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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3
+       "Fenton, Edward" to "Finistere"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 12, 2011 [EBook #35561]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FERDINAND V.: "He feared that Jiménez and the 267 Great
+      Captain would become too independent, and watched them in the
+      interest of the royal authority." 'Jiménez' amended from 'Ximinez'.
+
+    ARTICLE FERGUSSON, ROBERT: "Fergusson's poems were collected in the
+      year before his death." "Fergusson's" amended from "Fergussons'".
+
+    ARTICLE FERMENTATION: "For example, some species hydrolyse cane
+      sugar and maltose, and then carry on fermentation at the expense of
+      the simple sugars (hexoses) so formed." 'cane' amended from 'came'.
+
+    ARTICLE FERREIRA, ANTONIO: "... and though it has since been
+      handled by poets of renown in many different languages, none has
+      been able to surpass the old master." 'different' amended from
+      'differenc'.
+
+    ARTICLE FEVER: "The high temperature seems to cause disintegration
+      of cell protoplasm and increased excretion of nitrogen and of
+      carbonic acid." 'disintegration' amended from 'distintegration'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIBRES: "Transverse section of stem, × 235, showing bast
+      fibres occupying central zone." 'Transverse' amended from
+      'tranverse'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIBRES: "The textile yarn is produced by assembling
+      together the unit threads, which are wound together and suitably
+      twisted (silk; artificial silk)." 'and' amended from 'aud'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIBRES: "Aloe and Agave fibres in their softer forms are
+      also used for plasterers' brushes." "plasterers'" amended from
+      "plasterers's".
+
+    ARTICLE FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB: "The disasters of Prussia in 1806
+      drove Fichte from Berlin." 'disasters' amended from 'diasters'.
+
+    ARTICLE FICINO, MARSILIO: "Ficino, like nearly all the scholars of
+      that age in Italy, delighted in country life. 'life' amended from
+      'lfe'.
+
+    ARTICLE FICINO, MARSILIO: "From these it may be gathered that
+      nearly every living scholar of note was included in the list of his
+      friends, and that the subjects which interested him were by no
+      means confined to his Platonic studies. 'studies' amended from
+      'sudies'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD: "The following days were taken
+      up with tournaments, in which both kings took part, banquets and
+      other entertainments ..." 'taken' amended from 'take'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIFE: "... at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy there are high
+      schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy. 'Kirkcaldy'
+      amended from 'Kirkclady'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIJI: "The Fijians combined with this greediness a savage
+      and merciless nature." 'nature' amended from 'natures'.
+
+    ARTICLE FILELFO, FRANCESCO: "Not satisfied with these outlets for
+      his mental energy, Filelfo went on translating from the Greek, and
+      prosecuted a paper warfare with his enemies in Florence." 'Not'
+      amended from 'No'.
+
+    ARTICLE FILTER: "... impurities like ferric oxide, alumina, lime,
+      magnesia and silica having been removed by treatment with
+      hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids." 'ferric' amended from
+      'feric'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME X, SLICE III
+
+        Fenton, Edward to Finistère
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FENTON, EDWARD                    FEUDALISM
+  FENTON, ELIJAH                    FEUERBACH, ANSELM
+  FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY              FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS
+  FENTON, LAVINIA                   FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM
+  FENTON                            FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE
+  FENUGREEK                         FEUILLET, OCTAVE
+  FENWICK, SIR JOHN                 FEUILLETON
+  FEOFFMENT                         FEUQUIÈRES, ISAAC MANASSÈS DE PAS
+  FERDINAND                         FÉVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN
+  FERDINAND I. (Roman emperor)      FEVER
+  FERDINAND II. (Roman emperor)     FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIMÉ
+  FERDINAND III. (Roman emperor)    FEZ
+  FERDINAND I. (emperor of Austria) FEZZAN
+  FERDINAND I. (king of Naples)     FIACRE, SAINT
+  FERDINAND II. (king of Naples)    FIARS PRICES
+  FERDINAND IV. (king of Naples)    FIBRES
+  FERDINAND I. (king of Portugal)   FIBRIN
+  FERDINAND I. (king of Castile)    FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN VON
+  FERDINAND II. (king of Leon)      FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB
+  FERDINAND III. (king of Castile)  FICHTELGEBIRGE
+  FERDINAND IV. (king of Castile)   FICINO, MARSILIO
+  FERDINAND I. (king of Aragon)     FICKSBURG
+  FERDINAND V. (of Castile & Leon)  FICTIONS
+  FERDINAND VI. (king of Spain)     FIDDES, RICHARD
+  FERDINAND VII. (king of Spain)    FIDDLE
+  FERDINAND II. (king of Sicily)    FIDENAE
+  FERDINAND III. (duke of Tuscany)  FIDUCIARY
+  FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN MARIA       FIEF
+  FERDINAND (duke of Brunswick)     FIELD, CYRUS WEST
+  FERDINAND (archbishop of Cologne) FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY
+  FERENTINO                         FIELD, EUGENE
+  FERENTUM                          FIELD, FREDERICK
+  FERETORY                          FIELD, HENRY MARTYN
+  FERGHANA                          FIELD, JOHN
+  FERGUS FALLS                      FIELD, MARSHALL
