of the figure, the youth
+is probably aware that the most beautiful races of horses and dogs rapidly
+deteriorate, if men do not carefully maintain them by continence as well
+as by crossing. The too early employment, the depraved abuses, the injury,
+or the removal, of the sexual organs, are all of them causes still more
+certain of deformity. The latter of these causes acts, of course, most
+obviously; and it is evidenced in the almost universal malformation of
+eunuchs, geldings, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>That, in regard to bodily strength, sexual continence adds energy to the
+muscular fibre, is clearly seen by observing the most ardent quadrupeds
+previous to the time of the union of their sexes. But, this being past,
+precisely in the same proportion does the act of reproduction debilitate
+and break down the strongest animal. Many male animals even fall almost
+exhausted by a single act of union with the opposite sex.</p>
+
+<p>Every classical student has read the beautiful allegory of Hercules, who,
+having spun at the knees of Omphale (<ins class="correction" title="omphalos">&#959;&#956;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#8056;&#962;</ins> the navel, here put
+for the most essential part of the female generative organ), thereby lost
+his strength: this beautifully expresses the abasement of power amid the
+indulgences of love. Euripides also depicts the terrible Achilles as timid
+before women, and respectful with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>Clytemnestra and Iphigenia. Hence, when
+a foolish lord reproached the poet Dryden with having given too much
+timidity toward women to a personage in one of his tragedies, and added
+that he knew better how to employ his time with the ladies, the poet
+answered: &#8220;You now acknowledge that you are no hero, which I intended that
+personage to be.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>As to voice, which depends on the muscles of respiration, and more
+immediately on those of the mouth and throat, as general strength does on
+the muscles of the whole body, both merely affording expressions of the
+mind, the influence of the sexual union upon it is prodigious. How
+entirely it is altered by the removal of the testes in eunuchs is known to
+every one: in corresponding proportion, is it altered by every act of the
+generative organs, but especially by sexual indulgence during puberty. The
+horrible voice of early libertines and prostitutes presents an alarming
+example of this. To those who value voice in conversation, in the
+delightful and humanizing exercise of music, or in the grander efforts of
+public speaking, nothing more need be said.</p>
+
+<p>As to health, the less we are prodigal of life, the longer we preserve it.
+Every one capable of observing may see that the stag loses his horns and
+his hair after procreation; that birds fall into moulting and sadness; and
+that male insects even perish after this effort, as if they yielded their
+individual life to their progeny. Indeed, everything perishes so much the
+more readily, as it has thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> transmitted life to its descendants, or has
+cast it away in vain pleasures.</p>
+
+<p>In mankind, as in other animals, to procreate is in effect to die to one&#8217;s
+self, and to leave one&#8217;s life to posterity; especially, if this takes
+place in early life. It is then that man becomes bald and bent; and that
+the charms of woman fade. Even in advanced age, epicures are so well aware
+of this, that they are known to abstain from amorous excess, as the
+acknowledged cause of premature death.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to mind&mdash;as the generative power is the source of several
+characteristics of genius, the exhaustion of that power at an early age
+must take away these characteristics. Genius as surely languishes and is
+extinguished amid early sexual indulgence, as do the faculties of voice
+and locomotion, which are merely its signs and expressions.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus with all our faculties, locomotive, vital, mental, at an early
+age. They are strengthened by all that they do not dissipate; and that
+which their organs too abundantly dispense is not only taken immediately
+from their own power, and mediately from that of the other organs, but it
+ensures the permanent debility of the whole.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that the strong passions which are modified or characterized by
+the sexual impulse, excite the imagination and impel the mind to sublime
+exertions; but the sole means of either obtaining or preserving such
+impulsion is, to shun the indulgence of pleasure in early life, and its
+waste at later periods.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>It has accordingly been observed, that the passion of love appears to be
+most excessive in animals which least excel in mental faculties. Thus the
+beasts which are the most lascivious, the ass, the boar, &amp;c., are also the
+most stupid; and idiots and cretins display a sensuality which brutifies
+them still more. Hence, the Homeric fable that Circe transformed men into
+beasts.</p>
+
+<p>It would also appear that the most stupid animals, swine, rabbits, &amp;c., in
+general produce the greatest number of young; while men of genius have
+engendered the fewest. It is remarked that none of the greatest men of
+antiquity were much given to sexual pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>It is, then, of the greatest importance to young men who are ambitious of
+excellence, to mark well this truth, that the most powerful and
+distinguished in mental faculties, other things being equal, will be he
+who wastes them least in early life by sexual indulgence&mdash;who most
+economizes the vital stimulant, in order to excite the mental powers on
+great occasions. By such means may a man surely surpass others, if he have
+received from his parents proportional mental energy.</p>
+
+<p>Beside the means already indicated, there is one proposed by an able
+writer, as serving to divert the instinct of propagation when too early
+and excessive, and consequently dangerous: that is, the sentiment of love.
+To employ this means, he observes, &#8220;it is necessary to search early, after
+knowing the character of the adolescent whom it is wished to direct, for a
+young woman whose beauty and good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> qualities may inspire him with
+attachment. This means will serve, more than can easily be imagined, to
+preserve the adolescent both from the grosser attractions of libertinism
+and the disease it entails, and from <i>the more dangerous snares of
+coquetry</i>. It is,&#8221; he adds, &#8220;a virtuous young woman and a solid
+attachment that are here spoken of.&#8221;&mdash;At some future period I shall
+probably show how wise this recommendation is, as well as the necessity
+and the advantages of early marriages, under favorable circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Having now shown the evils of early sexual association, I may briefly
+notice those of later libertinism.</p>
+
+<p>If, even in more advanced life, and when the constitution is stronger, the
+instinct of propagation be not restrained within just limits, it
+degenerates into inordinate lewdness or real mania: &#8220;Repperit obsc&aelig;nas
+veneres vitiosa libido.&#8221; By such depravation, nobleness of character is
+utterly destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>This scarcely evitable consequence of great fortune and of the facility of
+indulgence, it has been justly observed, will ever be the ruin of the
+rich, and a mode of enervating the most vigorous branches of the most
+powerful house.</p>
+
+<p>The libertine, then, owing to exhaustion, by sexual indulgence, is
+characterized by physical and moral impotence, or has a brain as incapable
+of thinking, as his muscles are of acting.</p>
+
+<p>As libertines are enfeebled by indulgence, it follows that they are
+proportionally distinguished by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> fear and cowardice. Nothing, indeed,
+destroys courage more than sexual abuses.</p>
+
+<p>But, from cowardice, spring cunning, duplicity, lying, and perfidy. These
+common results of cowardice are uniformly found in eunuchs, slaves,
+courtiers, and sycophants; while boldness, frankness, and generosity,
+belong to virtuous, free, and magnanimous men.</p>
+
+<p>Again, cowardice, artifice, falsehood, and perfidy, are the usual elements
+of cruelty. Men feel more wounded in self-love, as they are conscious of
+being more contemptible; and they avenge themselves with more malignity
+upon their enemy, as they find themselves more weak and worthless, and as
+they consequently dread him more.</p>
+
+<p>These are the causes of that malignant revenge which princes have often
+shown, as, in ancient times, Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian,
+Heliogabalus, &amp;c. In later times, Catharine de Medici solicited the
+massacre of the Protestants; Paul, Constantine, and Nicholas, of Russia,
+were happy only when they wallowed in blood; Charles X., equally
+effeminate and bigoted, perpetrated the massacre of the Parisians; Don
+Miguel covered Portugal with his assassinations; and nearly all the
+sovereigns and sycophants in Europe upheld or palliated his atrocities.<small><a name="f7.1" id="f7.1" href="#f7">[7]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>The strong and brave man, on the contrary, scarcely feels hurt, and scorns
+revenge.</p>
+
+<p>It is not cruelty only with which we may <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>reproach these effeminate
+individuals: it is every vice which springs from baseness of character.</p>
+
+<p>Libertinism, moreover, is not hurtful only to the health and welfare of
+these individuals: it is so also to those of their posterity.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the results of libertinism have constantly marked, not merely the
+ruin of families, but the degeneration of races, and the decay of empires.
+The delights of Capua caused the ruin of Hannibal; and the Roman, once so
+proud before kings, finally transformed himself into the wretched slave of
+monsters degraded far below the rank of humanity.</p>
+
+<p>So little, however, do men look to remote consequences that perhaps the
+most frightful punishments of libertinism are the diseases which it
+inflicts. Man may, then, be said to meet only death on the path of life.</p>
+
+<p>The dangers of promiscuous love are, indeed, far beyond what young men
+will easily believe. I do not exaggerate when I state, that, out of every
+three women, and those the least common of the promiscuous, two at least
+are certainly in a state of disease capable of the most destructive
+infection. A surgeon in the habit of receiving foul patients at a public
+hospital tells me, I might safely say that nine out of every ten are in
+this state.<small><a name="f8.1" id="f8.1" href="#f8">[8]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>While writing this, Sir Anthony Carlisle observes to me, that, &#8220;the
+special disease which appears to be a punishment for sexual profligacy, is
+not only malignant, painful, and hideous, in every stage of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> it, but the
+only remedy known for its cure, mercury, is a poison which generally
+leaves its own evils for the venom which it destroys. This frightful
+disease has no natural termination but in a disgusting disgraceful death,
+after disfiguring the countenance, by causing blindness, loss of the nose,
+the palate and teeth, and by the spoliation of the sinning organs. The
+miserables, who thus perish in public hospitals, are so offensive to the
+more respectable patients, that they are confined to appointed rooms,
+termed foul wards, where they linger and die in the bloom of life, either
+of the penalty inflicted by their profligacy, of the poison administered
+to them, or of incurable consequent diseases, such as consumption, palsy,
+or madness.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Hence, it has been observed, that, if we have to deal with a young man
+incapable of guidance by the nobler motives, of feeling contempt for vice,
+and horror for debauchery, there yet remain means to be employed. Let him
+be conducted to the hospital, where he will find collected the poor
+victims of debauchery&mdash;the unhappy women whom, even the day before, he may
+have seen in the streets, with faces dressed in smiles, amid the torments,
+the corrosion, and the contagion of disease. This may leave an impression
+sufficiently deep. But let him also know that these unhappy creatures are
+a thousand times more pitiable than the libertine who destroys them, and
+who forfeits the only good we cannot refuse to other wretches, compassion
+for the misery he endures.<small><a name="f9.1" id="f9.1" href="#f9">[9]</a></small></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+<h3>NATURE OF BEAUTY.</h3>
+
+<p>In this chapter, my aim is to show that there is more than one kind of
+beauty, and that much confusion has arisen among writers, from not clearly
+distinguishing the characteristics of these kinds.</p>
+
+<p>An essential condition, then, of all excitement and action in animal
+bodies, is a greater or less degree of novelty in the objects impressing
+them&mdash;even if this novelty should arise only from a previous cessation of
+excitement.</p>
+
+<p>Now, objects of greater or less novelty are the causes of excitement,
+pleasurable or painful, by means of their various relations.</p>
+
+<p>The lowest degree of bodily pleasure (though, owing to its constancy,
+immense in its total amount) is that which arises, during health, from
+those relations of bodies and that excitement which cause the mere local
+exercise of the organs&mdash;a source of pleasure which is seldom the object of
+our voluntary attention, but which seems to me to be the chief cause of
+attachment to life amid its more definite and conspicuous evils.</p>
+
+<p>All higher mental emotions consist of pleasure or pain superadded to more
+or less definite ideas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> Pleasurable emotions arise from the agreeable
+relations of things; painful emotions, from the disagreeable ones.</p>
+
+<p>The term by which we express the influence which objects, by means of
+their relations, possess of exciting emotions of pleasure in the mind, is
+<span class="smcaplc">BEAUTY</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Beauty, when founded on the relations of objects, or of the parts of
+objects, to each other, forms a first class, and may be termed <i>intrinsic
+beauty</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When beauty is farther considered in relation to ourselves, it forms a
+second class, and may be termed <i>extrinsic</i> beauty.</p>
+
+<p>We are next led (hitherto this has apparently been done without analyzing
+or defining the operation) to a division of the latter into two genera;
+namely, the <i>minor beauty</i>, of which prettiness, delicacy, &amp;c., are
+modifications, and that which is called <i>grandeur</i> or <i>sublimity</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The characters of the minor beauty or prettiness, with relation to
+ourselves, are smallness, subordination, and subjection. Hence female
+beauty, in relation to the male.</p>
+
+<p>The characters of grandeur or sublimity, with relation to ourselves, are
+greatness, superordination, and power. Hence male beauty, in relation to
+the female.</p>
+
+<p>By the preceding brief train of analysis and definition, is, I believe,
+answered the question&mdash;&#8220;whether the emotion of grandeur make a branch of
+the emotion of beauty, or be entirely distinct from it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>Having, by this concise statement of my own views on these subjects, made
+the reader acquainted with some of the materials of future consideration
+here employed, I may now examine the opinions of some philosophers, in
+order to see how far they accord with these first principles, and what
+answer can be given to them where they differ.</p>
+
+<p>That <i>beauty</i>, <i>generally considered</i>, has nothing to do with particular
+size, is very well shown by Payne Knight, who, though he argues
+incorrectly about it in many other respects, here truly says: &#8220;All degrees
+of magnitude contribute to beauty in proportion as they show objects to be
+perfect in their kind. The dimensions of a beautiful horse are very
+different from those of a beautiful lapdog; and those of a beautiful oak
+from those of a beautiful myrtle; because, nature has formed these
+different kinds of animals and vegetables upon different scales.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The notion of objects being rendered beautiful by being gradually
+diminished, or tapered, is equally unfounded; for the same object, which
+is small by degrees, and beautifully less, when seen in one direction, is
+large by degrees, and beautifully bigger, when seen in another. The stems
+of trees are tapered upward; and the columns of Grecian architecture,
+having been taken from them, and therefore retaining a degree of analogy
+with them, were tapered upward too: but the legs of animals are tapered
+downward, and the inverted obelisks, upon which busts were placed, having
+a similar analogy to them, were tapered downward also; while <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>pilasters,
+which had no analogy with either, but were mere square posts terminating a
+wall, never tapered at all.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of beauty generally, and without seeing the distinctions I have
+made above, Burke, on the contrary, states the first quality of beauty to
+be comparative smallness, and says: &#8220;In ordinary conversation, it is usual
+to add the endearing name of little to everything we love;&#8221; and &#8220;in most
+languages, the objects of love are spoken of under diminutive epithets.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This is evidently true only of the objects of <i>minor</i> or <i>subordinate
+beauty</i>, which Burke confusedly thought the only kind of it, though he
+elsewhere grants, that beauty may be connected with sublimity! It shows,
+however, that relative littleness is essential to that first kind of
+beauty.</p>
+
+<p>With greater knowledge of facts than Burke possessed, and with as feeble
+reasoning powers, but with less taste, and with a perverse whimsicality
+which was all his own, Payne Knight similarly, making no distinction in
+beauty, considered smallness as an accidental association, failed to see
+that it characterized a kind of beauty, and argued, that &#8220;if we join the
+diminutive to a term which precludes all such affection, or does not even,
+in some degree, express it, it immediately converts it into a term of
+contempt and reproach: thus, a bantling, a fondling, a darling, &amp;c., are
+terms of endearment; but a witling, a changeling, a lordling, &amp;c., are
+invariably terms of scorn: so in French, &#8216;<i>mon petit enfant</i>,&#8217; is an
+expression of endearment; but &#8216;<i>mon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> petit monsieur</i>,&#8217; is an expression of
+the most pointed reproach and contempt.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now, this chatter of grammatical termination and French phrase, though
+meant to look vastly clever, is merely a blunder. There is no analogy in
+the cases compared: a &#8220;darling&#8221; or little dear unites <i>dear</i>, an
+expression of love, with <i>little</i>, implying that dependance which enhances
+love; while &#8220;witling&#8221; or little wit unites <i>wit</i>, an expression of talent,
+with <i>little</i>, meaning the small quantity or absence of the talent alluded
+to; and it is because the latter term means, not physical littleness,
+which well associates with love, but moral littleness and mental
+degradation, that it becomes a term of contempt.</p>
+
+<p>Even from the little already said, it seems evident that much of the
+confusion on this subject has arisen from not distinguishing the two
+genera of beauty, and not seeing that &#8220;the emotion of grandeur&#8221; is merely
+&#8220;a branch of the emotion of beauty.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The other genus of beauty, <i>grand</i> or <i>sublime beauty</i>, is well described
+by the names given to it, grandeur or sublimity. Some have considered
+sublimity as expressing grandeur in the highest degree: it would perhaps
+be as well to express the cause of the emotion by grandeur, and the
+emotion itself by sublimity.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is sublime that is not vast or powerful, or that does not make him
+who feels it sensible of its physical or moral superiority.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest cause of sublimity is presented by all objects of vast
+magnitude or extent&mdash;a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>seemingly boundless plain, the sky, the ocean,
+&amp;c.; and the particular direction of the magnitude or extent always
+correspondingly modifies the emotion&mdash;height giving more especially the
+idea of power, breadth of resistance, depth of danger, &amp;c. Of the objects
+mentioned above, the ocean is the most sublime, because, to vastness in
+length and breadth, it adds depth, and a force perpetually active.</p>
+
+<p>Now, that these objects, though sublime, are beautiful, is very evident;
+and it is therefore also evident how much Burke erred in asserting
+comparative smallness to be the first character of beauty generally
+considered. This and similar errors, as already said, have greatly
+obscured this subject, and have led Burke and others so to modify and
+qualify their doctrines, as to take from them all precision and certainty.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, in one place, Burke says: &#8220;As, in the animal world, and in a good
+measure in the vegetable world likewise, the qualities that constitute
+<i>beauty</i> may <i>possibly</i> be united to things of <i>greater dimensions</i> [that
+is, littleness may be united with bigness!]; when they are so united they
+constitute <i>a species something different both from the sublime and
+beautiful</i>, which I have before called, Fine.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>So also he says: &#8220;Ugliness I imagine likewise to be consistent enough with
+an idea of the sublime. But I would by no means insinuate that ugliness of
+itself is a sublime idea, unless united with such qualities as excite a
+strong terror.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Here, he confounds sublimity with terror, as do Blair and other writers,
+when they say that &#8220;exact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> proportion of parts, though it enters often
+into the beautiful, is much disregarded in the sublime.&#8221; It is a fact,
+that exactly in proportion as ugliness is substituted for beauty in vast
+objects, is sublimity taken away, until at last it is utterly lost in the
+terrible.</p>
+
+<p>Even Blair shows that sublimity may exist without terror or pain. &#8220;The
+proper sensation of sublimity appears,&#8221; he observes, &#8220;to be
+distinguishable from the sensation of either of these, and, on several
+occasions, to be entirely separated from them. In many grand objects,
+there is no coincidence with terror at all; as in the magnificent prospect
+of wide-extended plains, and of the starry firmament; or in the moral
+dispositions and sentiments, which we view with high admiration; and in
+many painful and terrible objects also, it is clear, there is no sort of
+grandeur. The amputation of a limb, or the bite of a snake, is exceedingly
+terrible, but is destitute of all claim whatever to sublimity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Payne Knight shows that terror is even opposed to sublimity: &#8220;All the
+great and terrible convulsions of nature; such as storms, tempests,
+hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanoes, &amp;c., excite sublime ideas, and impress
+sublime sentiments by the prodigious exertions of energy and power which
+they seem to display: for though these objects are, in their nature,
+terrible, and generally known to be so, it is not this attribute of terror
+that contributes, in the smallest degree to render them sublime.... Timid
+women fly to a cellar, or a darkened room, to avoid the sublime effects of
+a thunder-storm;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> because to them they are not sublime, but terrible. To
+those only are they sublime, &#8216;<i>qui formidine nulla imbuti spectant</i>,&#8217; who
+behold them without any fear at all; and to whom, therefore, they are in
+no degree terrible.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This farther confirms the distinction which I made of beauty into minor or
+subordinate, and grand or sublime beauty, although Knight adopted other
+principles, if principles they may be called, and neglected such
+distinction.</p>
+
+<p>There is but one other error on this subject which I need to notice. Burke
+says: &#8220;To make anything very terrible, obscurity seems in general to be
+necessary. When we know the full extent of any danger, when we can
+accustom our eyes to it, a great deal of the apprehension vanishes. Every
+one will be sensible of this, who considers how greatly night adds to our
+dread, in all cases of danger.... Those despotic governments which are
+founded on the passions of men, and principally upon the passion of fear,
+keep their chief as much as may be from the public eye. The policy has
+been the same in many cases of religion. Almost all the heathen temples
+were dark.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>From what has already been said, it is evident that all this contributes
+to terror, not to sublimity; and that the same error is made by Blair when
+he says, &#8220;As obscurity, so disorder, too, is very compatible with
+grandeur, nay, frequently heightens it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>To expose the weakness and to destroy the authority of some writers on
+this subject, can only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> set the mind free for the investigation of truth.
+I may, therefore, conclude this chapter by quoting the shrewd remarks of
+Knight on some of the principles of Burke. I shall afterward be forced
+critically to examine the notions of Knight in their turn.</p>
+
+<p>Burke states that the highest degree of sublime sensation is astonishment;
+and the subordinate degrees, awe, reverence, and respect; all which he
+considers as modes of terror. And Knight observes that this graduated
+scale of the sublime, from respect to astonishment, cannot, perhaps be
+better illustrated than by applying it to his own character.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;He was certainly,&#8221; says Knight, &#8220;a very respectable man, and reverenced
+by all who knew him intimately. At one period of his life, too, when he
+became the disinterested patron of remote and injured nations, who had
+none to help them, his character was truly sublime; but, unless upon those
+whom he so ably and eloquently arraigned, I do not believe that it
+impressed any awe.... If, during this period, he had suddenly appeared
+among the managers in Westminster Hall without his wig and coat, or had
+walked up St. James&#8217;s street without his breeches, it would have
+occasioned great and universal astonishment; and if he had, at the same
+time, carried a loaded blunderbuss in his hands, the astonishment would
+have been mixed with no small portion of terror: but I do not believe that
+the united effects of these two powerful passions would have produced any
+sentiment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> or sensation approaching to sublime, even in the breasts of
+those who had the strongest sense of self-preservation and the quickest
+sensibility of danger.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Thus, I believe, it now appears that novelty<small><a name="f10.1" id="f10.1" href="#f10">[10]</a></small> is the exciting cause of
+pleasurable emotion, and of the consequent perception of beauty in the
+relations of things, and that the two genera of beauty&mdash;the minor or
+subordinate beauty, and grandeur or sublimity&mdash;have distinct
+characteristics, the confounding of which by writers has led to the
+obscurity of this part of the subject.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+<h3>STANDARD OF TASTE IN BEAUTY.</h3>
+
+<p>The expression, &#8220;standard of taste,&#8221; is used to signify the basis or
+foundation of our judgments respecting beauty and deformity, and their
+consequent certainty.</p>
+
+<p>Setting aside such objection as might be raised to a standard of taste on
+the doctrine of Berkeley (which I refuted in 1809, and which I need not
+enter into here), this matter was long ago settled by David Hume; and I
+have nothing new to say upon the subject (there is probably enough of
+novelty in other chapters, whatever its worth may be), except that Burke
+appears to have borrowed all he knew about it from that incomparably more
+profound philosopher.</p>
+
+<p>As I ought not, however, to omit here a view of the subject, I cannot do
+better than transcribe the words of Hume and Burke respectively. While
+this will put the reader in possession of all that I think necessary upon
+this subject, it will farther tend to show in what Burke&#8217;s ability as a
+philosopher consisted.</p>
+
+<p>I must first, however, observe that the word &#8220;taste,&#8221; as expressing our
+judgment of beauty, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> a metaphor whimsically borrowed from the lowest of
+our senses, and is applied to our exercise of that faculty, as regards
+both natural objects, and the fine arts which imitate these.</p>
+
+<p>It is not wonderful that the variety and inconstancy of tastes respecting
+the attributes and the characters of beauty, should have led many
+philosophers to deny that there exist any certain combinations of forms
+and of effects to which the term beauty ought to be invariably attached.</p>
+
+<p>In his &#8220;Philosophical Dictionary,&#8221; Voltaire, after quoting some nonsense
+from the crazy dreamer who did so much injury to Greek philosophy, says:
+&#8220;I am willing to believe that nothing can be more beautiful than this
+discourse of Plato; but it does not give us very clear ideas of the nature
+of the beautiful. Ask of a toad what is beauty, pure beauty, the <ins class="correction" title="to kalon">&#964;&#959; &#954;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#957;</ins>;
+he will answer you that it is his female, with two large round
+eyes projecting from her little head, a large and flat throat, a yellow
+belly, and a brown back. Ask the devil, and he will tell you that the
+beautiful is a pair of horns, four claws, and a tail. Consult, lastly, the
+philosophers, and they will answer you by rigmarole: they want something
+conformable to the archetype of the beautiful in essence, to the <ins class="correction" title="to kalon">&#964;&#959; &#954;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#957;</ins>.&#8221;
+This is wit, not reason: let us look for that to a deeper thinker&mdash;as proposed above.</p>
+
+<p>David Hume says: &#8220;It appears that, amid all the variety and caprice of
+taste, there are certain general principles of approbation or blame, whose
+influence a careful eye may trace in all operations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> of the mind. Some
+particular forms or qualities from the original structure of the internal
+fabric, are calculated to please, and others to displease.... If they fail
+of their effect in any particular instance, it is from some apparent
+<i>defect</i> or imperfection in the organ.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In each creature there is a sound and a defective state; and the former
+alone can be supposed to afford us a true standard of taste and sentiment.
+If, in the sound state of the organ, there be an entire or a considerable
+uniformity of sentiment among men, we may thence derive an idea of the
+perfect beauty; in like manner as the appearance of objects in daylight,
+to the eye of a man in health, is denominated their true and real color.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>To the same purpose writes Burke, after some preliminary observations:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;All the natural powers in man, which I know, that are conversant about
+external objects, are the senses, the imagination, and the judgment.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;First, with regard to the senses. We do and we must suppose, that, as the
+conformations of their organs are nearly or altogether the same in all
+men, so the manner of perceiving external objects is in all men the same,
+or with little difference.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As there will be little doubt that bodies present similar images to the
+whole species, it must necessarily be allowed, that the pleasures and the
+pains which every object excites in one man, it must raise in all mankind,
+while it operates naturally, simply, and by its proper powers only.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>&#8220;Custom, and some other causes, have made many deviations from the natural
+pleasures or pains which belong to these several tastes; but then the
+power of distinguishing between the natural and the acquired relish
+remains to the very last.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There is in all men a sufficient remembrance of the original natural
+causes of pleasure, to enable them to bring all things offered to their
+senses to that standard, and to regulate their feelings and opinions by
+it.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Suppose one who had so vitiated his palate as to take more pleasure in
+the taste of opium than in that of butter or honey, to be presented with a
+bolus of squills; there is hardly any doubt but that he would prefer the
+butter or honey to this nauseous morsel, or to any other bitter drug to
+which he had not been accustomed; which proves that his palate was
+naturally like that of other men in all things, that it is still like the
+palate of other men in many things, and only vitiated in some particular
+points.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In the same manner, Payne Knight observes that &#8220;things, naturally the most
+nauseous, become most grateful; and things, naturally most grateful, most
+insipid.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This extreme effect, however, only takes place where the palate has
+become morbid and vitiated by continued, and even forced gratification;
+and even when the metaphors taken from this sense, and employed to express
+intellectual qualities, show that it is always felt and considered as a
+corruption,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> even by those who are most corrupted: for though there are
+many who prefer port wine to malmsey, and tobacco to sugar, yet no one
+ever spoke of a sour or bitter temper as pleasant, or of a sweet one as
+unpleasant.&#8221; By this concession, Knight answers several of his own
+objections.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;When it is said,&#8221; farther observes Burke, very properly, &#8220;taste cannot be
+disputed, it can only mean, that no one can strictly answer what pleasure
+or pain some particular man may find from the taste of some particular
+thing. This indeed cannot be disputed; but we may dispute, and with
+sufficient clearness too, concerning the things which are naturally
+pleasing or disagreeable to the sense. But when we talk of any peculiar or
+acquired relish, then we must know the habits, the prejudices, or the
+distempers of this particular man, and we must draw our conclusions from
+those.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Hume proceeds to a second point, by observing that &#8220;one obvious cause, why
+many feel not the proper sentiment of beauty, is the want of that
+<i>delicacy</i> of imagination which is requisite to convey a sensibility of
+those finer emotions.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Where the organs are so fine, as to allow nothing to escape them, and at
+the same time so exact, as to perceive every ingredient in the
+composition; this we call delicacy of taste, whether we employ these terms
+in the literal or metaphorical sense.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Burke enlarges on this, after preliminary observing that &#8220;the power of the
+imagination is incapable of producing anything absolutely new; it can only
+vary the disposition of those ideas which it has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> received from the
+senses. Now, the imagination is the most extensive province of pleasure
+and pain, as it is the region of our fears and our hopes, and of all our
+passions that are connected with them.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Since the imagination is only the representation of the senses, it can
+only be pleased or displeased with the images, from the same principle on
+which the sense is pleased or displeased with the realities; and
+consequently there must be just as close an agreement in the imaginations
+as in the senses of men.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There are some men formed with feelings so blunt, with tempers so cold
+and phlegmatic, that they can hardly be said to be awake during the whole
+course of their lives. Upon such persons, the most striking objects make
+but a faint and obscure impression. There are others so continually in the
+agitation of gross and merely sensual pleasures, or so occupied in the low
+drudgery of avarice, or so heated in the chase of honors and distinction,
+that their minds, which had been used continually to the storms of these
+violent and tempestuous passions, can hardly be put in motion by the
+delicate and refined play of the imagination. These men, though from a
+different cause, become as stupid and insensible as the former; but
+whenever either of these happen to be struck with any natural elegance or
+greatness, or with these qualities in any work of art, they are moved upon
+the same principle.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>On a third point, Hume says: &#8220;But though there be naturally a wide
+difference in point of delicacy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> between one person and another, nothing
+tends farther to increase and improve this talent, than <i>practice</i> in a
+particular art, and the frequent survey or contemplation of a particular
+species of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;So advantageous is practice to the discernment of beauty, that, before we
+can give judgment on any work of importance, it will even be requisite
+that that very individual performance be more than once perused by us, and
+be surveyed in different lights with attention and deliberation.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This is well illustrated by Burke, who observes: &#8220;It is known that the
+taste (whatever it is) is improved exactly as we improve our knowledge, by
+a steady attention to our object, and by frequent exercise.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;To illustrate this&mdash;(that there is a difference, not in the causes, nor
+in the manner of men&#8217;s being affected, but in the degree, owing to natural
+sensibility, or greater attention to the object)&mdash;to illustrate this by
+the procedure of the senses in which the same difference is found, let us
+suppose a very smooth marble-table to be set before two men; they both
+perceive it to be smooth, and they are both pleased with it because of
+this quality. So far they agree.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But suppose another, and after that another table, the latter still
+smoother than the former, to be set before them. It is now very probable
+that these men, who are so agreed upon what is smooth, and in the pleasure
+thence, will disagree when they come to settle which table has the
+advantage in point of polish.... Nor is it easy, when such a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> difference
+arises, to settle the point, if the excess or diminution be not glaring.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In these nice cases, supposing the acuteness of the sense equal, the
+greater attention and habit in such things will have the advantage. In the
+question about the tables, the marble-polisher will unquestionably
+determine the most accurately.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the imagination, beside the pain or pleasure arising from the
+properties of the natural object, a pleasure is perceived from the
+resemblance which the imitation has to the original.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;All men are nearly equal in this point, as far as their knowledge of the
+things represented or compared extends.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The principle of this knowledge is very much accidental, as it depends
+upon experience and observation, and not on the strength or weakness of
+any natural faculty; and it is from this difference in knowledge that what
+we commonly, though with no great exactness, call a difference in taste,
+proceeds.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A man to whom sculpture is new sees a barber&#8217;s block, or some ordinary
+piece of statuary; he is immediately struck and pleased, because he sees
+something like a human figure; and entirely taken up with this likeness,
+he does not at all attend to its defects. No person, I believe, at the
+first time of seeing a piece of imitation, ever did. Some time after, we
+suppose that this novice lights upon a more artificial work of the same
+nature; he begins to look with contempt on what he admired at first; not
+that he admired it even then for its <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>unlikeness to a man, but for that
+general though inaccurate resemblance which it bore to the human figure.
+What he admired at different times in these so different figures, is
+strictly the same; and though his knowledge is improved, his taste is not
+altered. Hitherto his mistake was from a want of knowledge in art, and
+this arose from his inexperience; but he may be still deficient, from a
+want of knowledge in nature. For it is possible that the man in question
+may stop here, and that the masterpiece of a great hand may please him no
+more than the middling performance of a vulgar artist; and this not for
+want of better or higher relish, but because all men do not observe with
+sufficient accuracy on the human figure, to enable them to judge properly
+of an imitation of it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>On other points, Hume makes the following observations:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Without being frequently obliged to form <i>comparisons</i> between the
+several species and degrees of excellence, and estimating their proportion
+to each other ... a man is indeed totally unqualified to pronounce an
+opinion with regard to any object presented to him. By comparison alone,
+we fix the epithets of praise or blame, and learn how to assign the due
+degree of each.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But to enable a critic more fully to execute this undertaking, he must
+preserve his mind free from all <i>prejudice</i> and allow nothing to enter
+into his consideration, but the very object which is submitted to his
+examination.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is well known, that, in all questions submitted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> to the understanding,
+prejudice is destructive of sound judgment, and perverts all operations of
+the intellectual faculties: it is no less contrary to good taste; nor has
+it less influence to corrupt our sentiments of beauty. It belongs to <i>good
+sense</i> to check its influence in both cases; and in this respect, as well
+as in many others, reason, if not an essential part of taste, is at least
+requisite to the operations of this latter faculty. In all the nobler
+productions of genius, there is a mutual relation and correspondence of
+parts; nor can either the beauties or blemishes be perceived by him whose
+thought is not capacious enough to comprehend all those parts, and compare
+them with each other, in order to perceive the consistence and uniformity
+of the whole. Every work of art has also a certain end or purpose for
+which it is calculated; and is to be deemed more or less perfect, as it is
+more or less fitted to attain this end.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>To a repetition of this, Burke adds some useful remarks:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As many of the works of imagination are not confined to representation of
+sensible objects, nor to efforts upon the passions, but extend themselves
+to the manners, the characters, the actions, and designs of men, their
+relations, their virtues and vices, they come within the province of the
+judgment, which is improved by attention and by the habit of reasoning.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The cause of a wrong taste is a defect of judgment. And this may arise
+from a natural weakness of understanding (in whatever the strength of
+that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> faculty may consist), or which is much more commonly the case, it
+may arise from a want of proper and well-directed exercise, which alone
+can make it strong and ready. Beside that ignorance, inattention,
+prejudice, rashness, levity, obstinacy, in short, all those passions, and
+all those vices which pervert the judgment in other matters, prejudice it
+no less in this its more refined and elegant province. These causes
+produce different opinions upon everything which is an object of the
+understanding, without inducing us to suppose, that there are no settled
+principles of reason.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A rectitude of judgment in the arts, which may be called a good taste,
+does in a great measure depend upon sensibility; because, if the mind has
+no bent to the pleasures of the imagination, it will never apply itself
+sufficiently to works of that species to acquire a competent knowledge in
+them. But though a degree of sensibility is requisite to form a good
+judgment, yet a good judgment does not necessarily arise from a quick
+sensibility of pleasure; it frequently happens that a very poor judge,
+merely by force of a greater complexional sensibility, is more affected by
+a poor piece, than the best judge by the most perfect; for as everything
+new, extraordinary, grand, or passionate, is well calculated to affect
+such a person, and that the faults do not affect him, his pleasure is more
+pure and unmixed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the morning of our days, when the senses are unworn and tender, when
+the whole man is awake in every part, and the gloss of novelty fresh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> upon
+all the objects that surround us, how lively at that time are our
+sensations, but how false and inaccurate the judgments we form of things!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Every trivial cause of pleasure is apt to affect the man of too sanguine
+a complexion: his appetite is to keen to suffer his taste to be
+delicate.... One of this character can never be a refined judge; never
+what the comic poet calls &#8216;<i>elegans formarum spectator</i>.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The rude hearer is affected by the principles which operate in these arts
+even in their rudest condition; and he is not skilful enough to perceive
+the defects. But as arts advance toward their perfection, the science of
+criticism advances with equal pace, and the pleasure of judges is
+frequently interrupted by the faults which are discovered in the most
+finished compositions.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The chief idea above expressed, is again repeated by Sir J. Reynolds, who
+says: &#8220;The principles of these (the imagination and the passions) are as
+invariable as the former (the senses), and are to be known and reasoned
+upon in the same manner, by an appeal to <i>common sense</i> deciding upon the
+common feelings of mankind.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>These views are thus summed by Hume: &#8220;The organs of internal sensation are
+seldom so perfect as to allow the general principles their full play, and
+produce a feeling correspondent to those principles. They either labor
+under some defect, or are vitiated by some disorder; and by that means,
+excite a sentiment, which may be pronounced erroneous. When the critic has
+no delicacy, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> judges without any distinction, and is only affected by
+the grosser and more palpable qualities of the object: the finer touches
+pass unnoticed and disregarded. Where he is not aided by practice, his
+verdict is attended with confusion and hesitation. Where no comparison has
+been employed, the most frivolous beauties, such as rather merit the name
+of defects, are the object of his admiration. Where he lies under the
+influence of prejudice, all his natural sentiments are perverted. Where
+good sense is wanting, he is not qualified to discern the beauties of
+design and reasoning, which are the highest and most excellent. Under some
+or other of these imperfections, the generality of men labor; and hence, a
+true judge in the finer arts is observed, even during the most polished
+ages, to be so rare a character: strong sense, united to delicate
+sentiment, improved by practice, perfected by comparison, and cleared of
+all prejudice, can alone entitle critics to this valuable character; and
+the joint verdict of such, wherever they are to be found, is the true
+standard of taste and beauty.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Taking the principal ideas above, Burke also concludes: &#8220;On the whole it
+appears to me, that what is called taste, in its most general acceptation,
+is not a simple idea, but is partly made up of a perception of the primary
+pleasures of sense, of the secondary pleasures of the imagination, and of
+the conclusions of the reasoning faculty, concerning the various relations
+of these, and concerning the human passions, manners, and actions.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>&#8220;It is sufficient for our present purpose,&#8221; Hume farther observes, &#8220;if we
+have proved that the taste of all individuals is not upon an equal
+footing, and that some men in general, however difficult to be
+particularly pitched upon, will be acknowledged by universal sentiment to
+have a preference above others.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Though men of delicate taste be rare, they are easily to be distinguished
+in society by the soundness of their understanding, and the superiority of
+their faculties above the rest of mankind. The ascendant which they
+acquire, gives a prevalence to that lively approbation, with which they
+receive any productions of genius, and renders it generally predominant.
+Many men, when left to themselves, have but a faint and dubious perception
+of beauty, who yet are capable of relishing any fine stroke which is
+pointed out to them. Every convert to the admiration of the real poet or
+orator, is the cause of some new conversion. And though prejudices may
+prevail for a time, they never unite in celebrating any rival to the true
+genius, but yield at last to the force of nature and just sentiment.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Hume finally obviates some apparent difficulties:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But notwithstanding all our endeavors to fix a standard of taste, and
+reconcile the discordant apprehensions of men, there still remain two
+sources of variation, which are not sufficient indeed to confound all the
+boundaries of beauty and deformity, but will often serve to produce a
+difference in the degrees of our approbation or blame. The one is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> the
+different humors of particular men; the other, the particular manner and
+opinions of our age and country.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A young man, whose passions are warm, will be more sensibly touched with
+amorous and tender images, than a man more advanced in years, who takes
+pleasure in wise, philosophical reflections concerning the conduct of life
+and moderation of the passions. At twenty, Ovid may be the favorite
+author; Horace at forty; and perhaps Tacitus at fifty. Vainly would we, in
+such cases, endeavor to enter into the sentiments of others, and divest
+ourselves of those propensities which are natural to us. We choose our
+favorite author as we do our friend, from a conformity of humor and
+disposition.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Such preferences are innocent and unavoidable, and can never reasonably
+be the object of dispute, because there is no standard by which they can
+be decided.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;For a like reason, we are more pleased, in the course of our reading,
+with pictures and characters that resemble objects which are found in our
+own age or country, than with those which describe a different set of
+customs.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A man of learning and reflection can make allowance for these
+peculiarities of manners; but a common audience can never divest
+themselves so far of their usual ideas and sentiments, as to relish
+pictures which nowise resemble them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Thus I believe the reader has before him a view, sufficiently clear, of
+that popular topic, the stan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>dard of taste, as well as of the agreement
+which subsists among the best writers on the subject. In the next chapter,
+we proceed to a more fundamental and difficult inquiry.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+<h3>THE ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY.<span class="foot"><a name="f11.1" id="f11.1" href="#f11">[11]</a></span></h3>
+
+<p>On the subject of the preceding chapter, even the reasonings of Hume
+appear to me to be of too vague and indefinite a kind. It requires the
+more minute scrutiny into which I shall now enter, in order to place it
+upon a deeper and more scientific foundation. If I can here show that, in
+the material qualities of the objects of nature and art, there exist
+elements of beauty equally invariable in themselves and in the kind of
+effect they produce upon the mind, it is evident there can be no farther
+dispute about a standard of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Many attempts have been made to determine the material elements of beauty,
+by Hogarth, Home, and others. All have more or less failed, from not
+observing that these elements are modified, varied, and complicated, as we
+advance from the most simple to the most complex class of natural beings,
+or of the arts which relate to these respectively. Many partial views of
+perfect truth and great <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>interest have been taken, and by every one of
+these it will be my duty here to profit: but, from the failure just
+pointed out, no philosophical and systematic doctrine of beauty, ascending
+from its origin in elements through its higher combinations, has ever been
+attained by any of the numerous, deep, acute, and elegant thinkers who
+have devoted their time to this subject, as the foundation of taste and of
+the fine or intellectual arts.</p>
+
+<p>Profiting, as I ought to do, by the partial views of these philosophers, I
+pretend here only to take one larger view&mdash;to analyze, to generalize, to
+systematize, the materials which they present to me.</p>
+
+<p>In the hope of accomplishing this, I shall now endeavor successively to
+trace the elements of beauty which belong respectively to inanimate,
+living, and thinking beings, and to the useful, ornamental, and
+intellectual arts which have a reference to these, the neglect of all
+which I have described as the fundamental cause of previous failure.</p>
+
+<p>Again, I repeat, it is to this analysis and generalization alone, and to
+the systemization founded upon it, that I make any pretence. The materials
+have long been presented by all the great writers on the subject: they
+have only left them in confusion, and without conclusion. I shall now
+proceed to employ them.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+<h3>SECTION I.<br />
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN INANIMATE BEINGS.</h3>
+
+<p>Though Burke did not accurately trace the elements of beauty in any one
+class of the objects of nature or art, he yet states a preliminary truth
+on this subject so well, that I here quote it: &#8220;It would be absurd,&#8221; he
+observes, &#8220;to say that all things affect us by association only; since
+some things must have been originally and naturally agreeable or
+disagreeable, from which the others derive their associated powers; and it
+would be, I fancy, to little purpose to look for the cause of our passions
+in association, until we fail of it in the natural properties of things.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Home, advancing farther, says: &#8220;If a tree be beautiful by means of its
+color, its figure, its size, its motion, it is in reality possessed of so
+many different beauties, which ought to be examined separately, in order
+to have a clear notion of the whole.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;When any body is viewed as a whole, the beauty of its figure arises from
+regularity<small><a name="f12.1" id="f12.1" href="#f12">[12]</a></small> and simplicity; and viewing the parts with relation to each
+other, from uniformity<small><a href="#f12">[12]</a></small>, proportion, and order.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>I will here only observe that these are the qualities, as will speedily
+appear, which Burke should have set down as the fundamental and first
+characteristics of beauty, instead of relative littleness, which belongs
+not to beauty generally, but only to the minor or subordinate beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Even Home, having arrived thus far, says: &#8220;To inquire why an object, by
+means of the particulars mentioned, appears beautiful, would, I am afraid,
+be a vain attempt.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But he truly adds: &#8220;One thing is clear, that regularity, uniformity,
+order, and simplicity, contribute each of them to readiness of
+apprehension, and enable us to form more distinct images of objects than
+can be done, with the utmost attention, where these particulars are not
+found.&#8221; And he subjoins: &#8220;This final cause is, I acknowledge, too slight,
+to account satisfactorily for a taste that makes a figure so illustrious
+in the nature of man; and that this branch of our constitution has a
+purpose still more important, we have great reason to believe.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now had Home seen that the characteristics of general beauty always are,
+with regard to the object, accordant and agreeable relations, the
+importance of the qualities he has just enumerated would have been
+evident; for, without them, these characteristics of the object could not
+exist: simplicity, regularity, uniformity, order, &amp;c., are the very
+elements of accordant and agreeable relations. This is in reality the
+still more important purpose in which Home believed, and to which the
+readiness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> of apprehension he now alludes to eminently contributes.</p>
+
+<p>As to simplicity, he observes, that &#8220;a multitude of objects crowding into
+the mind at once, disturb the attention, and pass without making any
+impression, or any lasting impression; and in a group, no single object
+makes the figure it would do apart, when it occupies the whole attention.
+For the same reason, even a single object, when it divides the attention
+by the multiplicity of its parts, equals not, in strength of impression, a
+more simple object comprehended in a single view: parts extremely complex
+must be considered in portions successively; and a number of impressions
+in succession, which cannot unite because not simultaneous, never touch
+the mind like one entire impression made as it were at one stroke.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A square is less beautiful than a circle, because it is less simple: a
+circle has parts as well as a square; but its parts not being distinct
+like those of a square, it makes one entire impression; whereas, the
+attention is divided among the sides and angles of a square.... A square,
+though not more regular than a hexagon or octagon, is more beautiful than
+either, because a square is more simple, and the attention less divided.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Simplicity thus contributes to beauty.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>By regularity is meant that circumstance in a figure by which we perceive
+it to be formed according to a certain rule. Thus, a circle, a square, a
+parallelogram, or triangle, pleases by its regularity.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A square,&#8221; says Home&mdash;(who here furnishes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> the best materials to a more
+general view, because he most frequently assigns physical causes, and
+whom, with some abbreviation, I therefore continue to quote)&mdash;&#8220;a square is
+more beautiful than a parallelogram, because the former exceeds the latter
+in regularity and in uniformity of parts. This is true with respect to
+intrinsic beauty only; for in many instances, utility comes in to cast the
+balance on the side of the parallelogram: this figure for the doors and
+windows of a dwelling-house, is preferred because of utility; and here we
+find the beauty of utility prevailing over that of regularity and
+uniformity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Thus regularity and uniformity contribute to intrinsic beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A parallelogram, again, depends for its beauty on the proportion [or
+relation of quantity] of its sides. Its beauty is lost by a great
+inequality of these sides: it is also lost by their approximating toward
+equality; for proportion there degenerates into imperfect uniformity, and
+the figure appears an unsuccessful attempt toward a square.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Thus proportion contributes to beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;An equilateral triangle yields not to a square in regularity nor in
+uniformity of parts, and it is more simple. Its inferiority in beauty is
+at least partly owing to inferiority of order in the position of its
+parts: the sides of an equilateral triangle incline to each other in the
+same angle, which is the most perfect order they are susceptible of; but
+this order is obscure, and far from being so perfect as the parallelism of
+the sides of a square.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>Thus order contributes to the beauty of visible objects.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A mountain, it may be objected, is an agreeable object, without so much
+as the appearance of regularity; and a chain of mountains is still more
+agreeable, without being arranged in any order. But though regularity,
+uniformity, and order, are causes of beauty, there are also other causes
+of it, as color; and when we pass from small to great objects, and
+consider grandeur instead of beauty, very little regularity is required.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It follows, from all that has been here said, and this has been shown by
+Burke, that any rugged, any sudden projection, any sharp angle, is in the
+highest degree contrary to the idea of beauty. Such projections and angles
+are destitute of all the qualities which have just been
+enumerated&mdash;simplicity, regularity, uniformity, proportion, order; and
+conformably to the principles I have laid down in a previous chapter, they
+can present only relations which are naturally disagreeable. This view is
+corroborated by the fact, that all very sharp, broken, or angular objects,
+were disagreeable to the boy couched by Cheselden, as they are to all eyes
+of very nice sensibility.</p>
+
+<p>Now, as angular forms give, to the sense of touch, sharpness, roughness,
+or harshness, so do opposite forms give smoothness or fineness. Hence,
+Burke makes smoothness his second characteristic of beauty, and that far
+more truly than he makes littleness its first, for, as he observes,
+&#8220;smoothness is a quality so essential to beauty, that I do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> not now
+recollect anything beautiful that is not smooth.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Such being really the case, I am bound to expose Knight&#8217;s sophistry on
+this point. &#8220;This elegant author,&#8221; says he, &#8220;has expatiated upon the
+gratifications of feeling smooth and undulating surfaces in general: but,
+I believe, these gratifications have been confined to himself; and
+probably to his own imagination acting through the medium of his favorite
+system: for, except in the communication of the sexes, which affords no
+general illustration, and ought therefore to be kept entirely out of the
+question, I have never heard of any person being addicted to such
+luxuries; though a feeling-board would certainly afford as cheap and
+innocent a gratification, as either a smelling-bottle, a picture, or a
+flute, provided it were capable of affording any gratification at all.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This is a good specimen of the kind of perverted reasoning, which
+peculiarly distinguishes Knight.</p>
+
+<p>A man affecting the character of philosopher, ought calmly to have
+observed that, by young people before puberty, and, consequently, when
+there is not the slightest sexual bias, smooth objects are generally found
+to be agreeable, and rough or harsh ones to be the reverse. This would at
+once have set him right upon this point.</p>
+
+<p>If, to such a man, it should for a moment have appeared worth while to ask
+why we do not make use of feeling-boards, as well as of smelling-bottles,
+he ought to have sought the solution of his difficulty in the nature of
+the senses; and then, with a trifle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> more of ability than Payne Knight
+hereby shows himself to have possessed, he would have seen that smoothness
+affords us as much pleasure as any smell, but that, as it would have been
+always troublesome, and often impossible, to apply our fingers to smooth
+surfaces, we generally receive the varied and incessant pleasure it
+affords, by means of sight; that it is borne by light to the eye, as smell
+is by the air; and that this is the reason why, except when contact is
+indispensable, we have no need of anything in the way of a feeling-board.</p>
+
+<p>But Knight says: &#8220;Smoothness being properly a quality, perceivable only by
+the touch, and applied metaphorically to the objects of the other senses,
+we often apply it, very improperly, to those of vision; assigning
+smoothness as a cause of visible beauty, to things which, though smooth to
+the touch, cast the most sharp, harsh, and angular reflections of light
+upon the eyes; and these reflections are all that the eye feels, or
+naturally perceives.... Such are all objects of cut-glass or polished
+metal; as may be seen by the manner in which painters imitate them: for,
+as the imitations of painting extend only to the visible qualities of
+bodies, they show those visible qualities fairly and impartially.... Yet
+the imitative representation of such objects in painting is far less harsh
+and dazzling than the effects of them in reality: for there are no
+materials that a painter can employ, capable of expressing the sharpness
+and brilliancy of those angular reflections of the collected and
+condensed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> rays, which are emitted from the surfaces of polished metals.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It seems, to me, scarcely possible to find sophistry more worthless than
+this, or rather a more contemptible quibble; for that which, availing
+himself of our technicalities about light, he calls angularity, sharpness,
+&amp;c., has no analogy with disagreeable angularity of form. To produce the
+brilliance and splendor which he calls angular, and describes as so
+<i>offensive</i>, we polish crystalline and metallic bodies in the highest
+degree!&mdash;we value precisely those which thus admit of greatest
+splendor!&mdash;and, on that very account, the diamond (rightly or wrongly, is
+not the question) is deemed the most valuable object on earth!</p>
+
+<p>So much for those elements of beauty, in inanimate things, which fall
+under the cognizance of our fundamental sense, or that of touch.</p>
+
+<p>As to sight and its objects, it is true that, as this organ varies in
+different persons, their taste is modified, with regard to colors. But the
+preference of light and delicate colors to dark and glaring ones, is
+almost universal among persons of sensibility.</p>
+
+<p>Alison, indeed, ascribes the effects of all colors to association.
+&#8220;White,&#8221; he says, &#8220;as it is the color of day, is expressive to us of the
+cheerfulness or gayety which the return of day brings: black, as the color
+of darkness [night], is expressive of gloom and melancholy.&#8221; And he adds:
+&#8220;Whether some colors may not of themselves produce agreeable sensations,
+and others disagreeable sensations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> I am not anxious to dispute.&#8221; But
+this is the very point into which Alison ought to have inquired. Nature
+does nothing without foundation in the simplest principles; and this
+foundation is not only anterior to, but is the cause of all association.</p>
+
+<p>That, independent of any association, blackness is naturally disagreeable,
+if not painful, is happily determined by the case of the boy restored to
+sight by Cheselden, who tells us that the first time the boy saw a black
+object, it gave him great uneasiness; and that, some time after, upon
+accidentally seeing a negro-woman, he was struck with great horror at the
+sight. This appears to be perfectly conclusive.</p>
+
+<p>Knight indeed says: &#8220;As to the uneasiness which the boy, couched by
+Cheselden, felt at the first sight of a black object, it arose either from
+the harshness of its outline, or from its appearing to act as a partial
+extinguisher applied to his eyes, which, as every object that he saw,
+seemed to touch them, would, of course, be its effect.&#8221; It is highly
+probable that black operates in both these ways; and it has therefore
+natural effects, independent of all association.</p>
+
+<p>As to sounds, Alison observes, that the cries of some animals are sublime,
+as the roar of the lion, the scream of the eagle, &amp;c.; and he thinks they
+become so, because we associate them with the strength and ferocity of the
+animals which utter them. By opposite associations, he accounts for the
+beauty of the notes of birds. And he says, that there is a similar
+sublimity or beauty, in the tones<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> of the human voice, and that &#8220;such
+sounds are associated, in our imaginations, with the qualities of mind of
+which they are in general expressive, and naturally produce in us the
+conception of these qualities.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This writer endeavors to establish his views on this subject, by
+observing, that &#8220;grandeur or sublimity of sound, can no otherwise arise
+from its loudness, than as that loudness excites an idea of power in the
+sonorous object, or in some other associated with it in the mind: for a
+child&#8217;s drum, close to the ear, fills it with more real noise, than the
+discharge of a cannon a mile off; and the rattling of a carriage in the
+street, when faintly and indistinctly heard, has often been mistaken for
+thunder at a distance. Yet no one ever imagined the beating of a child&#8217;s
+drum, or the rattling of a carriage over the stones, to be grand or
+sublime; which, nevertheless, they must be, if grandeur or sublimity
+belong at all to the sensation of loudness. But artillery and lightning
+are powerful engines of destruction; and with their power we sympathize,
+whenever the sound of them excites any sentiments of sublimity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now, all this is directly opposed to the doctrine it is meant to support.
+It distinctly implies that loudness is so natural and so frequent a result
+of the violent contact of bodies, that we sometimes mistakenly ascribe
+power to objects, of which we have not correctly distinguished the sounds,
+owing to imitation, distance, &amp;c. The occasional mistake implies the
+general truth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>Alison, himself, notwithstanding his doctrine of association, is
+accordingly led to observe, that &#8220;there are some philosophers who consider
+these as the natural signs of passion or affection, and who believe that
+it is not from experience, but by means of an original faculty, that we
+interpret them: and this opinion is supported by great authorities.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>He adds the following observations, which, notwithstanding the error they
+involve, are too much to the purpose to be omitted here, and which in
+reality illustrate a natural and true theory, better than they do his
+own:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is natural, however, to suppose, that in this, as in every case, our
+experience should gradually lead to the formation of some general rules,
+with regard to this expression.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The great divisions of sound are into loud and low, grave and acute, long
+and short, increasing and diminishing. The two first divisions are
+expressive in themselves: the two last, only in conjunction with others.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Loud sound is connected with ideas of power and danger. Many objects in
+nature which have such qualities, are distinguished by such sounds; and
+this association is farther confirmed from the human voice, in which all
+violent and impetuous passions are expressed in loud tones.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Low sound has a contrary expression, and is connected with ideas of
+weakness, gentleness, and delicacy. This association takes its rise, not
+only from the observation of inanimate nature, or of animals, where, in a
+great number of cases, such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> sounds distinguish objects with such
+qualities, but particularly from the human voice, where all gentle, or
+delicate, or sorrowful affections are expressed by such tones.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Grave sound is connected with ideas of moderation, dignity, solemnity,
+&amp;c., principally, I believe, from all moderate, or restrained, or
+chastened affections being distinguished by such tones in the human voice.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Acute sound is expressive of pain, or fear, or surprise, &amp;c., and
+generally operates by producing some degree of astonishment. This
+association, also, seems principally to arise from our experience of such
+connexions in the human voice.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Long or lengthened sound seems to me to have no expression in itself, but
+only to signify the continuance of that quality which is signified by
+other qualities of sound. A loud or a low, a grave or an acute sound
+prolonged expresses to us no more than the continuance of the quality
+which is generally signified by such sounds.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Short or abrupt sound has a contrary expression, and signifies the sudden
+cessation of the quality thus expressed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Increasing sound signifies, in the same manner, the increase of the
+quality expressed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Decreasing sound signifies the gradual diminution of such qualities.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Motion furnishes another sort of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Figure, color, and motion, readily blend in one object, and one general
+perception of beauty. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> many beautiful objects they all unite, and
+render the beauty greater.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>These characteristics are too universal not to support the doctrine of
+natural appropriation and power, of which association is merely a
+consequence.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said, that all this chiefly regards mere geometrical forms, not
+objects in nature. But, on referring to inanimate objects, it will be
+found that they everywhere present these forms.</p>
+
+<p>The round, the simplest form appears to characterize all elementary bodies
+and all that are free from compression, to be in fact the most elementary
+and the most readily assumed in nature. This form, accordingly, is
+presented by the drops of water and of every liquid, by every atom
+probably of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote, by the smallest as well as the
+largest bodies, even the innumerable celestial orbs.</p>
+
+<p>All the other, the angular forms are presented by inanimate bodies under
+compression, or by mineral crystals.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, then, do these simple geometrical forms characterize the simplest
+bodies in nature; and it appears that this first kind of beauty is
+peculiarly their own. It will, in the sequel, be as clearly seen, that
+each of the other classes of natural beings presents beauty of a different
+kind, which similarly characterizes it. Hence, no rational theory of
+beauty could be formed by writers, who indiscriminatingly jumbled together
+the characteristics of all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> the kinds of beauty, and expected to find them
+everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>As, then, from all that has been said, it appears that all the elements of
+beauty which have thus been noticed, belong to inanimate beings, and as
+this is shown by the passages I have quoted from the best writers, it
+seems surprising, not merely that they should not have seen this to be the
+case, but, that it should not have led them to observe, that there exists
+also a second beauty, of living beings, and third, of thinking beings, as
+well as others of the useful, the ornamental, and the intellectual arts
+respectively, in each of which some new element was only added to the
+characters of the preceding species.</p>
+
+<p>It seems still more surprising that Alison, who deviates so widely from
+all fundamental principles, should have actually stumbled upon an
+observation of a few of the characteristics of inanimate beings, and
+traced them as they pass upward through some living and thinking
+beings&mdash;whose new characteristics, however, he did not discriminate. He
+observes, that &#8220;the greater part of those bodies in nature, which possess
+hardness, strength, or durability, are distinguished by angular forms. The
+greater part of those bodies, on the contrary, which possess weakness,
+fragility, or delicacy, are distinguished by winding or curvilinear forms.
+In the mineral kingdom, all rocks, stones, and metals, the hardest and
+most durable bodies we know, assume universally angular forms. In the
+vegetable kingdom, all strong and durable plants are in general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+distinguished by similar forms. The feebler and more delicate race of
+vegetables, on the contrary, are mostly distinguished by winding forms. In
+the animal kingdom, in the same manner, strong and powerful animals are
+generally characterized by angular forms; feeble and delicate animals, by
+forms of the contrary kind.&#8221;<small><a name="f13.1" id="f13.1" href="#f13">[13]</a></small></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>SECTION II.<br />
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN LIVING BEINGS.</h3>
+
+<p>I have now to show that, in living beings, while the characters of the
+first and fundamental beauty, that of inanimate beings, are still
+partially continued, new characteristics are added to them.</p>
+
+<p>Plants accordingly possess both rigid parts, like some of those described
+in the preceding section, and delicate parts, which, in ascending through
+the classes of natural beings from the simplest to the most complex, are
+the very first to present to us new and additional characters totally
+distinct from those of the preceding class.</p>
+
+<p>I. To begin as nature does, then, we find the trunks and stems of plants,
+which are near the ground, resembling most in character the inanimate
+bodies from among which they spring. They assume the simplest and most
+universal form in nature, the round one; but as growth is their great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+function, they extend in height and become cylindrical.</p>
+
+<p>Even the branches, the twigs, and the tendrils, continue this elementary
+character; but it is in them, or in the stem when, like them, it is
+tender, that such elementary characters give way to the purposes of life,
+namely, growth and reproduction, and that we discover the new and
+additional characters of beauty which this class presents to us.</p>
+
+<p>II. To render this matter plain, I must observe that the formation of
+rings, which unite in tubes, appears to be almost universally the material
+condition of growth and reproduction. Every new portion of these tubes,
+moreover, and every superadded ring, is less than that which preceded it.</p>
+
+<p>It is from this that results the first characteristic of this second kind
+of beauty, namely, fineness or delicacy. Hence, Burke made the possession
+of a delicate frame, without any remarkable appearance of strength, his
+fifth condition in beauty; and he here erred only from that want of
+discrimination which led him to confound together all the conditions of
+beauty, and prevented his seeing that they belonged to different genera.</p>
+
+<p>Now, as fine and delicate bodies, which are growing, will shoot in that
+direction where space, air, and light, can best be had, and as this, amid
+other twigs and tendrils, will greatly vary, so will their productions
+rarely continue long in the same straight line, but will, on the contrary,
+bend. Hence, the curved or bending form is the second characteristic of
+this kind of beauty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>It is worthy of remark, that, as the trunks, stems, twigs, and tendrils,
+of plants assume the simplest and most universal form in nature, the round
+one, so their more delicate parts have again the tendency to bend into a
+similar form.</p>
+
+<p>In the young and feeble branches of plants, it is observed by Alison, that
+the bending form is &#8220;beautiful, when we perceive that it is the
+consequence of the delicacy of their texture, and of their being
+overpowered by the weight of the flower.... In the smaller and feebler
+tribe of flowers, as in the violet, the daisy, or the lily of the valley,
+the bending of the stem constitutes a very beautiful form, because we
+immediately perceive that it is the consequence of the weakness and
+delicacy of the flower.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>From the circumstances now described, it results that all the parts of
+plants present the most surprising variety. They vary their direction
+every moment, as Burke observes, and they change under the eye by a
+deviation continually carrying on, but for whose beginning or end you will
+find it difficult to ascertain a point.</p>
+
+<p>Variety is therefore the third characteristic of this second kind of
+beauty; and in the indiscriminating views of Burke, he made two similar
+conditions, viz: &#8220;Thirdly, to have a variety in the direction of the
+parts; but, fourthly, to have those parts not angular, but melted as it
+were into each other;&#8221; thus applying these to beauty generally, to which
+they are not applicable, but in a confused and imperfect way.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>It is scarcely necessary to observe that variety, as a character of
+beauty, owes its effect to the need of changing impressions, in order to
+enliven our sensibility, which does not fail to become inactive under the
+long-continued impression of the same stimulant.</p>
+
+<p>It is connected with this variety that unequal numbers are preferred, as
+we see in the number of flowers and of their petals, in that of leaves
+grouped together, and in the indentations of these leaves.</p>
+
+<p>From all this springs the fourth and last characteristic of this second
+species of beauty, namely, contrast. This strikes us when we at once look
+at the rigid stem and bending boughs, and all the variety which the latter
+display.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed, that, of all the characteristics of beauty, none tend
+to render our perceptions so vivid as variety and contrast.</p>
+
+<p>I conclude this section with a few remarks on the errors which Alison has
+committed on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the rose,&#8221; says that writer, &#8220;and the white lily, and in the tribe of
+flowering shrubs, the same bending form assumed by the stem is felt as a
+defect; and instead of impressing us with the idea of delicacy, leads us
+to believe the operation of some force to twist it into this
+direction.&#8221;&mdash;This, however, is no defect arising from the bending form not
+being abstractly more beautiful, but from its being contrary to the nature
+of the stem of flowering shrubs to bend, from its being, as he himself
+observes, the result of some force to twist it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>He asserts, however, that in plants, angular forms are beautiful, when
+they are expressive of fineness, of tenderness, of delicacy, or such
+affecting qualities; and he thinks that this may perhaps appear from the
+consideration of the following instances:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The myrtle, for instance, is generally reckoned a beautiful form, yet the
+growth of its stem is perpendicular, the junction of its branches form
+regular and similar angles, and their direction is in straight or angular
+lines. The known delicacy, however, and tenderness of the vegetable, at
+least in this climate, prevail over the general expression of the form,
+and give it the same beauty which we generally find in forms of a contrary
+kind.&#8221;&mdash;The mistake here committed is in supposing the beauty of the
+myrtle to depend on its angularity, instead of its being evergreen,
+fragrant, and suggesting pleasures of association.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;How much more beautiful,&#8221; he says, &#8220;is the rose-tree when its buds begin
+to blow, than afterward, when its flowers are full and in their greatest
+perfection! yet, in this first situation, its form has much less winding
+surface, and is much more composed of straight lines and of angles, than
+afterward when the weight of the flower weighs down the feeble branches,
+and describes the easiest and most varied curves.&#8221;&mdash;But he answers himself
+by adding: &#8220;The circumstance of its youth, a circumstance in all cases so
+affecting, the delicacy of its blossom, so well expressed by the care
+which Nature has taken in surrounding the opening bud with leaves, prevail
+so much upon our imagination,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> that we behold the form itself with more
+delight in this situation than afterward, when it assumes the more general
+form of delicacy.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There are few things in the vegetable world,&#8221; he says, &#8220;more beautiful
+than the knotted and angular stem of the balsam, merely from its singular
+transparency, which it is impossible to look at without a strong
+impression of the fineness and delicacy of the vegetable.&#8221;&mdash;But it is its
+transparency, not its angularity, that is beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty of color is not less conspicuous than that of form in this
+class of beings.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>SECTION III.<br />
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN THINKING BEINGS.</h3>
+
+<p>I have next to show that, in thinking beings, while the characters of
+inanimate, and those of living beauty, are still more or less continued,
+new characteristics are also added to them.</p>
+
+<p>I. In animals, accordingly, the bones bear a close analogy to the wood of
+plants. They generally assume the same rounded form; but, as thinking
+beings are necessarily moving ones, their bones are hollow to combine
+lightness with strength, and they are separated by joints to permit
+flexion and extension.</p>
+
+<p>II. As animals, like plants, grow and reproduce, a portion of their
+general organization, their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>vascular system, which serves the purpose of
+growth and reproduction, consists, like plants, of trunks, branches, &amp;c.;
+and the surface of their bodies, the skin, is formed by a tissue of these
+vessels. Accordingly, both the vessels themselves, and the tissue which
+they form, present the delicacy, the bending, the variety, and the
+contrast, which are the characters of the preceding species of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The undulating and serpentine lines which art seeks always to design in
+its most beautiful productions, exist in greater number at the surface of
+the human body than at that of any other animal. Wherever, as Hogarth
+observes, &#8220;for the sake of the necessary motion of the parts, with proper
+strength and agility, the insertions of the muscles are too hard and
+sudden, their swellings too bold, or the hollows between them too deep,
+for their outlines to be beautiful; nature softens these hardnesses, and
+plumps up these vacancies with a proper supply of fat, and covers the
+whole with the soft, smooth, springy, and, in delicate life, almost
+transparent skin, which, conforming itself to the external shape of all
+the parts beneath, expresses to the eye the idea of its contents with the
+utmost delicacy of beauty and grace.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is principally in the features of the face, as has often been observed,
+and on the surface of the torso and of the members of a beautiful woman,
+that these delicate, bending, varied, and contrasted lines are multiplied:
+by their union, they mark the outlines of different parts, as in the
+region of the neck, of the bosom, at the shoulders, on the surface of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+abdomen, on the sides, and principally in the gradual transitions from the
+head to the neck, and from the loins to the inferior extremities.</p>
+
+<p>These lines vary under different circumstances; much enbonpoint producing
+round lines, and leanness or old age producing straight ones.</p>
+
+<p>Woman and man stand pre-eminent among animals as to this kind of beauty;
+and to them succeed the swifter animals, as the horse, the stag, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The animals, on the contrary, of which the surface presents right lines
+and square forms, are correspondingly deprived of beauty; as the toad, the
+hog, and all the animals which seem to us ugly.</p>
+
+<p>In all animals, also, the beauty of color, even when slightly varied,
+becomes extremely interesting.&mdash;In human beauty, considerable variety is
+produced by the different shades of the skin.</p>
+
+<p>Such, indeed, is the variety resulting from all this, that some degree
+even of intricacy is produced. The undulating lines which cross in every
+direction, and the tortuous paths of the eye, are the means of an
+agreeable complication.</p>
+
+<p>Hence Burke, following Hogarth, says: &#8220;Observe that part of a beautiful
+woman where she is perhaps the most beautiful, about the neck and breasts:
+the smoothness, the softness, the easy and insensible swell, the variety
+of the surface, which is never for the smallest space the same, the
+deceitful maze, through which the unsteady eye slides giddily, without
+knowing where to fix, or whither it is carried. Is not this a
+demonstration of that change of surface, continual, and yet hardly
+perceptible at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> any point, which forms one of the great constituents of
+beauty?</p>
+
+<p>The hair affords an excellent instance of this agreeable complication.
+Soft curls agitated by the wind have been the theme of every poet. And
+yet, says Hogarth, &#8220;to show how excess ought to be avoided in intricacy,
+as well as in every other principle, the very same head of hair, wisped
+and matted together, would make the most disagreeable figure; because the
+eye would be perplexed, and at a fault, and unable to trace such a
+confused number of uncomposed and entangled lines.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>III. But animals have a higher system of organs and functions which
+peculiarly distinguishes them, and which presents new and peculiar
+characteristics of beauty. This consists of the organs by which they
+receive impressions from, and react upon the objects around them&mdash;the
+first organs which Nature presents having altogether external relations,
+and the first, consequently, in which we look for fitness for any purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of fitness to the beauty of such objects is learned
+imperceptibly. Lines and forms, though the most elegant, fail to please
+us, if ill distributed in this respect: and objects, to a great extent
+destitute of the other characters of natural beauty, become beautiful when
+regarded in relation to fitness. Thus would this sense appear to be so
+powerful, as in some measure to regulate our other perceptions of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>It is fitness which leads us to admire in one animal, what would displease
+us if found in another.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> &#8220;The variety,&#8221; says Barry, &#8220;and union of parts,
+which we call beautiful in a greyhound, are pleasing in consequence of the
+idea of agility which they convey. In other animals, less agility is
+united with more strength; and, indeed, all the different arrangements
+please because they indicate either different qualities, different degrees
+of qualities, or the different combinations of them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In relation to the various fitness of the human body, the same writer
+says: &#8220;We should not increase the beauty of the female bosom, by the
+addition of another protuberance; and the exquisite undulating transitions
+from the convex to the concave tendencies, could not be multiplied with
+any success. In fine, our rule for judging of the mode and degree of this
+combination of variety and unity, seems to be no other than that of its
+fitness and conformity to the designation of each species.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But it is less necessary for me to adduce authorities in support of this
+truth, than to answer the objections that have been made to it by some of
+the ablest writers on the subject&mdash;objections which have generally their
+origin in the narrow views which these men have taken, and in those
+partial hypotheses which, even when true, led them to reject all other
+truth.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is said,&#8221; observes Burke, &#8220;that the idea of a part&#8217;s being well
+adapted to answer its end, is one cause of beauty, or indeed beauty
+itself.... In framing this theory, I am apprehensive that experience was
+not sufficiently consulted. For, on that principle, the wedgelike snout of
+a swine with its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> tough cartilage at the end, the little sunk eyes, and
+the whole make of the head, so well adapted to its offices of digging and
+rooting, would be extremely beautiful.&#8221;&mdash;And so they are, when the beauty
+of fitness for their purpose is considered; but that purpose being the
+mere growth and fattening of an animal of sensual and dirty habits, it is
+a fallacy to represent this, without explanation, as a fair proof of the
+absence of connexion between fitness and beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;If beauty in our species,&#8221; says the same writer, &#8220;was annexed to use, men
+would be much more lovely than women; and strength and agility would be
+considered as the only beauties.&#8221;&mdash;Burke was a stringer of fine words, not
+for woman, but for queens, when that served a selfish and venal purpose.
+The sentence just quoted shows that his gallantry was as ignorant as it
+was mean. He here asserts by implication that women are less useful than
+men, although it is to women that the care of the whole human race, during
+its most helpless years, is committed, and although they take upon
+themselves all that half of the duties of life which men are as little
+capable of performing, as women are of performing the portion suited to
+men.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And,&#8221; says he, &#8220;I appeal to the first and most natural feelings of
+mankind, whether, on beholding a beautiful eye, or a well-fashioned mouth,
+or a well-turned leg, any ideas of their being well fitted for seeing,
+eating, or running, ever present themselves.&#8221;&mdash;Is running, then, the
+proper use of the leg in woman! Rousseau more truly thought its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> use was
+to <i>fail</i> in running, or <i>not</i> to run! Is eating the only use of her
+mouth! This, too from the man who deplored that &#8220;the age of chivalry was
+gone!&#8221;&mdash;Nevertheless, I will venture to assert that such things never were
+and never will be seen, without suggesting ideas of fitness of some kind
+or other.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There is,&#8221; he proceeds, &#8220;another notion current, pretty closely allied to
+the former; that perfection is the constituent cause of beauty. This
+opinion has been made to extend much farther than to sensible objects. But
+in these, so far is perfection, considered as such, from being the cause
+of beauty, that this quality, where it is highest in the female sex,
+almost always carries with it an idea of weakness and imperfection.&#8221;&mdash;For
+this plain reason, that female perfection is utterly incompatible with
+great muscular perfection or strength, which would indeed be injurious to
+the performance of every feminine function.</p>
+
+<p>We may now advance another step in the subject under discussion. What,
+then, are the peculiar physical characters of beings thus possessing sense
+and motion, and thus characterized by fitness?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It must be remembered,&#8221; says Knight, &#8220;that irregularity is the general
+characteristic of trees, and regularity that of animals.&#8221;&mdash;It would have
+been more correct to say that symmetry is this peculiar characteristic.
+There is little resemblance between the parts of one side; and it is
+symmetry which results from the uniform disposition of double parts, and
+from the regular division of single ones.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>Hence an agreeable impression is produced by the corresponding disposition
+and the exact resemblance of the eyes, of the eyebrows, of the ears, of
+the hemispheres of the bosom, and of the different parts of which the
+limbs are composed; and the forehead, the nose, the mouth, the abdomen,
+the back, are agreeably distinguished by means of the median line which
+divides them.</p>
+
+<p>It appears that the eye is pleased by the exactness of corresponding
+parts; and that symmetry is the first character of beauty in thinking
+beings.</p>
+
+<p>Occasional irregularity makes us better appreciate the importance of
+symmetry. The oblique direction of the eyes, squinting, twisting of the
+nose or lips, unequal magnitude of the hemispheres of the bosom, or
+unequal length of the limbs, disfigure the most beautiful person.</p>
+
+<p>But how does symmetry contribute to fitness, or why is it necessary?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;All our limbs and organs,&#8221; says Payne Knight, &#8220;serve us in pairs, and by
+mutual co-operation with each other: whence the habitual association of
+ideas has taught us to consider this uniformity as indispensable to the
+beauty and perfection of the animal form. There is no reason to be deduced
+from any abstract consideration of the nature of things, why an animal
+should be more ugly and disgusting for having only one eye, or one ear,
+than for having only one nose or one mouth; yet if we were to meet with a
+beast with one eye, or two noses, or two mouths, in any part of the world,
+we should, without inquiry, decide it to be a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>monster, and turn from it
+with abhorrence: neither is there any reason, in the nature of things, why
+a strict parity, or relative equality, in the correspondent limbs and
+features of a man or a horse, should be absolutely essential to beauty,
+and absolutely destructive of it in the roots and branches of a tree. But,
+nevertheless, the Creator having formed the one regular, and the other
+irregular, we habitually associate ideas of regularity to the perfection
+of one, and ideas of irregularity to the perfection of the other; and this
+habit has been so unvaried, as to have become natural.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This is the common cant of every weak man at loss for a reason. Now, it is
+not by any &#8220;habitual association&#8221; with &#8220;our limbs and organs serving us in
+pairs,&#8221; that we are &#8220;taught to consider this uniformity indispensable to
+beauty,&#8221; but because, independent of all association, we could not
+conveniently walk upon one leg, or, indeed, on any unequal number of legs:
+and there being two sides in the moving organs, there are necessarily two
+in the sensitive organs, which are mere portions of the same general
+system. Thus it is locomotion to be performed that renders &#8220;a strict
+parity, or relative equality, in the correspondent limbs and features of a
+man or a horse&#8221; absolutely essential to beauty; and it is the absence of
+locomotion which renders it utterly worthless, and therefore very rare, in
+&#8220;the roots and branches of a tree.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In animals, proportion is not less essential than symmetry. It is indeed
+the second character of this kind of beauty. As this part of the subject<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+has been perfectly well treated by Mr. Alison, I need only quote what he
+has said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is this expression of fitness which is, I apprehend, the source of the
+beauty of what is strictly and properly called proportion in the parts of
+the human form.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We expect a different form, and a different conformation of limbs, in a
+running footman and a waterman, in a wrestler and a racing groom, in a
+shepherd and a sailor, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;They who are conversant in the productions of the fine arts, must have
+equally observed, that the forms and proportions of features, which the
+sculptor and the painter have given to their works, are very different,
+according to the nature of the character they represent, and the emotion
+they wish to excite. The form or proportions of the features of Jove are
+different from those of Hercules; those of Apollo, from those of Ganymede;
+those of the Fawn, from those of the Gladiator. In female beauty, the form
+and proportions in the features of Juno are very different from those of
+Venus; those of Minerva, from those of Diana; those of Niobe, from those
+of the Graces. All, however, are beautiful; because all are adapted with
+exquisite taste to the characters they wish the countenance to express.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In &#8220;the Hercules and the Antinous, the Jupiter and the Apollo, we find
+that not only the proportions of the form, but those of every limb, are
+different; and that the pleasure we feel in these proportions arises from
+their exquisite fitness for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> the physical ends which the artists were
+consulting.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The illustration, however, may be made still more precise; for, even in
+the same countenance, and in the same hour, the same form of feature may
+be beautiful or otherwise.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>SECTION IV.<br />
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY AS EMPLOYED IN OBJECTS OF ART.</h3>
+
+<p>I divide the arts into the useful, the ornamental, and the intellectual,
+commonly called the fine arts; and I shall endeavor to show, that the
+objects of each of these are characterized by a peculiar kind of beauty,
+corresponding to one of those already described.</p>
+
+<p>I shall endeavor to show that the objects of the useful arts are
+characterized by the simple geometrical forms which belong to inanimate
+beings; that those of the ornamental arts are characterized by the
+delicate, bending, varied, and contrasted forms of living beings; and that
+those of the intellectual arts are, in their highest efforts,
+characterized chiefly by thinking forms, as in gesture, sculpture,
+painting, or by functions of mind actually exercised, in oratory, poetry,
+music.</p>
+
+<p>In all these arts, purpose is implied&mdash;not purpose in the hypothetical
+sense, as applied to the existence, conditions, and objects, of natural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>beings&mdash;but in the common intelligible sense of the word, as expressing
+the intention of men in the pursuit of these arts.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Beauty of Useful Objects.</i></p>
+
+<p>Here the purpose being utility, this kind of beauty arises from the
+perception of means as adapted to an end, which of course implies, the
+parts of anything being fitted to answer the purpose of the whole.</p>
+
+<p>This implies an act of understanding and judgment; for of no product of
+useful art can we perceive the extrinsic beauty, until we know its
+destination, and the relations which that involves.</p>
+
+<p>When these are known, so powerful is the sense of utility, that, though
+deviation from the elementary beauty never ceases to be felt, yet that
+sense sanctions it to a great extent. Hence it is that an irregular
+dwelling-house may become beautiful, when its convenience is striking.
+Hence it is that, in the forms of furniture, machines, and instruments,
+their beauty arises chiefly from this consideration; and that every form
+becomes beautiful by association, where it is perfectly adapted to its
+end.</p>
+
+<p>The greater, however, the elementary beauty, that can be introduced in
+useful objects, the more obvious will their utility be, and the more
+beautiful will they universally appear. This will be granted the moment I
+mention simplicity.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the elements of beauty already spoken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> of&mdash;of all the means of
+producing accordant and agreeable relations&mdash;simplicity appears to be the
+most efficient; and in all the useful arts, no elementary consideration
+recommends their objects so much.</p>
+
+<p>This implies all the rest, regularity, uniformity, proportion, order, &amp;c.,
+as far as is compatible with purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in regard to uniformity, says some one, a number of things destined
+for the same purpose, as chairs, spoons, &amp;c., cannot be too uniform,
+because they are adapted to uniform purposes; but it would be absurd to
+give to objects destined for one purpose the form suited to those destined
+for another.</p>
+
+<p>So also the objects of useful art will resemble in form precisely as they
+resemble in purpose; and where the purpose is similar, and the deviation
+which is admissible is slight, this becomes a subject of great nicety,
+and, if ornament be at the same time admissible, a subject of exquisite
+taste.</p>
+
+<p>It was by the transcendent exercise of these qualities, that the Greeks
+succeeded in fixing the orders of architecture. The most beautiful columns
+would have shocked the sight, if their mass had not corresponded to that
+of the edifice which they sustained; and the difference which existed in
+this respect, required a difference of ornament.</p>
+
+<p>Home indeed observes, that &#8220;writers on architecture insist much upon the
+proportions of a column, and assign different proportions to the Doric,
+Ionic, and Corinthian; but no architect will <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>maintain, that the most
+accurate proportions contribute more to use, than several that are less
+accurate and less agreeable.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>That such a man should have committed such an error is surprising. It
+seems evident that the different proportion in the columns of these orders
+is admirably suited to the different quantity of matter in their
+entablatures. A greater superincumbent mass, required shorter and thicker
+columns; a less superincumbent mass, longer and slender ones. Many
+experiments, much observation, were requisite to determine this; but the
+Greeks had the means of making them, and solved every problem on the
+subject; and the result of the perfection they attained is, that all err
+who depart from the truth they have determined.</p>
+
+<p>It was, again, the differing quantities of matter in the entablatures, and
+the accurately-corresponding dimensions of the columns that determined, of
+course amid infinite experiment and observation, the nature of their
+ornaments. Hence, the Doric is distinguished by simplicity; the Ionic by
+elegance; and the Corinthian by lightness, in ornament as well as in
+proportion.</p>
+
+<p>Even, therefore, if we were to destroy all the associations of elegance,
+of magnificence, of costliness, and, still more than all, of antiquity,
+which are so strongly connected with such forms, the pleasure which their
+proportions would afford, would remain, as in all cases where means are
+best adapted to their end.</p>
+
+<p>In his objections to proportion as an element of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> beauty, Burke only
+confounds this kind of beauty with that which I have next to describe.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The effects of proportion and fitness,&#8221; he says, &#8220;at least so far as they
+proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produce approbation,
+the acquiescence of the understanding, but not love, nor any passion of
+that species. When we examine the structure of a watch, when we come to
+know thoroughly the use of every part of it, satisfied as we are with the
+fitness of the whole, we are far enough from perceiving anything like
+beauty in the watchwork itself; but let us look on the case, the labor of
+some curious artist in engraving, with little or no idea of use, we shall
+have a much livelier idea of beauty than we ever could have had from the
+watch itself, though the masterpiece of Graham.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is an emotion of pleasure which is the inevitable result of the
+perception of beauty, not love, nor any passion of the kind. These will or
+will not follow, according to the nature of the object, and of the mind of
+the observer. A hill, a valley, or a rivulet, may be beautiful, and it
+will excite an emotion of pleasure when its beauty is discerned; but it
+may produce no desire or passion of love. There may exist, then, the
+beauty of utility, as to the structure of the watch, and that of ornament
+as to its case; and some minds will more readily perceive the one; others,
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>When Burke adds, &#8220;In beauty, the effect is previous to any knowledge of
+the use; but to judge of proportion, we must know the end for which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> any
+work is designed;&#8221; he forgets, that, in the instance of the barber&#8217;s
+block, &amp;c., he showed that the perception of beauty, as well as
+proportion, required observation, experience, and reflection.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Beauty of Ornamental Objects.</i></p>
+
+<p>There are three great arts which, under circumstances of high
+civilization, become ornamental, namely, landscape-gardening,
+architecture, and dress&mdash;the particular arts by which our persons are more
+or less closely invested;<small><a name="f14.1" id="f14.1" href="#f14">[14]</a></small> and all of them, then, require beauty of the
+second kind, that which belongs particularly to vegetable beings, and is
+characterized by delicate, bending varied, and contrasted forms.</p>
+
+<p>All these, regarded as ornamental arts, have chiefly bodily and sensual
+pleasures for their purpose; and this I consider as distinguishing them
+from the intellectual arts, which have a higher purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Of landscape-gardening, the materials are plants, and therefore its beauty
+is evidently dependant on, or rather composed of, theirs.</p>
+
+<p>The same kind of beauty will be found in every ornamental art. Hence,
+Alison says: &#8220;The greater part of beautiful forms in nature, are to be
+found in the vegetable kingdom, in the forms of flowers, of foliage, of
+shrubs, and in those assumed by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> young shoots of trees. It is from
+them, accordingly, that almost all those forms have been imitated, which
+have been employed by artists for the purposes of ornament and elegance.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>On this kind of beauty, mistaking it for the only one, Hogarth founded his
+peculiar doctrine. &#8220;He adopts two lines, on which, according to him, the
+beauty of figure principally depends. One is the waving line, or a curve
+bending gently in opposite directions. This he calls the line of beauty;
+and he shows how often it is found in flowers, shells, and various works
+of nature; while it is common also in the figures designed by painters and
+sculptors, for the purpose of decoration. The other line, which he calls
+the line of grace, is the former waving line, twisted round some solid
+body. Twisted pillars and twisted horns exhibit it. In all the instances
+which he mentions, variety plainly appears to be so important an element
+of this kind of beauty, that he states a portion of the truth, when he
+defines the art of drawing pleasing forms to be the art of varying well;
+for the curve line, so much the favorite of painters, derives much of its
+beauty from its perpetual bending and variation from the stiff regularity
+of the straight line.&#8221; It is evident, however, that in this, he mistakes
+one kind of beauty for all.</p>
+
+<p>Of architecture, considered as a fine art, much of the beauty depends on
+the imitation of vegetable forms. Employing materials which require the
+best characteristics of the first kind of beauty, it, in its choicest and
+ornamented parts, imitates both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> the rigid trunks, and the delicate and
+bending forms of plants. Its columns, tapering upward, are copied from the
+trunks of trees; and their decorations are suited with consummate art to
+their dimensions, and the weight they support. The simple Doric has little
+ornament; the elegant Ionic has more; the light Corinthian has most.</p>
+
+<p>On the subject of these finely-calculated ornaments, some observations
+have struck me, which I have not seen mentioned elsewhere. The Doric
+presents only columns, without any other ornament than that of which their
+mere form admits. The Ionic expresses increased lightness, by the
+interposition of its volute, as if the superincumbent weight had but
+gently pressed a soft solid into a scroll. The Corinthian expresses the
+utmost lightness, by forming its capitals of foliage, as if the weight
+above them could not crush even a leaf. The Composite expresses gayety, by
+adding flowers to the foliage. It is from imperfect views of this, that
+the meaning and effect of caryatides have been mistaken: instead of being
+oppressed by weight, they seem, when well employed, to have no weight to
+support.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly all internal architectural decorations, it is the delicate,
+bending, varied, and contrasted vegetable forms which are imitated.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There is scarce a room, in any house whatever,&#8221; says Hogarth, &#8220;where one
+does not see the waving line employed in some way or other. How inelegant
+would the shapes of all our moveables be without it? how very plain and
+unornamental the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> mouldings of cornices and chimney-pieces, without the
+variety introduced by the ogee member, which is entirely composed of
+waving lines.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The distinctions I have here made, are farther illustrated by the remarks
+of Alison, who says: &#8220;These ornaments being executed in a very hard and
+durable substance, are in fact only beautiful when they appear but as
+minute parts of the whole. The great constituent parts of every building
+require direct and angular lines, because in such parts we require the
+expression of stability and strength. It is only in the minute and
+delicate parts of the work, that any kind of ornament is attempted with
+propriety; and whenever ornaments exceed in size, in their quantity of
+matter, or in the prominence of their relief, that proportion which, in
+point of lightness or delicacy, we expect them to hold with respect to the
+whole of the building, the imitation of the most beautiful vegetable forms
+does not preserve them from the censure of clumsiness and deformity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In dress, considered as an ornamental art, and, as practised by the sex
+which chiefly studies it, the chief beauty depends on the adoption of
+winding forms in drapery, and of wreaths of flowers for the head, &amp;c.
+These are essential to the variety and contrast, as well as to the gayety
+which that sex desires.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Uniformity,&#8221; says Hogarth, &#8220;is chiefly complied with in dress, on account
+of fitness, and seems to be extended not much farther than dressing both
+arms alike, and having the shoes of the same color.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> For when any part of
+dress has not the excuse of fitness or propriety for its uniformity of
+parts, the ladies always call it formal.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>These irregular, varying, and somewhat complicated draperies excite that
+active curiosity, and those movements of imagination, to which skilful
+women never neglect to address themselves in modern costume.</p>
+
+<p>It is with the same feeling and intention, whether these be defined or
+not, that, in the head-dress, they seek for bending lines and
+circumvolutions, and that they combine variously the waves and the tresses
+of the hair.</p>
+
+<p>For the same reason, a feather or a flower is never placed precisely over
+the middle of the forehead; and if two are employed, great care is taken
+that their positions are dissimilar.</p>
+
+<p>It has sometimes struck me as remarkable, that precious stones are almost
+always arranged differently from flowers. While the latter are placed
+irregularly, and in waving lines, not only on the head, but the bosom, and
+the skirt of the dress, the former are in general regularly placed, either
+on the median line of the person, as the middle of the forehead and, in
+Eastern countries, of the nose, or symmetrically in similar pendants from
+each ear, and bracelets on the arms and wrists.</p>
+
+<p>The instinctive feeling which gives origin to this is, that flowers adorn
+the system of life and reproduction, and by their color and smell,
+associate with its emotions, which they also express and communicate to
+others&mdash;they, therefore, assume<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> the varied forms of that system; whereas,
+diamonds, attached generally to mental organs, or organs of sense, are
+significant of mental feelings, love of splendor, distinction, pride,
+&amp;c.&mdash;they, therefore, assume the symmetrical form of these organs. Hence,
+too, flowers are recommended to the young; diamonds are permitted only to
+the old.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Beauty of Intellectual Objects.</i></p>
+
+<p>I have already said, that the intellectual arts are, in their highest
+efforts, characterized chiefly by animal forms, as in gesture, sculpture,
+and painting, or by animal functions actually exercised, in oratory,
+poetry, and music.</p>
+
+<p>In the useful arts, the purpose is utility; in the ornamental arts, it is
+bodily or sensual pleasure; and in the intellectual arts, it is the
+pleasure of imagination.</p>
+
+<p>The first elements of beauty, however, are not forgotten in these arts. As
+simplicity is conspicuous in the works of nature, so is it a condition of
+beauty in all the operations of mind. In philosophy, general theorems
+become beautiful from this simplicity; and polished manners receive from
+it dignity and grace. The intellectual arts are especially dependant upon
+it: it has been a striking character of their most illustrious
+cultivators, and of their very highest efforts.</p>
+
+<p>How much the characters and accidents of elementary beauty influence
+intellectual art, has been well shown by Mr. Knight.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the higher class of landscapes,&#8221; he says,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> &#8220;whether in nature or in
+art, the mere sensual gratification of the eye is comparatively so small,
+as scarcely to be attended to: but yet, if there occur a single spot,
+either in the scene or the picture, offensively harsh and glaring&mdash;if the
+landscape-gardener, in the one, or the picture-cleaner, in the other, have
+exerted their unhappy talents of polishing, all the magic instantly
+vanishes, and the imagination avenges the injury offered to the sense. The
+glaring and unharmonious spot, being the most prominent and obtrusive,
+irresistibly attracts the attention, so as to interrupt the repose of the
+whole, and leaves the mind no place to rest upon.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is, in some respects,&#8221; he observes, &#8220;the same with the sense of
+hearing. The mere sensual gratification, arising from the melody of an
+actor&#8217;s voice, is a very small part, indeed, of the pleasure which we
+receive from the representation of a fine drama: but, nevertheless, if a
+single note of the voice be absolutely cracked and out of tune, so as to
+offend and disgust the ear, it will completely destroy the effect of the
+most skilful acting, and render all the sublimity and pathos of the finest
+tragedy ludicrous.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This, I may observe, is a concession of much that he elsewhere
+inconsistently contends for; for sensual beauty could never act thus
+powerfully, if it possessed not fundamental importance as an element even
+in the most complex beauty.</p>
+
+<p>That the second kind of beauty also enters into the acts or products of
+intellectual beauty, is sufficiently illustrated by the observation of
+Hogarth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> who on this subject observes, that all the common and necessary
+motions for the business of life are performed by men in straight or plain
+lines, while all the graceful and ornamental movements are made in waving
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>As Alison has given the best view of the history and character of beauty
+in the intellectual arts, as that indeed constitutes the most valuable
+portion of his work, I shall conclude this section by a greatly abridged
+view of these as nearly as possible in his own words.</p>
+
+<p>There is no production of taste, which has not many qualities of a very
+indifferent kind; and our sense of the beauty or sublimity of every object
+accordingly depends upon the quality or qualities of it which we consider.</p>
+
+<p>This, Mr. Alison might have observed, is in great measure dependant upon
+our will. We can generally, when we please, confine our consideration of
+it to the qualities that least excite pleasurable or painful emotion, and
+that can least interest the imagination.</p>
+
+<p>It is in consequence of this, that the exercise of criticism always
+destroys, for the time, our sensibility to the beauty of every
+composition, and that habits of this kind generally destroy the
+sensibility of taste.</p>
+
+<p>When, on the other hand, the emotions of sublimity or beauty are produced,
+it will be found that some affection is uniformly first excited by the
+presence of the object; and whether the general impression we receive is
+that of gayety, or tenderness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> or melancholy, or solemnity, or terror,
+&amp;c., we have never any difficulty of determining.</p>
+
+<p>But whatever may be the nature of that simple emotion which any object is
+fitted to excite, if it produce not a train of kindred thought in our
+minds, we are conscious only of that simple emotion.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases, on the contrary, we are conscious of a train of thought
+being immediately awakened in the imagination, analogous to the character
+of expression of the original object.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Thus, when we feel either the beauty or sublimity of natural scenery&mdash;the
+gay lustre of a morning in spring, or the mild radiance of a
+summer-evening&mdash;the savage majesty of a wintry storm, or the wild
+magnificence of the tempestuous ocean&mdash;we are conscious of a variety of
+images in our minds, very different from those which the objects
+themselves present to the eye. Trains of pleasing or of solemn thought
+arise spontaneously within our minds; our hearts swell with emotions, of
+which the objects before us seem to afford no adequate cause; and we are
+never so much satiated with delight, as when, in recalling our attention,
+we are unable (little able, perhaps, and less disposed) to trace either
+the progress or the connexion of those thoughts, which have passed with so
+much rapidity through our imagination.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The effect of the different arts of taste is similar. The landscapes of
+Claude Lorraine, the poetry of Milton, the music of the greatest masters,
+excite feeble emotions in our minds when our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> attention is confined to the
+qualities they present to our senses, or when it is to such qualities of
+their composition that we turn our regard. It is then only we feel the
+sublimity or beauty of their productions, when our imaginations are
+kindled by their power, when we lose ourselves amid the number of images
+that pass before our minds, and when we waken at last from this play of
+fancy, as from the charm of a romantic dream.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The degree in which the emotions of sublimity or beauty are felt, is in
+general proportioned to the prevalence of those relations of thought in
+the mind, upon which this exercise of imagination depends. The principal
+relation which seems to take place in those trains of thought that are
+produced by objects of taste, is that of resemblance; the relation, of all
+others the most loose and general, and which affords the greatest range of
+thought for our imagination to pursue. Wherever, accordingly, these
+emotions are felt, it will be found, not only that this is the relation
+which principally prevails among our ideas, but that the emotion itself is
+proportioned to the degree in which it prevails.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;What, for instance, is the impression we feel from the scenery of spring?
+The soft and gentle green with which the earth is spread, the feeble
+texture of the plants and flowers, the young of animals just entering into
+life, and the remains of winter yet lingering among the woods and
+hills&mdash;all conspire to infuse into our minds somewhat of that fearful
+tenderness with which infancy is usually beheld. With such a sentiment,
+how innumerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> are the ideas which present themselves to our
+imagination! ideas, it is apparent, by no means confined to the scene
+before our eyes, or to the possible desolation which may yet await its
+infant beauty, but which almost involuntarily extend themselves to
+analogies with the life of man, and bring before us all those images of
+hope or fear, which, according to our peculiar situations, have the
+dominion of our heart!&mdash;The beauty of autumn is accompanied with a similar
+exercise of thought.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Whatever increases this exercise or employment of imagination, increases
+also the emotion of beauty or sublimity.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This is very obviously the effect of all associations. There is no man
+who has not some interesting associations with particular scenes, or airs,
+or books, and who does not feel their beauty or sublimity enhanced to him
+by such connexions. The view of the house where one was born, of the
+school where one was educated, and where the gay years of infancy were
+passed, is indifferent to no man.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the case of those trains of thought, which are suggested by objects
+either of sublimity or beauty, it will be found, that they are in all
+cases composed of ideas capable of exciting some affection or emotion; and
+that not only the whole succession is accompanied with that peculiar
+emotion which we call the emotion of beauty or sublimity, but that every
+individual idea of such a succession is in itself productive of some
+simple emotion or other.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Thus the ideas suggested by the scenery of spring, are ideas productive
+of emotions of cheer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> fulness, of gladness, and of tenderness. The images
+suggested by the prospect of ruins, are images belonging to pity, to
+melancholy, and to admiration. The ideas, in the same manner, awakened by
+the view of the ocean in a storm, are ideas of power, of majesty, and of
+terror.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>To prevent circumlocution, such ideas may be termed ideas of emotion; and
+the effect which is produced upon the mind, by objects of taste, may be
+considered as consisting in the production of a regular or consistent
+train of ideas of emotion.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In those trains which are suggested by objects of sublimity or beauty,
+however slight the connexion between individual thoughts may be, it will
+be found, that there is always some general principle of connexion which
+pervades the whole, and gives them some certain definite character. They
+are either gay, or pathetic, or melancholy, or solemn, or awful, or
+elevating, &amp;c., according to the nature of the emotion which is first
+excited. Thus the prospect of a serene evening in summer, produces first
+an emotion of peacefulness and tranquillity, and then suggests a variety
+of images corresponding to this primary impression. The sight of a
+torrent, or of a storm, in the same manner, impresses us first with
+sentiments of awe or solemnity, or terror, and then awakens in our minds a
+series of conceptions allied to this peculiar emotion.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The intellectual, or fine arts are those whose objects are thus addressed
+to the imagination; and the pleasures they afford are described, by way of
+distinction, as the pleasures of the imagination.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center">SUMMARY OF THIS CHAPTER.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, by analysis, generalization, and systematization, of the materials
+which the best writers present, I have, in this chapter, endeavored to
+take new and larger views; and, by an examination of the elements of
+beauty, I have endeavored to fix its doctrines upon an immoveable basis.</p>
+
+<p>I have shown that there exist elements of beauty equally invariable in
+themselves, and in the kind of effect they produce upon the mind; that
+these elements are modified, varied, and complicated, as we advance from
+the most simple to the most complex class of natural beings, or of the
+arts which relate to these respectively; that the elements of beauty in
+inanimate beings, consist in the simplicity, regularity, uniformity,
+proportion, order, &amp;c., of those geometrical forms which are so intimately
+connected with mere existence; that the elements of beauty in living
+beings, consist in adding to the preceding the delicacy, bending, variety,
+contrast, &amp;c., which are connected with growth, and reproduction; that the
+elements of beauty in thinking beings, consist in adding to the preceding
+the symmetry, proportion,<small><a name="f15.1" id="f15.1" href="#f15">[15]</a></small> &amp;c., which are connected with fitness for
+sense, thought, and motion; that the elements of beauty in the objects of
+useful art, consist in the same simplicity, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>regularity, uniformity,
+proportion, order, of geometrical forms which belong to inanimate beings;
+that the elements of beauty in the objects of ornamental art consist in
+the same delicacy, bending, variety, contrast, which belong to living
+beings; and that the elements of beauty in the objects of intellectual art
+consist in thinking forms, in gesture, sculpture, and painting, or in
+functions of mind actually exercised, in oratory, poetry, and music.</p>
+
+<p>The elements of beauty have hitherto been confounded by many writers, as
+more or less applicable to objects of all kinds; and as this general and
+confused application was easily disproved as to many objects, uncertainty
+and doubt have been thrown over the whole. The remaining writers have
+consequently been led to adopt, as characters of beauty, only one or two
+of these elements, which were consequently capable of application only to
+one or two classes of its objects. Hence, no subject of human inquiry has
+hitherto been left in a more disgraceful condition than this, the very
+foundation of taste.</p>
+
+<p>I do not hesitate to state that, owing to the near approximations to
+truth, and the insensible transitions into error, which I have found in
+every writer, and the immense mass of confused materials which they
+present, this subject has cost me more trouble than any one I have ever
+investigated, except that of my work on the mind;<small><a name="f16.1" id="f16.1" href="#f16">[16]</a></small> nor without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> some
+physiological knowledge, do I think tasks of this kind at all practicable.
+Generally speaking, each branch of knowledge is most surely advanced by
+acquaintance with its related branches; and philosophers cannot too much
+bear in mind the words of Cicero: &#8220;Etenim omnes artes qu&aelig; ad humanitatem
+pertinent, habent quoddam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione quadam
+inter se continentur.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX TO THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>SECTION I.<br />
+NATURE OF THE PICTURESQUE.<span class="foot"><a name="f17.1" id="f17.1" href="#f17">[17]</a></span></h3>
+
+<p>In landscape, the nature of the beautiful and the sublime seems to be
+better understood than that of the picturesque. There are few disputes as
+to the former; many as to the latter. These disputes, moreover, are not as
+to <i>what is picturesque</i>, but as to <i>what picturesque is</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Payne Knight asserts, that the picturesque has no distinctive character,
+and merely designates what a painter would imitate. Price, on the
+contrary, has given so many admirable illustrations of it, that its
+characteristics are before every reader. Strange to tell, its nature or
+essence has not been penetrated, because these characteristics have not
+been rigidly analyzed.</p>
+
+<p>Price has, indeed, generalized considerably on this subject, by showing
+that irregularity, roughness, &amp;c., enter into all scenes of a picturesque<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+description; and the examination of any one of them will certainly verify
+the truth of his observation.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, on a remote country-road, we often observe the deep ruts on its
+surface which in winter would render it impassable&mdash;the huge and loose
+moss-grown stone, ready to encumber it by falling from the bank&mdash;the
+stunted pollard by its side, whose roots are exposed by the earth falling
+away from it, and which must itself be swept away by the first wind that
+may blow against it in an unfavorable direction&mdash;the almost ruined
+cottage, above and beyond these, whose gable is propped up by an old and
+broken wheel, and whose thatched roof, stained with every hue of moss or
+lichen, has, at one part, long fallen in&mdash;the shaggy and ragged horse that
+browses among the rank weeds around it&mdash;and the old man, bent with age,
+who leans over the broken gate in front of it.</p>
+
+<p>Here, in every circumstance, is verified the irregularity and roughness
+which Price ascribes to the picturesque. But he has failed to observe,
+that <i>the irregularity and roughness are but the signs of that which
+interests the mind far more deeply</i>, namely, the universal <span class="smcaplc">DECAY</span> which
+causes them. This is the essence of the picturesque&mdash;the charm in it which
+begets our sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>Confining his remark merely to ruins, the author of &#8220;Observations on
+Gardening,&#8221; says: &#8220;At the sight of a ruin, reflections on the change, the
+decay, and the desolation, before us naturally occur; and they introduce a
+long succession of others, all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> tinctured with that melancholy which these
+have inspired; or if the monument revive the memory of former times, we do
+not stop at the simple fact which it records, but recollect many more
+coeval circumstances which we see, nor perhaps as they were, but as they
+are come down to us, venerable with age, and magnified by fame.&#8221;&mdash;What is
+here said of ruins, and is indeed as to them sufficiently striking, is
+true of the picturesque universally, and it is only surprising that, amid
+such disputes, this simple and obvious truth should not have been
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>In landscape, therefore, the picturesque stands in the same relation to
+the beautiful and sublime, that the pathetic does to them in poetry.
+Hence, speaking also of ruins only, Alison says: &#8220;The images suggested by
+the prospect of ruins, are images belonging to pity, to melancholy, and to
+admiration.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A thousand illustrations might be given in support of this truth and the
+principle which it affords; but I think it better to leave these to the
+suggestion or the choice of every reader.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>SECTION II.<br />
+CAUSE OF LAUGHTER.</h3>
+
+<p>This has been partly explained by Beattie, partly by Hobbes; and it is
+chiefly to vindicate the latter, who knew much more of the human mind than
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> people who have attacked him, that I write the pages immediately
+following.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of the quality in things, which makes them provoke the pleasing
+emotion or sentiment of which laughter is the external sign, Beattie says:
+&#8220;It is an uncommon mixture of relation and contrariety, exhibited, or
+supposed to be united, in the same assemblage.&#8221; And elsewhere he says:
+&#8220;Laughter arises from the view of two or more inconsistent, unsuitable, or
+incongruous parts or circumstances, considered as united in one complex
+object or assemblage, or as acquiring a sort of mutual relation from the
+peculiar manner in which the mind takes notice of them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The latter may arise from contiguity, from the relation of cause and
+effect, from unexpected likeness, from dignity and meanness, from
+absurdity, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Thus, at first view, the dawn of the morning and a boiled lobster seem
+utterly incongruous, but when a change of color from black to red is
+suggested, we recognise a likeness, and consequently a relation, or ground
+of comparison.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And here let it be observed, that the greater the number of incongruities
+that are blended in the same assemblage, the more ludicrous it will
+probably be. If, as in the last example, there be an opposition of dignity
+and meanness, as well as of likeness and dissimilitude, the effect of the
+contrast will be more powerful, than if only one of these oppositions had
+appeared in the ludicrous idea.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>The first part of the subject seems, indeed, so clear as to admit of no
+objection.</p>
+
+<p>Hobbes, viewing more particularly the act of the mind, defines laughter to
+be a &#8220;sudden glory, arising from a sudden conception of some eminency in
+ourselves, by comparison with the infirmity of others, or with our own
+formerly.&#8221; And elsewhere he says: &#8220;Men laugh at jests, the wit whereof
+always consisteth in the elegant discovering and conveying to our minds,
+some absurdity of another.&#8221;<small><a name="f18.1" id="f18.1" href="#f18">[18]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Campbell objects that &#8220;contempt may be raised in a very high degree,
+both suddenly and unexpectedly, without producing the least tendency to
+laugh.&#8221; But if there exist that incongruity in the same assemblage
+described as the fundamental cause of this sudden conception of our own
+superiority, laughter, as Beattie has shown, &#8220;will always, or for the most
+part, excite the risible emotion, unless when the perception of it is
+attended with some other emotion of greater authority,&#8221; dependant on
+custom, politeness, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Campbell also observes, that &#8220;laughter may be, and is daily, produced
+by the perception of incongruous associations, when there is no contempt.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We often smile at a witty performance or passage, such as Butler&#8217;s
+allusion to a boiled lobster, in his picture of the morning, when we are
+so far from conceiving any inferiority or turpitude in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> author, that
+we greatly admire his genius, and wish ourselves possessed of that very
+turn of fancy which produced the drollery in question.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Many have laughed at the queerness of the comparison in these lines,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8216;For rhyme the rudder is of verses,<br />
+With which like ships they steer their courses,&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>who never dreamed that there was any person or party, practice or opinion,
+derided in them.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;If any admirer of the Hobbesian philosophy should pretend to discover
+some class of men whom the poet here meant to ridicule, he ought to
+consider, that if any one hath been tickled with the passage to whom the
+same thought never occurred, that single instance would be sufficient to
+subvert the doctrine, as it would show that there may be laughter where
+there is no triumph or glorying over anybody, and, consequently, no
+conceit of one&#8217;s own superiority.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the class of men laughed at in both cases is the same, namely, poets,
+whose lofty allusions are ridiculed by the former, and silly rhymes by the
+latter; nor can any one duly appreciate or be pleased with either, to whom
+this intention of the writer is not obvious. Who ever dreamed of
+&#8220;turpitude in the author,&#8221; as Dr. Campbell supposes!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As to the wag,&#8221; says Beattie, &#8220;who amuses himself on the first of April
+with telling lies, he must be shallow, indeed, if he hope, by so doing, to
+acquire any superiority over another man whom he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> knows to be wiser and
+better than himself; for, on these occasions, the greatness of the joke,
+and the loudness of the laugh, are, if I rightly remember, in exact
+proportion to the sagacity of the person imposed on.&#8221;&mdash;No doubt; but it is
+because he is thrown into an apparent and whimsical, though momentary
+inferiority; and the greater his sagacity, the more amusing does this
+appear.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Do we not,&#8221; says he, &#8220;sometimes laugh at fortuitous combinations, in
+which, as no mental energy is concerned in producing them, there cannot be
+either fault or turpitude? Could not one imagine a set of people jumbled
+together by accident, so as to present a laughable group to those who know
+their characters?&#8221;&mdash;Undoubtedly; but then the slouch of one, and the
+rigidity of the other, &amp;c., make both contemptible, as to physical
+characteristics at least, and there is no need of turpitude in either.</p>
+
+<p>The strongest apparent objection, however, is that of Dr. Campbell, who
+says: &#8220;Indeed, men&#8217;s telling their own blunders, even blunders recently
+committed, and laughing at them, a thing not uncommon in very risible
+dispositions, is utterly inexplicable upon Hobbes&#8217;s system. For, to
+consider the thing only with regard to the laugher himself, there is to
+him no subject of glorying, that is not counterbalanced by an equal
+subject of humiliation (he being both the person laughing, and the person
+laughed at), and these two subjects must destroy one another.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But he overlooks the precise terms employed by Hobbes, who says: &#8220;The
+passion of laughter is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> nothing else but sudden glory, arising from a
+sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves, by comparison with the
+infirmity of others, or with <i>our own formerly</i>. For men laugh at <i>the
+follies of themselves past</i>, when they come suddenly to remembrance,
+<i>except they bring with them any present dishonor</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is not therefore true, as Dr. Campbell says, that &#8220;with regard to
+others, he appears solely under the notion of inferiority, as the person
+triumphed over.&#8221; He, on the contrary, appears as achieving a very glorious
+triumph, that, namely, over his own errors.</p>
+
+<p>This shows also the error of Addison&#8217;s remarks, that &#8220;according to this
+account, when we hear a man laugh excessively, instead of saying that he
+is very merry, we ought to tell him that he is very proud.&#8221;&mdash;A man may
+contemn the errors both of himself and others, without pride: and, indeed,
+in contemning the former, he proves himself to be far above that
+sentiment, and verifies Dr. Campbell&#8217;s remark that no two characters more
+rarely meet in the same person, than that of a very risible man, and a
+very self-conceited supercilious man.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious to see a great man, like Hobbes, thus attacked by less ones,
+who do not even understand him.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+<h3>SECTION III.<br />CAUSE OF THE PLEASURE RECEIVED FROM REPRESENTATIONS EXCITING PITY.</h3>
+
+<p>Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain this cause.</p>
+
+<p>According to the Abb&eacute; Du Bos,<small><a name="f19.1" id="f19.1" href="#f19">[19]</a></small> in order to get rid of listlessness, the
+mind seeks for emotions; and the stronger these are the better. Hence, the
+passions which in themselves are the most distressing, are, for this
+purpose, preferable to the pleasant, because they most effectually relieve
+the mind from the less endurable languor which preys upon it during
+inaction.</p>
+
+<p>The sophistry of this explanation is evident. Pleasant passions, as Dr.
+Campbell has shown, ought in every respect to have the advantage, because,
+while they preserve the mind from this state of inaction, they convey a
+feeling which is agreeable. Nor is it true that the stronger the emotion
+is, so much the fitter for this purpose; for if we exceed a certain
+measure, instead of a sympathetic and delightful sorrow, we excite only
+horror and aversion. The most, therefore, that can be concluded from the
+Abb&eacute;&#8217;s premises, is, that it is useful to excite passion of some kind or
+other, but not that the distressing ones are the fittest.</p>
+
+<p>According to Fontenelle,<small><a name="f20.1" id="f20.1" href="#f20">[20]</a></small> theatrical representation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> has almost the
+effect of reality: but yet not altogether. We have still a certain idea of
+falsehood in the whole of what we see. We weep for the misfortunes of a
+hero to whom we are attached. In the same instant, we comfort ourselves by
+reflecting, that it is nothing but a fiction.</p>
+
+<p>The short answer to this is, that we are conscious of no such alternation
+as that here described.</p>
+
+<p>According to David Hume, whose hypothesis is a kind of supplement to the
+former two, that which &#8220;when the sorrow is not softened by fiction, raises
+a pleasure from the bosom of uneasiness, a pleasure which still retains
+all the features and outward symptoms of distress and sorrow, is that very
+eloquence with which the melancholy scene is represented.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In reply, Dr. Campbell has shown that the aggravating of all the
+circumstances of misery in the representation, cannot make it be
+contemplated with pleasure, but must be the most effectual method for
+making it give greater pain; that the detection of the speaker&#8217;s talents
+and address, which Hume&#8217;s hypothesis implies, is in direct opposition to
+the fundamental maxim, that &#8220;it is essential to the art to conceal the
+art;&#8221; and that the supposition that there are two distinct effects
+produced by the eloquence on the hearers, one the sentiment of beauty, or
+of the harmony of oratorical numbers, the other the passion which the
+speaker purposes to raise in their minds, and that when the first
+predominates, the mixture of the two effects becomes exceedingly pleasant,
+and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> reverse when the second is superior, is altogether imaginary.</p>
+
+<p>According to Hawkesworth,<small><a name="f21.1" id="f21.1" href="#f21">[21]</a></small> the compassion in question may be &#8220;resolved
+into that power of imagination, by which we apply the misfortunes of
+others to ourselves;&#8221; and we are said &#8220;to pity no longer than we fancy
+ourselves to suffer, and to be pleased only by reflecting that our
+sufferings are not real; thus indulging a dream of distress, from which we
+can awake whenever we please, to exult in our security, and enjoy the
+comparison of the fiction with the truth.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This hypothesis is evidently too gross to need reply.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Campbell has answered the preceding hypotheses at great length, and
+quite satisfactorily. I regret to say that his own is as worthless, as
+well as remarkably confused and unintelligible.</p>
+
+<p>To Burke, who wrote at a later period, it falls to my lot to reply at
+greater length.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;To examine this point concerning the effect of tragedy in a proper
+manner,&#8221; says that writer, &#8220;we must previously consider how we are
+affected by the feelings of our fellow-creatures in circumstances of real
+distress. I am convinced we have a degree of delight, and that no small
+one, in the real misfortunes and pains of others; for, let the affection
+be what it will in appearance, if it does not make us shun such objects,
+if on the contrary it induces us to approach them, if it makes us dwell
+upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> them, in this case I conceive we must have a delight or pleasure of
+some species or other in contemplating objects of this kind.... Our
+delight in cases of this kind is very greatly heightened, if the sufferer
+be some excellent person who sinks under an unworthy fortune.... The
+delight we have in such things hinders us from shunning scenes of misery;
+and the pains we feel, prompt us to relieve ourselves, in relieving those
+who suffer.... In imitated distress, the only difference is the pleasure
+resulting from the effects of imitation.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A more monstrous doctrine than this was never perhaps enunciated. A very
+little analysis will expose its fallacy.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to events of this kind, there are three very distinct
+cases&mdash;real occurrence, subsequent inspection or historical narration, and
+dramatic representation; in each, the affection of the mind is very
+different; and nearly all the errors on this subject seem to have occurred
+from confounding them. Burke has done this in the greatest degree.</p>
+
+<p>The real occurrence of unmerited suffering is beheld with no delight, but
+with unmixed pain, by every well-constituted mind. Hume,<small><a name="f22.1" id="f22.1" href="#f22">[22]</a></small> therefore,
+justly observes, that &#8220;the same object of distress, which pleases in a
+tragedy, were it really set before us, would give the most unfeigned
+uneasiness.&#8221; It is only by confounding this with the next case, of
+subsequent inspection or historical narration, that Burke gets into error
+here.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>&#8220;We do not,&#8221; says Burke, &#8220;sufficiently distinguish what we would by no
+means choose to do [or <i>to see done</i>&mdash;he should have added] from what we
+should be eager enough to see if it was once done. We delight in seeing
+things [<i>after they are done</i>&mdash;he should have added], which, so far from
+doing, our heartiest wishes would be to see redressed.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>That the additions I have made, more truly state the case, seems as
+evident, as it is, that they afford a very different conclusion from
+Burke&#8217;s, of our beholding unmerited suffering with delight. But he himself
+proves this by the very instance which he gives in illustration of his
+doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This noble capital,&#8221; he says, &#8220;the pride of England and of Europe, I
+believe <i>no man is so strangely wicked as to desire to see destroyed</i> by a
+conflagration or an earthquake, though he should be removed himself to the
+greatest distance from the danger. But <i>suppose such a fatal accident to
+have happened</i>, what numbers from all parts would crowd to behold the
+ruins, and among them many who would have been content never to have seen
+London in its glory!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Here the words which I have put in italics clearly show that I was right
+in the additions I suggested in his previous statement, and that he there
+confounded delight in seeing the infliction of unmerited suffering, with
+delight in seeing it after infliction, or of seeing it historically
+narrated; for, in this his illustration, it is the latter, and not the
+former, that he supposes&mdash;nay he now says &#8220;no man is so strangely wicked
+as to desire to see destroyed!&#8221; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>&amp;c. Indeed, it is quite plain that,
+supposing an attempt made to destroy London, so far would every one be
+from being delighted to see it done, that he would eagerly prevent it.
+There is here, therefore, on the part of this writer, only his common and
+characteristic confusion of ideas.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Choose a day,&#8221; he says, &#8220;on which to represent the most sublime and
+affecting tragedy we have; appoint the most favorite actors; spare no cost
+upon the scenes and decorations; unite the greatest efforts of poetry,
+painting, and music; and when you have collected your audience, just at
+the moment when their minds are erect with expectation, let it be reported
+that a state-criminal, of high rank, is on the point of being executed in
+the adjoining square; in a moment the emptiness of the theatre would
+demonstrate the comparative weakness of the imitative arts, and proclaim
+the triumph of the real sympathy.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This presents only another instance of want of discrimination. If the
+&#8220;state-criminal, of high rank,&#8221; were not a real criminal&mdash;if he were an
+unmerited sufferer, the place of execution, supposing his rescue
+impossible, would assuredly be fled from by every person of feeling and
+honor; as we read of in the public papers, lately, when a murder of that
+kind was perpetrating by some one of the base little jailor-princes of
+Germany. And we know that, in the case of legal perpetrations of that kind
+in England, even upon real criminals, none but the most degraded wretches
+go to witness such scenes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>In tragic representation, then, we know that the suffering is not real,
+else should we fly. There have, indeed, in such cases, been instances of a
+sort of momentary deception, but it is only children, and very simple
+people, utter strangers to theatrical amusements, who are apt to be so
+deceived; and as their case always excites the surprise and laughter of
+every one, it clearly proves that others are under no sort of deception.</p>
+
+<p>Even Burke, notwithstanding his want of discrimination, and his monstrous
+hypothesis, says: &#8220;Imitated distress is never so perfect, but we can
+perceive it is imitation, and on that principle are somewhat pleased with
+it.&#8221; And his case of desertion of the theatre, if it occur under any
+circumstances, illustrates this.</p>
+
+<p>Burke adds, indeed: &#8220;But then I imagine we shall be much <i>mistaken</i> if we
+attribute any considerable part of our satisfaction in tragedy to the
+consideration that tragedy is <i>a deceit</i>, and its representations <i>no
+realities</i>. [We seek no satisfaction of the kind: we know it to be a
+deceit throughout!] The nearer it approaches the reality, and the farther
+it removes us from all idea of fiction, the more perfect is its power.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The nearest possible <i>approach</i> to reality, is only necessary to the
+success of fiction, to the pleasure of imagination. He himself has said:
+&#8220;Imitated distress is never so perfect, but we can perceive it is
+imitation!&#8221; Again, therefore, here is only Burke&#8217;s characteristic
+confusion of ideas.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>My own doctrine on this subject is already obvious from the remarks made
+on others. <i>We never cease to know that tragic representation is a mere
+deception; our reason is never imposed upon; our imagination is alone
+engaged; we are perfectly conscious that it is so; and we have all the
+sensibility, fine feeling, and generosity of pity, as well as the
+satisfaction of being thereby raised wonderfully in our own esteem, at the
+small cost of three shillings!</i></p>
+
+<p>It is not a little curious, that this should not have been evident to
+those who have written so much about it. Dr. Campbell, alone, has
+approached it. &#8220;So great,&#8221; he says, &#8220;is the anomaly which sometimes
+displays itself in human characters, that it is not impossible to find
+persons who are quickly made to cry at seeing a tragedy, or reading a
+romance, which they know to be fictions, and yet are both inattentive and
+unfeeling in respect of the actual objects of compassion who live in their
+neighborhood, and are daily under their eye.... Men may be of a selfish,
+contracted, and even avaricious disposition, who are not what we should
+denominate hard-hearted, or unsusceptible of sympathetic feeling. Such
+will gladly enjoy the luxury of pity (as Hawkesworth terms it) when it
+nowise interferes with their more powerful passions; that is, when it
+comes unaccompanied with a demand upon their pockets.&#8221;&mdash;This should have
+led him to the simple truth, and should have prevented his framing the
+most confused, unintelligible, and worthless hypothesis upon this
+subject.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+<h3>ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES.</h3>
+
+<p>To any inquiry respecting the beauty of woman, the replies are, in
+general, various, inconsistent, or contradictory. The assertion might,
+therefore, appear to be true, that, even under the same climate, beauty is
+not always the same.</p>
+
+<p>Our vague perceptions, however, and our vague expressions respecting
+beauty, will be found to be, in a great measure, owing to the inaccuracy
+of our mode of examining it, and, in some measure, to the imperfect
+nomenclature which we possess for describing it.</p>
+
+<p>Beauty, and even true taste, respecting it, are always the same; but, in
+the first place, we observe beauty partially and imperfectly; and in the
+second place, our actual preferences are dependant on our particular
+wants, and will be found to differ only because these wants differ in
+every individual, and even in the same individual at different periods of
+life.</p>
+
+<p>The laws regulating beauty in woman, and taste respecting it in man, have
+not been attempted to be explained, except in the worthless work alluded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+to in the advertisement. Yet nothing perhaps is more universally
+interesting.</p>
+
+<p>As, in this view, the kinds of beauty demand the first and chief
+attention, the following illustrations are necessary:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>We observe a woman possessing one species of beauty:&mdash;Her face is
+generally oblong; her neck is rather long and tapering: her shoulders,
+without being angular, are sufficiently broad and definite; her bosom is
+of moderate dimensions; her waist, remarkable for fine proportion,
+resembles in some respects an inverted cone; her haunches are moderately
+expanded; her thighs, proportional; her arms, as well as her limbs, are
+rather long and tapering; her hands and feet are moderately small; her
+complexion is often rather dark; and her hair is frequently abundant,
+dark, and strong.&mdash;The whole figure is precise, striking, and brilliant.
+Yet, has she few or none of the qualities of the succeeding species.</p>
+
+<p>We observe, next, another species of beauty:&mdash;Her face is generally round;
+her eyes are generally of the softest azure; her neck is often rather
+short; her shoulders are softly rounded, and owe any breadth they may
+possess rather to the expanded chest, than to the size of the shoulders
+themselves; her bosom, in its luxuriance, seems laterally to protrude on
+the space occupied by the arms; her waist, though sufficiently marked, is,
+as it were, encroached on by the enbonpoint of all the contiguous parts;
+her haunches are greatly expanded; her thighs are large in proportion; but
+her limbs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> and arms, tapering and becoming delicate, terminate in feet and
+hands which, compared with the ample trunk, are peculiarly small; her
+complexion has the rose and lily so exquisitely blended, that we are
+surprised it should defy the usual operation of the elements; and she
+boasts a luxuriant profusion of soft and fine flaxen or auburn hair.&mdash;The
+whole figure is soft and voluptuous in the extreme. Yet has she not the
+almost measured proportions and the brilliant air of the preceding
+species; nor has she the qualities of the succeeding one.</p>
+
+<p>We observe, then, a beauty of a third species:&mdash;Her face is generally
+oval; her high and pale forehead announces the intellectuality of her
+character; her intensely expressive eye is full of sensibility; in her
+lower features, modesty and dignity are often united; she has not the
+expanded bosom, the general embonpoint, or the beautiful complexion, of
+the second species; and she boasts easy and graceful motion, rather than
+the elegant proportion of the first.&mdash;The whole figure is characterized by
+intellectuality and grace.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the three species of beauty of which all the rest are varieties.</p>
+
+<p>Now, as it is in general one only of these species which characterizes any
+one woman, and as each of these species is suited to the wants of, and is
+consequently agreeable to, a different individual, it is obvious why the
+common vague reports of the beauty of any woman are always so various,
+inconsistent, or contradictory.</p>
+
+<p>In the more accurate study of this subject, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> indispensable that the
+reader should understand the scientific principles on which the preceding
+brief analysis of female beauty, as reducible to three species, is
+founded.</p>
+
+<p>To attain this knowledge, and to acquire facility in the art of
+distinguishing and judging of beauty in woman, a little general knowledge
+of anatomy is absolutely essential. The writer begs, therefore, attention
+to the following sketch. It may not at first seem interesting to the
+general reader; but it is the sole basis of a scientific knowledge of
+female beauty; the study of it during one hour is sufficient to apprehend
+it in all its bearings; and it will obviate every future difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>In viewing the human organs in a general manner, a class of these organs
+at once obtrudes itself upon our notice, from its consisting of an
+apparatus of levers, from its performing motion from place to place or
+locomotion, and from these motions being of the most obvious kind.&mdash;A
+little more observation presents to us another class, which is
+distinguished from the preceding by its consisting of cylindrical tubes,
+by its transmitting and transmuting liquids, performing vascular action or
+nutrition, and by its motions being barely apparent.&mdash;Farther
+investigation discovers a third, which differs essentially from both
+these, in its consisting of nervous particles, in its transmitting
+impressions from external objects, performing nervous action or thought,
+and in that action being altogether invisible.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, each of these classes of organs is distinguished from another by the
+structure of its parts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> by the purposes which it serves, and by the
+greater or less obviousness of its motions.</p>
+
+<p>The first consists of levers; the second, of cylindrical tubes; and the
+third, of nervous particles. The first performs motion from place to place
+or locomotion; the second transmits and transmutes liquids, performing
+vascular action or nutrition; and the third transmits impressions from
+external objects, performing nervous action or thought. The motion of the
+first is extremely obvious; that of the second is barely apparent; and
+that of the third is altogether invisible.</p>
+
+<p>Not one of them can be confounded with another: for, considering their
+purposes only, it is evident that that which performs locomotion, neither
+transmits liquids nor sensations; that which transmits liquids, neither
+performs locomotion nor is the means of sensibility; and that which is the
+means of sensibility, neither performs locomotion nor transmits liquids.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the organs employed in locomotion are the bones, ligaments, and
+muscles; those employed in transmitting liquids or in nutrition, are the
+absorbent, circulating, and secreting vessels; and those employed about
+sensations or in thought, are the organs of sense, cerebrum, and cerebel,
+with the nerves which connect them.</p>
+
+<p>The first class of organs may, therefore, be termed locomotive, or (from
+their very obvious action) mechanical; the second, vascular or nutritive,
+or (as even vegetables, from their possessing vessels, have life) they may
+be termed vital; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> the third may be named nervous or thinking, or (as
+mind results from them) mental.</p>
+
+<p>The human body, then, consists of organs of three kinds. By the first
+kind, locomotive or mechanical action is effected; by the second,
+nutritive or vital action is maintained; and by the third, thinking or
+mental action is permitted.</p>
+
+<p>Anatomy is, therefore, divided into three parts, namely, that which
+considers the mechanical or locomotive organs; that which considers the
+nutritive or vital organs; and that which considers the thinking or mental
+organs.</p>
+
+<p>Under the mechanical or locomotive organs are classed, first, the bones or
+organs of support; second, the ligaments or organs of articulation; and
+third, the muscles or organs of motion.</p>
+
+<p>Under the nutritive or vital organs are classed, first, the absorbent
+vessels or organs of absorption; second, the bloodvessels, which derive
+their contents from the absorbed lymph, or organs of circulation; and
+third, the secreting vessels, which separate various matters from the
+blood, or organs of secretion.<small><a name="f23.1" id="f23.1" href="#f23">[23]</a></small></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>Under the thinking or mental organs are classed, first, the organs of
+sense, where impressions take place; second, the cerebrum or organ of
+thought, properly so called, where these excite ideas, emotions, and
+passions; and third, the cerebel or organ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> of volition, where acts of the
+will result from the last.<small><a name="f24.1" id="f24.1" href="#f24">[24]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>We may now more particularly notice the functions of these organs, which
+are the subject of physiology.</p>
+
+<p>In the locomotive functions, the bones at once give support, and form
+levers for motion; the ligaments form articulations, and afford the points
+of support; and the muscles are the moving powers. To the first, are owing
+all the symmetry and elegance of human form; to the second, its beautiful
+flexibility; and to the third, all the brilliance and grace of motion
+which fancy can inspire, or skill can execute.</p>
+
+<p>In the nutritive functions, the food, having passed into the mouth, is,
+after mastication, aided by mixture with the saliva, thrown back, by the
+tongue and contiguous parts, into the cavity behind, called fauces and
+pharynx; this contracting, presses it into the &oelig;sophagus or gullet;
+this also contracting, propels it into the stomach, which, after its due
+digestion aided by the gastric juice, similarly contracting, transmits
+whatever portion of it, now called chyme, is sufficiently comminuted to
+pass through its lower opening, the pylorus, into the intestines; these,
+at the commencement of which it receives the bile and pancreatic juice,
+similarly pressing it on all sides, urge forward its most solid part to
+the anus; while its liquid portion partly escapes from the pressure into
+the mouths of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>absorbents. The absorbents arising by minute openings
+from all the internal surfaces, and continuing a similar contractile
+motion, transmit it, now called chyle, by all their gradually-enlarging
+branches, and through their general trunk, the thoracic duct, where it is
+blended with the lymph brought from other parts, into the great veins
+contiguous to the heart, where it is mixed with the venous or returning
+and dark-colored blood, and whence it flows into the anterior side of that
+organ. The anterior side of the heart, forcibly repeating this
+contraction, propels it, commixed with the venous blood, into the lungs,
+which perform the office of respiration, and in some measure of
+sanguification; there, giving off carbonaceous matter, and assuming a
+vermilion hue and new vivifying properties, it flows back as arterial
+blood, into the posterior side of the heart. The posterior side of the
+heart, still similarly contracting, discharges it into the arteries;
+these, maintaining a like contraction, carry it over all the system; and a
+great portion of it, impregnated with carbon, and of a dark color, returns
+through the veins in order to undergo the same course. Much, however, of
+its gelatinous and fibrous parts is retained in the cells of the
+parenchyma, or cellular, vascular, and nervous substance forming the basis
+of the whole fabric, and constitutes nutrition, properly so called; while
+other portions of it become entangled in the peculiarly-formed labyrinths
+of the glands, and form secretion and excretion&mdash;the products of the
+former contributing to the exercise of other functions, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> those of the
+latter being rejected. As digestion precedes the first, so generation
+follows the last of these functions, and not only continues the same
+species of action, but propagates it widely to new existences in the
+manner just described.</p>
+
+<p>In the thinking functions, the organs of sense receive external
+impressions, which excite in them sensations; the cerebrum, having these
+transmitted to it, performs the more complicated functions of mental
+operation, whence result ideas, emotions, and passions; and the cerebel,
+being similarly influenced, performs the function of volition, or causes
+the acts of the will.</p>
+
+<p>It is not unusual to consider the body as being divided into the head, the
+trunk, and the extremities; but, in consequence of the hitherto universal
+neglect of the natural arrangement of the organs and functions into
+locomotive, nutritive, and thinking, the beauty and interest which may be
+attached to this division, have equally escaped the notice of anatomists.</p>
+
+<p>It is a curious fact, and strongly confirmative of the preceding
+arrangements, that one of these parts, the extremities, consists almost
+entirely of locomotive organs, namely, of bones, ligaments, and muscles;
+that another, the trunk, consists of all the greater nutritive organs,
+namely, absorbents, bloodvessels, and glands; and that the third, the
+head, contains all the thinking organs, namely, the organs of sense,
+cerebrum, and cerebel.<small><a name="f25.1" id="f25.1" href="#f25">[25]</a></small></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>It is a fact not less curious, nor less confirmative of the preceding
+arrangements, that, of these parts, those which consist chiefly of
+locomotive or mechanical organs&mdash;organs which, as to mere structure, and
+considered apart from the influence of the nervous system over them, are
+common to us with the lowest class of beings, namely, minerals<small><a name="f26.1" id="f26.1" href="#f26">[26]</a></small>&mdash;are
+placed in the lowest situation, namely, the extremities; that which
+consists chiefly of nutritive or vital organs&mdash;organs common to us with a
+higher class of beings, namely, vegetables<small><a name="f27.1" id="f27.1" href="#f27">[27]</a></small>&mdash;is placed in a higher
+situation, namely, the trunk; and that which consists chiefly of thinking
+or mental organs&mdash;organs peculiar to the highest class of beings, namely,
+animals<small><a name="f28.1" id="f28.1" href="#f28">[28]</a></small>&mdash;is placed in the highest situation, namely, the head.</p>
+
+<p>It is not less remarkable, that this analogy is supported even in its
+minutest details; for, to choose the nutritive organs contained in the
+trunk as an illustration, it is a fact, that those of absorption and
+secretion, which are most common to us<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> with plants, a lower class of
+beings, have a lower situation&mdash;in the cavity of the abdomen; while those
+of circulation, which are very imperfect in plants,<small><a name="f29.1" id="f29.1" href="#f29">[29]</a></small> and more peculiar
+to animals, a higher class of beings, hold a higher situation&mdash;in the
+cavity of the thorax.</p>
+
+<p>It is, moreover, worthy of remark, and still illustrative of the preceding
+arrangements, that, in each of these three situations, the bones differ
+both in, position and in form. In the extremities, they are situated
+internally to the soft parts, and are generally of cylindrical form; in
+the trunk, they begin to assume a more external situation and a flatter
+form, because they protect nutritive and more important parts, which they
+do not, however, altogether cover; and, in the head, they obtain the most
+external situation and the flattest form, especially in its highest part,
+because they protect thinking and most important organs, which, in some
+parts, they completely invest.</p>
+
+<p>The loss of such general views is the consequence of arbitrary
+methods.<small><a name="f30.1" id="f30.1" href="#f30">[30]</a></small></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>We may now apply these anatomical and physiological views to the art of
+distinguishing and judging of beauty in woman.</p>
+
+<p>It is evidently the locomotive or mechanical system which is highly
+developed in the beauty whose figure is precise, striking, and brilliant.</p>
+
+<p>It is evidently the nutritive or vital system which is highly developed in
+the beauty whose figure is soft and voluptuous.</p>
+
+<p>It is not less evidently the thinking or mental system which is highly
+developed in the beauty whose figure is characterized by intellectuality
+and grace.</p>
+
+<p>Thus can anatomical principles alone at once illustrate and establish the
+accuracy of the three species of beauty which I have analytically
+described.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+<h3>OF THE AGES OF WOMAN IN RELATION TO BEAUTY.</h3>
+
+<p>The variations of the organization of woman do not distinctly mark the
+seasons of life. Many connected phenomena glide on imperceptibly; and we
+can distinguish the strong characters of different and distinct ages, only
+at periods remote from each other. Although, therefore, woman is
+perpetually changing, it requires some care to discriminate the principal
+epochs of her life.</p>
+
+<p>The first age of woman extends from birth to the period of puberty.</p>
+
+<p>In beginning the career of life, woman is not yet truly woman; the
+characters of her sex are not yet decided; she is an equivocal being, who
+does not differ from the male of the same age even by the delicacy of the
+organs; and we observe between them a perfect identity of wants,
+functions, and movements. Their existence is, then, purely individual; we
+perceive none of the relations which afterward establish between them a
+mutual dependance; each lives only for self.</p>
+
+<p>This conformity and independence of the sexes are the more remarkable, the
+earlier the age and the less advanced the development.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>Confining our view to woman alone, it is not only in dimensions that, at
+this age, her person differs from that in which the growth is terminated:
+it presents another model. The various parts have not, in relation to each
+other, the same proportions.</p>
+
+<p>The head is much more voluminous; and this is not a result of the extent
+of the face, for that is small and contracted, because the apparatus of
+smell and of mastication are not yet developed. Nor is the head only more
+voluminous; it is also more active, and forms a centre toward which is
+directed all the effort of life.</p>
+
+<p>The spine of the back has not either the minuter prominences or the
+general inflexions which favor the action of the extensor muscles, a
+circumstance which is opposed to standing perpendicularly during the first
+months. The infant consequently can only crawl like a quadruped.</p>
+
+<p>Little distinction can then be drawn, and that with difficulty, from the
+comparative width of the haunches, and magnitude of the pelvis. That part
+is scarcely more developed in the female than in the male; its general
+form is the same; and its different diameters have similar relations to
+each other.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the trunk is great in proportion to the limbs, which are
+slightly and imperfectly developed.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the great length of the chest, and the imperfection of the
+inferior members, the middle of the body then corresponds to the region of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> umbilicus. An infant having other proportions, would appear to be
+deprived of the characters of its age.</p>
+
+<p>In the locomotive system, the muscles have not yet acted with sufficient
+power and frequency to modify the direction of the bones, and to bestow a
+peculiar character upon their combination in the skeleton. The fleshy and
+other soft parts do not yet appear to differ from those of the male,
+either as to form or as to relative volume.</p>
+
+<p>The vital functions of digestion, of circulation and respiration, of
+nutrition, secretion, and excretion, are performed in the same manner. The
+want of nourishment is unceasingly renewed, and the movements of the
+pulse, and of inspiration and expiration, are rapidly performed, owing to
+the extreme irritability of all the organs.</p>
+
+<p>The mental functions present the same resemblance; the ideas, the
+appetites, the passions, have the greatest analogy; and similar moral
+dispositions prevail. Little girls, it has been observed, have in some
+measure the petulance of little boys, and these have in some measure the
+mobility and the inconstancy of little girls.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the pelvis not being yet developed, little girls walk nearly like
+children of the other sex.</p>
+
+<p>These points of resemblance do not continue during a long period: the
+female begins to acquire a distinct physiognomy, and traits which are
+peculiar to her, long before we can discern any of the symptoms of
+puberty; and although the especial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> marks which distinguish her sex do not
+yet show themselves, the general forms which characterize it may be
+perceived. These differences, however, are only slight modifications, more
+easily felt than determined.</p>
+
+<p>The cartilaginous extremities of the bones appear to enlarge; and the
+mucous substance, which ultimately gives the soft reliefs which
+distinguish woman, is not yet secreted. She is now perhaps more easily
+distinguished by the nature of her inclinations and the general character
+of her mind: while man now seeks to make use of his strength, woman
+endeavors to acquire agreeable arts. The movements, the gait, of the
+little girl begin to change.</p>
+
+<p>These shades are so much the more sensible as the development is more
+advanced. Still, woman, in advancing toward puberty, appears to remove
+less than man from her primitive constitution; she always preserves
+something of the character proper to children; and the texture of her
+organs never loses all its original softness.</p>
+
+<p>At the near approach to puberty, woman becomes daily more perfect.</p>
+
+<p>We observe a predominance of the action of the lungs and the arteries; the
+pelvis enlarges; the haunches are rounded; and the figure acquires
+elegance.</p>
+
+<p>There is in particular a remarkable increase of the capacity of the
+pelvis, of which the circumference at last presents the circular form; it
+being no longer, as in the little girl and in man, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>anteroposterior
+diameter which is the greatest, but the transverse one. It has been
+observed that the same occurs in the females of the greater quadrupeds.
+The pelvis, however, does not acquire, till the moment of perfect puberty,
+its proper form and dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>The changes which the same cause produces at the surface, are a general
+development of the cellular tissue, the delicacy of all the outlines, the
+fineness and the animation of the skin, and the new state of the bosom.</p>
+
+<p>The fire of the eyes, and the altogether new expression of the
+physiognomy, show that there now also exists the sensation of a new want,
+which various circumstances may for a time enfeeble or silence, but can
+never entirely stifle; and with it come those tastes, that direction of
+the mind, and those habits, which are the effect of an internal power now
+called into activity.</p>
+
+<p>The gait and bearing of woman are now no longer the same; and the voice
+changes as well as the physiognomy.</p>
+
+<p>In all that has yet occurred, it will be observed that nutrition and
+growth take place with great rapidity in woman. Her internal structure,
+her external form, her faculties, are all developed promptly. It would
+appear that the parts which compose her body, being less, less compact,
+and less strong, than those of man, require less time to attain their
+complete development.</p>
+
+<p>Woman consequently arrives earlier at the age of puberty, and her body is
+commonly, at twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> years of age, as completely formed as that of a man
+at thirty. Thus beauty and grace, as has been observed, seem to demand of
+nature less labor and time than the attributes of force and grandeur.</p>
+
+<p>In many women, however, nutrition languishes even until the sexual organs
+enter into action, and determine a revolution under the influence of which
+growth is accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>Still it is certain that, for several years, the locomotive system
+predominates in young women, even in figures promising the ultimate
+development of the vital system in the highest degree.</p>
+
+<p>The second age of woman extends from puberty to the cessation of the
+menses, or, we may say, from the period of full growth, the general time
+of bearing children, to the time of ceasing to bear&mdash;generally perhaps
+from twenty to forty.</p>
+
+<p>It is at the beginning of this period that woman has acquired all her
+attributes, her most seducing graces. She is not now distinguished merely
+by the organs which are the direct instruments of reproduction: many other
+differences of structure, having a relation to her part in life, present
+themselves to our view.</p>
+
+<p>At this maturer age, the whole figure is, in the female, smaller and
+slenderer than in the male. The ancients accordingly gave seven heads and
+a half to the Venus, and eight heads and some modules to the Apollo.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between the dimensions of the different parts differ also in
+the two sexes.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the head, shoulders, and chest, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> small and compact, while
+the haunches, the hips, the thighs, and the parts connected with the
+abdomen, are ample and large. Hence, her body tapers upward, as her limbs
+taper downward. And this is the most remarkable circumstance in her
+general form.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to smaller stature, and to greater size of the abdominal region, the
+middle point, which is at the pubis in the male, is situated higher in the
+female. This is the next remarkable circumstance in a general view.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior members still continue shorter.</p>
+
+<p>In general, woman is not only less in stature, and different in her
+general proportions, but her haunches are more apart, her hips more
+elevated, her abdomen larger, her members more rounded, her soft parts
+less compact, her forms more softened, her traits finer.</p>
+
+<p>During youth, especially, and among civilized nations, woman is farther
+distinguished by the softness, the smoothness, the delicacy, and the
+polish, of all the forms, by the gradual and easy transitions between all
+the parts, by the number and the harmony of the undulating lines which
+these present in every view, by the beautiful outline of the reliefs, and
+by the fineness and the animation of the skin.</p>
+
+<p>The soft parts which enter into the composition of woman, and the cellular
+tissue which serves to unite them, are also more delicate and more supple
+than those of man.</p>
+
+<p>All these circumstances indicate very clearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> the passive state to which
+nature has destined woman, and which will be fully illustrated in a future
+volume.</p>
+
+<p>If, in a living body, any part liable to be distended had too much
+firmness, or even elasticity, it might press against some essential organ;
+and the liquids being impeded in their course, would in that case be
+speedily altered, if the neighboring parts offered not flexible vessels
+for their reception.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in the body of woman, certain parts are exposed to suffer great
+distentions and compressions. It is therefore necessary that her organs
+should be of such structure as to yield readily to these impressions, and
+to supply each other when their respective functions are impeded.</p>
+
+<p>From this it follows, that woman never enjoys existence better, than when
+a moderate plumpness bestows on her organs, without too much weakening
+them, all the suppleness of which they are capable.</p>
+
+<p>This leads to the consideration of the natural mobility of the organs of
+woman.</p>
+
+<p>Their mobility is a necessary consequence, in the first place, of their
+littleness. The movements of all animals, appear to be executed with more
+rapidity, the less their bulk. It has been observed, that the arteries of
+the ox beat only thirty-five times, while those of the sheep beat sixty,
+and that the pulse of women is smaller and more rapid than that of men.</p>
+
+<p>A second physical quality, which concurs to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> render more mobile the
+various parts of woman, is their softness.</p>
+
+<p>A certain feebleness is the necessary consequence of these two
+circumstances. But it is thence that spring woman&#8217;s suppleness and
+lightness of movement, and her capacity for grace of attitude.</p>
+
+<p>It has been conjectured, that even the elements of the parts which
+constitute woman, have a particular organization, on which depends the
+elegance of the forms, the vivacity of the sensations, and the lightness
+of the movements, which characterize her.</p>
+
+<p>The result of these circumstances is that, while man possesses force and
+majesty, woman is distinguished by beauty and grace. The characteristics
+of woman are less imposing and more amiable; they inspire less admiration
+than love. As has been observed, a single trait of rudeness, a severe air,
+or even the character of majesty, would injure the effect of womanly
+beauty. Lucian admirably represents to us the god of love frightened at
+the masculine air of Minerva.</p>
+
+<p>While man, by force and activity, surmounts the obstacles which embarrass
+him, woman, by yielding, withdraws from their action, and adds to beauty,
+a gentle and winning grace which places all the vaunted power of man at
+her disposal.</p>
+
+<p>It is evidently the influence of the organs distinguishing the two sexes,
+which is the primary cause of their peculiar beauty.</p>
+
+<p>As the liquid which, in man, is secreted in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>certain vessels for the
+purpose of reproduction, communicates a general excitement and activity to
+the character, so when, in woman, the periodical excretion appears, the
+breasts expand, the eyes sparkle, the countenance becomes more expressive,
+but at the same time more timid and reserved, and a character of
+flexibility and grace distinguishes every motion.</p>
+
+<p>Conformably with this view, the appearance and the manners of eunuchs
+approach to those of women, by the softness and feebleness of their
+organization, as well as by their timidity, and by their acute voice.</p>
+
+<p>The very opposite is naturally the result of the extirpation of the
+ovaries in women. Pott, giving an account of the case of a female, in whom
+both the ovaries were extirpated, says, the person &#8220;has become thinner,
+and more apparently muscular; her breasts, which were large, are gone; nor
+has she ever menstruated since the operation, which is now some years.&#8221;
+Haighton found that, by dividing the Fallopian tubes, which connect the
+ovaries with the womb, sexual feelings were destroyed, and the ovaries
+gradually wasted.</p>
+
+<p>The women, also, in whom the uterus and the ovaries remain inert during
+life, approximate in forms and habits to men. It is stated, in the
+Philosophical Transactions for 1805, that an adult female, in whom the
+ovaries were defective, presented a corresponding defect in the state of
+the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>To the same general principle, it has been <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>observed, we must refer the
+partial growth of a beard on females in the decline of life, and the
+circumstance that female-birds, when they have ceased to lay eggs,
+occasionally assume the plumage, and, to a certain extent, the other
+characters of the male.</p>
+
+<p>Under the influence of this cause, the first exercise of her new faculty
+determines remarkable modifications in woman. Her neck swells and augments
+in size&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Non illam nutrix orienti luce revisens<br />
+Hesterno collum poterit circumdare filo;<small><a name="f31.1" id="f31.1" href="#f31">[31]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>her voice assumes another expression; her moral habits totally change: and
+many women owe to love and marriage more splendid beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The women thus happily constituted are not those of hot climates, but
+those of cooler regions and calmer temperament, whose placid features and
+more elastic forms announce a gentler and more passive love.</p>
+
+<p>Impassioned women, on the contrary, do not so long preserve their
+freshness: the expansive force,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> from which the organs derived their form
+and coloring, abates; and a less agreeable flaccidity succeeds to the
+elasticity with which they were endowed, if the plumpness which adult age
+commonly brings does not sustain them.</p>
+
+<p>During pregnancy and suckling, the firstmentioned class of women retain a
+remarkable freshness and plumpness.</p>
+
+<p>The lastmentioned class of women most frequently become meager, and lose
+their freshness during the continuance of these states.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, during these states, suitable precautions and preservative
+cares be not employed, it is the first class who most suffer from traces
+of maternity.</p>
+
+<p>Conception, pregnancy, delivery, and suckling, being renewed more or less
+frequently during the second age, hasten debility in feeble and
+ill-constituted women; especially if misery or an improper mode of life
+increase the influence of these causes.</p>
+
+<p>In the third age of woman, extending generally from forty to sixty, the
+physical form does not suddenly deteriorate; and, as has often been
+observed, &#8220;when premature infirmities or misfortunes, the exercise of an
+unfavorable profession, or a wrong employment of life, have not hastened
+old age, women during the third age preserve many of the charms of the
+preceding one.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>At this period, in well-constituted women, the fat, being absorbed with
+less activity, is accumulated in the cellular tissue under the skin and
+elsewhere; and this effaces any wrinkles which might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> have begun to furrow
+the skin, rounds the outlines anew, and again restores an air of youth and
+freshness. Hence, this period is called &#8220;the age of return.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This plumpness, though juvenile lightness and freshness be wanting,
+sustains the forms, and sometimes confers a majestic air, which, in women
+otherwise favorably organized, still interests for a number of years.</p>
+
+<p>The shape certainly is no longer so elegant; the articulations have less
+elasticity; the muscles are more feeble; the movements are less light; and
+in plump women we observe those broken motions, and in meager ones that
+stiffness, which mark the walk or the dance at that age.</p>
+
+<p>At this period occurs a remarkable alteration in the organs of voice.
+Women, therefore, to whom singing is a profession, ought to limit its
+exercise.</p>
+
+<p>When women pass happily from the third to the fourth age, their
+constitution, as every one must have observed, changes entirely; it
+becomes stronger: and nature abandons to individual life all the rest of
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>Beauty, however, is no more; form and shape have disappeared; the
+plumpness which supported the reliefs has abandoned them; the sinkings and
+wrinkles are multiplied; the skin has lost its polish; color and freshness
+have fled for ever.</p>
+
+<p>These injuries of time, it has been observed, commonly begin by the
+abdomen, which loses its polish and its firmness; the hemispheres of the
+bosom no longer sustain themselves; the clavicles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> project; the neck
+becomes meager; all the reliefs are effaced; all the forms are altered
+from roundness and softness to angularity and hardness.</p>
+
+<p>That which, amid these ruins, still survives for a long time, is the
+entireness of the hair, the placidity or the fineness of the look, the air
+of sentiment, the amiable expression of the countenance, and, in women of
+elegant mind and great accomplishments, caressing manners and charming
+graces, which almost make us forget youth and beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, and especially in muscular or nervous women, the temperament
+changes, and the constitution of woman approaches to that of man; the
+organs become rigid; and, in some unhappy cases, a beard protrudes.</p>
+
+<p>Old age and decrepitude finally succeed.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+<h3>OF THE CAUSES OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN.</h3>
+
+<p>The crossing of races is often spoken of as a means of perfecting the form
+of man, and of developing beauty; and we are told that it is in this
+manner that the Persians have become a beautiful people, and that many
+tribes of Tartar origin have been improved, especially the Turks, who now
+present to us scarcely anything of the Mongol.</p>
+
+<p>In these general and vague statements, however, the mere crossing of
+different races is always deemed sufficient; whereas, every improvement
+depends on the circumstance that the organization of the races subjected
+to this operation is duly suited to each other. It is in that way only,
+that we can explain the following facts stated by Moreau:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>In one of the great towns of the north of France, the women, half a
+century ago, were rather ugly than pretty; but a detachment of the guards
+being quartered there, and remaining during several years, the population
+changed in appearance, and, favored by this circumstance, the town is now
+indebted to strangers for the beauty of the most interesting portion of
+its inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The monks of Citeaux exercised an influence no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> less remarkable upon the
+beauty of the inhabitants of the country around their monastery; and it
+may be stated, as the result of actual observation, that the young
+female-peasants of their neighborhood were much more beautiful than those
+of other cantons. And, adds this writer, &#8220;there can be no doubt that the
+same effect occurred in the different places whither religious houses
+attracted foreign inmates, whom love and pleasure speedily united with the
+indigenous inhabitants!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The other circumstances which contribute to female beauty, are, a mild
+climate, a fertile soil, a generous but temperate diet, a regular mode of
+life, favorable education, the guidance and suppression of passions, easy
+manners, good moral, social, and political institutions, and occupations
+which do not injure the beautiful proportions of the body.</p>
+
+<p>Beauty, accordingly, is more especially to be found in certain countries.
+Thus, as has often been observed, the sanguine temperament is that of the
+nations of the north; the phlegmatic is that of cold and moist countries;
+and the bilious is that of the greater part of the inhabitants of southern
+regions. Each of these has its degree and modification of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The native country of beauty is not to be found either in regions where
+cold freezes up the living juices, or in those where the animal structure
+is withered by heat. A climate removed from the excessive influence of
+both these causes constitutes an essential condition in the production of
+beauty;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> and this, with its effect, we find between the 35th and 65th
+degree of northern latitude, in Persia, the countries bordering upon
+Caucasus, and principally Tchercassia, Georgia and Mongrelia, Turkey in
+Europe and Asia, Greece, Italy, some part of Spain, a very small part of
+France, England, Holland, some parts of Germany, Poland, Denmark, Sweden,
+and a part of Norway and even of Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Even under the same degree of latitude, it is observed that the position
+of the place, its elevation, its vicinity to the sea, the direction of the
+winds, the nature of the soil, and all the peculiarities of locality which
+constitute the climate proper to each place, occasion great differences in
+beauty.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to the causes of beauty, some observations which seem to be
+important, arise out of the remarks of de Pauw on the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>De Pauw endeavored to show, that, though the men of ancient Greece were
+handsome, the women of that country were never beautiful. He thence
+accounted for the excessive admiration which there prevailed of courtesans
+from Ionia, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, was so contrary to the notions formed of the beauty of that
+people from what was known of their taste, that it was considered as a
+paradox. Travellers, accordingly, sought for such beauty in the women of
+modern Greece. They were disappointed in not finding it.</p>
+
+<p>What rendered this the more remarkable was, that in various places they
+found the ancient and beautiful cast of countenance among the men, and not
+among the women of that country&mdash;thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> corroborating in all respects the
+doctrine of de Pauw.</p>
+
+<p>On considering that doctrine, however, and comparing it with more extended
+observations, it would seem to be only a particular application of a more
+general law unknown to de Pauw&mdash;that, in most countries, one of the sexes
+excels the other in beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in some parts of the highlands of Scotland, we find the men as
+remarkable for beauty as the women for ugliness; while, in some eastern
+counties of England, we find precisely the reverse. The strong features,
+the dark curled hair and the muscular form, of the highlander, are as
+unsuitable to the female sex, as the soft features, the flaxen hair, and
+the short and tapering limbs, of the woman of the eastern coast, are
+unsuitable to the male.</p>
+
+<p>If the soil, climate, and productions, of these countries be considered,
+we discover the causes of the differences alluded to. The hardships of
+mountain life are favorable to the stronger development of the locomotive
+system, which ought more or less to characterize the male; and the
+luxuriance of the plains is favorable to those developments of the
+nutritive system, which ought to characterize the female.</p>
+
+<p>This is illustrated even in inferior animals. Oxen become large-bodied and
+fat in low and rich soils, but are remarkable for shortness of legs;
+while, in higher and drier situations, the bulk of the body is less, and
+the limbs are stronger and more muscular.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>The quantity and quality of the aliments are another cause, not less
+powerful in regard to beauty. Abundance, or rather a proper mediocrity, as
+to nutritious food, contributes to perfection in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>Beauty is also, in some measure, a result of civilization. Women,
+accordingly, of consummate beauty, are found only in civilized nations.</p>
+
+<p>Professions can rarely be said to favor beauty; but they do not impede its
+development when their exercise does not compel to laborious employments
+an organization suited only to sedentary occupations.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+<h3>OF THE STANDARD OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN.</h3>
+
+<p>The ideas of the beautiful vary in different individuals, and in different
+nations. Hence, many men of talent have thought them altogether relative
+and arbitrary.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Ask,&#8221; says Voltaire, &#8220;a Negro of Guinea [what is beauty]: the beautiful
+is for him a black oily skin, deep-seated eyes, and a broad flat nose.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Perfect beauty,&#8221; says Payne Knight, &#8220;taking perfect in its most strict,
+and beauty in its most comprehensive signification, ought to be equally
+pleasing to all; but of this, instances are scarcely to be found: for, as
+to taking them, or, indeed, any examples for illustration, from the other
+sex of our own species, it is extremely fallacious; as there can be little
+doubt that all male animals think the females of their own species the
+most beautiful productions of nature. At least we know this to be the case
+among the different varieties of men, whose respective ideas of the beauty
+of their females are as widely different as those of man, and any other
+animal, can be. The sable Africans view with pity and contempt the marked
+deformity of the Europeans; whose mouths are compressed, their noses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+pinched, their cheeks shrunk, their hair rendered lank and flimsy, their
+bodies lengthened and emaciated, and their skins unnaturally bleached by
+shade and seclusion, and the baneful influence of a cold humid climate....
+Who shall decide which party is right, or which is wrong; or whether the
+black or white model be, according to the laws of nature, the most perfect
+specimen of a perfect woman?... The sexual desires of brutes are probably
+more strictly natural inclinations, and less changed or modified by the
+influence of acquired ideas, or social habits, than those of any race of
+mankind; but their desires seem, in general, to be excited by smell,
+rather than by sight or contact. If, however, a boar can think a sow the
+sweetest and most lovely of living creatures, we can have no difficulty in
+believing that he also thinks her the most beautiful.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Among the various reasons,&#8221; says Reynolds, &#8220;why we prefer one part of
+nature&#8217;s works to another, the most general, I believe, is habit and
+custom; custom makes, in a certain sense, white black, and black white; it
+is custom alone determines our preference of the color of the Europeans to
+the Ethiopians, and they, for the same reason, prefer their own color to
+ours. I suppose nobody will doubt, if one of their painters were to paint
+the goddess of beauty, but that he would represent her black, with thick
+lips, flat nose, and woolly hair; and it seems to me, he would act very
+unnaturally if he did not; for by what criterion will any one dispute the
+propriety of his idea? We indeed say,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> that the form and color of the
+European are preferable to those of the Ethiopian; but I know of no other
+reason we have for it, but that we are more accustomed to it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The coquetry of several tribes, it has been observed, leads them to
+mutilate and disfigure themselves, to flatten their forehead, to enlarge
+their mouth and ears, to blacken their skin, and cover it with the marks
+of suffering.&mdash;We make ugliness in that way, says Montaigne.</p>
+
+<p>But, to confine our observations to individual nations, and these
+civilized ones; we every day see irregular or even common figures
+preferred to those which the enlightened judge deems beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>How, then, it is asked, amid these different tastes, these opposite
+opinions, are we to admit ideas of absolute beauty?</p>
+
+<p>These are the strongest objections against all ideas of absolute and
+essential beauty in woman.</p>
+
+<p>To establish, in opposition to these objections, a standard of womanly
+beauty, equal talent has been employed; but the reasoning, though
+sufficient for such objections, has been rather of a vague description.
+As, however, the subject is of great importance, I shall endeavor to
+abridge and concentrate the arguments of which it consists, before I point
+out the surer method which is founded on the Elements of Beauty already
+established.</p>
+
+<p>To refute these objections, it has been thought sufficient to examine the
+chief conditions which are necessary, in order to appreciate properly the
+impression of those combinations, which woman <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>presents, and to expose the
+principal circumstances which are opposed to the accuracy of opinions, and
+judgments respecting them.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions necessary to enable us to pronounce respecting the real
+attributes of beauty, are, first, a temperate climate, under which nature
+brings to perfection all her productions, and gives to their forms and
+functions, generally, and to those of man in particular, all the
+development of which they are capable, without excess in the action of
+some, and defect in that of others;&mdash;secondly, in man in particular, a
+brain capable of vigorous thought, sound judgment, and exquisite
+taste;&mdash;and thirdly, a very advanced civilization, without which these
+faculties cannot be duly exercised or attain any perfection.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident enough that none of these conditions are to be met with in
+the whimsical judgments and tastes of many nations.</p>
+
+<p>The consequence of the absence of these conditions, in relation to the
+uncivilized and ignorant inhabitants of hot climates, is marked in their
+deeming characteristics of beauty, the thick lips of Negresses, the long
+and pendent mamm&aelig; of the women in several nations both of Africa and
+America, or the gross forms of those of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The consequence of the absence of these conditions, in relation to the
+uncivilized and ignorant inhabitants of cold climates, is equally marked
+in their deeming characteristics of beauty the short figures of the women
+of icy regions, in which, deprived of the vivifying action of heat and
+light, living beings appear only in a state of deformity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> and alteration;
+and in their similarly deeming beautiful the obliquely-placed eyes of the
+Chinese and Japanese, and the crushed nose of the Calmucs, &amp;c., &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Those who take these views, which are true, though somewhat vague and
+inconclusive, should, I think, have seen and added, that the deviations
+from beauty in the forms of the women of hot climates are commonly in
+<i>excess</i>, owing to the great development of organs of sense or of sex;
+while the deviations from beauty, in the forms of the women of cold
+climates, are commonly in <i>defect</i>, owing to the imperfect development of
+organs of sense, and of the general figure.</p>
+
+<p>This view renders it more clear that both these kinds of deviation are
+deformities, incompatible with the consistent and harmonious development
+of the whole. And without this view, the preceding arguments are indeed
+too vague to be easily tenable.</p>
+
+<p>In relation more especially to the second of the preceding conditions, the
+possession of a brain capable of vigorous thought, sound judgment, and
+exquisite taste, Hume observes that the same excellence of faculties which
+contributes to the improvement of reason, the same clearness of
+conception, the same exactness of distinction, the same vivacity of
+apprehension, are essential to the operations of true taste.</p>
+
+<p>Here, again, those who take these true, but vague and inconclusive views,
+should, I think, have seen and added that this excellence of the thinking
+faculties is incompatible with the obviously constricted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> brain, which is
+a defect common both to the Negro and the Mongol&mdash;a <i>defect</i> which is
+incompatible with beauty either of form or function, and which I have
+shown, in my work on physiognomy, to be intimately connected with climate.
+This renders the argument sufficiently strong.</p>
+
+<p>Those who employ these arguments as to a standard of beauty in woman,
+proceed to show the modes in which defects of this kind unfit persons to
+judge of beauty; and though their farther arguments are similarly vague,
+they nevertheless tend to support the truth.</p>
+
+<p>If, say they, among the forms and the features which we compare, some are
+associated by us with certain qualities or sentiments which please us,
+they equally lead us to a predilection or prejudice, in consequence of
+which the most common or the least beautiful figure is preferred to the
+most perfect. In this case, the imagination has perverted the judgment.</p>
+
+<p>Winckelmann truly observes, that young people are most exposed to such
+errors: placed under the influence of sentiment and of illusion, they
+often regard, as very beautiful, women who have nothing capable of
+charming, but an animated physiognomy, in which breathe desire,
+voluptuousness, and languor. The results of this as to life may easily be
+foreseen.</p>
+
+<p>Of the excess to which such prejudice may go, a good instance is adduced
+in Descartes, who preferred women who squinted to the most perfect
+beauties, because squinting was one of the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> remarkable features of
+the woman who was the first object of his affections.</p>
+
+<p>Winckelmann observes that even artists themselves have not always an
+exquisite sentiment of beauty: their first impressions have often an
+influence which they cannot overcome, nor even weaken, especially when, at
+a distance from the admirable productions of the ancients, they cannot
+rectify their first judgments.</p>
+
+<p>Circumstances of profession, it is truly observed, may also lead to
+associations of ideas capable of deceiving us in our opinions respecting
+beauty. Men are apt to refer everything to their exclusive knowledge and
+the mode of judging which it employs. The &#8220;what does that prove&#8221; of the
+mathematician, when judging the finest products of imagination, has passed
+into a proverb. And every one knows of that other cultivator of the same
+science, who declared that he never could discover anything sublime in
+Milton&#8217;s Paradise Lost, but that he could never read the queries at the
+end of one of the books in Newton&#8217;s Optics, without his hair standing on
+end and his blood running cold.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity of the third condition, namely, advanced civilization, to a
+right judgment respecting a standard of beauty in woman, is evident, when
+we consider that it requires a taste formed by the habit of bringing
+things together and of comparing them.</p>
+
+<p>One accustomed to see, says Hume, &#8220;and examine, and weigh the several
+performances, admired in different ages and nations, can alone rate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> the
+merits of a work exhibited to his view, and assign its proper rank among
+the productions of genius.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>From all this, it is certainly evident&mdash;not merely that that which pleases
+us is not always beautiful; that numerous causes may form so many sources
+of diversity and of error on this subject; and that we cannot thence
+conclude that the ideas of beauty are relative and arbitrary&mdash;but that
+certain conditions are indispensable to form the judgment respecting
+beauty; and that the principal of these conditions are, a temperate
+climate and fertile soil, a well-developed brain, sound judgment, and
+delicate taste, and a highly-advanced civilization.</p>
+
+<p>This is perfectly conformable with the practical fact that it was under a
+most delightful climate, among a people of unrivalled judgment, genius,
+and taste, and amid a civilization which the world has never since
+witnessed, that the laws of Nature as to beauty were discovered, and
+applied to the production of those immortal forms which the unfavorable
+accidents occurring to the existence of all beings, have never permitted
+Nature herself to combine in any one individual.</p>
+
+<p>Though I have endeavored to amend these arguments respecting a standard of
+beauty in woman, I prefer those which may be founded on the doctrine I
+have laid down respecting the Elements of Beauty. It will be found that
+the greatest number of these elements are combined in the woman whom we
+commonly deem the most beautiful.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>To illustrate this, it will be sufficient to examine their most striking
+and distinctive characteristic, namely, their fair complexion, which is
+intimately connected with all their other characteristics, and which gives
+increased splendor and effect to their form and features.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that even Alison, though the advocate of all beauty being
+dependant on association, grants that the pure white of the countenance is
+expressive to us, according to its different degrees, of purity, fineness,
+gayety; that the dark complexion, on the other hand, is expressive to us
+of melancholy, gloom, or sadness; and that so far is this from being a
+fanciful relation, that it is generally admitted by those who have the
+best opportunities of ascertaining it, the professors of medical science.
+He also observes that black eyes are commonly united with the dark, and
+blue eyes with the fair complexion; and that, in the color of the eyes,
+blue, according to its different degrees, is expressive of softness,
+gentleness, cheerfulness, or severity; and black, of thought, or gravity,
+or of sadness.</p>
+
+<p>Even this, however, is less conclusive than the pathological or
+physiological facts stated by Cheselden, as to the boy restored by him to
+sight, namely, that the first view of a black object gave him great pain,
+and that that of a negro-woman struck him with horror.</p>
+
+<p>Independently of this, white, as every one is aware, is the color which
+reflects the greatest number of luminous rays; and, for that reason, it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>bestows the brilliance and splendor upon beautiful forms with which all
+are charmed.</p>
+
+<p>Winckelmann, indeed, observes that the head of Scipio the elder, in the
+Palazzo Rospigliosi, executed in basalt of a deep green, is very
+beautiful. But, in that case, it is the form, not the color, of the head,
+that is beautiful. While greenness of complexion would not be beautiful in
+a man, it would certainly be hideously ugly in a woman.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, while, in a dead black or any dark color of face, it cannot be
+pretended that, considering its color only, we should have more than
+blackness or darkness for admiration, it is evident that, in a fair
+complexion, we have, in addition to its general brilliance or splendor,
+the infinite variety of its teints, their exquisite blendings, and the
+beautiful expression of every transient emotion.</p>
+
+<p>I have now only to expose the sophistry which Payne Knight has employed
+upon this subject.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I am aware,&#8221; he says, &#8220;indeed, that it would be no easy task to persuade
+a lover that the forms upon which he dotes with such rapture, are not
+really beautiful, independent of the medium of affection, passion, and
+appetite, through which he views them. But before he pronounces either the
+infidel or the skeptic guilty of blasphemy against nature, let him take a
+mould from the lovely features or lovely bosom of this masterpiece of
+creation, and cast a plum-pudding in it (an object by no means disgusting
+to most men&#8217;s appetite), and I think he will no longer be in raptures with
+the form, whatever he may be with the substance.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>Now, it happens that a grosser incongruity can scarcely be supposed than
+that which exists between lovely features or a lovely bosom and a
+plum-pudding, or between the sentiment of love and the propensity to
+gluttony; and therefore to place the substance of the pudding, in which
+internal composition is alone of importance, and shape of none, under the
+form of features or a bosom, in which internal structure is unknown or
+unthought of, and shape or other external properties are alone considered,
+is a gross and offensive substitution, intended, not to enlighten judgment
+respecting form, but to pervert it, and to degrade the higher object by
+comparison with the lower one. The shape, moreover, is a true sign in the
+one case, and a false one in the other.&mdash;Of nearly similar character is
+the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;If a man, perfectly possessed both of feeling and sight&mdash;conversant with,
+and sensible to the charms of women&mdash;were even to be in contact with what
+he conceived to be the most beautiful and lovely of the sex, and at the
+moment when he was going to embrace her, he was to discover that the parts
+which he touched only were feminine or human; and that, in the rest of her
+form, she was an animal of a different species, or a person of his own
+sex, the total and instantaneous change of his sentiments from one extreme
+to another, would abundantly convince him that his sexual desires depended
+as little upon that abstract sense of touch, as upon that of sight.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>That, in detecting an imposture of this kind,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> admiration would give place
+to disgust, only proves that the external qualities which were admired
+were the natural and appropriate signs of the internal qualities expected
+to be found under them, and that they now cease to interest only because
+they have become, not naturally less the signs of these qualities, but
+because they have by a mere trick been rendered insignificant, because
+truth and nature have been violated, and because the mind feels only
+disgust at the imposture. I cannot help saying that if Knight was in
+earnest when he framed such arguments, his mind was sometimes dull as well
+as perverse.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The redness of any morbid inflammation,&#8221; he says, &#8220;may display a
+gradation of teint, which, in a pink or a rose, we should think as
+beautiful as &#8216;the purple light of love and bloom of young desire;&#8217; and the
+cadaverous paleness of death or disease, a degree of whiteness, which, in
+a piece of marble or alabaster, we should deem to be as pure, as that of
+the most delicate skin of the fairest damsel of the frigid zone:
+consequently, the mere visible beauty is in both the same; and the
+difference consists entirely in mental sympathies, excited by certain
+internal stimuli, and guided by habit.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There is here the same confusion of heterogeneous and inconsistent
+objects, as in the preceding cases. To judge of beauty in simple objects,
+each quality may be separately considered; and in this view, if the
+inflammation presented the same teint as the pink or the rose, then, as a
+mere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> teint, abstracted from every other quality of the respective
+objects, it would be precisely as beautiful in the one as in the other;
+but as the color of a rose on the human body would indicate that flow of
+blood to the skin which can result only from excessive action, it ceases
+to be considered intrinsically, and is regarded only as a sign of disease.
+The same observations are applicable to the other case here adduced.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The African black,&#8221; he says, &#8220;when he first beholds an European
+complexion, thinks both its red and white morbid and unnatural, and of
+course disgusting. His sunburnt beauties express their modesty and
+sensibility by variations in the sable teints of their countenances, which
+are equally attractive to him, as the most delicate blush of red to us.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In treating of the Elements of Beauty, I have endeavored to show, that the
+more those simpler elements of beauty, which characterize inanimate
+bodies, are retained in more compound ones, the more beautiful these
+become; but that the latter retain these elements in very different
+degrees, dependant upon internal or external circumstances, and that such
+elementary beauty is often sacrificed to the higher ones of life or mind.
+Now, in the case of the African, he is born whitish, like the European,
+but he speedily loses such beauty for that of adaptation, by his color, to
+the hot climate in which he exists. The latter beauty is the higher and
+more important one, and forms for the African a profitable exchange; but
+the European is still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> more fortunate, because, in the region he inhabits,
+the simple and elementary beauty is compatible with that of adaptation to
+climate. The climate of Africa, the cerebral structure of its inhabitants,
+and the degree of their civilization, are as unfavorable to the existence
+of beauty as to the power of judging respecting it. What he adds as to
+variation in sable countenances is a mere exaggeration.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Were it possible for a person to judge of the beauty of color in his own
+species, upon the same principles and with the same impartiality as he
+judges of it in other objects, both animal, vegetable, and mineral, there
+can be no doubt that mixed teints would be preferred; and a pimpled face
+have the same superiority over a smooth one, as a zebra has over an ass, a
+variegated tulip over a plain one, or a column of jasper or porphyry over
+one of a common red or white marble.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Here the same mistake is committed. Elementary beauty is preferred to that
+of adaptation to climate, fitness for physiognomical expression, &amp;c.
+Knight&#8217;s other arguments all involve similar errors, and admit of similar
+answers.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+<h3>THE THREE SPECIES OF FEMALE BEAUTY GENERALLY VIEWED.</h3>
+
+<p>These have been already briefly mentioned. They are repeated and
+illustrated here.</p>
+
+<p>The view which is given of them will throw light on the celebrated
+temperaments of the ancients. It will appear that all the disputes which
+have occurred respecting these, have arisen from their being founded, not
+on precise data, but on empirical observation, at a time when the great
+truths of anatomy and physiology were unknown; that, to the rectification
+of the doctrine of temperaments, the arrangement of these sciences, laid
+down in a preceding chapter, is indispensable; that some of these
+temperaments are comparatively simple, and consist in an excessive or a
+defective action of locomotive, nutritive, or thinking organs; that
+others, which have been confounded with these, are, on the contrary,
+compound; and that, from this want of classification, their nature has
+been imperfectly understood.</p>
+
+<p>To make this clear, it is necessary to lay before the reader a succinct
+view of the doctrine of temperaments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>The ancients classed individuals in one or other of four temperaments,
+founded on the hypothesis of four humors, of which the blood was supposed
+to be composed&mdash;the red part, phlegm, yellow and black bile. These were
+regarded as the elements of the body, and their respective predominance
+passed for the cause of the differences which it presented. Hence were
+derived the names of the sanguine, the phlegmatic, the choleric, and the
+melancholic temperament.</p>
+
+<p>Although the hypothesis on which this doctrine was founded is universally
+discarded, the phenomena which observation had taught the ancients, and
+which they had hypothetically connected with these elements, were so true,
+that that classification has been more or less employed in all the
+hypotheses which have since been invented to explain their cause; and
+their nomenclature has continued in use to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>A temperament may be defined a peculiar state of the system, depending on
+the relative proportion of its different masses, and the relative energy
+of its different functions, by which it acquires a tendency to certain
+actions.</p>
+
+<p>The predominance of any particular organ or system of organs, its excess
+of force, extends its sphere of activity to all the other functions, and
+modifies them in a peculiar manner. Thus, conforming in the illustration
+to the preceding arrangement, in one person, the muscles are more
+frequently employed than the brain; in another, the stomach or the organs
+of reproduction are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> more employed than the muscles; and in a third, the
+brain and nerves are more employed than either. This predominance or
+excess establishes the temperament.</p>
+
+<p>The relative feebleness of any organ or system of organs, similarly forms
+modifications not less important. Thus in one person, the organs of the
+abdomen are less employed; in another, those of the chest; in a third, the
+brain.</p>
+
+<p>Disease, it is observed, &#8220;commonly enters into the organization by these
+feeble points: death even attacks them first; extends afterward from one
+to another; and makes progress more or less rapid, according to the
+importance of the organ primitively affected.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Temperaments, however, vary infinitely. It may be said that every
+individual has a peculiar one, to which he owes his mode of existence and
+his degree of health, ability, and happiness.</p>
+
+<p>The temperament, moreover, of each individual is not always characterized
+by well-marked symptoms; and even where it has been strongly marked by
+nature, education, age, the influence of climate, the exercise of
+professions and trades, and various habits, produce in it infinite
+changes.</p>
+
+<p>Temperaments also combine together, so that all men are, in some degree,
+at once sanguine and bilious, or otherwise compound. Thus all intermediate
+shades of temperament are produced; and it is often difficult, or, under
+particular circumstances, impossible, to determine under which temperament
+individuals may be classed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>The simple temperaments are therefore abstractions, which it is difficult
+to realize; and the influence of any temperament is sometimes
+undiscoverable except in some extraordinary circumstances of disorder or
+disease, during which it may be observed.</p>
+
+<p>Cullen admits the four temperaments of Hippocrates, and remarks concerning
+them, that it is probable they were first founded upon observation, and
+afterward adapted to the theory of the ancients, since we find they &#8220;have
+a real existence.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Prichard remarks, that &#8220;this division of temperaments is by no means a
+fanciful distinction.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>To the four temperaments of Hippocrates, Gregory adds a fifth, the nervous
+temperament.</p>
+
+<p>Thus are formed five temperaments generally admitted, namely, 1st, the
+phlegmatic or relaxed; 2d, the sanguine arterial; 3d, the sanguine venous
+or bilious; 4th, the nervous; and, 5th, the muscular or athletic.</p>
+
+<p>Some writers join to these the partial temperaments which determine the
+ascendency of the functions exercised by particular organs; whence
+principally come the temperaments which they call the cerebral,
+epigastric, abdominal, hepatic, genital, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>As already said, it will in the sequel appear that some of these
+temperaments are comparatively simple, that others are compound, and that
+from this want of classification, their nature has been imperfectly
+understood.<small><a name="f32.1" id="f32.1" href="#f32">[32]</a></small></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+<h3>FIRST SPECIES OF BEAUTY&mdash;BEAUTY OF THE LOCOMOTIVE SYSTEM.</h3>
+
+<p>The average stature of woman, as already said, is two or three inches less
+than that of man.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of woman remain always smaller than those of man; the
+cylindrical ones being more slender, and the flat ones thinner, while the
+former are also rounder. The muscles render the surfaces of the bones less
+uneven; the projections of the latter are less; and all their cavities and
+impressions have less depth. The bones of woman have likewise less
+hardness than those of man.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the solid and fundamental parts of this system in woman, the
+most remarkable circumstances in their combination should next be noticed.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the magnitude of the pelvis or lower part of the trunk, has the
+greatest influence on the apparent proportion of parts, and on the general
+figure.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable differences between the two sexes, in relation to this
+system, are consequently those presented by the inferior and superior part
+of the trunk in each. The breast and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> haunches are in an inverse
+proportion in the two sexes. Man has the breast larger and wider than that
+of woman: woman has the haunches less circumscribed than those of man.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of the body is also less prominent, and the lower part more
+prominent, in woman than in man; and therefore, when they stand upright,
+or lie on the back, the breast is most prominent in the male, and the
+pubes in the female. The indication this affords of the fitness of woman
+for impregnation, gestation, and parturition, is obvious.</p>
+
+<p>From the same cause, the back of woman is more hollow.</p>
+
+<p>Still farther to increase the capacity of the lower part of the body,
+woman has the loins more extended than man. This portion of her body is in
+every way enlarged at the expense of neighboring parts. Hence, the chest
+is shorter above; and the thighs and legs are shorter below.</p>
+
+<p>The thigh-bones of woman are also more separated superiorly; the knees are
+more approximated; the feet are smaller; and the base of support is less
+extended.</p>
+
+<p>The reader desirous of thoroughly understanding these matters, should
+compare the beautiful plates of the male and female skeletons by Albinus
+and S&oelig;mmerring.</p>
+
+<p>Beauty of the locomotive system in woman, depends especially upon these
+fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure which thus
+distinguish her from man.</p>
+
+<p>In the woman possessing <span class="smcaplc">THIS SPECIES</span> of beauty,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+therefore, the face is generally somewhat bony and oblong;&mdash;the neck, less connected with the
+nutritive system, is rather long and tapering;&mdash;the shoulders, without
+being angular, are sufficiently broad and definite for muscular
+attachments;&mdash;the bosom, a vital organ, is of but moderate
+dimensions;&mdash;the waist, enclosing smaller nutritive organs, is remarkable
+for fine proportion, and resembles, in some respects, an inverted
+cone;&mdash;the haunches, for the same reason, are but moderately
+expanded;&mdash;the thighs are proportional;&mdash;the arms, as well as the limbs,
+being formed chiefly of locomotive organs, are rather long and moderately
+tapering;&mdash;the hands and feet are moderately small;&mdash;the complexion, owing
+to the inferiority of the nutritive system, is often rather dark;&mdash;and the
+hair is frequently dark and strong.&mdash;The whole figure is precise,
+striking, and often brilliant.&mdash;From its proportions, it sometimes seems
+almost aerial; and we would imagine, that, if our hands were placed under
+the lateral parts of the tapering waist of a woman thus characterized, the
+slightest pressure would suffice to throw her into the air.</p>
+
+<p>To this class belong generally the more firm, vigorous, and even
+actively-impassioned women: though it may doubtless boast many of greatly
+modified character.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>It may here be observed, that the varieties or modifications of each
+species of beauty naturally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> correspond with the greater or less
+development of some one of the various organs on which the species is
+founded. Thus, the modifications of beauty of the locomotive system
+correspond with the greater or less development of the bones, the
+ligaments, or the muscles; those of the nutritive system correspond with
+the greater or less development of the absorbents, the bloodvessels, or
+the glands; and those of the thinking system correspond with the greater
+or less development of the organs of sense, the brain, or the cerebel. A
+little reflection will show, that some of these modifications will be
+more, and others less beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>To understand the present variety, the bony structure on which it
+especially depends, must now be more minutely described.</p>
+
+<p>Commencing with the trunk of the body&mdash;the chest in woman is shorter but
+more expanded; the breast-bone is shorter but wider; the two upper ribs
+are flatter; the collar-bones are more straight or less curved, and do not
+present that prominent relief which appears on the chest of man; the
+shoulders are carried farther back, and project less from the trunk.</p>
+
+<p>The haunches, as already stated, are proportionally wider in woman than in
+man, and the interior cavity of the pelvis, which is between them, being
+adapted to gestation, is more capacious. This greater capacity of the
+pelvis arises from the lateral parts having in woman more convexity
+outward; from the bones called ossa pubis, which form the anterior part,
+touching at a smaller number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> points, and running obliquely or forming
+a greater angle, to enlarge the space which is between them and the
+inferior extremity of the posterior part of the pelvis; from the arch of
+the pubis being larger; from the greater concavity and breadth of the os
+sacrum or posterior bone of the pelvis, its posterior part forming a
+greater prominence outward; and from the whole pelvis being thus wider and
+less deep, its circumference approaching more to the circular form. The
+cavities, it may be added, in which the heads of the thigh-bones are
+received, are of course farther apart: they are also oblique and less
+deep.</p>
+
+<p>The arms of woman are shorter than in man.&mdash;As these members are well
+marked in beauty of the locomotive system, they may the more fully be
+considered here.&mdash;The arms, and especially their extremities, are
+susceptible of a degree of beauty of which we see few examples. Their
+bases, the bones, ligaments, and muscles, belong to the locomotive system;
+and their fundamental beauty consequently depends upon its proportions;
+but to the nutritive system are owing the circumstances that, in woman,
+the arm is fatter and more rounded, has softer forms and more flowing and
+purer outlines. The hand in woman is smaller, more plump, more soft, and
+more white. It is peculiarly beautiful when full; when it is gently
+dimpled over the first joints; when the fingers are long, round, tapering
+toward the ends; when the other joints are marked by slight reliefs and
+shadows; and when the fingers are delicate and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> flexible. Beauty of the
+hand becomes the more precious, because it is the principal organ of a
+sense which may be considered as the most valuable of all.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the lower extremities, it has been observed, that the lateral
+convexity of the pelvis causes the bones of the thighs attached to them to
+be farther separated from each other; and this separation of the bones of
+the thighs causes an increase of the size of the haunches. It is over the
+posterior part of the space thus produced, that we observe the reliefs
+which the inferior members present superiorly, and which unite them with
+the trunk, by forms so beautifully rounded. The thighs are also
+proportionally larger, on account of this separation: they are more
+rounded, as well as much more voluminous: they are also more curved before
+than in man. At their inferior part, they approximate; and the knees
+project a little inward. It has been truly observed, that this
+conformation manifests, relatively to gestation and parturition,
+advantages of which the exterior expression is not found in the women who
+are commonly regarded as well made, and who, however, are not so, if the
+best conformation or beauty result from a direct and well-marked relation
+between the form of the organs and their functions. It is owing to the
+thighs of woman being thus carried more inward when she walks, that the
+change of the point of gravity which marks each step, is in her much more
+remarkable. All the other parts of the inferior members are in general
+distinguished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> by forms more softly rounded; the leg is remarkable for its
+delicacy; the long line of the anterior bone is entirely hid under its
+envelope; its inferior part is shaped with more elegance; the foot is
+smaller; and the base of support is less extended. The feet, like the
+hands, are susceptible of a kind of beauty of which nature is sparing.</p>
+
+<p>From all this it appears that the only bones which nature tends to enlarge
+in woman are those of the pelvis; that all the rest are small; and that
+they proportionally diminish in size, as we pass from that central part to
+the extremities.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">FIRST MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the bones, those of the pelvis excepted, is
+proportionally small.</p>
+
+<p>This character will be especially apparent where the long bones approach
+the surface; as in the arm immediately above the wrist, and, in the leg,
+immediately above the ankle. Its effect will be proportionally delicate
+and feminine.</p>
+
+<p>Various subordinate modifications of this kind of beauty are found in
+various countries, and under the influence of various circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The women of Rome, we are told, present beauty of the shoulders in the
+highest degree, when they arrive at that period of life in which plumpness
+succeeds to juvenile elasticity.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested, that the Greek or Ionian women, whose arms were of
+so perfect a form, owed that beauty in some measure to the custom of
+leaving them nude, or covered only by loose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> drapery: as in that case, no
+pressure constricted the roundness of the fleshy parts, and prevented
+their development; no ligature, binding the upper part of the arm, altered
+the color of the skin; and the arm, being always uncovered, received at
+the toilet the same attention as other parts. Hence, it is supposed
+antique statuary has left us such admirable models of the beauty of this
+part.</p>
+
+<p>It is certainly not improbable that we may attribute the absence of this
+beauty, in some measure, to a custom which, in many cases, medicine may
+approve, but which is unfavorable to the arm, that of wearing long
+sleeves; but want of exercise is its great cause.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the hand often announces the occupation of the person to whom
+it belongs, and sometimes even her particular capabilities. There
+certainly are hands that we may call intellectual; and there are others
+that we may call foolish or stupid. Of the hand, Lavater says, that,
+whether in movement or in repose, its expression cannot be mistaken: its
+most tranquil position indicates our natural dispositions; its flexions,
+our actions and our passions.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients, it has been observed, attached much importance to the form
+of the feet: the philosophers did not neglect it in the general view of
+the physiognomy; and the historians as well as the poets made mention of
+their beauty, in speaking of Polyxene, Aspasia, and others; as they did of
+their deformities in speaking of the emperor Domitian.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>Perfection or deformity of the feet is no doubt in general hereditary; but
+good management will preserve the former of these, and repair the latter.
+We commonly deform these parts by means of our shoes: the second toe,
+observes a writer on this subject, which naturally projects most, as we
+see from the antique, is arrested in its development, and the foot, which
+ought, in the outline of its extremity, to approach to the elegant form of
+the ellipsis, is rounded without beauty, and is disfigured by our
+ridiculous compressions.<small><a name="f33.1" id="f33.1" href="#f33">[33]</a></small></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>The joints generally are small in woman, and especially so in the
+extremities. The elbow joint is softly rounded; and the various joints of
+the fingers are marked chiefly by little reliefs and faint shadows. The
+articulation of the knee is feebly indicated; the ankles are disposed in
+such a manner as to offer only agreeable outlines; and there are dimples
+over the first joints of the toes, with exceedingly gentle indications of
+the other joints.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">SECOND MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the ligaments and the articulations they form, is
+proportionally small.</p>
+
+<p>This conformation will be especially apparent&mdash;in the arm, at the
+wrist&mdash;and, in the leg, at the ankle. Its effect will be proportionally
+handsome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span><i>Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>The muscles of women are more slender and feeble than those of man; their
+bundles are rounder; their fibres are finer, more humid, soft, and
+delicate, and less compact; their central parts or bellies are less
+prominent; their reliefs do not appear in any strength at the surface of
+the body; but being, on the contrary, surrounded on all sides by a loose
+cellular tissue, they only render that surface beautifully rounded.</p>
+
+<p>Although, however, the muscular system of woman is weaker, and the muscles
+proportionally smaller, yet, as already said, in some parts the muscular
+system is more developed than in man. This, owing to the magnitude of the
+pelvis, is most remarkable about the thighs. The muscles of these parts
+having larger origins from the pelvis, and being less compressed by
+reciprocal contact, have more liberty to extend themselves. It is from
+this, that results much of the delicacy of the female form, as well as the
+ease, suppleness, and capability of grace in its movements.</p>
+
+<p>It is otherwise in all parts remote from the pelvis. Women, accordingly,
+can less be said to have calves, than legs which, like their arms and
+fingers, gently taper.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">THIRD MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the muscles is proportionally large around the
+pelvis, and delicate elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>This conformation being concealed by the drapery, may nevertheless be
+conjectured from the imperfect view of the hip, or of the calf of the leg,
+or more accurately by means of the external indications of forms which are
+given in a subsequent chapter. Its effect will be proportionally elegant.</p>
+
+<p>Woman&#8217;s power of muscular motion being thus limited to the vicinity of the
+pelvis, that of her extremities is generally feeble.</p>
+
+<p>Other causes contribute to this. Thus, with regard to the upper
+extremities, it has been observed, that the collar-bone, not separating so
+much the arm from the axis of the body, the extent of its movements is
+limited; and this circumstance explains why women, who wish to overcome
+great resistances with the superior members, experience difficulty in
+doing so&mdash;why, for example, when they wish to throw a stone, they are
+obliged to turn the body on the foot opposite to the arm with which they
+throw.</p>
+
+<p>Thus also the largeness of the pelvis, and the approximation of the knees,
+influence the gait of woman, and render it vacillating and unsteady.
+Conscious of this, women, in countries where the nutritive system in
+general and the pelvis in particular are large, affect a greater degree of
+this vacillation and unsteadiness. An example of this is seen in the
+lateral and rotary motion which is given to the pelvis in walking, by
+certain classes of the women of London.</p>
+
+<p>For the same reason, united to a smaller foot, and some other
+circumstances, women, it is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>observed, who execute gentle and light
+movements with so much skill, do not attempt with advantage great
+evolutions, run with difficulty and without grace, and fly&mdash;in order to be
+caught, as Rousseau has said.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, however, the muscular fibre is thus soft, yielding, feeble, and
+incapable of great evolutions, because it is necessary that it should
+easily adapt itself to remarkable changes.</p>
+
+<p>From all this, from women having more address in the use of their fingers,
+from their aptitude for little and light domestic works, the care of
+children, and sedentary occupations, it is evident that they cannot devote
+themselves to toilsome labors without struggling against their
+organization, and suffering proportionally.</p>
+
+<p>The voice being connected with the motive organs, it may here be noticed
+that the larynx or flute part of the throat in woman is more contracted
+and less prominent than in man; that the glottis does not enlarge in the
+same proportion; that the tongue-bone is much smaller; and that the
+tongue, its muscles, and the organs of speech in general, being, like all
+the other parts, more mobile, young girls articulate and pronounce much
+more quickly. Their voice is also so much more acute, that if man and
+woman sing in unison, there is always between them the relation of an
+octave, which forms the most natural and most agreeable consonance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>It is evidently the <span class="smcaplc">UNION</span> of all that is good in these varieties which
+renders beauty in the locomotive system perfect.</p>
+
+<p>This is perfectly represented in the Diana of Grecian sculpture, in which,
+with admirable taste, it is neither the nutritive nor the thinking, but
+the locomotive system, which is developed.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>I have already said, that the temperaments of the ancients are only
+partial views of some of the varieties I am now describing. The <i>athletic
+temperament</i> falls under the <i>last of these varieties</i>; and it is the only
+one that falls under this species. Happily, it does not occur in woman.</p>
+
+<p>This temperament results from a great development of the bones and
+muscles, and it is that of mere physical strength. It is marked by all the
+outward signs of strength: the head is small, the neck thick behind, the
+shoulders broad, the chest expanded, the haunches firm, the intervals of
+the muscles deeply marked, the tendons apparent through the skin, and all
+the joints not covered by muscles, seemingly small.</p>
+
+<p>In this temperament, muscular strength prevails over the functions of the
+other organs, and especially usurps the energies necessary to the
+production of thought; the perceptions are deficient in quickness,
+delicacy, accuracy, and strength; and all the mental functions are with
+difficulty excited; but the body is capable of great exertion, and it
+surmounts great physical resistance when roused.</p>
+
+<p>The Farnese Hercules, says a French physiologist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> exhibits a model of the
+physical attributes of this constitution; and that which fabulous
+antiquity relates of the exploits of this demi-god, gives us the idea of
+the moral dispositions that accompany it. In the history of his twelve
+labors, without reflection, and as by instinct, we see him courageous,
+because he is strong, seeking obstacles to conquer them, certain of
+overwhelming whatever resists him, but joining to such strength so little
+subtlety, that he is cheated by all the kings he serves, and by all the
+women he loves.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+<h3>SECOND SPECIES OF BEAUTY&mdash;BEAUTY OF THE NUTRITIVE SYSTEM.</h3>
+
+<p>With the vital system of woman, the capacity of the pelvis, and the
+consequent breadth of the haunches, are still more connected than with the
+locomotive system; for, with these, all those functions which are most
+essentially feminine&mdash;impregnation, gestation, and parturition&mdash;are
+intimately connected.</p>
+
+<p>Camper, in a memoir on physical beauty, read to the Academy of Design, at
+Amsterdam,<small><a name="f34.1" id="f34.1" href="#f34">[34]</a></small> showed, that, in tracing the forms of the male and female
+within two elliptical areas of equal size, the female pelvis extended
+beyond the ellipsis, while the shoulders were within; and the male
+shoulders reached beyond their ellipsis, while the pelvis was within.&mdash;The
+pelvis of the African woman is said by some to be greater than that of the
+European.</p>
+
+<p>The abdominal and lumbar portion of the trunk, as already said, is longer
+in woman. In persons above the common stature, there is almost half a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+face more in the part of the body which is between the mamm&aelig; and the
+bifurcation of the trunk.</p>
+
+<p>The abdomen, placed below the chest, has more projection and roundness in
+woman than in man: but it has little fulness in a figure capable of
+serving as a model; and the slightest alteration in its outlines or its
+polish is injurious.</p>
+
+<p>The waist, which is most distinctly marked in the back and loins, owes all
+its advantages to its elegance, softness, and flexibility.</p>
+
+<p>The neck should, by the gentlest curvature, form an almost insensible
+transition between the body and the head. It should also present fulness
+sufficient to conceal the projection of the flute part of the throat in
+front, and of the two large muscles which descend from behind the ears
+toward the pit above the breast-bone.<small><a name="f35.1" id="f35.1" href="#f35">[35]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Over all these parts, the predominance of the cellular tissue, and the
+soft and moderate plumpness which is connected with it, are a remarkable
+characteristic of the vital system in woman. While this facilitates the
+adaptation of the locomotive system to every change, it at the same time
+obliterates the projection of the muscles, and invests the whole figure
+with rounded and beautiful forms.</p>
+
+<p>It has been well observed that the principal <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>effect of such forms upon
+the observer must be referred to the faculties which they reveal; for, as
+remarked by Roussel, if we examine the greater part of the attributes
+which constitute beauty, if reason analyze that which instinct judges at a
+glance, we shall find that these attributes have a reference to real
+advantages for the species. A light shape, supple movements, whence spring
+brilliance and grace, are qualities which please, because they announce
+the good condition of the individual who possesses them, and the greater
+degree of aptitude for the functions which that individual ought to
+fulfil.</p>
+
+<p>Beauty, then, of the nutritive system in woman, depends especially upon
+these fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure which thus
+distinguish her from man.</p>
+
+<p>In the woman possessing <span class="smcaplc">THIS SPECIES</span> of beauty, therefore, the face is
+generally rounded, to give greater room to the cavities connected with
+nutrition;&mdash;the eyes are generally of the softest azure, which is
+similarly associated;&mdash;the neck is often rather short, in order intimately
+to connect the head with the nutritive organs in the trunk;&mdash;the shoulders
+are softly rounded, and owe any breadth they may possess rather to the
+expanded chest, containing these organs, than to any bony or muscular size
+of the shoulders themselves;&mdash;the bosom, a vital organ, in its luxuriance
+seems laterally to protrude on the space occupied by the arms;&mdash;the waist,
+though sufficiently marked, is, as it were, encroached on by that
+plumpness of all the contiguous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> parts, which the powerful nutritive
+system affords;&mdash;the haunches are greatly expanded for the vital purposes
+of gestation and parturition;&mdash;the thighs are large in proportion;&mdash;but
+the locomotive organs, the limbs and arms, tapering and becoming delicate,
+terminate in feet and hands which, compared with the ample trunk, are
+peculiarly small;&mdash;the complexion, dependant upon nutrition, has the rose
+and lily so exquisitely blended, that we are surprised it should defy the
+usual operation of the elements;&mdash;and there is a luxuriant profusion of
+soft and fine flaxen or auburn hair.&mdash;The whole figure is soft and
+voluptuous in the extreme.</p>
+
+<p>To this class belong all the more feminine, soft, and exquisitely-graceful
+women.</p>
+
+<p>The kind of beauty thus characterized is seen chiefly in the Saxon races
+of our eastern coast; and it is certainly more frequent in women of short
+stature.</p>
+
+<p>The vital system is peculiarly the system of woman; and so truly is this
+the case, that any great employment, either of the locomotive or mental
+organs, deranges the peculiar functions of woman, and destroys the
+characteristics of her sex.</p>
+
+<p>Women who greatly occupy the locomotive organs, acquire a coarse and
+masculine appearance; and so well is this incompatibility of power, in the
+use of locomotive organs with the exercise of vital ones, known to the
+best female dancers, that, during the time of their engagements, they
+generally live apart from their husbands.</p>
+
+<p>As to intellectual ladies, they either seldom <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>become mothers, or they
+become intellectual when they cease to be mothers.</p>
+
+<p>These few facts are worth a thousand hypotheses and dreams, however
+amiable they may be.</p>
+
+<p>The vital system is relatively largest in little women, especially after
+they have been mothers. The shorter stature of woman ensures, indeed, in
+almost all, a relative excess of the vital system after, if not before,
+they become mothers; for, whatever the stature, the mamm&aelig;, abdomen, &amp;c.,
+necessarily expand. In those of short stature, these parts, of course,
+become nearly as large as in the tall; and this circumstance causes them
+to touch on the limits of each other in little women.</p>
+
+<p>As, in pregnancy and suckling, the abdomen and mamm&aelig; necessarily expand,
+and as they would afterward collapse and become wrinkled, were not a
+certain degree of plumpness acquired, that acquisition is essential to
+beauty in mothers. Meagerness in them, accordingly, becomes deformity.</p>
+
+<p>A French writer indeed says: &#8220;Most of our fashionables are extremely
+slender; they have constituted this an essential to beauty; leanness is in
+France necessary to the <i>air &eacute;l&eacute;gant</i>.&#8221; It must be remembered, however,
+that the vital system&mdash;that which we have just said is peculiarly the
+system of woman&mdash;is, in its most beautiful parts, peculiarly defective in
+France; and that, owing in a great measure to that circumstance, the women
+of France are among the ugliest in Europe.&mdash;But of that in its proper
+place.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span><i>First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>It may here be observed, that the varieties of beauty of the locomotive
+system, and also those of beauty of the mental system, are easily
+explicable, because these systems are, in some respects, more limited and
+simple. The varieties of beauty of the vital system are, on the contrary,
+more difficult of explanation, because that system is, in some respects,
+more diffused and complicated.</p>
+
+<p>Even the preparatory vital organs and functions differ somewhat in the two
+sexes.</p>
+
+<p>Woman has frequently a smaller number of molar teeth than man; those
+called wisdom teeth not always appearing. Mastication is also less
+energetic in woman.</p>
+
+<p>The stomach, in woman, is much smaller; the appetite for food is less;
+hunger does not appear to press her so imperiously; and her consumption of
+food is much less considerable.<small><a name="f36.1" id="f36.1" href="#f36">[36]</a></small> Hence, indubitable cases of long
+abstinence from food, have generally occurred in females.</p>
+
+<p>In the choice and the preference of certain aliments, woman also differs
+much from man. In general, women prefer light and agreeable food, which
+flatters the palate by its perfume and its savor. Their appetites are also
+much more varied.</p>
+
+<p>Women, whom vicious habits have not depraved,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> use also beverages less
+abundantly than men. Fermented, vinous, and spirituous beverages are
+indeed used only by the monsters engendered in the corruptions of
+towns&mdash;amid the insane dissipation of the rich, or the wretched and
+pitiable suffering of the poor; and both are then brought to one
+humiliating level, marked by the red and pimpled, or the pallid face, the
+swimming eye, the haggard features, the pestilential breath. The
+scarf-skin in these cases divides all that may be worthy from all that is
+utterly worthless: the worthy part may be external to the cuticle, in
+substantial, though polluted clothing; the worthless is the yet living
+portion, which, whether called body or soul, is no longer worth picking
+off a dunghill.<small><a name="f37.1" id="f37.1" href="#f37">[37]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Digestion in woman is made, however, with great rapidity; and the whole
+canal interested in that process, possesses great irritability.</p>
+
+<p>The absorbent vessels in woman are much more developed, and seem to enjoy
+a more active vitality. The circumstances of pregnancy and suckling,
+appear also to augment the energy of these vessels.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">FIRST MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the digestive and absorbent system is small but active; for the
+great purpose of life in woman is secretion, whether it regard the
+formation of the superficial adipose substance which invests her with
+beautiful and attractive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> forms, or the nutrition of the new being which
+is the object of her attractions and of her life.</p>
+
+<p>Hence it is, that women naturally and instinctively affect abstemiousness
+and delicacy of appetite. Hence it is, that they compress the waist, and
+endeavor to render it slender.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>Women have, in greater abundance than men, several of the fluids which
+enter into the composition of the body. They appear to have a greater
+quantity of blood; and they certainly have more frequent and more
+considerable hemorrhages. There is less force in the circulation and
+respiration; but the heart beats more rapidly. The pulse also is less
+full, but it is quicker.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the purer lily and more vivid rose of complexion, depend on
+various causes.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that, in women, the blood is in general carried less
+abundantly to the surface and to the extremities, where also the white
+vessels are more developed; and that, to this, as well as to the subjacent
+adipose substance, the skin owes its whiteness.</p>
+
+<p>In youth, however, one of the constituent parts of the skin, the reticular
+tissue, or whatever the substance under the scarf-skin may be called,
+appears to be more expanded, especially in women; and it would seem that
+this tissue is then filled with a blood which is less dark, and which
+forms the coloring of youth. This, differently modified<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> by the
+scarf-skin, gives the blue, the purple, <ins class="correction" title="original: and and">and</ins> all the teints formed by these
+and the color of the skin. Where the vessels are more patent, and the skin
+more thin, delicate, and transparent, as in the cheeks, the hue of the
+rose is cast over that of the lily. In addition to this, the slightest
+emotions of surprise, of pleasure, of love, of shame, of fear, often
+diversify all these teints.</p>
+
+<p>Lightness of complexion, however, is probably dependant more particularly
+on the arterial circulation, and darkness of complexion on the venous
+circulation; for we know that in fairer woman the arteries possess greater
+energy, while in darker man the veins are more developed, larger, and
+fuller.</p>
+
+<p>Farther confirmation of this is afforded by an observation, which
+physiologists have neglected to make, that the kidneys, receiving arterial
+blood, are the artery-relieving glands, while the liver, receiving venous
+blood, is the vein-relieving gland. Now, it is certain that, in cold
+climates, the urinary secretion and fairness prevail; while, in hot
+climates, the hepatic secretion and darkness prevail. Many physiologists
+have indeed made the insulated remark, that the dark complexion has much
+to do with the hepatic secretion. The more abundant urinary and hepatic
+secretions, however, may not be the causes, but only concomitant effects
+of the same cause with fairness and darkness of complexion.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">SECOND MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the circulating vessels,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> being moderately active and finely
+ramified, bestow upon the skin a whiteness, a transparency, and a
+complexion, which are necessary to beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The whiteness, the transparency, and the color of the skin, have, in all
+highly civilized nations, been deemed essential conditions of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients regarded whiteness, in particular, as the distinctive
+character of beauty; and they estimated that character so highly, that the
+name of Venus, from the Celtic <i>ven</i>, <i>ben</i>, or <i>ban</i>, signifies white, or
+whiteness; and Venus herself is said to be fair and golden-haired.</p>
+
+<p>Among the civilized moderns, also a taste which women seek always to
+satisfy, is that for whiteness of the skin: hence, the white lily,
+new-fallen snow, white marble, or alabaster, are the images which poetry
+employs, when the color of a woman is its subject. So greatly, indeed,
+does whiteness contribute to beauty, that many women deemed beautiful by
+us, have little other right to that epithet except what they derive from a
+beautiful skin.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>The branches of the great artery of the body, the aorta, supplying the
+abdomen and pelvis, are larger in woman than in man, as well as more
+habitually liable to variation in the quantity of their contents. The
+quantity of blood, also, which passes to the abdomen, is greater.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, the excretions are generally less in woman. Hippocrates
+says: &#8220;<i>Nam corpus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> muliebre minus dissipatur quam virile</i>;&#8221; the
+expenditure of the body of woman is less than that of man.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, then, that the secretions, nutrition, in particular, must
+be greater. We actually know them to be so.</p>
+
+<p>But the nourishment of the organs concerned in locomotion is less active,
+and that of the cellular and adipose substance is generally more active,
+than in man. And on this, important consequences depend.</p>
+
+<p>Woman is subject to crises which would destroy all her organs, if they
+offered too powerful a resistance. Some parts of her body are exposed to
+great shocks, to alternate extensions, compressions, and reductions, which
+could not take place with impunity, but by means of this predominance of
+the cellular and adipose structure.</p>
+
+<p>The cellular expansion, the general basis of the structure, appears then
+to be more abundant in woman, more lax and yielding, more dilated and
+fuller of liquids; and it is by yielding gradually, by decomposing and
+weakening shocks by means of the general suppleness of the different
+organs, thus procured, that nature seems, in woman, to avoid, or to
+destroy, every hurtful effort.</p>
+
+<p>It is observed, moreover, that certain parts, naturally more loose,
+receive into all their vessels a more considerable quantity of liquid, and
+assume a particular enlargement, at the moment when their sympathy with
+the uterus causes them to enter into action in concert with it; and it is
+also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> observed that they dilate more easily during pregnancy.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus, then, that nature gives to all the parts of woman that
+suppleness which renders her capable of easily yielding to the great
+revolutions which affect her organization in regard to reproduction, as
+well as mark the different periods of her life.</p>
+
+<p>The great development of the cellular and fatty tissue in woman is
+illustrated by the remarkable fact, that anciently the Romans, in order to
+burn the bodies of dead men, were obliged to join to them those of women,
+the fat of which greatly facilitated combustion.</p>
+
+<p>Now, with the great purposes described above, beauty is naturally
+associated. It is principally this excess of the cellular and fatty
+tissues which gives to the members of woman those round and beautiful
+outlines, that soft and polished surface, which the body of man does not
+possess.</p>
+
+<p>In every part, however, of the human figure, as observed by Reynolds,
+&#8220;when not spoiled by too great corpulency, will be found distinctness, the
+parts never appearing uncertain or confused, or as a musician would say,
+slurred; and all those smaller parts which are comprehended in the larger
+compartment are still found to be there, however marked.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now, while all this is the case, it appears that the true skin is much
+thinner and more delicate in woman than in man, and that it derives more
+or less of its clear whiteness from the quantity of fat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> which is below
+it; for meagerness inevitably tarnishes and dries it. Hence, to possess a
+fine, soft, white, and fresh skin, it is also indispensable to possess
+plumpness.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to this purer white, it must also be observed, that
+transpiration, which might soil it, appears to be much less abundant in
+woman; and that the liver or vein-relieving gland, is very large. The
+excretions of the skin in women are indeed chiefly limited to certain
+parts; and it is thence that it has, in various parts, an odor which a
+French writer observes &#8220;it is difficult to describe, but which an
+exercised sense of smell easily succeeds in distinguishing in women who
+fully enjoy all the attributes of their sex, and who are women even in the
+atmosphere which exhales from them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>While the skin is thus more white in women, it is also more transparent.
+The reticular tissue, or substance interposed between the true skin and
+scarf-skin, appears to have more clearness and turgescence, especially on
+the face, where, under the influence of various emotions, it easily
+permits a passage to the blood, as we see in blushing. It is in youth that
+this turgescence and clearness are most evident.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, the skin in woman less conceals the veins, of which the color, only
+enfeebled or modified by the skin, &#8220;gives all those shades of azure which
+the charmed eye follows with so much pleasure on the surface of the bosom
+and of all the parts where the skin has least of thickness.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>All this constitutes freshness, or animation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> which is nearly synonymous
+with health, and without which there is no beauty. When that quality, as
+observed by Roussel, &#8220;is wanting, all other attractions strike but feebly,
+because the prompt judgment, which instinct suggests, warns us that the
+woman whose person does not present all the characters of perfect health,
+is in a disposition little favorable to the plan of nature, relatively to
+the maintenance of the species.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The whiteness and the animation of the skin, however, do not alone
+constitute its beauty: there is still another quality which is absolutely
+necessary to it. This is the softness and the polish which, as the reader
+has seen, is one of the first conditions of physical beauty. In woman,
+this is probably derived from a slight degree of oleaginous secretion.
+Hence, she has few asperities of the skin, especially on the surface of
+the bosom, and other parts, where the skin is excessively smooth.</p>
+
+<p>Brown women, who probably have more of this oleaginous secretion, are said
+to possess in a greater degree the polish of skin which gives impressions
+so agreeable to the organ of touch; and hence, Winckelmann has said that
+persons who prefer brown women to fair ones allow themselves to be
+captivated by the touch rather than the sight. There is reason, however,
+to doubt the accuracy of this. Brown women appear to have greater
+softness, but less smoothness of skin.</p>
+
+<p>The body of woman is nearly deprived of hairs upon all parts, except the
+head, axill&aelig;, &amp;c.; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> the hair of her head is generally long, fine, and
+flexible.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity and the color of the hair are always in relation to the
+constitution of the individual to which it belongs, and generally to the
+temperature of the place. The people of northern countries have the hair
+of a silken fineness and of surprising length.</p>
+
+<p>The hair which is most admired is not only very fine and flexible, but
+light colored. Fair golden hair was, of all its teints, that which the
+ancient artists preferred.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the hair of the head whitens and falls later than in man.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that, in regard to the hair, the distinctive characters of
+the sexes should not always have been preserved. Though nature gives long
+hair to woman, it has sometimes been the fashion to wear it short; and
+though man has naturally shorter hair, it has sometimes been the fashion
+to cherish its growth, and to shave the beard from his face. The latter
+has especially been the case in degenerate and effeminate times; and this
+has sometimes been accompanied by remarkable consequences.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest misfortunes, says a French writer, which France ever
+had to lament, the divorce of Louis le Jeune from Elinor of Guyenne,
+resulted from the fashion, which this prince wished to introduce, of
+shaving his chin and cropping his head. The queen, his wife, who appears
+to have possessed, with a masculine beauty, considerable acuteness of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+intellect, observed with some displeasure, that she imagined herself to
+have espoused a monarch, not a monk. The obstinacy of Louis in shaving
+himself, and the horror conceived by Elinor at the sight of a beardless
+chin, occasioned France the loss of those fine provinces which constituted
+the dowry of this princess; and which, devolving to England by a second
+marriage, became the source of wars which desolated France during four
+hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>The habit of wearing the beard is a manly and noble one. Nature made it
+distinctive of the male and female; and its abandonment has commonly been
+accompanied not only by periods of general effeminacy, but even by the
+decline and fall of states. They were bearded Romans who conquered the
+then beardless Greeks; they were bearded Goths who vanquished the then
+beardless Romans; and they are bearded Tartars who now promise once more
+to inundate the regions occupied by the shaven and effeminate people of
+western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In farther illustration of the manliness of this habit we may observe,
+that throughout Europe, wars have generally led to its temporary and
+partial introduction, as at the present day. Those assuredly blunder, who
+ridicule the wearing of the beard. Silly affectation, on the contrary, is
+imputable only to those who, by removing the beard, take the trouble so
+far to emasculate themselves! and who think themselves beautified by an
+unnatural imitation of the smoother face of woman!</p>
+
+<p>As appendages of the skin, the nails may here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> be noticed. Their beauty
+consists in their figure, their surface, and their color.</p>
+
+<p>By their figure, they serve as a defence to the delicate extremities of
+the fingers, which would otherwise be easily hurt against hard bodies.
+They form at once shields and supporting arches to the fingers; and they
+give facility in laying hold of bodies which would escape from their
+smallness. They ought accordingly to be arched, and to extend as far as
+the flesh which terminates the fingers.&mdash;The form of the nails depends
+much on the care employed in cutting them during infancy, and still more
+on the mode of employing the hand.</p>
+
+<p>The nails ought also to be smooth and polished, somewhat transparent, and
+rose-colored. Their rosy color seems to show that their texture has less
+density and more transparence.</p>
+
+<p>It is in this view of the nutritive system and the characteristics which
+render it beautiful, and especially after this portion of it which regards
+the organs and functions of secretion, that the mamm&aelig; and their beauty
+should be considered.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the bust is smaller and more rounded than in man; and it is
+distinguished by the volume and the elegant form of the bosom.</p>
+
+<p>The external and elevated position of the mamm&aelig; is by far the most
+suitable for a nursling, which, no longer deriving subsistence from within
+the mother, nor yet able of itself to find it without, must be gently and
+softly borne toward her; an admirable position, says a French writer,
+&#8220;which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> in keeping the infant under the eyes and in the arms of the
+mother, establishes between them an interesting exchange of tenderness, of
+cares, and of innocent caresses, which enables the one the better to
+express its wants, and the other to enjoy the sacrifices which she makes,
+in continually contemplating their object.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>According to Buffon, in order that the mamm&aelig; be well placed, it is
+necessary that the space between them should be as great as that from the
+mamm&aelig; to the middle of the depression between the clavicles, so that these
+three points form an equilateral triangle.</p>
+
+<p>The two portions of the mamm&aelig; should be well detached. The whole presents,
+in beautiful models, more elegance than volume; and the areola, it may be
+observed, is red in fair women and deeper colored in brown ones.</p>
+
+<p>Winckelmann observes that, in the antique statues, the mamm&aelig; terminate
+gently in a point, and that they have always virginal forms, as a
+consequence of the system of the ancient artists, which consists in not
+recalling in the ideal the wants and the accidents of humanity.</p>
+
+<p>Finally on this particular head, I must observe that the reproduction of
+the species is, in woman, the most important object of life, and that
+every thing in her physical organization has evident reference to it. Of
+all the passions in woman, says Richerand, &#8220;love has the greatest sway: it
+has even been said to be her only passion. All the others are modified by
+it, and receive from it a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> peculiar cast, which distinguishes them from
+those of man.... Fontenelle used to say of the devotion of some women,
+&#8216;One may see that love has been here.&#8217; It has been said, in speaking of
+St. Theresa, &#8216;<i>To love God, is still to love</i>.&#8217; Thomas maintains that,
+&#8216;With women a man is more than a nation.&#8217;&mdash;&#8216;Love,&#8217; says Madame de Stael,
+&#8216;is but an episode in the life of man; it is the whole history of the life
+of woman.&#8217;&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">THIRD MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the secreting vessels being active, not only cause the plumpness,
+&amp;c., necessary to beauty, but furnish the mammary and uterine secretions,
+on which progeny is dependant. This must inevitably be followed by
+moderate excretions.</p>
+
+<p>It should not pass unobserved that there exist, in some women, a fair skin
+and dark hair, forming a rather extraordinary and striking combination. As
+such women have the skin remarkably smooth and moist, this is probably
+connected with some peculiarity of secretion and excretion.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>It is evidently the <span class="smcaplc">UNION</span> of all that is good in these varieties which
+renders beauty in the vital system perfect.</p>
+
+<p>This union is nowhere so frequently to be seen, as in England and in
+Holland.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that cleanliness among women seems necessarily to increase
+with the development of this system; and that, in general slovenliness and
+filth increase as we pass from England<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> and Holland, toward France, Italy,
+Spain, and Portugal, even among women of the highest condition.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>Of the temperaments of the ancients, which, as already said, are only
+partial views of some of the varieties I am now describing, two, the
+<i>phlegmatic temperament</i> and the <i>sanguine temperament</i>, appear to belong
+fundamentally to <i>this species</i>. It has been supposed, that the first
+affects the absorbent, the second the circulating system. They appear to
+me to be exactly opposite affections of the whole nutritive system at
+least.</p>
+
+<p>The phlegmatic temperament may exist in both sexes. The causes which tend
+to develop it, are infancy, humidity with cold, the absence of light,
+indolence, and the feeble influence of the reproductive functions upon the
+general system.</p>
+
+<p>In this temperament, there exists an excess in the proportions of the
+absorbent vessels; the pulse is weak, slow, and soft; there is a
+turgescence of the cellular tissue, and a more marked development of the
+glands; the internal stimulants, having less energy than in the other
+temperaments, life is less active, and all its actions are more or less
+languid; even the uterus is not endowed with suitable energy.</p>
+
+<p>But these characteristics are not confined to the nutritive system: they
+extend to the thinking one. The attention is not continuous; the
+perceptions succeed with some difficulty; the memory is not to be trusted;
+the imagination is weak; and the propensities, the appetites, and the
+passions, are so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> languid, as to be scarcely capable of troubling the
+quietude and the indolence which depend on such a constitution.</p>
+
+<p>These characteristics of the phlegmatic temperament, present to us forms
+more rounded and less expressive, a general softness, a feeble color of
+the skin, a sort of etiolation, a pale countenance, a light and abundant
+hair, and, generally, an insurmountable inclination to sloth, averse alike
+to labors of the mind and body.</p>
+
+<p>It has been observed, that the sanguine temperament, so generally met with
+among northern nations, is the necessary consequence of the continual and
+very energetic reaction of the powers of circulation, against the effects
+of external cold; that it is only by the constant activity of the heart
+and vessels that calorification can be effected with the necessary vigor:
+and that the effects of this redoubled action are the same to the organs
+of circulation as to the muscles, under the influence of volition;
+exertion in both increasing the power of the organs exerted.</p>
+
+<p>In the sanguine temperament, the lymphatic, circulating, and secreting
+systems appear to be in a sort of equilibrium; the chest is larger, and
+the lungs more voluminous; the circulation is more rapid, the arterial
+predominance is obvious; the pulse is sharp, frequent, and regular; the
+complexion is ruddy; all the vital actions are extremely easy; and the
+health is rarely altered.</p>
+
+<p>The mental functions correspond. The conception is quick; the memory is
+prompt; the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>imagination is lively; the judgment has more readiness than
+depth and extent; the mind, easily affected by the impressions of outward
+objects, passes rapidly from one idea to another; the tastes,
+propensities, appetites, passions, are equally ephemeral; and there is
+much activity, but the strength is soon exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>In persons of this temperament, the countenance is animated; the hair is
+fair, and inclining to chestnut; the shape is good; the form is softened,
+though distinct; and the muscles are of tolerable consistence, and
+moderate development. The whole appearance is generally so amiable, that
+this temperament may be called that of health, beauty, and happiness.</p>
+
+<p>In the women who present the attributes of their sex with the greatest
+unity, we distinguish, especially during youth and adult age, the traits
+of the sanguine temperament, which may be regarded as the most suitable to
+the organization of woman.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+<h3>THIRD SPECIES OF BEAUTY&mdash;BEAUTY OF THE THINKING SYSTEM.</h3>
+
+<p>In woman, the organs of sense are proportionally larger, and the
+sensibility is more quick and delicate than in man.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, also, the mental quickness and delicacy of woman are greater. Her
+perceptions succeed with rapidity and intenseness; and the last of them
+generally predominates. In well-organized women, accordingly, the forehead
+and the observing faculties are peculiarly developed.</p>
+
+<p>The general nervous system of woman is likewise far more mobile than that
+of man.</p>
+
+<p>Beauty of the thinking system in woman depends especially upon these
+fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure, which thus
+distinguish her from man.</p>
+
+<p>In the woman possessing <span class="smcaplc">THIS SPECIES</span> of beauty, accordingly, the greater
+development of its upper part gives to the head, in every view, a pyriform
+appearance;&mdash;the face is generally oval;&mdash;the high and pale forehead
+announces the excellence of the observing faculties;&mdash;the intensely
+expressive eye is full of sensibility;&mdash;in the lower features, modesty and
+dignity are often united;&mdash;she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> has not the expanded bosom, the general
+plumpness, or the beautiful complexion, of the second species of
+beauty;&mdash;and she boasts easy and graceful motion, rather than the elegant
+proportion of the first.&mdash;The whole figure is characterized by
+intellectuality and grace.</p>
+
+<p>This species of beauty is less proper to woman, less feminine, than the
+preceding. It is not the intellectual system, but the vital one, which is,
+and ought to be most developed in woman.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>In woman, the nervous extremities appear to be larger than in man; a pulpy
+appearance is more remarkable in them; and the papill&aelig; in which they
+terminate, appear to have less rigidity.</p>
+
+<p>The organs of sense are proportionally larger, and more delicately
+outlined. There is indeed in woman more development in the organs of
+sensation, than in that of understanding, reasoning, and judging; while
+the contrary is the case in man. The sensations, accordingly, are in woman
+more acute, and their minute differences are more easily discerned. Man
+reflects more than he feels: woman always feels more than she reflects.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">FIRST MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the organs of sense is proportionally large, and
+the sensibility greater.</p>
+
+<p>It ought to be observed, that though, in woman, when well organized, the
+whole head is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>proportionally less than in man, yet, the organs of sense
+will be found to be proportionally larger. This sufficiently indicates the
+importance of such proportional development. Upon it, indeed, depend that
+increased sensibility and quickness of observation, which are essential to
+the female character.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>Of all parts of the brain in woman, when well formed, the forehead,
+especially, is found to be large. Without this, she would have sensibility
+without observation, a most unhappy condition of the nervous system.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the brain partakes of the softness of all the other parts of her
+structure. The cellular tissue which covers it, and which descends between
+its convolutions, is more abundant, mucous, and loose.</p>
+
+<p>The mind, correspondingly, is more impressed by any new object of thought;
+the whole nervous system is more extensively affected by impressions on
+the brain; the propensity to emotion is stronger, and women are more
+habitually under its influence.</p>
+
+<p>The intimate connexion of the thinking, with a peculiar modification of
+the reproductive faculties, inspires in woman the want of maternity, which
+is more powerful than life, and which renders her capable of every
+sacrifice. Associated with this, are her affection, tenderness, and
+compassion.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole, sensibility in woman is greater than understanding; the
+involuntary play of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> imagination, more active than its regulated
+combinations; and passion, generally of the gentler kind, predominates
+rather than resolve or determination. She has, therefore, more finesse and
+activity, than depth or force of thought; and her nervous system is also
+more frequently deranged by accidents unknown to man.</p>
+
+<p>The extent of the brain, anteriorly, is measured by the different degrees
+of the opening of an angle, which Camper has called the facial angle; and
+so far it is favorable to woman well conformed; but it gives no notion of
+the magnitude of the brain superiorly, posteriorly, or laterally.<small><a name="f38.1" id="f38.1" href="#f38">[38]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>The brain of woman, however, in general, extends a good deal posteriorly
+as well as anteriorly, though it narrows in the former of these
+directions; and, to the proportional length thus acquired, is owing that
+intensity in her functions, which I have just described. Superiorly,
+centrally, and laterally, the brain of woman is generally much less than
+that of man; and hence the want of elevation, depth, and endurance, in her
+mental faculties.<small><a name="f39.1" id="f39.1" href="#f39">[39]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole, the brain of woman is less than that of man, and it is
+especially less in its superior, central, and, intellectually considered,
+more important portions.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">SECOND MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> the brain is proportionally small. This is an
+evident corollary from what we have just stated as to the first
+modification of this species; for it is not possible that the organs of
+sense should be proportionally large, without the rest of the head being
+proportionally small.</p>
+
+<p>This is not quite conformable with the wishes of phrenology; but we must
+leave any dispute between that art and nature to its own issue. A Venus,
+moreover, with a small, yet beautifully proportioned head, is often seen
+to be the mother of a boy who has a large head; the difference of sex
+causing a vast modification and difference of development.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>From what has been already said, it may be concluded that, in action or
+conduct, women are less guided by intellect, and are more biased by
+feeling and emotion; and it may also be concluded, that all their
+movements to fulfil the purposes of feeling and emotion, are made in a
+manner more easy and more prompt, though less sustained. This is increased
+by the ready obedience of the muscular fibre, and the relative shortness
+of the stature.</p>
+
+<p>This more easy and less forcible action is perfectly conformable
+physically with the small and elongated form of the cerebel, or organ of
+the will, in woman; as it is morally with the part which woman performs in
+life, and her desire to please, while it is that of man to protect and to
+defend.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>Conformably with the smaller size of the cerebel, and especially with its
+smaller breadth (the influence of which is explained in the work last
+referred to), the disposition of woman to sustained exertion, whether
+mental or bodily, is much less; and hence the character &#8220;<i>varium et
+mutabile semper f&oelig;mina</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is, then, the prompt and easily-affected sensibility of woman, not her
+understanding or force of mind, which renders her so eminently fit to be
+interested in infancy, which enables her to surmount maternal pains by the
+sentiment of affection and pity, and which makes agreeable to her the
+cares and the details of housekeeping; and it is this which sometimes
+renders nothing too irksome or too painful for a mother, a wife, or a
+mistress, to endure.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, the constitution of woman is perfectly adapted to these functions;
+hence, her existence is more sedentary than man&#8217;s; hence, she has more
+gentleness of character than he; and hence, she is less acquainted with
+great crimes.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">THIRD MODIFICATION</span>, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the cerebel or organ of the will, as well as the
+muscles which it actuates, is proportionally small.</p>
+
+<p>The situation of this considerable organ is in the back and lower part of
+the head, and may be pretty accurately indicated by saying, that a line
+passing through it would complete, posteriorly, a longer line passing
+backward from the nose through the lower part of the ear.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>When this organ, which is that of the will, is high, and more especially
+when it is large, a determination and force seem to be given by it to the
+character, which render it the reverse of feminine.</p>
+
+<p>Having spoken here of the ready exercise of the will in woman, and its
+adaptation to her wish to please, it seems to be here that some
+circumstances dependant on these should be noticed.</p>
+
+<p>With this ready exercise of the will and desire to please, are evidently
+connected the light carelessness, the graceful ease, and the gentle
+softness, which add so much to the power of beauty. Hence, artists give to
+woman the bending form which associates so well with all her
+characteristics; for all feel with Hogarth that undulating lines are more
+or less formed in all movements executed with the intention of expressing
+sentiments of courtesy, respect, benevolence, or love.</p>
+
+<p>But it is grace that we must especially consider here&mdash;grace which
+directly emanates from this ready exercise of the will and desire to
+please, especially when combined with observing faculties so perfect and
+so perpetually active as those of woman.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Gracefulness,&#8221; says Burke, &#8220;is an idea not very different from beauty; it
+consists in much the same thing.... Gracefulness is an idea belonging to
+posture and motion. In both these, to be graceful, it is requisite that
+there be no appearance of difficulty; there is required a small inflexion
+of the body; and a composure of the parts in such a manner, as not to
+encumber each other, nor to appear divided by sharp and sudden angles. In
+this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> ease, this roundness, this delicacy of attitude and motion, it is
+that all the magic of grace consists, and what is called &#8216;<i>je ne scais
+quoi</i>.&#8217;&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is not in these mere physical qualities, that all the magic of grace
+consists, which, in the state of Burke&#8217;s knowledge, he might indeed well
+call &#8220;<i>je ne scais quoi</i>!&#8221; Let the reader hear what is said on this
+subject by a man who could look a little deeper than Burke, and who owed
+no fame to the little art of substituting a flash of words for depth of
+thought, and serving by it a venal purpose as little as the art itself.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;What grace,&#8221; says Smith, &#8220;what noble propriety do we not feel in the
+conduct of those who exert that recollection and self-command which
+constitute the dignity of every passion, and which bring it down to what
+others can enter into! We are disgusted with that clamorous grief, which,
+without any delicacy, calls upon our compassion with sighs and tears, and
+importunate lamentation. But we reverence that reserved, that silent and
+majestic sorrow, which discovers itself only in the swelling of the eyes,
+in the quivering of the lips and cheeks, and in the distant, but affecting
+address of the whole behavior. It imposes the like silence upon us; we
+regard it with respectful attention, and watch over our whole behavior,
+lest, by any impropriety, we should disturb that concerted tranquillity
+which it requires so great an effort to support.&#8221; This is eloquence,
+indeed.</p>
+
+<p>Alison duly appreciates this earliest definition of grace. &#8220;It is,&#8221; he
+says, &#8220;this &#8216;recollection and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> self-command,&#8217; which in such scenes
+constitute what even in common language is called the graceful in behavior
+or deportment; and it is the expression of the same qualities in the
+attitude and gesture, which constitutes, in my apprehension, the grace of
+such gestures or attitudes.... Wherever, in the movements of the form,
+self-command or self-possession is expressed, some degree of grace, at
+least, is always produced.... Whenever in such motions grace is actually
+perceived, I think it will always be found to be in slow, and, if I may
+use the expression, in restrained or measured motions.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The motions of the horse, when wild in the pasture, are beautiful; when
+urged to his speed, and straining for victory, they may be felt as
+sublime; but it is chiefly in movements of a different kind that we feel
+them as graceful, when, in the impatience of the field, or in the
+curvetting of the manege, he seems to be conscious of all the powers with
+which he is animated, and yet to restrain them, from some principle of
+beneficence or of dignity. Every movement of the stag almost is beautiful,
+from the fineness of his form and the ease of his gestures; yet it is not
+in these or in the heat of the chase that he is graceful: it is when he
+pauses upon some eminence in the pursuit, when he erects his crested head,
+and when, looking with disdain upon the enemy who follows, he bounds to
+the freedom of his hills. It is not, in the same manner, in the rapid
+speed of the eagle when he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> darts upon his prey, that we perceive the
+grace of which his motions are capable. It is when he soars slowly upward
+to the sun, or when he wheels with easy and continuous motion in airy
+circles in the sky.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the personification which we naturally give to all inanimate objects
+which are susceptible of movement, we may easily perceive the influence of
+the same association. We speak commonly, for instance, of the graceful
+motions of trees, and of the graceful movements of a river. It is never,
+however, when these motions are violent or extreme, that we apply to them
+the term of grace. It is the gentle waving of the tree in slow and
+measured cadence which is graceful, not the tossing of its branches amid
+the storm. It is the slow and easy winding which is graceful in the
+movements of the river, and not the burst of the cataract, or the fury of
+the torrent.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is only in the perfection of the human system, in the age when the
+form has assumed all its powers, and the mind is awake to the
+consciousness of all the capacities it possesses, and the lofty
+obligations they impose, that the reign of physical grace commences; and
+that the form is capable of expressing, under the dominion of every
+passion or emotion, the high and habitual superiority which it possesses,
+either to the allurements of pleasure or the apprehensions of pain. It is
+this age, accordingly, which the artists of antiquity have uniformly
+represented, when they sought to display the perfection of grace, and when
+they succeeded in leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> their compositions as models of this perfection
+to every succeeding age.&#8221;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>It is evidently the <span class="smcaplc">UNION</span> of all that is good in the varieties now
+described which renders beauty, in the thinking system, perfect.</p>
+
+<p>This is well illustrated in the Minerva of the Giustiniani gallery, which,
+in this respect, is scarcely the less valuable because it is draped, for
+it is the head that ever bears the greatest impress of intellectuality.</p>
+
+<p>This union is by no means perfect in the English female head, although,
+from the considerable development of the forehead and the moderate one of
+the backhead, the general form of that head is beautiful. As to the French
+female head, a Frenchman, writing under the name of Count Stendhal,
+scruples not to say: &#8220;The form of the head in Paris is ugly; the cranium
+approaches to that of the ape; and this occasions the women to have the
+appearance of age very early in life.&#8221; The women of Paris differ not, in
+this respect, from those of France generally. Nearly all have the
+character here described.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>It is under this species that the <i>nervous temperament</i> falls, which is
+constituted by great sensibility and corresponding mobility, and therefore
+belongs to the <i>first and the last of those varieties</i>; a temperament
+chiefly to be found among women.</p>
+
+<p>This temperament scarcely exists in the athletic, is weak in the
+phlegmatic, is moderate in the sanguine, and is rather active in the
+bilious.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>It is characterized by the smallness and the emaciation of the muscles,
+the quickness and intensity of the sensations, and the suddenness and
+fickleness of the determinations.</p>
+
+<p>It is seldom natural, but commonly depends on a sedentary and inactive
+life, on a diseased condition of the brain produced by reading works of
+imagination, and on habits of sensual indulgence. In confirmation of this,
+we are told that the Roman ladies became subject to nervous affections
+only in consequence of those depraved manners which marked the decline of
+the empire; and that these affections were extremely common in France in
+the licentious times preceding the fall of the corrupt and corrupting
+monarchy.</p>
+
+<p>Another partial view falling under this species, and properly under the
+<i>second variety</i>, is the <i>cerebral temperament</i>, which results from the
+energy and influence of the brain.</p>
+
+<p>This temperament, being thus determined by an excess in the power of the
+brain, has been called the temperament of genius. When it is increased by
+education and habits, the other organs are generally more feeble.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the cerebral temperament is more particularly characterized by a
+predominance of imagination, which is evidently dependant on the
+organization which has already been described.</p>
+
+<p>It has been truly observed, that to contribute to the perfection of reason
+as well as to the preservation of health, the brain ought to be exercised
+and developed in every direction; that the mere <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>exercise of memory
+carried too far renders persons foolish; that the predominance of
+imagination disposes to nervous affections, and even to alienation; that
+meditation alters the digestive functions; and that the dry and minute
+contention which business requires, disposes, when joined to a defect of
+exercise (and I may add the vinous excesses in which men of business
+indulge), to apoplexy and to paralysis.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+<h3>BEAUTY OF THE FACE IN PARTICULAR.</h3>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is probable,&#8221; says Dr. Prichard, &#8220;that the natural idea of the
+beautiful in the human person has been more or less distorted in almost
+every nation. Peculiar characters of countenance, in many countries,
+accidentally enter into the ideal standard. This observation has been made
+particularly of the negroes of Africa, who are said to consider a flat
+nose and thick lips as principal ingredients of beauty; and we are
+informed by Pallas that the Kalmucs<small><a name="f40.1" id="f40.1" href="#f40">[40]</a></small> esteem no face as handsome, which
+has not the eyes in angular position, and the other characteristics of
+their race. The Aztecs of Mexico have ever preferred a depressed
+forehead,<small><a name="f41.1" id="f41.1" href="#f41">[41]</a></small> which forms the strongest contrast to the majestic contour
+of the Grecian busts: the former represented their divinities with a head
+more flattened than it is ever seen among the Caribs, and the Greeks, on
+the contrary, gave to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> their gods and heroes a still more unnatural
+elevation.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Knowing, as the reader now does, what constitutes the worth, the dignity,
+and the beauty, of the various organs, this statement tends to show the
+value of that standard of beauty which we owe to the Greeks. I proceed to
+illustrate it in regard to the <span class="smcaplc">FACE</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty of the human countenance is described by various writers, as
+including the beauty of form, in the various features of the face; the
+beauty of color, in the shades of the complexion; the beauty of character,
+in some distinctive and permanent relations; and the beauty of expression,
+in some immediate and temporary feeling.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the form of the face, considered as a whole, the opening of
+the facial angle of Camper, in measuring geometrically the extent of the
+upper part of the head, marks the development of the brain or organ of
+thought, and shows the proportion which it bears to the middle and lower
+part of the face, or to the organs of sense and expression.</p>
+
+<p>This development of the upper part of the head contributes essentially to
+beauty, by giving to the whole head that pyriform appearance already
+described, by which in every view it is larger at the superior part,
+diminishes gradually as it descends, and terminates by the agreeable
+outline of the chin.</p>
+
+<p>In the most beautiful race of men, the facial angle extends to eighty-five
+degrees, acquiring an <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>increase of ten degrees above the inferior
+varieties; the face is diminished; the eyes are better placed; the nose
+assumes a more elegant form; and all appearance of muzzle vanishes.</p>
+
+<p>In the Greek ideal head, the development presenting a facial angle of
+ninety degrees, confers the highest beauty of the form of the head, the
+majesty of the forehead, the position of the eyes upon a line which
+divides the face into two equal parts, the elegant projection of the nose,
+the absence of all tumidity of the lips.&mdash;But of that, in the sequel.</p>
+
+<p>In the face, generally, as observed by Winckelmann, beauty of form depends
+greatly upon the profile, and particularly on the line described by the
+forehead and nose, by the greater or less degree of the concavity or
+declivity of which, beauty is increased or diminished. The nearer the
+profile approaches to a straight line, the more majestic, and at the same
+time softer, does the countenance appear, the unity and simplicity of this
+line being, as in everything else, the cause of this grand, yet soft
+harmony.</p>
+
+<p>The face being the seat of several organs, each must be examined in its
+turn.</p>
+
+<p>Winckelmann observes, that &#8220;a large high <span class="smcaplc">FOREHEAD</span> [an excess, in this
+respect] was regarded by the ancients as a deformity.&#8221;&mdash;And &#8220;Arnobius
+says, that those women who had a high forehead, covered a part of it with
+a fillet.&#8221; The reason of this will afterward be pointed out.</p>
+
+<p>The sense of <span class="smcaplc">TOUCH</span> resides in all parts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
+face, but especially in the lips. It is most perfect, however, at the tips of the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>A thinner skin permits to the touch of woman, more vivacity, delicacy, and
+profoundness. It seizes the details which generally escape the touch of
+man. It is more easily hurt by hard, rough and angular, cold or hot
+bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, woman requires vestments which are light and smooth; and she enjoys
+more than man the pleasure of reposing on flocculent substances which
+softly resist her pressure.</p>
+
+<p>In the face, the lips are peculiarly the organ of touch.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the organs of sense, the mouth admits, I believe, of the greatest
+beauty and the greatest deformity. Considered in repose, nothing certainly
+is more lovely than this organ when beautifully formed in a beautiful
+woman. And in action, during speech, the simplest words passing through it
+receive a charm altogether peculiar.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth ought to be small, and not to extend much beyond the nostrils: a
+large mouth and thick lips are contrary to beauty. The curve of the upper
+lip is said to have served as a model to the ancient artists for the bow
+of Love. The lower lip should be most developed, rounded and turned
+outward; so as to produce, between it and the chin, that beautiful hollow
+which assists so much in giving the latter a more perfect rotundity. Both,
+but especially the upper, should become thin toward the angle of the
+mouth.</p>
+
+<p>Although we see many lips without evident and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> offensive defects, there
+are very few of them really beautiful; and indeed it is only persons of
+great delicacy and of refined taste who attach the highest value to
+perfect beauty of the lips.</p>
+
+<p>Lips of beautiful form and of vermillion hue, teeth which are small,
+equal, slightly rounded, white, clean, and well arranged, and a pure
+breath, are the circumstances which constitute a beautiful mouth.</p>
+
+<p>The sense of <span class="smcaplc">TASTE</span> is more delicate and more exquisite in woman than in
+man. She accordingly seeks for savors which are less rough and irritating
+than those which are agreeable to him.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcaplc">NOSE</span> is the most prominent and conspicuous feature of the face; it is
+the central fixed point around which are arranged all its other parts; and
+it is thus essential to the regularity of the features. When these,
+moreover, are in action, the nose, by its immobility, marks the degree of
+change which they undergo, and renders intelligible all the movements
+produced by admiration, joy, sadness, fear, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>To perfect beauty of the nose, it is necessary that it should be nearly in
+the same direction with the forehead, and should unite with that part,
+without leaving more than a slight inflexion to be seen. This constitutes
+the Greek profile; and the various degrees of deviation from it
+constitute, as to this organ, the various degenerations from beauty the
+most consummate to ugliness the most disgusting.</p>
+
+<p>Nature says Winckelmann, is sparing of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> beauty both in burning
+climates and in frozen regions.<small><a name="f42.1" id="f42.1" href="#f42">[42]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>The same writer says: &#8220;The flat compressed nose of the Kalmucs, Chinese,
+and other distant nations, is also a defect, because it destroys the
+harmony of forms, according to which all the other parts are constructed:
+nor is there any reason why nature should compress and hollow it, instead
+of continuing the straight line begun in the forehead.&#8221; The fact is true;
+the reasoning false, as will be seen in a subsequent chapter, to which
+this point properly belongs.</p>
+
+<p>Under the influence of passion, the nostrils expand and are drawn upward;
+and these two motions are the only ones of which the lower and moveable
+part of the nose is capable.</p>
+
+<p>The sense of smell, like that of taste, is more delicate and more
+exquisite in woman than in man. Woman accordingly enjoys more, and suffers
+more, by that sense than man does; and its influence is said to dispose
+her more than man to those pleasures which have remarkable relations to
+that sense.</p>
+
+<p>To beauty of the <span class="smcaplc">EYE</span>, magnitude and elongated form contribute more perhaps
+than color: if its form be bad, no color will render it beautiful. In
+woman, however, the most beautiful eyes, in relation to color, are those
+which appear to be blue,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> hazel, or black. But no color of the eye is
+beautiful without clearness in every part.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The more obliquely, and at an angle to each other,&#8221; says Winckelmann,
+&#8220;that the eyes are placed, as in cats, the more their position is removed
+from the base, or from the fundamental lines of the human face, which form
+a cross that divides it into four parts, the nose dividing it
+perpendicularly into two equal parts, and the eyes dividing it
+horizontally. When the eyes are placed obliquely, they form an angle with
+a line parallel to that which we suppose to pass through their centre. And
+this indeed is doubtless the reason why it displeases us to see a mouth
+which goes awry, because it generally offends the eye to see two lines
+diverging from each other without any reason. Thus eyes placed obliquely,
+as may be seen sometimes among ourselves, and commonly among the Chinese,
+Japanese, and in Egyptian heads, are an irregularity and a deformity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Here, again, Winckelmann&#8217;s fact is true, and his reasoning false, or
+rather, perhaps, superficial. The real cause of the deformity of
+obliquely-placed eyes is, that the vital parts of the head preponderate.
+The cavities of the upper jaw, which open into the internal nose, are, in
+the Mongelic races, so large, that they raise the cheek-bones, throw the
+orbit upward at its lateral part, and encroach apparently upon the space
+which should contain a nobler organ, the brain. The causes assigned by
+Winckelmann are but consequences of this.</p>
+
+<p>The eyelids in woman, when well formed, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>present the gentlest inflexions.
+The eyelashes, when long and silky, form a sign of gentleness, and
+sometimes of softness. The eyebrows ought to be furnished with fine hairs,
+arched, and separated: if they are too thin, they do not sufficiently
+protect the organ of sight: if they unite, they render the physiognomy
+sombre; their too-marked approximation, and their extreme separation, are
+real deformities.</p>
+
+<p>The sense of sight in woman is rapid and active; yet, in her, the slow and
+languid motion of the eye is generally employed, and is more beautiful
+than a brisk one. Woman requires a mild light, and colors of moderate
+vividness, rather than otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty of the <span class="smcaplc">EAR</span> is too little regarded. To an experienced eye it
+presents great beauties, and great deformities, in form, magnitude, and
+projection.</p>
+
+<p>The size and prominence of the ear, which characterize several nomadic
+tribes, are contrary to beauty, not merely because they alter the
+regularity of the oval of the head, and surcharge its outline with
+prominences, but because they are in themselves ugly, indicating rather
+the coarse strength common to inferior animals than the delicacy to be
+found in man.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the ear is also more delicate, more sensible, but more feeble,
+than in man. Strong sounds, loud noises, which may be agreeable to the ear
+of man, are offensive to her. She prefers soft<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> and tender, gay, or
+pathetic music, to every other; and whatever may be the perfection of her
+musical education, she also prefers sweet and tender melody to the most
+complicated Sclavonic harmony.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the organs of sense or those of impression, which form the first
+and most important portion of the face of woman.&mdash;The organs of
+expression, the <span class="smcaplc">MUSCLES</span> of the face, on the contrary, are feeble in her;
+and correspondingly feeble and rounded are the bony points to which they
+are attached.</p>
+
+<p>Woman presents very little prominence of the frontal sinuses; the
+cheek-bones display beautiful curves; the edges of the alveoli containing
+the teeth are much more elliptical than in man; and the chin is softly
+rounded. Of the chin, it should be observed that it is a distinctive
+character of the human species, and is not found in any other animal. When
+well formed, it is full, united, and generally without a dimple; and it
+passes gently and almost insensibly into the neighboring parts. In woman
+especially, the chin ought to be finely rounded; for when projecting, it
+expresses, owing to its connexion with muscular action and power, a
+firmness and a determination which we do not wish to discover in her
+character. &#8220;The apparent convexity of the cheeks,&#8221; says Winckelmann,
+&#8220;which in many heads appears greater than natural, contributes to this
+rotundity: it is not, however, ideal, but taken from natural beauty.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The muscles of the face express all the shades of emotion and passion, not
+because such expression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> is the primary, or the proper object of their
+motion, but because their various motions adapt the organs to the farther
+purposes required of them in consequence of preceding impressions; and
+these motions become expressive to us only because we are thus enabled to
+infer the feeling and purpose of the person in whom they occur. This is a
+fundamental principle of physiognomy; and its not being understood has led
+to many of our errors in that science.</p>
+
+<p>In woman, the countenance is more rounded, as well as more abundantly
+furnished with that cellular and, fatty tissue which fills all the chasms,
+effaces, all the angles, and unites all the parts by the gentlest
+transitions. At the same time, the muscles are feebler, more mobile,
+resigned for a shorter time to the same contraction, and as inconstant as
+the emotions and passions which their rapid play expresses.</p>
+
+<p>The result of all this is, that the muscles do not profoundly modify the
+face, which consequently has not so much of permanent character as that of
+a man, and which permits us more difficultly to discover, through the
+rounded, short, and shifting parts, the nature of her various feelings.