+  FERGUSON, ADAM                    FIELD, NATHAN
+  FERGUSON, JAMES                   FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON
+  FERGUSON, ROBERT                  FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD
+  FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL              FIELD
+  FERGUSSON, JAMES                  FIELDFARE
+  FERGUSSON, ROBERT                 FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY
+  FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM            FIELDING, HENRY
+  FERINGHI                          FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS
+  FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM          FIELD-MOUSE
+  FERMANAGH                         FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD
+  FERMAT, PIERRE DE                 FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS
+  FERMENTATION                      FIENNES, NATHANIEL
+  FERMO                             FIERI FACIAS
+  FERMOY                            FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO
+  FERN                              FIESCO, GIOVANNI LUIGI
+  FERNANDEZ, ALVARO                 FIESOLE
+  FERNANDEZ, DIEGO                  FIFE (county of Scotland)
+  FERNANDEZ, JOHN                   FIFE (flute)
+  FERNANDEZ, JUAN                   FIFTH MONARCHY MEN
+  FERNANDEZ, LUCAS                  FIG
+  FERNANDINA                        FIGARO
+  FERNANDO DE NORONHA               FIGEAC
+  FERNANDO PO                       FIGUEIRA DA FOZ
+  FERNEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS             FIGUERAS
+  FERNIE                            FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS
+  FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG               FIGURATE NUMBERS
+  FEROZEPUR                         FIJI
+  FEROZESHAH                        FILANDER
+  FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS CLAUDE  FILANGIERI, CARLO
+  FERRAR, NICHOLAS                  FILANGIERI, GAETANO
+  FERRAR, ROBERT                    FILARIASIS
+  FERRARA                           FILDES, SIR LUKE
+  FERRARA-FLORENCE                  FILE
+  FERRARI, GAUDENZIO                FILE-FISH
+  FERRARI, GIUSEPPE                 FILELFO, FRANCESCO
+  FERRARI, PAOLO                    FILEY
+  FERREIRA, ANTONIO                 FILIBUSTER
+  FERREL'S LAW                      FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA
+  FERRERS                           FILIGREE
+  FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY         FILLAN, SAINT
+  FERRET                            FILLET
+  FERRI, CIRO                       FILLMORE, MILLARD
+  FERRI, LUIGI                      FILMER, SIR RORERT
+  FERRIER, ARNAUD DU                FILMY FERNS
+  FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK          FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN
+  FERRIER, PAUL                     FILOSA
+  FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE         FILTER
+  FERROL                            FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS
+  FERRUCCIO, FRANCESCO              FIMBRIATE
+  FERRULE                           FINALE
+  FERRY, JULES FRANÇOIS CAMILLE     FINANCE
+  FERRY                             FINCH, FINCH-HATTON
+  FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL              FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH
+  FERSEN, HANS AXEL                 FINCH
+  FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST            FINCHLEY
+  FESCENNIA                         FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON
+  FESCENNINE VERSES                 FINCK, HEINRICH
+  FESCH, JOSEPH                     FINCK, HERMANN
+  FESSA                             FINDEN, WILLIAM
+  FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT           FINDLATER, ANDREW
+  FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS           FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE
+  FESTA, CONSTANZO                  FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE
+  FESTINIOG                         FINDLAY
+  FESTOON                           FINE
+  FESTUS                            FINE ARTS
+  FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS           FINGER
+  FÉTIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH            FINGER-AND-TOE
+  FETISHISM                         FINGER-PRINTS
+  FETTERCAIRN                       FINGO
+  FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS             FINIAL
+  FEU                               FINIGUERRA, MASO
+  FEUCHÈRES, SOPHIE                 FINISHING
+  FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST             FINISTÈRE
+  FEUD
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, EDWARD (d. 1603), English navigator, son of Henry Fenton and
+brother of Sir Geoffrey Fenton (q.v.), was a native of Nottinghamshire.
+In 1577 he sailed, in command of the "Gabriel," with Sir Martin
+Frobisher's second expedition for the discovery of the north-west
+passage, and in the following year he took part as second in command in
+Frobisher's third expedition, his ship being the "Judith." He was then
+employed in Ireland for a time, but in 1582 he was put in charge of an
+expedition which was to sail round the Cape of Good Hope to the Moluccas
+and China, his instructions being to obtain any knowledge of the
+north-west passage that was possible without hindrance to his trade. On
+this unsuccessful voyage he got no farther than Brazil, and throughout
+he was engaged in quarrelling with his officers, and especially with his
+lieutenant, William Hawkins, the nephew of Sir John Hawkins, whom he had
+in irons when he arrived back in the Thames. In 1588 he had command of
+the "Mary Rose," one of the ships of the fleet that was formed to oppose
+the Armada. He died fifteen years afterwards.
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730), English poet, was born at Shelton near
+Newcastle-under-Lyme, of an old Staffordshire family, on the 25th of May
+1683. He graduated from Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1704, but was
+prevented by religious scruples from taking orders. He accompanied the
+earl of Orrery to Flanders as private secretary, and on returning to
+England became assistant in a school at Headley, Surrey, being soon
+afterwards appointed master of the free grammar school at Sevenoaks in
+Kent. In 1710 he resigned his appointment in the expectation of a place
+from Lord Bolingbroke, but was disappointed. He then became tutor to
+Lord Broghill, son of his patron Orrery. Fenton is remembered as the
+coadjutor of Alexander Pope in his translation of the _Odyssey_. He was
+responsible for the first, fourth, nineteenth and twentieth books, for
+which he received £300. He died at East Hampstead, Berkshire, on the
+16th of July 1730. He was buried in the parish church, and his epitaph
+was written by Pope.
+
+  Fenton also published _Oxford and Cambridge Miscellany Poems_ (1707);
+  _Miscellaneous Poems_ (1717); _Mariamne_, a tragedy (1723); an edition
+  (1725) of Milton's poems, and one of Waller (1729) with elaborate
+  notes. See W.W. Lloyd, _Elijah Fenton, his Poetry and Friends_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY (c. 1539-1608), English writer and politician, was
+the son of Henry Fenton, of Nottinghamshire. He was brother of Edward
+Fenton the navigator. He is said to have visited Spain and Italy in his
+youth; possibly he went to Paris in Sir Thomas Hoby's train in 1566, for
+he was living there in 1567, when he wrote _Certaine tragicall
+discourses written oute of Frenche and Latin_. This book is a free
+translation of François de Belleforest's French rendering of Matteo
+Bandello's _Novelle_. Till 1579 Fenton continued his literary labours,
+publishing _Monophylo_ in 1572, _Golden epistles gathered out of
+Guevarae's workes as other authors_ ... 1575, and various religious
+tracts of strong protestant tendencies. In 1579 appeared the _Historie
+of Guicciardini, translated out of French by G.F._ and dedicated to
+Elizabeth. Through Lord Burghley he obtained, in 1580, the post of
+secretary to the new lord deputy of Ireland, Lord Grey de Wilton, and
+thus became a fellow worker with the poet, Edmund Spenser. From this
+time Fenton abandoned literature and became a faithful if somewhat
+unscrupulous servant of the crown. He was a bigoted protestant, longing
+to use the rack against "the diabolicall secte of Rome," and even
+advocating the assassination of the queen's most dangerous subjects. He
+won Elizabeth's confidence, and the hatred of all his fellow-workers, by
+keeping her informed of every one's doings in Ireland. In 1587 Sir John
+Perrot arrested Fenton, but the queen instantly ordered his release.
+Fenton was knighted in 1589, and in 1590-1591 he was in London as
+commissioner on the impeachment of Perrot. Full of dislike of the Scots
+and of James VI. (which he did not scruple to utter), on the latter's
+accession Fenton's post of secretary was in danger, but Burghley exerted
+himself in his favour, and in 1604 it was confirmed to him for life,
+though he had to share it with Sir Richard Coke. Fenton died in Dublin
+on the 19th of October 1608, and was buried in St Patrick's cathedral.
+He married in June 1585, Alice, daughter of Dr Robert Weston, formerly
+lord chancellor of Ireland, and widow of Dr Hugh Brady, bishop of Meath,
+by whom he had two children, a son, Sir William Fenton, and a daughter,
+Catherine, who in 1603 married Richard Boyle, 1st earl of Cork.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Harl. Soc. publications, vol. iv., Visitation of
+  Nottinghamshire, 1871; Roy. Hist. MSS. Comm. (particularly Hatfield
+  collection); Calendar of State papers, Ireland (very full), domestic,
+  Carew papers; Lismore papers, ed. A.B. Grosart (1886-1888); _Certaine
+  tragicall Discourses_, ed. R.L. Douglas (2 vols., 1898), Tudor
+  Translation series, vols. xix., xx. (introd.).
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, LAVINIA (1708-1760), English actress, was probably the daughter
+of a naval lieutenant named Beswick, but she bore the name of her
+mother's husband. Her first appearance was as Monimia in Otway's
+_Orphans_, in 1726 at the Haymarket. She then joined the company of
+players at the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, where her success and
+beauty made her the toast of the beaux. It was in Gay's _Beggar's
+Opera_, as Polly Peachum, that Miss Fenton made her greatest success.
+Her pictures were in great demand, verses were written to her and books
+published about her, and she was the most talked-of person in London.
+Hogarth's picture shows her in one of the scenes, with the duke of
+Bolton in a box. After appearing in several comedies, and then in
+numerous repetitions of the _Beggar's Opera_, she ran away with her
+lover Charles Paulet, 3rd duke of Bolton, a man much older than herself,
+who, after the death of his wife in 1751, married her. Their three
+children all died young. The duchess survived her husband and died on
+the 24th of January 1760.