+As, however, the abundance of the cellular tissue diminishes with age, and
+as the sentiments become at the same time less ephemeral, the
+physiognomical character and expression of woman become more decided.</p>
+
+<p>As to <span class="smcaplc">COLOR</span> of the face, it may be observed that the forehead, the
+temples, the eyelids, the nose,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> the upper part of the superior lip, and
+the lower part of the inferior lip, ought in woman to be of a beautiful
+and rather opaque white. The approach to the cheeks and the middle of the
+chin ought to have a slight teint of rose-color, and the middle of the
+cheeks ought to be altogether rosy, but of a delicate hue.&mdash;Cheeks of an
+animated white are preferable to those of a red color, although less
+beautiful than those of rosy hue.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the <span class="smcaplc">HAIR</span>, it may be observed, that sometimes, rising from
+its bulbs, it turns in irregular rings, and, by displaying a forehead
+rather large, confers a certain sanguine, as well as open air upon the
+physiognomy. This, however, is most frequently seen in men, and chiefly in
+men of exuberant vitality, rather than intellectuality: it indeed depends
+entirely on the former.</p>
+
+<p>In other men, and almost always in women, the hair generally divides in a
+line extending from the crown to the forehead, and falls over the temples.
+The line thus formed, uniting with the median line, of the face in
+general, and that of the nose in particular, gives to the whole of the
+features a peculiar symmetry and beauty.</p>
+
+<p>I have said, already, that symmetry is a characteristic of thinking
+beings, and I have explained the reason of this. The present case
+admirably illustrates it. This symmetrical arrangement of the hair bestows
+an intellectual air; and it well may, for, when natural, it derives its
+tendency to fall on each side, from the top of the head, either from the
+general elevation of the calvarium, or from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>particular elevation of
+the forehead, which is characteristic of beauty in woman.</p>
+
+<p>It accordingly announces in the individual higher observing faculties:
+hence, the ancient sculptors never omitted this in their highest
+personages: hence, we find it in the heads of Raffaelle and Guido.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A fair hue, <ins class="correction" title="xanthos">&#958;&#945;&#957;&#952;&#8056;&#962;</ins>,&#8221; says Winckelmann, &#8220;has ever been regarded
+as the most beautiful; and flaxen-colored hair was assigned to the most
+beautiful, not only among the gods, as Apollo [<ins class="correction" title="chrysokoman Apoll&ocirc;na">&#967;&#961;&#965;&#963;&#959;&#954;&#8057;&#956;&#945;&#957;
+&#913;&#960;&#8057;&#955;&#955;&#969;&#957;&#945;</ins>, golden-haired Apollo] and Bacchus, but also among the heroes:
+Alexander the Great had flaxen hair.&#8221; The modern Italians call Cupid &#8220;Il biondo Dio.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Having concluded what I have here to say of the parts of the face, I may
+observe, that the <i>different effects of the same face</i>, even in a state of
+repose, have often been observed, never explained. I have, however, in
+another work, shown that the face is composed of motive, nutritive, and
+thinking parts or organs. Now, circumstances bring these variously into
+action; and the different effects alluded to, in reality depend on the
+motive, or the nutritive, or the intellectual expression being at the
+time, respectively, most apparent, or most attended to by us. The study of
+this subject, which I have not space here to develop, is of infinite
+importance to the man of taste, the physiognomist, and the artist. The
+latter cannot easily excel without understanding it.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious fact, not hitherto observed, is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> that though beauty of
+face is, owing to the power of the vital system, almost universal at a
+certain age, there is always a <i>faulty feature</i>, which the physiognomist
+may observe, and which ever continues to exaggerate, until it terminate in
+relative ugliness. Thus we scarcely observe the long upper lip during
+youth, in some women; and yet it afterward gives to them the sober grimace
+of baboons. We admire in youth the spirit of the piercing eye, and
+aquiline nose in others, to whom these afterward give the look of so many
+old hawks. In others, still, we are charmed with the round, rosy, and
+innocent cheeks, which, when they become paler and more pendent, confer on
+them the aspect either of seals or of mastiffs, according to other
+circumstances of temper and disposition. I could easily trace these, and
+many more, from youth to middle age, and illustrate them convincingly, by
+drawings: but I have no room for it here.</p>
+
+<p>Each, indeed, of the subjects of the two immediately preceding paragraphs,
+is worthy of a volume; for the first is as essential to all judgment of
+existing beauty at the instant of its being before us, as the second is to
+all prescience of what beauty will very soon be&mdash;to all who have no love
+for a leap in the dark.</p>
+
+<p>I add to this chapter but a few words on the very <i>different organization
+of the head and face</i>, and the very different mind, of the Greeks and
+Romans.</p>
+
+<p>Whoever, for the purpose of comparing the heads of these two nations, may
+walk into the British<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> Museum, will be struck with the difference between
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The forehead is almost always rather narrow, and rather high, in the most
+illustrious Greeks; and this could not so uniformly have been so
+represented, in sculpture, unless it had been so also in fact. This is
+verified, in the third room of the Townley collection, by the heads of
+Homer, Hippocrates, Epicurus, Pericles, &amp;c.&mdash;by the almost universal
+conformation of Greek heads, to which there are but few exceptions:
+Sophocles, in this room, and Demosthenes, in the eleventh, are rather
+broader.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, the forehead, the face, the jaws, are excessively broad,
+and the cranium is depressed and low, in the Romans&mdash;in Severus, Nero,
+Caracalla, &amp;c., in the sixth room, and in Tiberius and Augustus, in the
+eleventh; nor is this owing to the circumstance that these generally were
+men degraded in feeling or intellect, for nearly the same configuration is
+found in Trajan, Hadrian, &amp;c., in the fourth, sixth, and other rooms. The
+faces of the Romans are not less ugly than their heads; and those of their
+women are absolutely detestable, as may be seen in Faustina, Plautilla,
+Sabina, Domitia, &amp;c., in the sixth of these rooms.</p>
+
+<p>If farther illustration of this be wanting, it may be found in the
+circumstance that, while the Greeks preferred the rather high forehead,
+and invented the ideal one, the Romans, on the contrary, preferred a
+little forehead and united eyebrows. Ovid assures us that the women of his
+time painted their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> eyebrows in such a manner, that they might appear to
+form only one.</p>
+
+<p>In the work so often referred to, I have shown that the intensity of
+functions is as the length of their organs, and the permanence of
+functions as the breadth of their organs. No truth can be better
+illustrated than this is, in the organization and the faculties of the
+Greeks and Romans. With the higher and larger head of the Greeks was
+united an intensity of genius, which no other people has yet rivalled; and
+with the broader head of the Romans, a perseverance, equally obstinate and
+unfeeling, which has been similarly unrivalled.</p>
+
+<p>A good illustration of the vaunted Roman virtue is recorded in Porcia, the
+daughter of Cato, the wife of Brutus, who plunged a toilet-knife into her
+thigh, and kept it eight days in the wound, without complaining, to prove
+to her husband that her courage and her discretion rendered her worthy of
+entering into the conspiracy, which he meditated; and who also destroyed
+herself by swallowing burning coals, when she heard of his defeat.
+Obstinacy and insensibility were great sources of the crimes either
+perpetrated, or, by their lying historians, pretended to be perpetrated,
+under the name of Roman virtue.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>It would be out of place, here, to enter farther into the character and
+expression of the face. Those whom these remarks dispose to do so, may
+refer to the physiognomical work, which I have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> been so often compelled to
+allude to.<small><a name="f43.1" id="f43.1" href="#f43">[43]</a></small> To those who are satisfied, neither with the vague, though
+tasteful inspirations of Lavater, nor with the empyrical or unreasoned
+manifestations of Gall and Spurzheim, but who desire <i>the assignment of a
+reason for every description of physiognomical character or expression</i>,
+that work may afford some satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>That the Greeks, either intuitively or reasonedly, distinguished the three
+species of beauty as to the figure, has been already seen. The heads of
+Diana, Venus, and Minerva, respectively present beauty of the locomotive,
+vital, and mental systems.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI.</h2>
+<h3>COMBINATIONS AND TRANSITIONS OF THE THREE SPECIES OF FEMALE BEAUTY.</h3>
+
+<p>As to the <span class="smcaplc">COMBINATIONS</span> of beauty, it must now be observed, that some one
+of these species of beauty always characterize the same individual during
+every stage of life; and, to the experienced observer, it never is
+difficult to say which of them predominates. Attention to the preceding
+principles will render this easy.</p>
+
+<p>It is right to mention here the cause of this general predominance of one
+species of beauty over the rest. It depends on this, that the slightest
+original or accidental preponderance of strength in one system above that
+of the rest, though unobserved at first, leads to a more frequent
+employment of its functions, and therefore to a more perfect development
+of its organs, until at last the disproportion between these and those of
+the other systems, becomes characteristic of the individual.</p>
+
+<p>In a truly beautiful woman, none of the systems described can exist in a
+great degree of degradation; but of the three, the nutritive or vital
+system is to woman the most essential. In England, from thirty to forty is
+generally the age of its highest perfection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>It often, however, occurs, that two, or even the whole of these species of
+beauty, are blended in considerable perfection. In those females in which
+it is found, the locomotive system is well developed in the length and
+elegance of the limbs; the vital or nutritive system everywhere presents
+soft forms, and rounds both body and limbs; and the mental or thinking
+system displays a capability of grace in action, notwithstanding the
+constrained attitude assumed to conceal the face.</p>
+
+<p>Although there can indeed be no great degree of beauty in which this
+combination is not more or less the case, yet a union of all the three
+species of beauty, in the greatest compatible degree, is to be found only
+in some of those immortal images of ideal beauty, which were created by
+the genius and the chisel of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>Having briefly spoken of these combinations, I may notice also those
+<i>combinations which similarly occur among the temperaments</i>, which, as
+already said, constitute partial views of the varieties I have been
+describing.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to a combination of the <i>phlegmatic</i> and <i>nervous</i>
+temperament, I may refer to Richerand, who says, that, &#8220;among the moderns,
+the easy Michael Montaigne, all of whose passions were so moderate, who
+reasoned on everything, even on feeling, was truly pituitous. But in him
+the predominance of the lymphatic system was not carried so far, but that
+he joined to it a good deal of nervous susceptibility.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Of women, more especially, it is observed, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> they rarely present
+examples of the lymphatic temperament, unmodified by nervous mobility;
+whence come extreme vivacity in the sensations with great feebleness,
+determinations equally precipitate and unsteady, excited imagination and
+ephemeral tastes, absolute will, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sanguine</i> temperament is similarly combined with the <i>nervous</i> one.
+Hence, the physiologist above quoted says, that &#8220;to the extreme love of
+pleasure, sanguine men join, when circumstances require it [he should have
+said, in some cases], great elevation of thought and character, and can
+bring into action the highest talents in every department: the history of
+Henry IV., of Mirabeau, and others, proves that.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The ancients gave the name of <i>bilious</i>, to a temperament in which the
+sanguineous system is energetic, the pulse strong, hard, and frequent, the
+subcutaneous veins prominent, the development of the liver excessive, the
+superabundance of bile remarkable, the sensibility easily excited, yet
+capable of dwelling upon one object, the passions violent, the movements
+abrupt and impetuous, and the character inflexible. This is evidently a
+very compound temperament, and should never have been classed, any more
+than the two preceding, with the simple temperaments, the athletic or
+muscular, the phlegmatic or lymphatic, the sanguine, and the nervous,
+which I have noticed under the heads to which they belong.</p>
+
+<p>In persons of this temperament, the skin is of a yellowish brown, the hair
+black, the muscles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> marked, the form harshly expressed. &#8220;Bold in the
+conception of a project,&#8221; says Richerand, &#8220;constant and indefatigable in
+its execution, it is among men of this temperament, that we find those
+who, in different ages, have governed the destinies of the world: full of
+courage, boldness, and activity, they have signalized themselves by great
+virtues or great crimes, and have been the terror or admiration of the
+universe. Such were Alexander, Julius Cesar, Brutus, Mahomet, Charles
+XII., the Czar Peter, Cromwell, Sixtus V., Cardinal Richelieu [and, he
+should have added, Bonaparte].... To attain to results of such importance,
+the profoundest dissimulation and the most obstinate constancy are equally
+necessary; and these are the most eminent qualities of the bilious.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A still more compound temperament is the <i>melancholic</i>, in which disease
+is added to the bilious temperament, a derangement of the functions of the
+nervous system, and the diseased obstruction of some one of the organs of
+the abdomen, so that the nutritive functions are feebly or irregularly
+performed, the bowels sluggish, the pulse hard and contracted, the
+excretions difficult, the imagination gloomy, the disposition suspicious.</p>
+
+<p>In persons of this temperament, the skin is of a still deeper hue, and the
+look uneasy and gloomy. Rousseau and Tiberius are excellent examples of
+this temperament, as associated with genius and virtue in one, and with
+truly royal vice in the other. In women, this temperament is rarely so
+intense as in men.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>Of the <span class="smcaplc">TRANSITIONS</span> of beauty, I have now to observe, that, though one
+species of beauty always characterizes the same individual during every
+stage of life, yet it is remarkable, that the young woman (whatever
+species of beauty predominates) has always a tendency to beauty of the
+locomotive system;&mdash;that the middle-aged woman has always a tendency to
+beauty of the nutritive system;&mdash;and that the woman of advanced age has
+always a tendency to beauty of the thinking system.</p>
+
+<p>Some women would seem, in the progress of life, to pass through all these
+systems (and the more perfect the whole organization, the more will this
+seem to be the case); but the accurate observer will always see the
+predominance of the same system.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII.</h2>
+<h3>PROPORTION, CHARACTER, EXPRESSION, ETC.</h3>
+
+<p>Winckelmann says: &#8220;I cannot imagine beauty without the <span class="smcaplc">PROPORTION</span> which is
+always its foundation.&mdash;The drawing of the naked figure is founded upon
+the idea and the knowledge of beauty; and this idea consists partly in
+measures and relations, and partly in forms, the beauty of which was, as
+Cicero observes, the object of the first Grecian artists: the latter
+determine the figure; the former fix the proportions.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The great variety of proportions presented by the human body causes much
+difficulty in determining with precision what are the best. The difficulty
+becomes quite insurmountable if we attempt to assign precise dimensions to
+the details of configuration or to minute parts.</p>
+
+<p>Many circumstances are opposed to the exactness of these measures. Even in
+the same person, one part is rarely in all respects similar to the
+corresponding part; we are taller in the morning than in the evening; and
+the proportions change at different periods of life. In different
+individuals, the differences are still more evident. Moreover, habits,
+professions, trades, all unite to oppose regularity in the proportions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>It has farther been observed that, in the conformation of woman, both as
+regards the whole and as regards the various parts, nature still more
+rarely approaches determinate proportions than in man.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarked by Hogarth, whose views I now abridge, that in society we
+every day hear women pronounce perfectly correct opinions as to the
+proportions of the neck, the bosom, the hands, and the arms of other
+women, whom they have an interest in observing with severity. It is
+evident that, for such an examination, they ought to be capable of
+seizing, with great precision, the relation of length and thickness, and
+of following the slight sinuosities, the swellings, the depressions,
+almost insensible and continually varying, at the surface of the parts
+observed. If so, it is certainly in the power of a man of science, with as
+observing an eye, to go still farther, and conceive many other necessary
+circumstances concerning proportion.</p>
+
+<p>But he says: &#8220;Though much of this matter may be easily understood by
+common observation, assisted by science, still I fear it will be difficult
+to raise a very clear idea of what constitutes or composes the utmost
+beauty of proportion.... We shall soon find that it is chiefly to be
+effected by means of the nice sensation we naturally have of what certain
+quantities or dimensions of parts are fittest to produce the utmost
+strength for moving or supporting great weights, and of what are most fit
+for the utmost light agility, as also for every degree, between these two
+extremes.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>After some illustrations of this, which naturally leave the method very
+vague, he adds: &#8220;I am apprehensive that this part of my scheme, for
+explaining exact proportion, may not be thought so sufficiently
+determinate as could be wished.&#8221; So that Hogarth&#8217;s method as to
+proportions, both general and particular, reduces itself to the employment
+of the eye and the nice sensation we have of quantities or dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>But the Greek artists had not only done what Hogarth thus vaguely speaks
+of, but advanced much farther; and indeed all that has been done on this
+important subject belongs rather to the history of art than that of
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is not,&#8221; says Buffon, &#8220;by the comparison of the body of one man with
+that of another man, or by measures actually taken in a great number of
+subjects, that we can acquire this knowledge [that of proportion]: it is
+by the efforts which have been made exactly to copy and imitate nature; it
+is to the art of design that we owe all that we know in this respect.
+Feeling and taste have done all that mechanics could not do; the rule and
+the compass have been quitted in order to profit by the eye; all the
+forms, all the outlines, and all the parts of the human body, have been
+realized in marble; and we have known nature better by the representation
+than by nature itself. It is by great exercise of the art of design and by
+an exquisite sentiment, that great statuaries have succeeded in making us
+feel the just proportions of the works of nature. The Greeks have formed
+such admirable statues,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> that with one consent they are regarded as the
+most exact representation of the most perfect human body. These statues,
+which were only copies from man, are become originals, because these
+copies were not made from any individual, but from the whole human species
+well observed, so well indeed, that no man has been found whose figure is
+so well proportioned as these statues: it is then from these models that
+the measures of the human body have been taken.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is now necessary to lay before the reader the principles of the Greeks,
+as to the proportions of the human body. Much has been well done on this
+subject by Winckelmann, Bossi, and others; but, at the same time, from
+want of enlarged anatomical and physiological views, they have overlooked
+some fundamental considerations, and have failed to unravel the greatest
+difficulties which the subject presents. That the reader may be satisfied
+of the accuracy of my representations, I shall lay the statements of these
+writers before him in their own words, rendering them only as succinct as
+possible.<small><a name="f44.1" id="f44.1" href="#f44">[44]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Of the first epoch of art among the Etruscans and Greeks, Mengs says:
+&#8220;They preferred the most necessary things to those which were less so; and
+therefore they directed their attention first to the muscles, and next to
+<i>proportion</i>, these <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>constituting the two parts the most useful and
+necessary of the human form; and this is, throughout, the character of
+their primitive taste. All this we observe in history, and in the divine
+and human figures which they have represented.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In these figures,&#8221; he farther observes, &#8220;we find a proportion, impossible
+to be known and practised, without an art which furnishes sure <i>rules</i>.
+These rules could not be founded otherwise than in proportion, which was
+invented and practised by the Greeks.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In this, Flaxman agrees, when he says: &#8220;It must not be supposed that those
+simple geometrical forms of body and limbs, in the divinities and heroes
+of antiquity, depended upon accidental choice, or blind and ignorant
+arbitration. They are, on the contrary, a consequence of the strict and
+extensive examination of nature, of rational inquiry into its most perfect
+organization and physical well-being, expressed in outward appearance.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;That the Greeks,&#8221; says Bossi, &#8220;wrote much on this subject [their doctrine
+respecting symmetry] we have ample evidence in Pliny, Vitruvius himself,
+Philostratus the younger, and others.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Polycletus did not confine himself to giving a commentary upon this
+fundamental point, but, in illustration of his treatise, according to
+Galen, made an admirable statue that confirmed the precepts laid down in
+the work; and &#8216;The Rule of Polycletus,&#8217; the name given to this statue,
+became so famous for its beauty, that it passed into a proverb<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> to express
+a perfect body, as we may find in Lucian.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But of so many writings, which ought at least to equal the works that
+remain to us, and probably were superior, inasmuch as it is easier to lay
+down precepts than to put them in execution&mdash;of so many treatises, I say,
+not a fragment remains [except the few lines of Vitruvius], nor is there,
+now, any hope that a vestige will be found, unless something may remain
+for posterity among the papyri of Herculaneum.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now, to approach to the ancients in excellence is quite impossible, until
+some one shall explain the great principles on which they acted. Assuredly
+they are, in some of the most important respects, unknown at present.
+Servile imitation will never answer the purpose; and to learn as the
+ancients did, and reach perfection, perhaps, in as many ages, is not very
+rational, when we can avail ourselves of their practice to discover their
+principles. I will, in this chapter, endeavor to point out some of these
+principles in the practice of art, as I have already done in the general
+theory of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is probable,&#8221; says Winckelmann, &#8220;that the Grecian artists, in
+imitation of the Egyptians, had fixed, by well-determined rules, not only
+the largest, but even the very smallest proportions, and the measure of
+the length proper to every age and to every kind of contour; and probably
+all these rules were learned by young persons, from books that treated of
+symmetry.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>These rules, we know, were of three <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>kinds&mdash;numerical, geometrical, and
+harmonic; and we shall see, in the sequel, that the loss of them has been
+much deplored. It is not a little curious, however, that the numerical and
+geometrical methods are, in some measure, actually practised even at the
+present day, and that the harmonic method (the loss of which has caused
+the greatest confusion) is easily deducible from anatomical and
+physiological principles, as I shall endeavor to show.</p>
+
+<p>As to the <span class="smcaplc">NUMERICAL METHOD</span>, it is evidently that of which Vitruvius has
+preserved some notions, and which is at present practised by artists.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As it is the painter&#8217;s business,&#8221; says Bossi, &#8220;to imitate a great variety
+of human bodies, and as the difference of parts in beautiful bodies is
+generally slight, and becomes, as it were, imperceptible, in the most
+usual imitations less than life, Leonardo perceived it was necessary for
+the artist to use a general measure, for the purpose of preparing
+historical compositions quickly. He required that the figure to be
+employed should be carefully selected on the model of some natural body,
+the proportions of which were generally considered beautiful.&mdash;This
+measure, he required, should be employed solely for <i>length</i>, and not for
+width, which requires more evident variety.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It has been observed,&#8221; says Flaxman, &#8220;that Vitruvius, from the writings
+of the most eminent Greek painters and sculptors, informs us that they
+made their figures eight heads high, or ten faces, and he instances
+different parts of the figure measured according to that rule, which the
+great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> Michael Angelo adopted, as we see by a print from a drawing of
+his.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Winckelmann, however, shows that the foot served the Greeks as a measure
+for all their larger dimensions, and that their sculptors regulated their
+proportions by it, in giving six times its length, as the model of the
+human figure. Vitruvius says, &#8220;<i>Pes vero altitudinis corporis sext&aelig;</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The foot,&#8221; says Winckelmann, &#8220;which among the ancients was used as the
+standard of measures of every magnitude (for a given measure of fluids was
+also called by this name), was very useful to sculptors in fixing the
+proportions of the body, and with reason; for the foot was a more
+determinate measure than that of the head or face, of which the moderns
+generally make use. The ancient artists regulated the size of their
+statues by the length of the foot, making them, according to Vitruvius,
+six times the length of the foot. Upon this principle, Pythagoras
+determined the height of Hercules, by the length of the feet with which he
+measured the Olympic stadium at Elis.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This proportion of six to one between the foot and the body, is founded
+upon experience of nature, even in slender figures: it is found correct,
+not only in the Egyptian statues, but also in the Grecian; and it will be
+discovered in the greater part of the ancient figures where the feet are
+preserved.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We would not omit mentioning,&#8221; says Bossi, &#8220;the erroneous opinion of
+those, who esteem the feet of females beautiful in proportion to their
+smallness. The beauty of the feet consists in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> handsomeness and
+neatness of their shape, not in their being short, or extremely small:
+were it otherwise, the feet of the Chinese and Japanese women would be
+beautiful, and those of the Venus de Medici frightful.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Such, then, is evidently the numerical method of the ancients.&mdash;Of the
+<span class="smcaplc">GEOMETRICAL METHOD</span>, we have many illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>A man standing upright, with his arms extended, is, as Leonardo da Vinci
+has shown, enclosed in a square, the extreme extent of his arms being
+equal to his height. This is evidently the most general measure of the
+latter kind.</p>
+
+<p>Of the latter kind, also, is Camper&#8217;s ellipsis for measuring the relative
+size of the shoulders in the male, and the pelvis in the female.</p>
+
+<p>So also is the measure from the centre of one mamm&aelig; to that of the other,
+as equal to the distance from each to the pit over the breast-bone.</p>
+
+<p>We now approach the chief difficulty, which evidently formed a
+stumbling-block even to Leonardo da Vinci&mdash;that <span class="smcaplc">HARMONIC METHOD</span> which,
+strange as it may appear, will be found to afford rules that are at once
+perfectly <i>precise</i>, and yet infinitely <i>variable</i>. The apparent
+impossibility indeed of such a rule seems to have embarrassed every one.
+And the statement which Bossi makes in regard to Leonardo da Vinci, in
+this respect, is exceedingly interesting.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;He thought,&#8221; says Bossi, &#8220;but little of any general measure of the
+species; and that <i>the true proportion</i> admitted by him, and acknowledged
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> be of difficult investigation, is solely <i>the proportion of an
+individual in regard to himself</i>, which, according to true imitation,
+should be <i>different in all the individuals of a species</i>, as is the case
+in nature. Thus, says he, &#8216;<i>all the parts of any animal should correspond
+with the whole</i>; that which is short and thick, should have every member
+short and thick; that which is long and thin, every member long and thin;
+and that which is between the two, members of a proportionate size.&#8217; From
+this and other precepts, it follows, that, when he speaks of proportion,
+he is to be understood as referring to the <i>harmony of the parts of an
+individual</i>, and not to the general rule of imitation in reference to
+dimensions.&#8221;&mdash;How clearly (notwithstanding the error as to <i>all</i> being
+short and thick) does this point to the harmonic method of proportion
+forthwith to be explained?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It would seem he felt within himself that he did not reach the perfection
+of those wonderful ancients of whom he professed himself the admirer and
+disciple.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It became, therefore, Leonardo&#8217;s particular care and study to approach as
+nearly as he could to the ancients in the true imitation of beautiful
+nature under the guidance of philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But whether from want of great examples, or from not sufficiently
+penetrating, as he himself thought, into these artifices, or from
+comprehending them too late, he modestly laments that he did not possess
+the ancient art of proportions. He then protests that he has done the
+little he was able<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> to do, and asks pardon of posterity that he has not
+done more. Such are the sentiments that Platino exhibits in the following
+epitaph:</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">&#8220;Leonardus Vincia (sic) Florentinus</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Statuarius Pictor que nobilissimus</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">de se parce loquitur.</span><br />
+<br />
+&#8220;Non sum Lysippus; nec Apelles; nec Policletus,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nec Zeuxis; nec sum nobilis &aelig;re Myron.</span><br />
+Sum Florentinus Leonardus Vincia proles;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mirator veterum discipulusque memor.</span><br />
+<i>Defuit una mihi symmetria prisca</i>: peregi<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quod potui: veniam da mihi posteritas.&#8221;</span></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is evident that these sentiments are not to be attributed to the
+imagination of the poet.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Bossi, having no glimpse of the great principles for which Leonardo sought
+in vain, says: &#8220;Since, then, this great man could not satisfy himself in
+the difficult task of dimensions, while on other points he seems to dread
+no censure, it should give us a strong idea of the difficulty of
+determining the laws of beautiful symmetry, and preserving it in works
+with <i>that harmony which is felt, but cannot be explained, and which
+varies in every figure, according to the age, circumstances, and
+particular character of each</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And when we recollect that, though Leonardo sought successfully in
+Vitruvius the proportions which Vitruvius himself seems to have drawn from
+the Greeks, he yet lamented that he did not possess the ancient symmetry,
+it is easily seen that he did not mean by this science, as already stated,
+a determinate general measure for man, but <i>that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>harmony of parts which
+is suited to each individual, according to the respective circumstances of
+sex, age, character, and the like</i>.&#8221; Again, how clearly does this point to
+the harmonic method of proportion to be presently explained!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But,&#8221; Bossi proceeds, &#8220;how difficult it is to combine the beautiful and
+elegant, with easy and harmonic measures, may be judged from the vain
+attempts of many otherwise ingenious men, as I will here relate for the
+benefit of artists. The difficulty will be still more evident if we
+reflect how arduous a task it is to make the proportions that the Greeks
+denominated numerical, harmonic, and geometrical, agree together, and to
+apply them thus agreeing, to the formation of rules and measures of a
+visible object so various in its component parts as the human body.&#8221;&mdash;In
+despair, Bossi tries to show its absolute impossibility!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the second place, to penetrate completely the natural reason of the
+proportions of the human body, would require a knowledge of physics, which
+it is not in man&#8217;s power to obtain. The universal equilibrium of the
+numerous constituent parts of the human machine, every one of which
+eminently attains the end for which it was destined, without interrupting
+the course that every other part takes to its respective end, in which
+true proportion seems to consist, is more easily stated than understood.
+And even if an artist could arrive at such a knowledge of man as to be
+able, so to speak, to compose him, he would have done but little, because
+he would have made but one man. By the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> alteration of only one of the
+infinite parts that compose the human frame, the equilibrium and
+respective relation of the others are necessarily altered: in short, each
+separate individual would be the subject of a totally new study.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Every human habit, of whatever nature it may be, has an influence over
+the human figure, and from the indefinable variety and incalculable
+mixture of such habits, there results an infinite variety of figures.
+Thus, it is evident that true general proportions cannot be laid down
+without violating nature, which it is the object of art to imitate.&#8221;&mdash;If,
+by &#8220;general proportions,&#8221; Bossi here means proportions applicable to all
+or to a great number, he completely loses sight of the object of the great
+man on whose opinions he comments; for he sought <i>a rule for the harmony
+of parts in each distinct individual</i>!</p>
+
+<p>Again, Bossi abandons, as impossible, the finding of the harmonic rule,
+which was the great object of Leonardo.&mdash;&#8220;From what has been said, we may
+finally conclude that large proportions only can be established, and that
+placing too much confidence in measures, retards, rather than favors the
+arts.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It was written of Raphael, and is seen, that he had as many proportions
+as he made figures. Michael Angelo did the same, and it was his saying,
+that he who had not the compasses in his eye, would never be able to
+supply the deficiency by artificial means. Vincentio Danti, who treasured
+the doctrine of Michael Angelo, asserts in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> work, that the proportions
+do not fall under any measure of quantity. We have seen the infinite
+exceptions of Leonardo, respecting the measurement of man, and his own few
+works confirm it. I speak no more of inferior persons among the moderns;
+but turning to the ancients, I find that the proportions of every good
+statue are different.&#8221;&mdash;And this will be found conformable to the harmonic
+rule.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And speaking generally of works in relievo, what canons can determine the
+largeness or smallness of some parts, so as to obtain a greater effect
+according to the circumstances of light, distance, material, visual point,
+&amp;c.? Certainly none.&#8221;&mdash;This was not to be expected from the rule sought
+for.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I shall deem that I have gained some recompense for the toil of wading
+through so many tedious works, if it shall induce any faith in the advice
+I now give, namely, that &#8216;every student of painting should himself measure
+many bodies of acknowledged beauty, compare them with the finest
+imitations in painting and sculpture, and from these measures make a canon
+for himself, dividing it in the manner best suited to his genius and
+memory. If this plan were more generally adopted, art and its productions
+would both be gainers.&#8217;&#8221;&mdash;It might do so, among as ingenious a people as
+the Greeks, in as many ages as the same method cost them to do it in!
+Leonardo da Vinci wanted to abridge the time, instead of beginning again!</p>
+
+<p>Winckelmann as little understands this great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> man&#8217;s object, when, after
+saying, &#8220;As the ancients made ideal beauty their principal study, they
+determined its relations and proportions,&#8221; he adds &#8220;from which, however,
+they allowed themselves to deviate, when they had a good reason, and
+yielded themselves to the guidance of their genius.&#8221; Why, the whole
+purpose of the rule sought for was to regulate every possible deviation,
+as will now be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The harmonic method of the Greeks&mdash;that measure which Leonardo calls the
+&#8220;true proportion&#8221;&mdash;&#8220;the proportion of an individual in regard to
+himself&#8221;&mdash;&#8220;which should be different in all the individuals of a species,&#8221;
+but in which &#8220;all the parts of any animal should correspond with the
+whole,&#8221; which constitutes &#8220;the harmony of the parts of an individual,&#8221; and
+which, as Bossi adds, &#8220;varies in every figure, according to the age,
+circumstances, and particular character of each&#8221;&mdash;in short, <i>this method
+for the harmony of parts in each distinct individual&mdash;this method
+presenting rules, perfectly precise, and yet infinitely variable</i>, has, in
+all its elements, been clearly laid before the reader (though not
+enunciated as a rule)&mdash;in the relative proportions of the locomotive,
+nutritive, and thinking systems, or, generally speaking, of the limbs,
+trunk, and head, and in the three species of beauty which are founded on
+them.</p>
+
+<p>These, it is evident, present to the philosophic observer, the sole means
+of judging of beauty by harmonic rule, the great object of Leonardo da
+Vinci&#8217;s desires and regrets. They present the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> great features of the Greek
+method&mdash;if that method conformed to truth and nature, as it undoubtedly
+did. This will be rendered still clearer by a single example.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+nutritive system, this harmonic rule of nature demands not only that, as
+in the Saxon-English, the Dutch, and many Germans, the trunk shall be
+large, but consequently, that the other two portions, the head and the
+limbs, shall be relatively small; that the calvarium shall be small and
+round, and the intellectual powers restricted; that the head shall,
+nevertheless, be broad, because the vital cavities of the head are large,
+and because large jaws and muscles of mastication are necessary for the
+supply of such a system; that the neck shall be short, because the
+locomotive system is little developed; that it shall be thick, because the
+vessels which connect the head to the trunk are large and full, the former
+being only an appendage of the latter; that the lower limbs shall be both
+short and slender; that the calves of the legs shall be small and
+high;<small><a name="f45.1" id="f45.1" href="#f45">[45]</a></small> that the feet shall be little turned out, &amp;c., &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>So also, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+locomotive system, the harmonic rule demands, not only that the limbs
+shall be large, but, consequently, that the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> two portions, the head
+and the trunk, shall be relatively small; that the calvarium shall be
+small and long, and the intellectual powers limited; that the head shall
+be long, because the jaws and their muscles are extended, &amp;c., &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>So likewise, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+thinking system, the harmonic rule demands, not only that the head shall
+be large, but, consequently, that the other two portions, the trunk and
+limbs, shall be relatively small; that the head shall not only be large,
+but that its upper part, the calvarium, shall be largest, giving a
+pyramidal appearance to the head; that the trunk and limbs, however
+elegantly formed, shall be relatively feeble, the former often liable to
+disease, the latter to accident, as we have seen in the most illustrious
+examples, &amp;c., &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind, however, as already explained, that there may be
+innumerable combinations and modifications of these characteristics;
+certain greater ones, nevertheless, generally predominating.</p>
+
+<p>Such, doubtless, was the harmonic method of the Greeks; whether, by them,
+it was thus clearly founded on anthropology, or not.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that several writers, and Winckelmann among the rest, should
+have adopted a triple division of the body&mdash;without, however, duly
+founding it in anthropology. Thus Winckelmann says &#8220;the entire body is
+divided into three parts, and the principal members are also divided into
+three. The parts of the body are the trunk, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> thighs, and the legs!&#8221;&mdash;a
+distribution and division founded neither in nature nor in truth.</p>
+
+<p>That the Greeks were more or less aware of the principles here stated,
+though their writings have not descended to us, is proved by their
+idealizations founded upon them.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;If different proportions,&#8221; says Winckelmann, &#8220;are sometimes met with in
+any figure, as for example, in the beautiful trunk of a naked female
+figure in the possession of Signior Cavaceppi at Rome, in which the body
+from the navel to the sexual parts is of an uncommon length, it is most
+probable that such figures have been copied from nature, that is, from
+persons so formed.&#8221;&mdash;Nothing certainly would be better founded in natural
+tendency than such idealization.</p>
+
+<p>All the three Greek methods of proportion being now before the reader, I
+must briefly notice other circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>In the head in particular, may be observed <span class="smcaplc">CHARACTER</span>, or a permanent and
+invariable form, which defines its capabilities, and <span class="smcaplc">EXPRESSION</span>, or
+temporary and variable forms, which indicate its actual functions.</p>
+
+<p>The teachers of anatomy for artists have not, that I know of, clearly
+described the causes of these. I may therefore observe, that as character
+is permanent and invariable, it depends <i>fundamentally</i> on permanent and
+invariable parts&mdash;the bones; and as expression is temporary and variable,
+it depends on shifting and variable parts&mdash;the muscles.</p>
+
+<p>It is well observed by Mengs that, in relation to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> character, &#8220;the
+peculiar distinction of the ancients is, that from one part of the face,
+we may know the character of the whole.&#8221; And, of expression, Winckelmann
+observes that &#8220;the portion which possesses beauty of expression or action,
+or beauty of both added to the figure of any person, is like the
+resemblance of one who views himself in a fountain; the reflection is not
+seen plainly unless the surface of the water be still, limpid, and clear;
+quiet and tranquillity are as suitable to beauty as to the sea. Expression
+and action being, in art as in nature, the evidence of the active or
+passive state of the mind, perfect beauty can never exist in the
+countenance unless the mind be calm and free from all agitation, at least
+from everything likely to change and disturb the lineaments of which
+beauty is composed.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now the details which, during the period of perfection in art, were so
+skilfully employed, were these very means of expression or circumstances
+attending and indicating them&mdash;minuter forms which are universal, and
+without which nature is imperfectly represented&mdash;minuter forms of the
+highest order, because the means of expressing intellect, emotion, and
+passion, if required.</p>
+
+<p>These higher details we find, for instance, in the turn of the inner end
+of the eyebrow, or constriction and elevation of the under eyelid, or a
+hundred other traits dependant on subjacent muscles. We find them in
+slight risings of mere cutaneous parts, when they lie over and are
+elevated by the attachment of muscles, as at the inner angles of the
+eyes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> the corners of the mouth, and elsewhere. We find them in
+depressions or furrows, when they are drawn down by contiguous muscles.
+These are of higher character, because they belong to expression or its
+means; and there is a corresponding want of completeness, of truth, of
+nature, without them.</p>
+
+<p>Between these intellectual means, these higher details, and those of a
+lower order, accidental details, the great artists of Greece
+distinguished. Accidental details have nothing to do with expression or
+the means of expression; they depend upon an inferior system, that merely
+of life, and constitute all the depositions, excrescences, and growths,
+which confuse the vision of the inexperienced, and embarrass that of the
+most discriminating, in the examination of higher beauty.</p>
+
+<p>These lower details we find, for instance, in the puffings of adipose
+substance which project from the spaces between the muscles of the face,
+and from other accidents of the vital system, as wrinkles or folds from
+the absence of adipose substance, fulness or emptiness of the vessels,
+projecting veins, peculiar conditions of the skin, turbidity of the eyes,
+hairs of the head, beard, or skin, &amp;c. These have always characterized
+inferior artists and inferior periods of art.</p>
+
+<p>From these observations, it will be seen that such unqualified statements
+as the following by Azara, lead only to misconception: &#8220;A human face, for
+example, is composed of the forehead, brows, eyes, nose, cheeks, mouth,
+chin, and beard. These are the great parts; but each of these <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>contains
+many other minor parts, which also contain an infinity of others still
+less. If the painter will content himself to express well the great parts
+which I have taken notice of, he will have a grand style; if he depicts
+also the second, his style will be that of mediocrity; and if he pretends
+to introduce the last, his style will be insignificant and ridiculous.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2>
+<h3>THE GREEK IDEAL BEAUTY.</h3>
+
+<p>On this important doctrine of art, of which Winckelmann says: &#8220;The ideal
+is as much more noble than the mechanical as the mind is superior to the
+body,&#8221; I shall follow, so far as I can advantageously, the great writers
+on this subject, in order that the reader may have all the confidence in
+its recognised portions that authority can bestow, and that he may the
+better distinguish them from the new views which are here added.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There are,&#8221; says Winckelmann, &#8220;two kinds of beauty, individual and ideal:
+the former is a combination of the beauties of an individual; the latter,
+a selection of beautiful parts from several.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The formation of beauty was begun from some beautiful individual, that
+is, from the imitation of some beautiful person, as in the representation
+of some divinity. Even in the ages when the arts were flourishing, the
+goddesses were formed from the models of beautiful women, and even from
+those who publicly sold their charms: such was Theodota, of whom Xenophon
+speaks. Nor was any one scandalized at it, for the opinion of the ancients
+on these matters was very different from ours.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>Winckelmann adds: &#8220;There is rarely or never, a body without fault, all the
+parts of which are such that it is impossible to find or draw them more
+perfect in other persons. The wisest artists, being aware of this ... did
+not confine themselves to copying the forms of beauty from one individual
+... but seeking what is beautiful from various objects, they endeavored to
+combine them together, as the celebrated Parrhasius says in his discourse
+with Socrates. Thus, in the formation of their figures, they were not
+guided by any personal affections, by which we are frequently led, in the
+pursuit of beauty that pleases us, to abandon true beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;From the selection of the most beautiful parts and their harmonious union
+in one figure, arises ideal beauty: nor is this a metaphysical idea,
+because all the portions of the human figure taken separately are not
+ideal; but merely the entire figure.&#8221; And he elsewhere says: &#8220;It is called
+ideal, not as regards its parts, but as a whole, in which nature can be
+surpassed by art.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>With deeper observation still, he adds that, &#8220;though nature tends to
+perfection in the formation of individuals, yet she is so constantly
+thwarted by the numerous accidents to which humanity is subject, that she
+cannot attain the end proposed; so that it is in a manner impossible to
+find an individual in whom all parts of the body are perfectly beautiful.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It was to the same purport that Proclus had in ancient times said: &#8220;He who
+takes for his model such forms as nature produces, and confines <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>himself
+to an exact imitation of them, will never attain to what is perfectly
+beautiful. For the works of nature are full of disproportion, and fall
+very short of the true standard of beauty. So that Phidias, when he formed
+his Jupiter, did not copy any object ever presented to his sight, but
+contemplated only that image which he had conceived in his mind from
+Homer&#8217;s description.&#8221;<small><a name="f46.1" id="f46.1" href="#f46">[46]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>In short, while the Greek artists perpetually studied nature, they
+discovered her best and highest tendencies even in her most perfect forms;
+their works accordingly present nothing foreign to that which is strictly
+beautiful; they present not only no inferior forms, but no idle ornaments;
+and everything in them is accordingly at once simple and sublime.</p>
+
+<p>Barry<small><a name="f47.1" id="f47.1" href="#f47">[47]</a></small> affords me the means of continuing the view I now wish to
+present. &#8220;In all individuals,&#8221; he says, &#8220;of every species, there is
+necessarily a visible tendency to a certain point or form. In this point
+or form, the standard of each species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> rests. The deviations from this,
+either by excess or deficiency, are of two kinds: first, deviations
+indicating a more peculiar adaptation of certain characters of advantage
+and utility, such as strength, agility, and so forth; even mental as well
+as corporeal, since they sometimes result from habit and education, as
+well as from original conformation. In these deviations, are to be found
+those ingredients which, in their composition and union, exhibit the
+abstract or ideal perfection in the several classes or species of
+character. The second kind of deviation is that which, having no reference
+to anything useful or advantageous, but rather visibly indicating the
+contrary, as being useless, cumbersome, or deficient, is considered as
+deformity; and this deformity will be always found different in the
+several individuals, by either not being in the same part, in the same
+manner, or in the same degree. The points of agreement which indicate the
+species, are therefore many; of difference which indicate the deformity,
+few.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Barry, however, wrongly says: &#8220;Mere beauty, then, though always
+interesting, is, notwithstanding, vague and indeterminate; as it indicates
+no particular expression either of body or mind.&#8221; But it indicates the
+highest character, the capability of all noble expression, and this is
+better than its sacrifice to actuality in one.</p>
+
+<p>I am now led to the greater rules which their ideal method suggested to
+the Greeks. Payne Knight indeed says: &#8220;Precise rules and definitions, in
+matters of this sort, are merely the playthings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> or tools of
+system-builders;&#8221; and, unchecked by any recollection of the practical and
+unrivalled excellence of the founders of these rules, he adds a great deal
+of narrow-minded and mistaken nonsense upon the subject, never
+distinguishing between rules in themselves rational, and the stretching of
+them to utter inapplicability. On this subject, even Reynolds properly
+observes, that &#8220;some of the greatest names of antiquity, and those who
+have most distinguished themselves in works of genius and imagination,
+were equally eminent for their critical skill. Plato, Aristotle, Cicero,
+and Horace; and among the moderns, Boileau, Corneille, Pope, and Dryden,
+are at least instances of genius not being destroyed by attention or
+subjection to rules and science.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But the grossest errors on this subject have been committed by Alison, who
+says: &#8220;Artists, in every age, have taken pains to ascertain the most exact
+measurement of the human form, and of all its parts.... If the beauty of
+form consisted in any original proportion, the productions of the fine
+arts would everywhere have testified it; and, in the works of the statuary
+and the painter, we should have found only this sole and sacred system of
+proportion. The fact however is, as every one knows, that, in such
+productions, no such rule is observed; that there is no one proportion of
+parts which belongs to the most beautiful productions of these arts; that
+the proportions of the Apollo, for instance, are different from those of
+the Hercules, the Antinous, the Gladiator, &amp;c.; and that there are not,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>
+in the whole catalogue of ancient statues, two, perhaps, of which the
+proportions are actually the same.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now, I believe, we may say that this original or most perfect proportion
+is presented in the Apollo, which is not, as generally supposed, an
+example of <i>peculiar</i>, but of <i>universal</i> beauty&mdash;the locomotive system
+presenting as much strength as is compatible with agility, and as much
+agility as is compatible with strength, and any other modification of
+either ensuring diminution of power; while the vital and mental systems
+are equally perfect. Wherever this model is deviated from by the ancient
+artists it is <i>peculiar</i> beauty, I believe, that is represented.</p>
+
+<p>He farther says: &#8220;They have imagined also various standards of this
+measurement; and many disputes have arisen, whether the length of the
+head, of the foot, or of the nose, was to be considered as this central
+and sacred standard. Of such questions and such disputes, it is not
+possible to speak with seriousness, when they occur in the present times.&#8221;
+So also Burke says: &#8220;It must be likewise shown, that these parts stand in
+such a relation to each other, that the comparison between them may be
+easily made, and that the affection of the mind may naturally result from
+it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Now, no man in his senses ever cared which of these measures was adopted,
+except as a matter of convenience, or ever imagined that peculiar virtue
+resided in any of them.</p>
+
+<p>The following are some of the principal rules<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> which either by intuition
+or with due definition, resulted from and guided the practice of the
+ancient Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>First, in regard to the <span class="smcaplc">THINKING SYSTEM</span>, when the ancient artists, either
+from taste or from principle, gave greater opening to the facial angle
+than eighty degrees, they believed that an increase of intelligence
+corresponded to that conformation. By increasing the angle beyond
+eighty-five degrees, they impressed upon their figures the grandest
+character, as we see in the heads of the Apollo, the Venus, and others
+whose facial angle extends to or exceeds ninety degrees.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to <i>the forehead</i>, then, this afforded their rule for
+distinguishing beings of a superior kind. How well they observed the
+tendency of nature to increase that angle with the increase of some of the
+thinking faculties, we now know. This ideal rule was, therefore, admirably
+founded.</p>
+
+<p>Whoever reflects on the nature of this angle will perceive that its
+increase tended nowise to raise the forehead, but to throw it forward, and
+therefore to lengthen the head. This conforms to the metaphor by which a
+<i>long head</i> is used for a <i>wise head</i>, and which has not yet given place
+to a <i>broad head</i>, preferred by the German craniologists, in compliment to
+their own organization.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the height of the forehead, it has already been observed
+that it was, among the ancient Greeks, more considerable than its breadth,
+as may be seen by the busts of their most illustrious men. Still, neither
+the natural nor the ideal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> forehead much exceeded the space from the
+forehead to the bottom of the nose, or that from the nose to the bottom of
+the chin.</p>
+
+<p>Winckelmann accordingly says: &#8220;The forehead to be beautiful should be low
+[meaning, as his expressions elsewhere show, no higher than the other two
+spaces just mentioned]; and its lowness was so fixed among the ideas of
+beauty by the Grecian artists, that it serves as a mark to distinguish
+modern heads from ancient. The reason of this appears founded in the very
+rules of proportion, which, as in the whole human body, was among the
+ancients tripartite: thus, the face also was divided into three parts; so
+that the forehead should be of the same length as the nose, and the
+remainder of the face to the chin of the same length likewise. This
+proportion was founded on observation, and we may at any time convince
+ourselves of it in any individual with a low forehead, by covering with a
+finger the hair at the top of the forehead, so as to render it so much
+higher, and we shall then see a want of harmony of proportion and how
+detrimental a high forehead is to beauty.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>These views of Winckelmann, the ideal rule which they illustrate, and,
+above all, the actual dimension of the forehead among the philosophers,
+the poets, and the legislators of Greece, whose genius has been unequalled
+in modern times, show the folly of the craniological hypothesis. The
+reason of the ideal rule has not, indeed, been assigned: it appears to me
+to be this, that the three parts of the face which, as I have shown both
+here and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> in my work on physiognomy, are respectively connected with
+ideas, emotions, and passions, should be equal one to another, or that
+these acts of the organs of sense and brain should be in due proportion
+and harmony. While, therefore, I do not, with the craniologists, seek the
+predominance of any one of them, neither do I, with Giovani de Laet, take
+no notice of the space between the top of the head and the commencement of
+the forehead, and say this part is not to be considered in the height of a
+man, <i>quia pars excrementosa est</i>!</p>
+
+<p>Their next rule regarded the form of <i>the nose</i>, in nearly the same line
+with the forehead, and with little indentation between these parts.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of this rule I have not seen pointed out; and it was indeed
+difficult of discovery, without previous knowledge of the physiological
+fact first mentioned in my physiognomical work, namely, that the nose is
+the inlet of vital emotion or pleasure, as the eye is of mental emotion;
+while the passions connected with nutrition and thought respectively,
+depend upon other organs, the mouth and the ear. Anatomists know how
+closely associated are the nose and the eyes, and the mouth and the ears,
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Now, as in these ideal representations, their object was to increase the
+means of emotion, but not those of passion, the organs of the former, the
+nose and the eyes, were all, at the same time, enlarged by raising the
+junction of the forehead and the nose; while those of passion, the mouth
+and the ears, were relatively decreased. Not only was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> passage of nose
+or of the olfactory nerves to the brain strikingly dilated by this
+elevation of the intermediate part, but the orbits of the eyes were
+enlarged. As then we naturally associate the increase of organs with the
+increase of their sensations and with corresponding effects upon the
+brain, and as the tendency to such configuration is as conspicuous in the
+countries they inhabited, as is the energy of the emotions with which they
+are connected, this rule was as admirably founded as the former in natural
+tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>I deem this a pendant to Camper&#8217;s discovery of the facial angle, and one
+too which was not quite so obvious or so easy to be made. It disposes of
+this middle or intermediate part of the face, and shows that the Greeks in
+beings of the highest character, desired the gradual predominance of
+emotion over passion, and of ideas or intellect over emotion.</p>
+
+<p>A vague feeling of the curious fact I have here explained, Alison, as a
+man of taste, had, when he said: &#8220;Apply, however, this beautiful form, to
+the countenance of the warrior, the bandit, the martyr, &amp;c., or to any
+countenance which is meant to express deep or powerful <i>passion</i>, and the
+most vulgar spectator would be sensible of dissatisfaction, if not
+disgust.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In endeavoring to assign a reason for the configuration which I have just
+explained, Winckelmann, in ascribing it to the mere production of effect,
+is driven into a ridiculous inconsistency. He thinks that for large
+statues seen at a distance, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> was necessary, and so came to be used for
+small medals seen near, for which it was not necessary.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the heads of statues, and particularly in ideal heads, the eyes are
+deeper set: the bulb remains more deep than is usual in nature, in which
+sunken eyes render the countenance austere and cunning instead of calm and
+joyful. In this respect, art has departed with reason from nature; for, in
+figures placed to be seen at a distance, if the bulb of the eye were level
+with the edge of the orbit, there would be no effect produced of light and
+shade; and the eye itself, placed under the eyebrows which do not project,
+would be dull and inexpressive. This maxim, adopted for large statues,
+became in time universal; so that it may be observed even on medals, not
+only in ideal heads but in portraits.&#8221; And elsewhere he says: &#8220;Art
+subsequently established it as a rule to give this form to the eyes even
+in small figures, as may be seen in the heads on coins.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Thus Winckelmann&#8217;s reason avowedly explains only the half of that to which
+it is applied, and in reality explains nothing, because it leaves a gross
+inconsistency, of which Greek genius was incapable.</p>
+
+<p>Of the general outline thus formed of the face, Winckelmann more truly
+says: &#8220;In the formation of the face, the Greek profile is the principal
+characteristic of sublime beauty. This profile is produced by the straight
+line, or the line but very slightly indented, which the forehead and nose
+form in youthful faces, especially female ones.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> Nature seems less
+disposed to accord this form to the face in cold than in mild and
+temperate climes; but wherever this profile is found, it is always
+beautiful. The straight full line expresses a kind of greatness, and,
+gently curved, it presents the idea of agreeable delicacy. That in these
+profiles exists one cause of beauty is proved by the character of the
+opposite line; for the greater the inflection of the nose, the less
+beautiful is the face; and if, when seen sidewise, it presents a bad
+profile, it is useless to look for beauty in any other view.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A <i>third rule</i> of the Greek artists, in heads of the highest character, is
+greatly illustrated by the new views just stated. If, in these, they
+desired to render ideas and intellect more dominant than emotions of
+pleasure or pain, and emotions more dominant than passion, it becomes
+evident why they equally sought to avoid the convulsions of impassioned
+expression.</p>
+
+<p>A very beautiful object of this, is mistaken by Winckelmann. I quote his
+words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Taken in either sense [of action or of passion], expression changes the
+features of the face, and the disposition of the body, and, consequently,
+the forms which constitute beauty; and the greater the change, the greater
+the loss of beauty. Therefore, the state of tranquillity and repose was
+considered as a fundamental point in the art. Tranquillity is the state
+proper to beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The handsomest men are generally the most mild and the best disposed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Besides, tranquillity and repose, both in men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> and animals, is the state
+which allows us best to examine and represent their nature and qualities;
+as we can see the bottom of the sea or rivers only when the waves are
+tranquil and the stream runs smoothly.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Therefore, the Grecian artists, wishing to depict, in their
+representations of their deities, the perfection of human beauty, strove
+to produce, in their countenances and actions, a certain placidity without
+the slightest change or perturbation, which, according to their
+philosophy, was at variance with the nature and character of the gods. The
+figures produced in this state of repose, expressed a perfect equilibrium
+of feeling.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But, as complete tranquillity and repose cannot exist in figures in
+action, and even the gods are represented in human form, and subject to
+human affections, we must not always expect to find in them the most
+sublime idea of beauty. This is then compensated for by expression. The
+ancient artists, however, never lost sight of it: it was always their
+principal object, to which expression was in some sort made subservient.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Beauty without expression would be insignificant, and expression without
+beauty would be unpleasing; but, from their influence over each other,
+from combining together their apparently discordant qualities, results an
+eloquent, persuasive, and interesting beauty.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Some of these remarks are true and beautiful; but <i>the great object of the
+Greeks, in suppressing the convulsions of impassioned expression, was the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>bestowal of grace</i>, the highest quality in all representation. It is
+surprising that this should have been so universally overlooked, that,
+even among artists, nothing is more common than to hear regrets that the
+Greeks gave so little expression to their figures! Let the reader now
+peruse again Dr. Smith&#8217;s and Mr. Alison&#8217;s account of grace, and if he is
+acquainted with the productions of ancient art, he will see that the
+Greeks suppressed impassioned expression only to bestow the highest degree
+of grace. Those, therefore, who complain of this, show themselves ignorant
+of the best object of their art.</p>
+
+<p>If the explanation of this great purpose be clearly borne in mind, the
+remaining observations of Winckelmann will receive a better application
+than that to which he limited them:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Repose and tranquillity may be regarded as the effect of that composed
+manner which the Grecians studied to show in their actions and gestures.
+Among them, a hurried gait was regarded as contrary to the idea of decent
+deportment, and partaking somewhat of expressive boldness.... While on the
+other hand, slow and regulated motions of the body were proofs among the
+ancients of a great mind.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The highest idea of tranquillity and composure is found expressed in the
+representations of the divinities; so that from the father of the gods to
+the inferior deities, their figures appear free from the influence of any
+affection. The greatest of the poets thus describes Jupiter as making all
+Olympus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> tremble by merely moving his eyebrow or shaking his locks.... All
+the figures of Jupiter are not however made in the same style.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The Vatican Apollo represents this god quiet and tranquil after the death
+of the serpent Python which he had slain with a dart, and should also
+express a certain contempt for a victory so easy to him. The skilful
+artist, who wished to imbody the most beautiful of the gods, has depicted
+anger in the nose, which according to the most ancient poets was the seat
+of it, and contempt in the lips: contempt is expressed by the drawing up
+of the under lip, and anger by the expansion of the nostrils.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The expression of the passions in the face should accord with the
+attitude and gestures of the body; and the latter should be suitable to
+the dignity of the gods in their statues and figures: from this results
+its propriety.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In representing the figures of heroes, the ancient artist exercised equal
+care and judgment; and expressed only those human affections which are
+suitable for a wise man, who represses the violence of his passions, and
+scarcely allows a spark of the internal flame to be seen, so as to leave
+to those who are desirous of it, the trouble of finding out what remains
+concealed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We have examples of this in two of the most beautiful works of antiquity,
+one of which is the image of the fear of certain death, the other of
+suffering exceeding anguish.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Niobe and her daughters, against whom Diana shot her fatal arrows, are
+represented as seized with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> terror and horror, in that state of
+indescribable anguish, when the sight of instant and inevitable death
+deprives the mind of the power of thought. Of this state of stupor and
+insensibility, the fable gives us an idea in the metamorphosis of Niobe
+into a stone; and hence &AElig;schylus introduces her in his tragedy as stunned
+and speechless. In such a moment, when all thought and feeling ceases, in
+a state bordering upon insensibility, the appearance is not altered nor
+any feature of the face disturbed, and the mighty artist could here depict
+the most sublime beauty, and has indeed done so. Niobe and her daughters
+are, and ever will be, the most perfect models of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Laocoon is the image of the most acute grief, that puts the nerves, the
+muscles, and the veins, in action. His blood is in a state of extreme
+agitation from the venomous bite of the serpents; every part of his body
+evinces pain and suffering; and the artist has put in motion, so to speak,
+all the springs of nature, and thus made known the extent of his art and
+the depth of his knowledge. In the representation, however, of this
+excessive torment, we can still recognise the conduct of a brave man
+struggling against his misfortunes, stifling the emotions of his anguish,
+and striving to repress them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The ancient artists have preserved this air of composure even in their
+dancing figures, except the Bacchanals; and thus an opinion obtained that
+the action of their figures should be modelled on the manners adopted in
+their ancient dances, and therefore, in their later dances, the ancient
+figures<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> served as a model to the performers to prevent their overstepping
+the bounds of a modest deportment:</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Molli diducunt candida gestu</span><br />
+Brachia.<span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span><i>Propert.</i></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;No immoderate or violent passions are ever found expressed in the public
+works of the ancients.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The knowledge of the ancients cannot be better known than by comparing
+their performances with the majority of those of the moderns, in which a
+little is expressed by much, instead of much by a little. This is what the
+Greeks call <ins class="correction" title="parenthyrsos">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#957;&#952;&#8059;&#961;&#963;&#959;&#962;</ins>; a word that aptly expresses the defect
+produced by too much expression in modern artists. Their figures resemble
+in action the comedians of the ancient theatre, who, to render themselves
+visible even to the most distant portion of the audience, were compelled
+to exceed the limits of nature and truth; and the faces of modern figures
+are like the ancient masks, which for the same reason, the increase of
+expression, became hideous.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This excess of expression is taught in a book which goes into the hands
+of all young artists, &#8216;A Treatise on the Passions,&#8217; by Carlo Le Brun, and
+in the annexed drawings, not only is the highest degree of passion
+expressed on the face, but in some even to madness.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Hence, we may say with Azara, that &#8220;the Greeks possessed that art in such
+perfection, that in their statues one scarcely discovers that they had
+thought of expression, and nevertheless each says that which it ought to
+say. They are in a repose which shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> all the beauty without any
+alteration; and a soft and sweet motion, of the mouth, the eyes, or the
+mere action, expresses the effect, enchanting at once the mind and the
+senses.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In the inferior beings, however, when passion is expressed, the features
+are varied by the Greek artists as they are in nature.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the great ideal rules with regard to the head and the functions
+of thought.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the body and the <span class="smcaplc">NUTRITIVE SYSTEM</span>, the Greeks similarly
+idealized. &#8220;Seeking for images of worship, consequently of a nature
+superior to our own, so that they might awaken in the mind veneration and
+love, they thought that the representations most worthy of the Divinity,
+and most likely to attract the attention of man, would be those expressing
+the continuance of the gods in eternal youth and in the prime of life.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;To the idea derived from the poets, of the eternal youth of the deities,
+whether male or female, was added another by which they supposed the
+female divinities should have all the appearance of virgins.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The form of the breast in the figures of the divinities, is like that of
+a virgin, which, to be beautiful, must possess a moderate fulness. This
+was particularly shown in the breasts, which the artists represented
+without nipples, like those of young girls, whose cincture, in the poet&#8217;s
+phrase, Lucina has not yet undone.</p>
+
+<p>On their treatment of the limbs and <span class="smcaplc">LOCOMOTIVE SYSTEM</span>, Hogarth throws
+light; and, as I am not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> aware that he was anticipated in this respect, I
+quote him:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;May be,&#8221; he says, &#8220;I cannot throw a stronger light on what has been
+hitherto said of proportion, than by animadverting on a remarkable beauty
+in the Apollo Belvidere, which hath given it the preference even to the
+Antinous: I mean a superaddition of greatness, to at least as much beauty
+and grace as is found in the latter.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;These two masterpieces of art are seen together in the same apartment at
+Rome, where the Antinous fills the spectator with admiration only, while
+the Apollo strikes him with surprise, and, as travellers express
+themselves, with an appearance of something more than human; which they of
+course are always at a loss to describe: and this effect, they say, is the
+more astonishing, as, upon examination, its disproportion is evident even
+to a common eye. One of the best sculptors we have in England, who lately
+went to see them, confirmed to me what has been now said, particularly as
+to the legs and thighs being too long, and too large for the upper parts.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Although, in very great works, we often see an inferior part neglected,
+yet here it cannot be the case, because, in a fine statue, just proportion
+is one of its essential beauties: therefore, it stands to reason, that
+these limbs must have been lengthened on purpose, otherwise it might have
+been easily avoided.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;So that if we examine the beauties of this figure thoroughly we may
+reasonably conclude,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> that what has been hitherto thought so unaccountably
+excellent in its general appearance, has been owing to what has seemed a
+blemish in a part of it: but let us endeavor to make this matter as clear
+as possible, as it may add more force to what has been said.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Statues, by being bigger than life (as this one is, and larger than the
+Antinous), always gain some nobleness in effect, according to the
+principle of quantity, but this alone is not sufficient to give what is
+properly to be called greatness in proportion.... Greatness of proportion
+must be considered as depending on the application of quantity to those
+parts of the body where it can give more scope to its grace in movement,
+as to the neck for the larger and swanlike turns of the head, and to the
+legs and thighs, for the more ample sway of all the upper parts together.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;By which we find that the Antinous being equally magnified to the
+Apollo&#8217;s height, would not sufficiently produce that superiority of
+effect, as to greatness, so evidently seen in the latter. The additions
+necessary to the production of this greatness in proportion, as it there
+appears added to grace, must then be, by the proper application of them to
+the parts mentioned only.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I know not how farther to prove this matter than by appealing to the
+reader&#8217;s eye, and common observation, as before.... The Antinous being
+allowed to have the justest proportion possible, let us see what addition,
+upon the principle of quantity,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> can be made to it, without taking away
+any of its beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;If we imagine an addition of dimensions to the head, we shall immediately
+conceive it would only deform&mdash;if to the hands or feet, we are sensible of
+something gross and ungenteel&mdash;if to the whole lengths of the arms, we
+feel they would be dangling and awkward&mdash;if, by an addition of length or
+breadth to the body, we know it would appear heavy and clumsy&mdash;there
+remains then only the neck, with the legs and thighs to speak of; but to
+these we find, that not only certain additions may be admitted without
+causing any disagreeable effect, but that thereby greatness, the last
+perfection as to the proportion, is given to the human form, as is
+evidently expressed in the Apollo.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This is well done by Hogarth. It required but a little anatomical
+knowledge to see the reason of this. The length of the neck, by which the
+head is farther detached from the trunk, shows the independence of the
+higher intellectual system upon the lower one of mere nutrition; and the
+length of limbs shows that the mind had ready obedience in locomotive
+power.</p>
+
+<p>I have now to obviate some <span class="smcaplc">OBJECTIONS</span> to the existence of simple, pure,
+high, and perfect ideal beauty, objections, which writers on this subject
+have hitherto neglected.</p>
+
+<p>Alison says: &#8220;The proportions of the form of the infant are very different
+from those of youth; these again from those of manhood; and these again
+perhaps still more from those of old age and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> decay.... Yet every one
+knows, not only that each of these periods is susceptible of beautiful
+form, but, what is much more, that the actual beauty in every period
+consists in the preservation of the proportions peculiar to that period,
+and that these differ in every article almost from those that are
+beautiful in other periods of the life of the same individual.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But the beauty of the infant is not perfect beauty: it is that, on the
+contrary, of mere promise, not that of fulfilment. So also the beauty of
+old age is not perfect beauty: it is that, on the contrary, which affects
+and interests us chiefly by the regret we feel that its perfection has
+passed, or is gradually vanishing.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The same observation,&#8221; says Alison, &#8220;is yet still more obvious with
+regard to the difference of sex. In every part of the form, the
+proportions which are beautiful in the two sexes are different; and the
+application of the proportions of the one to the form of the other, is
+everywhere felt as painful and disgusting.&#8221; So also says Burke: &#8220;Let us
+rest a moment on this point; and consider how much difference there is
+between the measures that prevail in many similar parts of the body, in
+the two sexes of this single species only. If you assign any determinate
+proportions to the limbs of man, and if you limit human beauty to these
+proportions, when you find a woman who differs in the make and measure of
+almost every part, you must conclude her not to be beautiful in spite of
+the suggestions of your imagination; or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> in obedience to your imagination
+you must renounce your rules; you must lay by the scale and compass, and
+look out for some other cause of beauty. For, if beauty be attached to
+certain measures which operate from a principle in nature, why should
+similar parts with different measures of proportion be found to have
+beauty, and this, too, in the very same species?&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>To this I might say the beauty of woman is not the highest beauty: it is
+beauty of the nutritive more than of the higher thinking system. But there
+is another and a better answer: the difference of sex which affects all
+the higher animals is a greater difference than that which subsists
+between some of their varieties or even of their species; and the same
+laws of ideal beauty are as inapplicable to different sexes as to
+different species.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We see, every day, around us,&#8221; says Alison, &#8220;some forms of our species
+which affect us with sentiments of beauty. In our own sex, we see the
+forms of the legislator, the man of rank, the general, the man of science,
+the private soldier, the sailor, the laborer, the beggar, &amp;c. In the other
+sex, we see the forms of the matron, the widow, the young woman, the
+nurse, the domestic servant, &amp;c.... We expect different proportions of
+form from the painter, in his representation of a warrior and a shepherd,
+of a senator and of a peasant, of a wrestler and a boatman, of a savage
+and of a man of cultivated manners.... We expect, in the same manner, from
+the statuary, very different <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>proportions in the forms of Jove and of
+Apollo [this should have been excepted], of Hercules and of Antinous, of a
+Grace and of Andromache, of a Bacchanal and of Minerva,&#8221; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>That, in all these cases, the beauty is partial, is evident from the
+circumstance that what is found in one is wanting in another; and partial
+beauty is not perfect beauty. But this last point has been well stated by
+Reynolds and Barry.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;To the principle I have laid down,&#8221; says Reynolds, &#8220;that the idea of
+beauty in each species of being is an invariable one, it may be objected,
+that in every particular species there are various central forms which are
+separate and distinct from each other, and yet are undeniably beautiful;
+that in the human figure, for instance, the beauty of Hercules is one, of
+the Gladiator another, of the Apollo another [again the same error]; which
+makes so many different ideas of beauty.... It is true, indeed, that these
+figures are each perfect in their kind, though of different character and
+proportions; but still none of them is the representation of an
+individual, but of a class. And as there is one general form, which, as I
+have said, belongs to the human kind at large, so in each of these classes
+there is one common idea and central form, which is the abstract of the
+various individual forms belonging to that class. Thus, though the forms
+of childhood and age differ exceedingly, there is a common form in
+childhood, and a common form in age, which is the more perfect, as it is
+more remote from all peculiarities. But I must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> add farther, that though
+the most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the human
+figure are ideal, and superior to any individual form of that class, yet
+the highest perfection of the human figure is not to be found in any one
+of them. It is not in the Hercules, nor in the Gladiator, nor in the
+Apollo, but in that form which is taken from all, and which partakes
+equally of the activity of the Gladiator, of the delicacy of the Apollo,
+and of the muscular strength of the Hercules. For perfect beauty in any
+species must combine all the characters which are beautiful in that
+species. It cannot consist in any one to the exclusion of the rest: no
+one, therefore, must be predominant, that no one may be deficient.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A high degree of particular character,&#8221; says Barry, &#8220;cannot be
+superinduced upon pure or simple beauty without altering its constituent
+parts; this is peculiar to grace only; for particular characters consist,
+as has been observed before, in those deviations from the general standard
+for the better purpose of effecting utility and power, and become so many
+species of a higher order; where nature is elevated into grandeur,
+majesty, and sublimity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There is <span class="smcaplc">AN IDEAL IN ATTITUDE</span> as well as in the form of the head and body.</p>
+
+<p>This ideal is exactly opposed to the academical rule mentioned by
+Dufresnoy, Reynolds, and others, namely, that the right leg and left arm,
+or the left leg and right arm, should be advanced or withdrawn together.
+These are the mere attitudes of progression, not those of expression; and
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> academical rule is only an academical blunder. To anything but
+walking&mdash;to the free and unembarrassed expressions of the body, it is,
+indeed, quite inapplicable, and could produce only contortion.</p>
+
+<p>The rule of ideal attitude, which I long ago deduced, both from
+physiological principles, and from the practice of the Greek artists, is
+that all the parts of one side of the body should be advanced or withdrawn
+together; that when one side is advanced, the other should be withdrawn;
+and that when the right arm is elevated, extended, or bent forward, the
+left leg should be elevated, extended, or bent backward&mdash;in all respects
+the reverse of the academical rule, so complacently mentioned by
+Dufresnoy, Reynolds, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of this rule in the necessary balance of the body, and that
+distribution of motion which equally animates every part, must be obvious
+to every one. It is illustrated by the finest statues of the Greeks,
+wherever the expression intended was free and unembarrassed, and even in
+those, as the Laocoon and his sons, where, though the action was
+constrained and convulsive, the sculptor was yet at liberty to employ the
+most beautiful attitude. It is abandoned in these great works, when either
+action embarrassed by purpose, or clownishness, as in the Dancing Faun,
+are expressed.<small><a name="f48.1" id="f48.1" href="#f48">[48]</a></small></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>I have now only to add, with Moreau, that individual beauty, the most
+perfect, differs always greatly from the ideal, and that which is least
+removed from it, is very difficult to be found. Hence, in all languages,
+the epithet <i>rare</i> is attached to beauty; and the Italians even call it
+<i>pellegrina</i>, foreign, to indicate that they have not frequently an
+opportunity of seeing it: they speak of &#8220;<i>bellezze
+pellegrine</i>,&#8221;&mdash;&#8220;<i>leggiadria singolare e pellegrina</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX.</h2>
+<h3>THE IDEAL OF FEMALE BEAUTY.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">&#8220;Hominum div&ucirc;mque voluptas, alma Venus.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Of this, the most perfect models have been created by Grecian art. Few, we
+are told, were the living beauties, from whom such ideal model could be
+framed. The difficulty of finding these among the women of Greece, must
+have been considerable, when Praxiteles and Apelles were obliged to have
+recourse, in a greater or less degree, to the same person, for the
+beauties of the Venus of Cnidos, executed in white marble, and the Venus
+of Cos, painted in colors. It is asserted by Athen&aelig;eus, that both these
+productions were, in some measure, taken from Phryne of Thespia, in
+B&oelig;otia, then a courtesan at Athens.</p>
+
+<p>Both productions are said to have represented Phryne coming out of the
+sea, on the beach of Sciron, in the Saronic gulf, between Athens and
+Eleusis, where she was wont to bathe.</p>
+
+<p>It is said, that there, at the feast of Neptune, Phryne, in the presence
+of the people of Eleusis, having cast aside her dress, and allowing her
+long hair to fall over her shoulders, plunged into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> sea, and sported
+long amid its waves. An immense number of spectators covered the shore;
+and when she came out of it, all exclaimed, &#8220;It is Venus who rises from
+the waters!&#8221; The people would actually have taken her for the goddess, if
+she had not been well known to them.</p>
+
+<p>Apelles and Praxiteles, we are told, were both upon the shore; and both
+resolved to represent the birth of Venus according to the beautiful model
+which they had just beheld.</p>
+
+<p>Such is said to have been the origin of two of the greatest works of
+antiquity. The work of Apelles, known under the name of Venus Anadyomene,
+was placed by Cesar in the temple of Venus Genitrix, after the conquest of
+Greece. An idea of the sculpture of Praxiteles is supposed to have been
+imperfectly preserved to modern times in the Venus de Medici.</p>
+
+<p>We are farther told, that, after having studied several attitudes, Phryne
+fancied to have discovered one more favorable than the rest for displaying
+all her perfections; and that both painter and sculptor were obliged to
+adopt her favorite posture. From this cause, the Venus of Cnidos, and the
+Venus of Cos, were so perfectly alike, that it was impossible to remark
+any difference in their features, contour, or more particularly in their
+attitude.</p>
+
+<p>The painting of Apelles, it is added, was far from exciting so much
+enthusiasm among the Greeks, as the sculpture of Praxiteles. They fancied
+that the marble moved; that it seemed to speak; and their illusion, says
+Lucian, was so great, that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> ended by applying their lips to those of
+the goddess.<small><a name="f49.1" id="f49.1" href="#f49">[49]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Praxiteles,&#8221; says Flaxman, &#8220;excelled in the highest graces of youth and
+beauty. He is said to have excelled not only other sculptors, but himself,
+by his marble statues in the Ceramicus of Athens; but his Venus was
+preferable to all others in the world, and many sailed to Cnidos for the
+purpose of seeing it. This sculptor having made two statues of Venus, one
+with drapery, the other without, the Coans preferred the clothed figure,
+on account of its severe modesty, the same price being set upon each. The
+citizens of Cnidos took the rejected statue, and afterward refused it to
+King Nicomedes, who would have forgiven them an immense debt in return;
+but they were resolved to suffer anything so long as this statue by
+Praxiteles ennobled Cnidos.... This figure is known by the descriptions of
+Lucian and Cedrenus, and it is represented on a medal of Caracalla and
+Plautilla, in the imperial cabinet of France. This Venus was still in
+Cnidos during the reign of the emperor Alcadius, about four hundred years
+after Christ.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> This statue seems to offer the first idea of the Venus de
+Medici, which is likely to be the repetition of another Venus, the work of
+this artist.&#8221; He elsewhere says of the Venus of Praxiteles, it was &#8220;the
+most admired female statue of all antiquity, whose beauty is as perfect as
+it is elevated, and as innocent as perfect; from which the Medicean Venus
+seems but a deteriorated variety.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Flaxman states that he himself had seen, in the stables of the Braschi
+palace, a statue which he supposed might be the original work of
+Praxiteles. Strange to tell, nothing is now known of its fate! A supposed
+cast from this, or from a copy of it, conforming to the figure on the
+model of Caracalla, is to be seen at the Royal Academy.</p>
+
+<p>Of the <span class="smcap">Venus de Medici</span>, Flaxman says, it &#8220;was so much a favorite of the
+Greeks and Romans, that a hundred ancient repetitions of this statue have
+been noticed by travellers. The individual figure is said to have been
+found in the forum of Octavia. The style of sculpture seems to have been
+later than Alexander the Great.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now briefly examine this Model of Female Beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The Venus de Medici represents woman at that age when every beauty has
+just been perfected. &#8220;The Venus de Medici at Florence,&#8221; says Winckelmann,
+&#8220;is like a rose which, after a beautiful daybreak, expands its leaves to
+the first ray of the sun, and represents that age when the limbs assume a
+more finished form and the breast begins to develop itself.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>The size of the head is sufficiently small to leave that predominance to
+the vital organs in the chest, which, as already said, makes the nutritive
+system peculiarly that of woman. This is the first and most striking proof
+of the profound knowledge of the artist, the principles of whose art
+taught him that the vast head, on the contrary, was the characteristic of
+a very different female personage.<small><a name="f50.1" id="f50.1" href="#f50">[50]</a></small>&mdash;In mentioning the head, it is
+scarcely possible to avoid noticing the rich curls of the hair.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes next fix our attention by their soft, sweet, and glad expression.
+This is produced with exquisite art. To give softness, the ridges of the
+eyebrows are rounded. To give sweetness, the under eyelid, which I would
+call the expressive one, is slightly raised. &#8220;The eyes of Venus,&#8221; says
+Winckelmann, &#8220;are smaller, and the slight elevation of the lower eyelid
+produces that languishing look called by the Greeks <ins class="correction" title="hygron">&#8017;&#947;&#961;&#8056;&#957;</ins>.&#8221; To
+give the expression of gladness or of pleasure, the opening of the eyelids
+is diminished, in order to diminish, or partially to exclude, the excess
+of those impressions, which make even pleasure painful. Other exquisite
+details about those eyes, confer on them unparalleled beauty. Still, as
+observed by the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> writer, this look is far from those traits
+indicative of lasciviousness, with which some modern artists have thought
+to characterize their Venuses. Love was considered by the ancient masters,
+as by the wise philosophers of those times, to use the expression of
+Euripides, as the counsellor of wisdom: <ins class="correction" title="t&ecirc; sophia paredrous er&ocirc;tas">&#964;&#8134;
+&#963;&#959;&#966;&#943;&#945; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#941;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#962;
+&#7956;&#961;&#969;&#964;&#945;&#962;</ins>. One thing must be observed: there is not here, as in some less
+happy representations of Venus, any downcast look, but that aspect of
+which Metastasio, in his Inno a Venere, says:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Tu colle lucide<br />
+Pupille chiare,<br />
+Fai lieta e fertile<br />
+La terra e&#8217;l mare.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>And again:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Presto &agrave; tuoi placidi<br />
+Astri ridenti,<br />
+Le nubi fuggono,<br />
+Fuggono i venti.&#8221;<span class="foot"><a name="f51.1" id="f51.1" href="#f51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Art still profounder was perhaps shown in the configuration of the nose.
+The peculiar connexion of this sense with love was evidently well
+understood by the great artist; and it is only gross ignorance that has
+made some persons question the appropriateness of that development of the
+organ which is here represented. Not only is smell peculiarly associated
+with love, in all the higher <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>animals, but it is associated with
+reproduction in plants, the majority of which evolve delicious odors only
+when the flowers or organs of fructification are
+displayed.<small><a name="f52.1" id="f52.1" href="#f52">[52]</a></small>&mdash;Connected, indeed, with the capacity of the nose, and the
+cavities which open into it, is the projection of the whole middle part of
+the face.</p>
+
+<p>In the mouth, also, is transcendent art displayed. It is rendered sweet
+and delicate by the lips being undeveloped at their angles,<small><a name="f53.1" id="f53.1" href="#f53">[53]</a></small> and by the
+upper lip continuing so, for a considerable portion of its length. It
+expresses love of pleasure by the central development of both lips, and
+active love by the especial development of the lower lip.<small><a name="f54.1" id="f54.1" href="#f54">[54]</a></small> By the
+slight opening of the lips, it expresses desire.<small><a name="f55.1" id="f55.1" href="#f55">[55]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>These exquisite details, and the omission of nothing intellectually
+expressive that nature presents, have led some to imagine the Venus de
+Medici to be a portrait. In doing so, however, they see not the profound
+calculation required for nearly every feature thus imbodied. More
+strangely still, they forget the ideal character of the whole: the notion
+of this ideal head being too small, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> especially opposed to such an
+opinion. If more is wanting, it will surely be enough that the other works
+which we are supposed to possess of Praxiteles, the Faun and the Cupid,
+present similar fine details.<small><a name="f56.1" id="f56.1" href="#f56">[56]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Withal, the look is amorous and languishing, without being lascivious, and
+is as powerfully marked by gay coquetry, as by charming innocence.</p>
+
+<p>The young neck is exquisitely formed. Its beautiful curves show a thousand
+capabilities of motion; and its admirably-calculated swell over the organ
+of voice, results from, and marks, the struggling expression of still
+mysterious love.</p>
+
+<p>In short, I know no antique figure that displays such profound knowledge,
+both physiological and physiognomical, even in the most minute details;
+and all who are capable of appreciating these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> things, may well smile at
+those who pretend to compare with this any other head of Venus now known
+to us.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;With regard to the rest of the figure, the admirable form of the mamm&aelig;,
+which, without being too large, occupy the bosom, rise from it with
+various curves on every side, and all terminate in their apices, leaving
+the inferior part in each precisely as pendent as gravity demands; the
+flexile waist gently tapering little farther than the middle of the trunk;
+the lower portion of it beginning gradually to swell out higher even than
+the umbilicus; the gradual expansion of the haunches, those expressive
+characteristics of the female, indicating at once her fitness for the
+office of generation and that of parturition&mdash;expansions which increase
+till they reach their greatest extent at the superior part of the thighs;
+the fulness behind their upper part, and on each side of the lower part of
+the spine, commencing as high as the waist, and terminating in the still
+greater swell of the distinctly-separated hips; the flat expanse between
+these, and immediately over the fissure of the hips, relieved by a
+considerable dimple on each side, and caused by the elevation of all the
+surrounding parts; the fine swell of the broad abdomen which, soon
+reaching its greatest height, immediately under the umbilicus, slopes
+gently to the mons veneris, but, narrow at its upper part, expands more
+widely as it descends, while, throughout, it is laterally distinguished by
+a gentle depression from the more muscular parts on the sides of the
+pelvis; the beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> elevation of the mons veneris; the contiguous
+elevation of the thighs which, almost at their commencement, rise as high
+as it does; the admirable expansion of these bodies inward, or toward each
+other, by which they almost seem to intrude upon each other, and to
+exclude each from its respective place; the general narrowness of the
+upper, and the unembraceable expansion of the lower part thus exquisitely
+formed;&mdash;all these admirable characteristics of female form, the mere
+existence of which in woman must, one is tempted to imagine, be, even to
+herself, a source of ineffable pleasure&mdash;these constitute a being worthy,
+as the personification of beauty, of occupying the temples of Greece;
+present an object finer, alas! than nature seems even capable of
+producing; and offer to all nations and ages a theme of admiration and
+delight.</p>
+
+<p>Well might Thomson say:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;So stands the statue that enchants the world,<br />
+So bending tries to veil the matchless boast,<br />
+The mingled beauties of exulting Greece.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>And Byron, in yet higher strain:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">&#8220;There, too, the goddess loves in stone, and fills</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The air around with beauty;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 11em;">within the pale</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">We stand, and in that form and face behold</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">What Mind can make, when Nature&#8217;s self would fail;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And to the fond idolaters of old</span><br />
+Envy the innate flash which such a soul could mould:<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">We gaze and turn away, and know not where,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dazzled and drunk with beauty, till the heart</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reels with its fulness; there&mdash;for ever there&mdash;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chained to the chariot of triumphal Art,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">We stand as captives, and would not depart.&#8221;</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center">PROPORTIONS OF THE VENUS DE MEDICI.</p>
+
+<div class="note"><p class="hang">Has seven heads, seven parts, and three minutes in height.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the top of the head to the root of the hair, three parts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the root of the hair to the eyebrows, three parts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the eyebrows to the bottom of the nose, three parts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the bottom of the nose, to that of the chin, three parts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the bottom of the chin to the depression between the clavicles, four parts, three minutes and a half.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the depression between the clavicles to the lowest part of the breast, ten parts, five minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the lowest part of the breast to the middle of the navel, eight parts, three minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the middle of the navel to the base of the belly and beginning of the thighs, eleven parts, four minutes and a half.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the bottom of the belly to the middle of the kneepan, eighteen parts, two minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the middle of the kneepan to the beginning of the flank, twenty-seven parts, three minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the middle of the kneepan to the ground, twenty-five parts, three minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The greatest height of the foot, three parts, five minutes and a half.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the neck of the leg to the end of the toes, nine parts and half a minute.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the commencement of the humerus to the elbow, twenty parts, two minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the elbow to the beginning of the hand, fourteen parts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The greatest breadth of the forearm, five parts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The greatest breadth of the arm, four parts, five minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the depression between the clavicles to the beginning of the deltoid, six parts, four minutes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="hang">From the depression between the clavicles to the point of the nipple, ten parts and half a minute.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Between the points of the nipples, eleven parts, two minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The breadth of the torso, at the level of the lowest part of the breast, fifteen parts, four minutes and a half.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The least breadth of the torso, at the commencement of the flanks, fourteen parts, one minute.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The greatest breadth of the torso, at the bottom of the flanks, seventeen parts, five minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The breadth from the trochanter of one thigh to that of the other, nineteen parts, three minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The greatest breadth of the thigh, nine parts, five minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The greatest breadth of the knee, six parts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The greatest breadth of the calf of the leg, six parts, three minutes and a half.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The breadth from one ankle to another, four parts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The least breadth of the foot, three parts, three minutes and a half.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The greatest breadth of the foot, five parts and one minute.</p></div>
+
+<p>The arms of the Venus de Medici, it should be observed, are of modern
+construction, and unworthy of the figure.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Venus of Naples</span> is of altogether a different species of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>That figure represents an ample and rather voluptuous matron, in an
+attitude of scarcely surpassable grace. The character of the face is
+beautiful, in profile especially, and its expression is grave. The mouth
+has much of nature about it, resembling greatly in character that feature
+as seen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> in Southern Europe; but its expression, though tender, is
+somewhat serious or fretful.</p>
+
+<p>It presents, however, many faults. The head is monstrous. The neck is
+equally so, as well as coarse. The forehead, eyes, nose, and cheeks,
+present none of the finely-calculated details, which surprise and delight
+us in the Venus de Medici. The mamm&aelig; are not true.</p>
+
+<p>After these, the androgynous being, called the <span class="smcap">Venus of Arles</span>, is scarcely
+worthy of being mentioned. She derives some grandeur from antique
+character and symmetry, and some from her masculine features. The head is
+monstrous; the neck horrid; the nose heavy; the mouth contemptuous.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole, neither the graceful matron of Naples, nor the manlike
+woman of the Louvre, can be brought into competition with the Venus de
+Medici.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XX.</h2>
+<h3>DEFECTS OF BEAUTY.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Defects of the Locomotive System.</i></p>
+
+<p>1. If the whole figure be either too broad or too tall; because, the first
+is inelegant, and the last unfeminine. Persons who are too tall are
+generally ill at ease and destitute of grace, a greater misfortune to a
+woman than to a man.&mdash;Too low a stature is a defect less disagreeable,
+especially for women. If, however, on the one side, it gives prettiness,
+on the other, it deprives of all imposing appearance.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the bones, except those of the pelvis, be not proportionally small;
+because, in woman, this portion of the locomotive system ought to be
+completely subordinate to the vital.</p>
+
+<p>3. If the ligaments, and the articulations they form, be not
+proportionally small; because, in woman, this portion of the locomotive
+system ought also to be completely subordinate to the vital.</p>
+
+<p>Either of the last two defects will produce what is termed clumsiness.</p>
+
+<p>4. If the muscles, generally more slender, feeble, soft and yielding than
+in man, be not large around the pelvis, and delicate elsewhere; because,
+this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> is necessary, for reasons which will be afterward assigned, as well
+as to permit the ease and suppleness of the movements.</p>
+
+<p>5. If, in a mature female, the length of the neck, compared with the
+trunk, be not proportionally somewhat less than in the male; because, in
+her, the subordination of the locomotive system, the predominance of the
+vital, and the dependance of the mental, are naturally connected with the
+shorter vertebrae and shorter course of the vessels of the neck.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>(The following defects, from 6 to 15 inclusive, have necessarily a
+reference also to the vital system; because, the form and capacity of the
+cavities here spoken of, as formed by the osseous frame of the locomotive
+system, have an obvious relation to the vital organs, which these cavities
+are destined to contain.)</p>
+
+<p>6. If the upper part of the body (exclusive of the bosom) be
+proportionally more, and the lower part of the body less prominent, than
+in man, so that, when she stands perfectly upright or lies on the back,
+the space between the breasts is more prominent than the mons veneris;
+because, such conformation is injurious to impregnation, gestation, and
+parturition.</p>
+
+<p>7. If the shoulders seem wider than the haunches; because, this appearance
+generally arises from the narrowness of the pelvis, and its consequent
+unfitness for gestation and parturition.</p>
+
+<p>8. If, on the contrary, the shoulders be much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> narrower than the pelvis;
+because, this indicates extreme weakness of the locomotive system.</p>
+
+<p>9. If the shoulders do not slope from the lower part of the neck; because,
+this shows that the upper part of the chest is not sufficiently wide of
+itself, but is rendered angular by the muscularity, &amp;c., of the shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>10. If the upper part of the chest be not relatively short and wide, and
+if it owe not its width rather to itself than to the size of the
+shoulders; because, this shows that the vital organs contained in the
+chest are not sufficiently expanded.</p>
+
+<p>11. If, in youth, the upper part of the trunk, including the muscles
+moving the shoulders, do not form an inverted cone, whose apex is the
+waist; because, in that case, the lightness and beauty of the locomotive
+system are destroyed by the unrestrained expansion of the vital.</p>
+
+<p>12. If the loins be not extended at the expense of the chest above and of
+the limbs below; because, on this depends their capacity to receive organs
+enlarged or displaced during gestation.</p>
+
+<p>13. If the back be not hollow; because, this shows that the pelvis is not
+sufficiently deep to project posteriorly, nor consequently of sufficient
+capacity for gestation and parturition.</p>
+
+<p>14. If the haunches be not widely expanded (as already implied in speaking
+of the shoulders); because, the interior cavity of the pelvis is then
+insufficient for gestation and parturition.</p>
+
+<p>15. If, in consequence of the form of the pelvis, and the arch of the
+pubis being larger, the mons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> veneris be not more prominent than the
+chest; because, the pelvic cavity is then also insufficient for gestation
+and parturition.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>16. If the thighs of woman be not wider than those of man; because, the
+width of the female pelvis, and the purposes which it serves, require
+this.</p>
+
+<p>17. If the size of the thighs be not large, the haunches as it were
+increasing till they reach their greatest extent at the upper part of the
+thigh, which anteriorly rises as high as the mons veneris, and if the
+knees do not approximate.</p>
+
+<p>18. If the arms and the limbs be not relatively short, if they do not
+taper greatly as they recede from the trunk, and if the hands and feet be
+not small; because, it is the vital system and the trunk, which is by far
+the most important part in the female.</p>
+
+<p>19. If the larynx or flute part of the throat be not small; because their
+magnitude indicates a masculine character.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Defects of the Vital System.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Defects of the contained vital parts, which have been already implied in
+enumerating those of the containing locomotive parts, are not again
+mentioned here, as the intelligent reader can easily supply these and
+similar omissions.)</p>
+
+<p>1. If, in consequence of marriage taking place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> before their full growth,
+women remain always of diminished stature, weak, and pale.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the digestive organs being large rather than active, is inconsistent
+with the greater activity and less permanence of all the other functions,
+secretion, gestation, &amp;c., excepted.</p>
+
+<p>3. If the absorbing vessels, being inactive, are insufficient for large
+secretions.</p>
+
+<p>4. If the circulating vessels, being inactive and imperfectly ramified,
+leave the skin cold, opaque, and destitute of complexion.</p>
+
+<p>5. If the secreting vessels, being inactive, furnish neither the plumpness
+necessary to beauty, nor those ovarian, uterine, and mammary excretions on
+which progeny is dependant.</p>
+
+<p>6. If the neck form not an insensible transition between the body and
+head, being sufficiently full to conceal the muscles of the neck and the
+flute part of the throat.</p>
+
+<p>7. If, in a young woman, the mamm&aelig;, without being too large, do not occupy
+the bosom, and rise from it with nearly equal curves on every side, which
+similarly terminate in their apices; or if, in the mature woman, they do
+not, when supported, seem laterally to protrude somewhat on the space
+occupied by the arms; because, these show that this important part of the
+vital system is insufficiently developed.</p>
+
+<p>8. If the waist, tapering little farther than the middle of the trunk, and
+being sufficiently marked, especially in the back and loins, by the
+approximation of the expanded pelvis, be not also slightly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> encroached on
+by the plumpness of all the contiguous parts, without however destroying
+its elegance, softness and flexibility; because, this similarly shows
+feebleness in a portion of that system, which is by far the most important
+to woman.</p>
+
+<p>9. If the waist be broader than the upper part of the trunk, including the
+muscles moving the shoulders; because, this indicates that expansion of
+the stomach, liver, and other glands, which is generally the result of
+their excessive use or excitement. It is attended with a common look and
+an inelegant appearance.</p>
+
+<p>10. If the abdomen be not moderately expanded, its upper portion beginning
+to swell out, higher even than the umbilicus, and its greatest projection
+being almost immediately under that point; because, this shows a weakness
+of the vital system, and a disproportion to the parts immediately above.</p>
+
+<p>11. If the abdomen, which should be highest immediately under the
+umbilicus, slope not gently toward the mons veneris, and be more prominent
+elsewhere; because this is the result of that excessive expansion which
+takes place during parturition.</p>
+
+<p>12. If the abdomen, which, as well as being elevated, should be narrow at
+its upper part, become as broad there as below, and lose that gentle
+lateral depression by which it is distinguished from the more muscular
+parts on the sides of the pelvis; because, this indicates the operation of
+the causes mentioned in the preceding paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>13. If a remarkable fulness exist not behind the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> upper part of the
+haunches, and on each side of the lower part of the spine, commencing as
+high as the waist, and terminating in the still greater swell of the
+distinctly separated hips; the flat expanse between these and immediately
+over the fissure of the hips, being relieved by a considerable dimple on
+each side, caused by the elevation of all the surrounding parts; because,
+it indicates feebleness in that system which is most essential to woman.</p>
+
+<p>14. If the cellular tissue and the plumpness which is connected with it,
+do not predominate, so as to obliterate all distinct projection of the
+muscles; because, this likewise shows that an important portion of the
+vital system is feeble, and it deprives woman of the forms which are
+necessary to love. Nothing can completely compensate, in woman, for the
+absolute want of plumpness. The features of meager persons are hard; they
+have a dry and arid physiognomy; the mouth is without charm; the color is
+without freshness; their limbs seem ill united with their body; and all
+their movements are abrupt and coarse.</p>
+
+<p>15. If plumpness be too predominant; because, it then destroys the
+distinctness of parts, and constitutes an excess productive of
+inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>16. If that excessive plumpness be broken, as it were, into masses;
+because, it constitutes coarseness of the vital system.</p>
+
+<p>17. If former plumpness have left the previously-filled cellular tissue
+and expanded integuments enfeebled; because, that constitutes flaccidity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>18. If the almost entire absorption of adipose substance have finally left
+the bones angular, the muscles and other parts permanently rigid, and the
+skin dry; because, that indicates decay of the vital system, and
+characterizes age.</p>
+
+<p>19. If the skin be not fine, soft, and white, delicate, thin, and
+transparent, fresh and animated, if the complexion be not pure and vivid,
+if the hair be not fine, soft, and luxuriant, and if the nails be not
+smooth, transparent, and rose-colored; because, these likewise show the
+feebleness of that system which is most important to woman.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Defects of the Mental System.</i></p>
+
+<p>1. If the head, compared with the trunk, be not less than that of the
+male; because, the mental system, in the female, ought to be subordinate
+to the vital, and the reverse is inconsistent with the healthful and happy
+exercise of her faculties as woman.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the organs of sense be not proportionally larger, when compared with
+the brain, and more delicately outlined than in the male; because,
+sensibility should exceed reasoning power, in the female.</p>
+
+<p>3. If the brain (in other words) be not proportionally smaller, when
+compared with the organs of sense, than in the male; because, reasoning
+power should be subordinate to sensibility in the female.</p>
+
+<p>4. If the cerebel be not proportionally smaller, when compared with the
+organs of sense, than in the male; because, voluntary power should also be
+subordinate to sensibility, in the female.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>5. If the cerebel be not narrow and pointed posteriorly, that is, long
+rather than broad (its general form in woman); because, the volitions of
+woman should be intense, not permanent.</p>
+
+<p>6. If the forehead be not large in proportion to the backhead, but on the
+contrary low, or very narrow; because, the former being the seat of
+observation, if the organ be small, the function must be correspondingly
+so, and in that case passion will probably predominate.</p>
+
+<p>7. If the delicacy of the skin permit not to the touch of woman
+corresponding delicacy.</p>
+
+<p>8. If the mouth be not small, or extend much beyond the nostrils, and if
+the lips be not delicately outlined and of vermillion hue.</p>
+
+<p>9. If the nose be not nearly in the same direction with the forehead, or
+if more than a slight inflexion is to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>10. If the eyes be not relatively large and perfectly clear in every part.</p>
+
+<p>11. If the eyelids, instead of an oblong, form nearly a circular aperture,
+resembling somewhat the eye of monkeys, cats, or birds; because, this
+round eye, when large, and especially when dark, is always indicative of a
+bold, and, when small, of a pert insensibility of character.</p>
+
+<p>12. If the eyelashes be not long and silky, and if the eyebrows be not
+furnished with fine hairs, and be not arched and distinctly separated.</p>
+
+<p>13. If the ears be prominent, so as to alter the regularity of the oval of
+the head, or surcharge its outline with prominences.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXI.</h2>
+<h3>EXTERNAL INDICATIONS; OR ART OF DETERMINING THE PRECISE FIGURE, THE DEGREE
+OF BEAUTY, THE MIND, THE HABITS, AND THE AGE OF WOMAN, NOTWITHSTANDING THE AIDS AND DISGUISES OF DRESS.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>External Indications of Figure.</i></p>
+
+<p>External indications as to figure are required chiefly as to the limbs
+which are concealed by drapery. Such indications are afforded by the walk,
+to every careful observer.</p>
+
+<p>In considering <i>the proportion of the limbs to the body</i>&mdash;if, even in a
+young woman, the walk, though otherwise good, be heavy, or the fall on
+each foot alternately be sudden, and rather upon the heel, the limbs,
+though well formed, will be found to be slender, compared with the body.</p>
+
+<p>This conformation accompanies any great proportional development of the
+vital system; and it is frequently observable in the women of the Saxon
+population of England, as in the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In women of this conformation, moreover, the slightest indisposition or
+debility is indicated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> a slight vibration of the shoulders, and upper
+part of the chest, at every step, in walking.</p>
+
+<p>In considering <i>the line or direction of the limbs</i>&mdash;if, viewed behind,
+the feet, at every step, are thrown out backward, and somewhat laterally,
+the knees are certainly much inclined inward.</p>
+
+<p>If, viewed in front, the dress, at every step, is as it were, gathered
+toward the front, and then tossed more or less to the opposite side, the
+knees are certainly too much inclined.</p>
+
+<p>In considering <i>the relative size of each portion of the limbs</i>&mdash;if, in
+the walk, there be a greater or less approach to the marching pace, the
+hip is large; for we naturally employ the joint which is surrounded with
+the most powerful muscles, and, in any approach to the march, it is the
+hip-joint which is used, and the knee and ankle-joints which remain
+proportionally unemployed.</p>
+
+<p>If, in the walk, the tripping pace be used, as in an approach to walking
+on tiptoes, the calf is large; for it is only by the power of its muscles
+that, under the weight of the whole body, the foot can be extended for
+this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>If, in the walk, the foot be raised in a slovenly manner, and the heel be
+seen, at each step, to lift the bottom of the dress upward and backward,
+neither the hip nor the calf is well developed.</p>
+
+<p>Even with regard to the parts of the figure which are more exposed to
+observation by the closer adaptation of dress, much deception occurs. It
+is, therefore, necessary to understand the arts employed for this purpose,
+at least by skilful women.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>A person having a narrow face, wears a bonnet with wide front, exposing
+the lower part of the cheeks.&mdash;One having a broad face, wears a closer
+front; and, if the jaw be wide, it is in appearance diminished, by
+bringing the corners of the bonnet sloping to the point of the chin.</p>
+
+<p>A person having a long neck has the neck of the bonnet descending, the
+neck of the dress rising, and filling more or less of the intermediate
+space. One having a short neck has the whole bonnet short and close in the
+perpendicular direction, and the neck of the dress neither high nor wide.</p>
+
+<p>Persons with narrow shoulders have the shoulders or epaulets of the dress
+formed on the outer edge of the natural shoulder, very full, and both the
+bosom and back of the dress running in oblique folds, from the point of
+the shoulder to the middle of the bust.</p>
+
+<p>Persons with waists too large, render them less before by a stomacher, or
+something equivalent, and behind by a corresponding form of the dress,
+making the top of the dress smooth across the shoulders, and drawing it in
+plaits to a narrow point at the bottom of the waist.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have the bosom too small, enlarge it by the oblique folds of the
+dress being gathered above, and by other means.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have the lower posterior part of the body too flat, elevate it
+by the top of the skirt being gathered behind, and by other less skilful
+adjustments, which though hid, are easily detected.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have the lower part of the body too<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> prominent anteriorly,
+render it less apparent by shortening the waist, by a corresponding
+projection behind, and by increasing the bosom above.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have the haunches too narrow, take care not to have the bottom
+of the dress too wide.</p>
+
+<p>Tall women have a wide skirt, or several flounces, or both of these:
+shorter women, a moderate one, but as long as can be conveniently worn,
+with the flounces, &amp;c., as low as possible.<small><a name="f57.1" id="f57.1" href="#f57">[57]</a></small></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>External Indications of Beauty.</i></p>
+
+<p>Additional indications as to beauty are required chiefly where the woman
+observed precedes the observer, and may, by her figure, naturally and
+reasonably excite his interest, while at the same time it would be rude to
+turn and look in her face on passing.</p>
+
+<p>There can, therefore, be no impropriety in observing, that the conduct of
+those who may happen to meet the woman thus preceding, will differ
+according to the sex of the person who meets her.&mdash;If the person meeting
+her be a man, and the lady observed be beautiful, he will not only look
+with an expression of pleasure at her countenance, but will afterward turn
+more or less completely to survey her from behind.&mdash;If the person meeting
+her be a woman, the case becomes more complex. If both be either ugly or
+beautiful, or if the person meeting her be beautiful and the lady observed
+be ugly, then it is probable, that the approaching person<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> may pass by
+inattentively, casting merely an indifferent glance: if, on the contrary,
+the woman meeting her be ugly, and the lady observed be beautiful, then
+the former will examine the latter with the severest scrutiny, and if she
+sees features and shape without defect, she will instantly fix her eyes on
+the head-dress or gown, in order to find some object for censure of the
+beautiful woman, and for consolation in her own ugliness.</p>
+
+<p>Thus he who happens to follow a female may be aided in determining whether
+it is worth his while to glance at her face in passing, or to devise other
+means of seeing it.</p>
+
+<p>Even when the face is seen, as in meeting in the streets or elsewhere,
+infinite deception occurs as to the degree of beauty. This operates so
+powerfully, that a correct estimate of beauty is perhaps never formed at
+first. This depends on the forms and still more on the colors of dress in
+relation to the face. For this reason, it is necessary to understand the
+principles according to which colors are employed at least by skilful
+women.<small><a name="f58.1" id="f58.1" href="#f58">[58]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>When it is the fault of a face to contain too much yellow, then yellow
+around the face is used to remove it by contrast, and to cause the red and
+blue to predominate.</p>
+
+<p>When it is the fault of a face to contain too much red, then red around
+the face is used to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>remove it by contrast, and to cause the yellow and
+blue to predominate.</p>
+
+<p>When it is the fault of a face to contain too much blue, then blue around
+the face is used to remove it by contrast, and to cause the yellow and red
+to predominate.</p>
+
+<p>When it is the fault of a face to contain too much yellow and red, then
+orange is used.</p>
+
+<p>When it is the fault of a face to contain too much red and blue, then
+purple is used.</p>
+
+<p>When it is the fault of a face to contain too much blue and yellow, then
+green is used.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to observe that the linings of bonnets reflect their color
+on the face, and transparent bonnets transmit that color, and equally
+tinge it. In both these cases, the color employed is no longer that which
+is placed around the face, and which acts on it by contrast, but the
+opposite. As green around the face heightens a faint red in the cheeks by
+contrast, so the pink lining of the bonnet aids it by reflection.</p>
+
+<p>Hence linings which reflect, are generally of the teint which is wanted in
+the face; and care is then taken that these linings do not come into the
+direct view of the observer, and operate prejudicially on the face by
+contrast, overpowering the little color which by reflection they should
+heighten. The fronts of bonnets so lined, therefore, do not widen greatly
+forward, and bring their color into contrast.</p>
+
+<p>When bonnets do widen, the proper contrast is used as a lining; but then
+it has not a surface<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> much adapted for reflection, otherwise it may
+perform that office, and injure the complexion.</p>
+
+<p>Understanding, then, the application of these colors in a general way, it
+may be noticed, that fair faces are by contrast best acted on by light
+colors, and dark faces by darker colors.</p>
+
+<p>Dark faces are best affected by darker colors, evidently because they tend
+to render the complexion fairer; and fair faces do not require dark
+colors, because the opposition would be too strong.</p>
+
+<p>Objects which constitute a background to the face, or which, on the
+contrary, reflect their hues upon it, always either improve or injure the
+complexion. For this and some other reasons, many persons look better at
+home in their apartments than in the streets. Apartments may, indeed, be
+peculiarly calculated to improve individual complexions.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>External Indications of Mind.</i></p>
+
+<p>External indications as to mind may be derived from figure, from gait, and
+from dress.</p>
+
+<p>As to figure, a certain symmetry or disproportion of parts (either of
+which depends immediately upon the locomotive system)&mdash;or a certain
+softness or hardness of form (which belongs exclusively to the vital
+system)&mdash;or a certain delicacy or coarseness of outline (which belongs
+exclusively to the mental system)&mdash;these reciprocally denote a locomotive
+symmetry or disproportion&mdash;or a vital softness or hardness&mdash;or a mental
+delicacy or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> coarseness, which will be found also indicated by the
+features of the face.</p>
+
+<p>These qualities are marked in pairs, as each belonging to its respective
+system; for, without this, there can be no accurate or useful observation.</p>
+
+<p>As to gait, that progression which advances, unmodified by any lateral
+movement of the body, or any perpendicular rising of the head, and which
+belongs exclusively to the locomotive system&mdash;or that soft lateral rolling
+of the body, which belongs exclusively to the vital system&mdash;or that
+perpendicular rising or falling of the head at every impulse to step,
+which belongs exclusively to the mental system&mdash;these reciprocally
+indicate a corresponding locomotive, or vital, or mental character, which
+will be found also indicated by the features of the face.</p>
+
+<p>To put to the test the utility of these elements of observation and
+indication, let us take a few instances.&mdash;If, in any individual,
+locomotive symmetry of figure is combined with direct and linear gait, a
+character of mind and countenance not absolutely repulsive, but cold and
+insipid, is indicated.&mdash;If vital softness of figure is combined, with a
+gentle lateral rolling of the body in its gait, voluptuous character and
+expression of countenance are indicated.&mdash;If delicacy of outline in the
+figure, be combined with perpendicular rising of the head, levity, perhaps
+vanity, is indicated.&mdash;But there are innumerable combinations and
+modifications of the elements which we have just described. Expressions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+of pride, determination, obstinacy, &amp;c., are all observable.</p>
+
+<p>The gait, however, is often formed, in a great measure, by local or other
+circumstances, by which it is necessary that the observer should avoid
+being misled.</p>
+
+<p>Dress, as affording indications, though less to be relied on than the
+preceding, is not without its value. The woman who possesses a cultivated
+taste, and a corresponding expression of countenance, will generally be
+tastefully dressed; and the vulgar woman, with features correspondingly
+rude, will easily be seen through the inappropriate mask in which her
+milliner or dressmaker may have invested her.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>External Indications of Habits.</i></p>
+
+<p>External indications as to the personal habits of women are both numerous
+and interesting.</p>
+
+<p>The habit of child-bearing is indicated by a flatter breast, a broader
+back, and thicker cartilages of the bones of the pubis, necessary widening
+the pelvis.</p>
+
+<p>The same habit is also indicated by a high rise of the nape of the neck,
+so that the neck from that point bends considerably forward, and by an
+elevation which is diffused between the neck and shoulders. These all
+arise from temporary distensions of the trunk in women whose secretions
+are powerful, from the habit of throwing the shoulders backward during
+pregnancy, and the head again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> forward, to balance the abdominal weight;
+and they bestow a character of vitality peculiarly expressive.</p>
+
+<p>The same habit is likewise indicated by an excess of that lateral rolling
+of the body in walking, which was already described as connected with
+voluptuous character. This is a very certain indication, as it arises from
+temporary distensions of the pelvis, which nothing else can occasion. As
+in consequence of this lateral rolling of the body, and of the weight of
+the body being much thrown forward in gestation, the toes are turned
+somewhat inward, they aid in the indication.</p>
+
+<p>The habit of nursing children is indicated, both in mothers and
+nursery-maids, by the right shoulder being larger and more elevated than
+the left.</p>
+
+<p>The habits of the seamstress are indicated by the neck suddenly bending
+forward, and the arms being, even in walking, considerably bent forward or
+folded more or less upward from the elbows.</p>
+
+<p>Habits of labor are indicated by a considerable thickness of the shoulders
+below, where they form an angle with the inner part of the arm; and, where
+these habits are of the lowest menial kind, the elbows are turned outward
+and the palms of the hands backward.</p>
+
+<p>The habits of many of the inferior female professions might easily be
+indicated; but they would be unsuitable to a work like this.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span><i>External Indications of Age.</i></p>
+
+<p>External indications of age are required chiefly where the face is veiled,
+or where the woman observed precedes the observer and may reasonably
+excite his interest.</p>
+
+<p>In either of these cases, if the foot and ankle have lost a certain
+moderate plumpness, and assumed a certain sinewy or bony appearance, the
+woman has generally passed the period of youth.</p>
+
+<p>If in walking, instead of the ball or outer edge of the foot first
+striking the ground, it is the heel which does so, then has the woman in
+general passed the meridian of life.&mdash;Unlike the last indication, this is
+apparent, however the foot and ankle may be clothed.&mdash;The reason of this
+indication is the decrease of power which unfits the muscles to receive
+the weight of the body by maintaining the extension of the ankle-joint.</p>
+
+<p>Exceptions to this last indication are to be found chiefly in women in
+whom the developments of the body are proportionally much greater, either
+from a temporary or a permanent cause, than those of the limbs, the
+muscles of which are consequently incapable of receiving the weight of the
+body by maintaining the extension of the ankle-joint.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">APPENDIX</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>A.</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Walker&#8217;s extravagant admiration of the Grecian mythology has led him
+to over-estimate its influence upon poetry and the arts. That these were
+influenced, in a very important degree, by the religion of Greece, no one
+acquainted with the history of that nation, can doubt; but, that the arts
+cannot exist where the Grecian mythology is not the popular religion, is
+an opinion unsupported by the history of the past, and altogether opposed
+to their present flourishing state in civilized countries. In no age or
+nation has the art of painting, for example, attained higher perfection,
+than in Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries; a period which has been
+called &#8220;the golden age of Italian art,&#8221; and its high excellence has been
+justly attributed to the introduction of Christianity. &#8220;The walls and
+cupolas,&#8221; says a late writer, &#8220;of new and splendid churches were
+immediately covered, as if by enchantment, with the miracles of paintings
+and sculpture&mdash;the eager multitude were not compelled to wait till genius
+had labored for years on what it had been years in conceiving. Those eager
+spirits seemed to breathe out their creations in full and mature
+beauty&mdash;performing at once, by the buoyant energies of well-disciplined
+genius, more than all the cold precision of mechanical knowledge can ever
+accomplish.&#8221; Allan Cunningham, in his life of Flaxman, the artist,
+speaking of these paintings, remarks: &#8220;Into these Flaxman looked with the
+eye of a sculptor and of a Christian. He saw, he said, that the mistress
+to whom the great artists of Italy had dedicated their genius was the
+Church; that they were unto her as chief priests, to interpret her tenets
+and her legends to the world in a more brilliant language than that of
+relics and images. To her illiterate people, the Church addressed herself
+through the eye, and led<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> their senses captive by the external
+magnificence with which she overwhelmed them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But it is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove this point. Flaxman
+never uttered a truer saying, than when he remarked, that &#8220;the Christian
+religion presents personages and subjects no less favorable to painting
+and sculpture than the ancient classics.&#8221; Accordingly, we find among his
+own immortal productions, that the monument erected in memory of Miss
+Lushington, in Kent, representing a mother mourning for her daughter,
+comforted by a ministering angel, was inspired by that text of holy writ,
+&#8220;Blessed are they that mourn;&#8221; and the monument in memory of the family of
+Sir Francis Baring imbodies these words, &#8220;Thy will be done&mdash;thy kingdom
+come&mdash;deliver us from evil.&#8221; To the first motto belongs a devotional
+figure as large as life&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Her looks communing with the skies;&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>a perfect image of piety and resignation. On one side, imbodying &#8220;Thy
+kingdom come,&#8221; a mother and daughter ascend to the skies welcomed rather
+than supported by angels; and on the other, expressing the sentiment
+&#8220;Deliver us from evil,&#8221; a male figure, in subdued agony, appears in the
+air, while spirits of good and evil contend for the mastery. This has been
+considered one of the finest pieces of motionless poetry in England. We
+hold, then, that Mr. Walker&#8217;s remark that &#8220;neither poetry nor the arts can
+have being, without the religion of Greece,&#8221; is far from being sustained,
+either by history or observation.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>B.</h3>
+
+<p>The remarks of Mr. Walker, in relation to the duty of parents and
+teachers, seem to us well-founded and judicious. If moral, as well as
+intellectual and physical education, be part of the parental duty, then it
+would seem to follow, that it should embrace those subjects which are of
+the most importance, both to the physical and moral well-being of the
+child; and surely, the relation of the sexes, and the due subjection of
+the animal propensities, are not the least important of these. There is a
+delicacy generally felt and observed on this point, which springs from a
+principle that we honor and respect, while, at the same time, we doubt
+whether it leads to favorable and auspicious results. No one, who looks
+back<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> upon the years of his own childhood, can for a moment doubt that
+judicious advice and seasonable information on certain subjects, which
+were probably considered of a too delicate nature to be even hinted at,
+would have been highly useful. The young will inevitably become initiated
+into certain vices and evil practices, unless put on their guard, by the
+warning voice of those they love and respect. There are a variety of
+passions, affections, and appetites, which belong to our nature, and were
+intended when properly directed and indulged, to promote our interest and
+happiness. Those under consideration, early begin to manifest themselves,
+and, when left without the restraints of enlightened intellect and the
+moral sense, invariably lead to disastrous consequences. The question then
+is, shall the young and inexperienced be left to the mere accidents of its
+condition, without an effort to give it sound principles to govern it, or
+without bringing some conservative influence to bear upon it? We think,
+with Mr. Walker, that it should not. Both philosophy and reason prove the
+danger of such a course. The circumstances which are connected with sexual
+vices cannot be wholly kept out of view. They meet the eye, or are
+suggested to the imagination, at almost every turn. A thousand scenes and
+incidents occur to excite the passions, if the mind is not fortified
+against their influence. Those who are fastidious, and believe that
+delicacy forbids all allusion to such subjects, will say, &#8220;Keep the youth
+in ignorance&mdash;conceal, if possible, everything from his view, that may
+excite the passions.&#8221; Still, there remain the constitutional
+susceptibilities; passion and appetite cannot be eradicated, and they will
+often be excited by incidents, which the most wakeful vigilance will not
+detect or suspect. The fact is, that long before parents are aware of it,
+the child has obtained knowledge on these subjects through many corrupt
+channels; and the associations first formed, are destined to exert, ever
+afterward, a powerful influence for evil. The early associations might, by
+judicious instruction on the part of parents, be of such character, as to
+throw around the youth a barrier almost impregnable. As to the <i>time</i> and
+<i>manner</i> of imparting this instruction, it must be left to the wisdom and
+prudence of teachers and parents and, perhaps, as a general rule, it
+should be left wholly to the latter.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p>
+<h3>C.</h3>
+
+<p>Much has been written on the nature of beauty, from the divine Plato, who
+dedicated one of his dialogues to this subject, to Lord Jeffries, the
+editor of the Edinburgh Review; who, in his celebrated article in the
+Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, has excelled all previous
+efforts in its elucidation, and produced an essay, which will stand an
+imperishable monument of his taste, learning, and genius. It is not our
+design to enter upon a consideration of beauty in the abstract, or to
+attempt its analysis, as this has been done by our author in a very able,
+if not satisfactory manner. We take it, however, to denote that quality,
+or assemblage and union of qualities in the objects of our perception,
+whether material, intellectual, or moral, which we contemplate with
+emotions of pleasure; and we refer it to that internal sense, which is
+usually called <i>taste</i>. When it is asked, why a thing is beautiful, it is
+not always easy to find a satisfactory answer. We find beauty in color, in
+sound, in form, in motion, in everything. We have beauties of speech,
+beauties of thought, beauties in art, in nature, in the sciences, in
+actions, in affections, and in characters. Dr. Reid well asks, &#8220;In things
+so different, and so unlike, is there any quality, the same in all, which
+we may call by the name of beauty?&#8221; We shall not attempt to fathom this
+difficulty; indeed, it could not be done, without entering upon a
+metaphysical discussion, dry in detail, and uninteresting in result.</p>
+
+<p>When we come to inquire in what <i>female beauty</i> consists, we shall find
+that there is something which enters into it, beside physical goodness. It
+is not a mere matter of flesh and blood; but color, form, expression, and
+grace, are all essential to its perfection. The two first have been called
+the <i>body</i>, the two latter, the <i>soul</i> of beauty&mdash;and without the soul,
+the body is but a mass of deformed and inanimate matter:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Mind, mind, alone! bear witness earth and heaven,<br />
+The living fountains in itself contains<br />
+Of beauteous and sublime. Here, hand-in-hand,<br />
+Sit paramount the Graces. Here, enthroned,<br />
+Celestial Venus, with divinest airs,<br />
+Invites the soul to never-failing joy.&#8221;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;"><span class="smcap">Akenside</span></span></p>
+
+<p>Color and form are only beautiful, because they are expressive of health,
+delicacy, and softness, in the female sex. It has been <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>remarked, that
+expression has greater power than either beauty or form, as it is only the
+expression of the tender and kind passions that gives beauty; that all the
+cruel and unkind ones add to deformity, and that, on their account,
+good-nature may very properly be said to be the best feature, even in the
+finest face. Modesty, sensibility, and sweetness, blended together, so as
+either to enliven or correct each other, give almost as much attraction as
+the passions are capable of adding to a very pretty face. It is owing to
+this force of pleasingness, which attends all the kinder passions, that
+lovers not only seem, but really are, more beautiful to each other than to
+the rest of the world; and in their mutual presence and intercourse, says
+a French writer, there is a soul upon their countenances, which does not
+appear when they are absent from each other or even in company that lays a
+restraint upon their features. Indeed, it will appear that all the
+ingredients of beauty terminate in expression, and this may be, either
+perfection of the body, or the qualities of the mind. Dr. Reid indeed goes
+so far as to say, that beauty originally dwells in the moral and
+intellectual perfections of mind, and in its active powers. Thus beauty
+may be ascribed to all those qualities which are the natural objects of
+love and kind affections, as the moral virtues, innocence, gentleness,
+condescension, humanity, natural affections, and the whole train of soft
+and gentle virtues&mdash;qualities amiable in their nature, and on account of
+their moral worth. So also do intellectual talents excite our love and
+esteem of those who possess them; these are knowledge, good sense, wit,
+humor, cheerfulness, good taste, excellence in any of the fine arts&mdash;as
+music, painting, sculpture, embroidery, &amp;c. Thus, for example, the beauty
+of good breeding is not originally in the external behavior in which it
+consists, but is derived from the qualities of mind which it expresses;
+for it has been well observed, that though there may be good breeding
+without the amiable qualities of mind, its beauty is still derived from
+what it naturally expresses.</p>
+
+<p>Flaxman has truly said, that neither mind nor any one of its qualities or
+powers, is an immediate object of perception to men. These are perceived
+through the medium of material objects, on which their signatures are
+impressed. The signs of these qualities are immediately perceived by the
+senses, and by them reflected to the understanding; and we are apt to
+attribute to the sign, the beauty which is properly and originally in the
+thing signified. Thus, the invisible Creator hath stamped on his works
+signatures of his divine wisdom, power, and benignity, which are visible
+to all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> men. The works of men in science, in the arts of taste, and in the
+mechanical arts, bear the signatures of those qualities of mind which were
+employed in their production. Their external behavior or conduct in life,
+expresses the good or bad qualities of their minds. In every species of
+animals we perceive, by visible signs, their instincts, appetites,
+affections, or sagacity; and even in the inanimate world, there are many
+things analogous to the qualities of mind; so that there is hardly
+anything belonging to mind which may not be represented by images taken
+from objects of sense; and, on the other hand, every object of sense is
+beautiful, by borrowing attire from attributes of the mind. Thus, the
+beauties of mind, though invisible in themselves, are perceived in the
+objects of sense, in which their beauty is impressed. Thus, also, in those
+qualities of sensible objects to which we ascribe beauty, we discover in
+them some relation to mind, and the greatest in those that are most
+beautiful. Every beauty in the vegetable creation, of which we can form
+any rational judgment, expresses some perfection in the object, or some
+wise contrivance in the author. In the animal kingdom we perceive superior
+beauties, resulting from life, sense, activity, various instincts and
+affections, and, in many cases, great sagacity; which are attributes of
+mind, and possess an original beauty. In their manner of life, we observe
+that they possess powers, outward form, and inward structure, exactly
+adapted to it; and the more perfectly any individual is fitted for its end
+and manner of life, the greater is its beauty. This, also, was manifestly
+Milton&#8217;s theory of beauty; for, in his unrivalled description of our first
+parents in Paradise, he derives their beauty from those expressions of
+moral and intellectual qualities which shone forth in their outward form
+and demeanor:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Two of far nobler shape, erect and tall,<br />
+God-like erect! with native honor clad,<br />
+In naked majesty, seemed lords of all,<br />
+And worthy seemed, for, in their looks divine,<br />
+The image of their glorious Maker, shone<br />
+Truth, wisdom, sanctitude, severe and pure;<br />
+Severe, but in true filial freedom placed,<br />
+Whence true authority in man; though both<br />
+Not equal, as their sex not equal seemed,<br />
+For contemplation he, and valor formed,<br />
+<i>For softness she, and sweet attractive grace</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>From these remarks, it will appear that we do not regard novelty alone as
+being &#8220;the exciting cause of pleasurable emotions, and of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> the consequent
+perception of beauty in the relation of things.&#8221; The beautiful, both in
+statuary and painting, we believe to depend chiefly on the perfection with
+which the artist succeeds in expressing the qualities of the mind, whether
+good or evil; and it is worthy of notice, that Plato, in his Dialogues,
+declares that the good and the beautiful are one and the same. Hence, the
+Greeks called the beautiful <ins class="correction" title="KALOS">&#922;&#913;&#923;&#927;&#931;</ins>.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of novelty has been so well illustrated in an Essay by the
+author of a Treatise on Happiness, that we trust no apology will be
+required for transferring a portion of it to our pages:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The term novelty applies to everything new&mdash;either newly invented, or
+newly exhibited to us; in the former case the thing is novel to the world,
+in the latter it is novel to ourselves. Novelty powerfully influences the
+senses, the passions, and the manners of human beings; it furnishes
+amusement, employment, and maintenance for man; it accompanies him in his
+progress through this variable being, from the commencement of life to the
+period of dissolution.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Novelty may be either pleasing or unpleasing. When it affects the senses
+by grateful influences, it occasions admiration and delight. How
+powerfully must the vision of Adam have been affected, when he was
+introduced to being! Everything which he beheld was new. There was drawn
+out before him, the plain, the fruitful valley, the verdant hill. Shrubs
+and trees were distributed around him. The earth was strewed with flowers:
+rivulets and rivers diversified the scene&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8216;Rolling on orient pearl, and sands of gold.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>The ocean, perhaps, was stretched out as a plain of silver in the distant
+view; the heavens were robed in splendor; the sun shone brilliantly. His
+own person&mdash;himself, was an inextricable mystery. He could move; he could
+think; he could behold the display of creation; he could close his eyes,
+and exclude every impression. All was new; and everything, he might
+naturally have fancied, would remain the same; but, he was destined to
+behold a series of novelties. In a short time, he saw the sun sinking
+below the horizon. The heavens were adorned in their most splendid robes,
+like the gorgeous display of an Eastern monarch. A shade was cast over the
+valleys, and darkness began to gather among the trees, while their tops
+and branches were still illumined in the sunbeams. The shadows of evening
+are now gathered around him; the twinkling stars adorn the heavens; but
+the beauties of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> hill, vale, waters, trees, and flowers, are departed! How
+sensibly must he have been affected! He would now conclude that his future
+time must be spent in darkness; but he looks toward the East, and across
+the wide expanse of waters he beholds a gleam of light, which leads the
+eye to some great luminary, rising above the horizon, to cheer the nightly
+solitude; and, as it mounts to the zenith, new beauties delight the vision
+of this lonely and astonished inhabitant of the earth. After a short
+period the moon sinks, the sun rises in the heavens, and the same
+delightful scenery is exhibited which was beheld the previous day.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We can imagine the effect of novelty in producing admiration; when
+travellers, who having been toiling for many days or weeks on the burning
+sands of interminable deserts, come suddenly upon some lovely valley,
+watered by cooling streams, shaded by groves of trees, and beautified with
+clusters of flowers. Or, we can fancy the pleasure which would be produced
+on wayworn voyagers, who had been long toiling on the great deep and they
+come to some blest isle,</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">&mdash;&mdash;&#8216;Where the voluptuous breeze</span><br />
+The peaceful native breathes, at eventide,<br />
+From nutmeg-groves, and bowers of cinnamon.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>To the infant everything is novel, and almost everything is a source of
+admiration. The people who move to and fro; the walls and furniture of the
+room; the fire and the candles; the bustle and movement of men and
+carriages; the heavens, sunshine, and rain. These occasion interest and
+surprise. Dr. Brown has inquired, &#8216;What metaphysician is there, however
+subtile and profound in his analytical inquiries, and however successful
+in the analyses which he has made, who would not give all his past
+discovery, and all his hopes of future discovery, for the certainty of
+knowing, with exactness, what every infant feels?&#8221; But he would, probably,
+meet with few who would sacrifice so much for the purpose; and yet the
+feelings of an infant must be exceedingly interesting.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We can easily suppose the effect which would be produced on a company of
+savages, if, in the midst of their woods, one of our best military bands
+were to strike up a powerful strain of martial music. At first they would
+sit motionless, or stand as statues; then look toward the place whence the
+sounds proceeded, where they would behold a company of persons, in
+many-colored<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> dresses, and splendid ornaments, with curious musical
+instruments, dropped, as they would fancy, from the clouds.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But the effect of novelty may be painful; and this feeling will be
+powerful in the same proportion as the circumstances are important and
+new. Suppose, for instance, a person who had been trained in the ways of
+propriety and virtue were introduced, for the first time, to a
+village-wake, or some such brutal holyday, where he would behold
+bull-baiting and cock-fighting, boxing and drunkenness; where he would
+listen to quarrelling and profane swearing; how would his feelings be
+shocked! He would scarcely have fancied that a spot so small, on the
+surface of the globe, could have exhibited so great a variety of
+wickedness.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Or, we may imagine some one endowed with a delicate ear for music, who
+had been accustomed to the practice of delightful harmony, obliged, for
+the first time, to listen to the harsh scraping of some barbarous laborer
+on the violin, or the useless attempts of some tasteless practitioners to
+perform a piece of music! How irksome and insufferable must such an ordeal
+be to a man of refinement; and how would its painfulness be increased by
+its novelty!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;By the same rule, a person who may have been accustomed to luxury and
+dainty food, but is obliged, for the first time, to feed on loathsome
+bread and nauseous water, feels doubly the misery of his condition. And
+thus the man who has been used to salubrious air and grateful scents, will
+be the more effected by disgusting smells.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Novelty operates also in powerfully exciting the passions. Suppose a
+general to be usually unfortunate in his combats with the enemy, and his
+army to be consequently dispirited; but, upon some particular occasion,
+the favors of fortune and of Providence are bestowed upon them, their
+efforts are successful, and the main body of the enemy begin to waver, how
+would this inspirit them, and brighten their courage! They would rush
+forward, unconscious and careless of danger, and the foe must fly before
+such unconquerable ardor!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;If a man who had lived in poverty, in dependance on others for a
+subsistence, had constantly wished for independence and comparative
+influence, and had endeavored to swim against the stream of adversity but
+had never succeeded, and, all at once, a handsome fortune were left to
+him, how would his eyes sparkle with exultation! If a person had been
+separated from his friends and doomed to spend his days in the solitude of
+a foreign land<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> and he met, unexpectedly, with some of his nearest and
+kindest friends, how would his countenance beam with delight! The novelty
+of the circumstance would increase the amount of his joy!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A traveller in a foreign country would be exceedingly pleased to discover
+some trinket which had been made in his native city; and especially if he
+saw on it the name of an intimate friend as the manufacturer. A toy, a
+dog, or a cat, under some circumstances, has occasioned tears. A beautiful
+female has appeared more lovely, when interesting events have introduced
+her to our notice; and one who is not usually attractive, has appeared so,
+when novelty has thrown its fascinations around her.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The feeling of hope may be excited most powerfully by novel and
+unexpected circumstances. When the mariner has been long toiling in storms
+and dangers; when the heavens have been covered with darkness, and no
+information or guidance could be gained from the stars or the sun, the
+tempest suddenly ceases, the cheering sunbeams break upon him, and he
+finds himself, unexpectedly, near the haven where he would be&mdash;how does
+his heart exult with hope, and the consciousness of security!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The passions may be excited, also, in an unpleasing manner; the feeling
+of fear may be powerfully produced by novelty. Suppose, for instance, a
+youth, who was trained in the ways of tranquillity and enjoyment, with a
+feeling heart for the sufferings of others, to be brought, all at once, on
+the field of war and bloodshed. Suppose him passing along some narrow
+defile, where the distant scenes could scarcely affect him, and where he
+would perceive only a din of discordant sounds. But, on a sudden, he
+reaches the termination of the passage, and all the pomp, and
+circumstance, and horror of war, are exhibited before him. Here he beholds
+rank opposed to rank, in deadly conflict; troops of horsemen butchering
+each other; forests of deadly weapons gleaming in the sunbeams. Now he
+listens to the shouts of victors, the cries of the vanquished, the groans
+of the wounded and dying; to the swelling notes of some musical band; the
+discordant sounds of the drum; the clashing of arms, and the shrill clamor
+of trumpets; to the rattling of musketry and the roaring of artillery! How
+would his heart sink within him at these novel scenes!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Novelty will also occasion sorrow; as, when a man has been accustomed to
+independence, and the comforts which wealth, judiciously managed, may
+produce, and his riches are suddenly swept away, he is reduced from
+affluence to dependance, from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> comforts to privations. And when a person
+has been used to the society of pleasant friends, and these are removed by
+the hand of death, and the clay-cold body alone remains as the
+representative of a cheerful and amiable companion, the novelty of this
+event will occasion heartfelt sorrow.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;When those who have been accustomed to associate as faithful friends; or,
+when a monarch has been surrounded by persons who have pretended feelings
+of attachment, and evinced much hypocritical fidelity, and, all at once,
+the veil of deception has been drawn aside, and an aspect has presented
+itself of a new and treacherous kind, how powerful have been the feelings
+of abhorrence and anger!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And when a person, who has been nurtured in the lap of ease and comfort,
+and blessed with that best of all blessings (if it be rightly managed),
+the gift of liberty, is torn from his home, and his family, and his
+engagements, and carried into a land of slavery, where he is laden with
+oppressive chains, and insulted by a cruel task-master, with no chance of
+freedom, nor any ray of happiness, how will his spirits sink, and how will
+the haggard lineaments of despair be drawn on that countenance which was
+formed for cheerfulness! Or, suppose a person who was accustomed to a
+dwelling in some verdant valley, undisturbed by storms or the hazards of
+the sea; and he was introduced, for the first time, to some of the most
+aggravated dangers of that boisterous element. Suppose the winds were
+driving furiously over the ocean, and the huge billows were breaking on
+the helpless bark, while the darkness of the night was varied only by the
+gleam of the lightning, which exhibited breakers, and rocks, and
+over-hanging precipices, how would this new and dangerous condition
+agitate his mind, and drive him to despair!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Novelty influences the customs or habits of mankind. On some occasions
+novel engagements are pleasing; and thus we practise them again, and
+acquire a habit of performing them. For instance, the citizen who has
+walked into the country as a novelty, has been pleased with his ramble,
+and induced to practise it daily. It sometimes occasions a progress in the
+arts; and thus the first attempts at music, at painting, and at sculpture,
+have produced a pleasure which has stimulated the person to future and
+continued labors.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Sometimes, when the first impression has been rather unpleasing, a custom
+has been acquired, because, afterward, it had been found pleasing or
+advantageous. Thus there are many kinds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> of food, which were originally
+ungrateful, but are now esteemed delicious. Port wine is nauseous for a
+child, but it is pleasing to the taste of a person who has been accustomed
+to it. Smoking, the taking of snuff, and masticating of tobacco, with many
+other useless and dirty customs, are not produced by the pleasing
+influence of novelty; but they are rather opposed to it. They arise
+principally from the inclination of following injurious examples. In some
+cases ladies have set their faces against such customs, and have
+prohibited the practice among those who would gain their esteem: in other
+cases they have been more lenient, because they have found that a flame of
+love may burn amid volumes of smoke from cigars or tobacco-pipes. Novelty
+has occasioned a sensation of unpleasantness, with regard to particular
+modes of dress; but afterward these fashions have become necessary to our
+comfort.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In some instances, the very things which we commonly hate most, become
+essential to our happiness. When Louis XVI. ascended the throne of France,
+the doors of some of the dark cells in the Bastile were opened, and the
+hapless residents were allowed once more to breathe the pure air of
+heaven. Among the rest, there was one man who had been immured for nearly
+fifty years in a wretched cell, the area of which was so small as scarcely
+to allow him room to move about; but, having a vigorous body and a firm
+mind, he supported himself, until he had almost forgotten the world in
+which he lived, having had no intercourse with any one but the jailer, who
+brought him his daily food. When he received the summons to depart, which
+seemed like a message in a dream, he was astonished; but when he walked
+through the spacious passages and the open courts, and saw the heavens
+extended above him, and the sun shining in his splendor, he was overcome
+by his feelings. He could badly walk, and badly speak, and he seemed as if
+he had entered a new world. He went into the city, and found the street in
+which he had formerly lived, but his friends were dead; there was no
+living being in the world that knew him, and the poor man wept with
+sorrow. He was a stranger in a strange country. He went to the minister
+who had given him his freedom, and said: &#8216;Sir, I can bear to die, but to
+live in a world unknown and forlorn, the last human being of my race, is
+insupportable; do, therefore, send me to my cell, that I may finish my
+days there!&#8217; No blessing of Providence will be felt as a benefit, unless
+it be possessed by a person for whom it is adapted.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Impressions of a novel and pleasing kind soon lose their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> attraction; and
+thus the honors which are acquired by civil and literary eminence, quickly
+fade away. They are like a beautiful cloud in the heavens, or a dew-drop
+on a leaf, which glitters and exhibits its beauties for a while, but the
+fervent sun absorbs both; or, they are like a gaudy flower, which a man
+fixes in his bosom&mdash;very lovely at first, but its attractions soon vanish.