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, a town of Staffordshire, England, on the North Staffordshire
+railway, adjoining the east side of Stoke-on-Trent, in which
+parliamentary and municipal borough it is included. Pop. (1891) 16,998;
+(1901) 22,742. The manufacture of earthenware common to the district
+(the Potteries) employs the bulk of the large industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+FENUGREEK, in botany, _Trigonella Foenum-graecum_ (so called from the
+name given to it by the ancients, who used it as fodder for cattle), a
+member of a genus of leguminous herbs very similar in habit and in most
+of their characters to the species of the genus _Medicago_. The leaves
+are formed of three obovate leaflets, the middle one of which is
+stalked; the flowers are solitary, or in clusters of two or three, and
+have a campanulate, 5-cleft calyx; and the pods are many-seeded,
+cylindrical or flattened, and straight or only slightly curved. The
+genus is widely diffused over the south of Europe, West and Central
+Asia, and the north of Africa, and is represented by several species in
+Australia. Fenugreek is indigenous to south-eastern Europe and western
+Asia, and is cultivated in the Mediterranean region, parts of central
+Europe, and in Morocco, and largely in Egypt and in India. It bears a
+sickle-shaped pod, containing from 10 to 20 seeds, from which 6% of a
+fetid, fatty and bitter oil can be extracted by ether. In India the
+fresh plant is employed as an esculent. The seed is an ingredient in
+curry powders, and is used for flavouring cattle foods. It was formerly
+much esteemed as a medicine, and is still in repute in veterinary
+practice.
+
+
+
+
+FENWICK, SIR JOHN (c. 1645-1697), English conspirator, was the eldest
+son of Sir William Fenwick, or Fenwicke, a member of an old
+Northumberland family. He entered the army, becoming major-general in
+1688, but before this date he had been returned in succession to his
+father as one of the members of parliament for Northumberland, which
+county he represented from 1677 to 1687. He was a strong partisan of
+King James II., and in 1685 was one of the principal supporters of the
+act of attainder against the duke of Monmouth; but he remained in
+England when William III. ascended the throne three years later. He
+began at once to plot against the new king, for which he underwent a
+short imprisonment in 1689. Renewing his plots on his release, he
+publicly insulted Queen Mary in 1691, and it is practically certain that
+he was implicated in the schemes for assassinating William which came to
+light in 1695 and 1696. After the seizure of his fellow-conspirators,
+Robert Charnock and others, he remained in hiding until the imprudent
+conduct of his friends in attempting to induce one of the witnesses
+against him to leave the country led to his arrest in June in 1696. To
+save himself he offered to reveal all he knew about the Jacobite
+conspiracies; but his confession was a farce, being confined to charges
+against some of the leading Whig noblemen, which were damaging, but not
+conclusive. By this time his friends had succeeded in removing one of
+the two witnesses, and in these circumstances it was thought that the
+charge of treason must fail. The government, however, overcame this
+difficulty by introducing a bill of attainder, which after a long and
+acrimonious discussion passed through both Houses of Parliament. His
+wife persevered in her attempts to save his life, but her efforts were
+fruitless, and Fenwick was beheaded in London on the 28th of January
+1697, with the same formalities as were usually observed at the
+execution of a peer. By his wife, Mary (d. 1708), daughter of Charles
+Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, he had three sons and one daughter.
+Macaulay says that "of all the Jacobites, the most desperate characters
+not excepted, he (Fenwick) was the only one for whom William felt an
+intense personal aversion"; and it is interesting to note that Fenwick's
+hatred of the king is said to date from the time when he was serving in
+Holland, and was reprimanded by William, then prince of Orange.
+
+
+
+
+FEOFFMENT, in English law, during the feudal period, the usual method of
+granting or conveying a freehold or fee. For the derivation of the word
+see FIEF and FEE. The essential elements were _livery of seisin_
+(delivery of possession), which consisted in formally giving to the
+feoffee on the land a clod or turf, or a growing twig, as a symbol of
+the transfer of the land, and words by the feoffor declaratory of his
+intent to deliver possession to the feoffee with a "limitation" of the
+estate intended to be transferred. This was called livery _in deed_.
+Livery _in law_ was made not on but in sight of this land, the feoffor
+saying to the feoffee, "I give you that land; enter and take
+possession." Livery in law, in order to pass the estate, had to be
+perfected by entry by the feoffee during the joint lives of himself and
+the feoffor. It was usual to evidence the feoffment by writing in a
+charter or deed of feoffment; but writing was not essential until the
+Statute of Frauds; now, by the Real Property Act 1845, a conveyance of
+real property is void unless evidenced by deed, and thus feoffments
+have been rendered unnecessary and superfluous. All corporeal
+hereditaments were by that act declared to be _in grant_ as well as
+_livery_, i.e. they could be granted by deed without livery. A feoffment
+might be a tortious conveyance, _i.e._ if a person attempted to give to
+the feoffee a greater estate than he himself had in the land, he
+forfeited the estate of which he was seised. (See CONVEYANCING; REAL
+PROPERTY.)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND (Span. _Fernando_ or _Hernando_; Ital. _Ferdinando_ or
+_Ferrante_; in O.H. Ger. _Herinand_, i.e. "brave in the host," from
+O.H.G. Heri, "army," A.S. _here_, Mod. Ger. _Heer_, and the Goth,
+_nanþjan_, "to dare"), a name borne at various times by many European
+sovereigns and princes, the more important of whom are noticed below in
+the following order: emperors, kings of Naples, Portugal, Spain
+(Castile, Leon and Aragon) and the two Sicilies; then the grand duke of
+Tuscany, the prince of Bulgaria, the duke of Brunswick and the elector
+of Cologne.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I. (1503-1564), Roman emperor, was born at Alcalá de Henares
+on the 10th of March 1503, his father being Philip the Handsome, son of
+the emperor Maximilian I., and his mother Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. Philip died in 1506
+and Ferdinand, educated in Spain, was regarded with especial favour by
+his maternal grandfather who wished to form a Spanish-Italian kingdom
+for his namesake. This plan came to nothing, and the same fate attended
+a suggestion made after the death of Maximilian in 1519 that Ferdinand,
+and not his elder brother Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles V.,
+should succeed to the imperial throne. Charles, however, secured the
+Empire and the whole of the lands of Maximilian and Ferdinand, while the
+younger brother was perforce content with a subordinate position. Yet
+some provision must be made for Ferdinand. In April 1521 the emperor
+granted to him the archduchies and duchies of upper and lower Austria,
+Carinthia, Styria and Carniola, adding soon afterwards the county of
+Tirol and the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs in south-western
+Germany. About the same time the archduke was appointed to govern the
+duchy of Württemberg, which had come into the possession of Charles V.;
+and in May 1521 he was married at Linz to Anna (d. 1547), a daughter of
+Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, a union which had been arranged
+some years before by the emperor Maximilian. In 1521 also he was made
+president of the council of regency (_Reichsregiment_), appointed to
+govern Germany during the emperor's absence, and the next five years
+were occupied with imperial business, in which he acted as his brother's
+representative, and in the government of the Austrian lands.
+
+In Austria and the neighbouring duchies Ferdinand sought at first to
+suppress the reformers and their teaching, and this was possibly one
+reason why he had some difficulty in quelling risings in the districts
+under his rule after the Peasants' War broke out in 1524. But a new
+field was soon opened for his ambition. In August 1526 his childless
+brother-in-law, Louis II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, was killed at
+the battle of Mohacs, and the archduke at once claimed both kingdoms,
+both by treaty and by right of his wife. Taking advantage of the
+divisions among his opponents, he was chosen king of Bohemia in October
+1526, and crowned at Prague in the following February, but in Hungary he
+was less successful. John Zapolya, supported by the national party and
+soon afterwards by the Turks, offered a sturdy resistance, and although
+Ferdinand was chosen king at Pressburg in December 1526, and after
+defeating Zapolya at Tokay was crowned at Stuhlweissenburg in November
+1527, he was unable to take possession of the kingdom. The Bavarian
+Wittelsbachs, incensed at not securing the Bohemian throne, were
+secretly intriguing with his foes; the French, after assisting
+spasmodically, made a formal alliance with Turkey in 1535; and Zapolya
+was a very useful centre round which the enemies of the Habsburgs were
+not slow to gather. A truce made in 1533 was soon broken, and the war
+dragged on until 1538, when by the treaty of Grosswardein, Hungary was
+divided between the claimants. The kingly title was given to Zapolya,
+but Ferdinand was to follow him on the throne. Before this, in January
+1531, he had been chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Cologne,
+and his coronation took place a few days later at Aix-la-Chapelle. He
+had thoroughly earned this honour by his loyalty to his brother, whom he
+had represented at several diets. In religious matters the king was now
+inclined, probably owing to the Turkish danger, to steer a middle course
+between the contending parties, and in 1532 he agreed to the religious
+peace of Nuremberg, receiving in return from the Protestants some
+assistance for the war against the Turks. In 1534, however, his prestige
+suffered a severe rebuff. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his associates
+had succeeded in conquering Württemberg on behalf of its exiled duke,
+Ulrich (q.v.), and, otherwise engaged, neither Charles nor Ferdinand
+could send much help to their lieutenants. They were consequently
+obliged to consent to the treaty of Cadan, made in June 1534, by which
+the German king recognized Ulrich as duke of Württemberg, on condition
+that he held his duchy under Austrian suzerainty.