+On the other hand, painful occurrences leave but a faint impression.
+Although, at first, a man may be bowed down with trouble, yet he will soon
+regain an erect position and a smiling countenance. A few weeks or months
+hide most of our sorrows from us; and this is an eminent proof of the
+wisdom and beneficence of the Deity: for the general amount of human
+happiness is by this means more equally divided. A state of elation is
+temporary, and so is a state of depression; and thus, whether a man rises
+or sinks in worldly possessions and honors, although there will be some
+difference in the amount of enjoyment, yet there will be much less than we
+are generally disposed to imagine.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A taste for novelty affects the engagements of society: it is the source
+of fashion; it gives labor to the mechanic, to the artist, and to almost
+every man who obtains his maintenance by industry. And thus there are new
+buildings, new vehicles, new machines, and new methods of doing most
+things. There are dresses of various kinds the result of ingenuity and
+taste. One thing is new and attractive, but it soon becomes stale, and
+then we look for something novel. Some kinds of food are scarce and
+costly: these are approved by the great, but they become plentiful and
+cheap, and then the rich man looks for something rare, some new discovery
+in the art of cookery. The round of pleasures and amusements is
+continually varying. Formerly the men, and even the ladies, were delighted
+by exhibitions of combats among savage beasts&mdash;lions, elephants, and
+tigers; they feasted their eyes on the bloody combats of human beings with
+each other, or with bulls and other furious animals. They attended
+dog-fights, cock-fights, and other barbarous diversions. But the taste has
+become improved; novelty has taken a praiseworthy direction: boxing,
+wrestling, and other disgraceful exhibitions, are now transferred to the
+vulgar and disreputable; many innocent amusements have been introduced,
+and these also have been regulated by the universal love of novelty. The
+same variety has existed in language. A certain style of speech, and
+certain phrases, are fashionable in the best society; these are gradually
+introduced among the lower ranks, and then the better classes look for
+something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> novel. Many words and phrases originally introduced for the
+purpose of expressing things delicately, become vulgar: terms which were
+primarily intended as a reproach become a designation of honor, and those
+once deemed honorable become reproachful.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The love of novelty occasions the great variety of tunes which we
+possess, and the diversity of musical skill. A newly-constructed
+instrument, a new or superior mode of performing on it and the last new
+tune, are objects of universal attraction. The same disposition arises
+with respect to books. Novelty has occasioned all the variety which the
+history of literature exhibits, from the bulky folio to the penny
+pamphlet, and the annual publication to the daily newspaper: it has
+occasioned, also, in a great degree, the multitude of opinions which have
+deluged the world. Something new, as the loungers of Athens demanded, has
+been the requirement of the public in all ages. If it be new, it will be
+attractive, and if pleasing or convenient, it will be embraced, and then
+its strength and consistency will soon be deemed demonstrated: but when
+the writers on the subject, and the readers of those writings, become
+cool; when reason takes the place of imagination, then the system will be
+often discovered to be defective, the vapory fabric will fade away, and
+some other will obtain its place. We are too frequently going round in our
+progress, rather than forward. In many respects we are not much farther
+advanced than the ancients, and yet we ought to be, and should be if we
+had pursued a direct course.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But one of the most pleasing sources of novelty is that which the
+Almighty has given us in the seasons of the year; and this distinctly
+shows us that the love of novelty is not only natural, but it is allowable
+and praiseworthy, if it be regulated by reason; for the Great Creator
+himself indulges us in this respect. And thus we have all the variety of
+summer and winter, of sultry and frosty days, of clear and cloudy skies;
+of the budding and blooming of spring, and the richness and luxuriance of
+autumn; the breaking forth of the sun in the morning, and the setting of
+that glorious luminary; the light of the stars; the silvery splendor of
+the moon; the glare of lightnings and meteors, the rolling of thunder,
+with vapors, rain, hail, and snow.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The love of novelty is injurious only when it is carried beyond what the
+Almighty intended; when it does not animate a person to perform his
+necessary engagements, but carries him away from them; when it makes him
+restless and wavering. Novelty accompanies man in infancy and in youth; it
+cheers and exalts him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> in the changing scenes of manhood; and when we
+leave this earthly sphere, and the soul bursts forth from its corporeal
+dwelling, it will fly upward to regions of still greater novelty, and
+never-failing interest!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>D.</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Walker, in various places of his work, calls the <i>cerebel</i> or
+cerebellum, &#8220;the organ of volition,&#8221; and, at page 145, he attributes
+ideas, emotions, and passions, to the cerebrum, though he states that acts
+of the will result from these. Now, if there is any truth established, it
+is that the <i>will</i> is the result of the simultaneous action of the higher
+intellectual powers, and supposes attention, reflection, comparison, and
+judgment, mental operations, which Mr. Walker himself attributes to the
+cerebrum. Gall has made it very evident, that the <i>will</i> is not the
+impulse that results from the activity of a single organ, but the
+concurrent action of many of the higher intellectual faculties&mdash;motives
+must be weighed, compared, and judged, before there can be any will, or
+determination of mind. The decision resulting from this determination, is
+called will. We consider it then proved, that there is no particular organ
+of the will. &#8220;Every fundamental faculty,&#8221; says Dr. Gall, &#8220;accompanied by a
+clear notion of its existence, and by reflection, is intellect or
+intelligence. Each individual intelligence, therefore, has its proper
+organ; but reason supposes the concerted action of the higher faculties.
+It is the judgment pronounced by the higher intellectual faculties. A
+single one of these, however, could not constitute reason, which is the
+compliment, the result of the simultaneous action of all the intellectual
+faculties. It is <i>reason</i> that distinguishes man from the brute;
+<i>intellect</i> they have in common to a certain degree. There are many
+intelligent men, but few reasoning ones. Nature produces an intelligent
+man; a happy organization, cultivated by experience and reflection, forms
+the reasoning man.&#8221; Nearly all physiologists deserving of the name, are
+now united in the opinion that the cerebellum is the organ of amativeness,
+as well as concerned in the regulation of voluntary motion. &#8220;It is
+impossible,&#8221; says Dr. Spurzheim, &#8220;to unite a greater number of proofs in
+demonstration of any natural truth than may be presented to determine the
+function of the cerebellum.&#8221;&mdash;&#8220;Mr. Scott,&#8221; says George Combe, &#8220;in an
+excellent essay on the influence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> amativeness on the higher sentiments
+and intellect, observes that it has been regarded by some individuals, as
+almost synonymous with pollution; and the notion has been entertained,
+that it cannot be even approached without defilement. This mistake has
+originated from attention being directed too exclusively to the abuses of
+the propensity. Like everything that forms part of the system of nature,
+it bears the stamp of wisdom and excellence in itself, although liable to
+abuse. It exerts a quiet but effectual influence in the general
+intercourse between the sexes, giving rise in each to a sort of kindly
+interest in all concerns the other. This disposition to mutual kindness
+between the sexes, does not arise from benevolence or adhesiveness, or any
+other sentiment or propensity alone; because, if such were its sources, it
+would have an equal effect in the intercourse of the individuals of each
+sex among themselves, which it has not. &#8216;In this quiet and unobtrusive
+state of the feeling,&#8217; says Mr. Scott, &#8216;there is nothing in the least
+gross or offensive to the most sensitive delicacy. So far the contrary,
+that the want of some feeling of this sort is required, wherever it
+appears, as a very palpable defect, and a most unamiable trait in the
+character. It softens all the proud, irascible, and antisocial principles
+of our nature, in everything which regards that sex which is the object of
+it; and it increases the activity and force of all the kindly and
+benevolent affections. This explains many facts which appear in the mutual
+regards of the sexes toward each other. Men are, generally speaking, more
+generous and kind, more benevolent and charitable, toward women, than they
+are to men, or than women are to one another.&#8217; The abuses of this
+propensity are the sources of innumerable evils in life; and as the organ
+and feeling exist, and produce an influence on the mind, independently of
+external communication, Dr. Spurzheim suggests the propriety of
+instructing young persons in the consequences of its improper indulgence
+as preferable to keeping them in a state of ignorance that may provoke a
+fatal curiosity, compromising in the end their own and their descendants&#8217;
+bodily and mental constitution.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It may be proper in this place, to point out some of the anatomical
+differences of the sexes more definitely than has been done by Mr. Walker,
+as they are intimately connected with the form and contour of the body,
+and must be understood to appreciate fully the bearing of much that is
+laid down by our author:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center">ANATOMICAL SEXUAL DIFFERENCES.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br />DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.</p>
+
+<p>The stomach is the only portion of the alimentary canal which presents
+sexual differences. It is larger, shorter, and broader, in the male;
+smaller, narrower, and longer, in the female. Its muscular coat, like that
+in the whole alimentary canal, is generally also thinner in the female.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br />OSSEOUS SYSTEM.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ribs.</i>&mdash;The ribs of the female are generally straighter than those of the
+male. The posterior segment unites sooner with the anterior; its curve
+differs less from that of the last, and disappears sooner in the female;
+hence, the chest is narrower. The ribs are usually thinner; hence, the
+edges are sharper. Sometimes, however, this is far from being true. Their
+length is nearly the same; but according to Mechel, the length of the two
+upper ribs is proportionally, and when the subject is short, absolutely
+greater in the female than in the male.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clavicle.</i>&mdash;The clavicle is generally straighter, and proportionably
+smaller in the female than in the male. The greater straightness depends
+particularly on the lesser curve of its external portion, while in man it
+extends far backward, and then comes forward. The internal anterior half
+presents nearly the same curve in both sexes. The clavicle of the female
+is rounder than that of the male; we however find clavicles of females
+perfectly like those of males, and <i>vice versa</i>. Sometimes, of the two
+clavicles in the same body, one is constructed in the type of the male,
+and the other in that of the female.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pelvis.</i>&mdash;The chief points of difference between the male and female
+skeleton, beside the disparity in the size and the greater smoothness of
+the bones, lie in the <i>pelvis</i>. In the female this is less strong and
+thick, and contains less osseous matter than that of the male. In the
+female, the arch of the <i>pubis</i> is much the greatest, and the long
+diameter of the brim of the pelvis is from side to side; in the male it is
+from before backward; in the female, the brim is more of the oval shape,
+in the male more triangular; in the female, the <i>ilia</i> are more distant;
+the tuberosities of the <i>ischia</i> are also more remote from each other, and
+from the <i>os coccygis</i>, and as these three points are farther apart, the
+notches between them are consequently wider, and there is of necessity a
+considerably greater space between the <i>os coccygis</i> and <i>pubis</i> than in
+the male. The female <i>sacrum</i> is broader and less curved than in the other
+sex.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> The ligamentous cartilage at the symphysis pubis is broader and
+shorter. In consequence of the cavity of the pelvis being wider in woman,
+the superior articulations of their thigh bones are farther removed from
+each other, which circumstance occasions their peculiarity in walking;
+they seem to require a greater effort than men to preserve the centre of
+gravity, when the leg is raised; owing to the greater length of the crural
+arch, there is less resistance to the pressure of the abdominal viscera;
+consequently females are more subject to femoral hernia than males. The
+angle of union of the ossa pubis in the male is from sixty to eighty
+degrees, whereas, in the female it is ninety degrees. The mean height of
+the male, at the period of maturity, is about five feet eight and a half
+inches, and that of the female about five feet five inches; a well-formed
+pelvis has a circumference equal to one-fourth of the height of the
+female.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br />ORGAN OF VOICE.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>larynx</i> is one of the organs which presents most manifestly the
+differences of sex. That of the female is usually one third, and sometimes
+one half smaller than that of the male: all its constituent cartilages are
+much thinner; the thyroid cartilage also is even flatter, because its two
+lateral halves unite at a less acute angle. Hence the reason why the
+larynx in the male forms at the upper part of the neck a prominence which
+is not visible in the female. The glottis in the female is much smaller
+than in the male, and the vocal cords are shorter. These sexual
+differences do not appear till puberty; until then the larynx has
+precisely the same form in the two sexes, and consequently the voice is
+nearly the same in both. In eunuchs it is small as in females.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br />PHYSIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF THE BEAUTY OF FORM.</p>
+
+<p>A very ingenious Physiological explanation of the beauty of form, has been
+suggested by Professor B. T. Joslin, of the University of the city of New
+York, which is published in the Transactions of the New York State Medical
+Society for 1836. As this theory is characterized by great originality and
+genius, and but little known, we shall present our readers with some
+extracts from the Essay, calculated to elucidate the views of the talented
+author.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of material objects, not including the human form, Dr. J.
+remarks:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>&#8220;There is in objects a kind of beauty which is intrinsic and physical,
+which belongs to them in every association, and whether at rest or in
+motion; such is the beauty of color, and that of configuration. The
+contemplation of the beauty of coloring and of form gives physical
+pleasure, i. e., physical as opposed to mental, but physiological as
+opposed to physical. Employing physical in its comprehensive sense, I say
+that this physical pleasure attending vision is of two distinct kinds;
+1st, that which depends on the character of the impression on the retina,
+and consequently on the intensity and nature of the light; and 2dly, that
+which depends upon the form of the object, and, consequently, on the
+muscular actions employed in tracing its outlines. As the latter
+constitutes the proper subject of this essay, I shall dismiss the former
+with a single remark.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Some colors are more agreeable than others, but these differ with
+different eyes, and with the nature of the color to which the eyes have
+been previously exposed. A bluish green relieves the eye when over-excited
+with red, and a mild red is agreeable after the protracted action of
+intense green; and in general, the complementary colors are most agreeable
+in succession. Again, it is well known, that no kind of light is painful,
+unless excessively vivid; we are pleased with a mild radiance in objects
+of every hue, from the whiteness of the moon to the crimson of the setting
+sun. But is there no other physical property by which these luminaries
+directly contribute to the gratification of taste? It is true that light,
+abstractedly from all objects is agreeable, and agreeable on the same
+principle that sweetness is to the taste, i. e., from the mere character
+of the nervous impression. But this is a pleasure merely passive, and in
+an active being it is, perhaps, on that account, one grade lower than the
+gratification afforded by the beauty of form, and is more allied to the
+gross pleasure of literal taste. Hence, we scarcely employ a figurative
+expression, in declaring that light is sweet. But the highest degree of
+physical gratification is not enjoyed by the eye, unless this agreeable
+excitant proceeds from an object of beautiful form. &#8220;Light is sweet,&#8221; but
+&#8220;it is a pleasant thing for the eyes to behold the sun.&#8221; What is the
+source of this additional pleasure which we receive, when light proceeds
+either by radiation or reflection from regular curvilinear objects?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I shall offer what I believe to be an original and satisfactory
+explanation of the beauty of form, on principles purely physiological. It
+is based on the proposition, that the action of every muscle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> is attended
+with a sensation which, is at first agreeable, but which, if the action is
+continued for a short time with intensity, and without intermission,
+becomes painful. That there is pleasure attending those varied motions
+which depend upon the actions of different muscles in succession after
+intervals of rest in each, we know from our own consciousness as well as
+from that instinctive propensity to play which we observe in children and
+young animals. That the prolonged action of a muscle is painful, we may
+readily convince ourselves by endeavoring to hold the arm for some time at
+right angles with the erect trunk. With the arm in this position, a pound
+weight on the hand or even the weight of the arm itself becomes in a few
+minutes almost insupportable. We presently begin to feel pain in the
+shoulder and anterior part of the arm, the former from fatigue of those
+muscles which originate from the scapula and keep the os humeri elevated,
+and the latter from fatigue of the muscles which originate from the
+scapula and os humeri, whose muscular fibres are in front of the os humeri
+and by their contraction elevate the fore-arm in consequence of their
+tendinous attachment to its bones. Yet a man may labor all day with his
+arms without this painful sensation; because a muscle requires but a
+momentary rest, in order to regain that degree of energy which is
+momentarily lost by action.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;None but an anatomist can duly appreciate the variety of separate
+actions, on which depend the motions of a single limb, and the
+consequently numerous opportunities of rest which the muscles enjoy. To
+the superficial and unscientific observer, an arm is an arm; it is a
+single member which may be fatigued by a day&#8217;s work and recruited by a
+night&#8217;s rest. But to the anatomist the arm is a complex object, and its
+muscular energy is that of its component muscles, each of which may be
+fatigued by a minute&#8217;s action and recruited by a minute&#8217;s repose. It would
+be easy to extend this farther, and state reasons for believing that the
+component fasciculi and fibres of an individual muscle act still more
+transiently, and that their momentary and successive actions constitute
+the action of a single muscle.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But waiving this refinement, it will be sufficient for our purpose to
+consider a single muscle as having a simple action, an action which cannot
+be sustained with uniformity a minute of time without actual pain, nor a
+second of time with positive pleasure. This, however, is not to be
+understood as an attempt to fix these limits with precision. To express
+the law in more general terms, as we diminish the duration of a muscle&#8217;s
+action we diminish the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> pain until we arrive at an action whose attendant
+sensation is neutral, i. e., neither painful nor pleasurable; as soon as
+we have passed that point and have begun to execute motions a little more
+transient, the attendant sensation becomes positively pleasurable, and the
+pleasure increases as the separate actions become more transient. It is
+not necessary to infer that there is attending each action of shorter
+duration a pleasure exceeding that which attends each action of greater
+duration; for the more transient actions are, in a given time, more
+numerous; so that with the same amount of pleasure for each muscular
+contraction, the amount of pleasurable sensation in a given time&mdash;say a
+second&mdash;would exceed the amount attending the less frequent and more
+prolonged actions in the same period: a greater number of separate
+impressions become&mdash;so to speak&mdash;crowded together and condensed, and thus
+produce a more vivid pleasure. Several contiguous impressions thus
+conspire to heighten the contemporaneous effect, inasmuch as we are unable
+to distinguish those impressions which are made at very short intervals on
+the muscular sense, any more than we are those made at very short
+intervals on the retina. We have an example of the latter in the familiar
+experiment of swinging a coal of fire in a circle, and in various optical
+instruments for combining colors and images.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The proposition which I have endeavored to establish is, that there is a
+neutral point to which, if constant action is prolonged, its pleasurable
+character begins to be reversed; that the vividness of the sensation
+increases with the distance from this point, being on the one side
+pleasurable, on the other painful; the more transient the actions are, the
+more pleasurable; the more prolonged they are, the more painful.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I am of opinion that this physiological principle is susceptible of
+interesting applications to a class of pleasures, which metaphysicians
+have regarded as exclusively mental, and dependant upon certain supposed
+ultimate principles of the constitution of mind, principles not resolvable
+into others more elementary. As physiology shall advance, it may be
+expected that many of these imaginary elements will yield to its searching
+analysis. Whether the writer has been so fortunate as to resolve any of
+the generally admitted elements of mental taste, the reader will be able
+to judge from the sequel.</p>
+
+<p>As preparatory to the consideration of the beauty of form, it will be
+necessary to give an explanation of the <i>gracefulness of motion</i>. Although
+this has been vaguely and in part referred to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> ease of execution, yet, the
+physiological principle on which ease of execution depends, not having
+been clearly understood and distinctly stated, the gracefulness of <i>all</i>
+motions could not be referred to their true source. Thus, writers on taste
+have been under the necessity of admitting, as a distinct and independent
+source of gracefulness, the <i>curvilinear direction</i> of motions, and have
+been able to generalize this fact no farther than by referring it to the
+beauty of curved forms, which beauty was considered an <i>ultimate</i> fact. In
+applying the principles above developed, to the explanation of the
+pleasure or pain attending the contemplation of particular motions, we
+shall defer for the present the investigation of the intrinsic beauty of
+curved motions, which is the same as that of curved lines, and assume that
+in general those motions which are physically pleasurable to the agent are
+agreeable to the observer. The pleasure or pain of the agent will engage
+the sympathy of the observer; for he associates the observed action with
+his own experience. To make a single application, suppose a public speaker
+extend his arm horizontally and move it slowly in a horizontal position,
+through one third of a circle. This motion would not appear graceful. That
+it would not be performed with perfect ease, any one might prove by
+experiment. The principal difficulty is in preserving for a long time the
+horizontal position.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the ordinary state of the muscular system, and within certain limits,
+the motion of the eye in any direction is pleasurable. Whenever the power
+of directing the eye is acquired, the tracing of a line will, to a certain
+extent and for a certain time, afford some degree of positive pleasure; in
+other words, any short line will possess some degree of positive beauty,
+and the infant becomes conscious of an emotion of which he was previously
+ignorant&mdash;the emotion of beauty of form. A point awakens no such emotion;
+it never will; it can possess no beauty. It must be recollected, that this
+has been restricted to minute points of inappreciable form. Circular dots
+will be considered under the head of figures. The colorific property of a
+dot as compared with that of the ground on which it is placed, may afford
+that kind of ocular pleasure which is foreign to the present inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;From points as compared with lines, we naturally proceed to <i>lines as
+compared with each other</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;When the head is erect, in examining a <i>straight horizontal</i> line we
+employ one of the lateral recti; if the line be vertical we employ the
+rectus inferior or superior. In either case, but one muscle acts, and that
+continuously. The muscle is not relieved, and its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> action is not attended
+with the maximum amount of pleasurable sensation. When the vision has been
+extended along the whole line, if we then immediately proceed to examine
+it in the opposite direction, the opposite rectus must at one exert a
+force sufficient to overcome the <i>momentum</i> of the eyeball, and then exert
+a <i>continuous</i> action. Both these circumstances are unfavorable to
+pleasure. If the line is <i>oblique</i>, one lateral together with one inferior
+or one superior muscle is exerted, and the same principles which have been
+applied to the single muscles, apply to the muscles acting in pairs.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>The Beauty of Curved Lines.</i>&mdash;As from the foregoing analysis of the
+vision of straight lines in general, it results that they are deficient in
+the elements of ocular agreeableness, in other words, of beauty; little
+more need be said of regular and gentle curves, than that the survey of
+them is not attended with the abovementioned disadvantages. In viewing a
+regular curve, no muscle of the eyeball acts continuously and uniformly,
+but enjoys partial relief by remissions, or total relief by intermissions
+of its action; and the regularity of these remissions and intermissions,
+as well as the equal distribution of exercise, is promoted by the
+regularity of the curve. Acting in succession, the muscles afford mutual
+relief after actions of such short duration and variable intensity, as to
+afford positive pleasure; and in this <i>muscular pleasure</i> of the eye
+consists the <i>beauty of configuration</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The successive and accurate survey of distant points is not, however,
+invariably requisite to a degree of similar pleasure, in viewing a figure
+of such small angular extent as to be instantly recognised by one location
+of its image, as analogous to a larger one whose survey has directly
+afforded muscular pleasure. Although I thus recognise the influence of
+association, the facts of this very case afford an interesting
+confirmation of the physiological theory; for a large circle or ellipse is
+more beautiful than one of diminutive size. The beauty of the one is
+original, its influence is direct; the beauty of the other is in part
+borrowed, and this part is weakened by reflection. Or, to express it more
+literally, the one excites a pleasurable sensation, the other suggests a
+similar idea; the one affords a <i>perception</i>, the other a <i>conception</i>, of
+beauty. Such, even with similar color and brilliancy, would be the
+difference between the full moon and a circular dot (<strong>&middot;</strong>) or period; such
+the difference between a rainbow and a diminutive arc (<img src="images/arc.png" alt="" />) (<strong>&#9696;</strong>), a
+short accent inverted. Here the critic might be inclined to charge us with
+confounding the beautiful with the sublime. But the fact is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> that
+criticism has constructed the sublime&mdash;as it has the beautiful&mdash;from
+heterogeneous materials, one of which is identical with one of the
+elements of beauty, and should, in a physiological arrangement, be
+referred to the same class. In many instances a magnifying instrument will
+disclose minute irregularities and blemishes; but in every other case,
+physiology would show, that, within certain limits, to magnify a beautiful
+<i>object</i> is to <i>magnify beauty</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The foregoing statements of general principles preclude the necessity of
+minute details in relation to particular curves. I shall at present
+consider those which do not return into themselves, so as to constitute
+the outlines of figures in the geometrical sense. Let us first select a
+semi-circumference, for example, that of a rainbow of maximum dimensions.
+In tracing it once, we employ three out of the four muscles. They are
+brought into action successively and rapidly, but not abruptly. All these
+circumstances are favorable to pleasure. Yet they are not conducive to it
+in the highest possible degree; for each muscle acts only once unless the
+examination be repeated; and in case of its repetition, the momentum of
+the eyeball is destroyed in stopping and reversing its motion. The waving
+line, as Hogarth&#8217;s line of beauty, obviates the first difficulty. This
+ensures not only the successive action of different muscles, but a
+repetition of action in the same. If the line forms a number of equal
+waves, these repetitions will be proportional to the number of waves, and
+will alternately and totally relieve, at least two muscles, and allow, in
+the action of a third, regular remissions of intensity at equal intervals.
+We have proved then, that on this physiological theory, a
+semi-circumference possesses more of the elements of beauty than any
+straight line, and a regular-waved line more than either. These results
+are conformable to experience. If there is any difficulty in admitting
+this, it will vanish on comparing the ocular with other muscles.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Let us select a joint, which, in its spherical form, and the circular
+arrangement of its muscles, is analogous to the eye; for example, the
+shoulder joint. I think it will be uniformly found, that in the use of
+this joint, the curves most readily traced, are those of gentle and nearly
+equal curvature, and being such as are most easily traced by the eye, they
+would appear more beautiful than those drawn by the fingers with the same
+education. For example, let a man, without bending his wrist or elbow,
+draw various lines with a light stick or cane on the surface of snow: the
+lines most easily drawn (or most easily traced if already drawn), will be
+curves of considerable beauty, and nearly equal curvature; such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> as waved
+lines and spirals and looped curves. Circles and ellipses would also be
+among the figures with most facility and precision traced, and especially
+in cases of repeated tracing; but we are not at present considering
+figures in the proper geometrical sense of the term. In writing letters by
+the above method, a succession of &#8216;e&#8217;s, would be more readily drawn than a
+succession of &#8216;i&#8217;s, or a zigzag line with acute angles.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;To institute a fair comparison between terminated lines and figures, the
+component lines of the figures should be as beautiful as the terminated
+lines with which they are compared. With this precaution, physiology will
+conduct to the conclusion, that figures are more beautiful than terminated
+lines. For the survey of any figure requires the successive action of all
+these ocular muscles, and a repeated survey requires no reversal of the
+motion.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We may apply the same principles to <i>figures as compared with each
+other</i>. Here we shall find the advantage on the side of those which are
+geometrically regular. We perceive that the circle and ellipse must
+possess in great perfection the essentials of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;From figures, the transition is natural and easy to <i>solids</i> or bodies of
+three dimensions. The form of a body depends on those of all its faces and
+sections; and these last are plane figures. The elliptical sections of a
+regular spheroid are all highly beautiful, but its sections are not all
+elliptical. Unless the spheroid be in certain positions, the sphere
+possesses still higher beauty, as presenting the same circular and highly
+beautiful outline in every position; although a variety of positions is
+not essential to the perception of its peculiar beauty, whenever the
+observer has learned by different methods, and especially by different
+degrees of convergence of the two optic axes, to estimate the relative
+distances of the different points of the visible hemisphere, and thus to
+recognise the spherical form. I will only add, from the analysis of the
+beauty of the circle it is evident, that within certain limits, to magnify
+a sphere is to magnify its beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The relative beauty of the sphere and spheroid, and of the spheroid as
+compared with itself in different positions, is modified by <i>symmetry</i>.
+The principle of symmetry, is in some measure distinct from any other
+heretofore considered. It may be treated under the heads of 1st,
+geometrical symmetry, or symmetry of form; 2d, of symmetry of position.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Symmetry of form</i>, though implied in geometrical regularity, is not
+identical with it, and requires a separate consideration. The beauty of
+forms geometrically symmetrical, in contradistinction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> from those
+deficient in the correspondence of opposite halves, depends upon two
+similar series of actions in different pairs or muscles. For example, the
+survey of an ovate leaf, or indeed that of almost any vegetable leaf&mdash;so
+numerous are the provisions for our gratification&mdash;requires for its
+opposite halves two series of muscular actions, the different parts of the
+one corresponding with those of the other in duration, intensity, and
+order of succession. The gratification in this case results from the
+harmony of muscular sensations individually pleasurable. The agreeableness
+of this harmony may depend upon a principle more psychological than that
+of the agreeableness of its elementary sensations. Yet the former is to a
+certain extent susceptible of a physiological generalization. This harmony
+would probably have been impaired by any considerable inequality in the
+distances between the points of insertion of the recti muscles, or in the
+strength of the antagonists. It is a curious coincidence, that in both
+these respects, these muscles are more nearly symmetrical than any others
+in the human body. Physiology, then, explains, not only the agreeableness
+of the elementary sensations, which give rise to the perception of beauty
+in regular curves, but unfolds the provisions for two similar series of
+such sensations, not only in figures simply regular, but in those which
+are simply symmetrical, and in those which are both symmetrical and
+regular. The principles of muscular action explain the agreeableness of a
+rapid succession of varied actions equally distributed among the muscles,
+and the structure of the optical apparatus explains why the curvature and
+regularity of an object require such actions in vision. Again, we discover
+in the symmetrical structure and arrangement of the ocular muscles, a
+provision for two similar series of pleasurable sensations in the survey
+of a symmetrical figure, in whatever position it may be placed, provided
+it retains its symmetry with respect to some visual plane. The coincidence
+between the location of the ocular muscles diametrically opposite, on the
+one hand, and our propensity to compare the opposite halves of bodies, and
+the pleasure afforded by their similarity on the other hand, is curious,
+and to a certain extent affords a physiological explanation of the beauty
+of symmetrical forms.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The same principles which apply to the beauty of form of inanimate
+objects are applicable to the paths described by them in <i>motion</i>. The
+intrinsic beauty of their motions is exclusively referrible to sensations
+in the ocular muscles of the observer,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> while the gracefulness of human
+motions is referrible in part to these, and in part to sensations in other
+muscles.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It would be foreign to the subject of the present memoir, to consider the
+beauty of expression of the human countenance; although this species of
+beauty is in a great degree referrible to muscular action. That muscular
+action which belongs to the present topic is not that of the object, but
+that of the observer. It may be scarcely necessary again to disclaim any
+design of giving a complete analysis of beauty in general, or to repeat
+the concession that man&#8217;s notions of beauty are modified by various
+associations.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Final Cause.</i>&mdash;The benevolence of the Author of nature is strikingly
+manifested in connecting present pleasure with obedience to the natural
+laws. It has been shown that vision is attended with muscular action which
+is generally pleasurable. If seeing had required no muscular action, we
+should have wanted one of our present stimuli to the acquisition of
+knowledge. This stimulus is especially necessary in infancy, and then
+powerfully prompts to observation, even anterior to the dawnings of
+intellectual curiosity, with which it subsequently co-operates. We see, in
+this arrangement, the exemplification of a principle which extensively
+pervades the laws under which we are placed by the Creator&mdash;which is, that
+mental attainments, as well as other acquisitions, shall require action;
+and that action shall be attended with pleasure. Whether the acquisition
+is to be made by the manual labor of the artisan, by the manipulations of
+the artist, the chymist, or the experimental philosopher, by the sedentary
+student of books, or by the observer of natural phenomena in his original
+survey of the universe&mdash;in every case it is muscular action.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This application to natural theology, has thus far had reference to that
+degree of intrinsic agreeableness which is common to forms in general. But
+the laws of nature specially tend to the production of curved, regular,
+and symmetrical objects and motions, in inorganic vegetable and animal
+bodies; and impose the necessity of similar forms in artificial
+structures. With a different structure and arrangement of the ocular
+muscles, those forms peculiarly conducive to our welfare and that of the
+universe, had possessed no peculiar attractions; and we had felt no
+special impulse of this kind to conform our own artificial structures to
+those laws of nature, or to investigate many of the most important works
+of the Creator. Yet neither gravity or any other law of the external world
+could have determined the peculiar formation of the muscles of the human
+eye. We must, therefore, refer their actual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> structure and location to
+that Being who gives to the objects of his creative power, and to the
+principles by which he governs them, such a mutual adaptation as conduces
+to the greatest achievable good. Thus, while muscular pleasure originally
+prompts to the observation of the Creator&#8217;s works, this observation is
+rewarded and subsequently prompted by a pleasure of an incomparably higher
+order, of a character purely mental, by the discovery of <i>moral beauty</i>,
+which in rank and refinement surpasses all others. Still, the muscular
+pleasure of the eye strongly incites to the examination of the numberless
+forms of beauty in the organic and inorganic kingdoms, such as the
+symmetrical leaf, the bending bough, the symmetry of the tree itself that
+of inferior animals, and of the human form. Or we may extend our view to
+the circular or undulating horizon, the apparent limits of the apparently
+round world; or we may elevate the eyes to the arched dome of the
+firmament, on which the arches of the iris and aurora occasionally confer
+additional beauty. Or with the telescope we may pierce this apparent limit
+of upward vision, and discover beyond it a universe of spherical and
+spheroidal worlds, revolving in circular and elliptical orbits, worlds and
+orbits which present, even in our diminutive diagrams, a high order of
+beauty, designed to incite us to the contemplation of these most
+magnificent works of the Creator.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;All this beauty had been lost to man, but for the property of the eye,
+which, on a superficial reflection, might seem a defect. It is no less
+true than paradoxical, that the perception of these beauties depends on
+<i>indistinctness of vision</i>. To a being so constituted as to see with equal
+distinctness by oblique and direct vision, the same forms might be
+presented, but not as forms of beauty. Has the Creator, then, sacrificed a
+portion of our perceptive powers to our sensual gratification? I answer
+no. Has he, then, sacrificed a portion of our <i>direct</i> means of acquiring
+knowledge, to afford an incitement which should ultimately and indirectly
+enhance our attainments? Again I am compelled to answer in the negative.
+There is, in this arrangement, no intellectual sacrifice whatever, direct
+or indirect. This indistinctness of oblique vision, which might seem a
+defect, I consider an excellence. A simultaneous and distinct impression
+received from the whole field of vision, would distract the attention and
+preclude a minute and accurate examination of any particular part. But as
+our eyes are so constituted as to receive a strong and distinct impression
+only from the images of those objects toward which their axes are
+directed, and as our minds are so constituted that we can in a great
+measure neglect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> the weaker or less distinct impressions, we are able to
+acquire a more exact knowledge of any part of the field to which we choose
+to attend. To see every thing at once, would be to examine nothing. Such a
+constitution of the eye would be to vision what an indiscriminating memory
+is to the understanding.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E.</h3>
+<p class="center">STANDARD OF BEAUTY.</p>
+
+<p>To show that the sentiments of mankind with regard to female beauty, have
+been very various in different ages and nations, and that it is not
+possible to establish a standard which shall comprehend all, without
+discriminations, a few facts may be mentioned. Among the ancients, a small
+forehead and joined eyebrows were much admired in a female countenance;
+and in Persia, large joined eyebrows are still highly esteemed. In some
+parts of Asia, black teeth and white hair, are essential ingredients in
+the character of a beauty; and in the Marian Islands, it is customary
+among the ladies to blacken their teeth with herbs, and to black their
+hair with certain liquors. Beauty, in China and Japan, is composed of a
+large countenance, small, and half-concealed eyes, a broad nose, little
+and useless feet, and a prominent belly. The Flat-head Indians compress
+the heads of their children between two boards, with a view to enlarge and
+beautify the face; some tribes compress the head laterally; others depress
+the crown, and others make the head as round as possible. &#8220;The Moors of
+Africa,&#8221; says Park, &#8220;have singular ideas of female perfection; the
+gracefulness of figure and motion, and a countenance enlivened by
+expression, are by no means operative points in their standard; with them
+corpulency and beauty are terms nearly synonymous. Or women of even
+moderate pretensions, must be one who cannot walk without a slave under
+each arm to support her, and a perfect beauty is a load for a camel. In
+consequence of this prevalent taste for unwieldiness of bulk, the Moorish
+ladies take great pains to acquire it early in life, and for this purpose
+many of the young girls are compelled by their mothers to swallow a great
+quantity of <i>kouskous</i>, and drink a large bowl of camel&#8217;s milk every
+morning. It is of no importance whether the girl has an appetite or not,
+the kouskous and milk must be swallowed, and obedience is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> frequently
+enforced by blows. I have seen a poor girl sit crying with the bowl at her
+lips for more than an hour, and her mother with a stick in her hand
+watching her all the while, and using the stick without mercy whenever she
+observed that her daughter was not swallowing. This singular practice,
+instead of producing indigestion and disease, soon covers the young lady
+with that degree of plumpness, which in the eye of a Moor, is perfection
+itself.&#8221; These facts show that every nation almost has ideas of beauty
+peculiar to itself; and it is no less evident that nearly every individual
+has his own notions and taste concerning it. &#8220;The empire of beauty,
+however,&#8221; says a writer already quoted, &#8220;amid these discordant ideas, with
+respect to the qualities in which it consists, has been very generally
+acknowledged, and particularly in all civilized countries; and when it is
+united with other accomplishments that tend to render females amiable, it
+contributes in no small degree, to give them importance and influence, to
+polish the manners of society, and to contribute to its order and
+happiness.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>F.</h3>
+<p class="center">TEMPERAMENT.</p>
+
+<p>The views of Mr. Walker in relation to Temperaments, correspond with those
+usually entertained by physiological writers. It is to be observed,
+however, that they rarely occur simple in any individual, two or more
+being generally combined. The <i>bilious</i> and <i>nervous</i>, for example, is a
+common combination, which gives strength and activity; the <i>lymphatic</i> and
+<i>nervous</i>, is also common, and produces sensitive delicacy of mental
+constitution, conjoined with indolence. The <i>nervous</i> and <i>sanguine</i>
+combined, give extreme vivacity, but without corresponding vigor. Dr.
+Thomas of Paris, has advanced the following theory of the temperaments:
+When the digestive organs, filling the abdominal cavity, are large, and
+the lungs and brain small, the individual is <i>lymphatic</i>; he is fond of
+feeding, and averse to mental and muscular exertion. When the heart and
+lungs are large, and the brain and abdomen small, the individual is
+<i>sanguine</i>; blood abounds, and is propelled with vigor; he is therefore
+fond of muscular exercise, but averse to thought. When the brain is large,
+and the abdominal and thoracic viscera small, great mental energy is the
+consequence. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> proportions may be combined in great varieties, and
+modified results will ensue.<small><a name="f59.1" id="f59.1" href="#f59">[59]</a></small> Mr. Combe, in his late lectures in this
+city, laid great stress on the relative size of the three great visceral
+cavities, in determining the temperament. Thus, if the abdominal and
+thoracic cavities be small, and the cranial cavity large, the <i>nervous</i>
+temperament is indicated. If the abdomen and scull be comparatively small,
+and the chest large, the sanguine temperament is indicated. The
+predominance of the abdominal cavity indicates the lymphatic temperament.
+Mr. C. also pointed out the important changes produced in the temperament
+by a long continued course of training. It is common for the bilious, to
+be changed into the nervous temperament, by habits of mental activity, and
+close study; and, on the other hand, we often see the nervous or bilious
+changed into the lymphatic about the age of 40, when the nutritive system
+seems to acquire the preponderance. Spurzheim used to say, that he had
+originally a large portion of the lymphatic temperament, as had all his
+family; but that in himself the lymphatic had gradually diminished, and
+the nervous gradually increased; whereas, in his sisters, owing to mental
+inactivity, the reverse had happened, and when he visited them, after
+being absent many years, he found them, to use his own expression, &#8220;<i>as
+large as tuns</i>.&#8221; The subject of temperament has been treated with
+consummate ability by Dr. Charles Caldwell of Kentucky; and as his essay
+is but little known, we shall present some extracts from it. It will be
+seen that his views bear a close resemblance to those of Dr. Thomas,
+already mentioned; but Dr. C. has shown that they were publicly maintained
+by him, at least two years before the appearance of Dr. Thomas&#8217;s work.<small><a name="f60.1" id="f60.1" href="#f60">[60]</a></small>
+After explaining the doctrine of the temperaments, as taught by the
+ancients, and showing that it is founded on the exploded hypothesis of
+humoralism, Dr. C. goes on to show, that it is the <i>solids</i> of the body
+which make man what he is; that they form the <i>fluids</i>, and give them
+their character; that they are, in short, the <i>cause</i>, and the fluids the
+<i>effect</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The difference,&#8221; says Dr. C., &#8220;between individuals, or rather classes, of
+the human family, which temperament is made to designate, appears to
+depend on two causes; diversity of organization<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> in parts or the whole of
+the bodies of different persons, giving rise to a corresponding diversity
+in the vital properties; and difference of size and vigor in certain
+ruling organs of the system. The existence and influence of the former of
+these causes are in the highest degree probable; those of the latter
+certain. The one is susceptible of strong support, the other of proof that
+may be termed positive. By &#8216;organization&#8217; is here meant, the minute
+interior or radical structure of the tissues which compose the human body.
+That diversity in this creates a diversity in the vital properties, and
+that again a diversity in character, cannot I think be doubted. Whether
+the difference of organization here referred to, consists in different
+proportions of the element of living matter that form the tissues, united
+in the same way, or in their different modes of arrangement and union, or
+both, or whether it may not arise in part from different proportions of
+the simpler tissues entering into the formation of the more compound
+organs, is not known. Minute anatomy has not yet attained a degree of
+perfection competent to settle a point of such subtility.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. C. afterward goes on to prove that no single nerve, or organ, can
+perform two distinct functions, but that each is capable of one mode of
+action, and no more; that between a nerve, a muscle, and a gland, the only
+difference known to exist, is that of organization; and that if they are
+organized alike, and endowed with life, their properties will be similar,
+and they will act in the same way. So also between animals of the same
+race, we discover innumerable differences, which can be referred to
+nothing but differences in organization, and the same may be affirmed of
+vegetables. The conclusion to which Dr. C. arrives, and which he maintains
+with great ingenuity is, that independently of all other causes,
+differences in human temperament are to be attributed, in part, to
+corresponding differences in the organization of certain portions, or the
+whole of the body; and that, other things being equal, in consequence of
+this source of influence alone, one person differs from another in many of
+the qualities of both person and intellect. In other words, he is more
+highly gifted, sprightly, and vigorous, or the reverse; or he is more
+courageous or timid, generous or selfish, according to his organization.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But the second cause that was represented to be instrumental in
+diversifying the human temperaments is by far the most powerful. It will
+be remembered to have been, &#8216;difference of size and vigor in certain
+ruling organs of the system.&#8217; The organs alluded to are those contained in
+the three great cavities of the body; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> chylopoetic, situated in the
+abdomen, and including the stomach and intestines, with the liver,
+pancreas, mesentery, and lacteals; those of sanguification and
+circulation, situated in the thorax, and consisting of the lungs, heart,
+and bloodvessels; and the brain, with its appendages, the spinal cord and
+nerves. These three <i>groups</i> (for the brain is <i>multiplex</i> as well as the
+other two) are not only the ruling organs in the person of man; connected
+with the hard and soft parts that enclose them, they <i>constitute the
+person</i>. The upper and lower extremities are but appendages; important and
+necessary, it must be acknowledged; but still appendages. The individual
+can exist and be a human being without them. Nor have they any influence
+in imparting constitutional character to their possessors. Standing only
+in the capacity of subordinates to the controlling organs, they are not
+only nourished and put in motion by them; they labor mechanically for
+their uses, and serve as instruments to execute their purposes. They are
+composed of the extreme ends of the organized matter of the system,
+constitute only its outworks, and possess but little influence over its
+central parts. This representation rests on evidence that may be termed
+demonstrative. Many persons destitute of the upper or lower extremities,
+or both, have strong characters and well-marked temperaments. But the
+extremities, if deprived of the influence of any one group of the ruling
+organs, are converted not only into useless but lifeless masses. Of the
+skin, muscles, and bones, which compose the head, neck, and trunk of the
+body, the same is true. Of themselves they possess no character, and can
+therefore bestow none. They also are but appendages to the organs they
+cover, affording them a secure lodgment and protection from external
+injuries, and aiding them in the performance of some of their functions.
+And from this alone is their importance derived. Were it possible for them
+to exist apart from the viscera they contain, their grade of being would
+be below that of many vegetables. Most fatal diseases, moreover, have
+their original seat in the viscera of one of the three great cavities of
+the body, and no disease originating elsewhere can become fatal, until, by
+sympathy or metastasis, some of those parts are deeply affected. To
+enlightened physiologists this statement presents but a series of familiar
+truths. To the groups of organs exclusively, then, I repeat, contained in
+the abdomen, the thorax, and the cranium, must we look as the main source
+of human character. And that character is different according to the
+predominance, in different individuals, of one group or another, or of any
+two of them. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> equilibrium between the three groups constitutes another
+variety, by bestowing on character a corresponding equilibrium. Let the
+word <i>temperament</i> be substituted for &#8216;character,&#8217; and what is true of the
+latter will be so of the former. As already mentioned, the organs referred
+to will be its source; and the differences in their predominance will give
+diversity to it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. C. then shows that the strength and perfection of each of the senses
+are proportioned to the size of the nerve on which that sense depends.
+This is illustrated by a powerful array of facts, drawn from different
+orders of the animal kingdom, as well as from the different varieties of
+mankind. It is also stated, that where any nerve or set of nerves, is
+peculiarly large, the portion of the brain to which they belong, and by
+which they are influenced and commanded, is correspondingly large.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Inasmuch, then, as, other things being equal, size gives power to
+everything else, we are not only justified in believing, on grounds of
+analogy we are compelled to believe, that the same is true of the organs
+contained in the cranium, the thorax, and the abdomen. When they are in a
+sound and natural condition, their size is also the measure of their
+power. Were not this the case, they would be either altogether abnormal,
+or subject to laws that govern no other kind of matter, whether organic or
+inorganic, of which we have any knowledge. But the position I am
+contending for is not to be regarded as a mere inference in a process of
+reasoning. It will appear hereafter that it is a positive fact, which
+observation has discovered, and continues to confirm.</p>
+
+<p>I have alleged that the size of the three groups of ruling organs may be
+ascertained by that of the cases in which they are contained. Nor do I
+perceive on what ground any one, who is even moderately acquainted with
+the structure of the human body, can controvert the belief, or cherish the
+slightest doubt on the subject of it. In healthy persons (and my remarks
+relate only to such) the size of the brain is necessarily known by that of
+the head. As the viscus completely fills the cranium, the case cannot be
+otherwise. Although the bones of the head and the soft parts that cover
+them are thicker in some individuals than in others, the difference is so
+small as not materially to affect the result. The chest is filled by the
+lungs, heart, and large bloodvessels. Its measure, therefore, cannot fail
+to be the measure of them. Any deviation from exactness in this, that may
+be produced by varieties in the thickness of the skin, muscles, and other
+parts, is of no moment. Of the chylopoetic viscera the same is true. They
+also fill exactly the cavity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> prepared for them. The size of the abdomen,
+therefore, affords a knowledge of their size sufficiently accurate for all
+practical purposes. By a mere inspection of the person of man, then, the
+absolute measure of the groups of organs I am considering, as well as
+their magnitude in relation to each other, can be fairly ascertained. And
+it will appear on examination, as already stated, that the predominance in
+size and energy of any one or two of them, always imparts a corresponding
+diversity to the human character. Does the brain predominate? The
+individual to whom it belongs is more remarkable for the vigor of his
+intellect or feeling, or both, than for any other constitutional quality.
+These modes of mental manifestation constitute the natural functions of
+the brain; and when of an order unusually high, they give a peculiarity of
+character to the whole system. The person thus endowed feels more keenly,
+thinks more strongly, is more eager in pursuit of knowledge, and attains
+it with more facility. His relish for pleasure is also inordinately keen,
+and he pursues it at times with burning ardor. Such was the constitutional
+character of Mr. Fox, and also of our distinguished countryman the late
+Mr. Bayard. I need scarcely add, that this predominance of sensibility and
+mental action must necessarily modify the diseases the individual may
+sustain. But of this I shall speak hereafter. Do the lungs, heart, and
+bloodvessels predominate? A larger volume of highly arterialized blood is
+formed, and thrown more forcibly and in greater quantities throughout the
+system. From the abundance of that fluid, and the superior size of the
+vessels conveying it, those parts of the body nourished by the red blood
+will be comparatively most copiously supplied. But it is more especially
+the muscles that are thus nourished. They will be therefore large and
+powerful. Hence persons with broad and full chests have well-developed and
+vigorous muscles. In proportion to their size their animal strength is
+necessarily great. Nor can such constitutional peculiarities fail to be
+productive of peculiarities in disease? Do the chylopoetic viscera
+predominate? The amount of chyle formed is very large in proportion to the
+quantity of food eaten. But the lungs, heart, and bloodvessels being
+comparatively small, neither is sanguification abundant and perfect nor
+circulation vigorous. The blood is not either highly arterialized or
+animalized. Its amount of red globules is small, and it circulates feebly
+through vessels of a limited size. The consequence is, that the muscles
+receive less red blood, and are less fully nourished; the system at large
+is not so highly endued with life, and the soft parts generally have a
+lower tone. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> individual thus marked is less robust and vigorous than
+one whose system is supplied abundantly with highly arterialized blood,
+and less intellectual and sprightly than those whose brain predominates.
+It is almost needless to say, that, under such circumstances, disease must
+be modified in conformity to the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;From the preceding views it clearly appears, that the comparative
+standing of individual man, as relates to his race, is graduated by the
+predominance of his leading organs. Do his abdominal viscera preponderate?
+He has much of the animal in him, and his grade is low. Are his thoracic
+viscera most highly developed? His qualities are of a superior order; but
+he still partakes too much of the animal. Does his cerebral system
+predominate; and is it well developed in all its parts? He rises above the
+sphere of animal nature, and stands high in that of humanity. He is formed
+for an intellectual and moral being, with no more of animality in his
+constitution, than is necessary to give him practical energy of character.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This subject may be farther illustrated by a reference to some of the
+animals below us. The worm commonly denominated a grub is but little else
+than a mass of abdominal matter. It is therefore one of the humblest and
+grossest of worms. The insect has also a large abdomen, with a very small
+chest, and a smaller head. Hence, though superior to the grub, it is low
+in the scale of animal nature. Reptiles and fish are more elevated,
+because their abdominal viscera preponderate less. But still they do
+preponderate; and therefore the rank of the animals is humble. In the hog
+the abdominal viscera are most strongly developed, and hence his standing
+among quadrupeds is low. The same is true of the bear and the ox, and also
+of the sheep and the goat, but in an inferior degree. The horse,
+especially the barb and the racehorse, furnish no bad specimens of the
+mixed or balanced temperament. When the latter is undergoing preparation
+for the course, the object of his keeper is to make the thoracic
+temperament preponderate as much as possible, for the time, in order to
+increase his vigor and endurance; in the language of the turf, to give him
+more strength and &#8216;better bottom.&#8217; The warhorse approaches the thoracic
+temperament. In the canine race, more especially in the greyhound, the
+thoracic viscera hold the ascendency. Hence the muscular power of the dog
+is greater, and his grade among quadrupeds higher than those of most of
+the preceding animals. The same is true of the wolf, the panther, and the
+tiger. In some dogs there is a considerable cerebral development, but it
+is never large enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> to counterbalance the thoracic. Of all animals, the
+lion affords the most finished specimen of thoracic preponderance. In
+proportion to his size, his lungs and heart, especially the latter, are
+immensely large. And his muscular power corresponds to them. The magnitude
+of his heart is generally considered the cause of his boldness. Hence a
+very courageous man is said to have a <i>great</i> heart, or to be
+<i>lion-hearted</i>. All this is popular error. The heart is but a muscle; and,
+in man, has no more connexion with courage than the gastrocnemii muscles;
+nor, in the lion, than the muscles that move his tail. Courage is
+exclusively a cerebral attribute, and has its seat in an organ
+specifically appropriated to it. In none of the inferior animals does the
+brain preponderate. That preponderance belongs to humanity, and, as
+already mentioned, indicates its highest grade. Of all the beings below
+us, some of the ape tribe have the highest cerebral development. And they
+approach nearest to man in their degree of intellect. This is farther
+proof that, other things being alike, the brain gives the measure of
+mental power. I have lately seen a publication, in which it is gravely
+asserted, that the large orang-outang catches crabs with a stick, and
+makes a rude basket of osiers to contain them. Notwithstanding the
+well-known sagacity of that animal, this statement savors strongly of the
+&#8216;tale of a traveller.&#8217;&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Considered in relation to these principles, temperament may be divided
+into seven varieties. 1, the mixed or balanced, in which the ruling organs
+are in fair proportion to each other; 2, the encephalic; 3, the thoracic;
+4, the abdominal; 5, the encephalo-thoracic; 6, the encephalo-abdominal;
+and 7, the thoracico-abdominal.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;1. <i>The mixed or balanced variety.</i> In this the name explains the
+temperament. The external marks of it are plain. They consist in a
+well-adjusted proportion between the sizes of the head, thorax, and
+abdomen. If the limbs are in harmony, the symmetry of the entire person is
+complete. Although individuals, in whom this temperament prevails, are
+usually above the middle height, and well-formed, they are not necessarily
+so. They may be of any stature, and any shape, straight or crooked,
+provided the three great cavities and their contents be accurately
+balanced. This is not the temperament of either early life or old age. It
+commences with manhood, and continues until the fortieth or forty-fifth
+year, and then passes into somewhat of the abdominal. The Apollo
+Belvidere, by Phidias, is an exquisite specimen of it. But some modern
+artists have violated it, in painting that statue, by making the chest and
+the head loo large. Although the manifestation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> strength, majesty, and
+intellect, is heightened by this, the beauty of the youthful god is
+marred. The figure, though more imposing, has lost its charm.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;2. <i>The encephalic.</i> In this variety the head is relatively large, but is
+not always equally developed in every part, a circumstance which varies
+greatly, as will presently appear, the characters of those who possess the
+temperament. The development of the thorax and abdomen is moderate, the
+person lean, and the countenance expressive of intense feeling and deep
+passion. In some individuals, however, the countenance beams with
+intelligence, without much passion, while, in others, manifestations of
+powerful intellect and passion are united. The thoracic and abdominal
+activity is never high; yet in many instances the personal hardihood and
+endurance are invincible. It is men of this temperament alone that can
+immortalize themselves by great achievements, good or bad. All history and
+observation testify to this. Is the development very large in the moral
+and intellectual regions of the brain, and so moderate in the animal as to
+be held fully in check? The individual will distinguish himself by a
+dignified purity of deportment, and by the performance of great and good
+deeds.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Are the animal and mere knowing compartments largely developed, and the
+moral and reflecting very slightly? As relates to vice and profligacy in
+their foulest shapes, this is the worst of all temperaments. Nothing more
+prone to depravity can be imagined. The person possessed of it delights in
+some sort of animality alone; and if he ever engages in anything higher or
+purer, it is for a sinister purpose, that he may return to his chosen
+indulgences in more security, or on a broader scale.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Is the development very large, and equally so in all the departments of
+the brain, animal, moral, and intellectual, giving to the head unusual
+size? The individual possessing it has a lofty and powerful character, is
+capable of attaining the highest renown, and making an impression, not to
+be erased, on the age and country in which he lives. His career may be
+occasionally stained by irregularities and checkered with clouds, but will
+be brilliant in the main. His designs are vast, because he feels his
+power, the instruments with which he works are men, and he wields them in
+masses. The term <i>little</i> has no place in his vocabulary, nor its
+prototype in his thoughts. His aim is greatness of some kind&mdash;high
+achievement or deep catastrophe.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;3. <i>The thoracic.</i> Under this variety the head is small, usually round,
+and covered with thick curling hair, the abdomen of limited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> dimensions,
+the chest spacious and powerful, and the muscles swelling and firm.
+Whether fair and ruddy or otherwise, the complexion is strong. Respiration
+is full and deep, and the action of the heart regular and vigorous; and
+the pulse has great volume. Like the result, in every other kind of
+inordinate vital action, the animal temperature is high. This temperament,
+in which neither feeling nor intellect prevails, begins to show itself
+about puberty, and continues until the decline of life, when it undergoes
+a change. The Farnesian Hercules is the <i>beau ideal</i> of it. This shows
+that it was known to the ancient Greeks, who were probably indebted for
+their acquaintance with it to observations made on the persons of their
+wrestlers. In modern times it is strongly developed in boxers and porters,
+and sufficiently so in bakers, wood-choppers, operative agriculturists,
+and others who have been habituated to labor from their boyhood. I have
+observed no little of it among the London boatmen, the occupation of whose
+life is to ply the oar, a mode of exercise well calculated to develop the
+chest, together with the muscles of the upper extremities. I have seen
+good specimens of it also in the African race.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;4. <i>The abdominal.</i> This temperament is easily recognised by the
+character it imparts to the person and intellect. The pelvis is broad in
+proportion to the shoulders and thorax, the abdomen large and prominent,
+and the adipose matter abundant, filling up the interstices of the
+muscles, and often forming a layer between them and the skin, in
+consequence of which the limbs are round and smooth and soft to the touch.
+In such constitutions, ecchymosis succeeds with unusual readiness, to
+slight contusions. Circulation in the skin being feeble, the complexion
+may be fair and delicate, but never very ruddy or strong. The size of the
+head is limited, the intellectual moderate, the eye deficient in lustre
+and the countenance in expression, and the movements heavy and seldom
+graceful. The abdominal viscera seem to draw everything into the vortex of
+their action. The amount of vitality is evidently below its common measure
+in the human system, and, in some instances, the flesh seems to hang as a
+load on the spirit.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;5. <i>The encephalo-thoracic.</i> This temperament is a type of power both
+bodily and mental. Its compound name expresses fully the external
+appearances that mark it, as well as the attributes that always accompany
+them. With an abdomen of moderate dimensions, the head of the individual
+who possesses it is large and vigorous to conceive and direct, and his
+chest and muscles powerful to execute, and hardy to endure. It is the
+temperament<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> of masculine and comprehensive thought and strong propensity,
+united to energetic action, rather than of seclusion and profound
+meditation. As in all other cases, the character is varied in it according
+to the portion of the brain that is most largely developed. He to whom it
+belongs feels himself in his proper sphere when he is among men, and is
+well fitted to act his part in times of tumult and scenes of difficulty.
+Is his brain large in each of its compartments? If an occasion present
+itself, he not only mingles in the moral storm, but aspires to direct it.
+In case of his becoming a warrior, his genius and sword are alike
+formidable. In battle, previously to the invention of fire-arms, such a
+man was the terror of his enemies and the hope of his friends. Ulysses, as
+sketched by Homer, is as fairly the <i>beau ideal</i> of this temperament, as
+Hercules is of the thoracic. That chieftain was alike wise to counsel,
+intrepid to dare, and powerful to perform. Plato, so called from the
+uncommon breadth of his chest, who had also a very large head, is another
+excellent model of the same. Even in times of peace the corporeal
+attributes of a man of this description add to his influence. Jupiter, the
+emblem of wisdom and power, as represented by the ancient statuaries, with
+an immense head and trunk, and arms of matchless strength, is as finished
+a specimen of the encephalo-thoracic temperament, as Apollo is of the
+mixed.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;6. <i>The encephalo-abdominal.</i> Here again the name bespeaks sufficiently
+the development, form, and character of those who possess the temperament.
+The head and abdomen are comparatively large, the thorax small, and the
+shoulders narrow. Hence the sensibility is keen, and the intellect, if not
+powerful, active and respectable. For the reasons given, when the
+abdominal temperament was considered, the limbs and person, under the
+present one, are round and smooth, and the flesh is soft; but, owing to
+the influence of a well-developed brain, and nerves that correspond to it,
+the movements are sprightly and the air graceful. Though rarely powerful,
+the character is attractive. This is the temperament of childhood and
+woman, much more than of adult life and man. Fine genius, but elegant and
+playful, rather than strong and brilliant, is often connected with it. It
+is females, in whom the encephalic development is larger than usual, that
+possess minds truly masculine.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;7. <i>The thoracico-abdominal.</i> In this temperament the head is
+comparatively small, and the thorax and abdomen large, with a
+corresponding size of the muscles and bones, and much adipose substance.
+It is the temperament of mere animal strength and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> patient endurance,
+without any of the elevated, sprightly, or attractive qualities of human
+nature. It forms good laborers and fatigue-men, but is entirely unfit for
+those whose province is to meditate, plan, and direct. It comports well
+enough with the character of soldiers of a certain description, but is
+altogether out of harmony with that of an officer. It is, I think, more
+favorable to health than any of the other temperaments, except perhaps the
+mixed. If those who possess it have weak intellects, their passions are
+usually moderate, and rarely hurry them into pernicious excesses. The
+tenor of their lives is but little interrupted by either irregularity or
+disease. Hence they retain their vigor uncommonly well, and are often
+day-laborers and industrious husbandmen at an advanced age. True, their
+appetite for food is strong; but they are not prone to an excessive
+indulgence of it; I mean at a single meal. Like those possessed of the
+abdominal temperament, they eat often rather than superabundantly at once.
+Besides, such is the strength of their chylopoetic viscera, that they
+subdue and digest without sustaining any injury, as much food as would
+produce disease in those of different constitutions. Nor are they so much
+endangered by vascular fulness as persons of the simple abdominal
+temperament. The reason of this is plain. Their bloodvessels are larger,
+and their excretions more copious, especially those by the skin and the
+organ of respiration. From the warmth of their constitutions, owing to an
+abundance of well-arterialized blood, and a concomitant vigorous
+circulation, they perspire freely, and secrete and exhale copiously from
+the lungs. This temperament is rarely found among women, and is not very
+common among men.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. C. maintains that at certain periods of life, one temperament passes
+into another, as the result of the natural changes which take place, in
+the progress of the growth and decay of the human body; and that every
+one, who attains longevity, partakes, in the progress of growth and
+decline, of five temperaments; the purely <i>abdominal</i>, which prevails
+before birth; the <i>encephalo-abdominal</i>, which exists at birth, and for
+some years afterward; the <i>encephalo-thoracic</i>; the <i>mixed</i>; and the
+<i>abdominal</i> of real senility. Thus passes the circle of life, beginning
+with the abdominal temperament of the foetal state, and terminating in
+that of extreme old age.</p>
+
+<p>That there is an intimate connexion between temperament and personal
+beauty, will be manifest from the above view of the subject. Our limits,
+however, forbid an application of Dr. Caldwell&#8217;s views in illustration of
+Mr. Walker&#8217;s theory; these, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> have been given so much in detail,
+that the reader will be able to make the application for himself.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>G.</h3>
+
+<p>There is hardly any habit relating to female dress more destructive of
+grace and beauty, at least of deportment, than that of compressing the
+foot in a shoe of one half the proper size. It would seem that our ladies
+were trying to ape the fashion of the Chinese, in this respect, and though
+they do not at present carry it to the same extent, yet they carry it
+sufficiently far to destroy their comfort. We look in vain for the
+sprightly, light, and elastic step, where the feet are bound tight, and
+cramped up in disproportionately tight shoes; and it would be strange in
+such a case, if we did not find an unhappy and distressed expression of
+countenance&mdash;the muscles of the face sympathizing with the distorted and
+painful feet. Such a custom, also, interferes materially with taking that
+measure of exercise which is necessary to health. Mrs. Walker, in her work
+on Female Beauty, remarks as follows: &#8220;Ladies are very apt to torture
+their feet to make them appear small. This is exceedingly ridiculous: a
+very small foot is a deformity. True beauty of each part consists in the
+proportion it bears to the rest of the body. A tight or ill-made shoe, not
+only destroys the shape of the foot, it produces corns and bunions; and it
+tends to impede the circulation of the blood. Besides, the foot then
+swells, and appears larger than it is, and the ankles become thick and
+clumsy.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The pernicious effect of tight or ill-made shoes, is evident also in the
+stiff and tottering gait of these victims of a foolish prejudice; they can
+neither stand upright, walk straight, nor enter a room properly.</p>
+
+<p>To be too short, is one of the greatest defects a shoe can have; because
+it takes away all chance of yielding in that direction, and without
+offering any compensation for tightness in others, and in itself, it not
+only causes pain, and spoils the shape of the foot, by turning down the
+toes, and swelling of the instep, but is the cause of bad gait and
+carriage. Many diseases arise solely from the use of shoes of very thin
+materials in wet weather; but no female who has the slightest regard for
+her health, or indeed for the preservation of her beauty, will object to
+wear shoes thicker than are usually worn, if the pavement is at any time
+wet or damp.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span></p>
+<h3>H.</h3>
+
+<p>The effect of alcoholic drinks upon beauty, has not been over-estimated by
+Mr. Walker, though he is doubtless mistaken in supposing that none but
+those who reside amid the artificial customs of city life, experience the
+deleterious influence of such beverages. Not only alcoholic stimulants,
+but tea and coffee, and especially opium, which has of late come into very
+extensive use as a substitute for the former, tend to produce an unhealthy
+action of the skin, from their influence upon the secerent system, causing
+blotches, pimples, and discolorations, in a greater or less degree. Where
+used moderately, they produce either an unnatural paleness, deadness, or
+duskiness of complexion, or a bloated appearance, far removed from the
+fresh roseate hue of health. Such is the effect of wine, cordials, and
+malt liquors, which are extensively employed by ladies, particularly in
+cities, during the period of nursing, under a mistaken impression that
+they cause a greater flow of milk, and tend to invigorate the system.
+Whoever desires to attain health, strength, and beauty, should not seek
+them through the agency of bitters, tonics, and cordials, or distilled, or
+fermented liquors, which only inflame the blood, but from free exercise in
+the open air, regular occupations, tranquillity of mind, a mild diet, and
+a proper allotment of time for sleep.</p>
+
+<p>It has been remarked that the lower classes of females in cities, consume
+as much, and probably more intoxicating drinks, than men of the same
+class, and this is no doubt true. But to the honor of our countrywomen, a
+great change has been brought about within last few years, with respect to
+the use of alcoholic liquors, not only in this, but in other countries,
+with a corresponding improvement in health, happiness, and beauty. In
+advancing this blessed reform, the ladies have borne a conspicuous
+part&mdash;as they have in every other philanthropic work&mdash;and their <i>combined</i>
+influence is only needed, to banish such drinks entirely from civilized
+society.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br />THE FACIAL LINE OF CAMPER.</p>
+
+<p>In order to determine the cerebral mass, and, consequently, the
+intellectual faculties, Camper draws a base line from the roots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> of the
+upper incisors, to the external auditory passage; then another straight
+line, from the upper incisors to the most elevated point of the forehead:
+according to him, the intellectual faculties of the man or animal, are in
+direct proportion to the magnitude of the angle, made by those two lines.
+Lavater, with this idea for a basis, constructed a scale of perfection
+from the frog to the Apollo Belvidere. As nature really furnishes many
+proofs in support of this opinion, it has been generally received, even by
+anatomists and physiologists; and, notwithstanding the arguments by which
+it is victoriously opposed, the learned cannot resolve to abandon it.
+Cuvier himself furnishes a list of men and animals, in support of this
+doctrine; few naturalists oppose it, but almost all give it their
+support.<small><a name="f61.1" id="f61.1" href="#f61">[61]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>Camper&#8217;s attempt necessarily failed; for his manner of drawing the lines
+and measuring the facial angle, enabled him to take into consideration the
+anterior parts only of the brain situated near the forehead: he entirely
+neglects the posterior, lateral, and inferior cerebral parts. This method,
+then, at most, could decide upon those faculties only, whose organs are
+placed near the forehead.</p>
+
+<p>Cuvier estimates the facial angle of the new-born infant at ninety
+degrees; that of the adult, at eighty-five; that of decrepit old age, at
+fifty.</p>
+
+<p>From this statement it appears, that, at different ages, changes take
+place in the form, either of the brain or the cranium; hereafter I shall
+prove that such changes really occur.</p>
+
+<p>The forehead of the newborn infant is flattened; on the contrary, that of
+a child some months old, and until the age of eight or ten years,
+especially in the case of boys possessed of superior talents, it is
+projecting, and forms, notwithstanding the approximation to the age of
+puberty, a larger facial angle than in the adult; this angle, therefore,
+does not diminish in the inverse ratio of the age. In like manner we find
+decrepit old men, whose facial angle is as great as it was in the vigor of
+manhood; for, although in decrepitude the brain is subject to atrophy,
+there are old men, the exterior contour of whose crania undergoes no
+change. The angle, as stated by Cuvier, for different ages, were measured
+upon different individuals; if it were estimated upon the same persons at
+different epochs of his life, the result would be entirely different.</p>
+
+<p>In general, the proportion between the forehead and the face, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>
+different in different individuals. No conclusion can be drawn from the
+proportions, which exist in one person, relative to those of another;
+among a hundred individuals of the same sex and age, no two can be found,
+in whom the same proportion exists between the forehead and the face; it
+necessarily follows, then, that no two will have the same facial angle.
+Physiologists seem to admit, that the proportion between the brain and the
+bones of the face, is different in different species of animals: but they
+appear to think that, in all the individuals of the same species, all the
+young, all the adults, all the old, there exists a constant proportion
+between the cerebral mass and the face.</p>
+
+<p>The researches of Blumenbach show that threefourths of the animals known,
+have nearly the same facial angle; and yet what a disparity between their
+instincts and faculties! What information, then, do we derive from
+Camper&#8217;s facial angle?</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, as Cuvier himself observes, the cerebral mass is by no means
+placed in all animals, immediately behind or beneath what is called the
+forehead. In a great many species of animals, on the contrary, the
+external table of the frontal is at a considerable distance from the
+internal, and this distance increases with the age of the animal. The
+brain of the swine is placed an inch lower than the frontal bones seem to
+indicate; that of the ox, in some parts three inches; that of the
+elephant, from six to thirteen. In other animals, the measurement is
+generally commenced at the frontal sinus instead of the cerebrum. From
+these considerations, Cuvier was induced to draw a tangent to the internal
+instead of the external surface of the cranium. The cerebrum of the wolf
+and many species of dogs, especially when the individuals are very old, is
+placed directly behind the frontal sinuses. In the wolf, especially the
+large and most ferocious variety, it is depressed as in the hyena; in the
+dog it is situated higher or lower, according to the species; but,
+notwithstanding this difference in the situation of the brain, the facial
+angle, as it is commonly measured, must be the same; from this the
+inference would be, that the dog, the wolf, and the hyena, have the same
+qualities, and each in the same degree. In the greater part of the
+rodentia, the morse, &amp;c., the brain is so depressed and so placed behind
+the frontal sinuses, that the facial line cannot be drawn. The facial line
+of the cetacea, on account of the singular conformation of the head, would
+lead to results absolutely false.</p>
+
+<p>I know many negroes, who, with very prominent jaws, are quite
+distinguished for their intellectual faculties; yet the projection of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> the
+jaws renders the facial angle much more acute, than it would be with the
+usual conformation of Europeans. In order that the same angle should exist
+in a European, the forehead must be flattened and retreating. But the
+foreheads of the negroes in question, on the contrary, are very
+projecting. Who, under these circumstances, would expect to find the same
+amount of intellect corresponding to the same facial angle?</p>
+
+<p>The facial line cannot be applied to birds, as many naturalists have
+already observed.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been said, we should expect that naturalists would at length
+renounce the facial angle of Camper; but the most ignorant are generally
+the most conceited.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this complete refutation of Camper&#8217;s facial line, Delpit
+extols it in the following terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;If ever a relation of this kind presented characters of generality and
+fixedness, adequate to excite a reasonable confidence in matters belonging
+to the domain of empiricism, rather than that of science, it is the
+relation or proportion of magnitude, which Camper first perceived and
+revealed, by comparing the brain of man with that of the different species
+of animals. We here see a successive decrease of intelligence,
+proportionate to the acuteness of the facial angle and the consequent
+diminution of the cerebral cavity. This affords a constant and fixed
+relation. It can be appreciated with a sufficient degree of exactness by
+the direct light of comparative anatomy, and by observation of the habits
+and intelligence of the different classes of animals; it can also be
+verified by the comparison of men very unequally endowed with intellectual
+faculties, in whom the contraction of the cerebral cavity and the
+magnitude of the facial angle exhibit the most remarkable diversities.
+Here the physiognomical sign has, if I may be allowed the expression, a
+wide extent of acceptation; it rests upon a broad basis, upon a definite
+division, and one of easy comprehension and verification; for, if there is
+some discrepancy of opinion, in regard to the number and nomenclature of
+the faculties of the mind, the sentiments of the soul, the modifications
+or shades of character which give birth to particular passions, moral
+dispositions, habits, whether virtuous or vicious; if these
+classifications are, in a great measure, arbitrary, and the language used
+somewhat vague; if, in short, the greater part of these nominal faculties
+are mere abstractions of the mind, purely imaginary existences, and
+therefore cannot be actually located in any part of the brain; the case is
+quite different, when we merely seek to establish a general relation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>between a constant sign manifested in the organization, and the degree of
+reason, mind, or intellect, attributed to different men, or the degrees of
+sagacity attributed to different species of animals. Here, no one is at a
+loss, because there is ample latitude for comparing and judging; in the
+system of Gall, on the contrary, the comparisons rest upon minute points,
+which are subject to discussion, exceptions, a thousand uncertainties in
+the signs and various applications.&#8221;<small><a name="f62.1" id="f62.1" href="#f62">[62]</a></small></p>
+
+<p>If the reader will review what I have said against Camper&#8217;s facial line,
+he will find a refutation of all this reasoning of Delpit; a proof that he
+defends it merely because it is in vogue. It is this very generality and
+fixedness, which render it, in almost all cases, inapplicable; this is the
+inherent defect in the supposed importance of Camper&#8217;s facial angle. It is
+implicitly supposed, that no difference but that of degree, exists between
+the capacities of the different species and individuals of the human race,
+and the different species and individuals of the animal kingdom. Thus the
+intelligence of men and other animals would always be proportioned to the
+magnitude of the facial angle. This being premised, I ask, which, out of
+two, three, four, &amp;c., has the most intelligence, the dog, ape, beaver,
+the ant, or the bee? Ants and bees live in an admirable republic, and form
+astonishing constructions, which they know how to modify according to
+circumstances. The beaver and penduline build with equally marvellous
+skill, and with a foresight which seldom errs; the dog and the ape have
+very little foresight, and are incapable of the most insignificant
+construction. Which has the greater intelligence, Voltaire or Descartes?
+Could the former have been a mathematician and the latter a poet? Which
+has the higher degree of intellect, Mozart or Lessing, who, with all his
+genius, detested music? In short, which has the most intelligence, my dog
+who retraces his steps through the most complicated routes, or myself, who
+am always going astray? Measure now the facial angle of the ant, bee,
+beaver, penduline, ape, my dog, and of myself, and estimate the result.
+Acknowledge, then, that your division, so definite, so easy to be
+apprehended, is absolutely useless, and that you are obliged to advert to
+divers instincts, propensities, faculties, and their different degrees of
+energy, to which your facial angle is wholly inapplicable. Your
+intelligence, instinct, address, are in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> reality mere abstractions,
+imaginary existences. Do you consider the propensity to procreation, the
+love of offspring, the carnivorous instinct, the talent for music, poetry,
+&amp;c., as imaginary existences? You see, then, that it is more convenient to
+tread the beaten path, than to verify observations.&mdash;<i>Gall on the
+Functions of the Brain</i>, page 195.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p>
+
+<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> Utopia, Book II., chap. viii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> I do not wish to be forced into any discussion of this last point.
+But, if necessary, I shall not decline it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> We fear that Mr. Walker&#8217;s analogical reasoning here is not very
+conclusive. To reason from a living to a dead subject may be very logical
+but it is not altogether satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f4" id="f4" href="#f4.1">[4]</a> &#8220;The Magazine of The Fine Arts,&#8221; No. VI, for October 1833.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f5" id="f5" href="#f5.1">[5]</a> I am not here called upon to vindicate the errors and absurdities
+which poets and others introduced into mythology.</p>
+
+<p>[6] Appendix A.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f7" id="f7" href="#f7.1">[7]</a> George IV., though the &#8220;first gentleman&#8221; in England, was guilty of
+cheating at a horserace.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="f8" id="f8" href="#f8.1">[8]</a> The above remark is true of the same class of females in this
+country.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="f9" id="f9" href="#f9.1">[9]</a> Appendix B.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f10" id="f10" href="#f10.1">[10]</a> Appendix C.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f11" id="f11" href="#f11.1">[11]</a> To the reader unaccustomed to inquiries of this kind, it may save
+trouble to peruse first the brief Summary of the contents of this
+important chapter, beginning in page 120.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f12" id="f12" href="#f12.1">[12]</a> Regularity expresses the similarity of parts considered as
+constituting a whole; and uniformity, the similarity of parts considered
+separately.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f13" id="f13" href="#f13.1">[13]</a> Appendix D</p>
+
+<p><a name="f14" id="f14" href="#f14.1">[14]</a> The common character of these arts has been overlooked.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f15" id="f15" href="#f15.1">[15]</a> Proportion is here employed, not as expressing an intrinsic relation,
+as in the beauty of inanimate beings, but as expressing an extrinsic
+relation to fitness for ends.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f16" id="f16" href="#f16.1">[16]</a> &#8220;The Nervous System, Anatomical and Physiological: in which the
+Functions of the various Parts of the Brain are, for the first time,
+assigned.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="f17" id="f17" href="#f17.1">[17]</a> Communicated by the writer to the &#8220;Magazine of the Fine Arts,&#8221; No.
+11, for June, 1833.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f18" id="f18" href="#f18.1">[18]</a> &#8220;Human Nature,&#8221; chap, ix., sec. 13.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f19" id="f19" href="#f19.1">[19]</a> &#8220;Reflexions Critiques sur la Poesie et sur la Peinture.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="f20" id="f20" href="#f20.1">[20]</a> &#8220;Reflexions sur la Poetique.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="f21" id="f21" href="#f21.1">[21]</a> &#8220;Adventurer,&#8221; No. 110.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f22" id="f22" href="#f22.1">[22]</a> Essay on Tragedy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f23" id="f23" href="#f23.1">[23]</a> To some it may appear, that the organs and functions of digestion,
+respiration, and generation, are not involved by this arrangement; but
+such a notion can originate only in superficial observation.</p>
+
+<p>Digestion is a compound function easily reducible to some of the simple
+ones which have been enumerated. It consists of the motion of the stomach
+and contiguous parts, of the secretion of a liquid from its internal
+surface, and of that heat, which is the common result of all action,
+whether mechanical, vital, or mental, and which is better explained by
+such motion, than by chymical theories. Similarly compound are respiration
+and generation.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, there is no organ nor function which is not involved by the simple
+and natural arrangement here sketched.</p>
+
+<p>Compound, however, as the organs of digestion, respiration, and
+generation, are, yet, as they form so important a part of the system, it
+may be asked, with which of these classes they are most allied. The answer
+is obvious. All of them consist of tubular vessels of various diameter;
+and all of them transmit and transmute liquids. Possessing such strong
+characteristics of the nutritive or vital system, they are evidently most
+allied to it.</p>
+
+<p>In short, digestion prepares the nutritive or vital matter, which is taken
+up by absorption&mdash;the first of the simple nutritive functions; respiration
+renovates it in the very middle of its course&mdash;between the two portions of
+the simple function of circulation; and generation, dependant on
+secretion&mdash;the last of these functions, communicates this nutritive
+matter, or propagates vitality to a new series of beings. In such
+arrangement, the digestive organs, therefore, precede, and the generative
+follow, the simple nutritive organs; while the respiratory occupy a middle
+place between the venous and the arterial circulation.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing can be more improper, as the preceding observations show, than
+considering any one of these as a distinct class.</p>
+
+<p>More fully, therefore, to enumerate the nutritive or vital organs, we may
+say, that, under them, are classed, first, the organs of digestion, the
+external and internal absorbent surfaces, and the vessels which absorb
+from these surfaces, or the organs of absorption; second, the heart,
+lungs, and bloodvessels, which derive their contents (the blood) from the
+absorbed lymph, or the organs of circulation; and third, the secreting
+cavities, glands, &amp;c., which separate various matters from the blood, or
+the organs of secretion, and of which generation is the sequel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f24" id="f24" href="#f24.1">[24]</a> Appendix E.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f25" id="f25" href="#f25.1">[25]</a> In perfect consistency with the assertion, that, though the organs of
+digestion, respiration, and generation, were really compound, still they
+were chiefly nutritive or vital, and properly belonged to that class, it
+is not less remarkable, that, in this division of the body, they are found
+to occupy that part, the trunk, in which the chief simple nutritive organs
+are contained. This also shows the impropriety of reckoning any of these a
+separate system from the vital.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f26" id="f26" href="#f26.1">[26]</a> The bones resemble these, in containing the greatest quantity of
+earthy mineral matter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f27" id="f27" href="#f27.1">[27]</a> It is the possession of vessels which constitutes the vitality of
+vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f28" id="f28" href="#f28.1">[28]</a> In animals, alone, is nervous matter discoverable.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f29" id="f29" href="#f29.1">[29]</a> Plants have no real circulation, nor passage of their nutritive
+liquids through the same point.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f30" id="f30" href="#f30.1">[30]</a> This arrangement of anatomy and physiology was first published by me
+in 1806; and, notwithstanding its being the arrangement of nature, it has
+not been adopted by any one that I know of, until very lately, when it was
+in some measure used by Dr. Roget, without acknowledgment.</p>
+
+<p>The originality, as well as the truth and value, of this arrangement, will
+be illustrated by referring to any other published previous to 1806, or
+even to 1808, when I republished it in &#8220;Preliminary Lectures,&#8221; Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f31" id="f31" href="#f31.1">[31]</a> The cause of this has never been explained; and it could not well be
+explained, without a perception of the views in my preceding physiological
+arrangement.&mdash;The brain, at this period, becomes more subservient to
+purposes connected with generation; the communication between the trunk
+and the head is more frequent, intense, and sustained; and the neck, which
+contains the communicating organs, necessarily increases in size. This
+unexplained circumstance led to the mistake of the craniologists
+respecting the cerebel. Here, therefore, as in other cases pointed out in
+my work on Physiognomy, Gall and Spurzheim ascribe to deeper-seated organs
+what belongs to more superficial ones.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f32" id="f32" href="#f32.1">[32]</a> Appendix F.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f33" id="f33" href="#f33.1">[33]</a> Appendix G.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f34" id="f34" href="#f34.1">[34]</a> Memoire sur le Beau Physique.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f35" id="f35" href="#f35.1">[35]</a> A curious but true remark is made by Moreau, namely, that if these
+conditions are met with without being united to a certain expression, and
+
+to the most complete combination of the elements of beauty of countenance,
+they frequently give an air of insensibility and of mental weakness, which
+greatly enfeebles the impression that a first view had caused.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f36" id="f36" href="#f36.1">[36]</a> Statistical results in relation to the supply of hospitals and
+prisons, carry the expense of a man much beyond that of a woman.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f37" id="f37" href="#f37.1">[37]</a> Appendix H.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f38" id="f38" href="#f38.1">[38]</a> Appendix I.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f39" id="f39" href="#f39.1">[39]</a> See the causes of this explained in my work on &#8220;Physiognomy.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="f40" id="f40" href="#f40.1">[40]</a> Pallas&mdash;Voyages en Siberie.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f41" id="f41" href="#f41.1">[41]</a> Humboldt&#8217;s Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f42" id="f42" href="#f42.1">[42]</a> It is remarkable that, in infants, the nose is almost always flat,
+and that, in some members of the same family, it always remains so, while,
+in others, it rises. This is attended by difference of function.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f43" id="f43" href="#f43.1">[43]</a> &#8220;Physiognomy founded on Physiology, and applied to various Countries,
+Professions, and Individuals: with an Appendix on the Bones at Hythe&mdash;the
+Sculls of the ancient Inhabitants of Britain, and its Invaders:
+illustrated by Engravings.&#8221;&mdash;Smith, Elder, &amp; Co., Cornhill.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f44" id="f44" href="#f44.1">[44]</a> Of the best works on this subject, those of Mengs alone, I believe,
+have been translated; but the translation is so inaccurate as to be
+worthless.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f45" id="f45" href="#f45.1">[45]</a> Thus it is not correct, as stated by Leonardo, that when some parts
+are broad or thick, all are broad; though, in peculiar combinations, that
+may occur.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f46" id="f46" href="#f46.1">[46]</a> Lib. II. in Tim&aelig;um Platonis.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f47" id="f47" href="#f47.1">[47]</a> This member of the Royal Academy was suspected of having written that
+&#8220;republics had done more for the advancement of the fine arts than
+monarchies.&#8221; The late George III., who did not approve of truths of that
+kind, was thereby so much enraged, that he instantly sent for the list of
+the members of the academy, and therefrom erased the name of Barry. The
+academicians humbly submitted to the indignity which hereditary wisdom
+thus inflicted. It would appear, however, that bad principles are
+spreading among the Royal academicians; for the works of this expelled
+member are now daringly given by them as a prize to students at the
+academy!</p>
+
+<p><a name="f48" id="f48" href="#f48.1">[48]</a> This rule is well explained, and variously illustrated by Donald
+Walker, in his work, equally philosophical, instructive, and amusing,
+entitled &#8220;Exercises for Ladies,&#8221; a knowledge of which, and the practice of
+its principles, would render beauty, and especially beauty of the
+shoulders and arms, far more common in every family.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f49" id="f49" href="#f49.1">[49]</a> It was at the extremity of the modern Cape Crio, anciently Triopium,
+a promontory of Doris, a province of Caria, that was built the celebrated
+city of Cnidos. Here Venus was worshipped: here was seen this statue of
+that goddess, the most beautiful of the works of Praxiteles. A temple, far
+from spacious, and open on all sides, contained it, without concealing it
+from view; and, in whatever point of view it was examined, it excited
+equal admiration. No drapery veiled its charms; and so uncommon was its
+beauty, that it inflamed with a violent passion another Pygmalion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f50" id="f50" href="#f50.1">[50]</a> The phrenologists have told us that the head of this Venus is too
+small. They might as well have said, that the head of the Minerva, or of
+the Jupiter, is too large, or a hundred other ignorant inapplicabilities,
+and ridiculous pedantries. But to set aside ideal forms, I may observe,
+that sex makes a vast difference in the head, and a woman with a small
+head often produces a son with a large one.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f51" id="f51" href="#f51.1">[51]</a> This is beautiful, but is evidently borrowed from the great
+philosophical poet&#8217;s</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Te, Dea, te fugiunt ventei, te nubila coeli,<br />
+Adventumque tuum.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="f52" id="f52" href="#f52.1">[52]</a> That, in plants, these odors are even necessary to their
+reproduction, is proved by their uniform existence at that period. And if
+being affected by odors implies a sense of smell, or some modification of
+it, then must plants possess it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f53" id="f53" href="#f53.1">[53]</a> In all grossly sensual nations and individuals, the lips are everted
+even at the angles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f54" id="f54" href="#f54.1">[54]</a> See this explained in &#8220;Physiognomy.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="f55" id="f55" href="#f55.1">[55]</a> &#8220;Venere suol tenere alquanto aperte le labbra, come per indicare un
+languido desiderio ed amore.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Storia delle Arti.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="f56" id="f56" href="#f56.1">[56]</a> In the Cupid, the form of the head is godlike. The hair not only
+curls with all the vigor of early years, but, with perfect knowledge of
+nature&#8217;s tendency, is bent into a ridge along the middle of the upper
+head. The brow, full, open, and charmingly rounded, is the evident throne
+of young observation, and it flows with such beauty into the parts behind,
+as if it actually <i>said</i> its purpose was to fling its observations back on
+thought and will. Its beginnings at the eyebrows display exquisite
+knowledge: the bony ridge is admirably shown to be yet unformed; and while
+its outer extremity forms but the orbital convexity, or shell for the
+globe of the eye, the inner extremity of the eyebrow is with infinite art
+drawn over soft and hollow space, as if the few hairs that composed it
+made there its only convexity. In short, in every part of the face, fine
+and faint as is every youthful feature, no detail is lost; and this, added
+to the pointed chin and upper lip, declare the purpose of the little god.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f57" id="f57" href="#f57.1">[57]</a> Appendix K.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f58" id="f58" href="#f58.1">[58]</a> I speak not of paint here. It is now used only by meretricious
+persons and by those harridans of higher rank who resemble them in every
+respect, except that the former are ashamed of their profession, and the
+latter advertise it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f59" id="f59" href="#f59.1">[59]</a> Combe&#8217;s Phrenology.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f60" id="f60" href="#f60.1">[60]</a> Physiologie des Temperamens on Constitutions. Paris, 1826.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f61" id="f61" href="#f61.1">[61]</a> This doctrine is revived, <i>Dict. des Sciences med.</i> Delpit and
+Reydellet.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f62" id="f62" href="#f62.1">[62]</a> Dictionnaire des Sciences M&eacute;d. t. xxxviii. p. 263.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><strong>Transcriber&#8217;s Note:</strong> Footnote 6 appears on page <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; however, it has no corresponding marker.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Beauty, by Alexander Walker
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Beauty, by Alexander Walker
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Beauty
+       Illustrated Chiefly by an Analysis and Classificatin of Beauty in Woman
+
+Author: Alexander Walker
+
+Release Date: February 26, 2011 [EBook #35409]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEAUTY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  BEAUTY;
+  ILLUSTRATED CHIEFLY BY AN
+  ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION
+  OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN,
+
+  BY ALEXANDER WALKER,
+  AUTHOR OF "INTERMARRIAGE," "WOMAN," "PHYSIOGNOMY FOUNDED
+  ON PHYSIOLOGY," "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM," ETC.
+
+  EDITED BY AN AMERICAN PHYSICIAN
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  HENRY G. LANGLEY, 8 ASTOR-HOUSE.
+  1845.
+
+
+
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, BY J. & H. G.
+LANGLEY, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern
+District of New York
+
+STEREOTYPED BY J. S. REDFIELD,
+
+_13 Chambers Street, New York_
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION.
+
+
+TO GEORGE BIRBECK, M.D., F.G.S.,
+
+PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON MECHANICS' INSTITUTION, &c., &c., &c.
+
+
+A department of science, which in many respects must be regarded as new,
+cannot so properly be dedicated to any one as to the inventor of the best
+mode of diffusing scientific knowledge among the most meritorious and most
+oppressed classes of society.
+
+When the enemies of freedom, in order effectually to blind the victims of
+their spoliation, imposed a tax upon knowledge, you rendered the
+acquirement of science easy by the establishment of mechanics'
+institutions--you gave the first and greatest impulse to that diffusion of
+knowledge which will render the repetition of such a conspiracy against
+humanity impossible.
+
+You more than once also wrested a reluctant concession, in behalf of
+untaxed knowledge, from the men who had evidently succeeded, in some
+degree, to the spirit, as well as to the office, of the original
+conspirators, and who unwisely hesitated between the bad interest which is
+soon felt by all participators in expensive government, and their dread of
+the new and triumphant power of public opinion, before which they know and
+feel that they are but as the chaff before the whirlwind.
+
+For these services, accept this respectful dedication, as the expression
+of a homage, in which I am sure that I am joined by thousands of Britons.
+
+Nor, in writing this, on a subject of which your extensive knowledge
+enables you so well to judge, am I without a peculiar and personal motive.
+
+I gratefully acknowledge that, in one of the most earnest and strenuous
+mental efforts I ever made, in my work on "The Nervous System," I owed to
+your cautions as to logical reasoning and careful induction, an anxiety at
+least, and a zeal in these respects, which, whatever success may have
+attended them, could not well be exceeded.
+
+I have endeavored to act conformably with the same cautions in the present
+work. He must be weak-minded, indeed, who can seek for aught in philosophy
+but the discovery of truth; and he must be a coward who, believing he has
+discovered it, has any scruple to announce it.
+
+ALEXANDER WALKER.
+
+APRIL 10, 1836.
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT.
+
+
+The present volume completes the series of Mr. Walker's anthropological
+works. To say that they have met with a favorable reception from the
+American public, would be but a very inadequate expression of the
+unprecedented success which has attended their publication.
+"INTERMARRIAGE," the first of the series, passed through six large
+editions within eighteen months, and "WOMAN," has met with a sale scarcely
+less extensive. The numerous calls for the present work, have compelled
+the publishers to issue it sooner than they had contemplated; and, it is
+believed, that it will be found not less worthy of attention than the
+preceding.
+
+All must acknowledge the interesting nature of the subject treated in the
+present work, as well as its intimate connexion with those which have
+already passed under discussion. The analysis of beauty on philosophical
+principles, is attended with numerous difficulties, not the least of which
+arises from the want of any fixed and acknowledged standard. The term
+Beauty is, indeed, generally considered as a vague generality, varying
+according to national, and even individual taste and judgment.
+
+Mr. Walker claims, in his advertisement, numerous points of originality,
+some of which, on examination, may perhaps prove to have been proposed
+previously by other writers. Enough, however, will remain to entitle him
+to the credit of great ingenuity and acuteness. As treated by him, the
+subject assumes an aspect very different from that exhibited in any other
+publication. To trace the connexion of beauty with, and its dependance on,
+anatomical structure and physiological laws--to show how it may be
+modified by causes within our control--to describe its different forms and
+modifications, and defects, as indicated by certain physical signs--to
+analyze its elements, with a view to its influence on individuals and
+society, in connexion with its perpetration in posterity--all these were
+novel topics of vast and exciting interest, and well adapted to the
+genius, taste, and research of our author.
+
+In preparing the present edition, it has been thought expedient to make
+some verbal alterations, and omit a few paragraphs, to which a refined
+taste might perhaps object, and to bring together in the Appendix such
+collateral matter, as might serve to correct, extend, or illustrate the
+views presented in the text. With these explanations, the work is
+confidently commended to the popular as well as philosophical reader, as
+worthy of studious examination.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  PRELIMINARY ESSAY                                                Page ix
+
+  English Advertisement                                                  1
+
+      CHAPTER I.--Importance of the Subject                             11
+
+     CHAPTER II.--Urgency of the Discussion of this Subject in
+                  relation to the Interests of Decency and Morality     21
+
+    CHAPTER III.--Cautions to Youth                                     35
+
+     CHAPTER IV.--Nature of Beauty                                      46
+
+      CHAPTER V.--Standard of Taste in Beauty                           56
+
+     CHAPTER VI.--The Elements of Beauty                                72
+
+                  SECTION I.--Elements of Beauty in Inanimate Beings    74
+
+                  SECTION II.--Elements of Beauty in Living Beings      88
+
+                  SECTION III.--Elements of Beauty in Thinking Beings   93
+
+                  SECTION IV.--Elements of Beauty as employed in
+                               Objects of Art                          103
+
+                               Beauty of Useful Objects                104
+
+                               Beauty of Ornamental Objects            108
+
+                               Beauty of Intellectual Objects          113
+
+                  Summary of this Chapter                              120
+
+  APPENDIX to the Preceding Chapters                                   123
+
+                  SECTION I.--Nature of the Picturesque                123
+
+                  SECTION II.--Cause of Laughter                       125
+
+                  SECTION III.--Cause of the Pleasure received from
+                                Representations exciting Pity          131
+
+    CHAPTER VII.--Anatomical and Physiological Principles              139
+
+   CHAPTER VIII.--Of the Ages of Women in relation to Beauty           152
+
+     CHAPTER IX.--Of the Causes of Beauty in Woman                     166
+
+      CHAPTER X.--Of the Standard of Beauty in Woman                   171
+
+     CHAPTER XI.--Of the Three Species of Female Beauty generally
+                  viewed                                               185
+
+    CHAPTER XII.--First Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Locomotive
+                  System                                               189
+
+                  First Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               191
+
+                  Second Variety or Modification of this Species
+                  of Beauty                                            197
+
+                  Third Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               198
+
+   CHAPTER XIII.--Second Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Nutritive
+                  System                                               203
+
+                  First Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               208
+
+                  Second Variety or Modification of this Species
+                  of Beauty                                            210
+
+                  Third Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               212
+
+    CHAPTER XIV.--Third Species of Beauty: Beauty of the Thinking
+                  System                                               225
+
+                  First Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               226
+
+                  Second Variety or Modification of this Species
+                  of Beauty                                            227
+
+                  Third Variety or Modification of this Species of
+                  Beauty                                               229
+
+     CHAPTER XV.--Beauty of the Face in particular                     233
+
+    CHAPTER XVI.--Combinations and Transitions of the Three
+                  Species of Female Beauty                             254
+
+   CHAPTER XVII.--Proportion, Character, Expression, &c.               259
+
+  CHAPTER XVIII.--The Greek Ideal Beauty                               280
+
+    CHAPTER XIX.--The Ideal of Female Beauty                           307
+
+     CHAPTER XX.--Defects of Beauty                                    320
+
+                  Defects of the Locomotive System                     320
+
+                  Defects of the Vital System                          323
+
+                  Defects of the Mental System                         327
+
+    CHAPTER XXI.--External Indications, or Art of Determining the
+                  precise Figure, the degree of Beauty, the Mind,
+                  the Habits, and the Age of Women, notwithstanding
+                  the Aids and Disguises of Dress                      329
+
+                  External Indications of Figure                       329
+
+                  External Indications of Beauty                       332
+
+                  External Indications of Mind                         335
+
+                  External Indications of Habits                       337
+
+                  External Indications of Age                          339
+
+  Appendix                                                             343
+
+
+
+
+PRELIMINARY ESSAY,
+
+BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.
+
+  Her beauty hangs upon the cheek of night
+  Like a rich jewel in an Ethiop's ear:
+
+     *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Death hath no power yet upon thy beauty--
+  Thou art not conquered; beauty's ensign yet
+  Is crimson on thy lips, and in thy cheeks.--SHAKSPEARE.
+
+
+It maybe set down, we suppose, as a matter sufficiently settled to become
+a principle, that men are moved by nothing more generally and certainly
+than by the power of Beauty--particularly Beauty in Woman. That it has an
+influence upon _all_ of one sex, like that which Master Shakspeare has
+given picture of in the lines we have set upon our front, we would not
+pretend to say: but that the wild bard was no freshman in his knowledge of
+humanity so far as heart and mind matters were concerned, we feel safe to
+assert--and feel confident that the passionate language of Romeo
+trespasses no bounds, and is but a faithful declaration of a power that
+rules with a milder or a mightier sway in the bosoms of all who answer to
+the distinctive name of Man.
+
+This may seem a wide assertion. But it is no less true. The reason of the
+slow belief in this universality is, that men are not always subject to
+the influence, while the principle of it is always a tenant within them.
+There is a time--and with the time comes the development. The mind, as it
+unfolds, becomes acquainted with nothing so calculated to excite its
+wonder, as its own properties and capabilities--its new perceptions--its
+new affections. Till progress brings with it this knowledge of ourselves,
+we remain ignorant of half that is within us to affect us like a spell,
+and within whose reach we have been unconsciously passing onward and
+upward, by a Providential ordering, from our childhood at least, if not
+from our cradles.
+
+Keeping this in view, let us consider for a moment something of the
+elements of Beauty, and their influence, as a principle, upon the
+principles of our nature.--And first it must be admitted that they are
+good--of a good origin--and tend to a good result. They are good elements,
+we believe, for we find them almost ever associated with what is pleasing,
+improving, and satisfactory to us. Indeed, in this connexion, we find them
+a source of consolation and delight, where all else has failed to minister
+or even suggest them. They are of a good origin--for, if they were not, no
+such effect would be wrought upon a system so sadly prone to evil and
+villanous principles, and so little open to pure, and elevating, and
+comforting ones, that they may be said to come about it, most
+emphatically, like "angel-visits." They are elements, again, that tend to
+a good result, in their operation, for their consequences are almost ever,
+to make men better satisfied with their condition--where they come in, as
+an influence upon it, at all--better satisfied with almost everything
+about them, so long as they are conscious they are creatures of
+proportions and proprieties, and affected intrinsically by them.
+
+If what we here set down respecting the _elements_ of Beauty be true, it
+is certainly of an interesting importance in view of the influence of that
+quality upon the principles of our nature. We call it _quality_. Perhaps
+this is not name enough for something so peculiar and powerful in its
+connexion with the _total_ of our spirits. We will term it such, however,
+for want of a wider language--and leave men to _feel_ out such definition
+as they may deem more good and grateful.
+
+Implanted, then, so deeply as Beauty is in the human heart--so universal,
+that millions bow to it as something to fear while they worship--so
+certain, as a principle, that scarcely a human being can be said to walk
+without the sphere of its influence--it would be needless as well as
+unphilosophical to deny that the great object of its fixture--its
+enthronement upon its high place, should be one of no common character, or
+of a tendency and effect within us, which it would be wrong and
+inexcusable to overlook.
+
+What then is the design of this singular and mysterious power, in
+connexion with this sad and unaccountable nature--so often the theme of
+eulogy and lament--of lofty, long, and desperate satire, among men? The
+best answer, we think, is rendered in the influence, where operation is
+open to every one who thinks, observes, reasons, acts, among his
+fellows.--To enter into particular definitions here, would be needless as
+well as wearisome. The general effect upon man, as a sentient and moral
+being, must be the point to which our simple remarks and reasons must be
+confined.
+
+We have somewhere seen it observed--and have little doubt in the publicity
+and good sense of the thought--that there was perhaps no one thing which
+tended so materially to awaken lofty and good sentiments among the
+people--to qualify the rough outline of character--and soften and
+harmonize the untaught elements of their nature, as the frequent,
+unrestrained, and encouraged contemplation of the perfect statuary, which
+their master sculptors were continually erecting in their temples. This
+freedom was a perpetual lesson to a nation. The principle was developed,
+and the power of Beauty had a new, and forming, and mastering sway. A
+people were coming into the light of better feeling--better
+society--better government, under the gradual but no less certain
+operation of a living principle, brought into great and beautiful action,
+under the commanding hand of Genius, that seemed to pass at once from the
+sky, whose perfect things it presented to the sons of earth!--It is not
+singular, we think, that such a leading forth of Beauty to the
+contemplation of awakened man, should produce effects like those to which
+we have adverted. It strikes us that it would have been strange had this
+consequence not been generated, and noble sculpture thus have stood before
+a world as cold as the marble from which it was stricken. We believe that
+Beauty saw a renovating power in the wonder of the Venus--and it would be
+a sad thing to feel that it had ever ceased in its progress where woman or
+the chisel were doing such things to advance it. Nor has it ceased.
+History presents too many instances of the monarch power of Beauty in
+woman, to permit us to doubt upon this subject. It has passed upon the
+spirit of Man like a thing of necromance--winning him to its command, and
+bowing him to its will, until royalty itself has stood powerless in its
+presence, and the poor mass of mortals, stricken and panting like cornered
+deer before the inexorable hunter. It has been the salvation and ruin of
+nations, as well as families and individuals--for queens have obeyed its
+supremacy as well as maidens, and kings squared their mandates, and
+regulated their course, by the "line of beauty." All this is matter of
+record. Sacred and profane story abounds with instances which admit of no
+denial, while they excite our wonder. But the wonder ceases,
+notwithstanding, when we turn from record to our own experience, and _see_
+the effect, on others and ourselves, of what we once _read_ about in the
+curious annals of our species. We now see the finished sculpture that
+delighted and softened the people of an age, gazed on and admired by every
+being whom we are accustomed to regard as rational. No one pretends to
+question, much less to deny the beauty of the lovely statue, in which the
+perfection of woman is portrayed in the finished feature or the swelling
+form. Insensibility here would properly be regarded as a thing to be
+ashamed of--as little better than a moral paralysis, which might well
+exclude the questionable man from the circle of reasonable, enlightened,
+and rising people, as a sad fellow, and a poor pilgrim on the earth. You
+will rarely find the roughest nature with a cuticle that will not confess
+some sensibility in a presence such as this--and I think we may set it
+down as a thing well ascertained, that the picture or chiselling of a
+beautiful woman will command the tribute of delight--the
+acknowledgment--and loud one too--of a whole and hearty worship from the
+tar, as well as the amateur. The galleries of our artists, in which the
+principle of Beauty is made to speak and command, sufficiently prove that
+there is no passing away of this power which has moved, ruled, and
+regulated, to a degree almost incredible, the world of Man, from the time
+he came to this school, and this trial of the passions and affections. Let
+the question be asked of any one, whose spirit is in healthful action, if
+his experience before the work of art, imbodying the Beauty we speak of,
+is not of a humanizing--and we will add civilizing, as well as elevating
+character, and we are willing to abide the issue of his answer, in full
+support of the position we have taken. Such is our belief on the
+universality of this influence or element. We have heard it denied, it is
+certain--but it was even by those who have never tested the power by an
+application of it to themselves, or a surrender to its mysteries, by an
+approach to the real presence--and who, like bachelors upon the fearful
+subject of matrimony, only betray a silliness just in proportion to their
+ignorance. These are the men who have not yet unfolded. They are in the
+chrysalis condition--and to be pitied accordingly. They may depend upon
+it, when they pass from the _slough_, they will be ready to confess they
+are, alas! too deep in that other "Slough of Despond," which is too well
+represented by a sad sensitiveness to the magic of Beauty, and as sad a
+consciousness that there is no approach for them, which can be crowned by
+a capture of the citadel, or the least enjoyment of the glorious delights
+it encloses. When we hear men deteriorating this power, or thanking the
+gods they never bent knee or uttered vow at its shrine, we are ever ready
+to believe they have either bowed all their days to far other and sadder
+principles, and made oath to idols of bad material and worse sculpture, or
+that they are as much beyond the reach of any good, and proper, and
+beautiful influence, as the clod of the valley to which they are
+hastening. They may take pride in denial of such influence--but what is
+there to boast of in insensibility of any kind, where the very betrayal of
+admiration is the best evidence of a good taste--a good feeling--a good
+faith--a good principle? It cannot have escaped common observation, we
+presume, that a love of Beauty--or, at least, any peculiar sensitiveness
+to that quality in the female sex, has been held--and by sensible men,
+too--as a weakness, or an index only of a weak mind, or a feminine spirit.
+This is certainly very foolish--and a lamentable mistake. But it is easily
+accounted for. It will be observed that the doctrine is never held save by
+men who see beauty in things which other persons would hold abhorrent.
+They are men who are in love with metaphysics, or glory in a mathematical
+existence. They like, beyond all, the _features_ of a problem, and think
+only of the _good face_ of a speculation. They see, as they profess, at
+least, no proportions, save in some cold system of an absurd philosophy,
+and are only fit for judgment in things either too abstract for the mass
+of men, or too decidedly "earthy" to be worthy the attention of beings
+made for a better sphere, and capable of seeing something in much that is
+around us, which intimates the order and beauty by which that sphere is
+distinguished. This is enough to put an end to this objection, in
+reference to the subtle element of which we are venturing our humble, but
+we believe, orthodox sentiments. For ourselves, we know of no more sad or
+senseless mental condition in which we could be placed--we mean in the
+social relation--than this one of such ungraceful stupidity, as this of
+which a boast is made by such weary fellows as we have adverted to. If
+Beauty is an _outside_ principle, which they argue is of no utility, and
+quite unworthy of one who should look beyond the mere _coating_ of this
+existence for his reward or his satisfaction, then we say that even an
+_outside_ of loveliness and grace, is better than an _interior_ of
+deformity, uselessness, indefiniteness, chaos--even though it pretend to
+be all spiritual, while it suggests little but nonsense, and is quite
+certain to end in nothing.
+
+There is another thought in connexion with this element of Beauty in
+Woman, which certainly deserves consideration. We believe the philosophy
+which it intimates is founded in very good sense, and withal, in
+propriety. Insensibility to the power, we have observed, is no index of
+anything virtuous or elevated. It is rather, in all cases, a bad omen. Men
+look upon it--and that very rationally--as indicative of something
+unhealthy in the moral system. It seems to tell of a hardness--bad
+propensities--a crustaceous nature. In short, man regards his fellow, who
+is dead to this influence, as rather to be suspected at all times, than to
+be trusted at any. But this is not his saddest trial--or what should be
+regarded as such, if he can sign himself a man, with any conscience
+whatever. His estimation by woman is unqualified and unquestioned. He is
+set down by her as a creature as unworthy of regard by the sisterhood, as
+he is devoid of warmth or wit in anything that has to do with the social
+relations, and, above all, with the mysteries of the passions and
+affections. He is marked by them with a timble brand. He is set apart as
+a poor thing, who knows nothing of what he was made for, and whose ideas
+of the graceful and lovely in life are about as defined and worthy as
+those of the brutes that perish. He is run upon and laughed at by the
+playful, and satirised and scathed by the witty. In the circle he is
+treated--not pitied--as a piece of circulating insensibility; in the
+street he is pointed at as one who might be well set up as a mark at its
+corners. And this is right. It is well he should be visited by rebuke from
+her who presents so continually around him the elements of that power he
+is foolish to resist, and unable, after all, to depreciate. Woman's
+opinion, here, is a part of the great system which the influence she
+defends is meant to support--and we truly hope that she will maintain it
+aloud as long as she can utter it. Of the power of Beauty, both the world
+of fact, and the world of fancy, are abounding in instances. The records
+of ancient story present us with their Helens and their Cleopatras, who
+wrought upon nations by the magic of their faces. Later times show us the
+wonder of the power in Mary of Scotland, and many a page might be adverted
+to, full of the adventures which marked the love passages of kings as well
+as clowns, originating in this mysterious influence, as developed in the
+graces and glories of woman.
+
+The power of Beauty operates widely, and everywhere. It takes the good man
+captive as well as the miscellaneous one, who has no definite rule to
+guide him on his wanderings. It bows the masters and teachers of men at
+its shrine, as well as the scholars and children of life. It draws the
+merchant from his desk--the philosopher from his chair. It gives new
+utterance to the poet, while it wins the statesman to confess that there
+is some virtue in the outside of the world, after all, and some attraction
+apart from the chaos of cabinets and broad seals.
+
+There is a beautiful exemplification of this power given by Florian, in
+his story of a Theban sculptor. He is a wandering orphan in the streets
+of his native city, and his first entrance into the workshop of the
+celebrated Praxitiles well proves the truth of what we have set down in
+the foregoing pages.--"He is suddenly transported on beholding so many
+masterpieces of art! He gazes upon them--he is lost in admiration! and
+turning to Praxitiles with an air of grace and juvenile freedom, "Father,"
+cried he, "give _me_ the chisel, and teach me to become as great as thou
+art." Praxitiles stared at the boy, astonished at the fire of enthusiasm
+which kindled in his eyes, and embracing him with affection, "Yes!" said
+he, "remain with me; I will now be _your_ master, but my hope shall be
+that you may soon be _mine_."
+
+The pupil soon becomes worthy of his teacher. He becomes the heir of his
+fortune, and removes to Miletus. There, the daughter of the governor
+visits his statuary, and from the time of that visit, his destiny is
+sealed. Love usurps the place of every other passion, and the chisel is
+cast aside in silence, under that supremacy. The Venus of marble that
+adorned his study, was no longer a Venus before that living one which
+filled his eye and his bosom. He felt that he must tell his love, or die.
+He declares it, in a hurried letter--a slave betrays him--and the
+indignant father accuses him before the council. He is banished from the
+city--and embarks in a Cretan vessel.
+
+At this time pirates surprise the city, and pillage the temple of Venus.
+The statue of that goddess is torn from its pedestal. It was the Palladium
+of the island, and on its possession hung the happiness of the Milesians.