+
+In Hungary the peace of 1538 was not permanent. When Zapolya died in
+July 1540 a powerful faction refused to admit the right of Ferdinand to
+succeed him, and put forward his young son John Sigismund as a candidate
+for the throne. The cause of John Sigismund was espoused by the Turks
+and by Ferdinand's other enemies, and, unable to get any serious
+assistance from the imperial diet, the king repeatedly sought to make
+peace with the sultan, but his envoys were haughtily repulsed. In 1544,
+however, a short truce was made. This was followed by others, and in
+1547 one was concluded for five years, but only on condition that
+Ferdinand paid tribute for the small part of Hungary which remained in
+his hands. The struggle was renewed in 1551 and was continued in the
+same desultory fashion until 1562, when a truce was made which lasted
+during the remainder of Ferdinand's lifetime. During the war of the
+league of Schmalkalden in 1546 and 1547 the king had taken the field
+primarily to protect Bohemia, and after the conclusion of the war he put
+down a rising in this country with some rigour. He appears during these
+years to have governed his lands with vigour and success, but in
+imperial politics he was merely the representative and spokesman of the
+emperor. About 1546, however, he began to take up a more independent
+position. Although Charles had crushed the league of Schmalkalden he had
+refused to restore Württemberg to Ferdinand; and he gave further offence
+by seeking to secure the succession of his son Philip, afterwards king
+of Spain, to the imperial throne. Ferdinand naturally objected, but in
+1551 his reluctant consent was obtained to the plan that, on the
+proposed abdication of Charles, Philip should be chosen king of the
+Romans, and should succeed Ferdinand himself as emperor. Subsequent
+events caused the scheme to be dropped, but it had a somewhat
+unfortunate sequel for Charles, as during the short war between the
+emperor and Maurice, elector of Saxony, in 1552 Ferdinand's attitude was
+rather that of a spectator and mediator than of a partisan. There seems,
+however, to be no truth in the suggestion that he acted treacherously
+towards his brother, and was in alliance with his foes. On behalf of
+Charles he negotiated the treaty of Passau with Maurice in 1552, and in
+1555 after the conduct of imperial business had virtually been made over
+to him, and harmony had been restored between the brothers, he was
+responsible for the religious peace of Augsburg. Early in 1558 Charles
+carried out his intention to abdicate the imperial throne, and on the
+24th of March Ferdinand was crowned as his successor at Frankfort. Pope
+Paul IV. would not recognize the new emperor, but his successor Pius IV.
+did so in 1559 through the mediation of Philip of Spain. The emperor's
+short reign was mainly spent in seeking to settle the religious
+differences of Germany, and in efforts to prosecute the Turkish war more
+vigorously. His hopes at one time centred round the council of Trent
+which resumed its sittings in 1562, but he was unable to induce the
+Protestants to be represented. Although he held firmly to the Roman
+Catholic Church he sought to obtain tangible concessions to her
+opponents; but he refused to conciliate the Protestants by abrogating
+the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in the peace of
+Augsburg, and all his efforts to bring about reunion were futile. He did
+indeed secure the privilege of communion in both kinds from Pius IV. for
+the laity in Bohemia and in various parts of Germany, but the hearty
+support which he gave the Jesuits shows that he had no sympathy with
+Protestantism, and was only anxious to restore union in the Church. In
+November 1562 he obtained the election of his son Maximilian as king of
+the Romans, and having arranged a partition of his lands among his three
+surviving sons, died in Vienna on the 25th of July 1564. His family had
+consisted of six sons and nine daughters.
+
+In spite of constant and harassing engagements Ferdinand was fairly
+successful both as king and emperor. He sought to consolidate his
+Austrian lands, reformed the monetary system in Germany, and reorganized
+the Aulic council (_Reichshofrat_). Less masterful but more popular than
+his brother, whose character overshadows his own, he was just and
+tolerant, a good Catholic and a conscientious ruler.
+
+  See the article on CHARLES V. and the bibliography appended thereto.
+  Also, A. Ulloa, _Vita del potentissimo e christianissimo imperatore
+  Ferdinando primo_ (Venice, 1565); S. Schard, _Epitome rerum in variis
+  orbis partibus a confirmatione Ferdinandi I_. (Basel, 1574); F.B. von
+  Bucholtz_, Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands des Ersten_ (Vienna,
+  1831-1838); K. Oberleitner, _Österreichs Finanzen und Kriegswesen
+  unter Ferdinand I_. (Vienna, 1859); A. Rezek, _Geschichte der
+  Regierung Ferdinands I. in Böhmen_ (Prague, 1878); E. Rosenthal, _Die
+  Behördenorganisation Kaiser Ferdinands I_. (Vienna, 1887); and W.
+  Bauer, _Die Anfänge Ferdinands I_. (Vienna, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND II. (1578-1637), Roman emperor, was the eldest son of Charles,
+archduke of Styria (d. 1590), and his wife Maria, daughter of Albert
+IV., duke of Bavaria and a grandson of the emperor Ferdinand I. Born at
+Gratz on the 9th of July 1578, he was trained by the Jesuits, finishing
+his education at the university of Ingolstadt, and became the pattern
+prince of the counter-reformation. In 1596 he undertook the government
+of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, and after a visit to Italy began an
+organized attack on Protestantism which under his father's rule had made
+great progress in these archduchies; and although hampered by the
+inroads of the Turks, he showed his indifference to the material welfare
+of his dominions by compelling many of his Protestant subjects to choose
+between exile and conversion, and by entirely suppressing Protestant
+worship. He was not, however, unmindful of the larger interest of his
+family, or of the Empire which the Habsburgs regarded as belonging to
+them by hereditary right. In 1606 he joined his kinsmen in recognizing
+his cousin Matthias as the head of the family in place of the lethargic
+Rudolph II.; but he shrank from any proceedings which might lead to the
+deposition of the emperor, whom he represented at the diet of Regensburg
+in 1608; and his conduct was somewhat ambiguous during the subsequent
+quarrel between Rudolph and Matthias.
+
+In the first decade of the 17th century the house of Habsburg seemed
+overtaken by senile decay, and the great inheritance of Charles V. and
+Ferdinand I. to be threatened with disintegration and collapse. The
+reigning emperor, Rudolph II., was inert and childless; his surviving
+brothers, the archduke Matthias (afterwards emperor), Maximilian
+(1558-1618) and Albert (1559-1621), all men of mature age, were also
+without direct heirs; the racial differences among its subjects were
+increased by their religious animosities; and it appeared probable that
+the numerous enemies of the Habsburgs had only to wait a few years and
+then to divide the spoil. In spite of the recent murder of Henry IV. of
+France, this issue seemed still more likely when Matthias succeeded
+Rudolph as emperor in 1612. The Habsburgs, however, were not indifferent
+to the danger, and about 1615 it was agreed that Ferdinand, who already
+had two sons by his marriage with his cousin Maria Anna (d. 1616),
+daughter of William V., duke of Bavaria, should be the next emperor, and
+should succeed Matthias in the elective kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia.
+The obstacles which impeded the progress of the scheme were gradually
+overcome by the energy of the archduke Maximilian. The elder archdukes
+renounced their rights in the succession; the claims of Philip III. and
+the Spanish Habsburgs were bought off by a promise of Alsace; and the
+emperor consented to his supercession in Hungary and Bohemia. In 1617
+Ferdinand, who was just concluding a war with Venice, was chosen king of
+Bohemia, and in 1618 king of Hungary; but his election as German king,
+or king of the Romans, delayed owing to the anxiety of Melchior Klesl
+(q.v.) to conciliate the protestant princes, had not been accomplished
+when Matthias died in March 1619. Before this event, however, an
+important movement had begun in Bohemia. Having been surprised into
+choosing a devoted Roman Catholic as their king, the Bohemian
+Protestants suddenly realized that their religious, and possibly their
+civil liberties, were seriously menaced, and deeds of aggression on the
+part of Ferdinand's representatives showed that this was no idle fear.
+Gaining the upper hand they declared Ferdinand deposed, and elected the
+elector palatine of the Rhine, Frederick V., in his stead; and the
+struggle between the rivals was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War.
+At the same time other difficulties confronted Ferdinand, who had not
+yet secured the imperial throne. Bethlen Gabor, prince of Transylvania,
+invaded Hungary, while the Austrians rose and joined the Bohemians; but
+having seen his foes retreat from Vienna, Ferdinand hurried to
+Frankfort, where he was chosen emperor on the 28th of August 1619.
+
+To deal with the elector palatine and his allies the new emperor allied
+himself with Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and the Catholic League,
+who drove Frederick from Bohemia in 1620, while Ferdinand's Spanish
+allies devastated the Palatinate. Peace having been made with Bethlen
+Gabor in December 1621, the first period of the war ended in a
+satisfactory fashion for the emperor, and he could turn his attention to
+completing the work of crushing the Protestants, which had already begun
+in his archduchies and in Bohemia. In 1623 the Protestant clergy were
+expelled from Bohemia; in 1624 all worship save that of the Roman
+Catholic church was forbidden; and in 1627 an order of banishment
+against all Protestants was issued. A new constitution made the kingdom
+hereditary in the house of Habsburg, gave larger powers to the
+sovereign, and aimed at destroying the nationality of the Bohemians.
+Similar measures in Austria led to a fresh rising which was put down by
+the aid of the Bavarians in 1627, and Ferdinand could fairly claim that
+in his hereditary lands at least he had rendered Protestantism
+innocuous.
+
+The renewal of the Thirty Years' War in 1625 was caused mainly by the
+emperor's vigorous championship of the cause of the counter-reformation
+in northern and north-eastern Germany. Again the imperial forces were
+victorious, chiefly owing to the genius of Wallenstein, who raised and
+led an army in this service, although the great scheme of securing the
+southern coast of the Baltic for the Habsburgs was foiled partly by the
+resistance of Stralsund. In March 1629 Ferdinand and his advisers felt
+themselves strong enough to take the important step towards which their
+policy in the Empire had been steadily tending. Issuing the famous edict
+of restitution, the emperor ordered that all lands which had been
+secularized since 1552, the date of the peace of Passau, should be
+restored to the church, and prompt measures were taken to enforce this
+decree. Many and powerful interests were vitally affected by this
+proceeding, and the result was the outbreak of the third period of the
+war, which was less favourable to the imperial arms than the preceding
+ones. This comparative failure was due, in the initial stages of the
+campaign, to Ferdinand's weakness in assenting in 1630 to the demand of
+Maximilian of Bavaria that Wallenstein should be deprived of his
+command, and also to the genius of Gustavus Adolphus; and in its later
+stages to his insistence on the second removal of Wallenstein, and to
+his complicity in the assassination of the general. This deed was
+followed by the peace of Prague, concluded in 1635, primarily with John
+George I., elector of Saxony, but soon assented to by other princes; and
+this treaty, which made extensive concessions to the Protestants, marks
+the definite failure of Ferdinand to crush Protestantism in the Empire,
+as he had already done in Austria and Bohemia. It is noteworthy,
+however, that the emperor refused to allow the inhabitants of his
+hereditary dominions to share in the benefits of the peace. During these
+years Ferdinand had also been menaced by the secret or open hostility of
+France. A dispute over the duchies of Mantua and Monferrato was ended
+by the treaty of Cherasco in 1631, but the influence of France was
+employed at the imperial diets and elsewhere in thwarting the plans of
+Ferdinand and in weakening the power of the Habsburgs. The last
+important act of the emperor was to secure the election of his son
+Ferdinand as king of the Romans. An attempt in 1630 to attain this end
+had failed, but in December 1636 the princes, meeting at Regensburg,
+bestowed the coveted dignity upon the younger Ferdinand. A few weeks
+afterwards, on the 15th of February 1637, the emperor died at Vienna,
+leaving, in addition to the king of the Romans, a son Leopold William
+(1614-1662), bishop of Passau and Strassburg. Ferdinand's reign was so
+occupied with the Thirty Years' War and the struggle with the
+Protestants that he had little time or inclination for other business.