+The oracle of Delphos was consulted, and it was answered that Miletus
+would not be safe till a new statue of Venus, beautiful as the Goddess
+herself, should replace that ravished by the pirates. The inhabitants were
+in despair. They accused the governor of unjustly banishing the only man
+who might now save the city. He is seized, and hurried in chains to a
+dungeon. Now came the trial of the daughter, whose beauty had brought on
+this fearful crisis. She equips her vessel, and with treasures about her,
+determines to go in person to Athens--Corinth--Thebes--to find some artist
+who should emancipate her father. Tempted to land on a delicious island,
+she there comes suddenly upon her lover, whom she had been taught to
+believe had been long laid under the waters that lashed the heights of
+Naxos.
+
+The story is soon told. In the humble cabin of his solitude he had
+prepared a statue which he said would meet the demand of the sybil. But he
+claimed to have it placed veiled upon the pedestal in the temple of
+Miletus, before she should even look upon the marble. She consents--and
+they embark for that island. The artist is received with shoutings and
+joy. The statue is borne to its trial on the altar of Venus. It stands
+erect. He fears nothing--and it is unveiled. The features are not
+mistaken--and the people utter cries of joy as they behold the image of
+his mistress! The enamored sculptor had made her, in his loneliness, the
+model of his Venus!--He is called on to claim his reward. "Release him you
+have imprisoned," he cried--"release her father--and I ask no more."--It
+is done--and the father gives up the daughter to his preserver, at the
+foot of her statue.
+
+Can the power of Beauty be better illustrated than in this simple tale? We
+are not shown simply its effect upon an uneducated, artless
+individual--upon a mind in its singleness, and just awakened to its own
+capabilities of suffering and joy--but we see it operating in a wide and
+unquestioned influence, upon the spirit of a whole people. It was not
+demanded by fate that there should be merely a replacing of the piece of
+marble upon the pedestal from which it had been torn--it was required that
+the statue should be as royal in its _Beauty_ as that was whose place it
+should supply. Beauty was the spirit-word of the destiny of Miletus. It
+was Beauty which had been guardian of the city--and it was Beauty which
+must now restore it, by her return to her temple.
+
+But we will not dwell upon this story, though it so beautifully
+exemplifies the position we maintain. There are many instances of frequent
+occurrence in the world, which tell as strong a tale, of the influence of
+Grace and Beauty, as is here presented in the Grecian record. We may not
+witness them--but the power is working ever like fate in the mingled
+material of our life; and it only requires a sober faith, together with a
+moderate observation, to convince all men that they are the creatures of
+Beauty, as much as they are of destiny and dust.
+
+But there is another consideration connected with this subject--an
+important one, too--and for that reason we have reserved it to the last.
+
+We are settled in our conviction that there is something in Personal
+Beauty, of a representative and correspondent character. It represents a
+spiritual beauty--corresponds with a moral symmetry. Though we call it an
+_outward_ property, still it must be a picture of the _internal_. It would
+seem impossible that there can be a speaking expression of grace and
+loveliness, upon a face that is but a telegraph of an inward deformity and
+ugliness. Perhaps all this may seem somewhat ideal in its philosophy--and,
+perhaps, almost transcendental. But we hold it to be true. It certainly
+appears to us reasonable that the minor should reflect the reality, as
+well in this heaven-made humanity, as amid the earthy art of our
+drawing-rooms. That the spirit should speak out in the language of the
+countenance, is to us as excellent sense as that it should tell its story
+in protuberances and indentations. Who can deny this--and where will the
+argument fail? We pause for a reply.
+
+Let us be understood, however. We have no idea of going beyond reason in a
+theory, which, though it may appear more than plausible to us, may seem
+far this side of plausible to others. Yet we think we are borne out by
+example. We do not maintain, it will be remembered, that beauty of person
+must necessarily be the representative of _moral beauty_, according to the
+best and highest definition of that term. That definition, we presume,
+would include the virtuous and the heavenly. That these traits are
+unfailing accompaniments of noble features--the beautiful countenance--the
+finished form--it would be hazardous and foolish to assert. What we intend
+to say is this--that we believe external beauty is the representation of
+an internal and spiritual quality of the same nature. That Beauty may be
+spiritual, though it may not be moral--the Beauty of Virtue. It may be the
+beauty of superior and surpassing powers--the Beauty of Genius. It may be
+the beauty of a mind, uncommon in its attractions, and in its proportions
+beyond fault or question. It may be the beauty of intellectual
+symmetry--and this may find its speaking resemblance in the chiseled face
+and figure, as certainly as the moral loveliness of the
+heaven-inspired--the emphatically _good_ man. Of what more perfect mental
+proportions could the human countenance have been indicative, than the
+countenance of Napoleon? The symmetry of Genius spake there, if it _was_
+true--as it certainly was--that moral beauty had no telegraph in that
+splendid sculpture of the man.
+
+But we have said as much as we can afford to--though the more particular
+subject of our remarks--or what in good faith should have been, if it has
+not--Beauty in Woman, would seem to be one on which it would not be deemed
+unknightly to give way to a pretty expression. We must, however, leave all
+considerations of gallantry on this score, to others who can amplify
+better than we can, when we have got to the end of our chapter.
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENT.
+
+
+There is perhaps no subject more universally or more deeply interesting
+than that which is the chief subject of the present work. Yet no book,
+even pretending to science or accuracy, has hitherto appeared upon it. The
+forms and proportions of animals--as of the horse and the dog--have been
+examined in a hundred volumes: not one has been devoted to woman, on whose
+physical and moral qualities the happiness of individuals, and the
+perpetual improvement of the human race, are dependant.
+
+The cause of this has been, probably, the neglect on the part of
+individuals, to combine anatomical and physiological knowledge with the
+critical observation of the external forms of woman; and, perhaps, some
+repugnance to anthropological knowledge on the part of the public. The
+last obstacle, if ever it existed, is now gone by, as many circumstances
+show; and it will be the business of the author, in this work, to endeavor
+to obviate the former.
+
+The present work, beside giving new views of the theory of beauty, and of
+its application to the arts, presents an analysis and classification of
+beauty in woman. A subsequent work will apply the principles here
+established to intermarriages and crossings among mankind, and will
+explain their results in relation to the happiness of individuals, and to
+the beauty and the freedom from insanity of their offspring. A final work
+will examine the relations of woman in society, will expose the
+extravagant hypothesis of writers on this subject who have been ignorant
+of anthropology, and will describe the reforms which the common interests
+of mankind demand in this respect.
+
+It is now to be seen, whether a branch of science which is strictly
+founded on anatomy and physiology--one which entangles the reader in no
+mystical and delusive hypothesis, and presents to him only indisputable
+facts--one which is applicable to the subject most universally and deeply
+interesting to mankind, the critical judgment of female beauty, as founded
+on necessary functions--and one which unravels the greater difficulties
+which that subject presents--may not excite and permanently command a
+great degree of public interest.
+
+A preliminary view of the importance of this subject is given in the first
+chapter; the urgency of its discussion, in relation to the interests of
+decency and morality, is established in the second; and some useful
+cautions as to youth are offered in the third.
+
+In regard to the importance of the subject, I may, even here, avail myself
+of the highest authorities.
+
+THOMAS MORE, speaking of the people of his commonwealth, says: "They do
+greatly wonder at the folly of all other nations, which, in _buying a
+colt_ (whereas, a little money is in hazard), be so chary and circumspect,
+that, though he be almost all bare, yet they will not buy him, unless the
+saddle and all the harness be taken off--lest, under those coverings, be
+hid some gall or sore. And yet, in _choosing a wife_, which shall be
+either pleasure or displeasure to them all their life after, they be so
+reckless, that, all the residue of the woman's body being covered with
+clothes, they esteem her scarcely by one hand-breadth (for they can see no
+more but her face), and so to join her to them, not without great jeopardy
+of evil agreeing together--if anything in her body afterward should chance
+to offend and mislike them."[1]
+
+FRANCIS BACON is of similar opinion.
+
+Happily, the advancement of anthropological science in modern times, may,
+as is here shown, be so applied as to render quite unnecessary the
+_objectionable methods_ proposed by both these philosophers, in order to
+carry their doctrines into practice.
+
+_Shall I be blamed, because I avail myself of the progress of knowledge to
+render all that these great men desired on this subject of easy attainment
+and inoffensive to woman? Shall I be blamed, because I first facilitate
+that which the still farther advancement of knowledge will inevitably
+render an everyday occurrence, and the guide of the most important act of
+human life?_--I care not.
+
+In the details as to female beauty, it will be seen how incorrectly
+Winckelmann says: "In female figures, the forms of beauty are not so
+different, nor the gradations so various, as in those of males; and
+therefore in general they present no other difference than that which is
+dependant upon age.... Hence, in treating of female beauty, few
+observations occur as necessary to be made, and the study of the artist is
+more limited and more easy.... It is to be observed, that, in speaking of
+the resemblance of nude female figures, I speak solely of the body,
+without concluding from it that they also resemble each other in the
+distinctive characters of the head, which are particularly marked in each,
+whether goddess or heroine."--The differences, even in the bodies of
+females, are here shown to be both numerous and capable of distinct
+classification.
+
+It is right to observe, that this work has nothing to do with an early
+production of the writer, a consciousness of the small value of which
+prevented his attaching his name to it, which he now knows to be utterly
+worthless, and which has since been vamped up with things which are more
+worthless still.
+
+The most valuable features of the present work are entirely new and
+original. Others are such as the writer thought not unworthy of
+preservation from earlier essays. He has also, throughout this work,
+adopted from other writers, with no other alteration than accuracy
+required, every view, opinion, or remark, which he thought applicable to
+a department of science, of which all the great features are new.
+
+Such being the case, he thinks it just, at once to himself and others, to
+indicate here the only points on which he can himself lay any claim to
+originality. These are as follows:--
+
+The more complete establishment of the truth that, in relation to man and
+woman in particular, beauty is the external sign of goodness in
+organization and function, and thence its importance.--Chapter I., and the
+work generally.
+
+The showing that the discussion of this subject, though involving the
+examination of the naked figure, is urgent in relation to decency (the
+theory of which is discussed), morality, and happy intermarriage.--Chapter
+II.
+
+The showing that the ancient religion was the cause of the perfection of
+the fine arts in Greece, by its personification of simple attributes or
+virtues, as objects of adoration.--Chapter II.
+
+The exposition of the nature, the kinds, and the characteristics of
+beauty; and of some errors of Burke, Knight, &c., on this
+subject.--Chapter IV.
+
+The showing that there are elements of beauty invariable in their nature
+and effect, and that these are modified and complicated in advancing from
+simple to complex beings, and the arts relating to them.--Chapter VI.
+
+The pointing out these elements of beauty, and their mode of operation in
+inanimate beings; and the errors of Knight and Allison on this
+subject.--Sect. I., Chapter VI.
+
+The pointing out these elements, and others which are superadded, in
+living beings; and the errors of Allison on this subject.--Sect. II.,
+Chapter VI.
+
+The pointing out these elements, and others which are farther superadded,
+in thinking beings; and the errors of Burke and Knight on this
+subject.--Sect. III., Chapter VI.
+
+The exposition of these elements, as differing, or variously modified, in
+the useful, ornamental, and intellectual arts, respectively; and some
+remarks on ornament in architecture, and in female dress.--Sect. IV.,
+Chapter VI.
+
+The explanation of the nature of the picturesque, after the failure of
+Knight and Price in this respect.--Sect. I., Appendix to preceding
+chapters.
+
+The vindication of the doctrine of Hobbes, as to the cause of laughter;
+and exposition of the errors of Campbell and Beattie on this
+subject.--Sect. II., Appendix.
+
+The explanation of the cause of the pleasure received from representations
+exciting pity; and of the errors of Burke, &c., on that subject.--Sect.
+III., Appendix.
+
+The arrangement of anatomy and physiology, and the application of the
+principles of these sciences to the distinguishing and judging of
+beauty.--Chapter VII.
+
+The explanation of the difference in the beauty of the two sexes even in
+the same country.--Chapter IX.
+
+Various arguments establishing the standard of beauty in woman; and
+exposure of the sophistry of Knight, on this subject.--Chapter X.
+
+The showing, by the preceding arrangements, that the ancient temperaments
+are partial or complex views of anthropological phenomena.--Chapter XI.,
+et seq.
+
+The description of the first species of beauty, or that of the locomotive
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.--Chapter XII.
+
+The description of the second species of beauty, or that of the nutritive
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.--Chapter XIII.
+
+The description of the third species of beauty, or that of the thinking
+system, and of its varieties, as founded on examination of
+structure.--Chapter XIV.
+
+The explanation of the cause of the deformity produced by the obliquely
+placed eyes of the Chinese, &c.--Chapter XV.
+
+The explanation of the mode in which the action of the muscles of the face
+becomes physiognomically expressive.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the physiognomical character of the different kinds of
+the hair.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the cause of the different effects of the same face,
+even in a state of repose.--Ibid.
+
+The indication of the faulty feature, and its gradual increase, even in
+beautiful faces.--Ibid.
+
+The exposition of the different organization of Greek and Roman
+heads.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the combinations and transitions of beauty.--Chapter
+XVI.
+
+The explanation of the numerical, geometrical, and harmonic methods of
+proportion, employed by the ancient Greeks.--Chapter XVII.
+
+Some remarks on character, expression, and detail in art.--Ibid.
+
+Some observations on the Greek forehead, actual as well as ideal.--Chapter
+XVIII.
+
+The explanation of the reason of the Greek ideal rule, as to the
+proportion between the forehead and the other parts of the face.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the reason of the Greek ideal rule, as to the profile
+of the forehead and nose, or as to the direction of the mesial line which
+they form, and the exposition of Winckelmann's blunder respecting
+it.--Ibid.
+
+The explanation of the reason why the Greeks suppressed all great degrees
+of impassioned expression.--Ibid.
+
+The mere indication of the Greek idealizations as applied to the nutritive
+and locomotive systems, and the explanation of the latter in the
+Apollo.--Ibid.
+
+The replies to the objections of Burke and Alison, as to ideal
+beauty.--Ibid.
+
+The enunciation of the ideal in attitude.--Ibid.
+
+Various views as to the Venus de Medici, the conformation of the nose, and
+the connexion of odor with love, in animals and plants.--Chapter XIX.
+
+Some remarks on the Venus de Medici.--Ibid.
+
+The pointing out and explanation of various defects in beauty.--Chapter
+XX.
+
+The pointing out and explanation of various external indications of
+figure, beauty, mind, habits, and age.--Chapter XXI.
+
+The writer may possibly be mistaken as to the originality of one or two of
+these points; but, leaving the critical reader to deduct as many of these
+as it is in his power to do, enough of novelty would remain for the
+writer's ambition, in this respect, if he had done no more than exposed
+the errors of Burke, Knight, Alison, &c., and established the true
+doctrine of beauty, in the first chapters--given an analysis and
+classification of beauty in woman, in the chapters which follow--and
+applied this to the fine arts, and solved the difficulty of Leonardo da
+Vinci, &c., in the last chapters.
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT.
+
+
+It is observed by Home, in his "Elements of Criticism," that a perception
+of beauty in external objects is requisite to attach us to them; that it
+greatly promotes industry, by promoting a desire to possess things that
+are beautiful; and that it farther joins with utility, in prompting us to
+embellish our houses and enrich our fields. "These, however," he says,
+"are but slight effects, compared with the connexions which are formed
+among individuals in society by means of this singular mechanism: the
+qualifications of the head and heart are undoubtedly the most solid and
+most permanent foundations of such connexions; but as external beauty lies
+more in view, and is more obvious to the bulk of mankind, than the
+qualities now mentioned, the sense of beauty possesses the more universal
+influence in forming these connexions; at any rate, it concurs in an
+eminent degree, with mental qualifications, to produce social
+intercourse, mutual good-will, and, consequently, mutual aid and support,
+which are the life of society."
+
+Dr. Pritchard similarly observes, that "the perception of beauty is the
+chief principle in every country which directs men in their marriages."
+
+Advancing a step farther, Sir Anthony Carlisle thinks a taste for beauty
+worthy of being cultivated. "Man," he observes, "dwells with felicity even
+on ideal female attributes, and in imagination discovers beauties and
+perfections which solace his wearied hours, far beyond any other resource
+within the scope of human life. It cannot, then, be unwise to cultivate
+and refine this natural tendency, and to enhance, if possible, these
+charms of life. We increase and heighten all our pleasures by awakening
+and cultivating reflections which do not exist in a state of ignorance.
+Thus, the botanist perceives elegances in plants and flowers unknown and
+unfelt by the vulgar, and the landscape-painter revels in natural or
+imaginary scenery, with feelings which are unknown to the multitude. It
+would be absurd to pretend that the more exquisite and more deeply
+attractive beauty of woman is not worthy of more profound, as well as more
+universal cultivation."
+
+Such are the observations of philosophical anthropologists, who,
+nevertheless, in these remarks, consider mere physical beauty independent
+of its connexion with corresponding functions or moral qualities.
+
+If, however, the external beauty of woman, calculated as it is to flatter
+the most experienced eye, limited its effect to a local impression, to an
+optical enjoyment, the sentiment of beauty would be far from having all
+its extent and value. Happily, ideas of goodness, of suitableness, of
+sympathy, of progressive perfection, and of mutual happiness, are, by an
+intimate and inevitable association, connected with the first impression
+made by the sight of beauty.
+
+The foundation of this feeling is well expressed by Dr. Pritchard, in his
+observation that "the idea of beauty of person is synonymous with that of
+health and perfect organization."
+
+Hence, it has been observed, the great ideal models of beauty please us,
+not merely because their forms are disposed and combined so as to affect
+agreeably the organ of sight, but because their exterior appears to
+correspond to admirable qualities, and to announce an elevation in the
+condition of humanity. Such do the Greek monuments appear to physiologists
+and philosophical artists, whose minds pass rapidly from the beauty of
+forms to that locomotive, vital, or mental excellence which it compels
+them to suppose.
+
+Goodness and beauty in woman will accordingly be found to bear a strict
+relation to each other; and the latter will be seen always to be the
+external sign of the former.
+
+There are, however (slightly to anticipate what must afterward be
+explained), different kinds, both of beauty and of goodness, which are
+confounded by vulgar observers; or rather there are beauty and goodness
+belonging to different systems of which the body is composed, and which
+ought never to be confounded with each other.
+
+Where, consequently, one of these kinds of beauty and of goodness is
+wanting, even in a remarkable degree, others may be found; and, as the
+vulgar do not distinguish, it is this which leads to the gross error that
+these qualities have no strict relations to their signs.
+
+Want of beauty, then, in any one of the systems of which the body is
+composed, indicates want of goodness only in that system; but it is not
+less a truth, and scarcely of less importance, on that account.--I will
+now illustrate this by brief examples.
+
+There may, in any individual, exist deformity of limbs; and this will
+assuredly indicate want of goodness in the locomotive system, of that or
+general motion. There may exist coarseness of skin, or paleness of
+complexion; and either of these will as certainly indicate want of
+goodness in the vital system, or that of nutrition. There may exist a
+malformation of the brain, externally evident; and this no less certainly
+will indicate want of goodness in the mental system, or that of thought.
+
+It follows that even the different kinds and combinations of beauty, which
+are the objects of taste to different persons, are founded upon the same
+general principle of organic superiority. Nay, even the preferences which,
+in beauty, appear to depend most on fancy, depend in reality on that
+cause; and the impression which every degree and modification of beauty
+makes on mankind, has as a fundamental rule only their sentiment, more or
+less delicate and just, of physical advantage in relation to each
+individual. Such is the foundation of all our sentiments of admiration and
+of love.
+
+The existence or non-existence of these advantages, and the power of
+determining this, or the judgment of beauty, are therefore of transcendent
+importance to individuals and to families. Such judgment can be attained
+by analysis and classification alone. Nothing, therefore, can more nearly
+affect all human interests than that analysis and classification of beauty
+which are here proposed.
+
+To place beyond a doubt, and to illustrate more minutely, the
+extraordinary importance of this subject, as regards advantages real to
+the species, I may anticipate some of the more minute applications of my
+doctrine.
+
+If, in the locomotive system of the female, much of the delicacy of form,
+and the ease and grace of her movements, depend upon the more perfect
+development of the muscles of the pelvis, and its easily adapting itself
+to great and remarkable changes, how important must be the ability to
+determine, even by walk or gesture, the existence of this condition!
+
+If, in the vital system, the elasticity and freshness of the skin are the
+characteristics of health, and their absence warns us that the condition
+of woman is unfavorable to the plan of nature relatively to the
+maintenance of the species--or, if the capacity of the pelvis, and the
+consequent breadth of the haunches, are necessary to all those functions
+which are most essentially feminine, impregnation, gestation, and
+parturition, without danger either to parent or to child--of what extreme
+importance must be the ability to determine this with certainty and ease!
+
+If, in the mental system, the capacity and delicacy of the organs of
+sense, and the softness and mobility of the nervous system, are necessary
+to the vivid and varying sensibility of woman--if it is in consequence of
+this, that woman is enabled to act on man by the continual observation of
+all that can captivate his imagination or secure his affection, and by the
+irresistible seduction of her manners--if it is these qualities which
+enable her to accommodate herself to his taste, to yield, without
+constraint, even to the caprice of the moment, and to seize the time when
+observations, made as it were accidentally, may produce the effect which
+she desires--if it is by these means that she fulfils her first duty,
+namely, to please him to whom she has united her days, and to attach him
+to her and to home by rendering both delightful--if all this is the case,
+of what inexpressible importance must be the ability to determine, in each
+individual, the possession of the power and the will to produce such
+effects!
+
+If (descending to still more minute inquiries) external indications as to
+figure are required as to parts concealed by drapery--if such indications
+would obviate deception even with regard to those parts of the figure
+which are more exposed to observation by the closer adaptation of
+dress--if, even when the face is seen, the deception as to the degree of
+beauty, is such that a correct estimate of it is perhaps never formed--if
+indications as to mind may be derived from many external circumstances--if
+external indications as to the personal habits of women are both numerous
+and interesting--if such indications even of age and health are sometimes
+essential--if all this be the case, let the reader say what other object
+of human inquiry exceeds this in importance.
+
+Let us not then deceive ourselves respecting the source of those
+impressions which one sex experiences from the sight of the other. It is
+evidently nothing else than the more or less delicate and just perception
+of a certain conformity of means with a want which has been created by
+nature, and which must be satisfied.
+
+"It is very obvious," says Dr. Pritchard, "that this peculiarity in the
+constitution of man must have considerable effects on the physical
+character of the race, and that it must act as a constant principle of
+improvement, supplying the place in our own kind of the beneficial control
+[in the crossing of races] which we exercise over the brute creation." And
+he adds: "This is probably the final cause for which the instinctive
+perception of human beauty was implanted by Providence in our nature."
+
+We need not wonder, then, that the Greeks should have preferred beauty to
+all other advantages, should have placed it immediately after virtue in
+the order of their affections, or should have made it an object of
+worship.
+
+Even the practical application of this principle to the improvement of the
+human race is not a matter of conjecture. We have seen both families and
+nations ameliorated by the means which it affords. Of this, the Turks are
+a striking example. Nothing, therefore, can better deserve the researches
+of the physiologist, or the exertions of the philanthropist, than the fact
+that there are laws, of which we have yet only a glimpse, according to
+which we may influence the amelioration of the human race in a manner the
+most extensive and profound, by acting according to a uniform and
+uninterrupted system.
+
+Well might Cabanis exclaim: "After having occupied ourselves so curiously
+with the means of rendering more beautiful and better the races of animals
+or of plants which are useful or agreeable--after having remodelled a
+hundred times that of horses and dogs--after having transplanted, grafted,
+cultivated, in all manners, fruits and flowers--how shameful is it to have
+totally neglected the race of man! As if it affected us less nearly! as if
+it were more essential to have large and strong oxen than vigorous and
+healthy men, highly odorous peaches or finely striped tulips, than wise
+and good citizens!"
+
+I actually know a man who is so deeply interested in the doctrine of
+crossing, that every hour of his life is devoted to the improvement of a
+race of bantam fowls and curious pigeons, and who yet married a mad
+woman, whom he confines in a garret, and by whom he has some insane
+progeny.
+
+Let it not be imagined that the discovery of the precise laws of crossing
+or intermarriage, and the best direction of physical living forces, in
+relation both to the vital faculties and to those of the mind, upon which
+knowledge and skill may operate for the improvement of our race, is a
+matter of difficulty.
+
+It will be shown in this work, that there exist not only an influence of
+beauty and defects on offspring, but peculiar laws regulating the
+resemblance of progeny to parents--laws which regard the mode in which the
+organization of parents affects that of children, or regulates the organs
+which each parent respectively bestows.
+
+It will accordingly be shown, that, as, on the size, form, and proportion,
+of the various organs, depend their functions, the importance of such laws
+is indescribable--whether we regard intermarriages, and that immunity from
+mental or bodily disease which, when well directed, they may ensure, or
+the determination of the parentage of a child--or the education of
+children, in conformity with their faculties--or the employment of men in
+society.
+
+I conclude this brief view in the words of the writer just quoted: "It is
+assuredly time for us to attempt to do for ourselves that which we have
+done so successfully for several of our companions in existence, to
+review and correct this work of nature--a noble enterprise, which truly
+merits all our cares, and which nature itself appears to have especially
+recommended to us by the sympathies and the powers which it has given
+us."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+URGENCY OF THE DISCUSSION OF THIS SUBJECT IN RELATION TO THE INTERESTS OF
+DECENCY AND MORALITY.
+
+
+It has now been seen that beauty results from the perfection, chiefly of
+external forms, and the correspondence of that perfection with superiority
+of internal functions; on the more or less perfect perception of which,
+love, intermarriage, and the condition of our race, are dependant.
+
+This mode of considering the elements, the nature, and the consequences of
+beauty, is equally applicable to the two sexes; but, in woman, the form of
+the species presents peculiar modifications.
+
+In this work, it is the form of woman which is chosen for examination,
+because it will be found, by the contrast which is perpetually necessary,
+to involve a knowledge of the form of man, because it is best calculated
+to ensure attention from men, and because it is men who, exercising the
+power of selection, have alone the ability thus to ensure individual
+happiness, and to ameliorate the species; which are the objects of this
+work.
+
+Let it not be imagined that the views now taken are less favorable to
+woman than to man. Whatever ensures the happiness of one ensures that of
+the other; and as the variety of forms and functions in man requires as
+many varieties in woman, it is not to exclusion or rejection with regard
+to woman that this work tends, but to a reasoned guidance in man's choice,
+to the greater suitableness of all intermarriages, and to the greater
+happiness of woman as well as man, both in herself and in her progeny.
+
+But notwithstanding the importance of any work which is in any degree
+calculated to promote such an object, some will tell us that the analysis
+of female beauty, on which it can alone be founded, is indelicate.--I
+shall, on the contrary, show that decency demands this analysis; that the
+interests of nature, of truth, of the arts, and of morality, demand it.
+
+Our present notions of sexual decency belong more to art than to nature,
+and may be divided into artificial and artful decencies.
+
+Artificial decencies are illustrated in the habits of various nations.
+They have their origin in cold countries, where clothing is necessary, and
+where a deviation from the degree or mode of clothing constitutes
+indecency. They could not exist in hot climates, where clothing is
+scarcely possible.
+
+In hot climates, natural decency can alone exist; and there is not, I
+believe, one traveller in such countries whose works do not prove that
+natural decency there exists as much as in cold countries. In
+exemplification of this, I make a single quotation: it would be easy to
+make thousands. Burchell, speaking of the Bushmen Hottentots, says: "The
+natural bashful reserve of youth and innocence is to be seen as much among
+these savages, as in more polished nations; and the young girls, though
+wanting but little of being perfectly naked, evinced as just a sense of
+modesty as the most rigid and careful education could have given them."
+
+In mild climates, the half-clothed or slightly-clothed people appear to be
+somewhat at a loss what to do. Fond of decorations, like all savage or
+half-civilized people, they seem to be divided between the tatooing and
+painting of hot climates, and the clothing of cold ones; and when they
+adopt the latter, they do not rightly know what to conceal.
+
+The works of all travellers afford the same illustrations of this fact. I
+quote one. Kotzebue describes the custom among the Tartar women of Kasan,
+of flying or of concealing their countenance from the sight of a stranger.
+The necessity of conforming to this custom threw into great embarrassment
+a young woman who was obliged to pass several times before the German
+traveller. She at first concealed her face with her hands; but, soon
+embarrassed by that attitude, she removed the veil which covered her
+bosom, and threw it over her face. "That," adds Kotzebue, "was, as we say,
+uncovering Paul to cover Jacques: the bosom remained naked. To cover that,
+she next showed what should have been concealed; and if anything escaped
+from her hands, she stooped, and then," says Kotzebue, "I saw both one
+and the other."
+
+In colder or more uncertain climates, the greatest degree of covering
+constitutes the greatest degree of artificial decency: fashion and decency
+are confounded. Among old-fashioned people, of whom a good example may be
+found in old countrywomen of the middle class in England, it is indecent
+to be seen with the head unclothed; such a woman is terrified at the
+chance of being seen in that condition; and if intruded on at such a time,
+she shrieks with terror and flies to conceal herself. In the equally
+polished dandy of the metropolis, it is indecent to be seen without
+gloves. Which of these respectable creatures is the most enlightened, I do
+not take upon me to say; but I believe that the majority of suffrages
+would be in favor of the old woman.
+
+So entirely are these decencies artificial, that any number of them may
+easily be created, not merely with regard to man or woman, but even with
+regard to domesticated animals. If it should please some persons partially
+to clothe horses, cows, or dogs, it would ere long be felt that their
+appearing in the streets without trowsers or aprons was grossly indecent.
+We might thus create a real feeling of indecency, the perception of a new
+impurity, which would take the place of the former absence of all impure
+thought, and once established, the evil would be as real as our whims have
+made it in other respects.
+
+Moral feeling is deeply injured by this substitution of impure thoughts,
+however fancifully founded, for pure ones, or rather for the entire
+absence of thought about worthless things. Artificial crimes are thus
+made, which are not the less real because artificial; for if aught of this
+kind is believed to be right, there is weakness or wrong in its violation.
+But violated it must be, if it were but accidentally.
+
+To corrupt minds, this very violation of artificial decency in the case of
+woman affords the zest for the sake of which many of these decencies seem
+to have been instituted; and thus are created the artful decencies.
+
+The purpose and the zest of artful decency are well illustrated by
+coquetry. Coquetry adopts a general concealment, which it well knows can
+alone give a sensual and seductive power to momentary exposure. Coquetry
+eschews permanent exposure as the bane of sensuality and seduction; and
+where these are great, as among the women of Spain, the concealment of
+dress is increased, even in warm climates. Nothing can throw greater light
+than this does on the nature of these decencies.
+
+That coquetry has well calculated her procedure, does not admit of a
+doubt. She appeals to imagination, which she knows will spread charms over
+even ugly forms; she seeks the concealment under which sensuality and lust
+are engendered; and, in marriage, she at last lifts the veil which
+gratifies, only to disgust, and repays a sensual hallucination by years of
+misery.
+
+Ought religion to claim the right of saying grace to such unveiling of
+concealment and the nuptial rites that follow it? Ought religion to profit
+by the impurities of sexual association? Marriage is a civil ceremony in
+other countries, even in Scotland. Such profane and profitable sanctions
+have nothing to do with primitive Christianity: they are abhorrent to its
+letter as well as to its spirit. But worldly and profitable religion is
+connected in business with government, under the firm of Church and State,
+and drives a thriving trade, in which the junior partner is contented with
+the profit arising from the common acts of life, while the senior one
+draws much of his living from other rites.[2]
+
+What is said here, is no argument for living nudity: that, our climate and
+our customs forbid; and, in so doing, we can only regret that they are
+unfavorable to natural purity; while perfect familiarity with the figure
+ensures that feeling in the highest degree.
+
+A distinguished artist informs me that greater modesty is nowhere to be
+seen than at the Life academy; and it was an observation of the great
+Flaxman, that "the students, in entering the academy, seemed to hang up
+their passions with their hats." I can, from personal experience, give the
+same testimony in behalf of medical students at the dissecting-rooms. The
+familiarity of both these classes with natural beauty leads them only to
+seek to inform their minds and to purify their taste.[3]
+
+Sinibaldi observes, that "nothing is more injurious to morals and to
+health, than the incitements of the women who in such numbers walk our
+streets," and that "the laws as to offences against morals ought certainly
+to affect them the moment their language or actions can be deemed
+offensive." But it is not to those who are critically conversant with the
+highest beauty of the human figure, that defective forms, ill-painted
+skins, rude manners, and contagious diseases, are at all seductive.
+
+Nothing, then, can be more favorable to virtue than the decoration of
+every house with the beautiful copies of the glorious works of ancient
+Greece; and it is only humiliating to think that what has been so
+extensively done in this respect in the best houses, is less owing to our
+own taste than to the poor wanderers from Lucca or Barga. Experiment on
+this subject is peculiarly easy in London: let any one spend an hour in
+the shop of the very able Mr. Sarti, of Dean street, where he will meet
+the most liberal attention, and let him ask himself, in coming out,
+whether his moral feeling, as well as his taste, is not improved.
+
+Those who cannot make this experiment, will perhaps be satisfied with the
+assurance of Hogarth, who says: "The rest of the body, not having
+advantages in common with the face, would soon satiate the eye, were it
+to be as constantly exposed, nor would it have more effect than a marble
+statue." Surely this is decisive enough in its way! Now let them mark what
+follows. "But," he continues, "when it is artfully clothed and decorated,
+the mind at every turn resumes its imaginary pursuits concerning it. Thus,
+if I may be allowed a simile, the angler chooses not to see the fish he
+angles for, until it is fairly caught." He meant of course--"the _fish_
+chooses not to see the _angler_, until it is fairly caught!"
+
+Be it known then to all, even the most aristocratic as to sexual
+association--I say the most aristocratic, and not the most religious,
+because religion is in some countries made the pander to aristocracy--be
+it known that the critical judgment and pure taste for beauty are the sole
+protection against low and degrading connexions.
+
+Home observes that "the sense of beauty does not tend to advance the
+interests of society, but when in a due mean with respect to strength.
+Love in particular arising from a sense of beauty, loses, when excessive,
+its sociable character: the appetite for gratification, prevailing over
+affection for the beloved object, is ungovernable, and tends violently to
+its end, regardless of the misery that must follow. Love in this state is
+no longer a sweet agreeable passion: it becomes painful, like hunger or
+thirst, and produces no happiness but in the instant of fruition. This
+discovery suggests a most important lesson, that moderation in our desires
+and appetites, which fits us for doing our duty, contributes at the same
+time the most to happiness: even social passions, when moderate, are more
+pleasant than when they swell beyond proper bounds." Payne Knight says:
+"When, at the age of puberty, animal desire obtrudes itself on a mind
+already qualified to feel and enjoy the charms of intellectual merit, the
+imagination immediately begins to form pictures of perfection, by
+exaggerating and combining in one hypothetic object every excellence that
+can possibly belong to the whole sex; and the first individual that meets
+the eye, with any exterior signs of any of these ideal excellences, is
+immediately decorated with them all, by the creative magic of a vigorous
+and fertile fancy. Hence, she instantaneously becomes the object of the
+most fervent affection, which is as instantaneously cooled by possession:
+for, as it was not the object herself, but a false idea of her raised in
+heated imagination, that called forth all the lover's raptures, all
+immediately vanish at the detection of his delusion; and a degree of
+disgust proportioned to the disappointment, of which it is the inevitable
+consequence, instantly succeeds. Thus it happens that what are called
+love-matches are seldom or ever happy."
+
+Now, nothing can more effectually prevent even the existence of the mania
+described by these two philosophers than a critical judgment and a pure
+taste for beauty, which again therefore are the sole protection against
+low and degrading connexions.
+
+A just sense of this truth will give high encouragement to sculpture and
+painting--arts which may everywhere be looked upon as the best tests, as
+well as the best records, of civilization. Such encouragement they need in
+truth; for the monstrous monopoly of landed property and the accumulation
+of wealth in few hands--the great aim of our political economy--renders
+art poor, indeed.
+
+I am aware that the vulgar among artists think otherwise; from the few
+rich they obtain employment; and, like the dog with his master, they look
+not beyond the hand that doles out their pittance. But the rich are few;
+and their palaces are already filled. A diffusion of wealth alone can give
+encouragement to art; nor can this ever be while British industry is
+crushed under the weight of enormous taxation.
+
+Having removed some objections to art, I would add a few words to artists
+on the cause of the fine arts in Greece, from a paper I, two years ago,
+contributed to a monthly periodical.[4]
+
+That the mythology of Greece had an influence over its arts, is generally
+granted; but I am not aware, that it has either been shown to be
+exclusively their cause, or that its mode of operation has ever been
+explained.
+
+Religion, I may observe, is as natural to man as his weakness and
+helplessness. There is not one of its systems, not even the vilest, which
+has not afforded him consolation. Of its higher and better systems, some
+are equally admirable for the grandeur and the beauty of the truths on
+which they are founded, the simplicity and the elegance of their
+ostensible forms, the power and applicability of their symbols, and their
+sympathy with, and control over, the affections and the imagination.
+
+These high characteristics peculiarly distinguished the religion of
+ancient Greece.
+
+By bigots, we are indeed told, that, though Homer is our model in epic,
+Anacreon in lyric, and AEschylus in dramatic poetry--though the music of
+Greece doubtless corresponded to its poetry in beauty, pathos, and
+grandeur--though the mere wreck of her sculpture is never overlooked in
+modern war and negotiation--though the mere sight of her ruined Parthenon
+is more than a reward for the fatigue or the peril of a journey to the
+Eternal city--though these products of art are the test of the highest
+civilization which the world has witnessed--though to these chiefly Rome
+owed the little civilization of which she was capable, and we ourselves
+the circumstance that, at this hour, we are not, like our ancestors,
+covered only with blue paint or the skins of brutes--though all this is
+true as to the arts of Greece, we are told that, by the strangest
+exception, the religion of Greece was a base superstition.
+
+That religion, however, was the creator of these arts. They not only could
+not have existed without it, but they probably could never have been
+called into existence by any other religion.
+
+The personification of _simple_ Beauty, Valor, Wisdom, or Omnipotence, in
+Venus, Mars, Minerva, or Jupiter, respectively, was essential to the
+_purity_ and the _power_ of expression of these attributes in the worship
+of the deities to whom they respectively belonged. The union of absolute
+beauty and valor in one being, is not more impossible than their union in
+one expression of homage and admiration. Delicacy, elegance, and grace,
+were as characteristic of the statue, the worship, and the temple, of the
+goddess of beauty, as attributes nearly opposite to these were of the
+statue, the worship, and the temple, of the god of war. Thus, were the
+fine arts in Greece created by the personification of _simple_ attributes
+or virtues as objects of adoration; and thus is excellence in these fine
+arts incapable of being elicited by any system of religion in which more
+than one attribute is ascribed to the god.
+
+They must be ignorant, indeed, of the wonderful people of whom I now
+speak, who allege, that the Greeks worshipped the mere statue of the god
+and not the personified virtue. Even the history of their religion proves
+the reverse. It was the tomb which became the altar, and retained nearly
+its form. It was the expression of love, of regret, and of veneration for
+departed virtue, which became divine adoration; and, as individual acts
+and even individual names were ultimately lost in one transcendent
+attribute, so were individual forms and features, in its purified and
+ideal representation. Here, then, instead of finding the worship of men or
+of their representations, we discover a gradual advance from beings to
+attributes--from mortal man to eternal virtue--and a corresponding and
+suitable advance from simple veneration to divine adoration.
+
+When, in great emergencies of the state, the sages and the soldiers of
+Athens, in solemn procession repaired to the temple of Minerva, turned
+their faces toward the statue of the goddess, and prostrated themselves in
+spirit before her--let the beautiful history of Grecian science tell,
+whether in the statue they worshipped the mere marble structure, or, in
+its forms and attributes, beheld and adored a personification of eternal
+truth and wisdom, and so prepared the mind for deeds which have rendered
+Greece for ever illustrious. Or, when returning from a Marathon, or a
+Salamis, the warriors of Athens, followed by trains of maidens, and
+matrons, and old men, returned thanks to the god of victories--let the
+immortal record of the long series of glorious achievements which
+succeeded these, tell, whether gratitude to their heroes was not there
+identified with homage to the spirit or the divinity that inspired them.
+
+True it is, that, whenever physical or moral principles are personified,
+the ignorant may be led to mistake the sign for that which is signified;
+but one of the most admirable characteristics of the Grecian religion is,
+that, with little effort, every external form may be traced to the spirit
+which it represents, and every fable may be resolved into a beautiful
+illustration of physical or moral truth. So that when mystic influences,
+with increasing knowledge, ceased to sway the imagination, all-powerful
+truths directed the reason.
+
+The natural and poetical religion of Greece, therefore, differed from
+false and vulgar religions in this, that it was calculated to hold equal
+empire over the minds of the ignorant and the wise; and the initiations of
+Eleusis were apparently the solemn acts by which the youths and maidens of
+Greece passed from ignorance and blind obedience to knowledge and
+enlightened zeal. Thus, in that happy region, neither were the priests
+knaves, nor the people their dupes.[5]
+
+And what has been the result of this fundamental excellence?--that no
+interpolated fooleries have been able to destroy it;--that the religion of
+Greece exists, and must ever exist, the religion of nature, genius, and
+taste;--and that neither poetry nor the arts can have being without it.
+Schiller has well expressed this truth in the following lines:--
+
+  "The intelligible forms of ancient poets,
+  The fair humanities of old religion,
+  The power, the beauty, and the majesty,
+  That had their haunts in dale, or piny mountains,
+  Or forest, by slow stream, or pebbly spring,
+  Or chasms, and watery depths--all these have vanished;
+  They live no longer in the faith of reason;
+  But still the heart doth need a language; still
+  Doth the old instinct bring back the old names;
+   * * And even, at this day,
+  'Tis Jupiter who brings whate'er is great,
+  And Venus who brings everything that's fair."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+CAUTIONS AS TO YOUTH.
+
+
+In relation to _early_ sexual association, it cannot be doubted, that,
+when the instinct of reproduction begins to be developed, the reserve
+which parents, relatives, and instructers, adopt on this subject, is often
+the means of producing injurious effects; because, a system of concealment
+on this subject, as observed in the preceding chapter, is quite
+impracticable. Discoveries made by young persons in obscene books, the
+unguarded language or shameless conduct of grown-up persons, even the wild
+flights of an imagination which is then easily excited, will have the most
+fatal consequences.
+
+Parents or instructers ought, therefore, at that critical period, to give
+rational explanations as to the nature and the object of the propensity,
+the mechanism of reproduction in various vegetable and animal beings, and
+the fatal consequences to which this propensity may lead. Such procedure,
+if well conducted, cannot but have the most beneficial results; because,
+in order that a sane person should avoid any danger, it is only necessary
+that he should see it distinctly.
+
+The advantage, it has been observed, which the parent, relative, or
+instructer, derives, from himself in forming the adolescent in the new
+faculty which is developed in him, is to prevent his choosing, among
+corrupt servants or ignorant youths of his own age, the confidants of his
+passion. The parent or instructer, moreover, is then justly entitled to,
+and has gratefully given to him, the entire confidence of the adolescent;
+and he is thereby enabled exactly to appreciate the degree of power of the
+propensity which he desires to divert or to guide.
+
+Such being the case, it is the business of the parent to present a true
+picture of the effects of too early association of this kind, on the
+stature, the various development of the figure, the muscular power, the
+quality of the voice, the health, the moral sense, and especially on the
+acuteness, the power, the dignity, and the courage, of the mind.
+
+In doing this, it would be as stupid as injurious to employ the slightest
+degree of false representation, of unjust reprimand, or too much of what
+is called moralizing, which is often only the contemptible cant of a being
+who cannot reason, especially when it takes the place of a simple and
+powerful statement of facts. All of these would only render the young man
+a dissembler, and would compel him to choose another confidant.
+
+Among other considerations, varying according to the circumstances of the
+case, those stated below may with advantage be presented.
+
+At a certain period in the life both of plants and animals, varying
+according to their kind and the climate they live in, they are fit for
+and disposed to the reproduction of their species. The sexes in both are
+then attracted to each other. In plants, the powder termed pollen, in
+animals a peculiar liquid which, deriving its name by analogy from the
+seeds of plants, is termed seminal, is secreted by the male plant or
+animal, and, by organs differently formed in each kind, is cast upon ova
+or eggs either contained within, or deposited by, the female. The details
+of this process are among the most beautiful and interesting of the living
+economy. In mankind, the attainment of this period is termed puberty.
+
+It is with this critical period, and his conduct during it, that all that
+the youth deems most valuable, all that can decide his fortunes and his
+happiness in the world, his stature, figure, strength, voice, health, and
+mental powers, are most intimately connected.
+
+In regard to stature, the body appears to complete its increase in height
+chiefly at the age of puberty, and during the first years which succeed
+that age. To be assured of the powerful influence of his own conduct, at
+this period, upon his stature, the youth has only to compare the tall men
+and women of the country as in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland,
+Cumberland, and the Scottish borders, where they have not been overworked,
+with the stunted and dwarfed creatures of the metropolis, where a
+stranger, when he first enters it, is apt to think he sees so many ugly
+boys and girls, whereas, they are full-grown London men and women. Half
+the population of the metropolis is affected in this way; and it is the
+obvious consequence of the acceleration of puberty by confinement,
+stimulating food, indecent plays, and sexual association.
+
+In regard to the perfect development and beauty of the figure, the youth
+is probably aware that the most beautiful races of horses and dogs rapidly
+deteriorate, if men do not carefully maintain them by continence as well
+as by crossing. The too early employment, the depraved abuses, the injury,
+or the removal, of the sexual organs, are all of them causes still more
+certain of deformity. The latter of these causes acts, of course, most
+obviously; and it is evidenced in the almost universal malformation of
+eunuchs, geldings, &c.
+
+That, in regard to bodily strength, sexual continence adds energy to the
+muscular fibre, is clearly seen by observing the most ardent quadrupeds
+previous to the time of the union of their sexes. But, this being past,
+precisely in the same proportion does the act of reproduction debilitate
+and break down the strongest animal. Many male animals even fall almost
+exhausted by a single act of union with the opposite sex.
+
+Every classical student has read the beautiful allegory of Hercules, who,
+having spun at the knees of Omphale ([Greek: omphalos] the navel, here put
+for the most essential part of the female generative organ), thereby lost
+his strength: this beautifully expresses the abasement of power amid the
+indulgences of love. Euripides also depicts the terrible Achilles as timid
+before women, and respectful with Clytemnestra and Iphigenia. Hence, when
+a foolish lord reproached the poet Dryden with having given too much
+timidity toward women to a personage in one of his tragedies, and added
+that he knew better how to employ his time with the ladies, the poet
+answered: "You now acknowledge that you are no hero, which I intended that
+personage to be."
+
+As to voice, which depends on the muscles of respiration, and more
+immediately on those of the mouth and throat, as general strength does on
+the muscles of the whole body, both merely affording expressions of the
+mind, the influence of the sexual union upon it is prodigious. How
+entirely it is altered by the removal of the testes in eunuchs is known to
+every one: in corresponding proportion, is it altered by every act of the
+generative organs, but especially by sexual indulgence during puberty. The
+horrible voice of early libertines and prostitutes presents an alarming
+example of this. To those who value voice in conversation, in the
+delightful and humanizing exercise of music, or in the grander efforts of
+public speaking, nothing more need be said.
+
+As to health, the less we are prodigal of life, the longer we preserve it.
+Every one capable of observing may see that the stag loses his horns and
+his hair after procreation; that birds fall into moulting and sadness; and
+that male insects even perish after this effort, as if they yielded their
+individual life to their progeny. Indeed, everything perishes so much the
+more readily, as it has thus transmitted life to its descendants, or has
+cast it away in vain pleasures.
+
+In mankind, as in other animals, to procreate is in effect to die to one's
+self, and to leave one's life to posterity; especially, if this takes
+place in early life. It is then that man becomes bald and bent; and that
+the charms of woman fade. Even in advanced age, epicures are so well aware
+of this, that they are known to abstain from amorous excess, as the
+acknowledged cause of premature death.
+
+In relation to mind--as the generative power is the source of several
+characteristics of genius, the exhaustion of that power at an early age
+must take away these characteristics. Genius as surely languishes and is
+extinguished amid early sexual indulgence, as do the faculties of voice
+and locomotion, which are merely its signs and expressions.
+
+It is thus with all our faculties, locomotive, vital, mental, at an early
+age. They are strengthened by all that they do not dissipate; and that
+which their organs too abundantly dispense is not only taken immediately
+from their own power, and mediately from that of the other organs, but it
+ensures the permanent debility of the whole.
+
+It is true that the strong passions which are modified or characterized by
+the sexual impulse, excite the imagination and impel the mind to sublime
+exertions; but the sole means of either obtaining or preserving such
+impulsion is, to shun the indulgence of pleasure in early life, and its
+waste at later periods.
+
+It has accordingly been observed, that the passion of love appears to be
+most excessive in animals which least excel in mental faculties. Thus the
+beasts which are the most lascivious, the ass, the boar, &c., are also the
+most stupid; and idiots and cretins display a sensuality which brutifies
+them still more. Hence, the Homeric fable that Circe transformed men into
+beasts.
+
+It would also appear that the most stupid animals, swine, rabbits, &c., in
+general produce the greatest number of young; while men of genius have
+engendered the fewest. It is remarked that none of the greatest men of
+antiquity were much given to sexual pleasure.
+
+It is, then, of the greatest importance to young men who are ambitious of
+excellence, to mark well this truth, that the most powerful and
+distinguished in mental faculties, other things being equal, will be he
+who wastes them least in early life by sexual indulgence--who most
+economizes the vital stimulant, in order to excite the mental powers on
+great occasions. By such means may a man surely surpass others, if he have
+received from his parents proportional mental energy.
+
+Beside the means already indicated, there is one proposed by an able
+writer, as serving to divert the instinct of propagation when too early
+and excessive, and consequently dangerous: that is, the sentiment of love.
+To employ this means, he observes, "it is necessary to search early, after
+knowing the character of the adolescent whom it is wished to direct, for a
+young woman whose beauty and good qualities may inspire him with
+attachment. This means will serve, more than can easily be imagined, to
+preserve the adolescent both from the grosser attractions of libertinism
+and the disease it entails, and from _the more dangerous snares of
+coquetry_. It is," he adds, "a virtuous young woman and a solid
+attachment that are here spoken of."--At some future period I shall
+probably show how wise this recommendation is, as well as the necessity
+and the advantages of early marriages, under favorable circumstances.
+
+Having now shown the evils of early sexual association, I may briefly
+notice those of later libertinism.
+
+If, even in more advanced life, and when the constitution is stronger, the
+instinct of propagation be not restrained within just limits, it
+degenerates into inordinate lewdness or real mania: "Repperit obscaenas
+veneres vitiosa libido." By such depravation, nobleness of character is
+utterly destroyed.
+
+This scarcely evitable consequence of great fortune and of the facility of
+indulgence, it has been justly observed, will ever be the ruin of the
+rich, and a mode of enervating the most vigorous branches of the most
+powerful house.
+
+The libertine, then, owing to exhaustion, by sexual indulgence, is
+characterized by physical and moral impotence, or has a brain as incapable
+of thinking, as his muscles are of acting.
+
+As libertines are enfeebled by indulgence, it follows that they are
+proportionally distinguished by fear and cowardice. Nothing, indeed,
+destroys courage more than sexual abuses.
+
+But, from cowardice, spring cunning, duplicity, lying, and perfidy. These
+common results of cowardice are uniformly found in eunuchs, slaves,
+courtiers, and sycophants; while boldness, frankness, and generosity,
+belong to virtuous, free, and magnanimous men.
+
+Again, cowardice, artifice, falsehood, and perfidy, are the usual elements
+of cruelty. Men feel more wounded in self-love, as they are conscious of
+being more contemptible; and they avenge themselves with more malignity
+upon their enemy, as they find themselves more weak and worthless, and as
+they consequently dread him more.
+
+These are the causes of that malignant revenge which princes have often
+shown, as, in ancient times, Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian,
+Heliogabalus, &c. In later times, Catharine de Medici solicited the
+massacre of the Protestants; Paul, Constantine, and Nicholas, of Russia,
+were happy only when they wallowed in blood; Charles X., equally
+effeminate and bigoted, perpetrated the massacre of the Parisians; Don
+Miguel covered Portugal with his assassinations; and nearly all the
+sovereigns and sycophants in Europe upheld or palliated his atrocities.[7]
+
+The strong and brave man, on the contrary, scarcely feels hurt, and scorns
+revenge.
+
+It is not cruelty only with which we may reproach these effeminate
+individuals: it is every vice which springs from baseness of character.
+
+Libertinism, moreover, is not hurtful only to the health and welfare of
+these individuals: it is so also to those of their posterity.
+
+Finally, the results of libertinism have constantly marked, not merely the
+ruin of families, but the degeneration of races, and the decay of empires.
+The delights of Capua caused the ruin of Hannibal; and the Roman, once so
+proud before kings, finally transformed himself into the wretched slave of
+monsters degraded far below the rank of humanity.
+
+So little, however, do men look to remote consequences that perhaps the
+most frightful punishments of libertinism are the diseases which it
+inflicts. Man may, then, be said to meet only death on the path of life.
+
+The dangers of promiscuous love are, indeed, far beyond what young men
+will easily believe. I do not exaggerate when I state, that, out of every
+three women, and those the least common of the promiscuous, two at least
+are certainly in a state of disease capable of the most destructive
+infection. A surgeon in the habit of receiving foul patients at a public
+hospital tells me, I might safely say that nine out of every ten are in
+this state.[8]
+
+While writing this, Sir Anthony Carlisle observes to me, that, "the
+special disease which appears to be a punishment for sexual profligacy, is
+not only malignant, painful, and hideous, in every stage of it, but the
+only remedy known for its cure, mercury, is a poison which generally
+leaves its own evils for the venom which it destroys. This frightful
+disease has no natural termination but in a disgusting disgraceful death,
+after disfiguring the countenance, by causing blindness, loss of the nose,
+the palate and teeth, and by the spoliation of the sinning organs. The
+miserables, who thus perish in public hospitals, are so offensive to the
+more respectable patients, that they are confined to appointed rooms,
+termed foul wards, where they linger and die in the bloom of life, either
+of the penalty inflicted by their profligacy, of the poison administered
+to them, or of incurable consequent diseases, such as consumption, palsy,
+or madness."
+
+Hence, it has been observed, that, if we have to deal with a young man
+incapable of guidance by the nobler motives, of feeling contempt for vice,
+and horror for debauchery, there yet remain means to be employed. Let him
+be conducted to the hospital, where he will find collected the poor
+victims of debauchery--the unhappy women whom, even the day before, he may
+have seen in the streets, with faces dressed in smiles, amid the torments,
+the corrosion, and the contagion of disease. This may leave an impression
+sufficiently deep. But let him also know that these unhappy creatures are
+a thousand times more pitiable than the libertine who destroys them, and
+who forfeits the only good we cannot refuse to other wretches, compassion
+for the misery he endures.[9]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+NATURE OF BEAUTY.
+
+
+In this chapter, my aim is to show that there is more than one kind of
+beauty, and that much confusion has arisen among writers, from not clearly
+distinguishing the characteristics of these kinds.
+
+An essential condition, then, of all excitement and action in animal
+bodies, is a greater or less degree of novelty in the objects impressing
+them--even if this novelty should arise only from a previous cessation of
+excitement.
+
+Now, objects of greater or less novelty are the causes of excitement,
+pleasurable or painful, by means of their various relations.
+
+The lowest degree of bodily pleasure (though, owing to its constancy,
+immense in its total amount) is that which arises, during health, from
+those relations of bodies and that excitement which cause the mere local
+exercise of the organs--a source of pleasure which is seldom the object of
+our voluntary attention, but which seems to me to be the chief cause of
+attachment to life amid its more definite and conspicuous evils.
+
+All higher mental emotions consist of pleasure or pain superadded to more
+or less definite ideas. Pleasurable emotions arise from the agreeable
+relations of things; painful emotions, from the disagreeable ones.
+
+The term by which we express the influence which objects, by means of
+their relations, possess of exciting emotions of pleasure in the mind, is
+BEAUTY.
+
+Beauty, when founded on the relations of objects, or of the parts of
+objects, to each other, forms a first class, and may be termed _intrinsic
+beauty_.
+
+When beauty is farther considered in relation to ourselves, it forms a
+second class, and may be termed _extrinsic_ beauty.
+
+We are next led (hitherto this has apparently been done without analyzing
+or defining the operation) to a division of the latter into two genera;
+namely, the _minor beauty_, of which prettiness, delicacy, &c., are
+modifications, and that which is called _grandeur_ or _sublimity_.
+
+The characters of the minor beauty or prettiness, with relation to
+ourselves, are smallness, subordination, and subjection. Hence female
+beauty, in relation to the male.
+
+The characters of grandeur or sublimity, with relation to ourselves, are
+greatness, superordination, and power. Hence male beauty, in relation to
+the female.
+
+By the preceding brief train of analysis and definition, is, I believe,
+answered the question--"whether the emotion of grandeur make a branch of
+the emotion of beauty, or be entirely distinct from it."
+
+Having, by this concise statement of my own views on these subjects, made
+the reader acquainted with some of the materials of future consideration
+here employed, I may now examine the opinions of some philosophers, in
+order to see how far they accord with these first principles, and what
+answer can be given to them where they differ.
+
+That _beauty_, _generally considered_, has nothing to do with particular
+size, is very well shown by Payne Knight, who, though he argues
+incorrectly about it in many other respects, here truly says: "All degrees
+of magnitude contribute to beauty in proportion as they show objects to be
+perfect in their kind. The dimensions of a beautiful horse are very
+different from those of a beautiful lapdog; and those of a beautiful oak
+from those of a beautiful myrtle; because, nature has formed these
+different kinds of animals and vegetables upon different scales.
+
+"The notion of objects being rendered beautiful by being gradually
+diminished, or tapered, is equally unfounded; for the same object, which
+is small by degrees, and beautifully less, when seen in one direction, is
+large by degrees, and beautifully bigger, when seen in another. The stems
+of trees are tapered upward; and the columns of Grecian architecture,
+having been taken from them, and therefore retaining a degree of analogy
+with them, were tapered upward too: but the legs of animals are tapered
+downward, and the inverted obelisks, upon which busts were placed, having
+a similar analogy to them, were tapered downward also; while pilasters,
+which had no analogy with either, but were mere square posts terminating a
+wall, never tapered at all."
+
+Speaking of beauty generally, and without seeing the distinctions I have
+made above, Burke, on the contrary, states the first quality of beauty to
+be comparative smallness, and says: "In ordinary conversation, it is usual
+to add the endearing name of little to everything we love;" and "in most
+languages, the objects of love are spoken of under diminutive epithets."
+
+This is evidently true only of the objects of _minor_ or _subordinate
+beauty_, which Burke confusedly thought the only kind of it, though he
+elsewhere grants, that beauty may be connected with sublimity! It shows,
+however, that relative littleness is essential to that first kind of
+beauty.
+
+With greater knowledge of facts than Burke possessed, and with as feeble
+reasoning powers, but with less taste, and with a perverse whimsicality
+which was all his own, Payne Knight similarly, making no distinction in
+beauty, considered smallness as an accidental association, failed to see
+that it characterized a kind of beauty, and argued, that "if we join the
+diminutive to a term which precludes all such affection, or does not even,
+in some degree, express it, it immediately converts it into a term of
+contempt and reproach: thus, a bantling, a fondling, a darling, &c., are
+terms of endearment; but a witling, a changeling, a lordling, &c., are
+invariably terms of scorn: so in French, '_mon petit enfant_,' is an
+expression of endearment; but '_mon petit monsieur_,' is an expression of
+the most pointed reproach and contempt."
+
+Now, this chatter of grammatical termination and French phrase, though
+meant to look vastly clever, is merely a blunder. There is no analogy in
+the cases compared: a "darling" or little dear unites _dear_, an
+expression of love, with _little_, implying that dependance which enhances
+love; while "witling" or little wit unites _wit_, an expression of talent,
+with _little_, meaning the small quantity or absence of the talent alluded
+to; and it is because the latter term means, not physical littleness,
+which well associates with love, but moral littleness and mental
+degradation, that it becomes a term of contempt.
+
+Even from the little already said, it seems evident that much of the
+confusion on this subject has arisen from not distinguishing the two
+genera of beauty, and not seeing that "the emotion of grandeur" is merely
+"a branch of the emotion of beauty."
+
+The other genus of beauty, _grand_ or _sublime beauty_, is well described
+by the names given to it, grandeur or sublimity. Some have considered
+sublimity as expressing grandeur in the highest degree: it would perhaps
+be as well to express the cause of the emotion by grandeur, and the
+emotion itself by sublimity.
+
+Nothing is sublime that is not vast or powerful, or that does not make him
+who feels it sensible of its physical or moral superiority.
+
+The simplest cause of sublimity is presented by all objects of vast
+magnitude or extent--a seemingly boundless plain, the sky, the ocean,
+&c.; and the particular direction of the magnitude or extent always
+correspondingly modifies the emotion--height giving more especially the
+idea of power, breadth of resistance, depth of danger, &c. Of the objects
+mentioned above, the ocean is the most sublime, because, to vastness in
+length and breadth, it adds depth, and a force perpetually active.
+
+Now, that these objects, though sublime, are beautiful, is very evident;
+and it is therefore also evident how much Burke erred in asserting
+comparative smallness to be the first character of beauty generally
+considered. This and similar errors, as already said, have greatly
+obscured this subject, and have led Burke and others so to modify and
+qualify their doctrines, as to take from them all precision and certainty.
+
+Hence, in one place, Burke says: "As, in the animal world, and in a good
+measure in the vegetable world likewise, the qualities that constitute
+_beauty_ may _possibly_ be united to things of _greater dimensions_ [that
+is, littleness may be united with bigness!]; when they are so united they
+constitute _a species something different both from the sublime and
+beautiful_, which I have before called, Fine."
+
+So also he says: "Ugliness I imagine likewise to be consistent enough with
+an idea of the sublime. But I would by no means insinuate that ugliness of
+itself is a sublime idea, unless united with such qualities as excite a
+strong terror."
+
+Here, he confounds sublimity with terror, as do Blair and other writers,
+when they say that "exact proportion of parts, though it enters often
+into the beautiful, is much disregarded in the sublime." It is a fact,
+that exactly in proportion as ugliness is substituted for beauty in vast
+objects, is sublimity taken away, until at last it is utterly lost in the
+terrible.
+
+Even Blair shows that sublimity may exist without terror or pain. "The
+proper sensation of sublimity appears," he observes, "to be
+distinguishable from the sensation of either of these, and, on several
+occasions, to be entirely separated from them. In many grand objects,
+there is no coincidence with terror at all; as in the magnificent prospect
+of wide-extended plains, and of the starry firmament; or in the moral
+dispositions and sentiments, which we view with high admiration; and in
+many painful and terrible objects also, it is clear, there is no sort of
+grandeur. The amputation of a limb, or the bite of a snake, is exceedingly
+terrible, but is destitute of all claim whatever to sublimity."
+
+Payne Knight shows that terror is even opposed to sublimity: "All the
+great and terrible convulsions of nature; such as storms, tempests,
+hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanoes, &c., excite sublime ideas, and impress
+sublime sentiments by the prodigious exertions of energy and power which
+they seem to display: for though these objects are, in their nature,
+terrible, and generally known to be so, it is not this attribute of terror
+that contributes, in the smallest degree to render them sublime.... Timid
+women fly to a cellar, or a darkened room, to avoid the sublime effects of
+a thunder-storm; because to them they are not sublime, but terrible. To
+those only are they sublime, '_qui formidine nulla imbuti spectant_,' who
+behold them without any fear at all; and to whom, therefore, they are in
+no degree terrible."
+
+This farther confirms the distinction which I made of beauty into minor or
+subordinate, and grand or sublime beauty, although Knight adopted other
+principles, if principles they may be called, and neglected such
+distinction.
+
+There is but one other error on this subject which I need to notice. Burke
+says: "To make anything very terrible, obscurity seems in general to be
+necessary. When we know the full extent of any danger, when we can
+accustom our eyes to it, a great deal of the apprehension vanishes. Every
+one will be sensible of this, who considers how greatly night adds to our
+dread, in all cases of danger.... Those despotic governments which are
+founded on the passions of men, and principally upon the passion of fear,
+keep their chief as much as may be from the public eye. The policy has
+been the same in many cases of religion. Almost all the heathen temples
+were dark."
+
+From what has already been said, it is evident that all this contributes
+to terror, not to sublimity; and that the same error is made by Blair when
+he says, "As obscurity, so disorder, too, is very compatible with
+grandeur, nay, frequently heightens it."
+
+To expose the weakness and to destroy the authority of some writers on
+this subject, can only set the mind free for the investigation of truth.
+I may, therefore, conclude this chapter by quoting the shrewd remarks of
+Knight on some of the principles of Burke. I shall afterward be forced
+critically to examine the notions of Knight in their turn.
+
+Burke states that the highest degree of sublime sensation is astonishment;
+and the subordinate degrees, awe, reverence, and respect; all which he
+considers as modes of terror. And Knight observes that this graduated
+scale of the sublime, from respect to astonishment, cannot, perhaps be
+better illustrated than by applying it to his own character.
+
+"He was certainly," says Knight, "a very respectable man, and reverenced
+by all who knew him intimately. At one period of his life, too, when he
+became the disinterested patron of remote and injured nations, who had
+none to help them, his character was truly sublime; but, unless upon those
+whom he so ably and eloquently arraigned, I do not believe that it
+impressed any awe.... If, during this period, he had suddenly appeared
+among the managers in Westminster Hall without his wig and coat, or had
+walked up St. James's street without his breeches, it would have
+occasioned great and universal astonishment; and if he had, at the same
+time, carried a loaded blunderbuss in his hands, the astonishment would
+have been mixed with no small portion of terror: but I do not believe that
+the united effects of these two powerful passions would have produced any
+sentiment or sensation approaching to sublime, even in the breasts of
+those who had the strongest sense of self-preservation and the quickest
+sensibility of danger."
+
+Thus, I believe, it now appears that novelty[10] is the exciting cause of
+pleasurable emotion, and of the consequent perception of beauty in the
+relations of things, and that the two genera of beauty--the minor or
+subordinate beauty, and grandeur or sublimity--have distinct
+characteristics, the confounding of which by writers has led to the
+obscurity of this part of the subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+STANDARD OF TASTE IN BEAUTY.
+
+
+The expression, "standard of taste," is used to signify the basis or
+foundation of our judgments respecting beauty and deformity, and their
+consequent certainty.
+
+Setting aside such objection as might be raised to a standard of taste on
+the doctrine of Berkeley (which I refuted in 1809, and which I need not
+enter into here), this matter was long ago settled by David Hume; and I
+have nothing new to say upon the subject (there is probably enough of
+novelty in other chapters, whatever its worth may be), except that Burke
+appears to have borrowed all he knew about it from that incomparably more
+profound philosopher.
+
+As I ought not, however, to omit here a view of the subject, I cannot do
+better than transcribe the words of Hume and Burke respectively. While
+this will put the reader in possession of all that I think necessary upon
+this subject, it will farther tend to show in what Burke's ability as a
+philosopher consisted.
+
+I must first, however, observe that the word "taste," as expressing our
+judgment of beauty, is a metaphor whimsically borrowed from the lowest of
+our senses, and is applied to our exercise of that faculty, as regards
+both natural objects, and the fine arts which imitate these.
+
+It is not wonderful that the variety and inconstancy of tastes respecting
+the attributes and the characters of beauty, should have led many
+philosophers to deny that there exist any certain combinations of forms
+and of effects to which the term beauty ought to be invariably attached.
+
+In his "Philosophical Dictionary," Voltaire, after quoting some nonsense
+from the crazy dreamer who did so much injury to Greek philosophy, says:
+"I am willing to believe that nothing can be more beautiful than this
+discourse of Plato; but it does not give us very clear ideas of the nature
+of the beautiful. Ask of a toad what is beauty, pure beauty, the [Greek:
+to kalon]; he will answer you that it is his female, with two large round
+eyes projecting from her little head, a large and flat throat, a yellow
+belly, and a brown back. Ask the devil, and he will tell you that the
+beautiful is a pair of horns, four claws, and a tail. Consult, lastly, the
+philosophers, and they will answer you by rigmarole: they want something
+conformable to the archetype of the beautiful in essence, to the [Greek:
+to kalon]." This is wit, not reason: let us look for that to a deeper
+thinker--as proposed above.
+
+David Hume says: "It appears that, amid all the variety and caprice of
+taste, there are certain general principles of approbation or blame, whose
+influence a careful eye may trace in all operations of the mind. Some
+particular forms or qualities from the original structure of the internal
+fabric, are calculated to please, and others to displease.... If they fail
+of their effect in any particular instance, it is from some apparent
+_defect_ or imperfection in the organ.
+
+"In each creature there is a sound and a defective state; and the former
+alone can be supposed to afford us a true standard of taste and sentiment.
+If, in the sound state of the organ, there be an entire or a considerable
+uniformity of sentiment among men, we may thence derive an idea of the
+perfect beauty; in like manner as the appearance of objects in daylight,
+to the eye of a man in health, is denominated their true and real color."
+
+To the same purpose writes Burke, after some preliminary observations:--
+
+"All the natural powers in man, which I know, that are conversant about
+external objects, are the senses, the imagination, and the judgment.
+
+"First, with regard to the senses. We do and we must suppose, that, as the
+conformations of their organs are nearly or altogether the same in all
+men, so the manner of perceiving external objects is in all men the same,
+or with little difference.
+
+"As there will be little doubt that bodies present similar images to the
+whole species, it must necessarily be allowed, that the pleasures and the
+pains which every object excites in one man, it must raise in all mankind,
+while it operates naturally, simply, and by its proper powers only.
+
+"Custom, and some other causes, have made many deviations from the natural
+pleasures or pains which belong to these several tastes; but then the
+power of distinguishing between the natural and the acquired relish
+remains to the very last.
+
+"There is in all men a sufficient remembrance of the original natural
+causes of pleasure, to enable them to bring all things offered to their
+senses to that standard, and to regulate their feelings and opinions by
+it.
+
+"Suppose one who had so vitiated his palate as to take more pleasure in
+the taste of opium than in that of butter or honey, to be presented with a
+bolus of squills; there is hardly any doubt but that he would prefer the
+butter or honey to this nauseous morsel, or to any other bitter drug to
+which he had not been accustomed; which proves that his palate was
+naturally like that of other men in all things, that it is still like the
+palate of other men in many things, and only vitiated in some particular
+points."
+
+In the same manner, Payne Knight observes that "things, naturally the most
+nauseous, become most grateful; and things, naturally most grateful, most
+insipid.
+
+"This extreme effect, however, only takes place where the palate has
+become morbid and vitiated by continued, and even forced gratification;
+and even when the metaphors taken from this sense, and employed to express
+intellectual qualities, show that it is always felt and considered as a
+corruption, even by those who are most corrupted: for though there are
+many who prefer port wine to malmsey, and tobacco to sugar, yet no one
+ever spoke of a sour or bitter temper as pleasant, or of a sweet one as
+unpleasant." By this concession, Knight answers several of his own
+objections.
+
+"When it is said," farther observes Burke, very properly, "taste cannot be
+disputed, it can only mean, that no one can strictly answer what pleasure
+or pain some particular man may find from the taste of some particular
+thing. This indeed cannot be disputed; but we may dispute, and with
+sufficient clearness too, concerning the things which are naturally
+pleasing or disagreeable to the sense. But when we talk of any peculiar or
+acquired relish, then we must know the habits, the prejudices, or the
+distempers of this particular man, and we must draw our conclusions from
+those."
+
+Hume proceeds to a second point, by observing that "one obvious cause, why
+many feel not the proper sentiment of beauty, is the want of that
+_delicacy_ of imagination which is requisite to convey a sensibility of
+those finer emotions.
+
+"Where the organs are so fine, as to allow nothing to escape them, and at
+the same time so exact, as to perceive every ingredient in the
+composition; this we call delicacy of taste, whether we employ these terms
+in the literal or metaphorical sense."
+
+Burke enlarges on this, after preliminary observing that "the power of the
+imagination is incapable of producing anything absolutely new; it can only
+vary the disposition of those ideas which it has received from the
+senses. Now, the imagination is the most extensive province of pleasure
+and pain, as it is the region of our fears and our hopes, and of all our
+passions that are connected with them.
+
+"Since the imagination is only the representation of the senses, it can
+only be pleased or displeased with the images, from the same principle on
+which the sense is pleased or displeased with the realities; and
+consequently there must be just as close an agreement in the imaginations
+as in the senses of men.
+
+"There are some men formed with feelings so blunt, with tempers so cold
+and phlegmatic, that they can hardly be said to be awake during the whole
+course of their lives. Upon such persons, the most striking objects make
+but a faint and obscure impression. There are others so continually in the
+agitation of gross and merely sensual pleasures, or so occupied in the low
+drudgery of avarice, or so heated in the chase of honors and distinction,
+that their minds, which had been used continually to the storms of these
+violent and tempestuous passions, can hardly be put in motion by the
+delicate and refined play of the imagination. These men, though from a
+different cause, become as stupid and insensible as the former; but
+whenever either of these happen to be struck with any natural elegance or
+greatness, or with these qualities in any work of art, they are moved upon
+the same principle."
+
+On a third point, Hume says: "But though there be naturally a wide
+difference in point of delicacy between one person and another, nothing
+tends farther to increase and improve this talent, than _practice_ in a
+particular art, and the frequent survey or contemplation of a particular
+species of beauty.
+
+"So advantageous is practice to the discernment of beauty, that, before we
+can give judgment on any work of importance, it will even be requisite
+that that very individual performance be more than once perused by us, and
+be surveyed in different lights with attention and deliberation."
+
+This is well illustrated by Burke, who observes: "It is known that the
+taste (whatever it is) is improved exactly as we improve our knowledge, by
+a steady attention to our object, and by frequent exercise.
+
+"To illustrate this--(that there is a difference, not in the causes, nor
+in the manner of men's being affected, but in the degree, owing to natural
+sensibility, or greater attention to the object)--to illustrate this by
+the procedure of the senses in which the same difference is found, let us
+suppose a very smooth marble-table to be set before two men; they both
+perceive it to be smooth, and they are both pleased with it because of
+this quality. So far they agree.
+
+"But suppose another, and after that another table, the latter still
+smoother than the former, to be set before them. It is now very probable
+that these men, who are so agreed upon what is smooth, and in the pleasure
+thence, will disagree when they come to settle which table has the
+advantage in point of polish.... Nor is it easy, when such a difference
+arises, to settle the point, if the excess or diminution be not glaring.
+
+"In these nice cases, supposing the acuteness of the sense equal, the
+greater attention and habit in such things will have the advantage. In the
+question about the tables, the marble-polisher will unquestionably
+determine the most accurately.
+
+"In the imagination, beside the pain or pleasure arising from the
+properties of the natural object, a pleasure is perceived from the
+resemblance which the imitation has to the original.
+
+"All men are nearly equal in this point, as far as their knowledge of the
+things represented or compared extends.
+
+"The principle of this knowledge is very much accidental, as it depends
+upon experience and observation, and not on the strength or weakness of
+any natural faculty; and it is from this difference in knowledge that what
+we commonly, though with no great exactness, call a difference in taste,
+proceeds.
+
+"A man to whom sculpture is new sees a barber's block, or some ordinary
+piece of statuary; he is immediately struck and pleased, because he sees
+something like a human figure; and entirely taken up with this likeness,
+he does not at all attend to its defects. No person, I believe, at the
+first time of seeing a piece of imitation, ever did. Some time after, we
+suppose that this novice lights upon a more artificial work of the same
+nature; he begins to look with contempt on what he admired at first; not
+that he admired it even then for its unlikeness to a man, but for that
+general though inaccurate resemblance which it bore to the human figure.
+What he admired at different times in these so different figures, is
+strictly the same; and though his knowledge is improved, his taste is not
+altered. Hitherto his mistake was from a want of knowledge in art, and
+this arose from his inexperience; but he may be still deficient, from a
+want of knowledge in nature. For it is possible that the man in question
+may stop here, and that the masterpiece of a great hand may please him no
+more than the middling performance of a vulgar artist; and this not for
+want of better or higher relish, but because all men do not observe with
+sufficient accuracy on the human figure, to enable them to judge properly
+of an imitation of it."
+
+On other points, Hume makes the following observations:--
+
+"Without being frequently obliged to form _comparisons_ between the
+several species and degrees of excellence, and estimating their proportion
+to each other ... a man is indeed totally unqualified to pronounce an
+opinion with regard to any object presented to him. By comparison alone,
+we fix the epithets of praise or blame, and learn how to assign the due
+degree of each.
+
+"But to enable a critic more fully to execute this undertaking, he must
+preserve his mind free from all _prejudice_ and allow nothing to enter
+into his consideration, but the very object which is submitted to his
+examination.
+
+"It is well known, that, in all questions submitted to the understanding,
+prejudice is destructive of sound judgment, and perverts all operations of
+the intellectual faculties: it is no less contrary to good taste; nor has
+it less influence to corrupt our sentiments of beauty. It belongs to _good
+sense_ to check its influence in both cases; and in this respect, as well
+as in many others, reason, if not an essential part of taste, is at least
+requisite to the operations of this latter faculty. In all the nobler
+productions of genius, there is a mutual relation and correspondence of
+parts; nor can either the beauties or blemishes be perceived by him whose
+thought is not capacious enough to comprehend all those parts, and compare
+them with each other, in order to perceive the consistence and uniformity
+of the whole. Every work of art has also a certain end or purpose for
+which it is calculated; and is to be deemed more or less perfect, as it is
+more or less fitted to attain this end."
+
+To a repetition of this, Burke adds some useful remarks:--
+
+"As many of the works of imagination are not confined to representation of
+sensible objects, nor to efforts upon the passions, but extend themselves
+to the manners, the characters, the actions, and designs of men, their
+relations, their virtues and vices, they come within the province of the
+judgment, which is improved by attention and by the habit of reasoning.
+
+"The cause of a wrong taste is a defect of judgment. And this may arise
+from a natural weakness of understanding (in whatever the strength of
+that faculty may consist), or which is much more commonly the case, it
+may arise from a want of proper and well-directed exercise, which alone
+can make it strong and ready. Beside that ignorance, inattention,
+prejudice, rashness, levity, obstinacy, in short, all those passions, and
+all those vices which pervert the judgment in other matters, prejudice it
+no less in this its more refined and elegant province. These causes
+produce different opinions upon everything which is an object of the
+understanding, without inducing us to suppose, that there are no settled
+principles of reason.
+
+"A rectitude of judgment in the arts, which may be called a good taste,
+does in a great measure depend upon sensibility; because, if the mind has
+no bent to the pleasures of the imagination, it will never apply itself
+sufficiently to works of that species to acquire a competent knowledge in
+them. But though a degree of sensibility is requisite to form a good
+judgment, yet a good judgment does not necessarily arise from a quick
+sensibility of pleasure; it frequently happens that a very poor judge,
+merely by force of a greater complexional sensibility, is more affected by
+a poor piece, than the best judge by the most perfect; for as everything
+new, extraordinary, grand, or passionate, is well calculated to affect
+such a person, and that the faults do not affect him, his pleasure is more
+pure and unmixed.
+
+"In the morning of our days, when the senses are unworn and tender, when
+the whole man is awake in every part, and the gloss of novelty fresh upon
+all the objects that surround us, how lively at that time are our
+sensations, but how false and inaccurate the judgments we form of things!
+
+"Every trivial cause of pleasure is apt to affect the man of too sanguine
+a complexion: his appetite is to keen to suffer his taste to be
+delicate.... One of this character can never be a refined judge; never
+what the comic poet calls '_elegans formarum spectator_.'
+
+"The rude hearer is affected by the principles which operate in these arts
+even in their rudest condition; and he is not skilful enough to perceive
+the defects. But as arts advance toward their perfection, the science of
+criticism advances with equal pace, and the pleasure of judges is
+frequently interrupted by the faults which are discovered in the most
+finished compositions."
+
+The chief idea above expressed, is again repeated by Sir J. Reynolds, who
+says: "The principles of these (the imagination and the passions) are as
+invariable as the former (the senses), and are to be known and reasoned
+upon in the same manner, by an appeal to _common sense_ deciding upon the
+common feelings of mankind."
+
+These views are thus summed by Hume: "The organs of internal sensation are
+seldom so perfect as to allow the general principles their full play, and
+produce a feeling correspondent to those principles. They either labor
+under some defect, or are vitiated by some disorder; and by that means,
+excite a sentiment, which may be pronounced erroneous. When the critic has
+no delicacy, he judges without any distinction, and is only affected by
+the grosser and more palpable qualities of the object: the finer touches
+pass unnoticed and disregarded. Where he is not aided by practice, his
+verdict is attended with confusion and hesitation. Where no comparison has
+been employed, the most frivolous beauties, such as rather merit the name
+of defects, are the object of his admiration. Where he lies under the
+influence of prejudice, all his natural sentiments are perverted. Where
+good sense is wanting, he is not qualified to discern the beauties of
+design and reasoning, which are the highest and most excellent. Under some
+or other of these imperfections, the generality of men labor; and hence, a
+true judge in the finer arts is observed, even during the most polished
+ages, to be so rare a character: strong sense, united to delicate
+sentiment, improved by practice, perfected by comparison, and cleared of
+all prejudice, can alone entitle critics to this valuable character; and
+the joint verdict of such, wherever they are to be found, is the true
+standard of taste and beauty."
+
+Taking the principal ideas above, Burke also concludes: "On the whole it
+appears to me, that what is called taste, in its most general acceptation,
+is not a simple idea, but is partly made up of a perception of the primary
+pleasures of sense, of the secondary pleasures of the imagination, and of
+the conclusions of the reasoning faculty, concerning the various relations
+of these, and concerning the human passions, manners, and actions."
+
+"It is sufficient for our present purpose," Hume farther observes, "if we
+have proved that the taste of all individuals is not upon an equal
+footing, and that some men in general, however difficult to be
+particularly pitched upon, will be acknowledged by universal sentiment to
+have a preference above others.
+
+"Though men of delicate taste be rare, they are easily to be distinguished
+in society by the soundness of their understanding, and the superiority of
+their faculties above the rest of mankind. The ascendant which they
+acquire, gives a prevalence to that lively approbation, with which they
+receive any productions of genius, and renders it generally predominant.
+Many men, when left to themselves, have but a faint and dubious perception
+of beauty, who yet are capable of relishing any fine stroke which is
+pointed out to them. Every convert to the admiration of the real poet or
+orator, is the cause of some new conversion. And though prejudices may
+prevail for a time, they never unite in celebrating any rival to the true
+genius, but yield at last to the force of nature and just sentiment."
+
+Hume finally obviates some apparent difficulties:--
+
+"But notwithstanding all our endeavors to fix a standard of taste, and
+reconcile the discordant apprehensions of men, there still remain two
+sources of variation, which are not sufficient indeed to confound all the
+boundaries of beauty and deformity, but will often serve to produce a
+difference in the degrees of our approbation or blame. The one is the
+different humors of particular men; the other, the particular manner and
+opinions of our age and country.
+
+"A young man, whose passions are warm, will be more sensibly touched with
+amorous and tender images, than a man more advanced in years, who takes
+pleasure in wise, philosophical reflections concerning the conduct of life
+and moderation of the passions. At twenty, Ovid may be the favorite
+author; Horace at forty; and perhaps Tacitus at fifty. Vainly would we, in
+such cases, endeavor to enter into the sentiments of others, and divest
+ourselves of those propensities which are natural to us. We choose our
+favorite author as we do our friend, from a conformity of humor and
+disposition.
+
+"Such preferences are innocent and unavoidable, and can never reasonably
+be the object of dispute, because there is no standard by which they can
+be decided.
+
+"For a like reason, we are more pleased, in the course of our reading,
+with pictures and characters that resemble objects which are found in our
+own age or country, than with those which describe a different set of
+customs.
+
+"A man of learning and reflection can make allowance for these
+peculiarities of manners; but a common audience can never divest
+themselves so far of their usual ideas and sentiments, as to relish
+pictures which nowise resemble them."
+
+Thus I believe the reader has before him a view, sufficiently clear, of
+that popular topic, the standard of taste, as well as of the agreement
+which subsists among the best writers on the subject. In the next chapter,
+we proceed to a more fundamental and difficult inquiry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY.[11]
+
+
+On the subject of the preceding chapter, even the reasonings of Hume
+appear to me to be of too vague and indefinite a kind. It requires the
+more minute scrutiny into which I shall now enter, in order to place it
+upon a deeper and more scientific foundation. If I can here show that, in
+the material qualities of the objects of nature and art, there exist
+elements of beauty equally invariable in themselves and in the kind of
+effect they produce upon the mind, it is evident there can be no farther
+dispute about a standard of beauty.
+
+Many attempts have been made to determine the material elements of beauty,
+by Hogarth, Home, and others. All have more or less failed, from not
+observing that these elements are modified, varied, and complicated, as we
+advance from the most simple to the most complex class of natural beings,
+or of the arts which relate to these respectively. Many partial views of
+perfect truth and great interest have been taken, and by every one of
+these it will be my duty here to profit: but, from the failure just
+pointed out, no philosophical and systematic doctrine of beauty, ascending
+from its origin in elements through its higher combinations, has ever been
+attained by any of the numerous, deep, acute, and elegant thinkers who
+have devoted their time to this subject, as the foundation of taste and of
+the fine or intellectual arts.
+
+Profiting, as I ought to do, by the partial views of these philosophers, I
+pretend here only to take one larger view--to analyze, to generalize, to
+systematize, the materials which they present to me.
+
+In the hope of accomplishing this, I shall now endeavor successively to
+trace the elements of beauty which belong respectively to inanimate,
+living, and thinking beings, and to the useful, ornamental, and
+intellectual arts which have a reference to these, the neglect of all
+which I have described as the fundamental cause of previous failure.
+
+Again, I repeat, it is to this analysis and generalization alone, and to
+the systemization founded upon it, that I make any pretence. The materials
+have long been presented by all the great writers on the subject: they
+have only left them in confusion, and without conclusion. I shall now
+proceed to employ them.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN INANIMATE BEINGS.
+
+Though Burke did not accurately trace the elements of beauty in any one
+class of the objects of nature or art, he yet states a preliminary truth
+on this subject so well, that I here quote it: "It would be absurd," he
+observes, "to say that all things affect us by association only; since
+some things must have been originally and naturally agreeable or
+disagreeable, from which the others derive their associated powers; and it
+would be, I fancy, to little purpose to look for the cause of our passions
+in association, until we fail of it in the natural properties of things."
+
+Home, advancing farther, says: "If a tree be beautiful by means of its
+color, its figure, its size, its motion, it is in reality possessed of so
+many different beauties, which ought to be examined separately, in order
+to have a clear notion of the whole.
+
+"When any body is viewed as a whole, the beauty of its figure arises from
+regularity[12] and simplicity; and viewing the parts with relation to each
+other, from uniformity[12], proportion, and order."
+
+I will here only observe that these are the qualities, as will speedily
+appear, which Burke should have set down as the fundamental and first
+characteristics of beauty, instead of relative littleness, which belongs
+not to beauty generally, but only to the minor or subordinate beauty.
+
+Even Home, having arrived thus far, says: "To inquire why an object, by
+means of the particulars mentioned, appears beautiful, would, I am afraid,
+be a vain attempt."
+
+But he truly adds: "One thing is clear, that regularity, uniformity,
+order, and simplicity, contribute each of them to readiness of
+apprehension, and enable us to form more distinct images of objects than
+can be done, with the utmost attention, where these particulars are not
+found." And he subjoins: "This final cause is, I acknowledge, too slight,
+to account satisfactorily for a taste that makes a figure so illustrious
+in the nature of man; and that this branch of our constitution has a
+purpose still more important, we have great reason to believe."
+
+Now had Home seen that the characteristics of general beauty always are,
+with regard to the object, accordant and agreeable relations, the
+importance of the qualities he has just enumerated would have been
+evident; for, without them, these characteristics of the object could not
+exist: simplicity, regularity, uniformity, order, &c., are the very
+elements of accordant and agreeable relations. This is in reality the
+still more important purpose in which Home believed, and to which the
+readiness of apprehension he now alludes to eminently contributes.
+
+As to simplicity, he observes, that "a multitude of objects crowding into
+the mind at once, disturb the attention, and pass without making any
+impression, or any lasting impression; and in a group, no single object
+makes the figure it would do apart, when it occupies the whole attention.
+For the same reason, even a single object, when it divides the attention
+by the multiplicity of its parts, equals not, in strength of impression, a
+more simple object comprehended in a single view: parts extremely complex
+must be considered in portions successively; and a number of impressions
+in succession, which cannot unite because not simultaneous, never touch
+the mind like one entire impression made as it were at one stroke.
+
+"A square is less beautiful than a circle, because it is less simple: a
+circle has parts as well as a square; but its parts not being distinct
+like those of a square, it makes one entire impression; whereas, the
+attention is divided among the sides and angles of a square.... A square,
+though not more regular than a hexagon or octagon, is more beautiful than
+either, because a square is more simple, and the attention less divided.
+
+"Simplicity thus contributes to beauty."
+
+By regularity is meant that circumstance in a figure by which we perceive
+it to be formed according to a certain rule. Thus, a circle, a square, a
+parallelogram, or triangle, pleases by its regularity.
+
+"A square," says Home--(who here furnishes the best materials to a more
+general view, because he most frequently assigns physical causes, and
+whom, with some abbreviation, I therefore continue to quote)--"a square is
+more beautiful than a parallelogram, because the former exceeds the latter
+in regularity and in uniformity of parts. This is true with respect to
+intrinsic beauty only; for in many instances, utility comes in to cast the
+balance on the side of the parallelogram: this figure for the doors and
+windows of a dwelling-house, is preferred because of utility; and here we
+find the beauty of utility prevailing over that of regularity and
+uniformity."
+
+Thus regularity and uniformity contribute to intrinsic beauty.
+
+"A parallelogram, again, depends for its beauty on the proportion [or
+relation of quantity] of its sides. Its beauty is lost by a great
+inequality of these sides: it is also lost by their approximating toward
+equality; for proportion there degenerates into imperfect uniformity, and
+the figure appears an unsuccessful attempt toward a square."
+
+Thus proportion contributes to beauty.
+
+"An equilateral triangle yields not to a square in regularity nor in
+uniformity of parts, and it is more simple. Its inferiority in beauty is
+at least partly owing to inferiority of order in the position of its
+parts: the sides of an equilateral triangle incline to each other in the
+same angle, which is the most perfect order they are susceptible of; but
+this order is obscure, and far from being so perfect as the parallelism of
+the sides of a square."
+
+Thus order contributes to the beauty of visible objects.
+
+"A mountain, it may be objected, is an agreeable object, without so much
+as the appearance of regularity; and a chain of mountains is still more
+agreeable, without being arranged in any order. But though regularity,
+uniformity, and order, are causes of beauty, there are also other causes
+of it, as color; and when we pass from small to great objects, and
+consider grandeur instead of beauty, very little regularity is required."
+
+It follows, from all that has been here said, and this has been shown by
+Burke, that any rugged, any sudden projection, any sharp angle, is in the
+highest degree contrary to the idea of beauty. Such projections and angles
+are destitute of all the qualities which have just been
+enumerated--simplicity, regularity, uniformity, proportion, order; and
+conformably to the principles I have laid down in a previous chapter, they
+can present only relations which are naturally disagreeable. This view is
+corroborated by the fact, that all very sharp, broken, or angular objects,
+were disagreeable to the boy couched by Cheselden, as they are to all eyes
+of very nice sensibility.
+
+Now, as angular forms give, to the sense of touch, sharpness, roughness,
+or harshness, so do opposite forms give smoothness or fineness. Hence,
+Burke makes smoothness his second characteristic of beauty, and that far
+more truly than he makes littleness its first, for, as he observes,
+"smoothness is a quality so essential to beauty, that I do not now
+recollect anything beautiful that is not smooth."
+
+Such being really the case, I am bound to expose Knight's sophistry on
+this point. "This elegant author," says he, "has expatiated upon the
+gratifications of feeling smooth and undulating surfaces in general: but,
+I believe, these gratifications have been confined to himself; and
+probably to his own imagination acting through the medium of his favorite
+system: for, except in the communication of the sexes, which affords no
+general illustration, and ought therefore to be kept entirely out of the
+question, I have never heard of any person being addicted to such
+luxuries; though a feeling-board would certainly afford as cheap and
+innocent a gratification, as either a smelling-bottle, a picture, or a
+flute, provided it were capable of affording any gratification at all."
+
+This is a good specimen of the kind of perverted reasoning, which
+peculiarly distinguishes Knight.
+
+A man affecting the character of philosopher, ought calmly to have
+observed that, by young people before puberty, and, consequently, when
+there is not the slightest sexual bias, smooth objects are generally found
+to be agreeable, and rough or harsh ones to be the reverse. This would at
+once have set him right upon this point.
+
+If, to such a man, it should for a moment have appeared worth while to ask
+why we do not make use of feeling-boards, as well as of smelling-bottles,
+he ought to have sought the solution of his difficulty in the nature of
+the senses; and then, with a trifle more of ability than Payne Knight
+hereby shows himself to have possessed, he would have seen that smoothness
+affords us as much pleasure as any smell, but that, as it would have been
+always troublesome, and often impossible, to apply our fingers to smooth
+surfaces, we generally receive the varied and incessant pleasure it
+affords, by means of sight; that it is borne by light to the eye, as smell
+is by the air; and that this is the reason why, except when contact is
+indispensable, we have no need of anything in the way of a feeling-board.
+
+But Knight says: "Smoothness being properly a quality, perceivable only by
+the touch, and applied metaphorically to the objects of the other senses,
+we often apply it, very improperly, to those of vision; assigning
+smoothness as a cause of visible beauty, to things which, though smooth to
+the touch, cast the most sharp, harsh, and angular reflections of light
+upon the eyes; and these reflections are all that the eye feels, or
+naturally perceives.... Such are all objects of cut-glass or polished
+metal; as may be seen by the manner in which painters imitate them: for,
+as the imitations of painting extend only to the visible qualities of
+bodies, they show those visible qualities fairly and impartially.... Yet
+the imitative representation of such objects in painting is far less harsh
+and dazzling than the effects of them in reality: for there are no
+materials that a painter can employ, capable of expressing the sharpness
+and brilliancy of those angular reflections of the collected and
+condensed rays, which are emitted from the surfaces of polished metals."
+
+It seems, to me, scarcely possible to find sophistry more worthless than
+this, or rather a more contemptible quibble; for that which, availing
+himself of our technicalities about light, he calls angularity, sharpness,
+&c., has no analogy with disagreeable angularity of form. To produce the
+brilliance and splendor which he calls angular, and describes as so
+_offensive_, we polish crystalline and metallic bodies in the highest
+degree!--we value precisely those which thus admit of greatest
+splendor!--and, on that very account, the diamond (rightly or wrongly, is
+not the question) is deemed the most valuable object on earth!
+
+So much for those elements of beauty, in inanimate things, which fall
+under the cognizance of our fundamental sense, or that of touch.
+
+As to sight and its objects, it is true that, as this organ varies in
+different persons, their taste is modified, with regard to colors. But the
+preference of light and delicate colors to dark and glaring ones, is
+almost universal among persons of sensibility.
+
+Alison, indeed, ascribes the effects of all colors to association.
+"White," he says, "as it is the color of day, is expressive to us of the
+cheerfulness or gayety which the return of day brings: black, as the color
+of darkness [night], is expressive of gloom and melancholy." And he adds:
+"Whether some colors may not of themselves produce agreeable sensations,
+and others disagreeable sensations, I am not anxious to dispute." But
+this is the very point into which Alison ought to have inquired. Nature
+does nothing without foundation in the simplest principles; and this
+foundation is not only anterior to, but is the cause of all association.
+
+That, independent of any association, blackness is naturally disagreeable,
+if not painful, is happily determined by the case of the boy restored to
+sight by Cheselden, who tells us that the first time the boy saw a black
+object, it gave him great uneasiness; and that, some time after, upon
+accidentally seeing a negro-woman, he was struck with great horror at the
+sight. This appears to be perfectly conclusive.
+
+Knight indeed says: "As to the uneasiness which the boy, couched by
+Cheselden, felt at the first sight of a black object, it arose either from
+the harshness of its outline, or from its appearing to act as a partial
+extinguisher applied to his eyes, which, as every object that he saw,
+seemed to touch them, would, of course, be its effect." It is highly
+probable that black operates in both these ways; and it has therefore
+natural effects, independent of all association.
+
+As to sounds, Alison observes, that the cries of some animals are sublime,
+as the roar of the lion, the scream of the eagle, &c.; and he thinks they
+become so, because we associate them with the strength and ferocity of the
+animals which utter them. By opposite associations, he accounts for the
+beauty of the notes of birds. And he says, that there is a similar
+sublimity or beauty, in the tones of the human voice, and that "such
+sounds are associated, in our imaginations, with the qualities of mind of
+which they are in general expressive, and naturally produce in us the
+conception of these qualities."
+
+This writer endeavors to establish his views on this subject, by
+observing, that "grandeur or sublimity of sound, can no otherwise arise
+from its loudness, than as that loudness excites an idea of power in the
+sonorous object, or in some other associated with it in the mind: for a
+child's drum, close to the ear, fills it with more real noise, than the
+discharge of a cannon a mile off; and the rattling of a carriage in the
+street, when faintly and indistinctly heard, has often been mistaken for
+thunder at a distance. Yet no one ever imagined the beating of a child's
+drum, or the rattling of a carriage over the stones, to be grand or
+sublime; which, nevertheless, they must be, if grandeur or sublimity
+belong at all to the sensation of loudness. But artillery and lightning
+are powerful engines of destruction; and with their power we sympathize,
+whenever the sound of them excites any sentiments of sublimity."
+
+Now, all this is directly opposed to the doctrine it is meant to support.
+It distinctly implies that loudness is so natural and so frequent a result
+of the violent contact of bodies, that we sometimes mistakenly ascribe
+power to objects, of which we have not correctly distinguished the sounds,
+owing to imitation, distance, &c. The occasional mistake implies the
+general truth.
+
+Alison, himself, notwithstanding his doctrine of association, is
+accordingly led to observe, that "there are some philosophers who consider
+these as the natural signs of passion or affection, and who believe that
+it is not from experience, but by means of an original faculty, that we
+interpret them: and this opinion is supported by great authorities."
+
+He adds the following observations, which, notwithstanding the error they
+involve, are too much to the purpose to be omitted here, and which in
+reality illustrate a natural and true theory, better than they do his
+own:--
+
+"It is natural, however, to suppose, that in this, as in every case, our
+experience should gradually lead to the formation of some general rules,
+with regard to this expression.
+
+"The great divisions of sound are into loud and low, grave and acute, long
+and short, increasing and diminishing. The two first divisions are
+expressive in themselves: the two last, only in conjunction with others.
+
+"Loud sound is connected with ideas of power and danger. Many objects in
+nature which have such qualities, are distinguished by such sounds; and
+this association is farther confirmed from the human voice, in which all
+violent and impetuous passions are expressed in loud tones.
+
+"Low sound has a contrary expression, and is connected with ideas of
+weakness, gentleness, and delicacy. This association takes its rise, not
+only from the observation of inanimate nature, or of animals, where, in a
+great number of cases, such sounds distinguish objects with such
+qualities, but particularly from the human voice, where all gentle, or
+delicate, or sorrowful affections are expressed by such tones.
+
+"Grave sound is connected with ideas of moderation, dignity, solemnity,
+&c., principally, I believe, from all moderate, or restrained, or
+chastened affections being distinguished by such tones in the human voice.
+
+"Acute sound is expressive of pain, or fear, or surprise, &c., and
+generally operates by producing some degree of astonishment. This
+association, also, seems principally to arise from our experience of such
+connexions in the human voice.
+
+"Long or lengthened sound seems to me to have no expression in itself, but
+only to signify the continuance of that quality which is signified by
+other qualities of sound. A loud or a low, a grave or an acute sound
+prolonged expresses to us no more than the continuance of the quality
+which is generally signified by such sounds.
+
+"Short or abrupt sound has a contrary expression, and signifies the sudden
+cessation of the quality thus expressed.
+
+"Increasing sound signifies, in the same manner, the increase of the
+quality expressed.
+
+"Decreasing sound signifies the gradual diminution of such qualities.
+
+"Motion furnishes another sort of beauty.
+
+"Figure, color, and motion, readily blend in one object, and one general
+perception of beauty. In many beautiful objects they all unite, and
+render the beauty greater."
+
+These characteristics are too universal not to support the doctrine of
+natural appropriation and power, of which association is merely a
+consequence.
+
+It may be said, that all this chiefly regards mere geometrical forms, not
+objects in nature. But, on referring to inanimate objects, it will be
+found that they everywhere present these forms.
+
+The round, the simplest form appears to characterize all elementary bodies
+and all that are free from compression, to be in fact the most elementary
+and the most readily assumed in nature. This form, accordingly, is
+presented by the drops of water and of every liquid, by every atom
+probably of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote, by the smallest as well as the
+largest bodies, even the innumerable celestial orbs.
+
+All the other, the angular forms are presented by inanimate bodies under
+compression, or by mineral crystals.
+
+Thus, then, do these simple geometrical forms characterize the simplest
+bodies in nature; and it appears that this first kind of beauty is
+peculiarly their own. It will, in the sequel, be as clearly seen, that
+each of the other classes of natural beings presents beauty of a different
+kind, which similarly characterizes it. Hence, no rational theory of
+beauty could be formed by writers, who indiscriminatingly jumbled together
+the characteristics of all the kinds of beauty, and expected to find them
+everywhere.
+
+As, then, from all that has been said, it appears that all the elements of
+beauty which have thus been noticed, belong to inanimate beings, and as
+this is shown by the passages I have quoted from the best writers, it
+seems surprising, not merely that they should not have seen this to be the
+case, but, that it should not have led them to observe, that there exists
+also a second beauty, of living beings, and third, of thinking beings, as
+well as others of the useful, the ornamental, and the intellectual arts
+respectively, in each of which some new element was only added to the
+characters of the preceding species.
+
+It seems still more surprising that Alison, who deviates so widely from
+all fundamental principles, should have actually stumbled upon an
+observation of a few of the characteristics of inanimate beings, and
+traced them as they pass upward through some living and thinking
+beings--whose new characteristics, however, he did not discriminate. He
+observes, that "the greater part of those bodies in nature, which possess
+hardness, strength, or durability, are distinguished by angular forms. The
+greater part of those bodies, on the contrary, which possess weakness,
+fragility, or delicacy, are distinguished by winding or curvilinear forms.
+In the mineral kingdom, all rocks, stones, and metals, the hardest and
+most durable bodies we know, assume universally angular forms. In the
+vegetable kingdom, all strong and durable plants are in general
+distinguished by similar forms. The feebler and more delicate race of
+vegetables, on the contrary, are mostly distinguished by winding forms. In
+the animal kingdom, in the same manner, strong and powerful animals are
+generally characterized by angular forms; feeble and delicate animals, by
+forms of the contrary kind."[13]
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN LIVING BEINGS.
+
+I have now to show that, in living beings, while the characters of the
+first and fundamental beauty, that of inanimate beings, are still
+partially continued, new characteristics are added to them.
+
+Plants accordingly possess both rigid parts, like some of those described
+in the preceding section, and delicate parts, which, in ascending through
+the classes of natural beings from the simplest to the most complex, are
+the very first to present to us new and additional characters totally
+distinct from those of the preceding class.
+
+I. To begin as nature does, then, we find the trunks and stems of plants,
+which are near the ground, resembling most in character the inanimate
+bodies from among which they spring. They assume the simplest and most
+universal form in nature, the round one; but as growth is their great
+function, they extend in height and become cylindrical.
+
+Even the branches, the twigs, and the tendrils, continue this elementary
+character; but it is in them, or in the stem when, like them, it is
+tender, that such elementary characters give way to the purposes of life,
+namely, growth and reproduction, and that we discover the new and
+additional characters of beauty which this class presents to us.
+
+II. To render this matter plain, I must observe that the formation of
+rings, which unite in tubes, appears to be almost universally the material
+condition of growth and reproduction. Every new portion of these tubes,
+moreover, and every superadded ring, is less than that which preceded it.
+
+It is from this that results the first characteristic of this second kind
+of beauty, namely, fineness or delicacy. Hence, Burke made the possession
+of a delicate frame, without any remarkable appearance of strength, his
+fifth condition in beauty; and he here erred only from that want of
+discrimination which led him to confound together all the conditions of
+beauty, and prevented his seeing that they belonged to different genera.
+
+Now, as fine and delicate bodies, which are growing, will shoot in that
+direction where space, air, and light, can best be had, and as this, amid
+other twigs and tendrils, will greatly vary, so will their productions
+rarely continue long in the same straight line, but will, on the contrary,
+bend. Hence, the curved or bending form is the second characteristic of
+this kind of beauty.
+
+It is worthy of remark, that, as the trunks, stems, twigs, and tendrils,
+of plants assume the simplest and most universal form in nature, the round
+one, so their more delicate parts have again the tendency to bend into a
+similar form.
+
+In the young and feeble branches of plants, it is observed by Alison, that
+the bending form is "beautiful, when we perceive that it is the
+consequence of the delicacy of their texture, and of their being
+overpowered by the weight of the flower.... In the smaller and feebler
+tribe of flowers, as in the violet, the daisy, or the lily of the valley,
+the bending of the stem constitutes a very beautiful form, because we
+immediately perceive that it is the consequence of the weakness and
+delicacy of the flower."
+
+From the circumstances now described, it results that all the parts of
+plants present the most surprising variety. They vary their direction
+every moment, as Burke observes, and they change under the eye by a
+deviation continually carrying on, but for whose beginning or end you will
+find it difficult to ascertain a point.
+
+Variety is therefore the third characteristic of this second kind of
+beauty; and in the indiscriminating views of Burke, he made two similar
+conditions, viz: "Thirdly, to have a variety in the direction of the
+parts; but, fourthly, to have those parts not angular, but melted as it
+were into each other;" thus applying these to beauty generally, to which
+they are not applicable, but in a confused and imperfect way.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to observe that variety, as a character of
+beauty, owes its effect to the need of changing impressions, in order to
+enliven our sensibility, which does not fail to become inactive under the
+long-continued impression of the same stimulant.
+
+It is connected with this variety that unequal numbers are preferred, as
+we see in the number of flowers and of their petals, in that of leaves
+grouped together, and in the indentations of these leaves.
+
+From all this springs the fourth and last characteristic of this second
+species of beauty, namely, contrast. This strikes us when we at once look
+at the rigid stem and bending boughs, and all the variety which the latter
+display.
+
+It will be observed, that, of all the characteristics of beauty, none tend
+to render our perceptions so vivid as variety and contrast.
+
+I conclude this section with a few remarks on the errors which Alison has
+committed on this subject.
+
+"In the rose," says that writer, "and the white lily, and in the tribe of
+flowering shrubs, the same bending form assumed by the stem is felt as a
+defect; and instead of impressing us with the idea of delicacy, leads us
+to believe the operation of some force to twist it into this
+direction."--This, however, is no defect arising from the bending form not
+being abstractly more beautiful, but from its being contrary to the nature
+of the stem of flowering shrubs to bend, from its being, as he himself
+observes, the result of some force to twist it.
+
+He asserts, however, that in plants, angular forms are beautiful, when
+they are expressive of fineness, of tenderness, of delicacy, or such
+affecting qualities; and he thinks that this may perhaps appear from the
+consideration of the following instances:--
+
+"The myrtle, for instance, is generally reckoned a beautiful form, yet the
+growth of its stem is perpendicular, the junction of its branches form
+regular and similar angles, and their direction is in straight or angular
+lines. The known delicacy, however, and tenderness of the vegetable, at
+least in this climate, prevail over the general expression of the form,
+and give it the same beauty which we generally find in forms of a contrary
+kind."--The mistake here committed is in supposing the beauty of the
+myrtle to depend on its angularity, instead of its being evergreen,
+fragrant, and suggesting pleasures of association.
+
+"How much more beautiful," he says, "is the rose-tree when its buds begin
+to blow, than afterward, when its flowers are full and in their greatest
+perfection! yet, in this first situation, its form has much less winding
+surface, and is much more composed of straight lines and of angles, than
+afterward when the weight of the flower weighs down the feeble branches,
+and describes the easiest and most varied curves."--But he answers himself
+by adding: "The circumstance of its youth, a circumstance in all cases so
+affecting, the delicacy of its blossom, so well expressed by the care
+which Nature has taken in surrounding the opening bud with leaves, prevail
+so much upon our imagination, that we behold the form itself with more
+delight in this situation than afterward, when it assumes the more general
+form of delicacy."
+
+"There are few things in the vegetable world," he says, "more beautiful
+than the knotted and angular stem of the balsam, merely from its singular
+transparency, which it is impossible to look at without a strong
+impression of the fineness and delicacy of the vegetable."--But it is its
+transparency, not its angularity, that is beautiful.
+
+The beauty of color is not less conspicuous than that of form in this
+class of beings.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY IN THINKING BEINGS.
+
+I have next to show that, in thinking beings, while the characters of
+inanimate, and those of living beauty, are still more or less continued,
+new characteristics are also added to them.
+
+I. In animals, accordingly, the bones bear a close analogy to the wood of
+plants. They generally assume the same rounded form; but, as thinking
+beings are necessarily moving ones, their bones are hollow to combine
+lightness with strength, and they are separated by joints to permit
+flexion and extension.
+
+II. As animals, like plants, grow and reproduce, a portion of their
+general organization, their vascular system, which serves the purpose of
+growth and reproduction, consists, like plants, of trunks, branches, &c.;
+and the surface of their bodies, the skin, is formed by a tissue of these
+vessels. Accordingly, both the vessels themselves, and the tissue which
+they form, present the delicacy, the bending, the variety, and the
+contrast, which are the characters of the preceding species of beauty.
+
+The undulating and serpentine lines which art seeks always to design in
+its most beautiful productions, exist in greater number at the surface of
+the human body than at that of any other animal. Wherever, as Hogarth
+observes, "for the sake of the necessary motion of the parts, with proper
+strength and agility, the insertions of the muscles are too hard and
+sudden, their swellings too bold, or the hollows between them too deep,
+for their outlines to be beautiful; nature softens these hardnesses, and
+plumps up these vacancies with a proper supply of fat, and covers the
+whole with the soft, smooth, springy, and, in delicate life, almost
+transparent skin, which, conforming itself to the external shape of all
+the parts beneath, expresses to the eye the idea of its contents with the
+utmost delicacy of beauty and grace."
+
+It is principally in the features of the face, as has often been observed,
+and on the surface of the torso and of the members of a beautiful woman,
+that these delicate, bending, varied, and contrasted lines are multiplied:
+by their union, they mark the outlines of different parts, as in the
+region of the neck, of the bosom, at the shoulders, on the surface of the
+abdomen, on the sides, and principally in the gradual transitions from the
+head to the neck, and from the loins to the inferior extremities.
+
+These lines vary under different circumstances; much enbonpoint producing
+round lines, and leanness or old age producing straight ones.
+
+Woman and man stand pre-eminent among animals as to this kind of beauty;
+and to them succeed the swifter animals, as the horse, the stag, &c.
+
+The animals, on the contrary, of which the surface presents right lines
+and square forms, are correspondingly deprived of beauty; as the toad, the
+hog, and all the animals which seem to us ugly.
+
+In all animals, also, the beauty of color, even when slightly varied,
+becomes extremely interesting.--In human beauty, considerable variety is
+produced by the different shades of the skin.
+
+Such, indeed, is the variety resulting from all this, that some degree
+even of intricacy is produced. The undulating lines which cross in every
+direction, and the tortuous paths of the eye, are the means of an
+agreeable complication.
+
+Hence Burke, following Hogarth, says: "Observe that part of a beautiful
+woman where she is perhaps the most beautiful, about the neck and breasts:
+the smoothness, the softness, the easy and insensible swell, the variety
+of the surface, which is never for the smallest space the same, the
+deceitful maze, through which the unsteady eye slides giddily, without
+knowing where to fix, or whither it is carried. Is not this a
+demonstration of that change of surface, continual, and yet hardly
+perceptible at any point, which forms one of the great constituents of
+beauty?
+
+The hair affords an excellent instance of this agreeable complication.
+Soft curls agitated by the wind have been the theme of every poet. And
+yet, says Hogarth, "to show how excess ought to be avoided in intricacy,
+as well as in every other principle, the very same head of hair, wisped
+and matted together, would make the most disagreeable figure; because the
+eye would be perplexed, and at a fault, and unable to trace such a
+confused number of uncomposed and entangled lines."
+
+III. But animals have a higher system of organs and functions which
+peculiarly distinguishes them, and which presents new and peculiar
+characteristics of beauty. This consists of the organs by which they
+receive impressions from, and react upon the objects around them--the
+first organs which Nature presents having altogether external relations,
+and the first, consequently, in which we look for fitness for any purpose.
+
+The importance of fitness to the beauty of such objects is learned
+imperceptibly. Lines and forms, though the most elegant, fail to please
+us, if ill distributed in this respect: and objects, to a great extent
+destitute of the other characters of natural beauty, become beautiful when
+regarded in relation to fitness. Thus would this sense appear to be so
+powerful, as in some measure to regulate our other perceptions of beauty.
+
+It is fitness which leads us to admire in one animal, what would displease
+us if found in another. "The variety," says Barry, "and union of parts,
+which we call beautiful in a greyhound, are pleasing in consequence of the
+idea of agility which they convey. In other animals, less agility is
+united with more strength; and, indeed, all the different arrangements
+please because they indicate either different qualities, different degrees
+of qualities, or the different combinations of them."
+
+In relation to the various fitness of the human body, the same writer
+says: "We should not increase the beauty of the female bosom, by the
+addition of another protuberance; and the exquisite undulating transitions
+from the convex to the concave tendencies, could not be multiplied with
+any success. In fine, our rule for judging of the mode and degree of this
+combination of variety and unity, seems to be no other than that of its
+fitness and conformity to the designation of each species."
+
+But it is less necessary for me to adduce authorities in support of this
+truth, than to answer the objections that have been made to it by some of
+the ablest writers on the subject--objections which have generally their
+origin in the narrow views which these men have taken, and in those
+partial hypotheses which, even when true, led them to reject all other
+truth.
+
+"It is said," observes Burke, "that the idea of a part's being well
+adapted to answer its end, is one cause of beauty, or indeed beauty
+itself.... In framing this theory, I am apprehensive that experience was
+not sufficiently consulted. For, on that principle, the wedgelike snout of
+a swine with its tough cartilage at the end, the little sunk eyes, and
+the whole make of the head, so well adapted to its offices of digging and
+rooting, would be extremely beautiful."--And so they are, when the beauty
+of fitness for their purpose is considered; but that purpose being the
+mere growth and fattening of an animal of sensual and dirty habits, it is
+a fallacy to represent this, without explanation, as a fair proof of the
+absence of connexion between fitness and beauty.
+
+"If beauty in our species," says the same writer, "was annexed to use, men
+would be much more lovely than women; and strength and agility would be
+considered as the only beauties."--Burke was a stringer of fine words, not
+for woman, but for queens, when that served a selfish and venal purpose.
+The sentence just quoted shows that his gallantry was as ignorant as it
+was mean. He here asserts by implication that women are less useful than
+men, although it is to women that the care of the whole human race, during
+its most helpless years, is committed, and although they take upon
+themselves all that half of the duties of life which men are as little
+capable of performing, as women are of performing the portion suited to
+men.
+
+"And," says he, "I appeal to the first and most natural feelings of
+mankind, whether, on beholding a beautiful eye, or a well-fashioned mouth,
+or a well-turned leg, any ideas of their being well fitted for seeing,
+eating, or running, ever present themselves."--Is running, then, the
+proper use of the leg in woman! Rousseau more truly thought its use was
+to _fail_ in running, or _not_ to run! Is eating the only use of her
+mouth! This, too from the man who deplored that "the age of chivalry was
+gone!"--Nevertheless, I will venture to assert that such things never were
+and never will be seen, without suggesting ideas of fitness of some kind
+or other.
+
+"There is," he proceeds, "another notion current, pretty closely allied to
+the former; that perfection is the constituent cause of beauty. This
+opinion has been made to extend much farther than to sensible objects. But
+in these, so far is perfection, considered as such, from being the cause
+of beauty, that this quality, where it is highest in the female sex,
+almost always carries with it an idea of weakness and imperfection."--For
+this plain reason, that female perfection is utterly incompatible with
+great muscular perfection or strength, which would indeed be injurious to
+the performance of every feminine function.
+
+We may now advance another step in the subject under discussion. What,
+then, are the peculiar physical characters of beings thus possessing sense
+and motion, and thus characterized by fitness?
+
+"It must be remembered," says Knight, "that irregularity is the general
+characteristic of trees, and regularity that of animals."--It would have
+been more correct to say that symmetry is this peculiar characteristic.
+There is little resemblance between the parts of one side; and it is
+symmetry which results from the uniform disposition of double parts, and
+from the regular division of single ones.
+
+Hence an agreeable impression is produced by the corresponding disposition
+and the exact resemblance of the eyes, of the eyebrows, of the ears, of
+the hemispheres of the bosom, and of the different parts of which the
+limbs are composed; and the forehead, the nose, the mouth, the abdomen,
+the back, are agreeably distinguished by means of the median line which
+divides them.
+
+It appears that the eye is pleased by the exactness of corresponding
+parts; and that symmetry is the first character of beauty in thinking
+beings.
+
+Occasional irregularity makes us better appreciate the importance of
+symmetry. The oblique direction of the eyes, squinting, twisting of the
+nose or lips, unequal magnitude of the hemispheres of the bosom, or
+unequal length of the limbs, disfigure the most beautiful person.
+
+But how does symmetry contribute to fitness, or why is it necessary?
+
+"All our limbs and organs," says Payne Knight, "serve us in pairs, and by
+mutual co-operation with each other: whence the habitual association of
+ideas has taught us to consider this uniformity as indispensable to the
+beauty and perfection of the animal form. There is no reason to be deduced
+from any abstract consideration of the nature of things, why an animal
+should be more ugly and disgusting for having only one eye, or one ear,
+than for having only one nose or one mouth; yet if we were to meet with a
+beast with one eye, or two noses, or two mouths, in any part of the world,
+we should, without inquiry, decide it to be a monster, and turn from it
+with abhorrence: neither is there any reason, in the nature of things, why
+a strict parity, or relative equality, in the correspondent limbs and
+features of a man or a horse, should be absolutely essential to beauty,
+and absolutely destructive of it in the roots and branches of a tree. But,
+nevertheless, the Creator having formed the one regular, and the other
+irregular, we habitually associate ideas of regularity to the perfection
+of one, and ideas of irregularity to the perfection of the other; and this
+habit has been so unvaried, as to have become natural."
+
+This is the common cant of every weak man at loss for a reason. Now, it is
+not by any "habitual association" with "our limbs and organs serving us in
+pairs," that we are "taught to consider this uniformity indispensable to
+beauty," but because, independent of all association, we could not
+conveniently walk upon one leg, or, indeed, on any unequal number of legs:
+and there being two sides in the moving organs, there are necessarily two
+in the sensitive organs, which are mere portions of the same general
+system. Thus it is locomotion to be performed that renders "a strict
+parity, or relative equality, in the correspondent limbs and features of a
+man or a horse" absolutely essential to beauty; and it is the absence of
+locomotion which renders it utterly worthless, and therefore very rare, in
+"the roots and branches of a tree."
+
+In animals, proportion is not less essential than symmetry. It is indeed
+the second character of this kind of beauty. As this part of the subject
+has been perfectly well treated by Mr. Alison, I need only quote what he
+has said:--
+
+"It is this expression of fitness which is, I apprehend, the source of the
+beauty of what is strictly and properly called proportion in the parts of
+the human form.
+
+"We expect a different form, and a different conformation of limbs, in a
+running footman and a waterman, in a wrestler and a racing groom, in a
+shepherd and a sailor, &c.
+
+"They who are conversant in the productions of the fine arts, must have
+equally observed, that the forms and proportions of features, which the
+sculptor and the painter have given to their works, are very different,
+according to the nature of the character they represent, and the emotion
+they wish to excite. The form or proportions of the features of Jove are
+different from those of Hercules; those of Apollo, from those of Ganymede;
+those of the Fawn, from those of the Gladiator. In female beauty, the form
+and proportions in the features of Juno are very different from those of
+Venus; those of Minerva, from those of Diana; those of Niobe, from those
+of the Graces. All, however, are beautiful; because all are adapted with
+exquisite taste to the characters they wish the countenance to express."
+
+In "the Hercules and the Antinous, the Jupiter and the Apollo, we find
+that not only the proportions of the form, but those of every limb, are
+different; and that the pleasure we feel in these proportions arises from
+their exquisite fitness for the physical ends which the artists were
+consulting.
+
+"The illustration, however, may be made still more precise; for, even in
+the same countenance, and in the same hour, the same form of feature may
+be beautiful or otherwise."
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+ELEMENTS OF BEAUTY AS EMPLOYED IN OBJECTS OF ART.
+
+I divide the arts into the useful, the ornamental, and the intellectual,
+commonly called the fine arts; and I shall endeavor to show, that the
+objects of each of these are characterized by a peculiar kind of beauty,
+corresponding to one of those already described.
+
+I shall endeavor to show that the objects of the useful arts are
+characterized by the simple geometrical forms which belong to inanimate
+beings; that those of the ornamental arts are characterized by the
+delicate, bending, varied, and contrasted forms of living beings; and that
+those of the intellectual arts are, in their highest efforts,
+characterized chiefly by thinking forms, as in gesture, sculpture,
+painting, or by functions of mind actually exercised, in oratory, poetry,
+music.
+
+In all these arts, purpose is implied--not purpose in the hypothetical
+sense, as applied to the existence, conditions, and objects, of natural
+beings--but in the common intelligible sense of the word, as expressing
+the intention of men in the pursuit of these arts.
+
+
+_Beauty of Useful Objects._
+
+Here the purpose being utility, this kind of beauty arises from the
+perception of means as adapted to an end, which of course implies, the
+parts of anything being fitted to answer the purpose of the whole.
+
+This implies an act of understanding and judgment; for of no product of
+useful art can we perceive the extrinsic beauty, until we know its
+destination, and the relations which that involves.
+
+When these are known, so powerful is the sense of utility, that, though
+deviation from the elementary beauty never ceases to be felt, yet that
+sense sanctions it to a great extent. Hence it is that an irregular
+dwelling-house may become beautiful, when its convenience is striking.
+Hence it is that, in the forms of furniture, machines, and instruments,
+their beauty arises chiefly from this consideration; and that every form
+becomes beautiful by association, where it is perfectly adapted to its
+end.
+
+The greater, however, the elementary beauty, that can be introduced in
+useful objects, the more obvious will their utility be, and the more
+beautiful will they universally appear. This will be granted the moment I
+mention simplicity.
+
+Of all the elements of beauty already spoken of--of all the means of
+producing accordant and agreeable relations--simplicity appears to be the
+most efficient; and in all the useful arts, no elementary consideration
+recommends their objects so much.
+
+This implies all the rest, regularity, uniformity, proportion, order, &c.,
+as far as is compatible with purpose.
+
+Thus, in regard to uniformity, says some one, a number of things destined
+for the same purpose, as chairs, spoons, &c., cannot be too uniform,
+because they are adapted to uniform purposes; but it would be absurd to
+give to objects destined for one purpose the form suited to those destined
+for another.
+
+So also the objects of useful art will resemble in form precisely as they
+resemble in purpose; and where the purpose is similar, and the deviation
+which is admissible is slight, this becomes a subject of great nicety,
+and, if ornament be at the same time admissible, a subject of exquisite
+taste.
+
+It was by the transcendent exercise of these qualities, that the Greeks
+succeeded in fixing the orders of architecture. The most beautiful columns
+would have shocked the sight, if their mass had not corresponded to that
+of the edifice which they sustained; and the difference which existed in
+this respect, required a difference of ornament.
+
+Home indeed observes, that "writers on architecture insist much upon the
+proportions of a column, and assign different proportions to the Doric,
+Ionic, and Corinthian; but no architect will maintain, that the most
+accurate proportions contribute more to use, than several that are less
+accurate and less agreeable."
+
+That such a man should have committed such an error is surprising. It
+seems evident that the different proportion in the columns of these orders
+is admirably suited to the different quantity of matter in their
+entablatures. A greater superincumbent mass, required shorter and thicker
+columns; a less superincumbent mass, longer and slender ones. Many
+experiments, much observation, were requisite to determine this; but the
+Greeks had the means of making them, and solved every problem on the
+subject; and the result of the perfection they attained is, that all err
+who depart from the truth they have determined.
+
+It was, again, the differing quantities of matter in the entablatures, and
+the accurately-corresponding dimensions of the columns that determined, of
+course amid infinite experiment and observation, the nature of their
+ornaments. Hence, the Doric is distinguished by simplicity; the Ionic by
+elegance; and the Corinthian by lightness, in ornament as well as in
+proportion.
+
+Even, therefore, if we were to destroy all the associations of elegance,
+of magnificence, of costliness, and, still more than all, of antiquity,
+which are so strongly connected with such forms, the pleasure which their
+proportions would afford, would remain, as in all cases where means are
+best adapted to their end.
+
+In his objections to proportion as an element of beauty, Burke only
+confounds this kind of beauty with that which I have next to describe.
+
+"The effects of proportion and fitness," he says, "at least so far as they
+proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produce approbation,
+the acquiescence of the understanding, but not love, nor any passion of
+that species. When we examine the structure of a watch, when we come to
+know thoroughly the use of every part of it, satisfied as we are with the
+fitness of the whole, we are far enough from perceiving anything like
+beauty in the watchwork itself; but let us look on the case, the labor of
+some curious artist in engraving, with little or no idea of use, we shall
+have a much livelier idea of beauty than we ever could have had from the
+watch itself, though the masterpiece of Graham."
+
+It is an emotion of pleasure which is the inevitable result of the
+perception of beauty, not love, nor any passion of the kind. These will or
+will not follow, according to the nature of the object, and of the mind of
+the observer. A hill, a valley, or a rivulet, may be beautiful, and it
+will excite an emotion of pleasure when its beauty is discerned; but it
+may produce no desire or passion of love. There may exist, then, the
+beauty of utility, as to the structure of the watch, and that of ornament
+as to its case; and some minds will more readily perceive the one; others,
+the other.
+
+When Burke adds, "In beauty, the effect is previous to any knowledge of
+the use; but to judge of proportion, we must know the end for which any
+work is designed;" he forgets, that, in the instance of the barber's
+block, &c., he showed that the perception of beauty, as well as
+proportion, required observation, experience, and reflection.
+
+
+_Beauty of Ornamental Objects._
+
+There are three great arts which, under circumstances of high
+civilization, become ornamental, namely, landscape-gardening,
+architecture, and dress--the particular arts by which our persons are more
+or less closely invested;[14] and all of them, then, require beauty of the
+second kind, that which belongs particularly to vegetable beings, and is
+characterized by delicate, bending varied, and contrasted forms.
+
+All these, regarded as ornamental arts, have chiefly bodily and sensual
+pleasures for their purpose; and this I consider as distinguishing them
+from the intellectual arts, which have a higher purpose.
+
+Of landscape-gardening, the materials are plants, and therefore its beauty
+is evidently dependant on, or rather composed of, theirs.
+
+The same kind of beauty will be found in every ornamental art. Hence,
+Alison says: "The greater part of beautiful forms in nature, are to be
+found in the vegetable kingdom, in the forms of flowers, of foliage, of
+shrubs, and in those assumed by the young shoots of trees. It is from
+them, accordingly, that almost all those forms have been imitated, which
+have been employed by artists for the purposes of ornament and elegance."
+
+On this kind of beauty, mistaking it for the only one, Hogarth founded his
+peculiar doctrine. "He adopts two lines, on which, according to him, the
+beauty of figure principally depends. One is the waving line, or a curve
+bending gently in opposite directions. This he calls the line of beauty;
+and he shows how often it is found in flowers, shells, and various works
+of nature; while it is common also in the figures designed by painters and
+sculptors, for the purpose of decoration. The other line, which he calls
+the line of grace, is the former waving line, twisted round some solid
+body. Twisted pillars and twisted horns exhibit it. In all the instances
+which he mentions, variety plainly appears to be so important an element
+of this kind of beauty, that he states a portion of the truth, when he
+defines the art of drawing pleasing forms to be the art of varying well;
+for the curve line, so much the favorite of painters, derives much of its
+beauty from its perpetual bending and variation from the stiff regularity
+of the straight line." It is evident, however, that in this, he mistakes
+one kind of beauty for all.
+
+Of architecture, considered as a fine art, much of the beauty depends on
+the imitation of vegetable forms. Employing materials which require the
+best characteristics of the first kind of beauty, it, in its choicest and
+ornamented parts, imitates both the rigid trunks, and the delicate and
+bending forms of plants. Its columns, tapering upward, are copied from the
+trunks of trees; and their decorations are suited with consummate art to
+their dimensions, and the weight they support. The simple Doric has little
+ornament; the elegant Ionic has more; the light Corinthian has most.
+
+On the subject of these finely-calculated ornaments, some observations
+have struck me, which I have not seen mentioned elsewhere. The Doric
+presents only columns, without any other ornament than that of which their
+mere form admits. The Ionic expresses increased lightness, by the
+interposition of its volute, as if the superincumbent weight had but
+gently pressed a soft solid into a scroll. The Corinthian expresses the
+utmost lightness, by forming its capitals of foliage, as if the weight
+above them could not crush even a leaf. The Composite expresses gayety, by
+adding flowers to the foliage. It is from imperfect views of this, that
+the meaning and effect of caryatides have been mistaken: instead of being
+oppressed by weight, they seem, when well employed, to have no weight to
+support.
+
+In nearly all internal architectural decorations, it is the delicate,
+bending, varied, and contrasted vegetable forms which are imitated.
+
+"There is scarce a room, in any house whatever," says Hogarth, "where one
+does not see the waving line employed in some way or other. How inelegant
+would the shapes of all our moveables be without it? how very plain and
+unornamental the mouldings of cornices and chimney-pieces, without the
+variety introduced by the ogee member, which is entirely composed of
+waving lines."
+
+The distinctions I have here made, are farther illustrated by the remarks
+of Alison, who says: "These ornaments being executed in a very hard and
+durable substance, are in fact only beautiful when they appear but as
+minute parts of the whole. The great constituent parts of every building
+require direct and angular lines, because in such parts we require the
+expression of stability and strength. It is only in the minute and
+delicate parts of the work, that any kind of ornament is attempted with
+propriety; and whenever ornaments exceed in size, in their quantity of
+matter, or in the prominence of their relief, that proportion which, in
+point of lightness or delicacy, we expect them to hold with respect to the
+whole of the building, the imitation of the most beautiful vegetable forms
+does not preserve them from the censure of clumsiness and deformity."
+
+In dress, considered as an ornamental art, and, as practised by the sex
+which chiefly studies it, the chief beauty depends on the adoption of
+winding forms in drapery, and of wreaths of flowers for the head, &c.
+These are essential to the variety and contrast, as well as to the gayety
+which that sex desires.
+
+"Uniformity," says Hogarth, "is chiefly complied with in dress, on account
+of fitness, and seems to be extended not much farther than dressing both
+arms alike, and having the shoes of the same color. For when any part of
+dress has not the excuse of fitness or propriety for its uniformity of
+parts, the ladies always call it formal."
+
+These irregular, varying, and somewhat complicated draperies excite that
+active curiosity, and those movements of imagination, to which skilful
+women never neglect to address themselves in modern costume.
+
+It is with the same feeling and intention, whether these be defined or
+not, that, in the head-dress, they seek for bending lines and
+circumvolutions, and that they combine variously the waves and the tresses
+of the hair.
+
+For the same reason, a feather or a flower is never placed precisely over
+the middle of the forehead; and if two are employed, great care is taken
+that their positions are dissimilar.
+
+It has sometimes struck me as remarkable, that precious stones are almost
+always arranged differently from flowers. While the latter are placed
+irregularly, and in waving lines, not only on the head, but the bosom, and
+the skirt of the dress, the former are in general regularly placed, either
+on the median line of the person, as the middle of the forehead and, in
+Eastern countries, of the nose, or symmetrically in similar pendants from
+each ear, and bracelets on the arms and wrists.
+
+The instinctive feeling which gives origin to this is, that flowers adorn
+the system of life and reproduction, and by their color and smell,
+associate with its emotions, which they also express and communicate to
+others--they, therefore, assume the varied forms of that system; whereas,
+diamonds, attached generally to mental organs, or organs of sense, are
+significant of mental feelings, love of splendor, distinction, pride,
+&c.--they, therefore, assume the symmetrical form of these organs. Hence,
+too, flowers are recommended to the young; diamonds are permitted only to
+the old.
+
+
+_Beauty of Intellectual Objects._
+
+I have already said, that the intellectual arts are, in their highest
+efforts, characterized chiefly by animal forms, as in gesture, sculpture,
+and painting, or by animal functions actually exercised, in oratory,
+poetry, and music.
+
+In the useful arts, the purpose is utility; in the ornamental arts, it is
+bodily or sensual pleasure; and in the intellectual arts, it is the
+pleasure of imagination.
+
+The first elements of beauty, however, are not forgotten in these arts. As
+simplicity is conspicuous in the works of nature, so is it a condition of
+beauty in all the operations of mind. In philosophy, general theorems
+become beautiful from this simplicity; and polished manners receive from
+it dignity and grace. The intellectual arts are especially dependant upon
+it: it has been a striking character of their most illustrious
+cultivators, and of their very highest efforts.
+
+How much the characters and accidents of elementary beauty influence
+intellectual art, has been well shown by Mr. Knight.
+
+"In the higher class of landscapes," he says, "whether in nature or in
+art, the mere sensual gratification of the eye is comparatively so small,
+as scarcely to be attended to: but yet, if there occur a single spot,
+either in the scene or the picture, offensively harsh and glaring--if the
+landscape-gardener, in the one, or the picture-cleaner, in the other, have
+exerted their unhappy talents of polishing, all the magic instantly
+vanishes, and the imagination avenges the injury offered to the sense. The
+glaring and unharmonious spot, being the most prominent and obtrusive,
+irresistibly attracts the attention, so as to interrupt the repose of the
+whole, and leaves the mind no place to rest upon."
+
+"It is, in some respects," he observes, "the same with the sense of
+hearing. The mere sensual gratification, arising from the melody of an
+actor's voice, is a very small part, indeed, of the pleasure which we
+receive from the representation of a fine drama: but, nevertheless, if a
+single note of the voice be absolutely cracked and out of tune, so as to
+offend and disgust the ear, it will completely destroy the effect of the
+most skilful acting, and render all the sublimity and pathos of the finest
+tragedy ludicrous."
+
+This, I may observe, is a concession of much that he elsewhere
+inconsistently contends for; for sensual beauty could never act thus
+powerfully, if it possessed not fundamental importance as an element even
+in the most complex beauty.
+
+That the second kind of beauty also enters into the acts or products of
+intellectual beauty, is sufficiently illustrated by the observation of
+Hogarth, who on this subject observes, that all the common and necessary
+motions for the business of life are performed by men in straight or plain
+lines, while all the graceful and ornamental movements are made in waving
+lines.
+
+As Alison has given the best view of the history and character of beauty
+in the intellectual arts, as that indeed constitutes the most valuable
+portion of his work, I shall conclude this section by a greatly abridged
+view of these as nearly as possible in his own words.
+
+There is no production of taste, which has not many qualities of a very
+indifferent kind; and our sense of the beauty or sublimity of every object
+accordingly depends upon the quality or qualities of it which we consider.
+
+This, Mr. Alison might have observed, is in great measure dependant upon
+our will. We can generally, when we please, confine our consideration of
+it to the qualities that least excite pleasurable or painful emotion, and
+that can least interest the imagination.
+
+It is in consequence of this, that the exercise of criticism always
+destroys, for the time, our sensibility to the beauty of every
+composition, and that habits of this kind generally destroy the
+sensibility of taste.
+
+When, on the other hand, the emotions of sublimity or beauty are produced,
+it will be found that some affection is uniformly first excited by the
+presence of the object; and whether the general impression we receive is
+that of gayety, or tenderness, or melancholy, or solemnity, or terror,
+&c., we have never any difficulty of determining.
+
+But whatever may be the nature of that simple emotion which any object is
+fitted to excite, if it produce not a train of kindred thought in our
+minds, we are conscious only of that simple emotion.
+
+In many cases, on the contrary, we are conscious of a train of thought
+being immediately awakened in the imagination, analogous to the character
+of expression of the original object.
+
+"Thus, when we feel either the beauty or sublimity of natural scenery--the
+gay lustre of a morning in spring, or the mild radiance of a
+summer-evening--the savage majesty of a wintry storm, or the wild
+magnificence of the tempestuous ocean--we are conscious of a variety of
+images in our minds, very different from those which the objects
+themselves present to the eye. Trains of pleasing or of solemn thought
+arise spontaneously within our minds; our hearts swell with emotions, of
+which the objects before us seem to afford no adequate cause; and we are
+never so much satiated with delight, as when, in recalling our attention,
+we are unable (little able, perhaps, and less disposed) to trace either
+the progress or the connexion of those thoughts, which have passed with so
+much rapidity through our imagination.
+
+"The effect of the different arts of taste is similar. The landscapes of
+Claude Lorraine, the poetry of Milton, the music of the greatest masters,
+excite feeble emotions in our minds when our attention is confined to the
+qualities they present to our senses, or when it is to such qualities of
+their composition that we turn our regard. It is then only we feel the
+sublimity or beauty of their productions, when our imaginations are
+kindled by their power, when we lose ourselves amid the number of images
+that pass before our minds, and when we waken at last from this play of
+fancy, as from the charm of a romantic dream.
+
+"The degree in which the emotions of sublimity or beauty are felt, is in
+general proportioned to the prevalence of those relations of thought in
+the mind, upon which this exercise of imagination depends. The principal
+relation which seems to take place in those trains of thought that are
+produced by objects of taste, is that of resemblance; the relation, of all
+others the most loose and general, and which affords the greatest range of
+thought for our imagination to pursue. Wherever, accordingly, these
+emotions are felt, it will be found, not only that this is the relation
+which principally prevails among our ideas, but that the emotion itself is
+proportioned to the degree in which it prevails.
+
+"What, for instance, is the impression we feel from the scenery of spring?
+The soft and gentle green with which the earth is spread, the feeble
+texture of the plants and flowers, the young of animals just entering into
+life, and the remains of winter yet lingering among the woods and
+hills--all conspire to infuse into our minds somewhat of that fearful
+tenderness with which infancy is usually beheld. With such a sentiment,
+how innumerable are the ideas which present themselves to our
+imagination! ideas, it is apparent, by no means confined to the scene
+before our eyes, or to the possible desolation which may yet await its
+infant beauty, but which almost involuntarily extend themselves to
+analogies with the life of man, and bring before us all those images of
+hope or fear, which, according to our peculiar situations, have the
+dominion of our heart!--The beauty of autumn is accompanied with a similar
+exercise of thought.
+
+"Whatever increases this exercise or employment of imagination, increases
+also the emotion of beauty or sublimity.
+
+"This is very obviously the effect of all associations. There is no man
+who has not some interesting associations with particular scenes, or airs,
+or books, and who does not feel their beauty or sublimity enhanced to him
+by such connexions. The view of the house where one was born, of the
+school where one was educated, and where the gay years of infancy were
+passed, is indifferent to no man.
+
+"In the case of those trains of thought, which are suggested by objects
+either of sublimity or beauty, it will be found, that they are in all
+cases composed of ideas capable of exciting some affection or emotion; and
+that not only the whole succession is accompanied with that peculiar
+emotion which we call the emotion of beauty or sublimity, but that every
+individual idea of such a succession is in itself productive of some
+simple emotion or other.
+
+"Thus the ideas suggested by the scenery of spring, are ideas productive
+of emotions of cheer fulness, of gladness, and of tenderness. The images
+suggested by the prospect of ruins, are images belonging to pity, to
+melancholy, and to admiration. The ideas, in the same manner, awakened by
+the view of the ocean in a storm, are ideas of power, of majesty, and of
+terror."
+
+To prevent circumlocution, such ideas may be termed ideas of emotion; and
+the effect which is produced upon the mind, by objects of taste, may be
+considered as consisting in the production of a regular or consistent
+train of ideas of emotion.
+
+"In those trains which are suggested by objects of sublimity or beauty,
+however slight the connexion between individual thoughts may be, it will
+be found, that there is always some general principle of connexion which
+pervades the whole, and gives them some certain definite character. They
+are either gay, or pathetic, or melancholy, or solemn, or awful, or
+elevating, &c., according to the nature of the emotion which is first
+excited. Thus the prospect of a serene evening in summer, produces first
+an emotion of peacefulness and tranquillity, and then suggests a variety
+of images corresponding to this primary impression. The sight of a
+torrent, or of a storm, in the same manner, impresses us first with
+sentiments of awe or solemnity, or terror, and then awakens in our minds a
+series of conceptions allied to this peculiar emotion."
+
+The intellectual, or fine arts are those whose objects are thus addressed
+to the imagination; and the pleasures they afford are described, by way of
+distinction, as the pleasures of the imagination.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THIS CHAPTER.
+
+Thus, by analysis, generalization, and systematization, of the materials
+which the best writers present, I have, in this chapter, endeavored to
+take new and larger views; and, by an examination of the elements of
+beauty, I have endeavored to fix its doctrines upon an immoveable basis.
+
+I have shown that there exist elements of beauty equally invariable in
+themselves, and in the kind of effect they produce upon the mind; that
+these elements are modified, varied, and complicated, as we advance from
+the most simple to the most complex class of natural beings, or of the
+arts which relate to these respectively; that the elements of beauty in
+inanimate beings, consist in the simplicity, regularity, uniformity,
+proportion, order, &c., of those geometrical forms which are so intimately
+connected with mere existence; that the elements of beauty in living
+beings, consist in adding to the preceding the delicacy, bending, variety,
+contrast, &c., which are connected with growth, and reproduction; that the
+elements of beauty in thinking beings, consist in adding to the preceding
+the symmetry, proportion,[15] &c., which are connected with fitness for
+sense, thought, and motion; that the elements of beauty in the objects of
+useful art, consist in the same simplicity, regularity, uniformity,
+proportion, order, of geometrical forms which belong to inanimate beings;
+that the elements of beauty in the objects of ornamental art consist in
+the same delicacy, bending, variety, contrast, which belong to living
+beings; and that the elements of beauty in the objects of intellectual art
+consist in thinking forms, in gesture, sculpture, and painting, or in
+functions of mind actually exercised, in oratory, poetry, and music.
+
+The elements of beauty have hitherto been confounded by many writers, as
+more or less applicable to objects of all kinds; and as this general and
+confused application was easily disproved as to many objects, uncertainty
+and doubt have been thrown over the whole. The remaining writers have
+consequently been led to adopt, as characters of beauty, only one or two
+of these elements, which were consequently capable of application only to
+one or two classes of its objects. Hence, no subject of human inquiry has
+hitherto been left in a more disgraceful condition than this, the very
+foundation of taste.
+
+I do not hesitate to state that, owing to the near approximations to
+truth, and the insensible transitions into error, which I have found in
+every writer, and the immense mass of confused materials which they
+present, this subject has cost me more trouble than any one I have ever
+investigated, except that of my work on the mind;[16] nor without some
+physiological knowledge, do I think tasks of this kind at all practicable.
+Generally speaking, each branch of knowledge is most surely advanced by
+acquaintance with its related branches; and philosophers cannot too much
+bear in mind the words of Cicero: "Etenim omnes artes quae ad humanitatem
+pertinent, habent quoddam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione quadam
+inter se continentur."
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+NATURE OF THE PICTURESQUE.[17]
+
+In landscape, the nature of the beautiful and the sublime seems to be
+better understood than that of the picturesque. There are few disputes as
+to the former; many as to the latter. These disputes, moreover, are not as
+to _what is picturesque_, but as to _what picturesque is_.
+
+Payne Knight asserts, that the picturesque has no distinctive character,
+and merely designates what a painter would imitate. Price, on the
+contrary, has given so many admirable illustrations of it, that its
+characteristics are before every reader. Strange to tell, its nature or
+essence has not been penetrated, because these characteristics have not
+been rigidly analyzed.
+
+Price has, indeed, generalized considerably on this subject, by showing
+that irregularity, roughness, &c., enter into all scenes of a picturesque
+description; and the examination of any one of them will certainly verify
+the truth of his observation.
+
+Thus, on a remote country-road, we often observe the deep ruts on its
+surface which in winter would render it impassable--the huge and loose
+moss-grown stone, ready to encumber it by falling from the bank--the
+stunted pollard by its side, whose roots are exposed by the earth falling
+away from it, and which must itself be swept away by the first wind that
+may blow against it in an unfavorable direction--the almost ruined
+cottage, above and beyond these, whose gable is propped up by an old and
+broken wheel, and whose thatched roof, stained with every hue of moss or
+lichen, has, at one part, long fallen in--the shaggy and ragged horse that
+browses among the rank weeds around it--and the old man, bent with age,
+who leans over the broken gate in front of it.
+
+Here, in every circumstance, is verified the irregularity and roughness
+which Price ascribes to the picturesque. But he has failed to observe,
+that _the irregularity and roughness are but the signs of that which
+interests the mind far more deeply_, namely, the universal DECAY which
+causes them. This is the essence of the picturesque--the charm in it which
+begets our sympathy.
+
+Confining his remark merely to ruins, the author of "Observations on
+Gardening," says: "At the sight of a ruin, reflections on the change, the
+decay, and the desolation, before us naturally occur; and they introduce a
+long succession of others, all tinctured with that melancholy which these
+have inspired; or if the monument revive the memory of former times, we do
+not stop at the simple fact which it records, but recollect many more
+coeval circumstances which we see, nor perhaps as they were, but as they
+are come down to us, venerable with age, and magnified by fame."--What is
+here said of ruins, and is indeed as to them sufficiently striking, is
+true of the picturesque universally, and it is only surprising that, amid
+such disputes, this simple and obvious truth should not have been
+observed.
+
+In landscape, therefore, the picturesque stands in the same relation to
+the beautiful and sublime, that the pathetic does to them in poetry.
+Hence, speaking also of ruins only, Alison says: "The images suggested by
+the prospect of ruins, are images belonging to pity, to melancholy, and to
+admiration."
+
+A thousand illustrations might be given in support of this truth and the
+principle which it affords; but I think it better to leave these to the
+suggestion or the choice of every reader.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+CAUSE OF LAUGHTER.
+
+This has been partly explained by Beattie, partly by Hobbes; and it is
+chiefly to vindicate the latter, who knew much more of the human mind than
+the people who have attacked him, that I write the pages immediately
+following.
+
+Speaking of the quality in things, which makes them provoke the pleasing
+emotion or sentiment of which laughter is the external sign, Beattie says:
+"It is an uncommon mixture of relation and contrariety, exhibited, or
+supposed to be united, in the same assemblage." And elsewhere he says:
+"Laughter arises from the view of two or more inconsistent, unsuitable, or
+incongruous parts or circumstances, considered as united in one complex
+object or assemblage, or as acquiring a sort of mutual relation from the
+peculiar manner in which the mind takes notice of them."
+
+"The latter may arise from contiguity, from the relation of cause and
+effect, from unexpected likeness, from dignity and meanness, from
+absurdity, &c.
+
+"Thus, at first view, the dawn of the morning and a boiled lobster seem
+utterly incongruous, but when a change of color from black to red is
+suggested, we recognise a likeness, and consequently a relation, or ground
+of comparison.
+
+"And here let it be observed, that the greater the number of incongruities
+that are blended in the same assemblage, the more ludicrous it will
+probably be. If, as in the last example, there be an opposition of dignity
+and meanness, as well as of likeness and dissimilitude, the effect of the
+contrast will be more powerful, than if only one of these oppositions had
+appeared in the ludicrous idea."
+
+The first part of the subject seems, indeed, so clear as to admit of no
+objection.
+
+Hobbes, viewing more particularly the act of the mind, defines laughter to
+be a "sudden glory, arising from a sudden conception of some eminency in
+ourselves, by comparison with the infirmity of others, or with our own
+formerly." And elsewhere he says: "Men laugh at jests, the wit whereof
+always consisteth in the elegant discovering and conveying to our minds,
+some absurdity of another."[18]
+
+Dr. Campbell objects that "contempt may be raised in a very high degree,
+both suddenly and unexpectedly, without producing the least tendency to
+laugh." But if there exist that incongruity in the same assemblage
+described as the fundamental cause of this sudden conception of our own
+superiority, laughter, as Beattie has shown, "will always, or for the most
+part, excite the risible emotion, unless when the perception of it is
+attended with some other emotion of greater authority," dependant on
+custom, politeness, &c.
+
+Dr. Campbell also observes, that "laughter may be, and is daily, produced
+by the perception of incongruous associations, when there is no contempt.
+
+"We often smile at a witty performance or passage, such as Butler's
+allusion to a boiled lobster, in his picture of the morning, when we are
+so far from conceiving any inferiority or turpitude in the author, that
+we greatly admire his genius, and wish ourselves possessed of that very
+turn of fancy which produced the drollery in question.
+
+"Many have laughed at the queerness of the comparison in these lines,
+
+  'For rhyme the rudder is of verses,
+  With which like ships they steer their courses,'
+
+who never dreamed that there was any person or party, practice or opinion,
+derided in them.
+
+"If any admirer of the Hobbesian philosophy should pretend to discover
+some class of men whom the poet here meant to ridicule, he ought to
+consider, that if any one hath been tickled with the passage to whom the
+same thought never occurred, that single instance would be sufficient to
+subvert the doctrine, as it would show that there may be laughter where
+there is no triumph or glorying over anybody, and, consequently, no
+conceit of one's own superiority.
+
+Now, the class of men laughed at in both cases is the same, namely, poets,
+whose lofty allusions are ridiculed by the former, and silly rhymes by the
+latter; nor can any one duly appreciate or be pleased with either, to whom
+this intention of the writer is not obvious. Who ever dreamed of
+"turpitude in the author," as Dr. Campbell supposes!
+
+"As to the wag," says Beattie, "who amuses himself on the first of April
+with telling lies, he must be shallow, indeed, if he hope, by so doing, to
+acquire any superiority over another man whom he knows to be wiser and
+better than himself; for, on these occasions, the greatness of the joke,
+and the loudness of the laugh, are, if I rightly remember, in exact
+proportion to the sagacity of the person imposed on."--No doubt; but it is
+because he is thrown into an apparent and whimsical, though momentary
+inferiority; and the greater his sagacity, the more amusing does this
+appear.
+
+"Do we not," says he, "sometimes laugh at fortuitous combinations, in
+which, as no mental energy is concerned in producing them, there cannot be
+either fault or turpitude? Could not one imagine a set of people jumbled
+together by accident, so as to present a laughable group to those who know
+their characters?"--Undoubtedly; but then the slouch of one, and the
+rigidity of the other, &c., make both contemptible, as to physical
+characteristics at least, and there is no need of turpitude in either.
+
+The strongest apparent objection, however, is that of Dr. Campbell, who
+says: "Indeed, men's telling their own blunders, even blunders recently
+committed, and laughing at them, a thing not uncommon in very risible
+dispositions, is utterly inexplicable upon Hobbes's system. For, to
+consider the thing only with regard to the laugher himself, there is to
+him no subject of glorying, that is not counterbalanced by an equal
+subject of humiliation (he being both the person laughing, and the person
+laughed at), and these two subjects must destroy one another."
+
+But he overlooks the precise terms employed by Hobbes, who says: "The
+passion of laughter is nothing else but sudden glory, arising from a
+sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves, by comparison with the
+infirmity of others, or with _our own formerly_. For men laugh at _the
+follies of themselves past_, when they come suddenly to remembrance,
+_except they bring with them any present dishonor_."
+
+It is not therefore true, as Dr. Campbell says, that "with regard to
+others, he appears solely under the notion of inferiority, as the person
+triumphed over." He, on the contrary, appears as achieving a very glorious
+triumph, that, namely, over his own errors.
+
+This shows also the error of Addison's remarks, that "according to this
+account, when we hear a man laugh excessively, instead of saying that he
+is very merry, we ought to tell him that he is very proud."--A man may
+contemn the errors both of himself and others, without pride: and, indeed,
+in contemning the former, he proves himself to be far above that
+sentiment, and verifies Dr. Campbell's remark that no two characters more
+rarely meet in the same person, than that of a very risible man, and a
+very self-conceited supercilious man.
+
+It is curious to see a great man, like Hobbes, thus attacked by less ones,
+who do not even understand him.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+CAUSE OF THE PLEASURE RECEIVED FROM REPRESENTATIONS EXCITING PITY.
+
+Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain this cause.
+
+According to the Abbe Du Bos,[19] in order to get rid of listlessness, the
+mind seeks for emotions; and the stronger these are the better. Hence, the
+passions which in themselves are the most distressing, are, for this
+purpose, preferable to the pleasant, because they most effectually relieve
+the mind from the less endurable languor which preys upon it during
+inaction.
+
+The sophistry of this explanation is evident. Pleasant passions, as Dr.
+Campbell has shown, ought in every respect to have the advantage, because,
+while they preserve the mind from this state of inaction, they convey a
+feeling which is agreeable. Nor is it true that the stronger the emotion
+is, so much the fitter for this purpose; for if we exceed a certain
+measure, instead of a sympathetic and delightful sorrow, we excite only
+horror and aversion. The most, therefore, that can be concluded from the
+Abbe's premises, is, that it is useful to excite passion of some kind or
+other, but not that the distressing ones are the fittest.
+
+According to Fontenelle,[20] theatrical representation has almost the
+effect of reality: but yet not altogether. We have still a certain idea of
+falsehood in the whole of what we see. We weep for the misfortunes of a
+hero to whom we are attached. In the same instant, we comfort ourselves by
+reflecting, that it is nothing but a fiction.
+
+The short answer to this is, that we are conscious of no such alternation
+as that here described.
+
+According to David Hume, whose hypothesis is a kind of supplement to the
+former two, that which "when the sorrow is not softened by fiction, raises
+a pleasure from the bosom of uneasiness, a pleasure which still retains
+all the features and outward symptoms of distress and sorrow, is that very
+eloquence with which the melancholy scene is represented."
+
+In reply, Dr. Campbell has shown that the aggravating of all the
+circumstances of misery in the representation, cannot make it be
+contemplated with pleasure, but must be the most effectual method for
+making it give greater pain; that the detection of the speaker's talents
+and address, which Hume's hypothesis implies, is in direct opposition to
+the fundamental maxim, that "it is essential to the art to conceal the
+art;" and that the supposition that there are two distinct effects
+produced by the eloquence on the hearers, one the sentiment of beauty, or
+of the harmony of oratorical numbers, the other the passion which the
+speaker purposes to raise in their minds, and that when the first
+predominates, the mixture of the two effects becomes exceedingly pleasant,
+and the reverse when the second is superior, is altogether imaginary.
+
+According to Hawkesworth,[21] the compassion in question may be "resolved
+into that power of imagination, by which we apply the misfortunes of
+others to ourselves;" and we are said "to pity no longer than we fancy
+ourselves to suffer, and to be pleased only by reflecting that our
+sufferings are not real; thus indulging a dream of distress, from which we
+can awake whenever we please, to exult in our security, and enjoy the
+comparison of the fiction with the truth."
+
+This hypothesis is evidently too gross to need reply.
+
+Dr. Campbell has answered the preceding hypotheses at great length, and
+quite satisfactorily. I regret to say that his own is as worthless, as
+well as remarkably confused and unintelligible.
+
+To Burke, who wrote at a later period, it falls to my lot to reply at
+greater length.
+
+"To examine this point concerning the effect of tragedy in a proper
+manner," says that writer, "we must previously consider how we are
+affected by the feelings of our fellow-creatures in circumstances of real
+distress. I am convinced we have a degree of delight, and that no small
+one, in the real misfortunes and pains of others; for, let the affection
+be what it will in appearance, if it does not make us shun such objects,
+if on the contrary it induces us to approach them, if it makes us dwell
+upon them, in this case I conceive we must have a delight or pleasure of
+some species or other in contemplating objects of this kind.... Our
+delight in cases of this kind is very greatly heightened, if the sufferer
+be some excellent person who sinks under an unworthy fortune.... The
+delight we have in such things hinders us from shunning scenes of misery;
+and the pains we feel, prompt us to relieve ourselves, in relieving those
+who suffer.... In imitated distress, the only difference is the pleasure
+resulting from the effects of imitation."
+
+A more monstrous doctrine than this was never perhaps enunciated. A very
+little analysis will expose its fallacy.
+
+In relation to events of this kind, there are three very distinct
+cases--real occurrence, subsequent inspection or historical narration, and
+dramatic representation; in each, the affection of the mind is very
+different; and nearly all the errors on this subject seem to have occurred
+from confounding them. Burke has done this in the greatest degree.
+
+The real occurrence of unmerited suffering is beheld with no delight, but
+with unmixed pain, by every well-constituted mind. Hume,[22] therefore,
+justly observes, that "the same object of distress, which pleases in a
+tragedy, were it really set before us, would give the most unfeigned
+uneasiness." It is only by confounding this with the next case, of
+subsequent inspection or historical narration, that Burke gets into error
+here.
+
+"We do not," says Burke, "sufficiently distinguish what we would by no
+means choose to do [or _to see done_--he should have added] from what we
+should be eager enough to see if it was once done. We delight in seeing
+things [_after they are done_--he should have added], which, so far from
+doing, our heartiest wishes would be to see redressed."
+
+That the additions I have made, more truly state the case, seems as
+evident, as it is, that they afford a very different conclusion from
+Burke's, of our beholding unmerited suffering with delight. But he himself
+proves this by the very instance which he gives in illustration of his
+doctrine.
+
+"This noble capital," he says, "the pride of England and of Europe, I
+believe _no man is so strangely wicked as to desire to see destroyed_ by a
+conflagration or an earthquake, though he should be removed himself to the
+greatest distance from the danger. But _suppose such a fatal accident to
+have happened_, what numbers from all parts would crowd to behold the
+ruins, and among them many who would have been content never to have seen
+London in its glory!"
+
+Here the words which I have put in italics clearly show that I was right
+in the additions I suggested in his previous statement, and that he there
+confounded delight in seeing the infliction of unmerited suffering, with
+delight in seeing it after infliction, or of seeing it historically
+narrated; for, in this his illustration, it is the latter, and not the
+former, that he supposes--nay he now says "no man is so strangely wicked
+as to desire to see destroyed!" &c. Indeed, it is quite plain that,
+supposing an attempt made to destroy London, so far would every one be
+from being delighted to see it done, that he would eagerly prevent it.
+There is here, therefore, on the part of this writer, only his common and
+characteristic confusion of ideas.
+
+"Choose a day," he says, "on which to represent the most sublime and
+affecting tragedy we have; appoint the most favorite actors; spare no cost
+upon the scenes and decorations; unite the greatest efforts of poetry,
+painting, and music; and when you have collected your audience, just at
+the moment when their minds are erect with expectation, let it be reported
+that a state-criminal, of high rank, is on the point of being executed in
+the adjoining square; in a moment the emptiness of the theatre would
+demonstrate the comparative weakness of the imitative arts, and proclaim
+the triumph of the real sympathy."
+
+This presents only another instance of want of discrimination. If the
+"state-criminal, of high rank," were not a real criminal--if he were an
+unmerited sufferer, the place of execution, supposing his rescue
+impossible, would assuredly be fled from by every person of feeling and
+honor; as we read of in the public papers, lately, when a murder of that
+kind was perpetrating by some one of the base little jailor-princes of
+Germany. And we know that, in the case of legal perpetrations of that kind
+in England, even upon real criminals, none but the most degraded wretches
+go to witness such scenes.
+
+In tragic representation, then, we know that the suffering is not real,
+else should we fly. There have, indeed, in such cases, been instances of a
+sort of momentary deception, but it is only children, and very simple
+people, utter strangers to theatrical amusements, who are apt to be so
+deceived; and as their case always excites the surprise and laughter of
+every one, it clearly proves that others are under no sort of deception.
+
+Even Burke, notwithstanding his want of discrimination, and his monstrous
+hypothesis, says: "Imitated distress is never so perfect, but we can
+perceive it is imitation, and on that principle are somewhat pleased with
+it." And his case of desertion of the theatre, if it occur under any
+circumstances, illustrates this.
+
+Burke adds, indeed: "But then I imagine we shall be much _mistaken_ if we
+attribute any considerable part of our satisfaction in tragedy to the
+consideration that tragedy is _a deceit_, and its representations _no
+realities_. [We seek no satisfaction of the kind: we know it to be a
+deceit throughout!] The nearer it approaches the reality, and the farther
+it removes us from all idea of fiction, the more perfect is its power."
+
+The nearest possible _approach_ to reality, is only necessary to the
+success of fiction, to the pleasure of imagination. He himself has said:
+"Imitated distress is never so perfect, but we can perceive it is
+imitation!" Again, therefore, here is only Burke's characteristic
+confusion of ideas.
+
+My own doctrine on this subject is already obvious from the remarks made
+on others. _We never cease to know that tragic representation is a mere
+deception; our reason is never imposed upon; our imagination is alone
+engaged; we are perfectly conscious that it is so; and we have all the
+sensibility, fine feeling, and generosity of pity, as well as the
+satisfaction of being thereby raised wonderfully in our own esteem, at the
+small cost of three shillings!_
+
+It is not a little curious, that this should not have been evident to
+those who have written so much about it. Dr. Campbell, alone, has
+approached it. "So great," he says, "is the anomaly which sometimes
+displays itself in human characters, that it is not impossible to find
+persons who are quickly made to cry at seeing a tragedy, or reading a
+romance, which they know to be fictions, and yet are both inattentive and
+unfeeling in respect of the actual objects of compassion who live in their
+neighborhood, and are daily under their eye.... Men may be of a selfish,
+contracted, and even avaricious disposition, who are not what we should
+denominate hard-hearted, or unsusceptible of sympathetic feeling. Such
+will gladly enjoy the luxury of pity (as Hawkesworth terms it) when it
+nowise interferes with their more powerful passions; that is, when it
+comes unaccompanied with a demand upon their pockets."--This should have
+led him to the simple truth, and should have prevented his framing the
+most confused, unintelligible, and worthless hypothesis upon this
+subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES.
+
+
+To any inquiry respecting the beauty of woman, the replies are, in
+general, various, inconsistent, or contradictory. The assertion might,
+therefore, appear to be true, that, even under the same climate, beauty is
+not always the same.
+
+Our vague perceptions, however, and our vague expressions respecting
+beauty, will be found to be, in a great measure, owing to the inaccuracy
+of our mode of examining it, and, in some measure, to the imperfect
+nomenclature which we possess for describing it.
+
+Beauty, and even true taste, respecting it, are always the same; but, in
+the first place, we observe beauty partially and imperfectly; and in the
+second place, our actual preferences are dependant on our particular
+wants, and will be found to differ only because these wants differ in
+every individual, and even in the same individual at different periods of
+life.
+
+The laws regulating beauty in woman, and taste respecting it in man, have
+not been attempted to be explained, except in the worthless work alluded
+to in the advertisement. Yet nothing perhaps is more universally
+interesting.
+
+As, in this view, the kinds of beauty demand the first and chief
+attention, the following illustrations are necessary:--
+
+We observe a woman possessing one species of beauty:--Her face is
+generally oblong; her neck is rather long and tapering: her shoulders,
+without being angular, are sufficiently broad and definite; her bosom is
+of moderate dimensions; her waist, remarkable for fine proportion,
+resembles in some respects an inverted cone; her haunches are moderately
+expanded; her thighs, proportional; her arms, as well as her limbs, are
+rather long and tapering; her hands and feet are moderately small; her
+complexion is often rather dark; and her hair is frequently abundant,
+dark, and strong.--The whole figure is precise, striking, and brilliant.
+Yet, has she few or none of the qualities of the succeeding species.
+
+We observe, next, another species of beauty:--Her face is generally round;
+her eyes are generally of the softest azure; her neck is often rather
+short; her shoulders are softly rounded, and owe any breadth they may
+possess rather to the expanded chest, than to the size of the shoulders
+themselves; her bosom, in its luxuriance, seems laterally to protrude on
+the space occupied by the arms; her waist, though sufficiently marked, is,
+as it were, encroached on by the enbonpoint of all the contiguous parts;
+her haunches are greatly expanded; her thighs are large in proportion; but
+her limbs and arms, tapering and becoming delicate, terminate in feet and
+hands which, compared with the ample trunk, are peculiarly small; her
+complexion has the rose and lily so exquisitely blended, that we are
+surprised it should defy the usual operation of the elements; and she
+boasts a luxuriant profusion of soft and fine flaxen or auburn hair.--The
+whole figure is soft and voluptuous in the extreme. Yet has she not the
+almost measured proportions and the brilliant air of the preceding
+species; nor has she the qualities of the succeeding one.
+
+We observe, then, a beauty of a third species:--Her face is generally
+oval; her high and pale forehead announces the intellectuality of her
+character; her intensely expressive eye is full of sensibility; in her
+lower features, modesty and dignity are often united; she has not the
+expanded bosom, the general embonpoint, or the beautiful complexion, of
+the second species; and she boasts easy and graceful motion, rather than
+the elegant proportion of the first.--The whole figure is characterized by
+intellectuality and grace.
+
+Such are the three species of beauty of which all the rest are varieties.
+
+Now, as it is in general one only of these species which characterizes any
+one woman, and as each of these species is suited to the wants of, and is
+consequently agreeable to, a different individual, it is obvious why the
+common vague reports of the beauty of any woman are always so various,
+inconsistent, or contradictory.
+
+In the more accurate study of this subject, it is indispensable that the
+reader should understand the scientific principles on which the preceding
+brief analysis of female beauty, as reducible to three species, is
+founded.
+
+To attain this knowledge, and to acquire facility in the art of
+distinguishing and judging of beauty in woman, a little general knowledge
+of anatomy is absolutely essential. The writer begs, therefore, attention
+to the following sketch. It may not at first seem interesting to the
+general reader; but it is the sole basis of a scientific knowledge of
+female beauty; the study of it during one hour is sufficient to apprehend
+it in all its bearings; and it will obviate every future difficulty.
+
+In viewing the human organs in a general manner, a class of these organs
+at once obtrudes itself upon our notice, from its consisting of an
+apparatus of levers, from its performing motion from place to place or
+locomotion, and from these motions being of the most obvious kind.--A
+little more observation presents to us another class, which is
+distinguished from the preceding by its consisting of cylindrical tubes,
+by its transmitting and transmuting liquids, performing vascular action or
+nutrition, and by its motions being barely apparent.--Farther
+investigation discovers a third, which differs essentially from both
+these, in its consisting of nervous particles, in its transmitting
+impressions from external objects, performing nervous action or thought,
+and in that action being altogether invisible.
+
+Thus, each of these classes of organs is distinguished from another by the
+structure of its parts, by the purposes which it serves, and by the
+greater or less obviousness of its motions.
+
+The first consists of levers; the second, of cylindrical tubes; and the
+third, of nervous particles. The first performs motion from place to place
+or locomotion; the second transmits and transmutes liquids, performing
+vascular action or nutrition; and the third transmits impressions from
+external objects, performing nervous action or thought. The motion of the
+first is extremely obvious; that of the second is barely apparent; and
+that of the third is altogether invisible.
+
+Not one of them can be confounded with another: for, considering their
+purposes only, it is evident that that which performs locomotion, neither
+transmits liquids nor sensations; that which transmits liquids, neither
+performs locomotion nor is the means of sensibility; and that which is the
+means of sensibility, neither performs locomotion nor transmits liquids.
+
+Now, the organs employed in locomotion are the bones, ligaments, and
+muscles; those employed in transmitting liquids or in nutrition, are the
+absorbent, circulating, and secreting vessels; and those employed about
+sensations or in thought, are the organs of sense, cerebrum, and cerebel,
+with the nerves which connect them.
+
+The first class of organs may, therefore, be termed locomotive, or (from
+their very obvious action) mechanical; the second, vascular or nutritive,
+or (as even vegetables, from their possessing vessels, have life) they may
+be termed vital; and the third may be named nervous or thinking, or (as
+mind results from them) mental.
+
+The human body, then, consists of organs of three kinds. By the first
+kind, locomotive or mechanical action is effected; by the second,
+nutritive or vital action is maintained; and by the third, thinking or
+mental action is permitted.
+
+Anatomy is, therefore, divided into three parts, namely, that which
+considers the mechanical or locomotive organs; that which considers the
+nutritive or vital organs; and that which considers the thinking or mental
+organs.
+
+Under the mechanical or locomotive organs are classed, first, the bones or
+organs of support; second, the ligaments or organs of articulation; and
+third, the muscles or organs of motion.
+
+Under the nutritive or vital organs are classed, first, the absorbent
+vessels or organs of absorption; second, the bloodvessels, which derive
+their contents from the absorbed lymph, or organs of circulation; and
+third, the secreting vessels, which separate various matters from the
+blood, or organs of secretion.[23]
+
+Under the thinking or mental organs are classed, first, the organs of
+sense, where impressions take place; second, the cerebrum or organ of
+thought, properly so called, where these excite ideas, emotions, and
+passions; and third, the cerebel or organ of volition, where acts of the
+will result from the last.[24]
+
+We may now more particularly notice the functions of these organs, which
+are the subject of physiology.
+
+In the locomotive functions, the bones at once give support, and form
+levers for motion; the ligaments form articulations, and afford the points
+of support; and the muscles are the moving powers. To the first, are owing
+all the symmetry and elegance of human form; to the second, its beautiful
+flexibility; and to the third, all the brilliance and grace of motion
+which fancy can inspire, or skill can execute.
+
+In the nutritive functions, the food, having passed into the mouth, is,
+after mastication, aided by mixture with the saliva, thrown back, by the
+tongue and contiguous parts, into the cavity behind, called fauces and
+pharynx; this contracting, presses it into the oesophagus or gullet;
+this also contracting, propels it into the stomach, which, after its due
+digestion aided by the gastric juice, similarly contracting, transmits
+whatever portion of it, now called chyme, is sufficiently comminuted to
+pass through its lower opening, the pylorus, into the intestines; these,
+at the commencement of which it receives the bile and pancreatic juice,
+similarly pressing it on all sides, urge forward its most solid part to
+the anus; while its liquid portion partly escapes from the pressure into
+the mouths of the absorbents. The absorbents arising by minute openings
+from all the internal surfaces, and continuing a similar contractile
+motion, transmit it, now called chyle, by all their gradually-enlarging
+branches, and through their general trunk, the thoracic duct, where it is
+blended with the lymph brought from other parts, into the great veins
+contiguous to the heart, where it is mixed with the venous or returning
+and dark-colored blood, and whence it flows into the anterior side of that
+organ. The anterior side of the heart, forcibly repeating this
+contraction, propels it, commixed with the venous blood, into the lungs,
+which perform the office of respiration, and in some measure of
+sanguification; there, giving off carbonaceous matter, and assuming a
+vermilion hue and new vivifying properties, it flows back as arterial
+blood, into the posterior side of the heart. The posterior side of the
+heart, still similarly contracting, discharges it into the arteries;
+these, maintaining a like contraction, carry it over all the system; and a
+great portion of it, impregnated with carbon, and of a dark color, returns
+through the veins in order to undergo the same course. Much, however, of
+its gelatinous and fibrous parts is retained in the cells of the
+parenchyma, or cellular, vascular, and nervous substance forming the basis
+of the whole fabric, and constitutes nutrition, properly so called; while
+other portions of it become entangled in the peculiarly-formed labyrinths
+of the glands, and form secretion and excretion--the products of the
+former contributing to the exercise of other functions, and those of the
+latter being rejected. As digestion precedes the first, so generation
+follows the last of these functions, and not only continues the same
+species of action, but propagates it widely to new existences in the
+manner just described.
+
+In the thinking functions, the organs of sense receive external
+impressions, which excite in them sensations; the cerebrum, having these
+transmitted to it, performs the more complicated functions of mental
+operation, whence result ideas, emotions, and passions; and the cerebel,
+being similarly influenced, performs the function of volition, or causes
+the acts of the will.
+
+It is not unusual to consider the body as being divided into the head, the
+trunk, and the extremities; but, in consequence of the hitherto universal
+neglect of the natural arrangement of the organs and functions into
+locomotive, nutritive, and thinking, the beauty and interest which may be
+attached to this division, have equally escaped the notice of anatomists.
+
+It is a curious fact, and strongly confirmative of the preceding
+arrangements, that one of these parts, the extremities, consists almost
+entirely of locomotive organs, namely, of bones, ligaments, and muscles;
+that another, the trunk, consists of all the greater nutritive organs,
+namely, absorbents, bloodvessels, and glands; and that the third, the
+head, contains all the thinking organs, namely, the organs of sense,
+cerebrum, and cerebel.[25]
+
+It is a fact not less curious, nor less confirmative of the preceding
+arrangements, that, of these parts, those which consist chiefly of
+locomotive or mechanical organs--organs which, as to mere structure, and
+considered apart from the influence of the nervous system over them, are
+common to us with the lowest class of beings, namely, minerals[26]--are
+placed in the lowest situation, namely, the extremities; that which
+consists chiefly of nutritive or vital organs--organs common to us with a
+higher class of beings, namely, vegetables[27]--is placed in a higher
+situation, namely, the trunk; and that which consists chiefly of thinking
+or mental organs--organs peculiar to the highest class of beings, namely,
+animals[28]--is placed in the highest situation, namely, the head.
+
+It is not less remarkable, that this analogy is supported even in its
+minutest details; for, to choose the nutritive organs contained in the
+trunk as an illustration, it is a fact, that those of absorption and
+secretion, which are most common to us with plants, a lower class of
+beings, have a lower situation--in the cavity of the abdomen; while those
+of circulation, which are very imperfect in plants,[29] and more peculiar
+to animals, a higher class of beings, hold a higher situation--in the
+cavity of the thorax.
+
+It is, moreover, worthy of remark, and still illustrative of the preceding
+arrangements, that, in each of these three situations, the bones differ
+both in, position and in form. In the extremities, they are situated
+internally to the soft parts, and are generally of cylindrical form; in
+the trunk, they begin to assume a more external situation and a flatter
+form, because they protect nutritive and more important parts, which they
+do not, however, altogether cover; and, in the head, they obtain the most
+external situation and the flattest form, especially in its highest part,
+because they protect thinking and most important organs, which, in some
+parts, they completely invest.
+
+The loss of such general views is the consequence of arbitrary
+methods.[30]
+
+We may now apply these anatomical and physiological views to the art of
+distinguishing and judging of beauty in woman.
+
+It is evidently the locomotive or mechanical system which is highly
+developed in the beauty whose figure is precise, striking, and brilliant.
+
+It is evidently the nutritive or vital system which is highly developed in
+the beauty whose figure is soft and voluptuous.
+
+It is not less evidently the thinking or mental system which is highly
+developed in the beauty whose figure is characterized by intellectuality
+and grace.
+
+Thus can anatomical principles alone at once illustrate and establish the
+accuracy of the three species of beauty which I have analytically
+described.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+OF THE AGES OF WOMAN IN RELATION TO BEAUTY.
+
+
+The variations of the organization of woman do not distinctly mark the
+seasons of life. Many connected phenomena glide on imperceptibly; and we
+can distinguish the strong characters of different and distinct ages, only
+at periods remote from each other. Although, therefore, woman is
+perpetually changing, it requires some care to discriminate the principal
+epochs of her life.
+
+The first age of woman extends from birth to the period of puberty.
+
+In beginning the career of life, woman is not yet truly woman; the
+characters of her sex are not yet decided; she is an equivocal being, who
+does not differ from the male of the same age even by the delicacy of the
+organs; and we observe between them a perfect identity of wants,
+functions, and movements. Their existence is, then, purely individual; we
+perceive none of the relations which afterward establish between them a
+mutual dependance; each lives only for self.
+
+This conformity and independence of the sexes are the more remarkable, the
+earlier the age and the less advanced the development.
+
+Confining our view to woman alone, it is not only in dimensions that, at
+this age, her person differs from that in which the growth is terminated:
+it presents another model. The various parts have not, in relation to each
+other, the same proportions.
+
+The head is much more voluminous; and this is not a result of the extent
+of the face, for that is small and contracted, because the apparatus of
+smell and of mastication are not yet developed. Nor is the head only more
+voluminous; it is also more active, and forms a centre toward which is
+directed all the effort of life.
+
+The spine of the back has not either the minuter prominences or the
+general inflexions which favor the action of the extensor muscles, a
+circumstance which is opposed to standing perpendicularly during the first
+months. The infant consequently can only crawl like a quadruped.
+
+Little distinction can then be drawn, and that with difficulty, from the
+comparative width of the haunches, and magnitude of the pelvis. That part
+is scarcely more developed in the female than in the male; its general
+form is the same; and its different diameters have similar relations to
+each other.
+
+The length of the trunk is great in proportion to the limbs, which are
+slightly and imperfectly developed.
+
+Owing to the great length of the chest, and the imperfection of the
+inferior members, the middle of the body then corresponds to the region of
+the umbilicus. An infant having other proportions, would appear to be
+deprived of the characters of its age.
+
+In the locomotive system, the muscles have not yet acted with sufficient
+power and frequency to modify the direction of the bones, and to bestow a
+peculiar character upon their combination in the skeleton. The fleshy and
+other soft parts do not yet appear to differ from those of the male,
+either as to form or as to relative volume.
+
+The vital functions of digestion, of circulation and respiration, of
+nutrition, secretion, and excretion, are performed in the same manner. The
+want of nourishment is unceasingly renewed, and the movements of the
+pulse, and of inspiration and expiration, are rapidly performed, owing to
+the extreme irritability of all the organs.
+
+The mental functions present the same resemblance; the ideas, the
+appetites, the passions, have the greatest analogy; and similar moral
+dispositions prevail. Little girls, it has been observed, have in some
+measure the petulance of little boys, and these have in some measure the
+mobility and the inconstancy of little girls.
+
+Owing to the pelvis not being yet developed, little girls walk nearly like
+children of the other sex.
+
+These points of resemblance do not continue during a long period: the
+female begins to acquire a distinct physiognomy, and traits which are
+peculiar to her, long before we can discern any of the symptoms of
+puberty; and although the especial marks which distinguish her sex do not
+yet show themselves, the general forms which characterize it may be
+perceived. These differences, however, are only slight modifications, more
+easily felt than determined.
+
+The cartilaginous extremities of the bones appear to enlarge; and the
+mucous substance, which ultimately gives the soft reliefs which
+distinguish woman, is not yet secreted. She is now perhaps more easily
+distinguished by the nature of her inclinations and the general character
+of her mind: while man now seeks to make use of his strength, woman
+endeavors to acquire agreeable arts. The movements, the gait, of the
+little girl begin to change.
+
+These shades are so much the more sensible as the development is more
+advanced. Still, woman, in advancing toward puberty, appears to remove
+less than man from her primitive constitution; she always preserves
+something of the character proper to children; and the texture of her
+organs never loses all its original softness.
+
+At the near approach to puberty, woman becomes daily more perfect.
+
+We observe a predominance of the action of the lungs and the arteries; the
+pelvis enlarges; the haunches are rounded; and the figure acquires
+elegance.
+
+There is in particular a remarkable increase of the capacity of the
+pelvis, of which the circumference at last presents the circular form; it
+being no longer, as in the little girl and in man, the anteroposterior
+diameter which is the greatest, but the transverse one. It has been
+observed that the same occurs in the females of the greater quadrupeds.
+The pelvis, however, does not acquire, till the moment of perfect puberty,
+its proper form and dimensions.
+
+The changes which the same cause produces at the surface, are a general
+development of the cellular tissue, the delicacy of all the outlines, the
+fineness and the animation of the skin, and the new state of the bosom.
+
+The fire of the eyes, and the altogether new expression of the
+physiognomy, show that there now also exists the sensation of a new want,
+which various circumstances may for a time enfeeble or silence, but can
+never entirely stifle; and with it come those tastes, that direction of
+the mind, and those habits, which are the effect of an internal power now
+called into activity.
+
+The gait and bearing of woman are now no longer the same; and the voice
+changes as well as the physiognomy.
+
+In all that has yet occurred, it will be observed that nutrition and
+growth take place with great rapidity in woman. Her internal structure,
+her external form, her faculties, are all developed promptly. It would
+appear that the parts which compose her body, being less, less compact,
+and less strong, than those of man, require less time to attain their
+complete development.
+
+Woman consequently arrives earlier at the age of puberty, and her body is
+commonly, at twenty years of age, as completely formed as that of a man
+at thirty. Thus beauty and grace, as has been observed, seem to demand of
+nature less labor and time than the attributes of force and grandeur.
+
+In many women, however, nutrition languishes even until the sexual organs
+enter into action, and determine a revolution under the influence of which
+growth is accomplished.
+
+Still it is certain that, for several years, the locomotive system
+predominates in young women, even in figures promising the ultimate
+development of the vital system in the highest degree.
+
+The second age of woman extends from puberty to the cessation of the
+menses, or, we may say, from the period of full growth, the general time
+of bearing children, to the time of ceasing to bear--generally perhaps
+from twenty to forty.
+
+It is at the beginning of this period that woman has acquired all her
+attributes, her most seducing graces. She is not now distinguished merely
+by the organs which are the direct instruments of reproduction: many other
+differences of structure, having a relation to her part in life, present
+themselves to our view.
+
+At this maturer age, the whole figure is, in the female, smaller and
+slenderer than in the male. The ancients accordingly gave seven heads and
+a half to the Venus, and eight heads and some modules to the Apollo.
+
+The relations between the dimensions of the different parts differ also in
+the two sexes.
+
+In woman, the head, shoulders, and chest, are small and compact, while
+the haunches, the hips, the thighs, and the parts connected with the
+abdomen, are ample and large. Hence, her body tapers upward, as her limbs
+taper downward. And this is the most remarkable circumstance in her
+general form.
+
+Owing to smaller stature, and to greater size of the abdominal region, the
+middle point, which is at the pubis in the male, is situated higher in the
+female. This is the next remarkable circumstance in a general view.
+
+The inferior members still continue shorter.
+
+In general, woman is not only less in stature, and different in her
+general proportions, but her haunches are more apart, her hips more
+elevated, her abdomen larger, her members more rounded, her soft parts
+less compact, her forms more softened, her traits finer.
+
+During youth, especially, and among civilized nations, woman is farther
+distinguished by the softness, the smoothness, the delicacy, and the
+polish, of all the forms, by the gradual and easy transitions between all
+the parts, by the number and the harmony of the undulating lines which
+these present in every view, by the beautiful outline of the reliefs, and
+by the fineness and the animation of the skin.
+
+The soft parts which enter into the composition of woman, and the cellular
+tissue which serves to unite them, are also more delicate and more supple
+than those of man.
+
+All these circumstances indicate very clearly the passive state to which
+nature has destined woman, and which will be fully illustrated in a future
+volume.
+
+If, in a living body, any part liable to be distended had too much
+firmness, or even elasticity, it might press against some essential organ;
+and the liquids being impeded in their course, would in that case be
+speedily altered, if the neighboring parts offered not flexible vessels
+for their reception.
+
+Now, in the body of woman, certain parts are exposed to suffer great
+distentions and compressions. It is therefore necessary that her organs
+should be of such structure as to yield readily to these impressions, and
+to supply each other when their respective functions are impeded.
+
+From this it follows, that woman never enjoys existence better, than when
+a moderate plumpness bestows on her organs, without too much weakening
+them, all the suppleness of which they are capable.
+
+This leads to the consideration of the natural mobility of the organs of
+woman.
+
+Their mobility is a necessary consequence, in the first place, of their
+littleness. The movements of all animals, appear to be executed with more
+rapidity, the less their bulk. It has been observed, that the arteries of
+the ox beat only thirty-five times, while those of the sheep beat sixty,
+and that the pulse of women is smaller and more rapid than that of men.
+
+A second physical quality, which concurs to render more mobile the
+various parts of woman, is their softness.
+
+A certain feebleness is the necessary consequence of these two
+circumstances. But it is thence that spring woman's suppleness and
+lightness of movement, and her capacity for grace of attitude.
+
+It has been conjectured, that even the elements of the parts which
+constitute woman, have a particular organization, on which depends the
+elegance of the forms, the vivacity of the sensations, and the lightness
+of the movements, which characterize her.
+
+The result of these circumstances is that, while man possesses force and
+majesty, woman is distinguished by beauty and grace. The characteristics
+of woman are less imposing and more amiable; they inspire less admiration
+than love. As has been observed, a single trait of rudeness, a severe air,
+or even the character of majesty, would injure the effect of womanly
+beauty. Lucian admirably represents to us the god of love frightened at
+the masculine air of Minerva.
+
+While man, by force and activity, surmounts the obstacles which embarrass
+him, woman, by yielding, withdraws from their action, and adds to beauty,
+a gentle and winning grace which places all the vaunted power of man at
+her disposal.
+
+It is evidently the influence of the organs distinguishing the two sexes,
+which is the primary cause of their peculiar beauty.
+
+As the liquid which, in man, is secreted in certain vessels for the
+purpose of reproduction, communicates a general excitement and activity to
+the character, so when, in woman, the periodical excretion appears, the
+breasts expand, the eyes sparkle, the countenance becomes more expressive,
+but at the same time more timid and reserved, and a character of
+flexibility and grace distinguishes every motion.
+
+Conformably with this view, the appearance and the manners of eunuchs
+approach to those of women, by the softness and feebleness of their
+organization, as well as by their timidity, and by their acute voice.
+
+The very opposite is naturally the result of the extirpation of the
+ovaries in women. Pott, giving an account of the case of a female, in whom
+both the ovaries were extirpated, says, the person "has become thinner,
+and more apparently muscular; her breasts, which were large, are gone; nor
+has she ever menstruated since the operation, which is now some years."
+Haighton found that, by dividing the Fallopian tubes, which connect the
+ovaries with the womb, sexual feelings were destroyed, and the ovaries
+gradually wasted.
+
+The women, also, in whom the uterus and the ovaries remain inert during
+life, approximate in forms and habits to men. It is stated, in the
+Philosophical Transactions for 1805, that an adult female, in whom the
+ovaries were defective, presented a corresponding defect in the state of
+the constitution.
+
+To the same general principle, it has been observed, we must refer the
+partial growth of a beard on females in the decline of life, and the
+circumstance that female-birds, when they have ceased to lay eggs,
+occasionally assume the plumage, and, to a certain extent, the other
+characters of the male.
+
+Under the influence of this cause, the first exercise of her new faculty
+determines remarkable modifications in woman. Her neck swells and augments
+in size--
+
+  "Non illam nutrix orienti luce revisens
+  Hesterno collum poterit circumdare filo;[31]
+
+her voice assumes another expression; her moral habits totally change: and
+many women owe to love and marriage more splendid beauty.
+
+The women thus happily constituted are not those of hot climates, but
+those of cooler regions and calmer temperament, whose placid features and
+more elastic forms announce a gentler and more passive love.
+
+Impassioned women, on the contrary, do not so long preserve their
+freshness: the expansive force, from which the organs derived their form
+and coloring, abates; and a less agreeable flaccidity succeeds to the
+elasticity with which they were endowed, if the plumpness which adult age
+commonly brings does not sustain them.
+
+During pregnancy and suckling, the firstmentioned class of women retain a
+remarkable freshness and plumpness.
+
+The lastmentioned class of women most frequently become meager, and lose
+their freshness during the continuance of these states.
+
+If, however, during these states, suitable precautions and preservative
+cares be not employed, it is the first class who most suffer from traces
+of maternity.
+
+Conception, pregnancy, delivery, and suckling, being renewed more or less
+frequently during the second age, hasten debility in feeble and
+ill-constituted women; especially if misery or an improper mode of life
+increase the influence of these causes.
+
+In the third age of woman, extending generally from forty to sixty, the
+physical form does not suddenly deteriorate; and, as has often been
+observed, "when premature infirmities or misfortunes, the exercise of an
+unfavorable profession, or a wrong employment of life, have not hastened
+old age, women during the third age preserve many of the charms of the
+preceding one."
+
+At this period, in well-constituted women, the fat, being absorbed with
+less activity, is accumulated in the cellular tissue under the skin and
+elsewhere; and this effaces any wrinkles which might have begun to furrow
+the skin, rounds the outlines anew, and again restores an air of youth and
+freshness. Hence, this period is called "the age of return."
+
+This plumpness, though juvenile lightness and freshness be wanting,
+sustains the forms, and sometimes confers a majestic air, which, in women
+otherwise favorably organized, still interests for a number of years.
+
+The shape certainly is no longer so elegant; the articulations have less
+elasticity; the muscles are more feeble; the movements are less light; and
+in plump women we observe those broken motions, and in meager ones that
+stiffness, which mark the walk or the dance at that age.
+
+At this period occurs a remarkable alteration in the organs of voice.
+Women, therefore, to whom singing is a profession, ought to limit its
+exercise.
+
+When women pass happily from the third to the fourth age, their
+constitution, as every one must have observed, changes entirely; it
+becomes stronger: and nature abandons to individual life all the rest of
+existence.
+
+Beauty, however, is no more; form and shape have disappeared; the
+plumpness which supported the reliefs has abandoned them; the sinkings and
+wrinkles are multiplied; the skin has lost its polish; color and freshness
+have fled for ever.
+
+These injuries of time, it has been observed, commonly begin by the
+abdomen, which loses its polish and its firmness; the hemispheres of the
+bosom no longer sustain themselves; the clavicles project; the neck
+becomes meager; all the reliefs are effaced; all the forms are altered
+from roundness and softness to angularity and hardness.
+
+That which, amid these ruins, still survives for a long time, is the
+entireness of the hair, the placidity or the fineness of the look, the air
+of sentiment, the amiable expression of the countenance, and, in women of
+elegant mind and great accomplishments, caressing manners and charming
+graces, which almost make us forget youth and beauty.
+
+Finally, and especially in muscular or nervous women, the temperament
+changes, and the constitution of woman approaches to that of man; the
+organs become rigid; and, in some unhappy cases, a beard protrudes.
+
+Old age and decrepitude finally succeed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+OF THE CAUSES OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN.
+
+
+The crossing of races is often spoken of as a means of perfecting the form
+of man, and of developing beauty; and we are told that it is in this
+manner that the Persians have become a beautiful people, and that many
+tribes of Tartar origin have been improved, especially the Turks, who now
+present to us scarcely anything of the Mongol.
+
+In these general and vague statements, however, the mere crossing of
+different races is always deemed sufficient; whereas, every improvement
+depends on the circumstance that the organization of the races subjected
+to this operation is duly suited to each other. It is in that way only,
+that we can explain the following facts stated by Moreau:--
+
+In one of the great towns of the north of France, the women, half a
+century ago, were rather ugly than pretty; but a detachment of the guards
+being quartered there, and remaining during several years, the population
+changed in appearance, and, favored by this circumstance, the town is now
+indebted to strangers for the beauty of the most interesting portion of
+its inhabitants.
+
+The monks of Citeaux exercised an influence no less remarkable upon the
+beauty of the inhabitants of the country around their monastery; and it
+may be stated, as the result of actual observation, that the young
+female-peasants of their neighborhood were much more beautiful than those
+of other cantons. And, adds this writer, "there can be no doubt that the
+same effect occurred in the different places whither religious houses
+attracted foreign inmates, whom love and pleasure speedily united with the
+indigenous inhabitants!"
+
+The other circumstances which contribute to female beauty, are, a mild
+climate, a fertile soil, a generous but temperate diet, a regular mode of
+life, favorable education, the guidance and suppression of passions, easy
+manners, good moral, social, and political institutions, and occupations
+which do not injure the beautiful proportions of the body.
+
+Beauty, accordingly, is more especially to be found in certain countries.
+Thus, as has often been observed, the sanguine temperament is that of the
+nations of the north; the phlegmatic is that of cold and moist countries;
+and the bilious is that of the greater part of the inhabitants of southern
+regions. Each of these has its degree and modification of beauty.
+
+The native country of beauty is not to be found either in regions where
+cold freezes up the living juices, or in those where the animal structure
+is withered by heat. A climate removed from the excessive influence of
+both these causes constitutes an essential condition in the production of
+beauty; and this, with its effect, we find between the 35th and 65th
+degree of northern latitude, in Persia, the countries bordering upon
+Caucasus, and principally Tchercassia, Georgia and Mongrelia, Turkey in
+Europe and Asia, Greece, Italy, some part of Spain, a very small part of
+France, England, Holland, some parts of Germany, Poland, Denmark, Sweden,
+and a part of Norway and even of Russia.
+
+Even under the same degree of latitude, it is observed that the position
+of the place, its elevation, its vicinity to the sea, the direction of the
+winds, the nature of the soil, and all the peculiarities of locality which
+constitute the climate proper to each place, occasion great differences in
+beauty.
+
+In relation to the causes of beauty, some observations which seem to be
+important, arise out of the remarks of de Pauw on the Greeks.
+
+De Pauw endeavored to show, that, though the men of ancient Greece were
+handsome, the women of that country were never beautiful. He thence
+accounted for the excessive admiration which there prevailed of courtesans
+from Ionia, &c.
+
+This, however, was so contrary to the notions formed of the beauty of that
+people from what was known of their taste, that it was considered as a
+paradox. Travellers, accordingly, sought for such beauty in the women of
+modern Greece. They were disappointed in not finding it.
+
+What rendered this the more remarkable was, that in various places they
+found the ancient and beautiful cast of countenance among the men, and not
+among the women of that country--thus corroborating in all respects the
+doctrine of de Pauw.
+
+On considering that doctrine, however, and comparing it with more extended
+observations, it would seem to be only a particular application of a more
+general law unknown to de Pauw--that, in most countries, one of the sexes
+excels the other in beauty.
+
+Thus, in some parts of the highlands of Scotland, we find the men as
+remarkable for beauty as the women for ugliness; while, in some eastern
+counties of England, we find precisely the reverse. The strong features,
+the dark curled hair and the muscular form, of the highlander, are as
+unsuitable to the female sex, as the soft features, the flaxen hair, and
+the short and tapering limbs, of the woman of the eastern coast, are
+unsuitable to the male.
+
+If the soil, climate, and productions, of these countries be considered,
+we discover the causes of the differences alluded to. The hardships of
+mountain life are favorable to the stronger development of the locomotive
+system, which ought more or less to characterize the male; and the
+luxuriance of the plains is favorable to those developments of the
+nutritive system, which ought to characterize the female.
+
+This is illustrated even in inferior animals. Oxen become large-bodied and
+fat in low and rich soils, but are remarkable for shortness of legs;
+while, in higher and drier situations, the bulk of the body is less, and
+the limbs are stronger and more muscular.
+
+The quantity and quality of the aliments are another cause, not less
+powerful in regard to beauty. Abundance, or rather a proper mediocrity, as
+to nutritious food, contributes to perfection in this respect.
+
+Beauty is also, in some measure, a result of civilization. Women,
+accordingly, of consummate beauty, are found only in civilized nations.
+
+Professions can rarely be said to favor beauty; but they do not impede its
+development when their exercise does not compel to laborious employments
+an organization suited only to sedentary occupations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+OF THE STANDARD OF BEAUTY IN WOMAN.
+
+
+The ideas of the beautiful vary in different individuals, and in different
+nations. Hence, many men of talent have thought them altogether relative
+and arbitrary.
+
+"Ask," says Voltaire, "a Negro of Guinea [what is beauty]: the beautiful
+is for him a black oily skin, deep-seated eyes, and a broad flat nose."
+
+"Perfect beauty," says Payne Knight, "taking perfect in its most strict,
+and beauty in its most comprehensive signification, ought to be equally
+pleasing to all; but of this, instances are scarcely to be found: for, as
+to taking them, or, indeed, any examples for illustration, from the other
+sex of our own species, it is extremely fallacious; as there can be little
+doubt that all male animals think the females of their own species the
+most beautiful productions of nature. At least we know this to be the case
+among the different varieties of men, whose respective ideas of the beauty
+of their females are as widely different as those of man, and any other
+animal, can be. The sable Africans view with pity and contempt the marked
+deformity of the Europeans; whose mouths are compressed, their noses
+pinched, their cheeks shrunk, their hair rendered lank and flimsy, their
+bodies lengthened and emaciated, and their skins unnaturally bleached by
+shade and seclusion, and the baneful influence of a cold humid climate....
+Who shall decide which party is right, or which is wrong; or whether the
+black or white model be, according to the laws of nature, the most perfect
+specimen of a perfect woman?... The sexual desires of brutes are probably
+more strictly natural inclinations, and less changed or modified by the
+influence of acquired ideas, or social habits, than those of any race of
+mankind; but their desires seem, in general, to be excited by smell,
+rather than by sight or contact. If, however, a boar can think a sow the
+sweetest and most lovely of living creatures, we can have no difficulty in
+believing that he also thinks her the most beautiful."
+
+"Among the various reasons," says Reynolds, "why we prefer one part of
+nature's works to another, the most general, I believe, is habit and
+custom; custom makes, in a certain sense, white black, and black white; it
+is custom alone determines our preference of the color of the Europeans to
+the Ethiopians, and they, for the same reason, prefer their own color to
+ours. I suppose nobody will doubt, if one of their painters were to paint
+the goddess of beauty, but that he would represent her black, with thick
+lips, flat nose, and woolly hair; and it seems to me, he would act very
+unnaturally if he did not; for by what criterion will any one dispute the
+propriety of his idea? We indeed say, that the form and color of the
+European are preferable to those of the Ethiopian; but I know of no other
+reason we have for it, but that we are more accustomed to it."
+
+The coquetry of several tribes, it has been observed, leads them to
+mutilate and disfigure themselves, to flatten their forehead, to enlarge
+their mouth and ears, to blacken their skin, and cover it with the marks
+of suffering.--We make ugliness in that way, says Montaigne.
+
+But, to confine our observations to individual nations, and these
+civilized ones; we every day see irregular or even common figures
+preferred to those which the enlightened judge deems beautiful.
+
+How, then, it is asked, amid these different tastes, these opposite
+opinions, are we to admit ideas of absolute beauty?
+
+These are the strongest objections against all ideas of absolute and
+essential beauty in woman.
+
+To establish, in opposition to these objections, a standard of womanly
+beauty, equal talent has been employed; but the reasoning, though
+sufficient for such objections, has been rather of a vague description.
+As, however, the subject is of great importance, I shall endeavor to
+abridge and concentrate the arguments of which it consists, before I point
+out the surer method which is founded on the Elements of Beauty already
+established.
+
+To refute these objections, it has been thought sufficient to examine the
+chief conditions which are necessary, in order to appreciate properly the
+impression of those combinations, which woman presents, and to expose the
+principal circumstances which are opposed to the accuracy of opinions, and
+judgments respecting them.
+
+The conditions necessary to enable us to pronounce respecting the real
+attributes of beauty, are, first, a temperate climate, under which nature
+brings to perfection all her productions, and gives to their forms and
+functions, generally, and to those of man in particular, all the
+development of which they are capable, without excess in the action of
+some, and defect in that of others;--secondly, in man in particular, a
+brain capable of vigorous thought, sound judgment, and exquisite
+taste;--and thirdly, a very advanced civilization, without which these
+faculties cannot be duly exercised or attain any perfection.
+
+It is evident enough that none of these conditions are to be met with in
+the whimsical judgments and tastes of many nations.
+
+The consequence of the absence of these conditions, in relation to the
+uncivilized and ignorant inhabitants of hot climates, is marked in their
+deeming characteristics of beauty, the thick lips of Negresses, the long
+and pendent mammae of the women in several nations both of Africa and
+America, or the gross forms of those of Egypt.
+
+The consequence of the absence of these conditions, in relation to the
+uncivilized and ignorant inhabitants of cold climates, is equally marked
+in their deeming characteristics of beauty the short figures of the women
+of icy regions, in which, deprived of the vivifying action of heat and
+light, living beings appear only in a state of deformity and alteration;
+and in their similarly deeming beautiful the obliquely-placed eyes of the
+Chinese and Japanese, and the crushed nose of the Calmucs, &c., &c.
+
+Those who take these views, which are true, though somewhat vague and
+inconclusive, should, I think, have seen and added, that the deviations
+from beauty in the forms of the women of hot climates are commonly in
+_excess_, owing to the great development of organs of sense or of sex;
+while the deviations from beauty, in the forms of the women of cold
+climates, are commonly in _defect_, owing to the imperfect development of
+organs of sense, and of the general figure.
+
+This view renders it more clear that both these kinds of deviation are
+deformities, incompatible with the consistent and harmonious development
+of the whole. And without this view, the preceding arguments are indeed
+too vague to be easily tenable.
+
+In relation more especially to the second of the preceding conditions, the
+possession of a brain capable of vigorous thought, sound judgment, and
+exquisite taste, Hume observes that the same excellence of faculties which
+contributes to the improvement of reason, the same clearness of
+conception, the same exactness of distinction, the same vivacity of
+apprehension, are essential to the operations of true taste.
+
+Here, again, those who take these true, but vague and inconclusive views,
+should, I think, have seen and added that this excellence of the thinking
+faculties is incompatible with the obviously constricted brain, which is
+a defect common both to the Negro and the Mongol--a _defect_ which is
+incompatible with beauty either of form or function, and which I have
+shown, in my work on physiognomy, to be intimately connected with climate.
+This renders the argument sufficiently strong.
+
+Those who employ these arguments as to a standard of beauty in woman,
+proceed to show the modes in which defects of this kind unfit persons to
+judge of beauty; and though their farther arguments are similarly vague,
+they nevertheless tend to support the truth.
+
+If, say they, among the forms and the features which we compare, some are
+associated by us with certain qualities or sentiments which please us,
+they equally lead us to a predilection or prejudice, in consequence of
+which the most common or the least beautiful figure is preferred to the
+most perfect. In this case, the imagination has perverted the judgment.
+
+Winckelmann truly observes, that young people are most exposed to such
+errors: placed under the influence of sentiment and of illusion, they
+often regard, as very beautiful, women who have nothing capable of
+charming, but an animated physiognomy, in which breathe desire,
+voluptuousness, and languor. The results of this as to life may easily be
+foreseen.
+
+Of the excess to which such prejudice may go, a good instance is adduced
+in Descartes, who preferred women who squinted to the most perfect
+beauties, because squinting was one of the most remarkable features of
+the woman who was the first object of his affections.
+
+Winckelmann observes that even artists themselves have not always an
+exquisite sentiment of beauty: their first impressions have often an
+influence which they cannot overcome, nor even weaken, especially when, at
+a distance from the admirable productions of the ancients, they cannot
+rectify their first judgments.
+
+Circumstances of profession, it is truly observed, may also lead to
+associations of ideas capable of deceiving us in our opinions respecting
+beauty. Men are apt to refer everything to their exclusive knowledge and
+the mode of judging which it employs. The "what does that prove" of the
+mathematician, when judging the finest products of imagination, has passed
+into a proverb. And every one knows of that other cultivator of the same
+science, who declared that he never could discover anything sublime in
+Milton's Paradise Lost, but that he could never read the queries at the
+end of one of the books in Newton's Optics, without his hair standing on
+end and his blood running cold.
+
+The necessity of the third condition, namely, advanced civilization, to a
+right judgment respecting a standard of beauty in woman, is evident, when
+we consider that it requires a taste formed by the habit of bringing
+things together and of comparing them.
+
+One accustomed to see, says Hume, "and examine, and weigh the several
+performances, admired in different ages and nations, can alone rate the
+merits of a work exhibited to his view, and assign its proper rank among
+the productions of genius."
+
+From all this, it is certainly evident--not merely that that which pleases
+us is not always beautiful; that numerous causes may form so many sources
+of diversity and of error on this subject; and that we cannot thence
+conclude that the ideas of beauty are relative and arbitrary--but that
+certain conditions are indispensable to form the judgment respecting
+beauty; and that the principal of these conditions are, a temperate
+climate and fertile soil, a well-developed brain, sound judgment, and
+delicate taste, and a highly-advanced civilization.
+
+This is perfectly conformable with the practical fact that it was under a
+most delightful climate, among a people of unrivalled judgment, genius,
+and taste, and amid a civilization which the world has never since
+witnessed, that the laws of Nature as to beauty were discovered, and
+applied to the production of those immortal forms which the unfavorable
+accidents occurring to the existence of all beings, have never permitted
+Nature herself to combine in any one individual.
+
+Though I have endeavored to amend these arguments respecting a standard of
+beauty in woman, I prefer those which may be founded on the doctrine I
+have laid down respecting the Elements of Beauty. It will be found that
+the greatest number of these elements are combined in the woman whom we
+commonly deem the most beautiful.
+
+To illustrate this, it will be sufficient to examine their most striking
+and distinctive characteristic, namely, their fair complexion, which is
+intimately connected with all their other characteristics, and which gives
+increased splendor and effect to their form and features.
+
+It is remarkable that even Alison, though the advocate of all beauty being
+dependant on association, grants that the pure white of the countenance is
+expressive to us, according to its different degrees, of purity, fineness,
+gayety; that the dark complexion, on the other hand, is expressive to us
+of melancholy, gloom, or sadness; and that so far is this from being a
+fanciful relation, that it is generally admitted by those who have the
+best opportunities of ascertaining it, the professors of medical science.
+He also observes that black eyes are commonly united with the dark, and
+blue eyes with the fair complexion; and that, in the color of the eyes,
+blue, according to its different degrees, is expressive of softness,
+gentleness, cheerfulness, or severity; and black, of thought, or gravity,
+or of sadness.
+
+Even this, however, is less conclusive than the pathological or
+physiological facts stated by Cheselden, as to the boy restored by him to
+sight, namely, that the first view of a black object gave him great pain,
+and that that of a negro-woman struck him with horror.
+
+Independently of this, white, as every one is aware, is the color which
+reflects the greatest number of luminous rays; and, for that reason, it
+bestows the brilliance and splendor upon beautiful forms with which all
+are charmed.
+
+Winckelmann, indeed, observes that the head of Scipio the elder, in the
+Palazzo Rospigliosi, executed in basalt of a deep green, is very
+beautiful. But, in that case, it is the form, not the color, of the head,
+that is beautiful. While greenness of complexion would not be beautiful in
+a man, it would certainly be hideously ugly in a woman.
+
+Moreover, while, in a dead black or any dark color of face, it cannot be
+pretended that, considering its color only, we should have more than
+blackness or darkness for admiration, it is evident that, in a fair
+complexion, we have, in addition to its general brilliance or splendor,
+the infinite variety of its teints, their exquisite blendings, and the
+beautiful expression of every transient emotion.
+
+I have now only to expose the sophistry which Payne Knight has employed
+upon this subject.
+
+"I am aware," he says, "indeed, that it would be no easy task to persuade
+a lover that the forms upon which he dotes with such rapture, are not
+really beautiful, independent of the medium of affection, passion, and
+appetite, through which he views them. But before he pronounces either the
+infidel or the skeptic guilty of blasphemy against nature, let him take a
+mould from the lovely features or lovely bosom of this masterpiece of
+creation, and cast a plum-pudding in it (an object by no means disgusting
+to most men's appetite), and I think he will no longer be in raptures with
+the form, whatever he may be with the substance."
+
+Now, it happens that a grosser incongruity can scarcely be supposed than
+that which exists between lovely features or a lovely bosom and a
+plum-pudding, or between the sentiment of love and the propensity to
+gluttony; and therefore to place the substance of the pudding, in which
+internal composition is alone of importance, and shape of none, under the
+form of features or a bosom, in which internal structure is unknown or
+unthought of, and shape or other external properties are alone considered,
+is a gross and offensive substitution, intended, not to enlighten judgment
+respecting form, but to pervert it, and to degrade the higher object by
+comparison with the lower one. The shape, moreover, is a true sign in the
+one case, and a false one in the other.--Of nearly similar character is
+the following:--
+
+"If a man, perfectly possessed both of feeling and sight--conversant with,
+and sensible to the charms of women--were even to be in contact with what
+he conceived to be the most beautiful and lovely of the sex, and at the
+moment when he was going to embrace her, he was to discover that the parts
+which he touched only were feminine or human; and that, in the rest of her
+form, she was an animal of a different species, or a person of his own
+sex, the total and instantaneous change of his sentiments from one extreme
+to another, would abundantly convince him that his sexual desires depended
+as little upon that abstract sense of touch, as upon that of sight."
+
+That, in detecting an imposture of this kind, admiration would give place
+to disgust, only proves that the external qualities which were admired
+were the natural and appropriate signs of the internal qualities expected
+to be found under them, and that they now cease to interest only because
+they have become, not naturally less the signs of these qualities, but
+because they have by a mere trick been rendered insignificant, because
+truth and nature have been violated, and because the mind feels only
+disgust at the imposture. I cannot help saying that if Knight was in
+earnest when he framed such arguments, his mind was sometimes dull as well
+as perverse.
+
+"The redness of any morbid inflammation," he says, "may display a
+gradation of teint, which, in a pink or a rose, we should think as
+beautiful as 'the purple light of love and bloom of young desire;' and the
+cadaverous paleness of death or disease, a degree of whiteness, which, in
+a piece of marble or alabaster, we should deem to be as pure, as that of
+the most delicate skin of the fairest damsel of the frigid zone:
+consequently, the mere visible beauty is in both the same; and the
+difference consists entirely in mental sympathies, excited by certain
+internal stimuli, and guided by habit."
+
+There is here the same confusion of heterogeneous and inconsistent
+objects, as in the preceding cases. To judge of beauty in simple objects,
+each quality may be separately considered; and in this view, if the
+inflammation presented the same teint as the pink or the rose, then, as a
+mere teint, abstracted from every other quality of the respective
+objects, it would be precisely as beautiful in the one as in the other;
+but as the color of a rose on the human body would indicate that flow of
+blood to the skin which can result only from excessive action, it ceases
+to be considered intrinsically, and is regarded only as a sign of disease.
+The same observations are applicable to the other case here adduced.
+
+"The African black," he says, "when he first beholds an European
+complexion, thinks both its red and white morbid and unnatural, and of
+course disgusting. His sunburnt beauties express their modesty and
+sensibility by variations in the sable teints of their countenances, which
+are equally attractive to him, as the most delicate blush of red to us."
+
+In treating of the Elements of Beauty, I have endeavored to show, that the
+more those simpler elements of beauty, which characterize inanimate
+bodies, are retained in more compound ones, the more beautiful these
+become; but that the latter retain these elements in very different
+degrees, dependant upon internal or external circumstances, and that such
+elementary beauty is often sacrificed to the higher ones of life or mind.
+Now, in the case of the African, he is born whitish, like the European,
+but he speedily loses such beauty for that of adaptation, by his color, to
+the hot climate in which he exists. The latter beauty is the higher and
+more important one, and forms for the African a profitable exchange; but
+the European is still more fortunate, because, in the region he inhabits,
+the simple and elementary beauty is compatible with that of adaptation to
+climate. The climate of Africa, the cerebral structure of its inhabitants,
+and the degree of their civilization, are as unfavorable to the existence
+of beauty as to the power of judging respecting it. What he adds as to
+variation in sable countenances is a mere exaggeration.
+
+"Were it possible for a person to judge of the beauty of color in his own
+species, upon the same principles and with the same impartiality as he
+judges of it in other objects, both animal, vegetable, and mineral, there
+can be no doubt that mixed teints would be preferred; and a pimpled face
+have the same superiority over a smooth one, as a zebra has over an ass, a
+variegated tulip over a plain one, or a column of jasper or porphyry over
+one of a common red or white marble."
+
+Here the same mistake is committed. Elementary beauty is preferred to that
+of adaptation to climate, fitness for physiognomical expression, &c.
+Knight's other arguments all involve similar errors, and admit of similar
+answers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE THREE SPECIES OF FEMALE BEAUTY GENERALLY VIEWED.
+
+
+These have been already briefly mentioned. They are repeated and
+illustrated here.
+
+The view which is given of them will throw light on the celebrated
+temperaments of the ancients. It will appear that all the disputes which
+have occurred respecting these, have arisen from their being founded, not
+on precise data, but on empirical observation, at a time when the great
+truths of anatomy and physiology were unknown; that, to the rectification
+of the doctrine of temperaments, the arrangement of these sciences, laid
+down in a preceding chapter, is indispensable; that some of these
+temperaments are comparatively simple, and consist in an excessive or a
+defective action of locomotive, nutritive, or thinking organs; that
+others, which have been confounded with these, are, on the contrary,
+compound; and that, from this want of classification, their nature has
+been imperfectly understood.
+
+To make this clear, it is necessary to lay before the reader a succinct
+view of the doctrine of temperaments.
+
+The ancients classed individuals in one or other of four temperaments,
+founded on the hypothesis of four humors, of which the blood was supposed
+to be composed--the red part, phlegm, yellow and black bile. These were
+regarded as the elements of the body, and their respective predominance
+passed for the cause of the differences which it presented. Hence were
+derived the names of the sanguine, the phlegmatic, the choleric, and the
+melancholic temperament.
+
+Although the hypothesis on which this doctrine was founded is universally
+discarded, the phenomena which observation had taught the ancients, and
+which they had hypothetically connected with these elements, were so true,
+that that classification has been more or less employed in all the
+hypotheses which have since been invented to explain their cause; and
+their nomenclature has continued in use to the present day.
+
+A temperament may be defined a peculiar state of the system, depending on
+the relative proportion of its different masses, and the relative energy
+of its different functions, by which it acquires a tendency to certain
+actions.
+
+The predominance of any particular organ or system of organs, its excess
+of force, extends its sphere of activity to all the other functions, and
+modifies them in a peculiar manner. Thus, conforming in the illustration
+to the preceding arrangement, in one person, the muscles are more
+frequently employed than the brain; in another, the stomach or the organs
+of reproduction are more employed than the muscles; and in a third, the
+brain and nerves are more employed than either. This predominance or
+excess establishes the temperament.
+
+The relative feebleness of any organ or system of organs, similarly forms
+modifications not less important. Thus in one person, the organs of the
+abdomen are less employed; in another, those of the chest; in a third, the
+brain.
+
+Disease, it is observed, "commonly enters into the organization by these
+feeble points: death even attacks them first; extends afterward from one
+to another; and makes progress more or less rapid, according to the
+importance of the organ primitively affected."
+
+Temperaments, however, vary infinitely. It may be said that every
+individual has a peculiar one, to which he owes his mode of existence and
+his degree of health, ability, and happiness.
+
+The temperament, moreover, of each individual is not always characterized
+by well-marked symptoms; and even where it has been strongly marked by
+nature, education, age, the influence of climate, the exercise of
+professions and trades, and various habits, produce in it infinite
+changes.
+
+Temperaments also combine together, so that all men are, in some degree,
+at once sanguine and bilious, or otherwise compound. Thus all intermediate
+shades of temperament are produced; and it is often difficult, or, under
+particular circumstances, impossible, to determine under which temperament
+individuals may be classed.
+
+The simple temperaments are therefore abstractions, which it is difficult
+to realize; and the influence of any temperament is sometimes
+undiscoverable except in some extraordinary circumstances of disorder or
+disease, during which it may be observed.
+
+Cullen admits the four temperaments of Hippocrates, and remarks concerning
+them, that it is probable they were first founded upon observation, and
+afterward adapted to the theory of the ancients, since we find they "have
+a real existence."
+
+Dr. Prichard remarks, that "this division of temperaments is by no means a
+fanciful distinction."
+
+To the four temperaments of Hippocrates, Gregory adds a fifth, the nervous
+temperament.
+
+Thus are formed five temperaments generally admitted, namely, 1st, the
+phlegmatic or relaxed; 2d, the sanguine arterial; 3d, the sanguine venous
+or bilious; 4th, the nervous; and, 5th, the muscular or athletic.
+
+Some writers join to these the partial temperaments which determine the
+ascendency of the functions exercised by particular organs; whence
+principally come the temperaments which they call the cerebral,
+epigastric, abdominal, hepatic, genital, &c.
+
+As already said, it will in the sequel appear that some of these
+temperaments are comparatively simple, that others are compound, and that
+from this want of classification, their nature has been imperfectly
+understood.[32]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FIRST SPECIES OF BEAUTY--BEAUTY OF THE LOCOMOTIVE SYSTEM.
+
+
+The average stature of woman, as already said, is two or three inches less
+than that of man.
+
+The bones of woman remain always smaller than those of man; the
+cylindrical ones being more slender, and the flat ones thinner, while the
+former are also rounder. The muscles render the surfaces of the bones less
+uneven; the projections of the latter are less; and all their cavities and
+impressions have less depth. The bones of woman have likewise less
+hardness than those of man.
+
+Such being the solid and fundamental parts of this system in woman, the
+most remarkable circumstances in their combination should next be noticed.
+
+In woman, the magnitude of the pelvis or lower part of the trunk, has the
+greatest influence on the apparent proportion of parts, and on the general
+figure.
+
+The most remarkable differences between the two sexes, in relation to this
+system, are consequently those presented by the inferior and superior part
+of the trunk in each. The breast and the haunches are in an inverse
+proportion in the two sexes. Man has the breast larger and wider than that
+of woman: woman has the haunches less circumscribed than those of man.
+
+The upper part of the body is also less prominent, and the lower part more
+prominent, in woman than in man; and therefore, when they stand upright,
+or lie on the back, the breast is most prominent in the male, and the
+pubes in the female. The indication this affords of the fitness of woman
+for impregnation, gestation, and parturition, is obvious.
+
+From the same cause, the back of woman is more hollow.
+
+Still farther to increase the capacity of the lower part of the body,
+woman has the loins more extended than man. This portion of her body is in
+every way enlarged at the expense of neighboring parts. Hence, the chest
+is shorter above; and the thighs and legs are shorter below.
+
+The thigh-bones of woman are also more separated superiorly; the knees are
+more approximated; the feet are smaller; and the base of support is less
+extended.
+
+The reader desirous of thoroughly understanding these matters, should
+compare the beautiful plates of the male and female skeletons by Albinus
+and Soemmerring.
+
+Beauty of the locomotive system in woman, depends especially upon these
+fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure which thus
+distinguish her from man.
+
+In the woman possessing THIS SPECIES of beauty, therefore, the face is
+generally somewhat bony and oblong;--the neck, less connected with the
+nutritive system, is rather long and tapering;--the shoulders, without
+being angular, are sufficiently broad and definite for muscular
+attachments;--the bosom, a vital organ, is of but moderate
+dimensions;--the waist, enclosing smaller nutritive organs, is remarkable
+for fine proportion, and resembles, in some respects, an inverted
+cone;--the haunches, for the same reason, are but moderately
+expanded;--the thighs are proportional;--the arms, as well as the limbs,
+being formed chiefly of locomotive organs, are rather long and moderately
+tapering;--the hands and feet are moderately small;--the complexion, owing
+to the inferiority of the nutritive system, is often rather dark;--and the
+hair is frequently dark and strong.--The whole figure is precise,
+striking, and often brilliant.--From its proportions, it sometimes seems
+almost aerial; and we would imagine, that, if our hands were placed under
+the lateral parts of the tapering waist of a woman thus characterized, the
+slightest pressure would suffice to throw her into the air.
+
+To this class belong generally the more firm, vigorous, and even
+actively-impassioned women: though it may doubtless boast many of greatly
+modified character.
+
+
+_First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+It may here be observed, that the varieties or modifications of each
+species of beauty naturally correspond with the greater or less
+development of some one of the various organs on which the species is
+founded. Thus, the modifications of beauty of the locomotive system
+correspond with the greater or less development of the bones, the
+ligaments, or the muscles; those of the nutritive system correspond with
+the greater or less development of the absorbents, the bloodvessels, or
+the glands; and those of the thinking system correspond with the greater
+or less development of the organs of sense, the brain, or the cerebel. A
+little reflection will show, that some of these modifications will be
+more, and others less beautiful.
+
+To understand the present variety, the bony structure on which it
+especially depends, must now be more minutely described.
+
+Commencing with the trunk of the body--the chest in woman is shorter but
+more expanded; the breast-bone is shorter but wider; the two upper ribs
+are flatter; the collar-bones are more straight or less curved, and do not
+present that prominent relief which appears on the chest of man; the
+shoulders are carried farther back, and project less from the trunk.
+
+The haunches, as already stated, are proportionally wider in woman than in
+man, and the interior cavity of the pelvis, which is between them, being
+adapted to gestation, is more capacious. This greater capacity of the
+pelvis arises from the lateral parts having in woman more convexity
+outward; from the bones called ossa pubis, which form the anterior part,
+touching at a smaller number of points, and running obliquely or forming
+a greater angle, to enlarge the space which is between them and the
+inferior extremity of the posterior part of the pelvis; from the arch of
+the pubis being larger; from the greater concavity and breadth of the os
+sacrum or posterior bone of the pelvis, its posterior part forming a
+greater prominence outward; and from the whole pelvis being thus wider and
+less deep, its circumference approaching more to the circular form. The
+cavities, it may be added, in which the heads of the thigh-bones are
+received, are of course farther apart: they are also oblique and less
+deep.
+
+The arms of woman are shorter than in man.--As these members are well
+marked in beauty of the locomotive system, they may the more fully be
+considered here.--The arms, and especially their extremities, are
+susceptible of a degree of beauty of which we see few examples. Their
+bases, the bones, ligaments, and muscles, belong to the locomotive system;
+and their fundamental beauty consequently depends upon its proportions;
+but to the nutritive system are owing the circumstances that, in woman,
+the arm is fatter and more rounded, has softer forms and more flowing and
+purer outlines. The hand in woman is smaller, more plump, more soft, and
+more white. It is peculiarly beautiful when full; when it is gently
+dimpled over the first joints; when the fingers are long, round, tapering
+toward the ends; when the other joints are marked by slight reliefs and
+shadows; and when the fingers are delicate and flexible. Beauty of the
+hand becomes the more precious, because it is the principal organ of a
+sense which may be considered as the most valuable of all.
+
+In regard to the lower extremities, it has been observed, that the lateral
+convexity of the pelvis causes the bones of the thighs attached to them to
+be farther separated from each other; and this separation of the bones of
+the thighs causes an increase of the size of the haunches. It is over the
+posterior part of the space thus produced, that we observe the reliefs
+which the inferior members present superiorly, and which unite them with
+the trunk, by forms so beautifully rounded. The thighs are also
+proportionally larger, on account of this separation: they are more
+rounded, as well as much more voluminous: they are also more curved before
+than in man. At their inferior part, they approximate; and the knees
+project a little inward. It has been truly observed, that this
+conformation manifests, relatively to gestation and parturition,
+advantages of which the exterior expression is not found in the women who
+are commonly regarded as well made, and who, however, are not so, if the
+best conformation or beauty result from a direct and well-marked relation
+between the form of the organs and their functions. It is owing to the
+thighs of woman being thus carried more inward when she walks, that the
+change of the point of gravity which marks each step, is in her much more
+remarkable. All the other parts of the inferior members are in general
+distinguished by forms more softly rounded; the leg is remarkable for its
+delicacy; the long line of the anterior bone is entirely hid under its
+envelope; its inferior part is shaped with more elegance; the foot is
+smaller; and the base of support is less extended. The feet, like the
+hands, are susceptible of a kind of beauty of which nature is sparing.
+
+From all this it appears that the only bones which nature tends to enlarge
+in woman are those of the pelvis; that all the rest are small; and that
+they proportionally diminish in size, as we pass from that central part to
+the extremities.
+
+The FIRST MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the bones, those of the pelvis excepted, is
+proportionally small.
+
+This character will be especially apparent where the long bones approach
+the surface; as in the arm immediately above the wrist, and, in the leg,
+immediately above the ankle. Its effect will be proportionally delicate
+and feminine.
+
+Various subordinate modifications of this kind of beauty are found in
+various countries, and under the influence of various circumstances.
+
+The women of Rome, we are told, present beauty of the shoulders in the
+highest degree, when they arrive at that period of life in which plumpness
+succeeds to juvenile elasticity.
+
+It has been suggested, that the Greek or Ionian women, whose arms were of
+so perfect a form, owed that beauty in some measure to the custom of
+leaving them nude, or covered only by loose drapery: as in that case, no
+pressure constricted the roundness of the fleshy parts, and prevented
+their development; no ligature, binding the upper part of the arm, altered
+the color of the skin; and the arm, being always uncovered, received at
+the toilet the same attention as other parts. Hence, it is supposed
+antique statuary has left us such admirable models of the beauty of this
+part.
+
+It is certainly not improbable that we may attribute the absence of this
+beauty, in some measure, to a custom which, in many cases, medicine may
+approve, but which is unfavorable to the arm, that of wearing long
+sleeves; but want of exercise is its great cause.
+
+The form of the hand often announces the occupation of the person to whom
+it belongs, and sometimes even her particular capabilities. There
+certainly are hands that we may call intellectual; and there are others
+that we may call foolish or stupid. Of the hand, Lavater says, that,
+whether in movement or in repose, its expression cannot be mistaken: its
+most tranquil position indicates our natural dispositions; its flexions,
+our actions and our passions.
+
+The ancients, it has been observed, attached much importance to the form
+of the feet: the philosophers did not neglect it in the general view of
+the physiognomy; and the historians as well as the poets made mention of
+their beauty, in speaking of Polyxene, Aspasia, and others; as they did of
+their deformities in speaking of the emperor Domitian.
+
+Perfection or deformity of the feet is no doubt in general hereditary; but
+good management will preserve the former of these, and repair the latter.
+We commonly deform these parts by means of our shoes: the second toe,
+observes a writer on this subject, which naturally projects most, as we
+see from the antique, is arrested in its development, and the foot, which
+ought, in the outline of its extremity, to approach to the elegant form of
+the ellipsis, is rounded without beauty, and is disfigured by our
+ridiculous compressions.[33]
+
+
+_Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+The joints generally are small in woman, and especially so in the
+extremities. The elbow joint is softly rounded; and the various joints of
+the fingers are marked chiefly by little reliefs and faint shadows. The
+articulation of the knee is feebly indicated; the ankles are disposed in
+such a manner as to offer only agreeable outlines; and there are dimples
+over the first joints of the toes, with exceedingly gentle indications of
+the other joints.
+
+The SECOND MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the ligaments and the articulations they form, is
+proportionally small.
+
+This conformation will be especially apparent--in the arm, at the
+wrist--and, in the leg, at the ankle. Its effect will be proportionally
+handsome.
+
+
+_Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+The muscles of women are more slender and feeble than those of man; their
+bundles are rounder; their fibres are finer, more humid, soft, and
+delicate, and less compact; their central parts or bellies are less
+prominent; their reliefs do not appear in any strength at the surface of
+the body; but being, on the contrary, surrounded on all sides by a loose
+cellular tissue, they only render that surface beautifully rounded.
+
+Although, however, the muscular system of woman is weaker, and the muscles
+proportionally smaller, yet, as already said, in some parts the muscular
+system is more developed than in man. This, owing to the magnitude of the
+pelvis, is most remarkable about the thighs. The muscles of these parts
+having larger origins from the pelvis, and being less compressed by
+reciprocal contact, have more liberty to extend themselves. It is from
+this, that results much of the delicacy of the female form, as well as the
+ease, suppleness, and capability of grace in its movements.
+
+It is otherwise in all parts remote from the pelvis. Women, accordingly,
+can less be said to have calves, than legs which, like their arms and
+fingers, gently taper.
+
+The THIRD MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the muscles is proportionally large around the
+pelvis, and delicate elsewhere.
+
+This conformation being concealed by the drapery, may nevertheless be
+conjectured from the imperfect view of the hip, or of the calf of the leg,
+or more accurately by means of the external indications of forms which are
+given in a subsequent chapter. Its effect will be proportionally elegant.
+
+Woman's power of muscular motion being thus limited to the vicinity of the
+pelvis, that of her extremities is generally feeble.
+
+Other causes contribute to this. Thus, with regard to the upper
+extremities, it has been observed, that the collar-bone, not separating so
+much the arm from the axis of the body, the extent of its movements is
+limited; and this circumstance explains why women, who wish to overcome
+great resistances with the superior members, experience difficulty in
+doing so--why, for example, when they wish to throw a stone, they are
+obliged to turn the body on the foot opposite to the arm with which they
+throw.
+
+Thus also the largeness of the pelvis, and the approximation of the knees,
+influence the gait of woman, and render it vacillating and unsteady.
+Conscious of this, women, in countries where the nutritive system in
+general and the pelvis in particular are large, affect a greater degree of
+this vacillation and unsteadiness. An example of this is seen in the
+lateral and rotary motion which is given to the pelvis in walking, by
+certain classes of the women of London.
+
+For the same reason, united to a smaller foot, and some other
+circumstances, women, it is observed, who execute gentle and light
+movements with so much skill, do not attempt with advantage great
+evolutions, run with difficulty and without grace, and fly--in order to be
+caught, as Rousseau has said.
+
+In woman, however, the muscular fibre is thus soft, yielding, feeble, and
+incapable of great evolutions, because it is necessary that it should
+easily adapt itself to remarkable changes.
+
+From all this, from women having more address in the use of their fingers,
+from their aptitude for little and light domestic works, the care of
+children, and sedentary occupations, it is evident that they cannot devote
+themselves to toilsome labors without struggling against their
+organization, and suffering proportionally.
+
+The voice being connected with the motive organs, it may here be noticed
+that the larynx or flute part of the throat in woman is more contracted
+and less prominent than in man; that the glottis does not enlarge in the
+same proportion; that the tongue-bone is much smaller; and that the
+tongue, its muscles, and the organs of speech in general, being, like all
+the other parts, more mobile, young girls articulate and pronounce much
+more quickly. Their voice is also so much more acute, that if man and
+woman sing in unison, there is always between them the relation of an
+octave, which forms the most natural and most agreeable consonance.
+
+It is evidently the UNION of all that is good in these varieties which
+renders beauty in the locomotive system perfect.
+
+This is perfectly represented in the Diana of Grecian sculpture, in which,
+with admirable taste, it is neither the nutritive nor the thinking, but
+the locomotive system, which is developed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have already said, that the temperaments of the ancients are only
+partial views of some of the varieties I am now describing. The _athletic
+temperament_ falls under the _last of these varieties_; and it is the only
+one that falls under this species. Happily, it does not occur in woman.
+
+This temperament results from a great development of the bones and
+muscles, and it is that of mere physical strength. It is marked by all the
+outward signs of strength: the head is small, the neck thick behind, the
+shoulders broad, the chest expanded, the haunches firm, the intervals of
+the muscles deeply marked, the tendons apparent through the skin, and all
+the joints not covered by muscles, seemingly small.
+
+In this temperament, muscular strength prevails over the functions of the
+other organs, and especially usurps the energies necessary to the
+production of thought; the perceptions are deficient in quickness,
+delicacy, accuracy, and strength; and all the mental functions are with
+difficulty excited; but the body is capable of great exertion, and it
+surmounts great physical resistance when roused.
+
+The Farnese Hercules, says a French physiologist, exhibits a model of the
+physical attributes of this constitution; and that which fabulous
+antiquity relates of the exploits of this demi-god, gives us the idea of
+the moral dispositions that accompany it. In the history of his twelve
+labors, without reflection, and as by instinct, we see him courageous,
+because he is strong, seeking obstacles to conquer them, certain of
+overwhelming whatever resists him, but joining to such strength so little
+subtlety, that he is cheated by all the kings he serves, and by all the
+women he loves.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+SECOND SPECIES OF BEAUTY--BEAUTY OF THE NUTRITIVE SYSTEM.
+
+
+With the vital system of woman, the capacity of the pelvis, and the
+consequent breadth of the haunches, are still more connected than with the
+locomotive system; for, with these, all those functions which are most
+essentially feminine--impregnation, gestation, and parturition--are
+intimately connected.
+
+Camper, in a memoir on physical beauty, read to the Academy of Design, at
+Amsterdam,[34] showed, that, in tracing the forms of the male and female
+within two elliptical areas of equal size, the female pelvis extended
+beyond the ellipsis, while the shoulders were within; and the male
+shoulders reached beyond their ellipsis, while the pelvis was within.--The
+pelvis of the African woman is said by some to be greater than that of the
+European.
+
+The abdominal and lumbar portion of the trunk, as already said, is longer
+in woman. In persons above the common stature, there is almost half a
+face more in the part of the body which is between the mammae and the
+bifurcation of the trunk.
+
+The abdomen, placed below the chest, has more projection and roundness in
+woman than in man: but it has little fulness in a figure capable of
+serving as a model; and the slightest alteration in its outlines or its
+polish is injurious.
+
+The waist, which is most distinctly marked in the back and loins, owes all
+its advantages to its elegance, softness, and flexibility.
+
+The neck should, by the gentlest curvature, form an almost insensible
+transition between the body and the head. It should also present fulness
+sufficient to conceal the projection of the flute part of the throat in
+front, and of the two large muscles which descend from behind the ears
+toward the pit above the breast-bone.[35]
+
+Over all these parts, the predominance of the cellular tissue, and the
+soft and moderate plumpness which is connected with it, are a remarkable
+characteristic of the vital system in woman. While this facilitates the
+adaptation of the locomotive system to every change, it at the same time
+obliterates the projection of the muscles, and invests the whole figure
+with rounded and beautiful forms.
+
+It has been well observed that the principal effect of such forms upon
+the observer must be referred to the faculties which they reveal; for, as
+remarked by Roussel, if we examine the greater part of the attributes
+which constitute beauty, if reason analyze that which instinct judges at a
+glance, we shall find that these attributes have a reference to real
+advantages for the species. A light shape, supple movements, whence spring
+brilliance and grace, are qualities which please, because they announce
+the good condition of the individual who possesses them, and the greater
+degree of aptitude for the functions which that individual ought to
+fulfil.
+
+Beauty, then, of the nutritive system in woman, depends especially upon
+these fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure which thus
+distinguish her from man.
+
+In the woman possessing THIS SPECIES of beauty, therefore, the face is
+generally rounded, to give greater room to the cavities connected with
+nutrition;--the eyes are generally of the softest azure, which is
+similarly associated;--the neck is often rather short, in order intimately
+to connect the head with the nutritive organs in the trunk;--the shoulders
+are softly rounded, and owe any breadth they may possess rather to the
+expanded chest, containing these organs, than to any bony or muscular size
+of the shoulders themselves;--the bosom, a vital organ, in its luxuriance
+seems laterally to protrude on the space occupied by the arms;--the waist,
+though sufficiently marked, is, as it were, encroached on by that
+plumpness of all the contiguous parts, which the powerful nutritive
+system affords;--the haunches are greatly expanded for the vital purposes
+of gestation and parturition;--the thighs are large in proportion;--but
+the locomotive organs, the limbs and arms, tapering and becoming delicate,
+terminate in feet and hands which, compared with the ample trunk, are
+peculiarly small;--the complexion, dependant upon nutrition, has the rose
+and lily so exquisitely blended, that we are surprised it should defy the
+usual operation of the elements;--and there is a luxuriant profusion of
+soft and fine flaxen or auburn hair.--The whole figure is soft and
+voluptuous in the extreme.
+
+To this class belong all the more feminine, soft, and exquisitely-graceful
+women.
+
+The kind of beauty thus characterized is seen chiefly in the Saxon races
+of our eastern coast; and it is certainly more frequent in women of short
+stature.
+
+The vital system is peculiarly the system of woman; and so truly is this
+the case, that any great employment, either of the locomotive or mental
+organs, deranges the peculiar functions of woman, and destroys the
+characteristics of her sex.
+
+Women who greatly occupy the locomotive organs, acquire a coarse and
+masculine appearance; and so well is this incompatibility of power, in the
+use of locomotive organs with the exercise of vital ones, known to the
+best female dancers, that, during the time of their engagements, they
+generally live apart from their husbands.
+
+As to intellectual ladies, they either seldom become mothers, or they
+become intellectual when they cease to be mothers.
+
+These few facts are worth a thousand hypotheses and dreams, however
+amiable they may be.
+
+The vital system is relatively largest in little women, especially after
+they have been mothers. The shorter stature of woman ensures, indeed, in
+almost all, a relative excess of the vital system after, if not before,
+they become mothers; for, whatever the stature, the mammae, abdomen, &c.,
+necessarily expand. In those of short stature, these parts, of course,
+become nearly as large as in the tall; and this circumstance causes them
+to touch on the limits of each other in little women.
+
+As, in pregnancy and suckling, the abdomen and mammae necessarily expand,
+and as they would afterward collapse and become wrinkled, were not a
+certain degree of plumpness acquired, that acquisition is essential to
+beauty in mothers. Meagerness in them, accordingly, becomes deformity.
+
+A French writer indeed says: "Most of our fashionables are extremely
+slender; they have constituted this an essential to beauty; leanness is in
+France necessary to the _air elegant_." It must be remembered, however,
+that the vital system--that which we have just said is peculiarly the
+system of woman--is, in its most beautiful parts, peculiarly defective in
+France; and that, owing in a great measure to that circumstance, the women
+of France are among the ugliest in Europe.--But of that in its proper
+place.
+
+
+_First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+It may here be observed, that the varieties of beauty of the locomotive
+system, and also those of beauty of the mental system, are easily
+explicable, because these systems are, in some respects, more limited and
+simple. The varieties of beauty of the vital system are, on the contrary,
+more difficult of explanation, because that system is, in some respects,
+more diffused and complicated.
+
+Even the preparatory vital organs and functions differ somewhat in the two
+sexes.
+
+Woman has frequently a smaller number of molar teeth than man; those
+called wisdom teeth not always appearing. Mastication is also less
+energetic in woman.
+
+The stomach, in woman, is much smaller; the appetite for food is less;
+hunger does not appear to press her so imperiously; and her consumption of
+food is much less considerable.[36] Hence, indubitable cases of long
+abstinence from food, have generally occurred in females.
+
+In the choice and the preference of certain aliments, woman also differs
+much from man. In general, women prefer light and agreeable food, which
+flatters the palate by its perfume and its savor. Their appetites are also
+much more varied.
+
+Women, whom vicious habits have not depraved, use also beverages less
+abundantly than men. Fermented, vinous, and spirituous beverages are
+indeed used only by the monsters engendered in the corruptions of
+towns--amid the insane dissipation of the rich, or the wretched and
+pitiable suffering of the poor; and both are then brought to one
+humiliating level, marked by the red and pimpled, or the pallid face, the
+swimming eye, the haggard features, the pestilential breath. The
+scarf-skin in these cases divides all that may be worthy from all that is
+utterly worthless: the worthy part may be external to the cuticle, in
+substantial, though polluted clothing; the worthless is the yet living
+portion, which, whether called body or soul, is no longer worth picking
+off a dunghill.[37]
+
+Digestion in woman is made, however, with great rapidity; and the whole
+canal interested in that process, possesses great irritability.
+
+The absorbent vessels in woman are much more developed, and seem to enjoy
+a more active vitality. The circumstances of pregnancy and suckling,
+appear also to augment the energy of these vessels.
+
+The FIRST MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the digestive and absorbent system is small but active; for the
+great purpose of life in woman is secretion, whether it regard the
+formation of the superficial adipose substance which invests her with
+beautiful and attractive forms, or the nutrition of the new being which
+is the object of her attractions and of her life.
+
+Hence it is, that women naturally and instinctively affect abstemiousness
+and delicacy of appetite. Hence it is, that they compress the waist, and
+endeavor to render it slender.
+
+
+_Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+Women have, in greater abundance than men, several of the fluids which
+enter into the composition of the body. They appear to have a greater
+quantity of blood; and they certainly have more frequent and more
+considerable hemorrhages. There is less force in the circulation and
+respiration; but the heart beats more rapidly. The pulse also is less
+full, but it is quicker.
+
+In woman, the purer lily and more vivid rose of complexion, depend on
+various causes.
+
+It would appear that, in women, the blood is in general carried less
+abundantly to the surface and to the extremities, where also the white
+vessels are more developed; and that, to this, as well as to the subjacent
+adipose substance, the skin owes its whiteness.
+
+In youth, however, one of the constituent parts of the skin, the reticular
+tissue, or whatever the substance under the scarf-skin may be called,
+appears to be more expanded, especially in women; and it would seem that
+this tissue is then filled with a blood which is less dark, and which
+forms the coloring of youth. This, differently modified by the
+scarf-skin, gives the blue, the purple, and all the teints formed by these
+and the color of the skin. Where the vessels are more patent, and the skin
+more thin, delicate, and transparent, as in the cheeks, the hue of the
+rose is cast over that of the lily. In addition to this, the slightest
+emotions of surprise, of pleasure, of love, of shame, of fear, often
+diversify all these teints.
+
+Lightness of complexion, however, is probably dependant more particularly
+on the arterial circulation, and darkness of complexion on the venous
+circulation; for we know that in fairer woman the arteries possess greater
+energy, while in darker man the veins are more developed, larger, and
+fuller.
+
+Farther confirmation of this is afforded by an observation, which
+physiologists have neglected to make, that the kidneys, receiving arterial
+blood, are the artery-relieving glands, while the liver, receiving venous
+blood, is the vein-relieving gland. Now, it is certain that, in cold
+climates, the urinary secretion and fairness prevail; while, in hot
+climates, the hepatic secretion and darkness prevail. Many physiologists
+have indeed made the insulated remark, that the dark complexion has much
+to do with the hepatic secretion. The more abundant urinary and hepatic
+secretions, however, may not be the causes, but only concomitant effects
+of the same cause with fairness and darkness of complexion.
+
+The SECOND MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the circulating vessels, being moderately active and finely
+ramified, bestow upon the skin a whiteness, a transparency, and a
+complexion, which are necessary to beauty.
+
+The whiteness, the transparency, and the color of the skin, have, in all
+highly civilized nations, been deemed essential conditions of beauty.
+
+The ancients regarded whiteness, in particular, as the distinctive
+character of beauty; and they estimated that character so highly, that the
+name of Venus, from the Celtic _ven_, _ben_, or _ban_, signifies white, or
+whiteness; and Venus herself is said to be fair and golden-haired.
+
+Among the civilized moderns, also a taste which women seek always to
+satisfy, is that for whiteness of the skin: hence, the white lily,
+new-fallen snow, white marble, or alabaster, are the images which poetry
+employs, when the color of a woman is its subject. So greatly, indeed,
+does whiteness contribute to beauty, that many women deemed beautiful by
+us, have little other right to that epithet except what they derive from a
+beautiful skin.
+
+
+_Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+The branches of the great artery of the body, the aorta, supplying the
+abdomen and pelvis, are larger in woman than in man, as well as more
+habitually liable to variation in the quantity of their contents. The
+quantity of blood, also, which passes to the abdomen, is greater.
+
+At the same time, the excretions are generally less in woman. Hippocrates
+says: "_Nam corpus muliebre minus dissipatur quam virile_;" the
+expenditure of the body of woman is less than that of man.
+
+It is evident, then, that the secretions, nutrition, in particular, must
+be greater. We actually know them to be so.
+
+But the nourishment of the organs concerned in locomotion is less active,
+and that of the cellular and adipose substance is generally more active,
+than in man. And on this, important consequences depend.
+
+Woman is subject to crises which would destroy all her organs, if they
+offered too powerful a resistance. Some parts of her body are exposed to
+great shocks, to alternate extensions, compressions, and reductions, which
+could not take place with impunity, but by means of this predominance of
+the cellular and adipose structure.
+
+The cellular expansion, the general basis of the structure, appears then
+to be more abundant in woman, more lax and yielding, more dilated and
+fuller of liquids; and it is by yielding gradually, by decomposing and
+weakening shocks by means of the general suppleness of the different
+organs, thus procured, that nature seems, in woman, to avoid, or to
+destroy, every hurtful effort.
+
+It is observed, moreover, that certain parts, naturally more loose,
+receive into all their vessels a more considerable quantity of liquid, and
+assume a particular enlargement, at the moment when their sympathy with
+the uterus causes them to enter into action in concert with it; and it is
+also observed that they dilate more easily during pregnancy.
+
+It is thus, then, that nature gives to all the parts of woman that
+suppleness which renders her capable of easily yielding to the great
+revolutions which affect her organization in regard to reproduction, as
+well as mark the different periods of her life.
+
+The great development of the cellular and fatty tissue in woman is
+illustrated by the remarkable fact, that anciently the Romans, in order to
+burn the bodies of dead men, were obliged to join to them those of women,
+the fat of which greatly facilitated combustion.
+
+Now, with the great purposes described above, beauty is naturally
+associated. It is principally this excess of the cellular and fatty
+tissues which gives to the members of woman those round and beautiful
+outlines, that soft and polished surface, which the body of man does not
+possess.
+
+In every part, however, of the human figure, as observed by Reynolds,
+"when not spoiled by too great corpulency, will be found distinctness, the
+parts never appearing uncertain or confused, or as a musician would say,
+slurred; and all those smaller parts which are comprehended in the larger
+compartment are still found to be there, however marked."
+
+Now, while all this is the case, it appears that the true skin is much
+thinner and more delicate in woman than in man, and that it derives more
+or less of its clear whiteness from the quantity of fat which is below
+it; for meagerness inevitably tarnishes and dries it. Hence, to possess a
+fine, soft, white, and fresh skin, it is also indispensable to possess
+plumpness.
+
+In relation to this purer white, it must also be observed, that
+transpiration, which might soil it, appears to be much less abundant in
+woman; and that the liver or vein-relieving gland, is very large. The
+excretions of the skin in women are indeed chiefly limited to certain
+parts; and it is thence that it has, in various parts, an odor which a
+French writer observes "it is difficult to describe, but which an
+exercised sense of smell easily succeeds in distinguishing in women who
+fully enjoy all the attributes of their sex, and who are women even in the
+atmosphere which exhales from them."
+
+While the skin is thus more white in women, it is also more transparent.
+The reticular tissue, or substance interposed between the true skin and
+scarf-skin, appears to have more clearness and turgescence, especially on
+the face, where, under the influence of various emotions, it easily
+permits a passage to the blood, as we see in blushing. It is in youth that
+this turgescence and clearness are most evident.
+
+Hence, the skin in woman less conceals the veins, of which the color, only
+enfeebled or modified by the skin, "gives all those shades of azure which
+the charmed eye follows with so much pleasure on the surface of the bosom
+and of all the parts where the skin has least of thickness."
+
+All this constitutes freshness, or animation, which is nearly synonymous
+with health, and without which there is no beauty. When that quality, as
+observed by Roussel, "is wanting, all other attractions strike but feebly,
+because the prompt judgment, which instinct suggests, warns us that the
+woman whose person does not present all the characters of perfect health,
+is in a disposition little favorable to the plan of nature, relatively to
+the maintenance of the species."
+
+The whiteness and the animation of the skin, however, do not alone
+constitute its beauty: there is still another quality which is absolutely
+necessary to it. This is the softness and the polish which, as the reader
+has seen, is one of the first conditions of physical beauty. In woman,
+this is probably derived from a slight degree of oleaginous secretion.
+Hence, she has few asperities of the skin, especially on the surface of
+the bosom, and other parts, where the skin is excessively smooth.
+
+Brown women, who probably have more of this oleaginous secretion, are said
+to possess in a greater degree the polish of skin which gives impressions
+so agreeable to the organ of touch; and hence, Winckelmann has said that
+persons who prefer brown women to fair ones allow themselves to be
+captivated by the touch rather than the sight. There is reason, however,
+to doubt the accuracy of this. Brown women appear to have greater
+softness, but less smoothness of skin.
+
+The body of woman is nearly deprived of hairs upon all parts, except the
+head, axillae, &c.; and the hair of her head is generally long, fine, and
+flexible.
+
+The quantity and the color of the hair are always in relation to the
+constitution of the individual to which it belongs, and generally to the
+temperature of the place. The people of northern countries have the hair
+of a silken fineness and of surprising length.
+
+The hair which is most admired is not only very fine and flexible, but
+light colored. Fair golden hair was, of all its teints, that which the
+ancient artists preferred.
+
+In woman, the hair of the head whitens and falls later than in man.
+
+It is curious that, in regard to the hair, the distinctive characters of
+the sexes should not always have been preserved. Though nature gives long
+hair to woman, it has sometimes been the fashion to wear it short; and
+though man has naturally shorter hair, it has sometimes been the fashion
+to cherish its growth, and to shave the beard from his face. The latter
+has especially been the case in degenerate and effeminate times; and this
+has sometimes been accompanied by remarkable consequences.
+
+One of the greatest misfortunes, says a French writer, which France ever
+had to lament, the divorce of Louis le Jeune from Elinor of Guyenne,
+resulted from the fashion, which this prince wished to introduce, of
+shaving his chin and cropping his head. The queen, his wife, who appears
+to have possessed, with a masculine beauty, considerable acuteness of
+intellect, observed with some displeasure, that she imagined herself to
+have espoused a monarch, not a monk. The obstinacy of Louis in shaving
+himself, and the horror conceived by Elinor at the sight of a beardless
+chin, occasioned France the loss of those fine provinces which constituted
+the dowry of this princess; and which, devolving to England by a second
+marriage, became the source of wars which desolated France during four
+hundred years.
+
+The habit of wearing the beard is a manly and noble one. Nature made it
+distinctive of the male and female; and its abandonment has commonly been
+accompanied not only by periods of general effeminacy, but even by the
+decline and fall of states. They were bearded Romans who conquered the
+then beardless Greeks; they were bearded Goths who vanquished the then
+beardless Romans; and they are bearded Tartars who now promise once more
+to inundate the regions occupied by the shaven and effeminate people of
+western Europe.
+
+In farther illustration of the manliness of this habit we may observe,
+that throughout Europe, wars have generally led to its temporary and
+partial introduction, as at the present day. Those assuredly blunder, who
+ridicule the wearing of the beard. Silly affectation, on the contrary, is
+imputable only to those who, by removing the beard, take the trouble so
+far to emasculate themselves! and who think themselves beautified by an
+unnatural imitation of the smoother face of woman!
+
+As appendages of the skin, the nails may here be noticed. Their beauty
+consists in their figure, their surface, and their color.
+
+By their figure, they serve as a defence to the delicate extremities of
+the fingers, which would otherwise be easily hurt against hard bodies.
+They form at once shields and supporting arches to the fingers; and they
+give facility in laying hold of bodies which would escape from their
+smallness. They ought accordingly to be arched, and to extend as far as
+the flesh which terminates the fingers.--The form of the nails depends
+much on the care employed in cutting them during infancy, and still more
+on the mode of employing the hand.
+
+The nails ought also to be smooth and polished, somewhat transparent, and
+rose-colored. Their rosy color seems to show that their texture has less
+density and more transparence.
+
+It is in this view of the nutritive system and the characteristics which
+render it beautiful, and especially after this portion of it which regards
+the organs and functions of secretion, that the mammae and their beauty
+should be considered.
+
+In woman, the bust is smaller and more rounded than in man; and it is
+distinguished by the volume and the elegant form of the bosom.
+
+The external and elevated position of the mammae is by far the most
+suitable for a nursling, which, no longer deriving subsistence from within
+the mother, nor yet able of itself to find it without, must be gently and
+softly borne toward her; an admirable position, says a French writer,
+"which, in keeping the infant under the eyes and in the arms of the
+mother, establishes between them an interesting exchange of tenderness, of
+cares, and of innocent caresses, which enables the one the better to
+express its wants, and the other to enjoy the sacrifices which she makes,
+in continually contemplating their object."
+
+According to Buffon, in order that the mammae be well placed, it is
+necessary that the space between them should be as great as that from the
+mammae to the middle of the depression between the clavicles, so that these
+three points form an equilateral triangle.
+
+The two portions of the mammae should be well detached. The whole presents,
+in beautiful models, more elegance than volume; and the areola, it may be
+observed, is red in fair women and deeper colored in brown ones.
+
+Winckelmann observes that, in the antique statues, the mammae terminate
+gently in a point, and that they have always virginal forms, as a
+consequence of the system of the ancient artists, which consists in not
+recalling in the ideal the wants and the accidents of humanity.
+
+Finally on this particular head, I must observe that the reproduction of
+the species is, in woman, the most important object of life, and that
+every thing in her physical organization has evident reference to it. Of
+all the passions in woman, says Richerand, "love has the greatest sway: it
+has even been said to be her only passion. All the others are modified by
+it, and receive from it a peculiar cast, which distinguishes them from
+those of man.... Fontenelle used to say of the devotion of some women,
+'One may see that love has been here.' It has been said, in speaking of
+St. Theresa, '_To love God, is still to love_.' Thomas maintains that,
+'With women a man is more than a nation.'--'Love,' says Madame de Stael,
+'is but an episode in the life of man; it is the whole history of the life
+of woman.'"
+
+The THIRD MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the secreting vessels being active, not only cause the plumpness,
+&c., necessary to beauty, but furnish the mammary and uterine secretions,
+on which progeny is dependant. This must inevitably be followed by
+moderate excretions.
+
+It should not pass unobserved that there exist, in some women, a fair skin
+and dark hair, forming a rather extraordinary and striking combination. As
+such women have the skin remarkably smooth and moist, this is probably
+connected with some peculiarity of secretion and excretion.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is evidently the UNION of all that is good in these varieties which
+renders beauty in the vital system perfect.
+
+This union is nowhere so frequently to be seen, as in England and in
+Holland.
+
+It is curious that cleanliness among women seems necessarily to increase
+with the development of this system; and that, in general slovenliness and
+filth increase as we pass from England and Holland, toward France, Italy,
+Spain, and Portugal, even among women of the highest condition.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Of the temperaments of the ancients, which, as already said, are only
+partial views of some of the varieties I am now describing, two, the
+_phlegmatic temperament_ and the _sanguine temperament_, appear to belong
+fundamentally to _this species_. It has been supposed, that the first
+affects the absorbent, the second the circulating system. They appear to
+me to be exactly opposite affections of the whole nutritive system at
+least.
+
+The phlegmatic temperament may exist in both sexes. The causes which tend
+to develop it, are infancy, humidity with cold, the absence of light,
+indolence, and the feeble influence of the reproductive functions upon the
+general system.
+
+In this temperament, there exists an excess in the proportions of the
+absorbent vessels; the pulse is weak, slow, and soft; there is a
+turgescence of the cellular tissue, and a more marked development of the
+glands; the internal stimulants, having less energy than in the other
+temperaments, life is less active, and all its actions are more or less
+languid; even the uterus is not endowed with suitable energy.
+
+But these characteristics are not confined to the nutritive system: they
+extend to the thinking one. The attention is not continuous; the
+perceptions succeed with some difficulty; the memory is not to be trusted;
+the imagination is weak; and the propensities, the appetites, and the
+passions, are so languid, as to be scarcely capable of troubling the
+quietude and the indolence which depend on such a constitution.
+
+These characteristics of the phlegmatic temperament, present to us forms
+more rounded and less expressive, a general softness, a feeble color of
+the skin, a sort of etiolation, a pale countenance, a light and abundant
+hair, and, generally, an insurmountable inclination to sloth, averse alike
+to labors of the mind and body.
+
+It has been observed, that the sanguine temperament, so generally met with
+among northern nations, is the necessary consequence of the continual and
+very energetic reaction of the powers of circulation, against the effects
+of external cold; that it is only by the constant activity of the heart
+and vessels that calorification can be effected with the necessary vigor:
+and that the effects of this redoubled action are the same to the organs
+of circulation as to the muscles, under the influence of volition;
+exertion in both increasing the power of the organs exerted.
+
+In the sanguine temperament, the lymphatic, circulating, and secreting
+systems appear to be in a sort of equilibrium; the chest is larger, and
+the lungs more voluminous; the circulation is more rapid, the arterial
+predominance is obvious; the pulse is sharp, frequent, and regular; the
+complexion is ruddy; all the vital actions are extremely easy; and the
+health is rarely altered.
+
+The mental functions correspond. The conception is quick; the memory is
+prompt; the imagination is lively; the judgment has more readiness than
+depth and extent; the mind, easily affected by the impressions of outward
+objects, passes rapidly from one idea to another; the tastes,
+propensities, appetites, passions, are equally ephemeral; and there is
+much activity, but the strength is soon exhausted.
+
+In persons of this temperament, the countenance is animated; the hair is
+fair, and inclining to chestnut; the shape is good; the form is softened,
+though distinct; and the muscles are of tolerable consistence, and
+moderate development. The whole appearance is generally so amiable, that
+this temperament may be called that of health, beauty, and happiness.
+
+In the women who present the attributes of their sex with the greatest
+unity, we distinguish, especially during youth and adult age, the traits
+of the sanguine temperament, which may be regarded as the most suitable to
+the organization of woman.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THIRD SPECIES OF BEAUTY--BEAUTY OF THE THINKING SYSTEM.
+
+
+In woman, the organs of sense are proportionally larger, and the
+sensibility is more quick and delicate than in man.
+
+Hence, also, the mental quickness and delicacy of woman are greater. Her
+perceptions succeed with rapidity and intenseness; and the last of them
+generally predominates. In well-organized women, accordingly, the forehead
+and the observing faculties are peculiarly developed.
+
+The general nervous system of woman is likewise far more mobile than that
+of man.
+
+Beauty of the thinking system in woman depends especially upon these
+fundamental facts, and those tendencies of structure, which thus
+distinguish her from man.
+
+In the woman possessing THIS SPECIES of beauty, accordingly, the greater
+development of its upper part gives to the head, in every view, a pyriform
+appearance;--the face is generally oval;--the high and pale forehead
+announces the excellence of the observing faculties;--the intensely
+expressive eye is full of sensibility;--in the lower features, modesty and
+dignity are often united;--she has not the expanded bosom, the general
+plumpness, or the beautiful complexion, of the second species of
+beauty;--and she boasts easy and graceful motion, rather than the elegant
+proportion of the first.--The whole figure is characterized by
+intellectuality and grace.
+
+This species of beauty is less proper to woman, less feminine, than the
+preceding. It is not the intellectual system, but the vital one, which is,
+and ought to be most developed in woman.
+
+
+_First Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+In woman, the nervous extremities appear to be larger than in man; a pulpy
+appearance is more remarkable in them; and the papillae in which they
+terminate, appear to have less rigidity.
+
+The organs of sense are proportionally larger, and more delicately
+outlined. There is indeed in woman more development in the organs of
+sensation, than in that of understanding, reasoning, and judging; while
+the contrary is the case in man. The sensations, accordingly, are in woman
+more acute, and their minute differences are more easily discerned. Man
+reflects more than he feels: woman always feels more than she reflects.
+
+The FIRST MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the organs of sense is proportionally large, and
+the sensibility greater.
+
+It ought to be observed, that though, in woman, when well organized, the
+whole head is proportionally less than in man, yet, the organs of sense
+will be found to be proportionally larger. This sufficiently indicates the
+importance of such proportional development. Upon it, indeed, depend that
+increased sensibility and quickness of observation, which are essential to
+the female character.
+
+
+_Second Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+Of all parts of the brain in woman, when well formed, the forehead,
+especially, is found to be large. Without this, she would have sensibility
+without observation, a most unhappy condition of the nervous system.
+
+In woman, the brain partakes of the softness of all the other parts of her
+structure. The cellular tissue which covers it, and which descends between
+its convolutions, is more abundant, mucous, and loose.
+
+The mind, correspondingly, is more impressed by any new object of thought;
+the whole nervous system is more extensively affected by impressions on
+the brain; the propensity to emotion is stronger, and women are more
+habitually under its influence.
+
+The intimate connexion of the thinking, with a peculiar modification of
+the reproductive faculties, inspires in woman the want of maternity, which
+is more powerful than life, and which renders her capable of every
+sacrifice. Associated with this, are her affection, tenderness, and
+compassion.
+
+Upon the whole, sensibility in woman is greater than understanding; the
+involuntary play of the imagination, more active than its regulated
+combinations; and passion, generally of the gentler kind, predominates
+rather than resolve or determination. She has, therefore, more finesse and
+activity, than depth or force of thought; and her nervous system is also
+more frequently deranged by accidents unknown to man.
+
+The extent of the brain, anteriorly, is measured by the different degrees
+of the opening of an angle, which Camper has called the facial angle; and
+so far it is favorable to woman well conformed; but it gives no notion of
+the magnitude of the brain superiorly, posteriorly, or laterally.[38]
+
+The brain of woman, however, in general, extends a good deal posteriorly
+as well as anteriorly, though it narrows in the former of these
+directions; and, to the proportional length thus acquired, is owing that
+intensity in her functions, which I have just described. Superiorly,
+centrally, and laterally, the brain of woman is generally much less than
+that of man; and hence the want of elevation, depth, and endurance, in her
+mental faculties.[39]
+
+Upon the whole, the brain of woman is less than that of man, and it is
+especially less in its superior, central, and, intellectually considered,
+more important portions.
+
+The SECOND MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the brain is proportionally small. This is an
+evident corollary from what we have just stated as to the first
+modification of this species; for it is not possible that the organs of
+sense should be proportionally large, without the rest of the head being
+proportionally small.
+
+This is not quite conformable with the wishes of phrenology; but we must
+leave any dispute between that art and nature to its own issue. A Venus,
+moreover, with a small, yet beautifully proportioned head, is often seen
+to be the mother of a boy who has a large head; the difference of sex
+causing a vast modification and difference of development.
+
+
+_Third Variety or Modification of this Species of Beauty._
+
+From what has been already said, it may be concluded that, in action or
+conduct, women are less guided by intellect, and are more biased by
+feeling and emotion; and it may also be concluded, that all their
+movements to fulfil the purposes of feeling and emotion, are made in a
+manner more easy and more prompt, though less sustained. This is increased
+by the ready obedience of the muscular fibre, and the relative shortness
+of the stature.
+
+This more easy and less forcible action is perfectly conformable
+physically with the small and elongated form of the cerebel, or organ of
+the will, in woman; as it is morally with the part which woman performs in
+life, and her desire to please, while it is that of man to protect and to
+defend.
+
+Conformably with the smaller size of the cerebel, and especially with its
+smaller breadth (the influence of which is explained in the work last
+referred to), the disposition of woman to sustained exertion, whether
+mental or bodily, is much less; and hence the character "_varium et
+mutabile semper foemina_."
+
+It is, then, the prompt and easily-affected sensibility of woman, not her
+understanding or force of mind, which renders her so eminently fit to be
+interested in infancy, which enables her to surmount maternal pains by the
+sentiment of affection and pity, and which makes agreeable to her the
+cares and the details of housekeeping; and it is this which sometimes
+renders nothing too irksome or too painful for a mother, a wife, or a
+mistress, to endure.
+
+Hence, the constitution of woman is perfectly adapted to these functions;
+hence, her existence is more sedentary than man's; hence, she has more
+gentleness of character than he; and hence, she is less acquainted with
+great crimes.
+
+The THIRD MODIFICATION, therefore, of this species of beauty, is that in
+which the development of the cerebel or organ of the will, as well as the
+muscles which it actuates, is proportionally small.
+
+The situation of this considerable organ is in the back and lower part of
+the head, and may be pretty accurately indicated by saying, that a line
+passing through it would complete, posteriorly, a longer line passing
+backward from the nose through the lower part of the ear.
+
+When this organ, which is that of the will, is high, and more especially
+when it is large, a determination and force seem to be given by it to the
+character, which render it the reverse of feminine.
+
+Having spoken here of the ready exercise of the will in woman, and its
+adaptation to her wish to please, it seems to be here that some
+circumstances dependant on these should be noticed.
+
+With this ready exercise of the will and desire to please, are evidently
+connected the light carelessness, the graceful ease, and the gentle
+softness, which add so much to the power of beauty. Hence, artists give to
+woman the bending form which associates so well with all her
+characteristics; for all feel with Hogarth that undulating lines are more
+or less formed in all movements executed with the intention of expressing
+sentiments of courtesy, respect, benevolence, or love.
+
+But it is grace that we must especially consider here--grace which
+directly emanates from this ready exercise of the will and desire to
+please, especially when combined with observing faculties so perfect and
+so perpetually active as those of woman.
+
+"Gracefulness," says Burke, "is an idea not very different from beauty; it
+consists in much the same thing.... Gracefulness is an idea belonging to
+posture and motion. In both these, to be graceful, it is requisite that
+there be no appearance of difficulty; there is required a small inflexion
+of the body; and a composure of the parts in such a manner, as not to
+encumber each other, nor to appear divided by sharp and sudden angles. In
+this ease, this roundness, this delicacy of attitude and motion, it is
+that all the magic of grace consists, and what is called '_je ne scais
+quoi_.'"
+
+It is not in these mere physical qualities, that all the magic of grace
+consists, which, in the state of Burke's knowledge, he might indeed well
+call "_je ne scais quoi_!" Let the reader hear what is said on this
+subject by a man who could look a little deeper than Burke, and who owed
+no fame to the little art of substituting a flash of words for depth of
+thought, and serving by it a venal purpose as little as the art itself.
+
+"What grace," says Smith, "what noble propriety do we not feel in the
+conduct of those who exert that recollection and self-command which
+constitute the dignity of every passion, and which bring it down to what
+others can enter into! We are disgusted with that clamorous grief, which,
+without any delicacy, calls upon our compassion with sighs and tears, and
+importunate lamentation. But we reverence that reserved, that silent and
+majestic sorrow, which discovers itself only in the swelling of the eyes,
+in the quivering of the lips and cheeks, and in the distant, but affecting
+address of the whole behavior. It imposes the like silence upon us; we
+regard it with respectful attention, and watch over our whole behavior,
+lest, by any impropriety, we should disturb that concerted tranquillity
+which it requires so great an effort to support." This is eloquence,
+indeed.
+
+Alison duly appreciates this earliest definition of grace. "It is," he
+says, "this 'recollection and self-command,' which in such scenes
+constitute what even in common language is called the graceful in behavior
+or deportment; and it is the expression of the same qualities in the
+attitude and gesture, which constitutes, in my apprehension, the grace of
+such gestures or attitudes.... Wherever, in the movements of the form,
+self-command or self-possession is expressed, some degree of grace, at
+least, is always produced.... Whenever in such motions grace is actually
+perceived, I think it will always be found to be in slow, and, if I may
+use the expression, in restrained or measured motions.
+
+"The motions of the horse, when wild in the pasture, are beautiful; when
+urged to his speed, and straining for victory, they may be felt as
+sublime; but it is chiefly in movements of a different kind that we feel
+them as graceful, when, in the impatience of the field, or in the
+curvetting of the manege, he seems to be conscious of all the powers with
+which he is animated, and yet to restrain them, from some principle of
+beneficence or of dignity. Every movement of the stag almost is beautiful,
+from the fineness of his form and the ease of his gestures; yet it is not
+in these or in the heat of the chase that he is graceful: it is when he
+pauses upon some eminence in the pursuit, when he erects his crested head,
+and when, looking with disdain upon the enemy who follows, he bounds to
+the freedom of his hills. It is not, in the same manner, in the rapid
+speed of the eagle when he darts upon his prey, that we perceive the
+grace of which his motions are capable. It is when he soars slowly upward
+to the sun, or when he wheels with easy and continuous motion in airy
+circles in the sky.
+
+"In the personification which we naturally give to all inanimate objects
+which are susceptible of movement, we may easily perceive the influence of
+the same association. We speak commonly, for instance, of the graceful
+motions of trees, and of the graceful movements of a river. It is never,
+however, when these motions are violent or extreme, that we apply to them
+the term of grace. It is the gentle waving of the tree in slow and
+measured cadence which is graceful, not the tossing of its branches amid
+the storm. It is the slow and easy winding which is graceful in the
+movements of the river, and not the burst of the cataract, or the fury of
+the torrent.
+
+"It is only in the perfection of the human system, in the age when the
+form has assumed all its powers, and the mind is awake to the
+consciousness of all the capacities it possesses, and the lofty
+obligations they impose, that the reign of physical grace commences; and
+that the form is capable of expressing, under the dominion of every
+passion or emotion, the high and habitual superiority which it possesses,
+either to the allurements of pleasure or the apprehensions of pain. It is
+this age, accordingly, which the artists of antiquity have uniformly
+represented, when they sought to display the perfection of grace, and when
+they succeeded in leaving their compositions as models of this perfection
+to every succeeding age."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is evidently the UNION of all that is good in the varieties now
+described which renders beauty, in the thinking system, perfect.
+
+This is well illustrated in the Minerva of the Giustiniani gallery, which,
+in this respect, is scarcely the less valuable because it is draped, for
+it is the head that ever bears the greatest impress of intellectuality.
+
+This union is by no means perfect in the English female head, although,
+from the considerable development of the forehead and the moderate one of
+the backhead, the general form of that head is beautiful. As to the French
+female head, a Frenchman, writing under the name of Count Stendhal,
+scruples not to say: "The form of the head in Paris is ugly; the cranium
+approaches to that of the ape; and this occasions the women to have the
+appearance of age very early in life." The women of Paris differ not, in
+this respect, from those of France generally. Nearly all have the
+character here described.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is under this species that the _nervous temperament_ falls, which is
+constituted by great sensibility and corresponding mobility, and therefore
+belongs to the _first and the last of those varieties_; a temperament
+chiefly to be found among women.
+
+This temperament scarcely exists in the athletic, is weak in the
+phlegmatic, is moderate in the sanguine, and is rather active in the
+bilious.
+
+It is characterized by the smallness and the emaciation of the muscles,
+the quickness and intensity of the sensations, and the suddenness and
+fickleness of the determinations.
+
+It is seldom natural, but commonly depends on a sedentary and inactive
+life, on a diseased condition of the brain produced by reading works of
+imagination, and on habits of sensual indulgence. In confirmation of this,
+we are told that the Roman ladies became subject to nervous affections
+only in consequence of those depraved manners which marked the decline of
+the empire; and that these affections were extremely common in France in
+the licentious times preceding the fall of the corrupt and corrupting
+monarchy.
+
+Another partial view falling under this species, and properly under the
+_second variety_, is the _cerebral temperament_, which results from the
+energy and influence of the brain.
+
+This temperament, being thus determined by an excess in the power of the
+brain, has been called the temperament of genius. When it is increased by
+education and habits, the other organs are generally more feeble.
+
+In woman, the cerebral temperament is more particularly characterized by a
+predominance of imagination, which is evidently dependant on the
+organization which has already been described.
+
+It has been truly observed, that to contribute to the perfection of reason
+as well as to the preservation of health, the brain ought to be exercised
+and developed in every direction; that the mere exercise of memory
+carried too far renders persons foolish; that the predominance of
+imagination disposes to nervous affections, and even to alienation; that
+meditation alters the digestive functions; and that the dry and minute
+contention which business requires, disposes, when joined to a defect of
+exercise (and I may add the vinous excesses in which men of business
+indulge), to apoplexy and to paralysis.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+BEAUTY OF THE FACE IN PARTICULAR.
+
+
+"It is probable," says Dr. Prichard, "that the natural idea of the
+beautiful in the human person has been more or less distorted in almost
+every nation. Peculiar characters of countenance, in many countries,
+accidentally enter into the ideal standard. This observation has been made
+particularly of the negroes of Africa, who are said to consider a flat
+nose and thick lips as principal ingredients of beauty; and we are
+informed by Pallas that the Kalmucs[40] esteem no face as handsome, which
+has not the eyes in angular position, and the other characteristics of
+their race. The Aztecs of Mexico have ever preferred a depressed
+forehead,[41] which forms the strongest contrast to the majestic contour
+of the Grecian busts: the former represented their divinities with a head
+more flattened than it is ever seen among the Caribs, and the Greeks, on
+the contrary, gave to their gods and heroes a still more unnatural
+elevation."
+
+Knowing, as the reader now does, what constitutes the worth, the dignity,
+and the beauty, of the various organs, this statement tends to show the
+value of that standard of beauty which we owe to the Greeks. I proceed to
+illustrate it in regard to the FACE.
+
+The beauty of the human countenance is described by various writers, as
+including the beauty of form, in the various features of the face; the
+beauty of color, in the shades of the complexion; the beauty of character,
+in some distinctive and permanent relations; and the beauty of expression,
+in some immediate and temporary feeling.
+
+In regard to the form of the face, considered as a whole, the opening of
+the facial angle of Camper, in measuring geometrically the extent of the
+upper part of the head, marks the development of the brain or organ of
+thought, and shows the proportion which it bears to the middle and lower
+part of the face, or to the organs of sense and expression.
+
+This development of the upper part of the head contributes essentially to
+beauty, by giving to the whole head that pyriform appearance already
+described, by which in every view it is larger at the superior part,
+diminishes gradually as it descends, and terminates by the agreeable
+outline of the chin.
+
+In the most beautiful race of men, the facial angle extends to eighty-five
+degrees, acquiring an increase of ten degrees above the inferior
+varieties; the face is diminished; the eyes are better placed; the nose
+assumes a more elegant form; and all appearance of muzzle vanishes.
+
+In the Greek ideal head, the development presenting a facial angle of
+ninety degrees, confers the highest beauty of the form of the head, the
+majesty of the forehead, the position of the eyes upon a line which
+divides the face into two equal parts, the elegant projection of the nose,
+the absence of all tumidity of the lips.--But of that, in the sequel.
+
+In the face, generally, as observed by Winckelmann, beauty of form depends
+greatly upon the profile, and particularly on the line described by the
+forehead and nose, by the greater or less degree of the concavity or
+declivity of which, beauty is increased or diminished. The nearer the
+profile approaches to a straight line, the more majestic, and at the same
+time softer, does the countenance appear, the unity and simplicity of this
+line being, as in everything else, the cause of this grand, yet soft
+harmony.
+
+The face being the seat of several organs, each must be examined in its
+turn.
+
+Winckelmann observes, that "a large high FOREHEAD [an excess, in this
+respect] was regarded by the ancients as a deformity."--And "Arnobius
+says, that those women who had a high forehead, covered a part of it with
+a fillet." The reason of this will afterward be pointed out.
+
+The sense of TOUCH resides in all parts of the face, but especially in
+the lips. It is most perfect, however, at the tips of the fingers.
+
+A thinner skin permits to the touch of woman, more vivacity, delicacy, and
+profoundness. It seizes the details which generally escape the touch of
+man. It is more easily hurt by hard, rough and angular, cold or hot
+bodies.
+
+Hence, woman requires vestments which are light and smooth; and she enjoys
+more than man the pleasure of reposing on flocculent substances which
+softly resist her pressure.
+
+In the face, the lips are peculiarly the organ of touch.
+
+Of all the organs of sense, the mouth admits, I believe, of the greatest
+beauty and the greatest deformity. Considered in repose, nothing certainly
+is more lovely than this organ when beautifully formed in a beautiful
+woman. And in action, during speech, the simplest words passing through it
+receive a charm altogether peculiar.
+
+The mouth ought to be small, and not to extend much beyond the nostrils: a
+large mouth and thick lips are contrary to beauty. The curve of the upper
+lip is said to have served as a model to the ancient artists for the bow
+of Love. The lower lip should be most developed, rounded and turned
+outward; so as to produce, between it and the chin, that beautiful hollow
+which assists so much in giving the latter a more perfect rotundity. Both,
+but especially the upper, should become thin toward the angle of the
+mouth.
+
+Although we see many lips without evident and offensive defects, there
+are very few of them really beautiful; and indeed it is only persons of
+great delicacy and of refined taste who attach the highest value to
+perfect beauty of the lips.
+
+Lips of beautiful form and of vermillion hue, teeth which are small,
+equal, slightly rounded, white, clean, and well arranged, and a pure
+breath, are the circumstances which constitute a beautiful mouth.
+
+The sense of TASTE is more delicate and more exquisite in woman than in
+man. She accordingly seeks for savors which are less rough and irritating
+than those which are agreeable to him.
+
+The NOSE is the most prominent and conspicuous feature of the face; it is
+the central fixed point around which are arranged all its other parts; and
+it is thus essential to the regularity of the features. When these,
+moreover, are in action, the nose, by its immobility, marks the degree of
+change which they undergo, and renders intelligible all the movements
+produced by admiration, joy, sadness, fear, &c.
+
+To perfect beauty of the nose, it is necessary that it should be nearly in
+the same direction with the forehead, and should unite with that part,
+without leaving more than a slight inflexion to be seen. This constitutes
+the Greek profile; and the various degrees of deviation from it
+constitute, as to this organ, the various degenerations from beauty the
+most consummate to ugliness the most disgusting.
+
+Nature says Winckelmann, is sparing of this beauty both in burning
+climates and in frozen regions.[42]
+
+The same writer says: "The flat compressed nose of the Kalmucs, Chinese,
+and other distant nations, is also a defect, because it destroys the
+harmony of forms, according to which all the other parts are constructed:
+nor is there any reason why nature should compress and hollow it, instead
+of continuing the straight line begun in the forehead." The fact is true;
+the reasoning false, as will be seen in a subsequent chapter, to which
+this point properly belongs.
+
+Under the influence of passion, the nostrils expand and are drawn upward;
+and these two motions are the only ones of which the lower and moveable
+part of the nose is capable.
+
+The sense of smell, like that of taste, is more delicate and more
+exquisite in woman than in man. Woman accordingly enjoys more, and suffers
+more, by that sense than man does; and its influence is said to dispose
+her more than man to those pleasures which have remarkable relations to
+that sense.
+
+To beauty of the EYE, magnitude and elongated form contribute more perhaps
+than color: if its form be bad, no color will render it beautiful. In
+woman, however, the most beautiful eyes, in relation to color, are those
+which appear to be blue, hazel, or black. But no color of the eye is
+beautiful without clearness in every part.
+
+"The more obliquely, and at an angle to each other," says Winckelmann,
+"that the eyes are placed, as in cats, the more their position is removed
+from the base, or from the fundamental lines of the human face, which form
+a cross that divides it into four parts, the nose dividing it
+perpendicularly into two equal parts, and the eyes dividing it
+horizontally. When the eyes are placed obliquely, they form an angle with
+a line parallel to that which we suppose to pass through their centre. And
+this indeed is doubtless the reason why it displeases us to see a mouth
+which goes awry, because it generally offends the eye to see two lines
+diverging from each other without any reason. Thus eyes placed obliquely,
+as may be seen sometimes among ourselves, and commonly among the Chinese,
+Japanese, and in Egyptian heads, are an irregularity and a deformity."
+
+Here, again, Winckelmann's fact is true, and his reasoning false, or
+rather, perhaps, superficial. The real cause of the deformity of
+obliquely-placed eyes is, that the vital parts of the head preponderate.
+The cavities of the upper jaw, which open into the internal nose, are, in
+the Mongelic races, so large, that they raise the cheek-bones, throw the
+orbit upward at its lateral part, and encroach apparently upon the space
+which should contain a nobler organ, the brain. The causes assigned by
+Winckelmann are but consequences of this.
+
+The eyelids in woman, when well formed, present the gentlest inflexions.
+The eyelashes, when long and silky, form a sign of gentleness, and
+sometimes of softness. The eyebrows ought to be furnished with fine hairs,
+arched, and separated: if they are too thin, they do not sufficiently
+protect the organ of sight: if they unite, they render the physiognomy
+sombre; their too-marked approximation, and their extreme separation, are
+real deformities.
+
+The sense of sight in woman is rapid and active; yet, in her, the slow and
+languid motion of the eye is generally employed, and is more beautiful
+than a brisk one. Woman requires a mild light, and colors of moderate
+vividness, rather than otherwise.
+
+The beauty of the EAR is too little regarded. To an experienced eye it
+presents great beauties, and great deformities, in form, magnitude, and
+projection.
+
+The size and prominence of the ear, which characterize several nomadic
+tribes, are contrary to beauty, not merely because they alter the
+regularity of the oval of the head, and surcharge its outline with
+prominences, but because they are in themselves ugly, indicating rather
+the coarse strength common to inferior animals than the delicacy to be
+found in man.
+
+In woman, the ear is also more delicate, more sensible, but more feeble,
+than in man. Strong sounds, loud noises, which may be agreeable to the ear
+of man, are offensive to her. She prefers soft and tender, gay, or
+pathetic music, to every other; and whatever may be the perfection of her
+musical education, she also prefers sweet and tender melody to the most
+complicated Sclavonic harmony.
+
+Such are the organs of sense or those of impression, which form the first
+and most important portion of the face of woman.--The organs of
+expression, the MUSCLES of the face, on the contrary, are feeble in her;
+and correspondingly feeble and rounded are the bony points to which they
+are attached.
+
+Woman presents very little prominence of the frontal sinuses; the
+cheek-bones display beautiful curves; the edges of the alveoli containing
+the teeth are much more elliptical than in man; and the chin is softly
+rounded. Of the chin, it should be observed that it is a distinctive
+character of the human species, and is not found in any other animal. When
+well formed, it is full, united, and generally without a dimple; and it
+passes gently and almost insensibly into the neighboring parts. In woman
+especially, the chin ought to be finely rounded; for when projecting, it
+expresses, owing to its connexion with muscular action and power, a
+firmness and a determination which we do not wish to discover in her
+character. "The apparent convexity of the cheeks," says Winckelmann,
+"which in many heads appears greater than natural, contributes to this
+rotundity: it is not, however, ideal, but taken from natural beauty."
+
+The muscles of the face express all the shades of emotion and passion, not
+because such expression is the primary, or the proper object of their
+motion, but because their various motions adapt the organs to the farther
+purposes required of them in consequence of preceding impressions; and
+these motions become expressive to us only because we are thus enabled to
+infer the feeling and purpose of the person in whom they occur. This is a
+fundamental principle of physiognomy; and its not being understood has led
+to many of our errors in that science.
+
+In woman, the countenance is more rounded, as well as more abundantly
+furnished with that cellular and, fatty tissue which fills all the chasms,
+effaces, all the angles, and unites all the parts by the gentlest
+transitions. At the same time, the muscles are feebler, more mobile,
+resigned for a shorter time to the same contraction, and as inconstant as
+the emotions and passions which their rapid play expresses.
+
+The result of all this is, that the muscles do not profoundly modify the
+face, which consequently has not so much of permanent character as that of
+a man, and which permits us more difficultly to discover, through the
+rounded, short, and shifting parts, the nature of her various feelings.
+As, however, the abundance of the cellular tissue diminishes with age, and
+as the sentiments become at the same time less ephemeral, the
+physiognomical character and expression of woman become more decided.
+
+As to COLOR of the face, it may be observed that the forehead, the
+temples, the eyelids, the nose, the upper part of the superior lip, and
+the lower part of the inferior lip, ought in woman to be of a beautiful
+and rather opaque white. The approach to the cheeks and the middle of the
+chin ought to have a slight teint of rose-color, and the middle of the
+cheeks ought to be altogether rosy, but of a delicate hue.--Cheeks of an
+animated white are preferable to those of a red color, although less
+beautiful than those of rosy hue.
+
+With regard to the HAIR, it may be observed, that sometimes, rising from
+its bulbs, it turns in irregular rings, and, by displaying a forehead
+rather large, confers a certain sanguine, as well as open air upon the
+physiognomy. This, however, is most frequently seen in men, and chiefly in
+men of exuberant vitality, rather than intellectuality: it indeed depends
+entirely on the former.
+
+In other men, and almost always in women, the hair generally divides in a
+line extending from the crown to the forehead, and falls over the temples.
+The line thus formed, uniting with the median line, of the face in
+general, and that of the nose in particular, gives to the whole of the
+features a peculiar symmetry and beauty.
+
+I have said, already, that symmetry is a characteristic of thinking
+beings, and I have explained the reason of this. The present case
+admirably illustrates it. This symmetrical arrangement of the hair bestows
+an intellectual air; and it well may, for, when natural, it derives its
+tendency to fall on each side, from the top of the head, either from the
+general elevation of the calvarium, or from the particular elevation of
+the forehead, which is characteristic of beauty in woman.
+
+It accordingly announces in the individual higher observing faculties:
+hence, the ancient sculptors never omitted this in their highest
+personages: hence, we find it in the heads of Raffaelle and Guido.
+
+"A fair hue, [Greek: xanthos]," says Winckelmann, "has ever been regarded
+as the most beautiful; and flaxen-colored hair was assigned to the most
+beautiful, not only among the gods, as Apollo [[Greek: chrysokoman
+Apollona], golden-haired Apollo] and Bacchus, but also among the heroes:
+Alexander the Great had flaxen hair." The modern Italians call Cupid "Il
+biondo Dio."
+
+Having concluded what I have here to say of the parts of the face, I may
+observe, that the _different effects of the same face_, even in a state of
+repose, have often been observed, never explained. I have, however, in
+another work, shown that the face is composed of motive, nutritive, and
+thinking parts or organs. Now, circumstances bring these variously into
+action; and the different effects alluded to, in reality depend on the
+motive, or the nutritive, or the intellectual expression being at the
+time, respectively, most apparent, or most attended to by us. The study of
+this subject, which I have not space here to develop, is of infinite
+importance to the man of taste, the physiognomist, and the artist. The
+latter cannot easily excel without understanding it.
+
+Another curious fact, not hitherto observed, is, that though beauty of
+face is, owing to the power of the vital system, almost universal at a
+certain age, there is always a _faulty feature_, which the physiognomist
+may observe, and which ever continues to exaggerate, until it terminate in
+relative ugliness. Thus we scarcely observe the long upper lip during
+youth, in some women; and yet it afterward gives to them the sober grimace
+of baboons. We admire in youth the spirit of the piercing eye, and
+aquiline nose in others, to whom these afterward give the look of so many
+old hawks. In others, still, we are charmed with the round, rosy, and
+innocent cheeks, which, when they become paler and more pendent, confer on
+them the aspect either of seals or of mastiffs, according to other
+circumstances of temper and disposition. I could easily trace these, and
+many more, from youth to middle age, and illustrate them convincingly, by
+drawings: but I have no room for it here.
+
+Each, indeed, of the subjects of the two immediately preceding paragraphs,
+is worthy of a volume; for the first is as essential to all judgment of
+existing beauty at the instant of its being before us, as the second is to
+all prescience of what beauty will very soon be--to all who have no love
+for a leap in the dark.
+
+I add to this chapter but a few words on the very _different organization
+of the head and face_, and the very different mind, of the Greeks and
+Romans.
+
+Whoever, for the purpose of comparing the heads of these two nations, may
+walk into the British Museum, will be struck with the difference between
+them.
+
+The forehead is almost always rather narrow, and rather high, in the most
+illustrious Greeks; and this could not so uniformly have been so
+represented, in sculpture, unless it had been so also in fact. This is
+verified, in the third room of the Townley collection, by the heads of
+Homer, Hippocrates, Epicurus, Pericles, &c.--by the almost universal
+conformation of Greek heads, to which there are but few exceptions:
+Sophocles, in this room, and Demosthenes, in the eleventh, are rather
+broader.
+
+On the contrary, the forehead, the face, the jaws, are excessively broad,
+and the cranium is depressed and low, in the Romans--in Severus, Nero,
+Caracalla, &c., in the sixth room, and in Tiberius and Augustus, in the
+eleventh; nor is this owing to the circumstance that these generally were
+men degraded in feeling or intellect, for nearly the same configuration is
+found in Trajan, Hadrian, &c., in the fourth, sixth, and other rooms. The
+faces of the Romans are not less ugly than their heads; and those of their
+women are absolutely detestable, as may be seen in Faustina, Plautilla,
+Sabina, Domitia, &c., in the sixth of these rooms.
+
+If farther illustration of this be wanting, it may be found in the
+circumstance that, while the Greeks preferred the rather high forehead,
+and invented the ideal one, the Romans, on the contrary, preferred a
+little forehead and united eyebrows. Ovid assures us that the women of his
+time painted their eyebrows in such a manner, that they might appear to
+form only one.
+
+In the work so often referred to, I have shown that the intensity of
+functions is as the length of their organs, and the permanence of
+functions as the breadth of their organs. No truth can be better
+illustrated than this is, in the organization and the faculties of the
+Greeks and Romans. With the higher and larger head of the Greeks was
+united an intensity of genius, which no other people has yet rivalled; and
+with the broader head of the Romans, a perseverance, equally obstinate and
+unfeeling, which has been similarly unrivalled.
+
+A good illustration of the vaunted Roman virtue is recorded in Porcia, the
+daughter of Cato, the wife of Brutus, who plunged a toilet-knife into her
+thigh, and kept it eight days in the wound, without complaining, to prove
+to her husband that her courage and her discretion rendered her worthy of
+entering into the conspiracy, which he meditated; and who also destroyed
+herself by swallowing burning coals, when she heard of his defeat.
+Obstinacy and insensibility were great sources of the crimes either
+perpetrated, or, by their lying historians, pretended to be perpetrated,
+under the name of Roman virtue.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It would be out of place, here, to enter farther into the character and
+expression of the face. Those whom these remarks dispose to do so, may
+refer to the physiognomical work, which I have been so often compelled to
+allude to.[43] To those who are satisfied, neither with the vague, though
+tasteful inspirations of Lavater, nor with the empyrical or unreasoned
+manifestations of Gall and Spurzheim, but who desire _the assignment of a
+reason for every description of physiognomical character or expression_,
+that work may afford some satisfaction.
+
+That the Greeks, either intuitively or reasonedly, distinguished the three
+species of beauty as to the figure, has been already seen. The heads of
+Diana, Venus, and Minerva, respectively present beauty of the locomotive,
+vital, and mental systems.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+COMBINATIONS AND TRANSITIONS OF THE THREE SPECIES OF FEMALE BEAUTY.
+
+
+As to the COMBINATIONS of beauty, it must now be observed, that some one
+of these species of beauty always characterize the same individual during
+every stage of life; and, to the experienced observer, it never is
+difficult to say which of them predominates. Attention to the preceding
+principles will render this easy.
+
+It is right to mention here the cause of this general predominance of one
+species of beauty over the rest. It depends on this, that the slightest
+original or accidental preponderance of strength in one system above that
+of the rest, though unobserved at first, leads to a more frequent
+employment of its functions, and therefore to a more perfect development
+of its organs, until at last the disproportion between these and those of
+the other systems, becomes characteristic of the individual.
+
+In a truly beautiful woman, none of the systems described can exist in a
+great degree of degradation; but of the three, the nutritive or vital
+system is to woman the most essential. In England, from thirty to forty is
+generally the age of its highest perfection.
+
+It often, however, occurs, that two, or even the whole of these species of
+beauty, are blended in considerable perfection. In those females in which
+it is found, the locomotive system is well developed in the length and
+elegance of the limbs; the vital or nutritive system everywhere presents
+soft forms, and rounds both body and limbs; and the mental or thinking
+system displays a capability of grace in action, notwithstanding the
+constrained attitude assumed to conceal the face.
+
+Although there can indeed be no great degree of beauty in which this
+combination is not more or less the case, yet a union of all the three
+species of beauty, in the greatest compatible degree, is to be found only
+in some of those immortal images of ideal beauty, which were created by
+the genius and the chisel of the Greeks.
+
+Having briefly spoken of these combinations, I may notice also those
+_combinations which similarly occur among the temperaments_, which, as
+already said, constitute partial views of the varieties I have been
+describing.
+
+In relation to a combination of the _phlegmatic_ and _nervous_
+temperament, I may refer to Richerand, who says, that, "among the moderns,
+the easy Michael Montaigne, all of whose passions were so moderate, who
+reasoned on everything, even on feeling, was truly pituitous. But in him
+the predominance of the lymphatic system was not carried so far, but that
+he joined to it a good deal of nervous susceptibility."
+
+Of women, more especially, it is observed, that they rarely present
+examples of the lymphatic temperament, unmodified by nervous mobility;
+whence come extreme vivacity in the sensations with great feebleness,
+determinations equally precipitate and unsteady, excited imagination and
+ephemeral tastes, absolute will, &c.
+
+The _sanguine_ temperament is similarly combined with the _nervous_ one.
+Hence, the physiologist above quoted says, that "to the extreme love of
+pleasure, sanguine men join, when circumstances require it [he should have
+said, in some cases], great elevation of thought and character, and can
+bring into action the highest talents in every department: the history of
+Henry IV., of Mirabeau, and others, proves that."
+
+The ancients gave the name of _bilious_, to a temperament in which the
+sanguineous system is energetic, the pulse strong, hard, and frequent, the
+subcutaneous veins prominent, the development of the liver excessive, the
+superabundance of bile remarkable, the sensibility easily excited, yet
+capable of dwelling upon one object, the passions violent, the movements
+abrupt and impetuous, and the character inflexible. This is evidently a
+very compound temperament, and should never have been classed, any more
+than the two preceding, with the simple temperaments, the athletic or
+muscular, the phlegmatic or lymphatic, the sanguine, and the nervous,
+which I have noticed under the heads to which they belong.
+
+In persons of this temperament, the skin is of a yellowish brown, the hair
+black, the muscles marked, the form harshly expressed. "Bold in the
+conception of a project," says Richerand, "constant and indefatigable in
+its execution, it is among men of this temperament, that we find those
+who, in different ages, have governed the destinies of the world: full of
+courage, boldness, and activity, they have signalized themselves by great
+virtues or great crimes, and have been the terror or admiration of the
+universe. Such were Alexander, Julius Cesar, Brutus, Mahomet, Charles
+XII., the Czar Peter, Cromwell, Sixtus V., Cardinal Richelieu [and, he
+should have added, Bonaparte].... To attain to results of such importance,
+the profoundest dissimulation and the most obstinate constancy are equally
+necessary; and these are the most eminent qualities of the bilious."
+
+A still more compound temperament is the _melancholic_, in which disease
+is added to the bilious temperament, a derangement of the functions of the
+nervous system, and the diseased obstruction of some one of the organs of
+the abdomen, so that the nutritive functions are feebly or irregularly
+performed, the bowels sluggish, the pulse hard and contracted, the
+excretions difficult, the imagination gloomy, the disposition suspicious.
+
+In persons of this temperament, the skin is of a still deeper hue, and the
+look uneasy and gloomy. Rousseau and Tiberius are excellent examples of
+this temperament, as associated with genius and virtue in one, and with
+truly royal vice in the other. In women, this temperament is rarely so
+intense as in men.
+
+Of the TRANSITIONS of beauty, I have now to observe, that, though one
+species of beauty always characterizes the same individual during every
+stage of life, yet it is remarkable, that the young woman (whatever
+species of beauty predominates) has always a tendency to beauty of the
+locomotive system;--that the middle-aged woman has always a tendency to
+beauty of the nutritive system;--and that the woman of advanced age has
+always a tendency to beauty of the thinking system.
+
+Some women would seem, in the progress of life, to pass through all these
+systems (and the more perfect the whole organization, the more will this
+seem to be the case); but the accurate observer will always see the
+predominance of the same system.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PROPORTION, CHARACTER, EXPRESSION, ETC.
+
+
+Winckelmann says: "I cannot imagine beauty without the PROPORTION which is
+always its foundation.--The drawing of the naked figure is founded upon
+the idea and the knowledge of beauty; and this idea consists partly in
+measures and relations, and partly in forms, the beauty of which was, as
+Cicero observes, the object of the first Grecian artists: the latter
+determine the figure; the former fix the proportions."
+
+The great variety of proportions presented by the human body causes much
+difficulty in determining with precision what are the best. The difficulty
+becomes quite insurmountable if we attempt to assign precise dimensions to
+the details of configuration or to minute parts.
+
+Many circumstances are opposed to the exactness of these measures. Even in
+the same person, one part is rarely in all respects similar to the
+corresponding part; we are taller in the morning than in the evening; and
+the proportions change at different periods of life. In different
+individuals, the differences are still more evident. Moreover, habits,
+professions, trades, all unite to oppose regularity in the proportions.
+
+It has farther been observed that, in the conformation of woman, both as
+regards the whole and as regards the various parts, nature still more
+rarely approaches determinate proportions than in man.
+
+It is remarked by Hogarth, whose views I now abridge, that in society we
+every day hear women pronounce perfectly correct opinions as to the
+proportions of the neck, the bosom, the hands, and the arms of other
+women, whom they have an interest in observing with severity. It is
+evident that, for such an examination, they ought to be capable of
+seizing, with great precision, the relation of length and thickness, and
+of following the slight sinuosities, the swellings, the depressions,
+almost insensible and continually varying, at the surface of the parts
+observed. If so, it is certainly in the power of a man of science, with as
+observing an eye, to go still farther, and conceive many other necessary
+circumstances concerning proportion.
+
+But he says: "Though much of this matter may be easily understood by
+common observation, assisted by science, still I fear it will be difficult
+to raise a very clear idea of what constitutes or composes the utmost
+beauty of proportion.... We shall soon find that it is chiefly to be
+effected by means of the nice sensation we naturally have of what certain
+quantities or dimensions of parts are fittest to produce the utmost
+strength for moving or supporting great weights, and of what are most fit
+for the utmost light agility, as also for every degree, between these two
+extremes."
+
+After some illustrations of this, which naturally leave the method very
+vague, he adds: "I am apprehensive that this part of my scheme, for
+explaining exact proportion, may not be thought so sufficiently
+determinate as could be wished." So that Hogarth's method as to
+proportions, both general and particular, reduces itself to the employment
+of the eye and the nice sensation we have of quantities or dimensions.
+
+But the Greek artists had not only done what Hogarth thus vaguely speaks
+of, but advanced much farther; and indeed all that has been done on this
+important subject belongs rather to the history of art than that of
+nature.
+
+"It is not," says Buffon, "by the comparison of the body of one man with
+that of another man, or by measures actually taken in a great number of
+subjects, that we can acquire this knowledge [that of proportion]: it is
+by the efforts which have been made exactly to copy and imitate nature; it
+is to the art of design that we owe all that we know in this respect.
+Feeling and taste have done all that mechanics could not do; the rule and
+the compass have been quitted in order to profit by the eye; all the
+forms, all the outlines, and all the parts of the human body, have been
+realized in marble; and we have known nature better by the representation
+than by nature itself. It is by great exercise of the art of design and by
+an exquisite sentiment, that great statuaries have succeeded in making us
+feel the just proportions of the works of nature. The Greeks have formed
+such admirable statues, that with one consent they are regarded as the
+most exact representation of the most perfect human body. These statues,
+which were only copies from man, are become originals, because these
+copies were not made from any individual, but from the whole human species
+well observed, so well indeed, that no man has been found whose figure is
+so well proportioned as these statues: it is then from these models that
+the measures of the human body have been taken."
+
+It is now necessary to lay before the reader the principles of the Greeks,
+as to the proportions of the human body. Much has been well done on this
+subject by Winckelmann, Bossi, and others; but, at the same time, from
+want of enlarged anatomical and physiological views, they have overlooked
+some fundamental considerations, and have failed to unravel the greatest
+difficulties which the subject presents. That the reader may be satisfied
+of the accuracy of my representations, I shall lay the statements of these
+writers before him in their own words, rendering them only as succinct as
+possible.[44]
+
+Of the first epoch of art among the Etruscans and Greeks, Mengs says:
+"They preferred the most necessary things to those which were less so; and
+therefore they directed their attention first to the muscles, and next to
+_proportion_, these constituting the two parts the most useful and
+necessary of the human form; and this is, throughout, the character of
+their primitive taste. All this we observe in history, and in the divine
+and human figures which they have represented.
+
+"In these figures," he farther observes, "we find a proportion, impossible
+to be known and practised, without an art which furnishes sure _rules_.
+These rules could not be founded otherwise than in proportion, which was
+invented and practised by the Greeks."
+
+In this, Flaxman agrees, when he says: "It must not be supposed that those
+simple geometrical forms of body and limbs, in the divinities and heroes
+of antiquity, depended upon accidental choice, or blind and ignorant
+arbitration. They are, on the contrary, a consequence of the strict and
+extensive examination of nature, of rational inquiry into its most perfect
+organization and physical well-being, expressed in outward appearance."
+
+"That the Greeks," says Bossi, "wrote much on this subject [their doctrine
+respecting symmetry] we have ample evidence in Pliny, Vitruvius himself,
+Philostratus the younger, and others.
+
+"Polycletus did not confine himself to giving a commentary upon this
+fundamental point, but, in illustration of his treatise, according to
+Galen, made an admirable statue that confirmed the precepts laid down in
+the work; and 'The Rule of Polycletus,' the name given to this statue,
+became so famous for its beauty, that it passed into a proverb to express
+a perfect body, as we may find in Lucian.
+
+"But of so many writings, which ought at least to equal the works that
+remain to us, and probably were superior, inasmuch as it is easier to lay
+down precepts than to put them in execution--of so many treatises, I say,
+not a fragment remains [except the few lines of Vitruvius], nor is there,
+now, any hope that a vestige will be found, unless something may remain
+for posterity among the papyri of Herculaneum."
+
+Now, to approach to the ancients in excellence is quite impossible, until
+some one shall explain the great principles on which they acted. Assuredly
+they are, in some of the most important respects, unknown at present.
+Servile imitation will never answer the purpose; and to learn as the
+ancients did, and reach perfection, perhaps, in as many ages, is not very
+rational, when we can avail ourselves of their practice to discover their
+principles. I will, in this chapter, endeavor to point out some of these
+principles in the practice of art, as I have already done in the general
+theory of beauty.
+
+"It is probable," says Winckelmann, "that the Grecian artists, in
+imitation of the Egyptians, had fixed, by well-determined rules, not only
+the largest, but even the very smallest proportions, and the measure of
+the length proper to every age and to every kind of contour; and probably
+all these rules were learned by young persons, from books that treated of
+symmetry."
+
+These rules, we know, were of three kinds--numerical, geometrical, and
+harmonic; and we shall see, in the sequel, that the loss of them has been
+much deplored. It is not a little curious, however, that the numerical and
+geometrical methods are, in some measure, actually practised even at the
+present day, and that the harmonic method (the loss of which has caused
+the greatest confusion) is easily deducible from anatomical and
+physiological principles, as I shall endeavor to show.
+
+As to the NUMERICAL METHOD, it is evidently that of which Vitruvius has
+preserved some notions, and which is at present practised by artists.
+
+"As it is the painter's business," says Bossi, "to imitate a great variety
+of human bodies, and as the difference of parts in beautiful bodies is
+generally slight, and becomes, as it were, imperceptible, in the most
+usual imitations less than life, Leonardo perceived it was necessary for
+the artist to use a general measure, for the purpose of preparing
+historical compositions quickly. He required that the figure to be
+employed should be carefully selected on the model of some natural body,
+the proportions of which were generally considered beautiful.--This
+measure, he required, should be employed solely for _length_, and not for
+width, which requires more evident variety."
+
+"It has been observed," says Flaxman, "that Vitruvius, from the writings
+of the most eminent Greek painters and sculptors, informs us that they
+made their figures eight heads high, or ten faces, and he instances
+different parts of the figure measured according to that rule, which the
+great Michael Angelo adopted, as we see by a print from a drawing of
+his."
+
+Winckelmann, however, shows that the foot served the Greeks as a measure
+for all their larger dimensions, and that their sculptors regulated their
+proportions by it, in giving six times its length, as the model of the
+human figure. Vitruvius says, "_Pes vero altitudinis corporis sextae_."
+
+"The foot," says Winckelmann, "which among the ancients was used as the
+standard of measures of every magnitude (for a given measure of fluids was
+also called by this name), was very useful to sculptors in fixing the
+proportions of the body, and with reason; for the foot was a more
+determinate measure than that of the head or face, of which the moderns
+generally make use. The ancient artists regulated the size of their
+statues by the length of the foot, making them, according to Vitruvius,
+six times the length of the foot. Upon this principle, Pythagoras
+determined the height of Hercules, by the length of the feet with which he
+measured the Olympic stadium at Elis.
+
+"This proportion of six to one between the foot and the body, is founded
+upon experience of nature, even in slender figures: it is found correct,
+not only in the Egyptian statues, but also in the Grecian; and it will be
+discovered in the greater part of the ancient figures where the feet are
+preserved."
+
+"We would not omit mentioning," says Bossi, "the erroneous opinion of
+those, who esteem the feet of females beautiful in proportion to their
+smallness. The beauty of the feet consists in the handsomeness and
+neatness of their shape, not in their being short, or extremely small:
+were it otherwise, the feet of the Chinese and Japanese women would be
+beautiful, and those of the Venus de Medici frightful."
+
+Such, then, is evidently the numerical method of the ancients.--Of the
+GEOMETRICAL METHOD, we have many illustrations.
+
+A man standing upright, with his arms extended, is, as Leonardo da Vinci
+has shown, enclosed in a square, the extreme extent of his arms being
+equal to his height. This is evidently the most general measure of the
+latter kind.
+
+Of the latter kind, also, is Camper's ellipsis for measuring the relative
+size of the shoulders in the male, and the pelvis in the female.
+
+So also is the measure from the centre of one mammae to that of the other,
+as equal to the distance from each to the pit over the breast-bone.
+
+We now approach the chief difficulty, which evidently formed a
+stumbling-block even to Leonardo da Vinci--that HARMONIC METHOD which,
+strange as it may appear, will be found to afford rules that are at once
+perfectly _precise_, and yet infinitely _variable_. The apparent
+impossibility indeed of such a rule seems to have embarrassed every one.
+And the statement which Bossi makes in regard to Leonardo da Vinci, in
+this respect, is exceedingly interesting.
+
+"He thought," says Bossi, "but little of any general measure of the
+species; and that _the true proportion_ admitted by him, and acknowledged
+to be of difficult investigation, is solely _the proportion of an
+individual in regard to himself_, which, according to true imitation,
+should be _different in all the individuals of a species_, as is the case
+in nature. Thus, says he, '_all the parts of any animal should correspond
+with the whole_; that which is short and thick, should have every member
+short and thick; that which is long and thin, every member long and thin;
+and that which is between the two, members of a proportionate size.' From
+this and other precepts, it follows, that, when he speaks of proportion,
+he is to be understood as referring to the _harmony of the parts of an
+individual_, and not to the general rule of imitation in reference to
+dimensions."--How clearly (notwithstanding the error as to _all_ being
+short and thick) does this point to the harmonic method of proportion
+forthwith to be explained?
+
+"It would seem he felt within himself that he did not reach the perfection
+of those wonderful ancients of whom he professed himself the admirer and
+disciple.
+
+"It became, therefore, Leonardo's particular care and study to approach as
+nearly as he could to the ancients in the true imitation of beautiful
+nature under the guidance of philosophy.
+
+"But whether from want of great examples, or from not sufficiently
+penetrating, as he himself thought, into these artifices, or from
+comprehending them too late, he modestly laments that he did not possess
+the ancient art of proportions. He then protests that he has done the
+little he was able to do, and asks pardon of posterity that he has not
+done more. Such are the sentiments that Platino exhibits in the following
+epitaph:
+
+           "Leonardus Vincia (sic) Florentinus
+           Statuarius Pictor que nobilissimus
+                    de se parce loquitur.
+
+  "Non sum Lysippus; nec Apelles; nec Policletus,
+    Nec Zeuxis; nec sum nobilis aere Myron.
+  Sum Florentinus Leonardus Vincia proles;
+    Mirator veterum discipulusque memor.
+  _Defuit una mihi symmetria prisca_: peregi
+    Quod potui: veniam da mihi posteritas."
+
+"It is evident that these sentiments are not to be attributed to the
+imagination of the poet."
+
+Bossi, having no glimpse of the great principles for which Leonardo sought
+in vain, says: "Since, then, this great man could not satisfy himself in
+the difficult task of dimensions, while on other points he seems to dread
+no censure, it should give us a strong idea of the difficulty of
+determining the laws of beautiful symmetry, and preserving it in works
+with _that harmony which is felt, but cannot be explained, and which
+varies in every figure, according to the age, circumstances, and
+particular character of each_.
+
+"And when we recollect that, though Leonardo sought successfully in
+Vitruvius the proportions which Vitruvius himself seems to have drawn from
+the Greeks, he yet lamented that he did not possess the ancient symmetry,
+it is easily seen that he did not mean by this science, as already stated,
+a determinate general measure for man, but _that harmony of parts which
+is suited to each individual, according to the respective circumstances of
+sex, age, character, and the like_." Again, how clearly does this point to
+the harmonic method of proportion to be presently explained!
+
+"But," Bossi proceeds, "how difficult it is to combine the beautiful and
+elegant, with easy and harmonic measures, may be judged from the vain
+attempts of many otherwise ingenious men, as I will here relate for the
+benefit of artists. The difficulty will be still more evident if we
+reflect how arduous a task it is to make the proportions that the Greeks
+denominated numerical, harmonic, and geometrical, agree together, and to
+apply them thus agreeing, to the formation of rules and measures of a
+visible object so various in its component parts as the human body."--In
+despair, Bossi tries to show its absolute impossibility!
+
+"In the second place, to penetrate completely the natural reason of the
+proportions of the human body, would require a knowledge of physics, which
+it is not in man's power to obtain. The universal equilibrium of the
+numerous constituent parts of the human machine, every one of which
+eminently attains the end for which it was destined, without interrupting
+the course that every other part takes to its respective end, in which
+true proportion seems to consist, is more easily stated than understood.
+And even if an artist could arrive at such a knowledge of man as to be
+able, so to speak, to compose him, he would have done but little, because
+he would have made but one man. By the alteration of only one of the
+infinite parts that compose the human frame, the equilibrium and
+respective relation of the others are necessarily altered: in short, each
+separate individual would be the subject of a totally new study.
+
+"Every human habit, of whatever nature it may be, has an influence over
+the human figure, and from the indefinable variety and incalculable
+mixture of such habits, there results an infinite variety of figures.
+Thus, it is evident that true general proportions cannot be laid down
+without violating nature, which it is the object of art to imitate."--If,
+by "general proportions," Bossi here means proportions applicable to all
+or to a great number, he completely loses sight of the object of the great
+man on whose opinions he comments; for he sought _a rule for the harmony
+of parts in each distinct individual_!
+
+Again, Bossi abandons, as impossible, the finding of the harmonic rule,
+which was the great object of Leonardo.--"From what has been said, we may
+finally conclude that large proportions only can be established, and that
+placing too much confidence in measures, retards, rather than favors the
+arts.
+
+"It was written of Raphael, and is seen, that he had as many proportions
+as he made figures. Michael Angelo did the same, and it was his saying,
+that he who had not the compasses in his eye, would never be able to
+supply the deficiency by artificial means. Vincentio Danti, who treasured
+the doctrine of Michael Angelo, asserts in his work, that the proportions
+do not fall under any measure of quantity. We have seen the infinite
+exceptions of Leonardo, respecting the measurement of man, and his own few
+works confirm it. I speak no more of inferior persons among the moderns;
+but turning to the ancients, I find that the proportions of every good
+statue are different."--And this will be found conformable to the harmonic
+rule.
+
+"And speaking generally of works in relievo, what canons can determine the
+largeness or smallness of some parts, so as to obtain a greater effect
+according to the circumstances of light, distance, material, visual point,
+&c.? Certainly none."--This was not to be expected from the rule sought
+for.
+
+"I shall deem that I have gained some recompense for the toil of wading
+through so many tedious works, if it shall induce any faith in the advice
+I now give, namely, that 'every student of painting should himself measure
+many bodies of acknowledged beauty, compare them with the finest
+imitations in painting and sculpture, and from these measures make a canon
+for himself, dividing it in the manner best suited to his genius and
+memory. If this plan were more generally adopted, art and its productions
+would both be gainers.'"--It might do so, among as ingenious a people as
+the Greeks, in as many ages as the same method cost them to do it in!
+Leonardo da Vinci wanted to abridge the time, instead of beginning again!
+
+Winckelmann as little understands this great man's object, when, after
+saying, "As the ancients made ideal beauty their principal study, they
+determined its relations and proportions," he adds "from which, however,
+they allowed themselves to deviate, when they had a good reason, and
+yielded themselves to the guidance of their genius." Why, the whole
+purpose of the rule sought for was to regulate every possible deviation,
+as will now be seen.
+
+The harmonic method of the Greeks--that measure which Leonardo calls the
+"true proportion"--"the proportion of an individual in regard to
+himself"--"which should be different in all the individuals of a species,"
+but in which "all the parts of any animal should correspond with the
+whole," which constitutes "the harmony of the parts of an individual," and
+which, as Bossi adds, "varies in every figure, according to the age,
+circumstances, and particular character of each"--in short, _this method
+for the harmony of parts in each distinct individual--this method
+presenting rules, perfectly precise, and yet infinitely variable_, has, in
+all its elements, been clearly laid before the reader (though not
+enunciated as a rule)--in the relative proportions of the locomotive,
+nutritive, and thinking systems, or, generally speaking, of the limbs,
+trunk, and head, and in the three species of beauty which are founded on
+them.
+
+These, it is evident, present to the philosophic observer, the sole means
+of judging of beauty by harmonic rule, the great object of Leonardo da
+Vinci's desires and regrets. They present the great features of the Greek
+method--if that method conformed to truth and nature, as it undoubtedly
+did. This will be rendered still clearer by a single example.
+
+Thus, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+nutritive system, this harmonic rule of nature demands not only that, as
+in the Saxon-English, the Dutch, and many Germans, the trunk shall be
+large, but consequently, that the other two portions, the head and the
+limbs, shall be relatively small; that the calvarium shall be small and
+round, and the intellectual powers restricted; that the head shall,
+nevertheless, be broad, because the vital cavities of the head are large,
+and because large jaws and muscles of mastication are necessary for the
+supply of such a system; that the neck shall be short, because the
+locomotive system is little developed; that it shall be thick, because the
+vessels which connect the head to the trunk are large and full, the former
+being only an appendage of the latter; that the lower limbs shall be both
+short and slender; that the calves of the legs shall be small and
+high;[45] that the feet shall be little turned out, &c., &c.
+
+So also, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+locomotive system, the harmonic rule demands, not only that the limbs
+shall be large, but, consequently, that the other two portions, the head
+and the trunk, shall be relatively small; that the calvarium shall be
+small and long, and the intellectual powers limited; that the head shall
+be long, because the jaws and their muscles are extended, &c., &c.
+
+So likewise, if any individual be characterized by the development of the
+thinking system, the harmonic rule demands, not only that the head shall
+be large, but, consequently, that the other two portions, the trunk and
+limbs, shall be relatively small; that the head shall not only be large,
+but that its upper part, the calvarium, shall be largest, giving a
+pyramidal appearance to the head; that the trunk and limbs, however
+elegantly formed, shall be relatively feeble, the former often liable to
+disease, the latter to accident, as we have seen in the most illustrious
+examples, &c., &c.
+
+It must be borne in mind, however, as already explained, that there may be
+innumerable combinations and modifications of these characteristics;
+certain greater ones, nevertheless, generally predominating.
+
+Such, doubtless, was the harmonic method of the Greeks; whether, by them,
+it was thus clearly founded on anthropology, or not.
+
+It is curious that several writers, and Winckelmann among the rest, should
+have adopted a triple division of the body--without, however, duly
+founding it in anthropology. Thus Winckelmann says "the entire body is
+divided into three parts, and the principal members are also divided into
+three. The parts of the body are the trunk, the thighs, and the legs!"--a
+distribution and division founded neither in nature nor in truth.
+
+That the Greeks were more or less aware of the principles here stated,
+though their writings have not descended to us, is proved by their
+idealizations founded upon them.
+
+"If different proportions," says Winckelmann, "are sometimes met with in
+any figure, as for example, in the beautiful trunk of a naked female
+figure in the possession of Signior Cavaceppi at Rome, in which the body
+from the navel to the sexual parts is of an uncommon length, it is most
+probable that such figures have been copied from nature, that is, from
+persons so formed."--Nothing certainly would be better founded in natural
+tendency than such idealization.
+
+All the three Greek methods of proportion being now before the reader, I
+must briefly notice other circumstances.
+
+In the head in particular, may be observed CHARACTER, or a permanent and
+invariable form, which defines its capabilities, and EXPRESSION, or
+temporary and variable forms, which indicate its actual functions.
+
+The teachers of anatomy for artists have not, that I know of, clearly
+described the causes of these. I may therefore observe, that as character
+is permanent and invariable, it depends _fundamentally_ on permanent and
+invariable parts--the bones; and as expression is temporary and variable,
+it depends on shifting and variable parts--the muscles.
+
+It is well observed by Mengs that, in relation to character, "the
+peculiar distinction of the ancients is, that from one part of the face,
+we may know the character of the whole." And, of expression, Winckelmann
+observes that "the portion which possesses beauty of expression or action,
+or beauty of both added to the figure of any person, is like the
+resemblance of one who views himself in a fountain; the reflection is not
+seen plainly unless the surface of the water be still, limpid, and clear;
+quiet and tranquillity are as suitable to beauty as to the sea. Expression
+and action being, in art as in nature, the evidence of the active or
+passive state of the mind, perfect beauty can never exist in the
+countenance unless the mind be calm and free from all agitation, at least
+from everything likely to change and disturb the lineaments of which
+beauty is composed."
+
+Now the details which, during the period of perfection in art, were so
+skilfully employed, were these very means of expression or circumstances
+attending and indicating them--minuter forms which are universal, and
+without which nature is imperfectly represented--minuter forms of the
+highest order, because the means of expressing intellect, emotion, and
+passion, if required.
+
+These higher details we find, for instance, in the turn of the inner end
+of the eyebrow, or constriction and elevation of the under eyelid, or a
+hundred other traits dependant on subjacent muscles. We find them in
+slight risings of mere cutaneous parts, when they lie over and are
+elevated by the attachment of muscles, as at the inner angles of the
+eyes, the corners of the mouth, and elsewhere. We find them in
+depressions or furrows, when they are drawn down by contiguous muscles.
+These are of higher character, because they belong to expression or its
+means; and there is a corresponding want of completeness, of truth, of
+nature, without them.
+
+Between these intellectual means, these higher details, and those of a
+lower order, accidental details, the great artists of Greece
+distinguished. Accidental details have nothing to do with expression or
+the means of expression; they depend upon an inferior system, that merely
+of life, and constitute all the depositions, excrescences, and growths,
+which confuse the vision of the inexperienced, and embarrass that of the
+most discriminating, in the examination of higher beauty.
+
+These lower details we find, for instance, in the puffings of adipose
+substance which project from the spaces between the muscles of the face,
+and from other accidents of the vital system, as wrinkles or folds from
+the absence of adipose substance, fulness or emptiness of the vessels,
+projecting veins, peculiar conditions of the skin, turbidity of the eyes,
+hairs of the head, beard, or skin, &c. These have always characterized
+inferior artists and inferior periods of art.
+
+From these observations, it will be seen that such unqualified statements
+as the following by Azara, lead only to misconception: "A human face, for
+example, is composed of the forehead, brows, eyes, nose, cheeks, mouth,
+chin, and beard. These are the great parts; but each of these contains
+many other minor parts, which also contain an infinity of others still
+less. If the painter will content himself to express well the great parts
+which I have taken notice of, he will have a grand style; if he depicts
+also the second, his style will be that of mediocrity; and if he pretends
+to introduce the last, his style will be insignificant and ridiculous."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE GREEK IDEAL BEAUTY.
+
+
+On this important doctrine of art, of which Winckelmann says: "The ideal
+is as much more noble than the mechanical as the mind is superior to the
+body," I shall follow, so far as I can advantageously, the great writers
+on this subject, in order that the reader may have all the confidence in
+its recognised portions that authority can bestow, and that he may the
+better distinguish them from the new views which are here added.
+
+"There are," says Winckelmann, "two kinds of beauty, individual and ideal:
+the former is a combination of the beauties of an individual; the latter,
+a selection of beautiful parts from several.
+
+"The formation of beauty was begun from some beautiful individual, that
+is, from the imitation of some beautiful person, as in the representation
+of some divinity. Even in the ages when the arts were flourishing, the
+goddesses were formed from the models of beautiful women, and even from
+those who publicly sold their charms: such was Theodota, of whom Xenophon
+speaks. Nor was any one scandalized at it, for the opinion of the ancients
+on these matters was very different from ours."
+
+Winckelmann adds: "There is rarely or never, a body without fault, all the
+parts of which are such that it is impossible to find or draw them more
+perfect in other persons. The wisest artists, being aware of this ... did
+not confine themselves to copying the forms of beauty from one individual
+... but seeking what is beautiful from various objects, they endeavored to
+combine them together, as the celebrated Parrhasius says in his discourse
+with Socrates. Thus, in the formation of their figures, they were not
+guided by any personal affections, by which we are frequently led, in the
+pursuit of beauty that pleases us, to abandon true beauty.
+
+"From the selection of the most beautiful parts and their harmonious union
+in one figure, arises ideal beauty: nor is this a metaphysical idea,
+because all the portions of the human figure taken separately are not
+ideal; but merely the entire figure." And he elsewhere says: "It is called
+ideal, not as regards its parts, but as a whole, in which nature can be
+surpassed by art."
+
+With deeper observation still, he adds that, "though nature tends to
+perfection in the formation of individuals, yet she is so constantly
+thwarted by the numerous accidents to which humanity is subject, that she
+cannot attain the end proposed; so that it is in a manner impossible to
+find an individual in whom all parts of the body are perfectly beautiful."
+
+It was to the same purport that Proclus had in ancient times said: "He who
+takes for his model such forms as nature produces, and confines himself
+to an exact imitation of them, will never attain to what is perfectly
+beautiful. For the works of nature are full of disproportion, and fall
+very short of the true standard of beauty. So that Phidias, when he formed
+his Jupiter, did not copy any object ever presented to his sight, but
+contemplated only that image which he had conceived in his mind from
+Homer's description."[46]
+
+In short, while the Greek artists perpetually studied nature, they
+discovered her best and highest tendencies even in her most perfect forms;
+their works accordingly present nothing foreign to that which is strictly
+beautiful; they present not only no inferior forms, but no idle ornaments;
+and everything in them is accordingly at once simple and sublime.
+
+Barry[47] affords me the means of continuing the view I now wish to
+present. "In all individuals," he says, "of every species, there is
+necessarily a visible tendency to a certain point or form. In this point
+or form, the standard of each species rests. The deviations from this,
+either by excess or deficiency, are of two kinds: first, deviations
+indicating a more peculiar adaptation of certain characters of advantage
+and utility, such as strength, agility, and so forth; even mental as well
+as corporeal, since they sometimes result from habit and education, as
+well as from original conformation. In these deviations, are to be found
+those ingredients which, in their composition and union, exhibit the
+abstract or ideal perfection in the several classes or species of
+character. The second kind of deviation is that which, having no reference
+to anything useful or advantageous, but rather visibly indicating the
+contrary, as being useless, cumbersome, or deficient, is considered as
+deformity; and this deformity will be always found different in the
+several individuals, by either not being in the same part, in the same
+manner, or in the same degree. The points of agreement which indicate the
+species, are therefore many; of difference which indicate the deformity,
+few."
+
+Barry, however, wrongly says: "Mere beauty, then, though always
+interesting, is, notwithstanding, vague and indeterminate; as it indicates
+no particular expression either of body or mind." But it indicates the
+highest character, the capability of all noble expression, and this is
+better than its sacrifice to actuality in one.
+
+I am now led to the greater rules which their ideal method suggested to
+the Greeks. Payne Knight indeed says: "Precise rules and definitions, in
+matters of this sort, are merely the playthings or tools of
+system-builders;" and, unchecked by any recollection of the practical and
+unrivalled excellence of the founders of these rules, he adds a great deal
+of narrow-minded and mistaken nonsense upon the subject, never
+distinguishing between rules in themselves rational, and the stretching of
+them to utter inapplicability. On this subject, even Reynolds properly
+observes, that "some of the greatest names of antiquity, and those who
+have most distinguished themselves in works of genius and imagination,
+were equally eminent for their critical skill. Plato, Aristotle, Cicero,
+and Horace; and among the moderns, Boileau, Corneille, Pope, and Dryden,
+are at least instances of genius not being destroyed by attention or
+subjection to rules and science."
+
+But the grossest errors on this subject have been committed by Alison, who
+says: "Artists, in every age, have taken pains to ascertain the most exact
+measurement of the human form, and of all its parts.... If the beauty of
+form consisted in any original proportion, the productions of the fine
+arts would everywhere have testified it; and, in the works of the statuary
+and the painter, we should have found only this sole and sacred system of
+proportion. The fact however is, as every one knows, that, in such
+productions, no such rule is observed; that there is no one proportion of
+parts which belongs to the most beautiful productions of these arts; that
+the proportions of the Apollo, for instance, are different from those of
+the Hercules, the Antinous, the Gladiator, &c.; and that there are not,
+in the whole catalogue of ancient statues, two, perhaps, of which the
+proportions are actually the same."
+
+Now, I believe, we may say that this original or most perfect proportion
+is presented in the Apollo, which is not, as generally supposed, an
+example of _peculiar_, but of _universal_ beauty--the locomotive system
+presenting as much strength as is compatible with agility, and as much
+agility as is compatible with strength, and any other modification of
+either ensuring diminution of power; while the vital and mental systems
+are equally perfect. Wherever this model is deviated from by the ancient
+artists it is _peculiar_ beauty, I believe, that is represented.
+
+He farther says: "They have imagined also various standards of this
+measurement; and many disputes have arisen, whether the length of the
+head, of the foot, or of the nose, was to be considered as this central
+and sacred standard. Of such questions and such disputes, it is not
+possible to speak with seriousness, when they occur in the present times."
+So also Burke says: "It must be likewise shown, that these parts stand in
+such a relation to each other, that the comparison between them may be
+easily made, and that the affection of the mind may naturally result from
+it."
+
+Now, no man in his senses ever cared which of these measures was adopted,
+except as a matter of convenience, or ever imagined that peculiar virtue
+resided in any of them.
+
+The following are some of the principal rules which either by intuition
+or with due definition, resulted from and guided the practice of the
+ancient Greeks.
+
+First, in regard to the THINKING SYSTEM, when the ancient artists, either
+from taste or from principle, gave greater opening to the facial angle
+than eighty degrees, they believed that an increase of intelligence
+corresponded to that conformation. By increasing the angle beyond
+eighty-five degrees, they impressed upon their figures the grandest
+character, as we see in the heads of the Apollo, the Venus, and others
+whose facial angle extends to or exceeds ninety degrees.
+
+In regard to _the forehead_, then, this afforded their rule for
+distinguishing beings of a superior kind. How well they observed the
+tendency of nature to increase that angle with the increase of some of the
+thinking faculties, we now know. This ideal rule was, therefore, admirably
+founded.
+
+Whoever reflects on the nature of this angle will perceive that its
+increase tended nowise to raise the forehead, but to throw it forward, and
+therefore to lengthen the head. This conforms to the metaphor by which a
+_long head_ is used for a _wise head_, and which has not yet given place
+to a _broad head_, preferred by the German craniologists, in compliment to
+their own organization.
+
+With regard to the height of the forehead, it has already been observed
+that it was, among the ancient Greeks, more considerable than its breadth,
+as may be seen by the busts of their most illustrious men. Still, neither
+the natural nor the ideal forehead much exceeded the space from the
+forehead to the bottom of the nose, or that from the nose to the bottom of
+the chin.
+
+Winckelmann accordingly says: "The forehead to be beautiful should be low
+[meaning, as his expressions elsewhere show, no higher than the other two
+spaces just mentioned]; and its lowness was so fixed among the ideas of
+beauty by the Grecian artists, that it serves as a mark to distinguish
+modern heads from ancient. The reason of this appears founded in the very
+rules of proportion, which, as in the whole human body, was among the
+ancients tripartite: thus, the face also was divided into three parts; so
+that the forehead should be of the same length as the nose, and the
+remainder of the face to the chin of the same length likewise. This
+proportion was founded on observation, and we may at any time convince
+ourselves of it in any individual with a low forehead, by covering with a
+finger the hair at the top of the forehead, so as to render it so much
+higher, and we shall then see a want of harmony of proportion and how
+detrimental a high forehead is to beauty."
+
+These views of Winckelmann, the ideal rule which they illustrate, and,
+above all, the actual dimension of the forehead among the philosophers,
+the poets, and the legislators of Greece, whose genius has been unequalled
+in modern times, show the folly of the craniological hypothesis. The
+reason of the ideal rule has not, indeed, been assigned: it appears to me
+to be this, that the three parts of the face which, as I have shown both
+here and in my work on physiognomy, are respectively connected with
+ideas, emotions, and passions, should be equal one to another, or that
+these acts of the organs of sense and brain should be in due proportion
+and harmony. While, therefore, I do not, with the craniologists, seek the
+predominance of any one of them, neither do I, with Giovani de Laet, take
+no notice of the space between the top of the head and the commencement of
+the forehead, and say this part is not to be considered in the height of a
+man, _quia pars excrementosa est_!
+
+Their next rule regarded the form of _the nose_, in nearly the same line
+with the forehead, and with little indentation between these parts.
+
+The foundation of this rule I have not seen pointed out; and it was indeed
+difficult of discovery, without previous knowledge of the physiological
+fact first mentioned in my physiognomical work, namely, that the nose is
+the inlet of vital emotion or pleasure, as the eye is of mental emotion;
+while the passions connected with nutrition and thought respectively,
+depend upon other organs, the mouth and the ear. Anatomists know how
+closely associated are the nose and the eyes, and the mouth and the ears,
+respectively.
+
+Now, as in these ideal representations, their object was to increase the
+means of emotion, but not those of passion, the organs of the former, the
+nose and the eyes, were all, at the same time, enlarged by raising the
+junction of the forehead and the nose; while those of passion, the mouth
+and the ears, were relatively decreased. Not only was the passage of nose
+or of the olfactory nerves to the brain strikingly dilated by this
+elevation of the intermediate part, but the orbits of the eyes were
+enlarged. As then we naturally associate the increase of organs with the
+increase of their sensations and with corresponding effects upon the
+brain, and as the tendency to such configuration is as conspicuous in the
+countries they inhabited, as is the energy of the emotions with which they
+are connected, this rule was as admirably founded as the former in natural
+tendencies.
+
+I deem this a pendant to Camper's discovery of the facial angle, and one
+too which was not quite so obvious or so easy to be made. It disposes of
+this middle or intermediate part of the face, and shows that the Greeks in
+beings of the highest character, desired the gradual predominance of
+emotion over passion, and of ideas or intellect over emotion.
+
+A vague feeling of the curious fact I have here explained, Alison, as a
+man of taste, had, when he said: "Apply, however, this beautiful form, to
+the countenance of the warrior, the bandit, the martyr, &c., or to any
+countenance which is meant to express deep or powerful _passion_, and the
+most vulgar spectator would be sensible of dissatisfaction, if not
+disgust."
+
+In endeavoring to assign a reason for the configuration which I have just
+explained, Winckelmann, in ascribing it to the mere production of effect,
+is driven into a ridiculous inconsistency. He thinks that for large
+statues seen at a distance, it was necessary, and so came to be used for
+small medals seen near, for which it was not necessary.
+
+"In the heads of statues, and particularly in ideal heads, the eyes are
+deeper set: the bulb remains more deep than is usual in nature, in which
+sunken eyes render the countenance austere and cunning instead of calm and
+joyful. In this respect, art has departed with reason from nature; for, in
+figures placed to be seen at a distance, if the bulb of the eye were level
+with the edge of the orbit, there would be no effect produced of light and
+shade; and the eye itself, placed under the eyebrows which do not project,
+would be dull and inexpressive. This maxim, adopted for large statues,
+became in time universal; so that it may be observed even on medals, not
+only in ideal heads but in portraits." And elsewhere he says: "Art
+subsequently established it as a rule to give this form to the eyes even
+in small figures, as may be seen in the heads on coins."
+
+Thus Winckelmann's reason avowedly explains only the half of that to which
+it is applied, and in reality explains nothing, because it leaves a gross
+inconsistency, of which Greek genius was incapable.
+
+Of the general outline thus formed of the face, Winckelmann more truly
+says: "In the formation of the face, the Greek profile is the principal
+characteristic of sublime beauty. This profile is produced by the straight
+line, or the line but very slightly indented, which the forehead and nose
+form in youthful faces, especially female ones. Nature seems less
+disposed to accord this form to the face in cold than in mild and
+temperate climes; but wherever this profile is found, it is always
+beautiful. The straight full line expresses a kind of greatness, and,
+gently curved, it presents the idea of agreeable delicacy. That in these
+profiles exists one cause of beauty is proved by the character of the
+opposite line; for the greater the inflection of the nose, the less
+beautiful is the face; and if, when seen sidewise, it presents a bad
+profile, it is useless to look for beauty in any other view."
+
+A _third rule_ of the Greek artists, in heads of the highest character, is
+greatly illustrated by the new views just stated. If, in these, they
+desired to render ideas and intellect more dominant than emotions of
+pleasure or pain, and emotions more dominant than passion, it becomes
+evident why they equally sought to avoid the convulsions of impassioned
+expression.
+
+A very beautiful object of this, is mistaken by Winckelmann. I quote his
+words:--
+
+"Taken in either sense [of action or of passion], expression changes the
+features of the face, and the disposition of the body, and, consequently,
+the forms which constitute beauty; and the greater the change, the greater
+the loss of beauty. Therefore, the state of tranquillity and repose was
+considered as a fundamental point in the art. Tranquillity is the state
+proper to beauty.
+
+"The handsomest men are generally the most mild and the best disposed.
+
+"Besides, tranquillity and repose, both in men and animals, is the state
+which allows us best to examine and represent their nature and qualities;
+as we can see the bottom of the sea or rivers only when the waves are
+tranquil and the stream runs smoothly.
+
+"Therefore, the Grecian artists, wishing to depict, in their
+representations of their deities, the perfection of human beauty, strove
+to produce, in their countenances and actions, a certain placidity without
+the slightest change or perturbation, which, according to their
+philosophy, was at variance with the nature and character of the gods. The
+figures produced in this state of repose, expressed a perfect equilibrium
+of feeling.
+
+"But, as complete tranquillity and repose cannot exist in figures in
+action, and even the gods are represented in human form, and subject to
+human affections, we must not always expect to find in them the most
+sublime idea of beauty. This is then compensated for by expression. The
+ancient artists, however, never lost sight of it: it was always their
+principal object, to which expression was in some sort made subservient.
+
+"Beauty without expression would be insignificant, and expression without
+beauty would be unpleasing; but, from their influence over each other,
+from combining together their apparently discordant qualities, results an
+eloquent, persuasive, and interesting beauty."
+
+Some of these remarks are true and beautiful; but _the great object of the
+Greeks, in suppressing the convulsions of impassioned expression, was the
+bestowal of grace_, the highest quality in all representation. It is
+surprising that this should have been so universally overlooked, that,
+even among artists, nothing is more common than to hear regrets that the
+Greeks gave so little expression to their figures! Let the reader now
+peruse again Dr. Smith's and Mr. Alison's account of grace, and if he is
+acquainted with the productions of ancient art, he will see that the
+Greeks suppressed impassioned expression only to bestow the highest degree
+of grace. Those, therefore, who complain of this, show themselves ignorant
+of the best object of their art.
+
+If the explanation of this great purpose be clearly borne in mind, the
+remaining observations of Winckelmann will receive a better application
+than that to which he limited them:--
+
+"Repose and tranquillity may be regarded as the effect of that composed
+manner which the Grecians studied to show in their actions and gestures.
+Among them, a hurried gait was regarded as contrary to the idea of decent
+deportment, and partaking somewhat of expressive boldness.... While on the
+other hand, slow and regulated motions of the body were proofs among the
+ancients of a great mind.
+
+"The highest idea of tranquillity and composure is found expressed in the
+representations of the divinities; so that from the father of the gods to
+the inferior deities, their figures appear free from the influence of any
+affection. The greatest of the poets thus describes Jupiter as making all
+Olympus tremble by merely moving his eyebrow or shaking his locks.... All
+the figures of Jupiter are not however made in the same style.
+
+"The Vatican Apollo represents this god quiet and tranquil after the death
+of the serpent Python which he had slain with a dart, and should also
+express a certain contempt for a victory so easy to him. The skilful
+artist, who wished to imbody the most beautiful of the gods, has depicted
+anger in the nose, which according to the most ancient poets was the seat
+of it, and contempt in the lips: contempt is expressed by the drawing up
+of the under lip, and anger by the expansion of the nostrils.
+
+"The expression of the passions in the face should accord with the
+attitude and gestures of the body; and the latter should be suitable to
+the dignity of the gods in their statues and figures: from this results
+its propriety.
+
+"In representing the figures of heroes, the ancient artist exercised equal
+care and judgment; and expressed only those human affections which are
+suitable for a wise man, who represses the violence of his passions, and
+scarcely allows a spark of the internal flame to be seen, so as to leave
+to those who are desirous of it, the trouble of finding out what remains
+concealed.
+
+"We have examples of this in two of the most beautiful works of antiquity,
+one of which is the image of the fear of certain death, the other of
+suffering exceeding anguish.
+
+"Niobe and her daughters, against whom Diana shot her fatal arrows, are
+represented as seized with terror and horror, in that state of
+indescribable anguish, when the sight of instant and inevitable death
+deprives the mind of the power of thought. Of this state of stupor and
+insensibility, the fable gives us an idea in the metamorphosis of Niobe
+into a stone; and hence AEschylus introduces her in his tragedy as stunned
+and speechless. In such a moment, when all thought and feeling ceases, in
+a state bordering upon insensibility, the appearance is not altered nor
+any feature of the face disturbed, and the mighty artist could here depict
+the most sublime beauty, and has indeed done so. Niobe and her daughters
+are, and ever will be, the most perfect models of beauty.
+
+"Laocoon is the image of the most acute grief, that puts the nerves, the
+muscles, and the veins, in action. His blood is in a state of extreme
+agitation from the venomous bite of the serpents; every part of his body
+evinces pain and suffering; and the artist has put in motion, so to speak,
+all the springs of nature, and thus made known the extent of his art and
+the depth of his knowledge. In the representation, however, of this
+excessive torment, we can still recognise the conduct of a brave man
+struggling against his misfortunes, stifling the emotions of his anguish,
+and striving to repress them."
+
+"The ancient artists have preserved this air of composure even in their
+dancing figures, except the Bacchanals; and thus an opinion obtained that
+the action of their figures should be modelled on the manners adopted in
+their ancient dances, and therefore, in their later dances, the ancient
+figures served as a model to the performers to prevent their overstepping
+the bounds of a modest deportment:
+
+      Molli diducunt candida gestu
+  Brachia.                   _Propert._
+
+"No immoderate or violent passions are ever found expressed in the public
+works of the ancients.
+
+"The knowledge of the ancients cannot be better known than by comparing
+their performances with the majority of those of the moderns, in which a
+little is expressed by much, instead of much by a little. This is what the
+Greeks call [Greek: parenthyrsos]; a word that aptly expresses the defect
+produced by too much expression in modern artists. Their figures resemble
+in action the comedians of the ancient theatre, who, to render themselves
+visible even to the most distant portion of the audience, were compelled
+to exceed the limits of nature and truth; and the faces of modern figures
+are like the ancient masks, which for the same reason, the increase of
+expression, became hideous.
+
+"This excess of expression is taught in a book which goes into the hands
+of all young artists, 'A Treatise on the Passions,' by Carlo Le Brun, and
+in the annexed drawings, not only is the highest degree of passion
+expressed on the face, but in some even to madness."
+
+Hence, we may say with Azara, that "the Greeks possessed that art in such
+perfection, that in their statues one scarcely discovers that they had
+thought of expression, and nevertheless each says that which it ought to
+say. They are in a repose which shows all the beauty without any
+alteration; and a soft and sweet motion, of the mouth, the eyes, or the
+mere action, expresses the effect, enchanting at once the mind and the
+senses."
+
+In the inferior beings, however, when passion is expressed, the features
+are varied by the Greek artists as they are in nature.
+
+Such are the great ideal rules with regard to the head and the functions
+of thought.
+
+With regard to the body and the NUTRITIVE SYSTEM, the Greeks similarly
+idealized. "Seeking for images of worship, consequently of a nature
+superior to our own, so that they might awaken in the mind veneration and
+love, they thought that the representations most worthy of the Divinity,
+and most likely to attract the attention of man, would be those expressing
+the continuance of the gods in eternal youth and in the prime of life.
+
+"To the idea derived from the poets, of the eternal youth of the deities,
+whether male or female, was added another by which they supposed the
+female divinities should have all the appearance of virgins.
+
+"The form of the breast in the figures of the divinities, is like that of
+a virgin, which, to be beautiful, must possess a moderate fulness. This
+was particularly shown in the breasts, which the artists represented
+without nipples, like those of young girls, whose cincture, in the poet's
+phrase, Lucina has not yet undone.
+
+On their treatment of the limbs and LOCOMOTIVE SYSTEM, Hogarth throws
+light; and, as I am not aware that he was anticipated in this respect, I
+quote him:--
+
+"May be," he says, "I cannot throw a stronger light on what has been
+hitherto said of proportion, than by animadverting on a remarkable beauty
+in the Apollo Belvidere, which hath given it the preference even to the
+Antinous: I mean a superaddition of greatness, to at least as much beauty
+and grace as is found in the latter.
+
+"These two masterpieces of art are seen together in the same apartment at
+Rome, where the Antinous fills the spectator with admiration only, while
+the Apollo strikes him with surprise, and, as travellers express
+themselves, with an appearance of something more than human; which they of
+course are always at a loss to describe: and this effect, they say, is the
+more astonishing, as, upon examination, its disproportion is evident even
+to a common eye. One of the best sculptors we have in England, who lately
+went to see them, confirmed to me what has been now said, particularly as
+to the legs and thighs being too long, and too large for the upper parts.
+
+"Although, in very great works, we often see an inferior part neglected,
+yet here it cannot be the case, because, in a fine statue, just proportion
+is one of its essential beauties: therefore, it stands to reason, that
+these limbs must have been lengthened on purpose, otherwise it might have
+been easily avoided.
+
+"So that if we examine the beauties of this figure thoroughly we may
+reasonably conclude, that what has been hitherto thought so unaccountably
+excellent in its general appearance, has been owing to what has seemed a
+blemish in a part of it: but let us endeavor to make this matter as clear
+as possible, as it may add more force to what has been said.
+
+"Statues, by being bigger than life (as this one is, and larger than the
+Antinous), always gain some nobleness in effect, according to the
+principle of quantity, but this alone is not sufficient to give what is
+properly to be called greatness in proportion.... Greatness of proportion
+must be considered as depending on the application of quantity to those
+parts of the body where it can give more scope to its grace in movement,
+as to the neck for the larger and swanlike turns of the head, and to the
+legs and thighs, for the more ample sway of all the upper parts together.
+
+"By which we find that the Antinous being equally magnified to the
+Apollo's height, would not sufficiently produce that superiority of
+effect, as to greatness, so evidently seen in the latter. The additions
+necessary to the production of this greatness in proportion, as it there
+appears added to grace, must then be, by the proper application of them to
+the parts mentioned only.
+
+"I know not how farther to prove this matter than by appealing to the
+reader's eye, and common observation, as before.... The Antinous being
+allowed to have the justest proportion possible, let us see what addition,
+upon the principle of quantity, can be made to it, without taking away
+any of its beauty.
+
+"If we imagine an addition of dimensions to the head, we shall immediately
+conceive it would only deform--if to the hands or feet, we are sensible of
+something gross and ungenteel--if to the whole lengths of the arms, we
+feel they would be dangling and awkward--if, by an addition of length or
+breadth to the body, we know it would appear heavy and clumsy--there
+remains then only the neck, with the legs and thighs to speak of; but to
+these we find, that not only certain additions may be admitted without
+causing any disagreeable effect, but that thereby greatness, the last
+perfection as to the proportion, is given to the human form, as is
+evidently expressed in the Apollo."
+
+This is well done by Hogarth. It required but a little anatomical
+knowledge to see the reason of this. The length of the neck, by which the
+head is farther detached from the trunk, shows the independence of the
+higher intellectual system upon the lower one of mere nutrition; and the
+length of limbs shows that the mind had ready obedience in locomotive
+power.
+
+I have now to obviate some OBJECTIONS to the existence of simple, pure,
+high, and perfect ideal beauty, objections, which writers on this subject
+have hitherto neglected.
+
+Alison says: "The proportions of the form of the infant are very different
+from those of youth; these again from those of manhood; and these again
+perhaps still more from those of old age and decay.... Yet every one
+knows, not only that each of these periods is susceptible of beautiful
+form, but, what is much more, that the actual beauty in every period
+consists in the preservation of the proportions peculiar to that period,
+and that these differ in every article almost from those that are
+beautiful in other periods of the life of the same individual."
+
+But the beauty of the infant is not perfect beauty: it is that, on the
+contrary, of mere promise, not that of fulfilment. So also the beauty of
+old age is not perfect beauty: it is that, on the contrary, which affects
+and interests us chiefly by the regret we feel that its perfection has
+passed, or is gradually vanishing.
+
+"The same observation," says Alison, "is yet still more obvious with
+regard to the difference of sex. In every part of the form, the
+proportions which are beautiful in the two sexes are different; and the
+application of the proportions of the one to the form of the other, is
+everywhere felt as painful and disgusting." So also says Burke: "Let us
+rest a moment on this point; and consider how much difference there is
+between the measures that prevail in many similar parts of the body, in
+the two sexes of this single species only. If you assign any determinate
+proportions to the limbs of man, and if you limit human beauty to these
+proportions, when you find a woman who differs in the make and measure of
+almost every part, you must conclude her not to be beautiful in spite of
+the suggestions of your imagination; or in obedience to your imagination
+you must renounce your rules; you must lay by the scale and compass, and
+look out for some other cause of beauty. For, if beauty be attached to
+certain measures which operate from a principle in nature, why should
+similar parts with different measures of proportion be found to have
+beauty, and this, too, in the very same species?"
+
+To this I might say the beauty of woman is not the highest beauty: it is
+beauty of the nutritive more than of the higher thinking system. But there
+is another and a better answer: the difference of sex which affects all
+the higher animals is a greater difference than that which subsists
+between some of their varieties or even of their species; and the same
+laws of ideal beauty are as inapplicable to different sexes as to
+different species.
+
+"We see, every day, around us," says Alison, "some forms of our species
+which affect us with sentiments of beauty. In our own sex, we see the
+forms of the legislator, the man of rank, the general, the man of science,
+the private soldier, the sailor, the laborer, the beggar, &c. In the other
+sex, we see the forms of the matron, the widow, the young woman, the
+nurse, the domestic servant, &c.... We expect different proportions of
+form from the painter, in his representation of a warrior and a shepherd,
+of a senator and of a peasant, of a wrestler and a boatman, of a savage
+and of a man of cultivated manners.... We expect, in the same manner, from
+the statuary, very different proportions in the forms of Jove and of
+Apollo [this should have been excepted], of Hercules and of Antinous, of a
+Grace and of Andromache, of a Bacchanal and of Minerva," &c.
+
+That, in all these cases, the beauty is partial, is evident from the
+circumstance that what is found in one is wanting in another; and partial
+beauty is not perfect beauty. But this last point has been well stated by
+Reynolds and Barry.
+
+"To the principle I have laid down," says Reynolds, "that the idea of
+beauty in each species of being is an invariable one, it may be objected,
+that in every particular species there are various central forms which are
+separate and distinct from each other, and yet are undeniably beautiful;
+that in the human figure, for instance, the beauty of Hercules is one, of
+the Gladiator another, of the Apollo another [again the same error]; which
+makes so many different ideas of beauty.... It is true, indeed, that these
+figures are each perfect in their kind, though of different character and
+proportions; but still none of them is the representation of an
+individual, but of a class. And as there is one general form, which, as I
+have said, belongs to the human kind at large, so in each of these classes
+there is one common idea and central form, which is the abstract of the
+various individual forms belonging to that class. Thus, though the forms
+of childhood and age differ exceedingly, there is a common form in
+childhood, and a common form in age, which is the more perfect, as it is
+more remote from all peculiarities. But I must add farther, that though
+the most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the human
+figure are ideal, and superior to any individual form of that class, yet
+the highest perfection of the human figure is not to be found in any one
+of them. It is not in the Hercules, nor in the Gladiator, nor in the
+Apollo, but in that form which is taken from all, and which partakes
+equally of the activity of the Gladiator, of the delicacy of the Apollo,
+and of the muscular strength of the Hercules. For perfect beauty in any
+species must combine all the characters which are beautiful in that
+species. It cannot consist in any one to the exclusion of the rest: no
+one, therefore, must be predominant, that no one may be deficient."
+
+"A high degree of particular character," says Barry, "cannot be
+superinduced upon pure or simple beauty without altering its constituent
+parts; this is peculiar to grace only; for particular characters consist,
+as has been observed before, in those deviations from the general standard
+for the better purpose of effecting utility and power, and become so many
+species of a higher order; where nature is elevated into grandeur,
+majesty, and sublimity."
+
+There is AN IDEAL IN ATTITUDE as well as in the form of the head and body.
+
+This ideal is exactly opposed to the academical rule mentioned by
+Dufresnoy, Reynolds, and others, namely, that the right leg and left arm,
+or the left leg and right arm, should be advanced or withdrawn together.
+These are the mere attitudes of progression, not those of expression; and
+the academical rule is only an academical blunder. To anything but
+walking--to the free and unembarrassed expressions of the body, it is,
+indeed, quite inapplicable, and could produce only contortion.
+
+The rule of ideal attitude, which I long ago deduced, both from
+physiological principles, and from the practice of the Greek artists, is
+that all the parts of one side of the body should be advanced or withdrawn
+together; that when one side is advanced, the other should be withdrawn;
+and that when the right arm is elevated, extended, or bent forward, the
+left leg should be elevated, extended, or bent backward--in all respects
+the reverse of the academical rule, so complacently mentioned by
+Dufresnoy, Reynolds, &c.
+
+The foundation of this rule in the necessary balance of the body, and that
+distribution of motion which equally animates every part, must be obvious
+to every one. It is illustrated by the finest statues of the Greeks,
+wherever the expression intended was free and unembarrassed, and even in
+those, as the Laocoon and his sons, where, though the action was
+constrained and convulsive, the sculptor was yet at liberty to employ the
+most beautiful attitude. It is abandoned in these great works, when either
+action embarrassed by purpose, or clownishness, as in the Dancing Faun,
+are expressed.[48]
+
+I have now only to add, with Moreau, that individual beauty, the most
+perfect, differs always greatly from the ideal, and that which is least
+removed from it, is very difficult to be found. Hence, in all languages,
+the epithet _rare_ is attached to beauty; and the Italians even call it
+_pellegrina_, foreign, to indicate that they have not frequently an
+opportunity of seeing it: they speak of "_bellezze
+pellegrine_,"--"_leggiadria singolare e pellegrina_."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE IDEAL OF FEMALE BEAUTY.
+
+"Hominum divumque voluptas, alma Venus."
+
+
+Of this, the most perfect models have been created by Grecian art. Few, we
+are told, were the living beauties, from whom such ideal model could be
+framed. The difficulty of finding these among the women of Greece, must
+have been considerable, when Praxiteles and Apelles were obliged to have
+recourse, in a greater or less degree, to the same person, for the
+beauties of the Venus of Cnidos, executed in white marble, and the Venus
+of Cos, painted in colors. It is asserted by Athenaeeus, that both these
+productions were, in some measure, taken from Phryne of Thespia, in
+Boeotia, then a courtesan at Athens.
+
+Both productions are said to have represented Phryne coming out of the
+sea, on the beach of Sciron, in the Saronic gulf, between Athens and
+Eleusis, where she was wont to bathe.
+
+It is said, that there, at the feast of Neptune, Phryne, in the presence
+of the people of Eleusis, having cast aside her dress, and allowing her
+long hair to fall over her shoulders, plunged into the sea, and sported
+long amid its waves. An immense number of spectators covered the shore;
+and when she came out of it, all exclaimed, "It is Venus who rises from
+the waters!" The people would actually have taken her for the goddess, if
+she had not been well known to them.
+
+Apelles and Praxiteles, we are told, were both upon the shore; and both
+resolved to represent the birth of Venus according to the beautiful model
+which they had just beheld.
+
+Such is said to have been the origin of two of the greatest works of
+antiquity. The work of Apelles, known under the name of Venus Anadyomene,
+was placed by Cesar in the temple of Venus Genitrix, after the conquest of
+Greece. An idea of the sculpture of Praxiteles is supposed to have been
+imperfectly preserved to modern times in the Venus de Medici.
+
+We are farther told, that, after having studied several attitudes, Phryne
+fancied to have discovered one more favorable than the rest for displaying
+all her perfections; and that both painter and sculptor were obliged to
+adopt her favorite posture. From this cause, the Venus of Cnidos, and the
+Venus of Cos, were so perfectly alike, that it was impossible to remark
+any difference in their features, contour, or more particularly in their
+attitude.
+
+The painting of Apelles, it is added, was far from exciting so much
+enthusiasm among the Greeks, as the sculpture of Praxiteles. They fancied
+that the marble moved; that it seemed to speak; and their illusion, says
+Lucian, was so great, that they ended by applying their lips to those of
+the goddess.[49]
+
+"Praxiteles," says Flaxman, "excelled in the highest graces of youth and
+beauty. He is said to have excelled not only other sculptors, but himself,
+by his marble statues in the Ceramicus of Athens; but his Venus was
+preferable to all others in the world, and many sailed to Cnidos for the
+purpose of seeing it. This sculptor having made two statues of Venus, one
+with drapery, the other without, the Coans preferred the clothed figure,
+on account of its severe modesty, the same price being set upon each. The
+citizens of Cnidos took the rejected statue, and afterward refused it to
+King Nicomedes, who would have forgiven them an immense debt in return;
+but they were resolved to suffer anything so long as this statue by
+Praxiteles ennobled Cnidos.... This figure is known by the descriptions of
+Lucian and Cedrenus, and it is represented on a medal of Caracalla and
+Plautilla, in the imperial cabinet of France. This Venus was still in
+Cnidos during the reign of the emperor Alcadius, about four hundred years
+after Christ. This statue seems to offer the first idea of the Venus de
+Medici, which is likely to be the repetition of another Venus, the work of
+this artist." He elsewhere says of the Venus of Praxiteles, it was "the
+most admired female statue of all antiquity, whose beauty is as perfect as
+it is elevated, and as innocent as perfect; from which the Medicean Venus
+seems but a deteriorated variety."
+
+Flaxman states that he himself had seen, in the stables of the Braschi
+palace, a statue which he supposed might be the original work of
+Praxiteles. Strange to tell, nothing is now known of its fate! A supposed
+cast from this, or from a copy of it, conforming to the figure on the
+model of Caracalla, is to be seen at the Royal Academy.
+
+Of the VENUS DE MEDICI, Flaxman says, it "was so much a favorite of the
+Greeks and Romans, that a hundred ancient repetitions of this statue have
+been noticed by travellers. The individual figure is said to have been
+found in the forum of Octavia. The style of sculpture seems to have been
+later than Alexander the Great.
+
+Let us now briefly examine this Model of Female Beauty.
+
+The Venus de Medici represents woman at that age when every beauty has
+just been perfected. "The Venus de Medici at Florence," says Winckelmann,
+"is like a rose which, after a beautiful daybreak, expands its leaves to
+the first ray of the sun, and represents that age when the limbs assume a
+more finished form and the breast begins to develop itself."
+
+The size of the head is sufficiently small to leave that predominance to
+the vital organs in the chest, which, as already said, makes the nutritive
+system peculiarly that of woman. This is the first and most striking proof
+of the profound knowledge of the artist, the principles of whose art
+taught him that the vast head, on the contrary, was the characteristic of
+a very different female personage.[50]--In mentioning the head, it is
+scarcely possible to avoid noticing the rich curls of the hair.
+
+The eyes next fix our attention by their soft, sweet, and glad expression.
+This is produced with exquisite art. To give softness, the ridges of the
+eyebrows are rounded. To give sweetness, the under eyelid, which I would
+call the expressive one, is slightly raised. "The eyes of Venus," says
+Winckelmann, "are smaller, and the slight elevation of the lower eyelid
+produces that languishing look called by the Greeks [Greek: hygron]." To
+give the expression of gladness or of pleasure, the opening of the eyelids
+is diminished, in order to diminish, or partially to exclude, the excess
+of those impressions, which make even pleasure painful. Other exquisite
+details about those eyes, confer on them unparalleled beauty. Still, as
+observed by the same writer, this look is far from those traits
+indicative of lasciviousness, with which some modern artists have thought
+to characterize their Venuses. Love was considered by the ancient masters,
+as by the wise philosophers of those times, to use the expression of
+Euripides, as the counsellor of wisdom: [Greek: te sophia paredrous
+erotas]. One thing must be observed: there is not here, as in some less
+happy representations of Venus, any downcast look, but that aspect of
+which Metastasio, in his Inno a Venere, says:
+
+  "Tu colle lucide
+  Pupille chiare,
+  Fai lieta e fertile
+  La terra e'l mare."
+
+And again:
+
+  "Presto a tuoi placidi
+  Astri ridenti,
+  Le nubi fuggono,
+  Fuggono i venti."[51]
+
+Art still profounder was perhaps shown in the configuration of the nose.
+The peculiar connexion of this sense with love was evidently well
+understood by the great artist; and it is only gross ignorance that has
+made some persons question the appropriateness of that development of the
+organ which is here represented. Not only is smell peculiarly associated
+with love, in all the higher animals, but it is associated with
+reproduction in plants, the majority of which evolve delicious odors only
+when the flowers or organs of fructification are displayed.[52]--Connected,
+indeed, with the capacity of the nose, and the cavities which open into
+it, is the projection of the whole middle part of the face.
+
+In the mouth, also, is transcendent art displayed. It is rendered sweet
+and delicate by the lips being undeveloped at their angles,[53] and by the
+upper lip continuing so, for a considerable portion of its length. It
+expresses love of pleasure by the central development of both lips, and
+active love by the especial development of the lower lip.[54] By the
+slight opening of the lips, it expresses desire.[55]
+
+These exquisite details, and the omission of nothing intellectually
+expressive that nature presents, have led some to imagine the Venus de
+Medici to be a portrait. In doing so, however, they see not the profound
+calculation required for nearly every feature thus imbodied. More
+strangely still, they forget the ideal character of the whole: the notion
+of this ideal head being too small, is especially opposed to such an
+opinion. If more is wanting, it will surely be enough that the other works
+which we are supposed to possess of Praxiteles, the Faun and the Cupid,
+present similar fine details.[56]
+
+Withal, the look is amorous and languishing, without being lascivious, and
+is as powerfully marked by gay coquetry, as by charming innocence.
+
+The young neck is exquisitely formed. Its beautiful curves show a thousand
+capabilities of motion; and its admirably-calculated swell over the organ
+of voice, results from, and marks, the struggling expression of still
+mysterious love.
+
+In short, I know no antique figure that displays such profound knowledge,
+both physiological and physiognomical, even in the most minute details;
+and all who are capable of appreciating these things, may well smile at
+those who pretend to compare with this any other head of Venus now known
+to us.
+
+"With regard to the rest of the figure, the admirable form of the mammae,
+which, without being too large, occupy the bosom, rise from it with
+various curves on every side, and all terminate in their apices, leaving
+the inferior part in each precisely as pendent as gravity demands; the
+flexile waist gently tapering little farther than the middle of the trunk;
+the lower portion of it beginning gradually to swell out higher even than
+the umbilicus; the gradual expansion of the haunches, those expressive
+characteristics of the female, indicating at once her fitness for the
+office of generation and that of parturition--expansions which increase
+till they reach their greatest extent at the superior part of the thighs;
+the fulness behind their upper part, and on each side of the lower part of
+the spine, commencing as high as the waist, and terminating in the still
+greater swell of the distinctly-separated hips; the flat expanse between
+these, and immediately over the fissure of the hips, relieved by a
+considerable dimple on each side, and caused by the elevation of all the
+surrounding parts; the fine swell of the broad abdomen which, soon
+reaching its greatest height, immediately under the umbilicus, slopes
+gently to the mons veneris, but, narrow at its upper part, expands more
+widely as it descends, while, throughout, it is laterally distinguished by
+a gentle depression from the more muscular parts on the sides of the
+pelvis; the beautiful elevation of the mons veneris; the contiguous
+elevation of the thighs which, almost at their commencement, rise as high
+as it does; the admirable expansion of these bodies inward, or toward each
+other, by which they almost seem to intrude upon each other, and to
+exclude each from its respective place; the general narrowness of the
+upper, and the unembraceable expansion of the lower part thus exquisitely
+formed;--all these admirable characteristics of female form, the mere
+existence of which in woman must, one is tempted to imagine, be, even to
+herself, a source of ineffable pleasure--these constitute a being worthy,
+as the personification of beauty, of occupying the temples of Greece;
+present an object finer, alas! than nature seems even capable of
+producing; and offer to all nations and ages a theme of admiration and
+delight.
+
+Well might Thomson say:--
+
+  "So stands the statue that enchants the world,
+  So bending tries to veil the matchless boast,
+  The mingled beauties of exulting Greece."
+
+And Byron, in yet higher strain:--
+
+    "There, too, the goddess loves in stone, and fills
+    The air around with beauty;
+                             within the pale
+    We stand, and in that form and face behold
+    What Mind can make, when Nature's self would fail;
+    And to the fond idolaters of old
+  Envy the innate flash which such a soul could mould:
+
+    We gaze and turn away, and know not where,
+    Dazzled and drunk with beauty, till the heart
+    Reels with its fulness; there--for ever there--
+    Chained to the chariot of triumphal Art,
+    We stand as captives, and would not depart."
+
+
+PROPORTIONS OF THE VENUS DE MEDICI.
+
+     Has seven heads, seven parts, and three minutes in height.
+
+     From the top of the head to the root of the hair, three parts.
+
+     From the root of the hair to the eyebrows, three parts.
+
+     From the eyebrows to the bottom of the nose, three parts.
+
+     From the bottom of the nose, to that of the chin, three parts.
+
+     From the bottom of the chin to the depression between the clavicles,
+     four parts, three minutes and a half.
+
+     From the depression between the clavicles to the lowest part of the
+     breast, ten parts, five minutes.
+
+     From the lowest part of the breast to the middle of the navel, eight
+     parts, three minutes.
+
+     From the middle of the navel to the base of the belly and beginning
+     of the thighs, eleven parts, four minutes and a half.
+
+     From the bottom of the belly to the middle of the kneepan, eighteen
+     parts, two minutes.
+
+     From the middle of the kneepan to the beginning of the flank,
+     twenty-seven parts, three minutes.
+
+     From the middle of the kneepan to the ground, twenty-five parts,
+     three minutes.
+
+     The greatest height of the foot, three parts, five minutes and a
+     half.
+
+     From the neck of the leg to the end of the toes, nine parts and half
+     a minute.
+
+     From the commencement of the humerus to the elbow, twenty parts, two
+     minutes.
+
+     From the elbow to the beginning of the hand, fourteen parts.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the forearm, five parts.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the arm, four parts, five minutes.
+
+     From the depression between the clavicles to the beginning of the
+     deltoid, six parts, four minutes.
+
+     From the depression between the clavicles to the point of the nipple,
+     ten parts and half a minute.
+
+     Between the points of the nipples, eleven parts, two minutes.
+
+     The breadth of the torso, at the level of the lowest part of the
+     breast, fifteen parts, four minutes and a half.
+
+     The least breadth of the torso, at the commencement of the flanks,
+     fourteen parts, one minute.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the torso, at the bottom of the flanks,
+     seventeen parts, five minutes.
+
+     The breadth from the trochanter of one thigh to that of the other,
+     nineteen parts, three minutes.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the thigh, nine parts, five minutes.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the knee, six parts.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the calf of the leg, six parts, three minutes
+     and a half.
+
+     The breadth from one ankle to another, four parts.
+
+     The least breadth of the foot, three parts, three minutes and a half.
+
+     The greatest breadth of the foot, five parts and one minute.
+
+The arms of the Venus de Medici, it should be observed, are of modern
+construction, and unworthy of the figure.
+
+The VENUS OF NAPLES is of altogether a different species of beauty.
+
+That figure represents an ample and rather voluptuous matron, in an
+attitude of scarcely surpassable grace. The character of the face is
+beautiful, in profile especially, and its expression is grave. The mouth
+has much of nature about it, resembling greatly in character that feature
+as seen in Southern Europe; but its expression, though tender, is
+somewhat serious or fretful.
+
+It presents, however, many faults. The head is monstrous. The neck is
+equally so, as well as coarse. The forehead, eyes, nose, and cheeks,
+present none of the finely-calculated details, which surprise and delight
+us in the Venus de Medici. The mammae are not true.
+
+After these, the androgynous being, called the VENUS OF ARLES, is scarcely
+worthy of being mentioned. She derives some grandeur from antique
+character and symmetry, and some from her masculine features. The head is
+monstrous; the neck horrid; the nose heavy; the mouth contemptuous.
+
+Upon the whole, neither the graceful matron of Naples, nor the manlike
+woman of the Louvre, can be brought into competition with the Venus de
+Medici.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+DEFECTS OF BEAUTY.
+
+
+_Defects of the Locomotive System._
+
+1. If the whole figure be either too broad or too tall; because, the first
+is inelegant, and the last unfeminine. Persons who are too tall are
+generally ill at ease and destitute of grace, a greater misfortune to a
+woman than to a man.--Too low a stature is a defect less disagreeable,
+especially for women. If, however, on the one side, it gives prettiness,
+on the other, it deprives of all imposing appearance.
+
+2. If the bones, except those of the pelvis, be not proportionally small;
+because, in woman, this portion of the locomotive system ought to be
+completely subordinate to the vital.
+
+3. If the ligaments, and the articulations they form, be not
+proportionally small; because, in woman, this portion of the locomotive
+system ought also to be completely subordinate to the vital.
+
+Either of the last two defects will produce what is termed clumsiness.
+
+4. If the muscles, generally more slender, feeble, soft and yielding than
+in man, be not large around the pelvis, and delicate elsewhere; because,
+this is necessary, for reasons which will be afterward assigned, as well
+as to permit the ease and suppleness of the movements.
+
+5. If, in a mature female, the length of the neck, compared with the
+trunk, be not proportionally somewhat less than in the male; because, in
+her, the subordination of the locomotive system, the predominance of the
+vital, and the dependance of the mental, are naturally connected with the
+shorter vertebrae and shorter course of the vessels of the neck.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+(The following defects, from 6 to 15 inclusive, have necessarily a
+reference also to the vital system; because, the form and capacity of the
+cavities here spoken of, as formed by the osseous frame of the locomotive
+system, have an obvious relation to the vital organs, which these cavities
+are destined to contain.)
+
+6. If the upper part of the body (exclusive of the bosom) be
+proportionally more, and the lower part of the body less prominent, than
+in man, so that, when she stands perfectly upright or lies on the back,
+the space between the breasts is more prominent than the mons veneris;
+because, such conformation is injurious to impregnation, gestation, and
+parturition.
+
+7. If the shoulders seem wider than the haunches; because, this appearance
+generally arises from the narrowness of the pelvis, and its consequent
+unfitness for gestation and parturition.
+
+8. If, on the contrary, the shoulders be much narrower than the pelvis;
+because, this indicates extreme weakness of the locomotive system.
+
+9. If the shoulders do not slope from the lower part of the neck; because,
+this shows that the upper part of the chest is not sufficiently wide of
+itself, but is rendered angular by the muscularity, &c., of the shoulders.
+
+10. If the upper part of the chest be not relatively short and wide, and
+if it owe not its width rather to itself than to the size of the
+shoulders; because, this shows that the vital organs contained in the
+chest are not sufficiently expanded.
+
+11. If, in youth, the upper part of the trunk, including the muscles
+moving the shoulders, do not form an inverted cone, whose apex is the
+waist; because, in that case, the lightness and beauty of the locomotive
+system are destroyed by the unrestrained expansion of the vital.
+
+12. If the loins be not extended at the expense of the chest above and of
+the limbs below; because, on this depends their capacity to receive organs
+enlarged or displaced during gestation.
+
+13. If the back be not hollow; because, this shows that the pelvis is not
+sufficiently deep to project posteriorly, nor consequently of sufficient
+capacity for gestation and parturition.
+
+14. If the haunches be not widely expanded (as already implied in speaking
+of the shoulders); because, the interior cavity of the pelvis is then
+insufficient for gestation and parturition.
+
+15. If, in consequence of the form of the pelvis, and the arch of the
+pubis being larger, the mons veneris be not more prominent than the
+chest; because, the pelvic cavity is then also insufficient for gestation
+and parturition.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+16. If the thighs of woman be not wider than those of man; because, the
+width of the female pelvis, and the purposes which it serves, require
+this.
+
+17. If the size of the thighs be not large, the haunches as it were
+increasing till they reach their greatest extent at the upper part of the
+thigh, which anteriorly rises as high as the mons veneris, and if the
+knees do not approximate.
+
+18. If the arms and the limbs be not relatively short, if they do not
+taper greatly as they recede from the trunk, and if the hands and feet be
+not small; because, it is the vital system and the trunk, which is by far
+the most important part in the female.
+
+19. If the larynx or flute part of the throat be not small; because their
+magnitude indicates a masculine character.
+
+
+_Defects of the Vital System._
+
+(Defects of the contained vital parts, which have been already implied in
+enumerating those of the containing locomotive parts, are not again
+mentioned here, as the intelligent reader can easily supply these and
+similar omissions.)
+
+1. If, in consequence of marriage taking place before their full growth,
+women remain always of diminished stature, weak, and pale.
+
+2. If the digestive organs being large rather than active, is inconsistent
+with the greater activity and less permanence of all the other functions,
+secretion, gestation, &c., excepted.
+
+3. If the absorbing vessels, being inactive, are insufficient for large
+secretions.
+
+4. If the circulating vessels, being inactive and imperfectly ramified,
+leave the skin cold, opaque, and destitute of complexion.
+
+5. If the secreting vessels, being inactive, furnish neither the plumpness
+necessary to beauty, nor those ovarian, uterine, and mammary excretions on
+which progeny is dependant.
+
+6. If the neck form not an insensible transition between the body and
+head, being sufficiently full to conceal the muscles of the neck and the
+flute part of the throat.
+
+7. If, in a young woman, the mammae, without being too large, do not occupy
+the bosom, and rise from it with nearly equal curves on every side, which
+similarly terminate in their apices; or if, in the mature woman, they do
+not, when supported, seem laterally to protrude somewhat on the space
+occupied by the arms; because, these show that this important part of the
+vital system is insufficiently developed.
+
+8. If the waist, tapering little farther than the middle of the trunk, and
+being sufficiently marked, especially in the back and loins, by the
+approximation of the expanded pelvis, be not also slightly encroached on
+by the plumpness of all the contiguous parts, without however destroying
+its elegance, softness and flexibility; because, this similarly shows
+feebleness in a portion of that system, which is by far the most important
+to woman.
+
+9. If the waist be broader than the upper part of the trunk, including the
+muscles moving the shoulders; because, this indicates that expansion of
+the stomach, liver, and other glands, which is generally the result of
+their excessive use or excitement. It is attended with a common look and
+an inelegant appearance.
+
+10. If the abdomen be not moderately expanded, its upper portion beginning
+to swell out, higher even than the umbilicus, and its greatest projection
+being almost immediately under that point; because, this shows a weakness
+of the vital system, and a disproportion to the parts immediately above.
+
+11. If the abdomen, which should be highest immediately under the
+umbilicus, slope not gently toward the mons veneris, and be more prominent
+elsewhere; because this is the result of that excessive expansion which
+takes place during parturition.
+
+12. If the abdomen, which, as well as being elevated, should be narrow at
+its upper part, become as broad there as below, and lose that gentle
+lateral depression by which it is distinguished from the more muscular
+parts on the sides of the pelvis; because, this indicates the operation of
+the causes mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
+
+13. If a remarkable fulness exist not behind the upper part of the
+haunches, and on each side of the lower part of the spine, commencing as
+high as the waist, and terminating in the still greater swell of the
+distinctly separated hips; the flat expanse between these and immediately
+over the fissure of the hips, being relieved by a considerable dimple on
+each side, caused by the elevation of all the surrounding parts; because,
+it indicates feebleness in that system which is most essential to woman.
+
+14. If the cellular tissue and the plumpness which is connected with it,
+do not predominate, so as to obliterate all distinct projection of the
+muscles; because, this likewise shows that an important portion of the
+vital system is feeble, and it deprives woman of the forms which are
+necessary to love. Nothing can completely compensate, in woman, for the
+absolute want of plumpness. The features of meager persons are hard; they
+have a dry and arid physiognomy; the mouth is without charm; the color is
+without freshness; their limbs seem ill united with their body; and all
+their movements are abrupt and coarse.
+
+15. If plumpness be too predominant; because, it then destroys the
+distinctness of parts, and constitutes an excess productive of
+inconvenience.
+
+16. If that excessive plumpness be broken, as it were, into masses;
+because, it constitutes coarseness of the vital system.
+
+17. If former plumpness have left the previously-filled cellular tissue
+and expanded integuments enfeebled; because, that constitutes flaccidity.
+
+18. If the almost entire absorption of adipose substance have finally left
+the bones angular, the muscles and other parts permanently rigid, and the
+skin dry; because, that indicates decay of the vital system, and
+characterizes age.
+
+19. If the skin be not fine, soft, and white, delicate, thin, and
+transparent, fresh and animated, if the complexion be not pure and vivid,
+if the hair be not fine, soft, and luxuriant, and if the nails be not
+smooth, transparent, and rose-colored; because, these likewise show the
+feebleness of that system which is most important to woman.
+
+
+_Defects of the Mental System._
+
+1. If the head, compared with the trunk, be not less than that of the
+male; because, the mental system, in the female, ought to be subordinate
+to the vital, and the reverse is inconsistent with the healthful and happy
+exercise of her faculties as woman.
+
+2. If the organs of sense be not proportionally larger, when compared with
+the brain, and more delicately outlined than in the male; because,
+sensibility should exceed reasoning power, in the female.
+
+3. If the brain (in other words) be not proportionally smaller, when
+compared with the organs of sense, than in the male; because, reasoning
+power should be subordinate to sensibility in the female.
+
+4. If the cerebel be not proportionally smaller, when compared with the
+organs of sense, than in the male; because, voluntary power should also be
+subordinate to sensibility, in the female.
+
+5. If the cerebel be not narrow and pointed posteriorly, that is, long
+rather than broad (its general form in woman); because, the volitions of
+woman should be intense, not permanent.
+
+6. If the forehead be not large in proportion to the backhead, but on the
+contrary low, or very narrow; because, the former being the seat of
+observation, if the organ be small, the function must be correspondingly
+so, and in that case passion will probably predominate.
+
+7. If the delicacy of the skin permit not to the touch of woman
+corresponding delicacy.
+
+8. If the mouth be not small, or extend much beyond the nostrils, and if
+the lips be not delicately outlined and of vermillion hue.
+
+9. If the nose be not nearly in the same direction with the forehead, or
+if more than a slight inflexion is to be seen.
+
+10. If the eyes be not relatively large and perfectly clear in every part.
+
+11. If the eyelids, instead of an oblong, form nearly a circular aperture,
+resembling somewhat the eye of monkeys, cats, or birds; because, this
+round eye, when large, and especially when dark, is always indicative of a
+bold, and, when small, of a pert insensibility of character.
+
+12. If the eyelashes be not long and silky, and if the eyebrows be not
+furnished with fine hairs, and be not arched and distinctly separated.
+
+13. If the ears be prominent, so as to alter the regularity of the oval of
+the head, or surcharge its outline with prominences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+EXTERNAL INDICATIONS; OR ART OF DETERMINING THE PRECISE FIGURE, THE DEGREE
+OF BEAUTY, THE MIND, THE HABITS, AND THE AGE OF WOMAN, NOTWITHSTANDING THE
+AIDS AND DISGUISES OF DRESS.
+
+
+_External Indications of Figure._
+
+External indications as to figure are required chiefly as to the limbs
+which are concealed by drapery. Such indications are afforded by the walk,
+to every careful observer.
+
+In considering _the proportion of the limbs to the body_--if, even in a
+young woman, the walk, though otherwise good, be heavy, or the fall on
+each foot alternately be sudden, and rather upon the heel, the limbs,
+though well formed, will be found to be slender, compared with the body.
+
+This conformation accompanies any great proportional development of the
+vital system; and it is frequently observable in the women of the Saxon
+population of England, as in the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, &c.
+
+In women of this conformation, moreover, the slightest indisposition or
+debility is indicated by a slight vibration of the shoulders, and upper
+part of the chest, at every step, in walking.
+
+In considering _the line or direction of the limbs_--if, viewed behind,
+the feet, at every step, are thrown out backward, and somewhat laterally,
+the knees are certainly much inclined inward.
+
+If, viewed in front, the dress, at every step, is as it were, gathered
+toward the front, and then tossed more or less to the opposite side, the
+knees are certainly too much inclined.
+
+In considering _the relative size of each portion of the limbs_--if, in
+the walk, there be a greater or less approach to the marching pace, the
+hip is large; for we naturally employ the joint which is surrounded with
+the most powerful muscles, and, in any approach to the march, it is the
+hip-joint which is used, and the knee and ankle-joints which remain
+proportionally unemployed.
+
+If, in the walk, the tripping pace be used, as in an approach to walking
+on tiptoes, the calf is large; for it is only by the power of its muscles
+that, under the weight of the whole body, the foot can be extended for
+this purpose.
+
+If, in the walk, the foot be raised in a slovenly manner, and the heel be
+seen, at each step, to lift the bottom of the dress upward and backward,
+neither the hip nor the calf is well developed.
+
+Even with regard to the parts of the figure which are more exposed to
+observation by the closer adaptation of dress, much deception occurs. It
+is, therefore, necessary to understand the arts employed for this purpose,
+at least by skilful women.
+
+A person having a narrow face, wears a bonnet with wide front, exposing
+the lower part of the cheeks.--One having a broad face, wears a closer
+front; and, if the jaw be wide, it is in appearance diminished, by
+bringing the corners of the bonnet sloping to the point of the chin.
+
+A person having a long neck has the neck of the bonnet descending, the
+neck of the dress rising, and filling more or less of the intermediate
+space. One having a short neck has the whole bonnet short and close in the
+perpendicular direction, and the neck of the dress neither high nor wide.
+
+Persons with narrow shoulders have the shoulders or epaulets of the dress
+formed on the outer edge of the natural shoulder, very full, and both the
+bosom and back of the dress running in oblique folds, from the point of
+the shoulder to the middle of the bust.
+
+Persons with waists too large, render them less before by a stomacher, or
+something equivalent, and behind by a corresponding form of the dress,
+making the top of the dress smooth across the shoulders, and drawing it in
+plaits to a narrow point at the bottom of the waist.
+
+Those who have the bosom too small, enlarge it by the oblique folds of the
+dress being gathered above, and by other means.
+
+Those who have the lower posterior part of the body too flat, elevate it
+by the top of the skirt being gathered behind, and by other less skilful
+adjustments, which though hid, are easily detected.
+
+Those who have the lower part of the body too prominent anteriorly,
+render it less apparent by shortening the waist, by a corresponding
+projection behind, and by increasing the bosom above.
+
+Those who have the haunches too narrow, take care not to have the bottom
+of the dress too wide.
+
+Tall women have a wide skirt, or several flounces, or both of these:
+shorter women, a moderate one, but as long as can be conveniently worn,
+with the flounces, &c., as low as possible.[57]
+
+
+_External Indications of Beauty._
+
+Additional indications as to beauty are required chiefly where the woman
+observed precedes the observer, and may, by her figure, naturally and
+reasonably excite his interest, while at the same time it would be rude to
+turn and look in her face on passing.
+
+There can, therefore, be no impropriety in observing, that the conduct of
+those who may happen to meet the woman thus preceding, will differ
+according to the sex of the person who meets her.--If the person meeting
+her be a man, and the lady observed be beautiful, he will not only look
+with an expression of pleasure at her countenance, but will afterward turn
+more or less completely to survey her from behind.--If the person meeting
+her be a woman, the case becomes more complex. If both be either ugly or
+beautiful, or if the person meeting her be beautiful and the lady observed
+be ugly, then it is probable, that the approaching person may pass by
+inattentively, casting merely an indifferent glance: if, on the contrary,
+the woman meeting her be ugly, and the lady observed be beautiful, then
+the former will examine the latter with the severest scrutiny, and if she
+sees features and shape without defect, she will instantly fix her eyes on
+the head-dress or gown, in order to find some object for censure of the
+beautiful woman, and for consolation in her own ugliness.
+
+Thus he who happens to follow a female may be aided in determining whether
+it is worth his while to glance at her face in passing, or to devise other
+means of seeing it.
+
+Even when the face is seen, as in meeting in the streets or elsewhere,
+infinite deception occurs as to the degree of beauty. This operates so
+powerfully, that a correct estimate of beauty is perhaps never formed at
+first. This depends on the forms and still more on the colors of dress in
+relation to the face. For this reason, it is necessary to understand the
+principles according to which colors are employed at least by skilful
+women.[58]
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much yellow, then yellow
+around the face is used to remove it by contrast, and to cause the red and
+blue to predominate.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much red, then red around
+the face is used to remove it by contrast, and to cause the yellow and
+blue to predominate.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much blue, then blue around
+the face is used to remove it by contrast, and to cause the yellow and red
+to predominate.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much yellow and red, then
+orange is used.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much red and blue, then
+purple is used.
+
+When it is the fault of a face to contain too much blue and yellow, then
+green is used.
+
+It is necessary to observe that the linings of bonnets reflect their color
+on the face, and transparent bonnets transmit that color, and equally
+tinge it. In both these cases, the color employed is no longer that which
+is placed around the face, and which acts on it by contrast, but the
+opposite. As green around the face heightens a faint red in the cheeks by
+contrast, so the pink lining of the bonnet aids it by reflection.
+
+Hence linings which reflect, are generally of the teint which is wanted in
+the face; and care is then taken that these linings do not come into the
+direct view of the observer, and operate prejudicially on the face by
+contrast, overpowering the little color which by reflection they should
+heighten. The fronts of bonnets so lined, therefore, do not widen greatly
+forward, and bring their color into contrast.
+
+When bonnets do widen, the proper contrast is used as a lining; but then
+it has not a surface much adapted for reflection, otherwise it may
+perform that office, and injure the complexion.
+
+Understanding, then, the application of these colors in a general way, it
+may be noticed, that fair faces are by contrast best acted on by light
+colors, and dark faces by darker colors.
+
+Dark faces are best affected by darker colors, evidently because they tend
+to render the complexion fairer; and fair faces do not require dark
+colors, because the opposition would be too strong.
+
+Objects which constitute a background to the face, or which, on the
+contrary, reflect their hues upon it, always either improve or injure the
+complexion. For this and some other reasons, many persons look better at
+home in their apartments than in the streets. Apartments may, indeed, be
+peculiarly calculated to improve individual complexions.
+
+
+_External Indications of Mind._
+
+External indications as to mind may be derived from figure, from gait, and
+from dress.
+
+As to figure, a certain symmetry or disproportion of parts (either of
+which depends immediately upon the locomotive system)--or a certain
+softness or hardness of form (which belongs exclusively to the vital
+system)--or a certain delicacy or coarseness of outline (which belongs
+exclusively to the mental system)--these reciprocally denote a locomotive
+symmetry or disproportion--or a vital softness or hardness--or a mental
+delicacy or coarseness, which will be found also indicated by the
+features of the face.
+
+These qualities are marked in pairs, as each belonging to its respective
+system; for, without this, there can be no accurate or useful observation.
+
+As to gait, that progression which advances, unmodified by any lateral
+movement of the body, or any perpendicular rising of the head, and which
+belongs exclusively to the locomotive system--or that soft lateral rolling
+of the body, which belongs exclusively to the vital system--or that
+perpendicular rising or falling of the head at every impulse to step,
+which belongs exclusively to the mental system--these reciprocally
+indicate a corresponding locomotive, or vital, or mental character, which
+will be found also indicated by the features of the face.
+
+To put to the test the utility of these elements of observation and
+indication, let us take a few instances.--If, in any individual,
+locomotive symmetry of figure is combined with direct and linear gait, a
+character of mind and countenance not absolutely repulsive, but cold and
+insipid, is indicated.--If vital softness of figure is combined, with a
+gentle lateral rolling of the body in its gait, voluptuous character and
+expression of countenance are indicated.--If delicacy of outline in the
+figure, be combined with perpendicular rising of the head, levity, perhaps
+vanity, is indicated.--But there are innumerable combinations and
+modifications of the elements which we have just described. Expressions
+of pride, determination, obstinacy, &c., are all observable.
+
+The gait, however, is often formed, in a great measure, by local or other
+circumstances, by which it is necessary that the observer should avoid
+being misled.
+
+Dress, as affording indications, though less to be relied on than the
+preceding, is not without its value. The woman who possesses a cultivated
+taste, and a corresponding expression of countenance, will generally be
+tastefully dressed; and the vulgar woman, with features correspondingly
+rude, will easily be seen through the inappropriate mask in which her
+milliner or dressmaker may have invested her.
+
+
+_External Indications of Habits._
+
+External indications as to the personal habits of women are both numerous
+and interesting.
+
+The habit of child-bearing is indicated by a flatter breast, a broader
+back, and thicker cartilages of the bones of the pubis, necessary widening
+the pelvis.
+
+The same habit is also indicated by a high rise of the nape of the neck,
+so that the neck from that point bends considerably forward, and by an
+elevation which is diffused between the neck and shoulders. These all
+arise from temporary distensions of the trunk in women whose secretions
+are powerful, from the habit of throwing the shoulders backward during
+pregnancy, and the head again forward, to balance the abdominal weight;
+and they bestow a character of vitality peculiarly expressive.
+
+The same habit is likewise indicated by an excess of that lateral rolling
+of the body in walking, which was already described as connected with
+voluptuous character. This is a very certain indication, as it arises from
+temporary distensions of the pelvis, which nothing else can occasion. As
+in consequence of this lateral rolling of the body, and of the weight of
+the body being much thrown forward in gestation, the toes are turned
+somewhat inward, they aid in the indication.
+
+The habit of nursing children is indicated, both in mothers and
+nursery-maids, by the right shoulder being larger and more elevated than
+the left.
+
+The habits of the seamstress are indicated by the neck suddenly bending
+forward, and the arms being, even in walking, considerably bent forward or
+folded more or less upward from the elbows.
+
+Habits of labor are indicated by a considerable thickness of the shoulders
+below, where they form an angle with the inner part of the arm; and, where
+these habits are of the lowest menial kind, the elbows are turned outward
+and the palms of the hands backward.
+
+The habits of many of the inferior female professions might easily be
+indicated; but they would be unsuitable to a work like this.
+
+
+_External Indications of Age._
+
+External indications of age are required chiefly where the face is veiled,
+or where the woman observed precedes the observer and may reasonably
+excite his interest.
+
+In either of these cases, if the foot and ankle have lost a certain
+moderate plumpness, and assumed a certain sinewy or bony appearance, the
+woman has generally passed the period of youth.
+
+If in walking, instead of the ball or outer edge of the foot first
+striking the ground, it is the heel which does so, then has the woman in
+general passed the meridian of life.--Unlike the last indication, this is
+apparent, however the foot and ankle may be clothed.--The reason of this
+indication is the decrease of power which unfits the muscles to receive
+the weight of the body by maintaining the extension of the ankle-joint.
+
+Exceptions to this last indication are to be found chiefly in women in
+whom the developments of the body are proportionally much greater, either
+from a temporary or a permanent cause, than those of the limbs, the
+muscles of which are consequently incapable of receiving the weight of the
+body by maintaining the extension of the ankle-joint.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+A.
+
+Mr. Walker's extravagant admiration of the Grecian mythology has led him
+to over-estimate its influence upon poetry and the arts. That these were
+influenced, in a very important degree, by the religion of Greece, no one
+acquainted with the history of that nation, can doubt; but, that the arts
+cannot exist where the Grecian mythology is not the popular religion, is
+an opinion unsupported by the history of the past, and altogether opposed
+to their present flourishing state in civilized countries. In no age or
+nation has the art of painting, for example, attained higher perfection,
+than in Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries; a period which has been
+called "the golden age of Italian art," and its high excellence has been
+justly attributed to the introduction of Christianity. "The walls and
+cupolas," says a late writer, "of new and splendid churches were
+immediately covered, as if by enchantment, with the miracles of paintings
+and sculpture--the eager multitude were not compelled to wait till genius
+had labored for years on what it had been years in conceiving. Those eager
+spirits seemed to breathe out their creations in full and mature
+beauty--performing at once, by the buoyant energies of well-disciplined
+genius, more than all the cold precision of mechanical knowledge can ever
+accomplish." Allan Cunningham, in his life of Flaxman, the artist,
+speaking of these paintings, remarks: "Into these Flaxman looked with the
+eye of a sculptor and of a Christian. He saw, he said, that the mistress
+to whom the great artists of Italy had dedicated their genius was the
+Church; that they were unto her as chief priests, to interpret her tenets
+and her legends to the world in a more brilliant language than that of
+relics and images. To her illiterate people, the Church addressed herself
+through the eye, and led their senses captive by the external
+magnificence with which she overwhelmed them."
+
+But it is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove this point. Flaxman
+never uttered a truer saying, than when he remarked, that "the Christian
+religion presents personages and subjects no less favorable to painting
+and sculpture than the ancient classics." Accordingly, we find among his
+own immortal productions, that the monument erected in memory of Miss
+Lushington, in Kent, representing a mother mourning for her daughter,
+comforted by a ministering angel, was inspired by that text of holy writ,
+"Blessed are they that mourn;" and the monument in memory of the family of
+Sir Francis Baring imbodies these words, "Thy will be done--thy kingdom
+come--deliver us from evil." To the first motto belongs a devotional
+figure as large as life--
+
+  "Her looks communing with the skies;"
+
+a perfect image of piety and resignation. On one side, imbodying "Thy
+kingdom come," a mother and daughter ascend to the skies welcomed rather
+than supported by angels; and on the other, expressing the sentiment
+"Deliver us from evil," a male figure, in subdued agony, appears in the
+air, while spirits of good and evil contend for the mastery. This has been
+considered one of the finest pieces of motionless poetry in England. We
+hold, then, that Mr. Walker's remark that "neither poetry nor the arts can
+have being, without the religion of Greece," is far from being sustained,
+either by history or observation.
+
+
+B.
+
+The remarks of Mr. Walker, in relation to the duty of parents and
+teachers, seem to us well-founded and judicious. If moral, as well as
+intellectual and physical education, be part of the parental duty, then it
+would seem to follow, that it should embrace those subjects which are of
+the most importance, both to the physical and moral well-being of the
+child; and surely, the relation of the sexes, and the due subjection of
+the animal propensities, are not the least important of these. There is a
+delicacy generally felt and observed on this point, which springs from a
+principle that we honor and respect, while, at the same time, we doubt
+whether it leads to favorable and auspicious results. No one, who looks
+back upon the years of his own childhood, can for a moment doubt that
+judicious advice and seasonable information on certain subjects, which
+were probably considered of a too delicate nature to be even hinted at,
+would have been highly useful. The young will inevitably become initiated
+into certain vices and evil practices, unless put on their guard, by the
+warning voice of those they love and respect. There are a variety of
+passions, affections, and appetites, which belong to our nature, and were
+intended when properly directed and indulged, to promote our interest and
+happiness. Those under consideration, early begin to manifest themselves,
+and, when left without the restraints of enlightened intellect and the
+moral sense, invariably lead to disastrous consequences. The question then
+is, shall the young and inexperienced be left to the mere accidents of its
+condition, without an effort to give it sound principles to govern it, or
+without bringing some conservative influence to bear upon it? We think,
+with Mr. Walker, that it should not. Both philosophy and reason prove the
+danger of such a course. The circumstances which are connected with sexual
+vices cannot be wholly kept out of view. They meet the eye, or are
+suggested to the imagination, at almost every turn. A thousand scenes and
+incidents occur to excite the passions, if the mind is not fortified
+against their influence. Those who are fastidious, and believe that
+delicacy forbids all allusion to such subjects, will say, "Keep the youth
+in ignorance--conceal, if possible, everything from his view, that may
+excite the passions." Still, there remain the constitutional
+susceptibilities; passion and appetite cannot be eradicated, and they will
+often be excited by incidents, which the most wakeful vigilance will not
+detect or suspect. The fact is, that long before parents are aware of it,
+the child has obtained knowledge on these subjects through many corrupt
+channels; and the associations first formed, are destined to exert, ever
+afterward, a powerful influence for evil. The early associations might, by
+judicious instruction on the part of parents, be of such character, as to
+throw around the youth a barrier almost impregnable. As to the _time_ and
+_manner_ of imparting this instruction, it must be left to the wisdom and
+prudence of teachers and parents and, perhaps, as a general rule, it
+should be left wholly to the latter.
+
+
+C.
+
+Much has been written on the nature of beauty, from the divine Plato, who
+dedicated one of his dialogues to this subject, to Lord Jeffries, the
+editor of the Edinburgh Review; who, in his celebrated article in the
+Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, has excelled all previous
+efforts in its elucidation, and produced an essay, which will stand an
+imperishable monument of his taste, learning, and genius. It is not our
+design to enter upon a consideration of beauty in the abstract, or to
+attempt its analysis, as this has been done by our author in a very able,
+if not satisfactory manner. We take it, however, to denote that quality,
+or assemblage and union of qualities in the objects of our perception,
+whether material, intellectual, or moral, which we contemplate with
+emotions of pleasure; and we refer it to that internal sense, which is
+usually called _taste_. When it is asked, why a thing is beautiful, it is
+not always easy to find a satisfactory answer. We find beauty in color, in
+sound, in form, in motion, in everything. We have beauties of speech,
+beauties of thought, beauties in art, in nature, in the sciences, in
+actions, in affections, and in characters. Dr. Reid well asks, "In things
+so different, and so unlike, is there any quality, the same in all, which
+we may call by the name of beauty?" We shall not attempt to fathom this
+difficulty; indeed, it could not be done, without entering upon a
+metaphysical discussion, dry in detail, and uninteresting in result.
+
+When we come to inquire in what _female beauty_ consists, we shall find
+that there is something which enters into it, beside physical goodness. It
+is not a mere matter of flesh and blood; but color, form, expression, and
+grace, are all essential to its perfection. The two first have been called
+the _body_, the two latter, the _soul_ of beauty--and without the soul,
+the body is but a mass of deformed and inanimate matter:--
+
+  "Mind, mind, alone! bear witness earth and heaven,
+  The living fountains in itself contains
+  Of beauteous and sublime. Here, hand-in-hand,
+  Sit paramount the Graces. Here, enthroned,
+  Celestial Venus, with divinest airs,
+  Invites the soul to never-failing joy."
+
+  AKENSIDE
+
+Color and form are only beautiful, because they are expressive of health,
+delicacy, and softness, in the female sex. It has been remarked, that
+expression has greater power than either beauty or form, as it is only the
+expression of the tender and kind passions that gives beauty; that all the
+cruel and unkind ones add to deformity, and that, on their account,
+good-nature may very properly be said to be the best feature, even in the
+finest face. Modesty, sensibility, and sweetness, blended together, so as
+either to enliven or correct each other, give almost as much attraction as
+the passions are capable of adding to a very pretty face. It is owing to
+this force of pleasingness, which attends all the kinder passions, that
+lovers not only seem, but really are, more beautiful to each other than to
+the rest of the world; and in their mutual presence and intercourse, says
+a French writer, there is a soul upon their countenances, which does not
+appear when they are absent from each other or even in company that lays a
+restraint upon their features. Indeed, it will appear that all the
+ingredients of beauty terminate in expression, and this may be, either
+perfection of the body, or the qualities of the mind. Dr. Reid indeed goes
+so far as to say, that beauty originally dwells in the moral and
+intellectual perfections of mind, and in its active powers. Thus beauty
+may be ascribed to all those qualities which are the natural objects of
+love and kind affections, as the moral virtues, innocence, gentleness,
+condescension, humanity, natural affections, and the whole train of soft
+and gentle virtues--qualities amiable in their nature, and on account of
+their moral worth. So also do intellectual talents excite our love and
+esteem of those who possess them; these are knowledge, good sense, wit,
+humor, cheerfulness, good taste, excellence in any of the fine arts--as
+music, painting, sculpture, embroidery, &c. Thus, for example, the beauty
+of good breeding is not originally in the external behavior in which it
+consists, but is derived from the qualities of mind which it expresses;
+for it has been well observed, that though there may be good breeding
+without the amiable qualities of mind, its beauty is still derived from
+what it naturally expresses.
+
+Flaxman has truly said, that neither mind nor any one of its qualities or
+powers, is an immediate object of perception to men. These are perceived
+through the medium of material objects, on which their signatures are
+impressed. The signs of these qualities are immediately perceived by the
+senses, and by them reflected to the understanding; and we are apt to
+attribute to the sign, the beauty which is properly and originally in the
+thing signified. Thus, the invisible Creator hath stamped on his works
+signatures of his divine wisdom, power, and benignity, which are visible
+to all men. The works of men in science, in the arts of taste, and in the
+mechanical arts, bear the signatures of those qualities of mind which were
+employed in their production. Their external behavior or conduct in life,
+expresses the good or bad qualities of their minds. In every species of
+animals we perceive, by visible signs, their instincts, appetites,
+affections, or sagacity; and even in the inanimate world, there are many
+things analogous to the qualities of mind; so that there is hardly
+anything belonging to mind which may not be represented by images taken
+from objects of sense; and, on the other hand, every object of sense is
+beautiful, by borrowing attire from attributes of the mind. Thus, the
+beauties of mind, though invisible in themselves, are perceived in the
+objects of sense, in which their beauty is impressed. Thus, also, in those
+qualities of sensible objects to which we ascribe beauty, we discover in
+them some relation to mind, and the greatest in those that are most
+beautiful. Every beauty in the vegetable creation, of which we can form
+any rational judgment, expresses some perfection in the object, or some
+wise contrivance in the author. In the animal kingdom we perceive superior
+beauties, resulting from life, sense, activity, various instincts and
+affections, and, in many cases, great sagacity; which are attributes of
+mind, and possess an original beauty. In their manner of life, we observe
+that they possess powers, outward form, and inward structure, exactly
+adapted to it; and the more perfectly any individual is fitted for its end
+and manner of life, the greater is its beauty. This, also, was manifestly
+Milton's theory of beauty; for, in his unrivalled description of our first
+parents in Paradise, he derives their beauty from those expressions of
+moral and intellectual qualities which shone forth in their outward form
+and demeanor:--
+
+  "Two of far nobler shape, erect and tall,
+  God-like erect! with native honor clad,
+  In naked majesty, seemed lords of all,
+  And worthy seemed, for, in their looks divine,
+  The image of their glorious Maker, shone
+  Truth, wisdom, sanctitude, severe and pure;
+  Severe, but in true filial freedom placed,
+  Whence true authority in man; though both
+  Not equal, as their sex not equal seemed,
+  For contemplation he, and valor formed,
+  _For softness she, and sweet attractive grace_."
+
+From these remarks, it will appear that we do not regard novelty alone as
+being "the exciting cause of pleasurable emotions, and of the consequent
+perception of beauty in the relation of things." The beautiful, both in
+statuary and painting, we believe to depend chiefly on the perfection with
+which the artist succeeds in expressing the qualities of the mind, whether
+good or evil; and it is worthy of notice, that Plato, in his Dialogues,
+declares that the good and the beautiful are one and the same. Hence, the
+Greeks called the beautiful [Greek: KALOS].
+
+The influence of novelty has been so well illustrated in an Essay by the
+author of a Treatise on Happiness, that we trust no apology will be
+required for transferring a portion of it to our pages:--
+
+"The term novelty applies to everything new--either newly invented, or
+newly exhibited to us; in the former case the thing is novel to the world,
+in the latter it is novel to ourselves. Novelty powerfully influences the
+senses, the passions, and the manners of human beings; it furnishes
+amusement, employment, and maintenance for man; it accompanies him in his
+progress through this variable being, from the commencement of life to the
+period of dissolution.
+
+"Novelty may be either pleasing or unpleasing. When it affects the senses
+by grateful influences, it occasions admiration and delight. How
+powerfully must the vision of Adam have been affected, when he was
+introduced to being! Everything which he beheld was new. There was drawn
+out before him, the plain, the fruitful valley, the verdant hill. Shrubs
+and trees were distributed around him. The earth was strewed with flowers:
+rivulets and rivers diversified the scene--
+
+  'Rolling on orient pearl, and sands of gold.'
+
+The ocean, perhaps, was stretched out as a plain of silver in the distant
+view; the heavens were robed in splendor; the sun shone brilliantly. His
+own person--himself, was an inextricable mystery. He could move; he could
+think; he could behold the display of creation; he could close his eyes,
+and exclude every impression. All was new; and everything, he might
+naturally have fancied, would remain the same; but, he was destined to
+behold a series of novelties. In a short time, he saw the sun sinking
+below the horizon. The heavens were adorned in their most splendid robes,
+like the gorgeous display of an Eastern monarch. A shade was cast over the
+valleys, and darkness began to gather among the trees, while their tops
+and branches were still illumined in the sunbeams. The shadows of evening
+are now gathered around him; the twinkling stars adorn the heavens; but
+the beauties of hill, vale, waters, trees, and flowers, are departed! How
+sensibly must he have been affected! He would now conclude that his future
+time must be spent in darkness; but he looks toward the East, and across
+the wide expanse of waters he beholds a gleam of light, which leads the
+eye to some great luminary, rising above the horizon, to cheer the nightly
+solitude; and, as it mounts to the zenith, new beauties delight the vision
+of this lonely and astonished inhabitant of the earth. After a short
+period the moon sinks, the sun rises in the heavens, and the same
+delightful scenery is exhibited which was beheld the previous day.
+
+"We can imagine the effect of novelty in producing admiration; when
+travellers, who having been toiling for many days or weeks on the burning
+sands of interminable deserts, come suddenly upon some lovely valley,
+watered by cooling streams, shaded by groves of trees, and beautified with
+clusters of flowers. Or, we can fancy the pleasure which would be produced
+on wayworn voyagers, who had been long toiling on the great deep and they
+come to some blest isle,
+
+        ----'Where the voluptuous breeze
+  The peaceful native breathes, at eventide,
+  From nutmeg-groves, and bowers of cinnamon.'
+
+To the infant everything is novel, and almost everything is a source of
+admiration. The people who move to and fro; the walls and furniture of the
+room; the fire and the candles; the bustle and movement of men and
+carriages; the heavens, sunshine, and rain. These occasion interest and
+surprise. Dr. Brown has inquired, 'What metaphysician is there, however
+subtile and profound in his analytical inquiries, and however successful
+in the analyses which he has made, who would not give all his past
+discovery, and all his hopes of future discovery, for the certainty of
+knowing, with exactness, what every infant feels?" But he would, probably,
+meet with few who would sacrifice so much for the purpose; and yet the
+feelings of an infant must be exceedingly interesting.
+
+"We can easily suppose the effect which would be produced on a company of
+savages, if, in the midst of their woods, one of our best military bands
+were to strike up a powerful strain of martial music. At first they would
+sit motionless, or stand as statues; then look toward the place whence the
+sounds proceeded, where they would behold a company of persons, in
+many-colored dresses, and splendid ornaments, with curious musical
+instruments, dropped, as they would fancy, from the clouds.
+
+"But the effect of novelty may be painful; and this feeling will be
+powerful in the same proportion as the circumstances are important and
+new. Suppose, for instance, a person who had been trained in the ways of
+propriety and virtue were introduced, for the first time, to a
+village-wake, or some such brutal holyday, where he would behold
+bull-baiting and cock-fighting, boxing and drunkenness; where he would
+listen to quarrelling and profane swearing; how would his feelings be
+shocked! He would scarcely have fancied that a spot so small, on the
+surface of the globe, could have exhibited so great a variety of
+wickedness.
+
+"Or, we may imagine some one endowed with a delicate ear for music, who
+had been accustomed to the practice of delightful harmony, obliged, for
+the first time, to listen to the harsh scraping of some barbarous laborer
+on the violin, or the useless attempts of some tasteless practitioners to
+perform a piece of music! How irksome and insufferable must such an ordeal
+be to a man of refinement; and how would its painfulness be increased by
+its novelty!
+
+"By the same rule, a person who may have been accustomed to luxury and
+dainty food, but is obliged, for the first time, to feed on loathsome
+bread and nauseous water, feels doubly the misery of his condition. And
+thus the man who has been used to salubrious air and grateful scents, will
+be the more effected by disgusting smells.
+
+"Novelty operates also in powerfully exciting the passions. Suppose a
+general to be usually unfortunate in his combats with the enemy, and his
+army to be consequently dispirited; but, upon some particular occasion,
+the favors of fortune and of Providence are bestowed upon them, their
+efforts are successful, and the main body of the enemy begin to waver, how
+would this inspirit them, and brighten their courage! They would rush
+forward, unconscious and careless of danger, and the foe must fly before
+such unconquerable ardor!
+
+"If a man who had lived in poverty, in dependance on others for a
+subsistence, had constantly wished for independence and comparative
+influence, and had endeavored to swim against the stream of adversity but
+had never succeeded, and, all at once, a handsome fortune were left to
+him, how would his eyes sparkle with exultation! If a person had been
+separated from his friends and doomed to spend his days in the solitude of
+a foreign land and he met, unexpectedly, with some of his nearest and
+kindest friends, how would his countenance beam with delight! The novelty
+of the circumstance would increase the amount of his joy!
+
+"A traveller in a foreign country would be exceedingly pleased to discover
+some trinket which had been made in his native city; and especially if he
+saw on it the name of an intimate friend as the manufacturer. A toy, a
+dog, or a cat, under some circumstances, has occasioned tears. A beautiful
+female has appeared more lovely, when interesting events have introduced
+her to our notice; and one who is not usually attractive, has appeared so,
+when novelty has thrown its fascinations around her.
+
+"The feeling of hope may be excited most powerfully by novel and
+unexpected circumstances. When the mariner has been long toiling in storms
+and dangers; when the heavens have been covered with darkness, and no
+information or guidance could be gained from the stars or the sun, the
+tempest suddenly ceases, the cheering sunbeams break upon him, and he
+finds himself, unexpectedly, near the haven where he would be--how does
+his heart exult with hope, and the consciousness of security!
+
+"The passions may be excited, also, in an unpleasing manner; the feeling
+of fear may be powerfully produced by novelty. Suppose, for instance, a
+youth, who was trained in the ways of tranquillity and enjoyment, with a
+feeling heart for the sufferings of others, to be brought, all at once, on
+the field of war and bloodshed. Suppose him passing along some narrow
+defile, where the distant scenes could scarcely affect him, and where he
+would perceive only a din of discordant sounds. But, on a sudden, he
+reaches the termination of the passage, and all the pomp, and
+circumstance, and horror of war, are exhibited before him. Here he beholds
+rank opposed to rank, in deadly conflict; troops of horsemen butchering
+each other; forests of deadly weapons gleaming in the sunbeams. Now he
+listens to the shouts of victors, the cries of the vanquished, the groans
+of the wounded and dying; to the swelling notes of some musical band; the
+discordant sounds of the drum; the clashing of arms, and the shrill clamor
+of trumpets; to the rattling of musketry and the roaring of artillery! How
+would his heart sink within him at these novel scenes!
+
+"Novelty will also occasion sorrow; as, when a man has been accustomed to
+independence, and the comforts which wealth, judiciously managed, may
+produce, and his riches are suddenly swept away, he is reduced from
+affluence to dependance, from comforts to privations. And when a person
+has been used to the society of pleasant friends, and these are removed by
+the hand of death, and the clay-cold body alone remains as the
+representative of a cheerful and amiable companion, the novelty of this
+event will occasion heartfelt sorrow.
+
+"When those who have been accustomed to associate as faithful friends; or,
+when a monarch has been surrounded by persons who have pretended feelings
+of attachment, and evinced much hypocritical fidelity, and, all at once,
+the veil of deception has been drawn aside, and an aspect has presented
+itself of a new and treacherous kind, how powerful have been the feelings
+of abhorrence and anger!
+
+"And when a person, who has been nurtured in the lap of ease and comfort,
+and blessed with that best of all blessings (if it be rightly managed),
+the gift of liberty, is torn from his home, and his family, and his
+engagements, and carried into a land of slavery, where he is laden with
+oppressive chains, and insulted by a cruel task-master, with no chance of
+freedom, nor any ray of happiness, how will his spirits sink, and how will
+the haggard lineaments of despair be drawn on that countenance which was
+formed for cheerfulness! Or, suppose a person who was accustomed to a
+dwelling in some verdant valley, undisturbed by storms or the hazards of
+the sea; and he was introduced, for the first time, to some of the most
+aggravated dangers of that boisterous element. Suppose the winds were
+driving furiously over the ocean, and the huge billows were breaking on
+the helpless bark, while the darkness of the night was varied only by the
+gleam of the lightning, which exhibited breakers, and rocks, and
+over-hanging precipices, how would this new and dangerous condition
+agitate his mind, and drive him to despair!
+
+"Novelty influences the customs or habits of mankind. On some occasions
+novel engagements are pleasing; and thus we practise them again, and
+acquire a habit of performing them. For instance, the citizen who has
+walked into the country as a novelty, has been pleased with his ramble,
+and induced to practise it daily. It sometimes occasions a progress in the
+arts; and thus the first attempts at music, at painting, and at sculpture,
+have produced a pleasure which has stimulated the person to future and
+continued labors.
+
+"Sometimes, when the first impression has been rather unpleasing, a custom
+has been acquired, because, afterward, it had been found pleasing or
+advantageous. Thus there are many kinds of food, which were originally
+ungrateful, but are now esteemed delicious. Port wine is nauseous for a
+child, but it is pleasing to the taste of a person who has been accustomed
+to it. Smoking, the taking of snuff, and masticating of tobacco, with many
+other useless and dirty customs, are not produced by the pleasing
+influence of novelty; but they are rather opposed to it. They arise
+principally from the inclination of following injurious examples. In some
+cases ladies have set their faces against such customs, and have
+prohibited the practice among those who would gain their esteem: in other
+cases they have been more lenient, because they have found that a flame of
+love may burn amid volumes of smoke from cigars or tobacco-pipes. Novelty
+has occasioned a sensation of unpleasantness, with regard to particular
+modes of dress; but afterward these fashions have become necessary to our
+comfort.
+
+"In some instances, the very things which we commonly hate most, become
+essential to our happiness. When Louis XVI. ascended the throne of France,
+the doors of some of the dark cells in the Bastile were opened, and the
+hapless residents were allowed once more to breathe the pure air of
+heaven. Among the rest, there was one man who had been immured for nearly
+fifty years in a wretched cell, the area of which was so small as scarcely
+to allow him room to move about; but, having a vigorous body and a firm
+mind, he supported himself, until he had almost forgotten the world in
+which he lived, having had no intercourse with any one but the jailer, who
+brought him his daily food. When he received the summons to depart, which
+seemed like a message in a dream, he was astonished; but when he walked
+through the spacious passages and the open courts, and saw the heavens
+extended above him, and the sun shining in his splendor, he was overcome
+by his feelings. He could badly walk, and badly speak, and he seemed as if
+he had entered a new world. He went into the city, and found the street in
+which he had formerly lived, but his friends were dead; there was no
+living being in the world that knew him, and the poor man wept with
+sorrow. He was a stranger in a strange country. He went to the minister
+who had given him his freedom, and said: 'Sir, I can bear to die, but to
+live in a world unknown and forlorn, the last human being of my race, is
+insupportable; do, therefore, send me to my cell, that I may finish my
+days there!' No blessing of Providence will be felt as a benefit, unless
+it be possessed by a person for whom it is adapted.
+
+"Impressions of a novel and pleasing kind soon lose their attraction; and
+thus the honors which are acquired by civil and literary eminence, quickly
+fade away. They are like a beautiful cloud in the heavens, or a dew-drop
+on a leaf, which glitters and exhibits its beauties for a while, but the
+fervent sun absorbs both; or, they are like a gaudy flower, which a man
+fixes in his bosom--very lovely at first, but its attractions soon vanish.
+On the other hand, painful occurrences leave but a faint impression.
+Although, at first, a man may be bowed down with trouble, yet he will soon
+regain an erect position and a smiling countenance. A few weeks or months
+hide most of our sorrows from us; and this is an eminent proof of the
+wisdom and beneficence of the Deity: for the general amount of human
+happiness is by this means more equally divided. A state of elation is
+temporary, and so is a state of depression; and thus, whether a man rises
+or sinks in worldly possessions and honors, although there will be some
+difference in the amount of enjoyment, yet there will be much less than we
+are generally disposed to imagine.
+
+"A taste for novelty affects the engagements of society: it is the source
+of fashion; it gives labor to the mechanic, to the artist, and to almost
+every man who obtains his maintenance by industry. And thus there are new
+buildings, new vehicles, new machines, and new methods of doing most
+things. There are dresses of various kinds the result of ingenuity and
+taste. One thing is new and attractive, but it soon becomes stale, and
+then we look for something novel. Some kinds of food are scarce and
+costly: these are approved by the great, but they become plentiful and
+cheap, and then the rich man looks for something rare, some new discovery
+in the art of cookery. The round of pleasures and amusements is
+continually varying. Formerly the men, and even the ladies, were delighted
+by exhibitions of combats among savage beasts--lions, elephants, and
+tigers; they feasted their eyes on the bloody combats of human beings with
+each other, or with bulls and other furious animals. They attended
+dog-fights, cock-fights, and other barbarous diversions. But the taste has
+become improved; novelty has taken a praiseworthy direction: boxing,
+wrestling, and other disgraceful exhibitions, are now transferred to the
+vulgar and disreputable; many innocent amusements have been introduced,
+and these also have been regulated by the universal love of novelty. The
+same variety has existed in language. A certain style of speech, and
+certain phrases, are fashionable in the best society; these are gradually
+introduced among the lower ranks, and then the better classes look for
+something novel. Many words and phrases originally introduced for the
+purpose of expressing things delicately, become vulgar: terms which were
+primarily intended as a reproach become a designation of honor, and those
+once deemed honorable become reproachful.
+
+"The love of novelty occasions the great variety of tunes which we
+possess, and the diversity of musical skill. A newly-constructed
+instrument, a new or superior mode of performing on it and the last new
+tune, are objects of universal attraction. The same disposition arises
+with respect to books. Novelty has occasioned all the variety which the
+history of literature exhibits, from the bulky folio to the penny
+pamphlet, and the annual publication to the daily newspaper: it has
+occasioned, also, in a great degree, the multitude of opinions which have
+deluged the world. Something new, as the loungers of Athens demanded, has
+been the requirement of the public in all ages. If it be new, it will be
+attractive, and if pleasing or convenient, it will be embraced, and then
+its strength and consistency will soon be deemed demonstrated: but when
+the writers on the subject, and the readers of those writings, become
+cool; when reason takes the place of imagination, then the system will be
+often discovered to be defective, the vapory fabric will fade away, and
+some other will obtain its place. We are too frequently going round in our
+progress, rather than forward. In many respects we are not much farther
+advanced than the ancients, and yet we ought to be, and should be if we
+had pursued a direct course.
+
+"But one of the most pleasing sources of novelty is that which the
+Almighty has given us in the seasons of the year; and this distinctly
+shows us that the love of novelty is not only natural, but it is allowable
+and praiseworthy, if it be regulated by reason; for the Great Creator
+himself indulges us in this respect. And thus we have all the variety of
+summer and winter, of sultry and frosty days, of clear and cloudy skies;
+of the budding and blooming of spring, and the richness and luxuriance of
+autumn; the breaking forth of the sun in the morning, and the setting of
+that glorious luminary; the light of the stars; the silvery splendor of
+the moon; the glare of lightnings and meteors, the rolling of thunder,
+with vapors, rain, hail, and snow.
+
+"The love of novelty is injurious only when it is carried beyond what the
+Almighty intended; when it does not animate a person to perform his
+necessary engagements, but carries him away from them; when it makes him
+restless and wavering. Novelty accompanies man in infancy and in youth; it
+cheers and exalts him in the changing scenes of manhood; and when we
+leave this earthly sphere, and the soul bursts forth from its corporeal
+dwelling, it will fly upward to regions of still greater novelty, and
+never-failing interest!"
+
+
+D.
+
+Mr. Walker, in various places of his work, calls the _cerebel_ or
+cerebellum, "the organ of volition," and, at page 145, he attributes
+ideas, emotions, and passions, to the cerebrum, though he states that acts
+of the will result from these. Now, if there is any truth established, it
+is that the _will_ is the result of the simultaneous action of the higher
+intellectual powers, and supposes attention, reflection, comparison, and
+judgment, mental operations, which Mr. Walker himself attributes to the
+cerebrum. Gall has made it very evident, that the _will_ is not the
+impulse that results from the activity of a single organ, but the
+concurrent action of many of the higher intellectual faculties--motives
+must be weighed, compared, and judged, before there can be any will, or
+determination of mind. The decision resulting from this determination, is
+called will. We consider it then proved, that there is no particular organ
+of the will. "Every fundamental faculty," says Dr. Gall, "accompanied by a
+clear notion of its existence, and by reflection, is intellect or
+intelligence. Each individual intelligence, therefore, has its proper
+organ; but reason supposes the concerted action of the higher faculties.
+It is the judgment pronounced by the higher intellectual faculties. A
+single one of these, however, could not constitute reason, which is the
+compliment, the result of the simultaneous action of all the intellectual
+faculties. It is _reason_ that distinguishes man from the brute;
+_intellect_ they have in common to a certain degree. There are many
+intelligent men, but few reasoning ones. Nature produces an intelligent
+man; a happy organization, cultivated by experience and reflection, forms
+the reasoning man." Nearly all physiologists deserving of the name, are
+now united in the opinion that the cerebellum is the organ of amativeness,
+as well as concerned in the regulation of voluntary motion. "It is
+impossible," says Dr. Spurzheim, "to unite a greater number of proofs in
+demonstration of any natural truth than may be presented to determine the
+function of the cerebellum."--"Mr. Scott," says George Combe, "in an
+excellent essay on the influence of amativeness on the higher sentiments
+and intellect, observes that it has been regarded by some individuals, as
+almost synonymous with pollution; and the notion has been entertained,
+that it cannot be even approached without defilement. This mistake has
+originated from attention being directed too exclusively to the abuses of
+the propensity. Like everything that forms part of the system of nature,
+it bears the stamp of wisdom and excellence in itself, although liable to
+abuse. It exerts a quiet but effectual influence in the general
+intercourse between the sexes, giving rise in each to a sort of kindly
+interest in all concerns the other. This disposition to mutual kindness
+between the sexes, does not arise from benevolence or adhesiveness, or any
+other sentiment or propensity alone; because, if such were its sources, it
+would have an equal effect in the intercourse of the individuals of each
+sex among themselves, which it has not. 'In this quiet and unobtrusive
+state of the feeling,' says Mr. Scott, 'there is nothing in the least
+gross or offensive to the most sensitive delicacy. So far the contrary,
+that the want of some feeling of this sort is required, wherever it
+appears, as a very palpable defect, and a most unamiable trait in the
+character. It softens all the proud, irascible, and antisocial principles
+of our nature, in everything which regards that sex which is the object of
+it; and it increases the activity and force of all the kindly and
+benevolent affections. This explains many facts which appear in the mutual
+regards of the sexes toward each other. Men are, generally speaking, more
+generous and kind, more benevolent and charitable, toward women, than they
+are to men, or than women are to one another.' The abuses of this
+propensity are the sources of innumerable evils in life; and as the organ
+and feeling exist, and produce an influence on the mind, independently of
+external communication, Dr. Spurzheim suggests the propriety of
+instructing young persons in the consequences of its improper indulgence
+as preferable to keeping them in a state of ignorance that may provoke a
+fatal curiosity, compromising in the end their own and their descendants'
+bodily and mental constitution."
+
+It may be proper in this place, to point out some of the anatomical
+differences of the sexes more definitely than has been done by Mr. Walker,
+as they are intimately connected with the form and contour of the body,
+and must be understood to appreciate fully the bearing of much that is
+laid down by our author:--
+
+
+ANATOMICAL SEXUAL DIFFERENCES.
+
+DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
+
+The stomach is the only portion of the alimentary canal which presents
+sexual differences. It is larger, shorter, and broader, in the male;
+smaller, narrower, and longer, in the female. Its muscular coat, like that
+in the whole alimentary canal, is generally also thinner in the female.
+
+
+OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
+
+_Ribs._--The ribs of the female are generally straighter than those of the
+male. The posterior segment unites sooner with the anterior; its curve
+differs less from that of the last, and disappears sooner in the female;
+hence, the chest is narrower. The ribs are usually thinner; hence, the
+edges are sharper. Sometimes, however, this is far from being true. Their
+length is nearly the same; but according to Mechel, the length of the two
+upper ribs is proportionally, and when the subject is short, absolutely
+greater in the female than in the male.
+
+_Clavicle._--The clavicle is generally straighter, and proportionably
+smaller in the female than in the male. The greater straightness depends
+particularly on the lesser curve of its external portion, while in man it
+extends far backward, and then comes forward. The internal anterior half
+presents nearly the same curve in both sexes. The clavicle of the female
+is rounder than that of the male; we however find clavicles of females
+perfectly like those of males, and _vice versa_. Sometimes, of the two
+clavicles in the same body, one is constructed in the type of the male,
+and the other in that of the female.
+
+_Pelvis._--The chief points of difference between the male and female
+skeleton, beside the disparity in the size and the greater smoothness of
+the bones, lie in the _pelvis_. In the female this is less strong and
+thick, and contains less osseous matter than that of the male. In the
+female, the arch of the _pubis_ is much the greatest, and the long
+diameter of the brim of the pelvis is from side to side; in the male it is
+from before backward; in the female, the brim is more of the oval shape,
+in the male more triangular; in the female, the _ilia_ are more distant;
+the tuberosities of the _ischia_ are also more remote from each other, and
+from the _os coccygis_, and as these three points are farther apart, the
+notches between them are consequently wider, and there is of necessity a
+considerably greater space between the _os coccygis_ and _pubis_ than in
+the male. The female _sacrum_ is broader and less curved than in the other
+sex. The ligamentous cartilage at the symphysis pubis is broader and
+shorter. In consequence of the cavity of the pelvis being wider in woman,
+the superior articulations of their thigh bones are farther removed from
+each other, which circumstance occasions their peculiarity in walking;
+they seem to require a greater effort than men to preserve the centre of
+gravity, when the leg is raised; owing to the greater length of the crural
+arch, there is less resistance to the pressure of the abdominal viscera;
+consequently females are more subject to femoral hernia than males. The
+angle of union of the ossa pubis in the male is from sixty to eighty
+degrees, whereas, in the female it is ninety degrees. The mean height of
+the male, at the period of maturity, is about five feet eight and a half
+inches, and that of the female about five feet five inches; a well-formed
+pelvis has a circumference equal to one-fourth of the height of the
+female.
+
+
+ORGAN OF VOICE.
+
+The _larynx_ is one of the organs which presents most manifestly the
+differences of sex. That of the female is usually one third, and sometimes
+one half smaller than that of the male: all its constituent cartilages are
+much thinner; the thyroid cartilage also is even flatter, because its two
+lateral halves unite at a less acute angle. Hence the reason why the
+larynx in the male forms at the upper part of the neck a prominence which
+is not visible in the female. The glottis in the female is much smaller
+than in the male, and the vocal cords are shorter. These sexual
+differences do not appear till puberty; until then the larynx has
+precisely the same form in the two sexes, and consequently the voice is
+nearly the same in both. In eunuchs it is small as in females.
+
+
+PHYSIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF THE BEAUTY OF FORM.
+
+A very ingenious Physiological explanation of the beauty of form, has been
+suggested by Professor B. T. Joslin, of the University of the city of New
+York, which is published in the Transactions of the New York State Medical
+Society for 1836. As this theory is characterized by great originality and
+genius, and but little known, we shall present our readers with some
+extracts from the Essay, calculated to elucidate the views of the talented
+author.
+
+Speaking of material objects, not including the human form, Dr. J.
+remarks:--
+
+"There is in objects a kind of beauty which is intrinsic and physical,
+which belongs to them in every association, and whether at rest or in
+motion; such is the beauty of color, and that of configuration. The
+contemplation of the beauty of coloring and of form gives physical
+pleasure, i. e., physical as opposed to mental, but physiological as
+opposed to physical. Employing physical in its comprehensive sense, I say
+that this physical pleasure attending vision is of two distinct kinds;
+1st, that which depends on the character of the impression on the retina,
+and consequently on the intensity and nature of the light; and 2dly, that
+which depends upon the form of the object, and, consequently, on the
+muscular actions employed in tracing its outlines. As the latter
+constitutes the proper subject of this essay, I shall dismiss the former
+with a single remark.
+
+"Some colors are more agreeable than others, but these differ with
+different eyes, and with the nature of the color to which the eyes have
+been previously exposed. A bluish green relieves the eye when over-excited
+with red, and a mild red is agreeable after the protracted action of
+intense green; and in general, the complementary colors are most agreeable
+in succession. Again, it is well known, that no kind of light is painful,
+unless excessively vivid; we are pleased with a mild radiance in objects
+of every hue, from the whiteness of the moon to the crimson of the setting
+sun. But is there no other physical property by which these luminaries
+directly contribute to the gratification of taste? It is true that light,
+abstractedly from all objects is agreeable, and agreeable on the same
+principle that sweetness is to the taste, i. e., from the mere character
+of the nervous impression. But this is a pleasure merely passive, and in
+an active being it is, perhaps, on that account, one grade lower than the
+gratification afforded by the beauty of form, and is more allied to the
+gross pleasure of literal taste. Hence, we scarcely employ a figurative
+expression, in declaring that light is sweet. But the highest degree of
+physical gratification is not enjoyed by the eye, unless this agreeable
+excitant proceeds from an object of beautiful form. "Light is sweet," but
+"it is a pleasant thing for the eyes to behold the sun." What is the
+source of this additional pleasure which we receive, when light proceeds
+either by radiation or reflection from regular curvilinear objects?
+
+"I shall offer what I believe to be an original and satisfactory
+explanation of the beauty of form, on principles purely physiological. It
+is based on the proposition, that the action of every muscle is attended
+with a sensation which, is at first agreeable, but which, if the action is
+continued for a short time with intensity, and without intermission,
+becomes painful. That there is pleasure attending those varied motions
+which depend upon the actions of different muscles in succession after
+intervals of rest in each, we know from our own consciousness as well as
+from that instinctive propensity to play which we observe in children and
+young animals. That the prolonged action of a muscle is painful, we may
+readily convince ourselves by endeavoring to hold the arm for some time at
+right angles with the erect trunk. With the arm in this position, a pound
+weight on the hand or even the weight of the arm itself becomes in a few
+minutes almost insupportable. We presently begin to feel pain in the
+shoulder and anterior part of the arm, the former from fatigue of those
+muscles which originate from the scapula and keep the os humeri elevated,
+and the latter from fatigue of the muscles which originate from the
+scapula and os humeri, whose muscular fibres are in front of the os humeri
+and by their contraction elevate the fore-arm in consequence of their
+tendinous attachment to its bones. Yet a man may labor all day with his
+arms without this painful sensation; because a muscle requires but a
+momentary rest, in order to regain that degree of energy which is
+momentarily lost by action.
+
+"None but an anatomist can duly appreciate the variety of separate
+actions, on which depend the motions of a single limb, and the
+consequently numerous opportunities of rest which the muscles enjoy. To
+the superficial and unscientific observer, an arm is an arm; it is a
+single member which may be fatigued by a day's work and recruited by a
+night's rest. But to the anatomist the arm is a complex object, and its
+muscular energy is that of its component muscles, each of which may be
+fatigued by a minute's action and recruited by a minute's repose. It would
+be easy to extend this farther, and state reasons for believing that the
+component fasciculi and fibres of an individual muscle act still more
+transiently, and that their momentary and successive actions constitute
+the action of a single muscle.
+
+"But waiving this refinement, it will be sufficient for our purpose to
+consider a single muscle as having a simple action, an action which cannot
+be sustained with uniformity a minute of time without actual pain, nor a
+second of time with positive pleasure. This, however, is not to be
+understood as an attempt to fix these limits with precision. To express
+the law in more general terms, as we diminish the duration of a muscle's
+action we diminish the pain until we arrive at an action whose attendant
+sensation is neutral, i. e., neither painful nor pleasurable; as soon as
+we have passed that point and have begun to execute motions a little more
+transient, the attendant sensation becomes positively pleasurable, and the
+pleasure increases as the separate actions become more transient. It is
+not necessary to infer that there is attending each action of shorter
+duration a pleasure exceeding that which attends each action of greater
+duration; for the more transient actions are, in a given time, more
+numerous; so that with the same amount of pleasure for each muscular
+contraction, the amount of pleasurable sensation in a given time--say a
+second--would exceed the amount attending the less frequent and more
+prolonged actions in the same period: a greater number of separate
+impressions become--so to speak--crowded together and condensed, and thus
+produce a more vivid pleasure. Several contiguous impressions thus
+conspire to heighten the contemporaneous effect, inasmuch as we are unable
+to distinguish those impressions which are made at very short intervals on
+the muscular sense, any more than we are those made at very short
+intervals on the retina. We have an example of the latter in the familiar
+experiment of swinging a coal of fire in a circle, and in various optical
+instruments for combining colors and images.
+
+"The proposition which I have endeavored to establish is, that there is a
+neutral point to which, if constant action is prolonged, its pleasurable
+character begins to be reversed; that the vividness of the sensation
+increases with the distance from this point, being on the one side
+pleasurable, on the other painful; the more transient the actions are, the
+more pleasurable; the more prolonged they are, the more painful.
+
+"I am of opinion that this physiological principle is susceptible of
+interesting applications to a class of pleasures, which metaphysicians
+have regarded as exclusively mental, and dependant upon certain supposed
+ultimate principles of the constitution of mind, principles not resolvable
+into others more elementary. As physiology shall advance, it may be
+expected that many of these imaginary elements will yield to its searching
+analysis. Whether the writer has been so fortunate as to resolve any of
+the generally admitted elements of mental taste, the reader will be able
+to judge from the sequel.
+
+As preparatory to the consideration of the beauty of form, it will be
+necessary to give an explanation of the _gracefulness of motion_. Although
+this has been vaguely and in part referred to ease of execution, yet, the
+physiological principle on which ease of execution depends, not having
+been clearly understood and distinctly stated, the gracefulness of _all_
+motions could not be referred to their true source. Thus, writers on taste
+have been under the necessity of admitting, as a distinct and independent
+source of gracefulness, the _curvilinear direction_ of motions, and have
+been able to generalize this fact no farther than by referring it to the
+beauty of curved forms, which beauty was considered an _ultimate_ fact. In
+applying the principles above developed, to the explanation of the
+pleasure or pain attending the contemplation of particular motions, we
+shall defer for the present the investigation of the intrinsic beauty of
+curved motions, which is the same as that of curved lines, and assume that
+in general those motions which are physically pleasurable to the agent are
+agreeable to the observer. The pleasure or pain of the agent will engage
+the sympathy of the observer; for he associates the observed action with
+his own experience. To make a single application, suppose a public speaker
+extend his arm horizontally and move it slowly in a horizontal position,
+through one third of a circle. This motion would not appear graceful. That
+it would not be performed with perfect ease, any one might prove by
+experiment. The principal difficulty is in preserving for a long time the
+horizontal position."
+
+"In the ordinary state of the muscular system, and within certain limits,
+the motion of the eye in any direction is pleasurable. Whenever the power
+of directing the eye is acquired, the tracing of a line will, to a certain
+extent and for a certain time, afford some degree of positive pleasure; in
+other words, any short line will possess some degree of positive beauty,
+and the infant becomes conscious of an emotion of which he was previously
+ignorant--the emotion of beauty of form. A point awakens no such emotion;
+it never will; it can possess no beauty. It must be recollected, that this
+has been restricted to minute points of inappreciable form. Circular dots
+will be considered under the head of figures. The colorific property of a
+dot as compared with that of the ground on which it is placed, may afford
+that kind of ocular pleasure which is foreign to the present inquiry.
+
+"From points as compared with lines, we naturally proceed to _lines as
+compared with each other_.
+
+"When the head is erect, in examining a _straight horizontal_ line we
+employ one of the lateral recti; if the line be vertical we employ the
+rectus inferior or superior. In either case, but one muscle acts, and that
+continuously. The muscle is not relieved, and its action is not attended
+with the maximum amount of pleasurable sensation. When the vision has been
+extended along the whole line, if we then immediately proceed to examine
+it in the opposite direction, the opposite rectus must at one exert a
+force sufficient to overcome the _momentum_ of the eyeball, and then exert
+a _continuous_ action. Both these circumstances are unfavorable to
+pleasure. If the line is _oblique_, one lateral together with one inferior
+or one superior muscle is exerted, and the same principles which have been
+applied to the single muscles, apply to the muscles acting in pairs.
+
+"_The Beauty of Curved Lines._--As from the foregoing analysis of the
+vision of straight lines in general, it results that they are deficient in
+the elements of ocular agreeableness, in other words, of beauty; little
+more need be said of regular and gentle curves, than that the survey of
+them is not attended with the abovementioned disadvantages. In viewing a
+regular curve, no muscle of the eyeball acts continuously and uniformly,
+but enjoys partial relief by remissions, or total relief by intermissions
+of its action; and the regularity of these remissions and intermissions,
+as well as the equal distribution of exercise, is promoted by the
+regularity of the curve. Acting in succession, the muscles afford mutual
+relief after actions of such short duration and variable intensity, as to
+afford positive pleasure; and in this _muscular pleasure_ of the eye
+consists the _beauty of configuration_.
+
+"The successive and accurate survey of distant points is not, however,
+invariably requisite to a degree of similar pleasure, in viewing a figure
+of such small angular extent as to be instantly recognised by one location
+of its image, as analogous to a larger one whose survey has directly
+afforded muscular pleasure. Although I thus recognise the influence of
+association, the facts of this very case afford an interesting
+confirmation of the physiological theory; for a large circle or ellipse is
+more beautiful than one of diminutive size. The beauty of the one is
+original, its influence is direct; the beauty of the other is in part
+borrowed, and this part is weakened by reflection. Or, to express it more
+literally, the one excites a pleasurable sensation, the other suggests a
+similar idea; the one affords a _perception_, the other a _conception_, of
+beauty. Such, even with similar color and brilliancy, would be the
+difference between the full moon and a circular dot (.) or period; such
+the difference between a rainbow and a diminutive arc ([Illustration]), a
+short accent inverted. Here the critic might be inclined to charge us with
+confounding the beautiful with the sublime. But the fact is, that
+criticism has constructed the sublime--as it has the beautiful--from
+heterogeneous materials, one of which is identical with one of the
+elements of beauty, and should, in a physiological arrangement, be
+referred to the same class. In many instances a magnifying instrument will
+disclose minute irregularities and blemishes; but in every other case,
+physiology would show, that, within certain limits, to magnify a beautiful
+_object_ is to _magnify beauty_.
+
+"The foregoing statements of general principles preclude the necessity of
+minute details in relation to particular curves. I shall at present
+consider those which do not return into themselves, so as to constitute
+the outlines of figures in the geometrical sense. Let us first select a
+semi-circumference, for example, that of a rainbow of maximum dimensions.
+In tracing it once, we employ three out of the four muscles. They are
+brought into action successively and rapidly, but not abruptly. All these
+circumstances are favorable to pleasure. Yet they are not conducive to it
+in the highest possible degree; for each muscle acts only once unless the
+examination be repeated; and in case of its repetition, the momentum of
+the eyeball is destroyed in stopping and reversing its motion. The waving
+line, as Hogarth's line of beauty, obviates the first difficulty. This
+ensures not only the successive action of different muscles, but a
+repetition of action in the same. If the line forms a number of equal
+waves, these repetitions will be proportional to the number of waves, and
+will alternately and totally relieve, at least two muscles, and allow, in
+the action of a third, regular remissions of intensity at equal intervals.
+We have proved then, that on this physiological theory, a
+semi-circumference possesses more of the elements of beauty than any
+straight line, and a regular-waved line more than either. These results
+are conformable to experience. If there is any difficulty in admitting
+this, it will vanish on comparing the ocular with other muscles.
+
+"Let us select a joint, which, in its spherical form, and the circular
+arrangement of its muscles, is analogous to the eye; for example, the
+shoulder joint. I think it will be uniformly found, that in the use of
+this joint, the curves most readily traced, are those of gentle and nearly
+equal curvature, and being such as are most easily traced by the eye, they
+would appear more beautiful than those drawn by the fingers with the same
+education. For example, let a man, without bending his wrist or elbow,
+draw various lines with a light stick or cane on the surface of snow: the
+lines most easily drawn (or most easily traced if already drawn), will be
+curves of considerable beauty, and nearly equal curvature; such as waved
+lines and spirals and looped curves. Circles and ellipses would also be
+among the figures with most facility and precision traced, and especially
+in cases of repeated tracing; but we are not at present considering
+figures in the proper geometrical sense of the term. In writing letters by
+the above method, a succession of 'e's, would be more readily drawn than a
+succession of 'i's, or a zigzag line with acute angles.
+
+"To institute a fair comparison between terminated lines and figures, the
+component lines of the figures should be as beautiful as the terminated
+lines with which they are compared. With this precaution, physiology will
+conduct to the conclusion, that figures are more beautiful than terminated
+lines. For the survey of any figure requires the successive action of all
+these ocular muscles, and a repeated survey requires no reversal of the
+motion.
+
+"We may apply the same principles to _figures as compared with each
+other_. Here we shall find the advantage on the side of those which are
+geometrically regular. We perceive that the circle and ellipse must
+possess in great perfection the essentials of beauty.
+
+"From figures, the transition is natural and easy to _solids_ or bodies of
+three dimensions. The form of a body depends on those of all its faces and
+sections; and these last are plane figures. The elliptical sections of a
+regular spheroid are all highly beautiful, but its sections are not all
+elliptical. Unless the spheroid be in certain positions, the sphere
+possesses still higher beauty, as presenting the same circular and highly
+beautiful outline in every position; although a variety of positions is
+not essential to the perception of its peculiar beauty, whenever the
+observer has learned by different methods, and especially by different
+degrees of convergence of the two optic axes, to estimate the relative
+distances of the different points of the visible hemisphere, and thus to
+recognise the spherical form. I will only add, from the analysis of the
+beauty of the circle it is evident, that within certain limits, to magnify
+a sphere is to magnify its beauty.
+
+"The relative beauty of the sphere and spheroid, and of the spheroid as
+compared with itself in different positions, is modified by _symmetry_.
+The principle of symmetry, is in some measure distinct from any other
+heretofore considered. It may be treated under the heads of 1st,
+geometrical symmetry, or symmetry of form; 2d, of symmetry of position.
+
+"_Symmetry of form_, though implied in geometrical regularity, is not
+identical with it, and requires a separate consideration. The beauty of
+forms geometrically symmetrical, in contradistinction from those
+deficient in the correspondence of opposite halves, depends upon two
+similar series of actions in different pairs or muscles. For example, the
+survey of an ovate leaf, or indeed that of almost any vegetable leaf--so
+numerous are the provisions for our gratification--requires for its
+opposite halves two series of muscular actions, the different parts of the
+one corresponding with those of the other in duration, intensity, and
+order of succession. The gratification in this case results from the
+harmony of muscular sensations individually pleasurable. The agreeableness
+of this harmony may depend upon a principle more psychological than that
+of the agreeableness of its elementary sensations. Yet the former is to a
+certain extent susceptible of a physiological generalization. This harmony
+would probably have been impaired by any considerable inequality in the
+distances between the points of insertion of the recti muscles, or in the
+strength of the antagonists. It is a curious coincidence, that in both
+these respects, these muscles are more nearly symmetrical than any others
+in the human body. Physiology, then, explains, not only the agreeableness
+of the elementary sensations, which give rise to the perception of beauty
+in regular curves, but unfolds the provisions for two similar series of
+such sensations, not only in figures simply regular, but in those which
+are simply symmetrical, and in those which are both symmetrical and
+regular. The principles of muscular action explain the agreeableness of a
+rapid succession of varied actions equally distributed among the muscles,
+and the structure of the optical apparatus explains why the curvature and
+regularity of an object require such actions in vision. Again, we discover
+in the symmetrical structure and arrangement of the ocular muscles, a
+provision for two similar series of pleasurable sensations in the survey
+of a symmetrical figure, in whatever position it may be placed, provided
+it retains its symmetry with respect to some visual plane. The coincidence
+between the location of the ocular muscles diametrically opposite, on the
+one hand, and our propensity to compare the opposite halves of bodies, and
+the pleasure afforded by their similarity on the other hand, is curious,
+and to a certain extent affords a physiological explanation of the beauty
+of symmetrical forms.
+
+"The same principles which apply to the beauty of form of inanimate
+objects are applicable to the paths described by them in _motion_. The
+intrinsic beauty of their motions is exclusively referrible to sensations
+in the ocular muscles of the observer, while the gracefulness of human
+motions is referrible in part to these, and in part to sensations in other
+muscles.
+
+"It would be foreign to the subject of the present memoir, to consider the
+beauty of expression of the human countenance; although this species of
+beauty is in a great degree referrible to muscular action. That muscular
+action which belongs to the present topic is not that of the object, but
+that of the observer. It may be scarcely necessary again to disclaim any
+design of giving a complete analysis of beauty in general, or to repeat
+the concession that man's notions of beauty are modified by various
+associations.
+
+"_Final Cause._--The benevolence of the Author of nature is strikingly
+manifested in connecting present pleasure with obedience to the natural
+laws. It has been shown that vision is attended with muscular action which
+is generally pleasurable. If seeing had required no muscular action, we
+should have wanted one of our present stimuli to the acquisition of
+knowledge. This stimulus is especially necessary in infancy, and then
+powerfully prompts to observation, even anterior to the dawnings of
+intellectual curiosity, with which it subsequently co-operates. We see, in
+this arrangement, the exemplification of a principle which extensively
+pervades the laws under which we are placed by the Creator--which is, that
+mental attainments, as well as other acquisitions, shall require action;
+and that action shall be attended with pleasure. Whether the acquisition
+is to be made by the manual labor of the artisan, by the manipulations of
+the artist, the chymist, or the experimental philosopher, by the sedentary
+student of books, or by the observer of natural phenomena in his original
+survey of the universe--in every case it is muscular action.
+
+"This application to natural theology, has thus far had reference to that
+degree of intrinsic agreeableness which is common to forms in general. But
+the laws of nature specially tend to the production of curved, regular,
+and symmetrical objects and motions, in inorganic vegetable and animal
+bodies; and impose the necessity of similar forms in artificial
+structures. With a different structure and arrangement of the ocular
+muscles, those forms peculiarly conducive to our welfare and that of the
+universe, had possessed no peculiar attractions; and we had felt no
+special impulse of this kind to conform our own artificial structures to
+those laws of nature, or to investigate many of the most important works
+of the Creator. Yet neither gravity or any other law of the external world
+could have determined the peculiar formation of the muscles of the human
+eye. We must, therefore, refer their actual structure and location to
+that Being who gives to the objects of his creative power, and to the
+principles by which he governs them, such a mutual adaptation as conduces
+to the greatest achievable good. Thus, while muscular pleasure originally
+prompts to the observation of the Creator's works, this observation is
+rewarded and subsequently prompted by a pleasure of an incomparably higher
+order, of a character purely mental, by the discovery of _moral beauty_,
+which in rank and refinement surpasses all others. Still, the muscular
+pleasure of the eye strongly incites to the examination of the numberless
+forms of beauty in the organic and inorganic kingdoms, such as the
+symmetrical leaf, the bending bough, the symmetry of the tree itself that
+of inferior animals, and of the human form. Or we may extend our view to
+the circular or undulating horizon, the apparent limits of the apparently
+round world; or we may elevate the eyes to the arched dome of the
+firmament, on which the arches of the iris and aurora occasionally confer
+additional beauty. Or with the telescope we may pierce this apparent limit
+of upward vision, and discover beyond it a universe of spherical and
+spheroidal worlds, revolving in circular and elliptical orbits, worlds and
+orbits which present, even in our diminutive diagrams, a high order of
+beauty, designed to incite us to the contemplation of these most
+magnificent works of the Creator.
+
+"All this beauty had been lost to man, but for the property of the eye,
+which, on a superficial reflection, might seem a defect. It is no less
+true than paradoxical, that the perception of these beauties depends on
+_indistinctness of vision_. To a being so constituted as to see with equal
+distinctness by oblique and direct vision, the same forms might be
+presented, but not as forms of beauty. Has the Creator, then, sacrificed a
+portion of our perceptive powers to our sensual gratification? I answer
+no. Has he, then, sacrificed a portion of our _direct_ means of acquiring
+knowledge, to afford an incitement which should ultimately and indirectly
+enhance our attainments? Again I am compelled to answer in the negative.
+There is, in this arrangement, no intellectual sacrifice whatever, direct
+or indirect. This indistinctness of oblique vision, which might seem a
+defect, I consider an excellence. A simultaneous and distinct impression
+received from the whole field of vision, would distract the attention and
+preclude a minute and accurate examination of any particular part. But as
+our eyes are so constituted as to receive a strong and distinct impression
+only from the images of those objects toward which their axes are
+directed, and as our minds are so constituted that we can in a great
+measure neglect the weaker or less distinct impressions, we are able to
+acquire a more exact knowledge of any part of the field to which we choose
+to attend. To see every thing at once, would be to examine nothing. Such a
+constitution of the eye would be to vision what an indiscriminating memory
+is to the understanding.
+
+
+E.
+
+STANDARD OF BEAUTY.
+
+To show that the sentiments of mankind with regard to female beauty, have
+been very various in different ages and nations, and that it is not
+possible to establish a standard which shall comprehend all, without
+discriminations, a few facts may be mentioned. Among the ancients, a small
+forehead and joined eyebrows were much admired in a female countenance;
+and in Persia, large joined eyebrows are still highly esteemed. In some
+parts of Asia, black teeth and white hair, are essential ingredients in
+the character of a beauty; and in the Marian Islands, it is customary
+among the ladies to blacken their teeth with herbs, and to black their
+hair with certain liquors. Beauty, in China and Japan, is composed of a
+large countenance, small, and half-concealed eyes, a broad nose, little
+and useless feet, and a prominent belly. The Flat-head Indians compress
+the heads of their children between two boards, with a view to enlarge and
+beautify the face; some tribes compress the head laterally; others depress
+the crown, and others make the head as round as possible. "The Moors of
+Africa," says Park, "have singular ideas of female perfection; the
+gracefulness of figure and motion, and a countenance enlivened by
+expression, are by no means operative points in their standard; with them
+corpulency and beauty are terms nearly synonymous. Or women of even
+moderate pretensions, must be one who cannot walk without a slave under
+each arm to support her, and a perfect beauty is a load for a camel. In
+consequence of this prevalent taste for unwieldiness of bulk, the Moorish
+ladies take great pains to acquire it early in life, and for this purpose
+many of the young girls are compelled by their mothers to swallow a great
+quantity of _kouskous_, and drink a large bowl of camel's milk every
+morning. It is of no importance whether the girl has an appetite or not,
+the kouskous and milk must be swallowed, and obedience is frequently
+enforced by blows. I have seen a poor girl sit crying with the bowl at her
+lips for more than an hour, and her mother with a stick in her hand
+watching her all the while, and using the stick without mercy whenever she
+observed that her daughter was not swallowing. This singular practice,
+instead of producing indigestion and disease, soon covers the young lady
+with that degree of plumpness, which in the eye of a Moor, is perfection
+itself." These facts show that every nation almost has ideas of beauty
+peculiar to itself; and it is no less evident that nearly every individual
+has his own notions and taste concerning it. "The empire of beauty,
+however," says a writer already quoted, "amid these discordant ideas, with
+respect to the qualities in which it consists, has been very generally
+acknowledged, and particularly in all civilized countries; and when it is
+united with other accomplishments that tend to render females amiable, it
+contributes in no small degree, to give them importance and influence, to
+polish the manners of society, and to contribute to its order and
+happiness."
+
+
+F.
+
+TEMPERAMENT.
+
+The views of Mr. Walker in relation to Temperaments, correspond with those
+usually entertained by physiological writers. It is to be observed,
+however, that they rarely occur simple in any individual, two or more
+being generally combined. The _bilious_ and _nervous_, for example, is a
+common combination, which gives strength and activity; the _lymphatic_ and
+_nervous_, is also common, and produces sensitive delicacy of mental
+constitution, conjoined with indolence. The _nervous_ and _sanguine_
+combined, give extreme vivacity, but without corresponding vigor. Dr.
+Thomas of Paris, has advanced the following theory of the temperaments:
+When the digestive organs, filling the abdominal cavity, are large, and
+the lungs and brain small, the individual is _lymphatic_; he is fond of
+feeding, and averse to mental and muscular exertion. When the heart and
+lungs are large, and the brain and abdomen small, the individual is
+_sanguine_; blood abounds, and is propelled with vigor; he is therefore
+fond of muscular exercise, but averse to thought. When the brain is large,
+and the abdominal and thoracic viscera small, great mental energy is the
+consequence. These proportions may be combined in great varieties, and
+modified results will ensue.[59] Mr. Combe, in his late lectures in this
+city, laid great stress on the relative size of the three great visceral
+cavities, in determining the temperament. Thus, if the abdominal and
+thoracic cavities be small, and the cranial cavity large, the _nervous_
+temperament is indicated. If the abdomen and scull be comparatively small,
+and the chest large, the sanguine temperament is indicated. The
+predominance of the abdominal cavity indicates the lymphatic temperament.
+Mr. C. also pointed out the important changes produced in the temperament
+by a long continued course of training. It is common for the bilious, to
+be changed into the nervous temperament, by habits of mental activity, and
+close study; and, on the other hand, we often see the nervous or bilious
+changed into the lymphatic about the age of 40, when the nutritive system
+seems to acquire the preponderance. Spurzheim used to say, that he had
+originally a large portion of the lymphatic temperament, as had all his
+family; but that in himself the lymphatic had gradually diminished, and
+the nervous gradually increased; whereas, in his sisters, owing to mental
+inactivity, the reverse had happened, and when he visited them, after
+being absent many years, he found them, to use his own expression, "_as
+large as tuns_." The subject of temperament has been treated with
+consummate ability by Dr. Charles Caldwell of Kentucky; and as his essay
+is but little known, we shall present some extracts from it. It will be
+seen that his views bear a close resemblance to those of Dr. Thomas,
+already mentioned; but Dr. C. has shown that they were publicly maintained
+by him, at least two years before the appearance of Dr. Thomas's work.[60]
+After explaining the doctrine of the temperaments, as taught by the
+ancients, and showing that it is founded on the exploded hypothesis of
+humoralism, Dr. C. goes on to show, that it is the _solids_ of the body
+which make man what he is; that they form the _fluids_, and give them
+their character; that they are, in short, the _cause_, and the fluids the
+_effect_.
+
+"The difference," says Dr. C., "between individuals, or rather classes, of
+the human family, which temperament is made to designate, appears to
+depend on two causes; diversity of organization in parts or the whole of
+the bodies of different persons, giving rise to a corresponding diversity
+in the vital properties; and difference of size and vigor in certain
+ruling organs of the system. The existence and influence of the former of
+these causes are in the highest degree probable; those of the latter
+certain. The one is susceptible of strong support, the other of proof that
+may be termed positive. By 'organization' is here meant, the minute
+interior or radical structure of the tissues which compose the human body.
+That diversity in this creates a diversity in the vital properties, and
+that again a diversity in character, cannot I think be doubted. Whether
+the difference of organization here referred to, consists in different
+proportions of the element of living matter that form the tissues, united
+in the same way, or in their different modes of arrangement and union, or
+both, or whether it may not arise in part from different proportions of
+the simpler tissues entering into the formation of the more compound
+organs, is not known. Minute anatomy has not yet attained a degree of
+perfection competent to settle a point of such subtility."
+
+Dr. C. afterward goes on to prove that no single nerve, or organ, can
+perform two distinct functions, but that each is capable of one mode of
+action, and no more; that between a nerve, a muscle, and a gland, the only
+difference known to exist, is that of organization; and that if they are
+organized alike, and endowed with life, their properties will be similar,
+and they will act in the same way. So also between animals of the same
+race, we discover innumerable differences, which can be referred to
+nothing but differences in organization, and the same may be affirmed of
+vegetables. The conclusion to which Dr. C. arrives, and which he maintains
+with great ingenuity is, that independently of all other causes,
+differences in human temperament are to be attributed, in part, to
+corresponding differences in the organization of certain portions, or the
+whole of the body; and that, other things being equal, in consequence of
+this source of influence alone, one person differs from another in many of
+the qualities of both person and intellect. In other words, he is more
+highly gifted, sprightly, and vigorous, or the reverse; or he is more
+courageous or timid, generous or selfish, according to his organization.
+
+"But the second cause that was represented to be instrumental in
+diversifying the human temperaments is by far the most powerful. It will
+be remembered to have been, 'difference of size and vigor in certain
+ruling organs of the system.' The organs alluded to are those contained in
+the three great cavities of the body; the chylopoetic, situated in the
+abdomen, and including the stomach and intestines, with the liver,
+pancreas, mesentery, and lacteals; those of sanguification and
+circulation, situated in the thorax, and consisting of the lungs, heart,
+and bloodvessels; and the brain, with its appendages, the spinal cord and
+nerves. These three _groups_ (for the brain is _multiplex_ as well as the
+other two) are not only the ruling organs in the person of man; connected
+with the hard and soft parts that enclose them, they _constitute the
+person_. The upper and lower extremities are but appendages; important and
+necessary, it must be acknowledged; but still appendages. The individual
+can exist and be a human being without them. Nor have they any influence
+in imparting constitutional character to their possessors. Standing only
+in the capacity of subordinates to the controlling organs, they are not
+only nourished and put in motion by them; they labor mechanically for
+their uses, and serve as instruments to execute their purposes. They are
+composed of the extreme ends of the organized matter of the system,
+constitute only its outworks, and possess but little influence over its
+central parts. This representation rests on evidence that may be termed
+demonstrative. Many persons destitute of the upper or lower extremities,
+or both, have strong characters and well-marked temperaments. But the
+extremities, if deprived of the influence of any one group of the ruling
+organs, are converted not only into useless but lifeless masses. Of the
+skin, muscles, and bones, which compose the head, neck, and trunk of the
+body, the same is true. Of themselves they possess no character, and can
+therefore bestow none. They also are but appendages to the organs they
+cover, affording them a secure lodgment and protection from external
+injuries, and aiding them in the performance of some of their functions.
+And from this alone is their importance derived. Were it possible for them
+to exist apart from the viscera they contain, their grade of being would
+be below that of many vegetables. Most fatal diseases, moreover, have
+their original seat in the viscera of one of the three great cavities of
+the body, and no disease originating elsewhere can become fatal, until, by
+sympathy or metastasis, some of those parts are deeply affected. To
+enlightened physiologists this statement presents but a series of familiar
+truths. To the groups of organs exclusively, then, I repeat, contained in
+the abdomen, the thorax, and the cranium, must we look as the main source
+of human character. And that character is different according to the
+predominance, in different individuals, of one group or another, or of any
+two of them. An equilibrium between the three groups constitutes another
+variety, by bestowing on character a corresponding equilibrium. Let the
+word _temperament_ be substituted for 'character,' and what is true of the
+latter will be so of the former. As already mentioned, the organs referred
+to will be its source; and the differences in their predominance will give
+diversity to it."
+
+Dr. C. then shows that the strength and perfection of each of the senses
+are proportioned to the size of the nerve on which that sense depends.
+This is illustrated by a powerful array of facts, drawn from different
+orders of the animal kingdom, as well as from the different varieties of
+mankind. It is also stated, that where any nerve or set of nerves, is
+peculiarly large, the portion of the brain to which they belong, and by
+which they are influenced and commanded, is correspondingly large.
+
+"Inasmuch, then, as, other things being equal, size gives power to
+everything else, we are not only justified in believing, on grounds of
+analogy we are compelled to believe, that the same is true of the organs
+contained in the cranium, the thorax, and the abdomen. When they are in a
+sound and natural condition, their size is also the measure of their
+power. Were not this the case, they would be either altogether abnormal,
+or subject to laws that govern no other kind of matter, whether organic or
+inorganic, of which we have any knowledge. But the position I am
+contending for is not to be regarded as a mere inference in a process of
+reasoning. It will appear hereafter that it is a positive fact, which
+observation has discovered, and continues to confirm.
+
+I have alleged that the size of the three groups of ruling organs may be
+ascertained by that of the cases in which they are contained. Nor do I
+perceive on what ground any one, who is even moderately acquainted with
+the structure of the human body, can controvert the belief, or cherish the
+slightest doubt on the subject of it. In healthy persons (and my remarks
+relate only to such) the size of the brain is necessarily known by that of
+the head. As the viscus completely fills the cranium, the case cannot be
+otherwise. Although the bones of the head and the soft parts that cover
+them are thicker in some individuals than in others, the difference is so
+small as not materially to affect the result. The chest is filled by the
+lungs, heart, and large bloodvessels. Its measure, therefore, cannot fail
+to be the measure of them. Any deviation from exactness in this, that may
+be produced by varieties in the thickness of the skin, muscles, and other
+parts, is of no moment. Of the chylopoetic viscera the same is true. They
+also fill exactly the cavity prepared for them. The size of the abdomen,
+therefore, affords a knowledge of their size sufficiently accurate for all
+practical purposes. By a mere inspection of the person of man, then, the
+absolute measure of the groups of organs I am considering, as well as
+their magnitude in relation to each other, can be fairly ascertained. And
+it will appear on examination, as already stated, that the predominance in
+size and energy of any one or two of them, always imparts a corresponding
+diversity to the human character. Does the brain predominate? The
+individual to whom it belongs is more remarkable for the vigor of his
+intellect or feeling, or both, than for any other constitutional quality.
+These modes of mental manifestation constitute the natural functions of
+the brain; and when of an order unusually high, they give a peculiarity of
+character to the whole system. The person thus endowed feels more keenly,
+thinks more strongly, is more eager in pursuit of knowledge, and attains
+it with more facility. His relish for pleasure is also inordinately keen,
+and he pursues it at times with burning ardor. Such was the constitutional
+character of Mr. Fox, and also of our distinguished countryman the late
+Mr. Bayard. I need scarcely add, that this predominance of sensibility and
+mental action must necessarily modify the diseases the individual may
+sustain. But of this I shall speak hereafter. Do the lungs, heart, and
+bloodvessels predominate? A larger volume of highly arterialized blood is
+formed, and thrown more forcibly and in greater quantities throughout the
+system. From the abundance of that fluid, and the superior size of the
+vessels conveying it, those parts of the body nourished by the red blood
+will be comparatively most copiously supplied. But it is more especially
+the muscles that are thus nourished. They will be therefore large and
+powerful. Hence persons with broad and full chests have well-developed and
+vigorous muscles. In proportion to their size their animal strength is
+necessarily great. Nor can such constitutional peculiarities fail to be
+productive of peculiarities in disease? Do the chylopoetic viscera
+predominate? The amount of chyle formed is very large in proportion to the
+quantity of food eaten. But the lungs, heart, and bloodvessels being
+comparatively small, neither is sanguification abundant and perfect nor
+circulation vigorous. The blood is not either highly arterialized or
+animalized. Its amount of red globules is small, and it circulates feebly
+through vessels of a limited size. The consequence is, that the muscles
+receive less red blood, and are less fully nourished; the system at large
+is not so highly endued with life, and the soft parts generally have a
+lower tone. The individual thus marked is less robust and vigorous than
+one whose system is supplied abundantly with highly arterialized blood,
+and less intellectual and sprightly than those whose brain predominates.
+It is almost needless to say, that, under such circumstances, disease must
+be modified in conformity to the constitution.
+
+"From the preceding views it clearly appears, that the comparative
+standing of individual man, as relates to his race, is graduated by the
+predominance of his leading organs. Do his abdominal viscera preponderate?
+He has much of the animal in him, and his grade is low. Are his thoracic
+viscera most highly developed? His qualities are of a superior order; but
+he still partakes too much of the animal. Does his cerebral system
+predominate; and is it well developed in all its parts? He rises above the
+sphere of animal nature, and stands high in that of humanity. He is formed
+for an intellectual and moral being, with no more of animality in his
+constitution, than is necessary to give him practical energy of character.
+
+"This subject may be farther illustrated by a reference to some of the
+animals below us. The worm commonly denominated a grub is but little else
+than a mass of abdominal matter. It is therefore one of the humblest and
+grossest of worms. The insect has also a large abdomen, with a very small
+chest, and a smaller head. Hence, though superior to the grub, it is low
+in the scale of animal nature. Reptiles and fish are more elevated,
+because their abdominal viscera preponderate less. But still they do
+preponderate; and therefore the rank of the animals is humble. In the hog
+the abdominal viscera are most strongly developed, and hence his standing
+among quadrupeds is low. The same is true of the bear and the ox, and also
+of the sheep and the goat, but in an inferior degree. The horse,
+especially the barb and the racehorse, furnish no bad specimens of the
+mixed or balanced temperament. When the latter is undergoing preparation
+for the course, the object of his keeper is to make the thoracic
+temperament preponderate as much as possible, for the time, in order to
+increase his vigor and endurance; in the language of the turf, to give him
+more strength and 'better bottom.' The warhorse approaches the thoracic
+temperament. In the canine race, more especially in the greyhound, the
+thoracic viscera hold the ascendency. Hence the muscular power of the dog
+is greater, and his grade among quadrupeds higher than those of most of
+the preceding animals. The same is true of the wolf, the panther, and the
+tiger. In some dogs there is a considerable cerebral development, but it
+is never large enough to counterbalance the thoracic. Of all animals, the
+lion affords the most finished specimen of thoracic preponderance. In
+proportion to his size, his lungs and heart, especially the latter, are
+immensely large. And his muscular power corresponds to them. The magnitude
+of his heart is generally considered the cause of his boldness. Hence a
+very courageous man is said to have a _great_ heart, or to be
+_lion-hearted_. All this is popular error. The heart is but a muscle; and,
+in man, has no more connexion with courage than the gastrocnemii muscles;
+nor, in the lion, than the muscles that move his tail. Courage is
+exclusively a cerebral attribute, and has its seat in an organ
+specifically appropriated to it. In none of the inferior animals does the
+brain preponderate. That preponderance belongs to humanity, and, as
+already mentioned, indicates its highest grade. Of all the beings below
+us, some of the ape tribe have the highest cerebral development. And they
+approach nearest to man in their degree of intellect. This is farther
+proof that, other things being alike, the brain gives the measure of
+mental power. I have lately seen a publication, in which it is gravely
+asserted, that the large orang-outang catches crabs with a stick, and
+makes a rude basket of osiers to contain them. Notwithstanding the
+well-known sagacity of that animal, this statement savors strongly of the
+'tale of a traveller.'"
+
+"Considered in relation to these principles, temperament may be divided
+into seven varieties. 1, the mixed or balanced, in which the ruling organs
+are in fair proportion to each other; 2, the encephalic; 3, the thoracic;
+4, the abdominal; 5, the encephalo-thoracic; 6, the encephalo-abdominal;
+and 7, the thoracico-abdominal."
+
+"1. _The mixed or balanced variety._ In this the name explains the
+temperament. The external marks of it are plain. They consist in a
+well-adjusted proportion between the sizes of the head, thorax, and
+abdomen. If the limbs are in harmony, the symmetry of the entire person is
+complete. Although individuals, in whom this temperament prevails, are
+usually above the middle height, and well-formed, they are not necessarily
+so. They may be of any stature, and any shape, straight or crooked,
+provided the three great cavities and their contents be accurately
+balanced. This is not the temperament of either early life or old age. It
+commences with manhood, and continues until the fortieth or forty-fifth
+year, and then passes into somewhat of the abdominal. The Apollo
+Belvidere, by Phidias, is an exquisite specimen of it. But some modern
+artists have violated it, in painting that statue, by making the chest and
+the head loo large. Although the manifestation of strength, majesty, and
+intellect, is heightened by this, the beauty of the youthful god is
+marred. The figure, though more imposing, has lost its charm."
+
+"2. _The encephalic._ In this variety the head is relatively large, but is
+not always equally developed in every part, a circumstance which varies
+greatly, as will presently appear, the characters of those who possess the
+temperament. The development of the thorax and abdomen is moderate, the
+person lean, and the countenance expressive of intense feeling and deep
+passion. In some individuals, however, the countenance beams with
+intelligence, without much passion, while, in others, manifestations of
+powerful intellect and passion are united. The thoracic and abdominal
+activity is never high; yet in many instances the personal hardihood and
+endurance are invincible. It is men of this temperament alone that can
+immortalize themselves by great achievements, good or bad. All history and
+observation testify to this. Is the development very large in the moral
+and intellectual regions of the brain, and so moderate in the animal as to
+be held fully in check? The individual will distinguish himself by a
+dignified purity of deportment, and by the performance of great and good
+deeds."
+
+"Are the animal and mere knowing compartments largely developed, and the
+moral and reflecting very slightly? As relates to vice and profligacy in
+their foulest shapes, this is the worst of all temperaments. Nothing more
+prone to depravity can be imagined. The person possessed of it delights in
+some sort of animality alone; and if he ever engages in anything higher or
+purer, it is for a sinister purpose, that he may return to his chosen
+indulgences in more security, or on a broader scale."
+
+"Is the development very large, and equally so in all the departments of
+the brain, animal, moral, and intellectual, giving to the head unusual
+size? The individual possessing it has a lofty and powerful character, is
+capable of attaining the highest renown, and making an impression, not to
+be erased, on the age and country in which he lives. His career may be
+occasionally stained by irregularities and checkered with clouds, but will
+be brilliant in the main. His designs are vast, because he feels his
+power, the instruments with which he works are men, and he wields them in
+masses. The term _little_ has no place in his vocabulary, nor its
+prototype in his thoughts. His aim is greatness of some kind--high
+achievement or deep catastrophe."
+
+"3. _The thoracic._ Under this variety the head is small, usually round,
+and covered with thick curling hair, the abdomen of limited dimensions,
+the chest spacious and powerful, and the muscles swelling and firm.
+Whether fair and ruddy or otherwise, the complexion is strong. Respiration
+is full and deep, and the action of the heart regular and vigorous; and
+the pulse has great volume. Like the result, in every other kind of
+inordinate vital action, the animal temperature is high. This temperament,
+in which neither feeling nor intellect prevails, begins to show itself
+about puberty, and continues until the decline of life, when it undergoes
+a change. The Farnesian Hercules is the _beau ideal_ of it. This shows
+that it was known to the ancient Greeks, who were probably indebted for
+their acquaintance with it to observations made on the persons of their
+wrestlers. In modern times it is strongly developed in boxers and porters,
+and sufficiently so in bakers, wood-choppers, operative agriculturists,
+and others who have been habituated to labor from their boyhood. I have
+observed no little of it among the London boatmen, the occupation of whose
+life is to ply the oar, a mode of exercise well calculated to develop the
+chest, together with the muscles of the upper extremities. I have seen
+good specimens of it also in the African race."
+
+"4. _The abdominal._ This temperament is easily recognised by the
+character it imparts to the person and intellect. The pelvis is broad in
+proportion to the shoulders and thorax, the abdomen large and prominent,
+and the adipose matter abundant, filling up the interstices of the
+muscles, and often forming a layer between them and the skin, in
+consequence of which the limbs are round and smooth and soft to the touch.
+In such constitutions, ecchymosis succeeds with unusual readiness, to
+slight contusions. Circulation in the skin being feeble, the complexion
+may be fair and delicate, but never very ruddy or strong. The size of the
+head is limited, the intellectual moderate, the eye deficient in lustre
+and the countenance in expression, and the movements heavy and seldom
+graceful. The abdominal viscera seem to draw everything into the vortex of
+their action. The amount of vitality is evidently below its common measure
+in the human system, and, in some instances, the flesh seems to hang as a
+load on the spirit."
+
+"5. _The encephalo-thoracic._ This temperament is a type of power both
+bodily and mental. Its compound name expresses fully the external
+appearances that mark it, as well as the attributes that always accompany
+them. With an abdomen of moderate dimensions, the head of the individual
+who possesses it is large and vigorous to conceive and direct, and his
+chest and muscles powerful to execute, and hardy to endure. It is the
+temperament of masculine and comprehensive thought and strong propensity,
+united to energetic action, rather than of seclusion and profound
+meditation. As in all other cases, the character is varied in it according
+to the portion of the brain that is most largely developed. He to whom it
+belongs feels himself in his proper sphere when he is among men, and is
+well fitted to act his part in times of tumult and scenes of difficulty.
+Is his brain large in each of its compartments? If an occasion present
+itself, he not only mingles in the moral storm, but aspires to direct it.
+In case of his becoming a warrior, his genius and sword are alike
+formidable. In battle, previously to the invention of fire-arms, such a
+man was the terror of his enemies and the hope of his friends. Ulysses, as
+sketched by Homer, is as fairly the _beau ideal_ of this temperament, as
+Hercules is of the thoracic. That chieftain was alike wise to counsel,
+intrepid to dare, and powerful to perform. Plato, so called from the
+uncommon breadth of his chest, who had also a very large head, is another
+excellent model of the same. Even in times of peace the corporeal
+attributes of a man of this description add to his influence. Jupiter, the
+emblem of wisdom and power, as represented by the ancient statuaries, with
+an immense head and trunk, and arms of matchless strength, is as finished
+a specimen of the encephalo-thoracic temperament, as Apollo is of the
+mixed."
+
+"6. _The encephalo-abdominal._ Here again the name bespeaks sufficiently
+the development, form, and character of those who possess the temperament.
+The head and abdomen are comparatively large, the thorax small, and the
+shoulders narrow. Hence the sensibility is keen, and the intellect, if not
+powerful, active and respectable. For the reasons given, when the
+abdominal temperament was considered, the limbs and person, under the
+present one, are round and smooth, and the flesh is soft; but, owing to
+the influence of a well-developed brain, and nerves that correspond to it,
+the movements are sprightly and the air graceful. Though rarely powerful,
+the character is attractive. This is the temperament of childhood and
+woman, much more than of adult life and man. Fine genius, but elegant and
+playful, rather than strong and brilliant, is often connected with it. It
+is females, in whom the encephalic development is larger than usual, that
+possess minds truly masculine."
+
+"7. _The thoracico-abdominal._ In this temperament the head is
+comparatively small, and the thorax and abdomen large, with a
+corresponding size of the muscles and bones, and much adipose substance.
+It is the temperament of mere animal strength and patient endurance,
+without any of the elevated, sprightly, or attractive qualities of human
+nature. It forms good laborers and fatigue-men, but is entirely unfit for
+those whose province is to meditate, plan, and direct. It comports well
+enough with the character of soldiers of a certain description, but is
+altogether out of harmony with that of an officer. It is, I think, more
+favorable to health than any of the other temperaments, except perhaps the
+mixed. If those who possess it have weak intellects, their passions are
+usually moderate, and rarely hurry them into pernicious excesses. The
+tenor of their lives is but little interrupted by either irregularity or
+disease. Hence they retain their vigor uncommonly well, and are often
+day-laborers and industrious husbandmen at an advanced age. True, their
+appetite for food is strong; but they are not prone to an excessive
+indulgence of it; I mean at a single meal. Like those possessed of the
+abdominal temperament, they eat often rather than superabundantly at once.
+Besides, such is the strength of their chylopoetic viscera, that they
+subdue and digest without sustaining any injury, as much food as would
+produce disease in those of different constitutions. Nor are they so much
+endangered by vascular fulness as persons of the simple abdominal
+temperament. The reason of this is plain. Their bloodvessels are larger,
+and their excretions more copious, especially those by the skin and the
+organ of respiration. From the warmth of their constitutions, owing to an
+abundance of well-arterialized blood, and a concomitant vigorous
+circulation, they perspire freely, and secrete and exhale copiously from
+the lungs. This temperament is rarely found among women, and is not very
+common among men."
+
+Dr. C. maintains that at certain periods of life, one temperament passes
+into another, as the result of the natural changes which take place, in
+the progress of the growth and decay of the human body; and that every
+one, who attains longevity, partakes, in the progress of growth and
+decline, of five temperaments; the purely _abdominal_, which prevails
+before birth; the _encephalo-abdominal_, which exists at birth, and for
+some years afterward; the _encephalo-thoracic_; the _mixed_; and the
+_abdominal_ of real senility. Thus passes the circle of life, beginning
+with the abdominal temperament of the foetal state, and terminating in
+that of extreme old age.
+
+That there is an intimate connexion between temperament and personal
+beauty, will be manifest from the above view of the subject. Our limits,
+however, forbid an application of Dr. Caldwell's views in illustration of
+Mr. Walker's theory; these, however, have been given so much in detail,
+that the reader will be able to make the application for himself.
+
+
+G.
+
+There is hardly any habit relating to female dress more destructive of
+grace and beauty, at least of deportment, than that of compressing the
+foot in a shoe of one half the proper size. It would seem that our ladies
+were trying to ape the fashion of the Chinese, in this respect, and though
+they do not at present carry it to the same extent, yet they carry it
+sufficiently far to destroy their comfort. We look in vain for the
+sprightly, light, and elastic step, where the feet are bound tight, and
+cramped up in disproportionately tight shoes; and it would be strange in
+such a case, if we did not find an unhappy and distressed expression of
+countenance--the muscles of the face sympathizing with the distorted and
+painful feet. Such a custom, also, interferes materially with taking that
+measure of exercise which is necessary to health. Mrs. Walker, in her work
+on Female Beauty, remarks as follows: "Ladies are very apt to torture
+their feet to make them appear small. This is exceedingly ridiculous: a
+very small foot is a deformity. True beauty of each part consists in the
+proportion it bears to the rest of the body. A tight or ill-made shoe, not
+only destroys the shape of the foot, it produces corns and bunions; and it
+tends to impede the circulation of the blood. Besides, the foot then
+swells, and appears larger than it is, and the ankles become thick and
+clumsy."
+
+The pernicious effect of tight or ill-made shoes, is evident also in the
+stiff and tottering gait of these victims of a foolish prejudice; they can
+neither stand upright, walk straight, nor enter a room properly.
+
+To be too short, is one of the greatest defects a shoe can have; because
+it takes away all chance of yielding in that direction, and without
+offering any compensation for tightness in others, and in itself, it not
+only causes pain, and spoils the shape of the foot, by turning down the
+toes, and swelling of the instep, but is the cause of bad gait and
+carriage. Many diseases arise solely from the use of shoes of very thin
+materials in wet weather; but no female who has the slightest regard for
+her health, or indeed for the preservation of her beauty, will object to
+wear shoes thicker than are usually worn, if the pavement is at any time
+wet or damp.
+
+
+H.
+
+The effect of alcoholic drinks upon beauty, has not been over-estimated by
+Mr. Walker, though he is doubtless mistaken in supposing that none but
+those who reside amid the artificial customs of city life, experience the
+deleterious influence of such beverages. Not only alcoholic stimulants,
+but tea and coffee, and especially opium, which has of late come into very
+extensive use as a substitute for the former, tend to produce an unhealthy
+action of the skin, from their influence upon the secerent system, causing
+blotches, pimples, and discolorations, in a greater or less degree. Where
+used moderately, they produce either an unnatural paleness, deadness, or
+duskiness of complexion, or a bloated appearance, far removed from the
+fresh roseate hue of health. Such is the effect of wine, cordials, and
+malt liquors, which are extensively employed by ladies, particularly in
+cities, during the period of nursing, under a mistaken impression that
+they cause a greater flow of milk, and tend to invigorate the system.
+Whoever desires to attain health, strength, and beauty, should not seek
+them through the agency of bitters, tonics, and cordials, or distilled, or
+fermented liquors, which only inflame the blood, but from free exercise in
+the open air, regular occupations, tranquillity of mind, a mild diet, and
+a proper allotment of time for sleep.
+
+It has been remarked that the lower classes of females in cities, consume
+as much, and probably more intoxicating drinks, than men of the same
+class, and this is no doubt true. But to the honor of our countrywomen, a
+great change has been brought about within last few years, with respect to
+the use of alcoholic liquors, not only in this, but in other countries,
+with a corresponding improvement in health, happiness, and beauty. In
+advancing this blessed reform, the ladies have borne a conspicuous
+part--as they have in every other philanthropic work--and their _combined_
+influence is only needed, to banish such drinks entirely from civilized
+society.
+
+
+THE FACIAL LINE OF CAMPER.
+
+In order to determine the cerebral mass, and, consequently, the
+intellectual faculties, Camper draws a base line from the roots of the
+upper incisors, to the external auditory passage; then another straight
+line, from the upper incisors to the most elevated point of the forehead:
+according to him, the intellectual faculties of the man or animal, are in
+direct proportion to the magnitude of the angle, made by those two lines.
+Lavater, with this idea for a basis, constructed a scale of perfection
+from the frog to the Apollo Belvidere. As nature really furnishes many
+proofs in support of this opinion, it has been generally received, even by
+anatomists and physiologists; and, notwithstanding the arguments by which
+it is victoriously opposed, the learned cannot resolve to abandon it.
+Cuvier himself furnishes a list of men and animals, in support of this
+doctrine; few naturalists oppose it, but almost all give it their
+support.[61]
+
+Camper's attempt necessarily failed; for his manner of drawing the lines
+and measuring the facial angle, enabled him to take into consideration the
+anterior parts only of the brain situated near the forehead: he entirely
+neglects the posterior, lateral, and inferior cerebral parts. This method,
+then, at most, could decide upon those faculties only, whose organs are
+placed near the forehead.
+
+Cuvier estimates the facial angle of the new-born infant at ninety
+degrees; that of the adult, at eighty-five; that of decrepit old age, at
+fifty.
+
+From this statement it appears, that, at different ages, changes take
+place in the form, either of the brain or the cranium; hereafter I shall
+prove that such changes really occur.
+
+The forehead of the newborn infant is flattened; on the contrary, that of
+a child some months old, and until the age of eight or ten years,
+especially in the case of boys possessed of superior talents, it is
+projecting, and forms, notwithstanding the approximation to the age of
+puberty, a larger facial angle than in the adult; this angle, therefore,
+does not diminish in the inverse ratio of the age. In like manner we find
+decrepit old men, whose facial angle is as great as it was in the vigor of
+manhood; for, although in decrepitude the brain is subject to atrophy,
+there are old men, the exterior contour of whose crania undergoes no
+change. The angle, as stated by Cuvier, for different ages, were measured
+upon different individuals; if it were estimated upon the same persons at
+different epochs of his life, the result would be entirely different.
+
+In general, the proportion between the forehead and the face, is
+different in different individuals. No conclusion can be drawn from the
+proportions, which exist in one person, relative to those of another;
+among a hundred individuals of the same sex and age, no two can be found,
+in whom the same proportion exists between the forehead and the face; it
+necessarily follows, then, that no two will have the same facial angle.
+Physiologists seem to admit, that the proportion between the brain and the
+bones of the face, is different in different species of animals: but they
+appear to think that, in all the individuals of the same species, all the
+young, all the adults, all the old, there exists a constant proportion
+between the cerebral mass and the face.
+
+The researches of Blumenbach show that threefourths of the animals known,
+have nearly the same facial angle; and yet what a disparity between their
+instincts and faculties! What information, then, do we derive from
+Camper's facial angle?
+
+Moreover, as Cuvier himself observes, the cerebral mass is by no means
+placed in all animals, immediately behind or beneath what is called the
+forehead. In a great many species of animals, on the contrary, the
+external table of the frontal is at a considerable distance from the
+internal, and this distance increases with the age of the animal. The
+brain of the swine is placed an inch lower than the frontal bones seem to
+indicate; that of the ox, in some parts three inches; that of the
+elephant, from six to thirteen. In other animals, the measurement is
+generally commenced at the frontal sinus instead of the cerebrum. From
+these considerations, Cuvier was induced to draw a tangent to the internal
+instead of the external surface of the cranium. The cerebrum of the wolf
+and many species of dogs, especially when the individuals are very old, is
+placed directly behind the frontal sinuses. In the wolf, especially the
+large and most ferocious variety, it is depressed as in the hyena; in the
+dog it is situated higher or lower, according to the species; but,
+notwithstanding this difference in the situation of the brain, the facial
+angle, as it is commonly measured, must be the same; from this the
+inference would be, that the dog, the wolf, and the hyena, have the same
+qualities, and each in the same degree. In the greater part of the
+rodentia, the morse, &c., the brain is so depressed and so placed behind
+the frontal sinuses, that the facial line cannot be drawn. The facial line
+of the cetacea, on account of the singular conformation of the head, would
+lead to results absolutely false.
+
+I know many negroes, who, with very prominent jaws, are quite
+distinguished for their intellectual faculties; yet the projection of the
+jaws renders the facial angle much more acute, than it would be with the
+usual conformation of Europeans. In order that the same angle should exist
+in a European, the forehead must be flattened and retreating. But the
+foreheads of the negroes in question, on the contrary, are very
+projecting. Who, under these circumstances, would expect to find the same
+amount of intellect corresponding to the same facial angle?
+
+The facial line cannot be applied to birds, as many naturalists have
+already observed.
+
+From what has been said, we should expect that naturalists would at length
+renounce the facial angle of Camper; but the most ignorant are generally
+the most conceited.
+
+In spite of this complete refutation of Camper's facial line, Delpit
+extols it in the following terms:--
+
+"If ever a relation of this kind presented characters of generality and
+fixedness, adequate to excite a reasonable confidence in matters belonging
+to the domain of empiricism, rather than that of science, it is the
+relation or proportion of magnitude, which Camper first perceived and
+revealed, by comparing the brain of man with that of the different species
+of animals. We here see a successive decrease of intelligence,
+proportionate to the acuteness of the facial angle and the consequent
+diminution of the cerebral cavity. This affords a constant and fixed
+relation. It can be appreciated with a sufficient degree of exactness by
+the direct light of comparative anatomy, and by observation of the habits
+and intelligence of the different classes of animals; it can also be
+verified by the comparison of men very unequally endowed with intellectual
+faculties, in whom the contraction of the cerebral cavity and the
+magnitude of the facial angle exhibit the most remarkable diversities.
+Here the physiognomical sign has, if I may be allowed the expression, a
+wide extent of acceptation; it rests upon a broad basis, upon a definite
+division, and one of easy comprehension and verification; for, if there is
+some discrepancy of opinion, in regard to the number and nomenclature of
+the faculties of the mind, the sentiments of the soul, the modifications
+or shades of character which give birth to particular passions, moral
+dispositions, habits, whether virtuous or vicious; if these
+classifications are, in a great measure, arbitrary, and the language used
+somewhat vague; if, in short, the greater part of these nominal faculties
+are mere abstractions of the mind, purely imaginary existences, and
+therefore cannot be actually located in any part of the brain; the case is
+quite different, when we merely seek to establish a general relation
+between a constant sign manifested in the organization, and the degree of
+reason, mind, or intellect, attributed to different men, or the degrees of
+sagacity attributed to different species of animals. Here, no one is at a
+loss, because there is ample latitude for comparing and judging; in the
+system of Gall, on the contrary, the comparisons rest upon minute points,
+which are subject to discussion, exceptions, a thousand uncertainties in
+the signs and various applications."[62]
+
+If the reader will review what I have said against Camper's facial line,
+he will find a refutation of all this reasoning of Delpit; a proof that he
+defends it merely because it is in vogue. It is this very generality and
+fixedness, which render it, in almost all cases, inapplicable; this is the
+inherent defect in the supposed importance of Camper's facial angle. It is
+implicitly supposed, that no difference but that of degree, exists between
+the capacities of the different species and individuals of the human race,
+and the different species and individuals of the animal kingdom. Thus the
+intelligence of men and other animals would always be proportioned to the
+magnitude of the facial angle. This being premised, I ask, which, out of
+two, three, four, &c., has the most intelligence, the dog, ape, beaver,
+the ant, or the bee? Ants and bees live in an admirable republic, and form
+astonishing constructions, which they know how to modify according to
+circumstances. The beaver and penduline build with equally marvellous
+skill, and with a foresight which seldom errs; the dog and the ape have
+very little foresight, and are incapable of the most insignificant
+construction. Which has the greater intelligence, Voltaire or Descartes?
+Could the former have been a mathematician and the latter a poet? Which
+has the higher degree of intellect, Mozart or Lessing, who, with all his
+genius, detested music? In short, which has the most intelligence, my dog
+who retraces his steps through the most complicated routes, or myself, who
+am always going astray? Measure now the facial angle of the ant, bee,
+beaver, penduline, ape, my dog, and of myself, and estimate the result.
+Acknowledge, then, that your division, so definite, so easy to be
+apprehended, is absolutely useless, and that you are obliged to advert to
+divers instincts, propensities, faculties, and their different degrees of
+energy, to which your facial angle is wholly inapplicable. Your
+intelligence, instinct, address, are in reality mere abstractions,
+imaginary existences. Do you consider the propensity to procreation, the
+love of offspring, the carnivorous instinct, the talent for music, poetry,
+&c., as imaginary existences? You see, then, that it is more convenient to
+tread the beaten path, than to verify observations.--_Gall on the
+Functions of the Brain_, page 195.
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] Utopia, Book II., chap. viii.
+
+[2] I do not wish to be forced into any discussion of this last point.
+But, if necessary, I shall not decline it.
+
+[3] We fear that Mr. Walker's analogical reasoning here is not very
+conclusive. To reason from a living to a dead subject may be very logical
+but it is not altogether satisfactory.
+
+[4] "The Magazine of The Fine Arts," No. VI, for October 1833.
+
+[5] I am not here called upon to vindicate the errors and absurdities
+which poets and others introduced into mythology.
+
+[6] Appendix A.
+
+[7] George IV., though the "first gentleman" in England, was guilty of
+cheating at a horserace.--ED.
+
+[8] The above remark is true of the same class of females in this
+country.--ED.
+
+[9] Appendix B.
+
+[10] Appendix C.
+
+[11] To the reader unaccustomed to inquiries of this kind, it may save
+trouble to peruse first the brief Summary of the contents of this
+important chapter, beginning in page 120.
+
+[12] Regularity expresses the similarity of parts considered as
+constituting a whole; and uniformity, the similarity of parts considered
+separately.
+
+[13] Appendix D
+
+[14] The common character of these arts has been overlooked.
+
+[15] Proportion is here employed, not as expressing an intrinsic relation,
+as in the beauty of inanimate beings, but as expressing an extrinsic
+relation to fitness for ends.
+
+[16] "The Nervous System, Anatomical and Physiological: in which the
+Functions of the various Parts of the Brain are, for the first time,
+assigned."
+
+[17] Communicated by the writer to the "Magazine of the Fine Arts," No.
+11, for June, 1833.
+
+[18] "Human Nature," chap, ix., sec. 13.
+
+[19] "Reflexions Critiques sur la Poesie et sur la Peinture."
+
+[20] "Reflexions sur la Poetique."
+
+[21] "Adventurer," No. 110.
+
+[22] Essay on Tragedy.
+
+[23] To some it may appear, that the organs and functions of digestion,
+respiration, and generation, are not involved by this arrangement; but
+such a notion can originate only in superficial observation.
+
+Digestion is a compound function easily reducible to some of the simple
+ones which have been enumerated. It consists of the motion of the stomach
+and contiguous parts, of the secretion of a liquid from its internal
+surface, and of that heat, which is the common result of all action,
+whether mechanical, vital, or mental, and which is better explained by
+such motion, than by chymical theories. Similarly compound are respiration
+and generation.
+
+Thus, there is no organ nor function which is not involved by the simple
+and natural arrangement here sketched.
+
+Compound, however, as the organs of digestion, respiration, and
+generation, are, yet, as they form so important a part of the system, it
+may be asked, with which of these classes they are most allied. The answer
+is obvious. All of them consist of tubular vessels of various diameter;
+and all of them transmit and transmute liquids. Possessing such strong
+characteristics of the nutritive or vital system, they are evidently most
+allied to it.
+
+In short, digestion prepares the nutritive or vital matter, which is taken
+up by absorption--the first of the simple nutritive functions; respiration
+renovates it in the very middle of its course--between the two portions of
+the simple function of circulation; and generation, dependant on
+secretion--the last of these functions, communicates this nutritive
+matter, or propagates vitality to a new series of beings. In such
+arrangement, the digestive organs, therefore, precede, and the generative
+follow, the simple nutritive organs; while the respiratory occupy a middle
+place between the venous and the arterial circulation.
+
+Nothing can be more improper, as the preceding observations show, than
+considering any one of these as a distinct class.
+
+More fully, therefore, to enumerate the nutritive or vital organs, we may
+say, that, under them, are classed, first, the organs of digestion, the
+external and internal absorbent surfaces, and the vessels which absorb
+from these surfaces, or the organs of absorption; second, the heart,
+lungs, and bloodvessels, which derive their contents (the blood) from the
+absorbed lymph, or the organs of circulation; and third, the secreting
+cavities, glands, &c., which separate various matters from the blood, or
+the organs of secretion, and of which generation is the sequel.
+
+[24] Appendix E.
+
+[25] In perfect consistency with the assertion, that, though the organs of
+digestion, respiration, and generation, were really compound, still they
+were chiefly nutritive or vital, and properly belonged to that class, it
+is not less remarkable, that, in this division of the body, they are found
+to occupy that part, the trunk, in which the chief simple nutritive organs
+are contained. This also shows the impropriety of reckoning any of these a
+separate system from the vital.
+
+[26] The bones resemble these, in containing the greatest quantity of
+earthy mineral matter.
+
+[27] It is the possession of vessels which constitutes the vitality of
+vegetables.
+
+[28] In animals, alone, is nervous matter discoverable.
+
+[29] Plants have no real circulation, nor passage of their nutritive
+liquids through the same point.
+
+[30] This arrangement of anatomy and physiology was first published by me
+in 1806; and, notwithstanding its being the arrangement of nature, it has
+not been adopted by any one that I know of, until very lately, when it was
+in some measure used by Dr. Roget, without acknowledgment.
+
+The originality, as well as the truth and value, of this arrangement, will
+be illustrated by referring to any other published previous to 1806, or
+even to 1808, when I republished it in "Preliminary Lectures," Edinburgh.
+
+[31] The cause of this has never been explained; and it could not well be
+explained, without a perception of the views in my preceding physiological
+arrangement.--The brain, at this period, becomes more subservient to
+purposes connected with generation; the communication between the trunk
+and the head is more frequent, intense, and sustained; and the neck, which
+contains the communicating organs, necessarily increases in size. This
+unexplained circumstance led to the mistake of the craniologists
+respecting the cerebel. Here, therefore, as in other cases pointed out in
+my work on Physiognomy, Gall and Spurzheim ascribe to deeper-seated organs
+what belongs to more superficial ones.
+
+[32] Appendix F.
+
+[33] Appendix G.
+
+[34] Memoire sur le Beau Physique.
+
+[35] A curious but true remark is made by Moreau, namely, that if these
+conditions are met with without being united to a certain expression, and
+to the most complete combination of the elements of beauty of countenance,
+they frequently give an air of insensibility and of mental weakness, which
+greatly enfeebles the impression that a first view had caused.
+
+[36] Statistical results in relation to the supply of hospitals and
+prisons, carry the expense of a man much beyond that of a woman.
+
+[37] Appendix H.
+
+[38] Appendix I.
+
+[39] See the causes of this explained in my work on "Physiognomy."
+
+[40] Pallas--Voyages en Siberie.
+
+[41] Humboldt's Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain.
+
+[42] It is remarkable that, in infants, the nose is almost always flat,
+and that, in some members of the same family, it always remains so, while,
+in others, it rises. This is attended by difference of function.
+
+[43] "Physiognomy founded on Physiology, and applied to various Countries,
+Professions, and Individuals: with an Appendix on the Bones at Hythe--the
+Sculls of the ancient Inhabitants of Britain, and its Invaders:
+illustrated by Engravings."--Smith, Elder, & Co., Cornhill.
+
+[44] Of the best works on this subject, those of Mengs alone, I believe,
+have been translated; but the translation is so inaccurate as to be
+worthless.
+
+[45] Thus it is not correct, as stated by Leonardo, that when some parts
+are broad or thick, all are broad; though, in peculiar combinations, that
+may occur.
+
+[46] Lib. II. in Timaeum Platonis.
+
+[47] This member of the Royal Academy was suspected of having written that
+"republics had done more for the advancement of the fine arts than
+monarchies." The late George III., who did not approve of truths of that
+kind, was thereby so much enraged, that he instantly sent for the list of
+the members of the academy, and therefrom erased the name of Barry. The
+academicians humbly submitted to the indignity which hereditary wisdom
+thus inflicted. It would appear, however, that bad principles are
+spreading among the Royal academicians; for the works of this expelled
+member are now daringly given by them as a prize to students at the
+academy!
+
+[48] This rule is well explained, and variously illustrated by Donald
+Walker, in his work, equally philosophical, instructive, and amusing,
+entitled "Exercises for Ladies," a knowledge of which, and the practice of
+its principles, would render beauty, and especially beauty of the
+shoulders and arms, far more common in every family.
+
+[49] It was at the extremity of the modern Cape Crio, anciently Triopium,
+a promontory of Doris, a province of Caria, that was built the celebrated
+city of Cnidos. Here Venus was worshipped: here was seen this statue of
+that goddess, the most beautiful of the works of Praxiteles. A temple, far
+from spacious, and open on all sides, contained it, without concealing it
+from view; and, in whatever point of view it was examined, it excited
+equal admiration. No drapery veiled its charms; and so uncommon was its
+beauty, that it inflamed with a violent passion another Pygmalion.
+
+[50] The phrenologists have told us that the head of this Venus is too
+small. They might as well have said, that the head of the Minerva, or of
+the Jupiter, is too large, or a hundred other ignorant inapplicabilities,
+and ridiculous pedantries. But to set aside ideal forms, I may observe,
+that sex makes a vast difference in the head, and a woman with a small
+head often produces a son with a large one.
+
+[51] This is beautiful, but is evidently borrowed from the great
+philosophical poet's
+
+  "Te, Dea, te fugiunt ventei, te nubila coeli,
+  Adventumque tuum."
+
+[52] That, in plants, these odors are even necessary to their
+reproduction, is proved by their uniform existence at that period. And if
+being affected by odors implies a sense of smell, or some modification of
+it, then must plants possess it.
+
+[53] In all grossly sensual nations and individuals, the lips are everted
+even at the angles.
+
+[54] See this explained in "Physiognomy."
+
+[55] "Venere suol tenere alquanto aperte le labbra, come per indicare un
+languido desiderio ed amore."--_Storia delle Arti._
+
+[56] In the Cupid, the form of the head is godlike. The hair not only
+curls with all the vigor of early years, but, with perfect knowledge of
+nature's tendency, is bent into a ridge along the middle of the upper
+head. The brow, full, open, and charmingly rounded, is the evident throne
+of young observation, and it flows with such beauty into the parts behind,
+as if it actually _said_ its purpose was to fling its observations back on
+thought and will. Its beginnings at the eyebrows display exquisite
+knowledge: the bony ridge is admirably shown to be yet unformed; and while
+its outer extremity forms but the orbital convexity, or shell for the
+globe of the eye, the inner extremity of the eyebrow is with infinite art
+drawn over soft and hollow space, as if the few hairs that composed it
+made there its only convexity. In short, in every part of the face, fine
+and faint as is every youthful feature, no detail is lost; and this, added
+to the pointed chin and upper lip, declare the purpose of the little god.
+
+[57] Appendix K.
+
+[58] I speak not of paint here. It is now used only by meretricious
+persons and by those harridans of higher rank who resemble them in every
+respect, except that the former are ashamed of their profession, and the
+latter advertise it.
+
+[59] Combe's Phrenology.
+
+[60] Physiologie des Temperamens on Constitutions. Paris, 1826.
+
+[61] This doctrine is revived, _Dict. des Sciences med._ Delpit and
+Reydellet.
+
+[62] Dictionnaire des Sciences Med. t. xxxviii. p. 263.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+The misprint "and and" has been corrected to "and".
+
+Footnote 6 appears on page 34; however, it has no corresponding marker.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Beauty, by Alexander Walker
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