+It is interesting to note, however, that this orthodox and Catholic
+emperor was constantly at variance with Pope Urban VIII. The quarrel was
+due principally, but not entirely, to events in Italy, where the pope
+sided with France in the dispute over the succession to Mantua and
+Monferrato. The succession question was settled, but the enmity
+remained; Urban showing his hostility by preventing the election of the
+younger Ferdinand as king of the Romans in 1630, and by turning a deaf
+ear to the emperor's repeated requests for assistance to prosecute the
+war against the heretics. Ferdinand's character has neither
+individuality nor interest, but he ruled the Empire during a critical
+and important period. Kind and generous to his dependents, his private
+life was simple and blameless, but he was to a great extent under the
+influence of his confessors.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief authorities for Ferdinand's life and reign
+  are F.C. Khevenhiller, _Annales Ferdinandei_ (Regensburg, 1640-1646);
+  F. van Hurter, _Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II_. (Schaffhausen,
+  1850-1855); _Korrespondenz Kaiser Ferdinands II. mit P. Becanus und
+  P.W. Lamormaini_, edited by B. Dudik (Vienna, 1848 fol.); and F.
+  Stieve, in the _Allegmeine deutsche Biographie_, Band vi. (Leipzig,
+  1877). See also the elaborate bibliography in the _Cambridge Modern
+  History_, vol. iv. (Cambridge, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND III. (1608-1657), Roman emperor, was the elder son of the
+emperor Ferdinand II., and was born at Gratz on the 13th of July 1608.
+Educated by the Jesuits, he was crowned king of Hungary in December
+1625, and king of Bohemia two years later, and soon began to take part
+in imperial business. Wallenstein, however, refused to allow him to hold
+a command in the imperial army; and henceforward reckoned among his
+enemies, the young king was appointed the successor of the famous
+general when he was deposed in 1634; and as commander-in-chief of the
+imperial troops he was nominally responsible for the capture of
+Regensburg and Donauwörth, and the defeat of the Swedes at Nördlingen.
+Having been elected king of the Romans, or German king, at Regensburg in
+December 1636, Ferdinand became emperor on his father's death in the
+following February, and showed himself anxious to put an end to the
+Thirty Years' War. He persuaded one or two princes to assent to the
+terms of the treaty of Prague; but a general peace was delayed by his
+reluctance to grant religious liberty to the Protestants, and by his
+anxiety to act in unison with Spain. In 1640 he had refused to entertain
+the idea of a general amnesty suggested by the diet at Regensburg; but
+negotiations for peace were soon begun, and in 1648 the emperor assented
+to the treaty of Westphalia. This event belongs rather to the general
+history of Europe, but it is interesting to note that owing to
+Ferdinand's insistence the Protestants in his hereditary dominions did
+not obtain religious liberty at this settlement. After 1648 the emperor
+was engaged in carrying out the terms of the treaty and ridding Germany
+of the foreign soldiery. In 1656 he sent an army into Italy to assist
+Spain in her struggle with France, and he had just concluded an alliance
+with Poland to check the aggressions of Charles X, of Sweden when he
+died on the 2nd of April 1657. Ferdinand was a scholarly and cultured
+man, an excellent linguist and a composer of music. Industrious and
+popular in public life, his private life was blameless; and although a
+strong Roman Catholic he was less fanatical than his father. His first
+wife was Maria Anna (d. 1646), daughter of Philip III. of Spain, by whom
+he had three sons: Ferdinand, who was chosen king of the Romans in
+1653, and who died in the following year; Leopold, who succeeded his
+father on the imperial throne; and Charles Joseph (d. 1664), bishop of
+Passau and Breslau, and grand-master of the Teutonic order. The
+emperor's second wife was his cousin Maria (d. 1649), daughter of the
+archduke Leopold; and his third wife was Eleanora of Mantua (d. 1686).
+His musical works, together with those of the emperors Leopold I. and
+Joseph I., have been published by G. Adler (Vienna, 1892-1893).
+
+  See M. Koch, _Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter der Regierung
+  Ferdinands III_. (Vienna, 1865-1866).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I. (1793-1875), emperor of Austria, eldest son of Francis I.
+and of Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at Vienna on the 19th of April
+1793. In his boyhood he suffered from epileptic fits, and could
+therefore not receive a regular education. As his health improved with
+his growth and with travel, he was not set aside from the succession. In
+1830 his father caused him to be crowned king of Hungary, a pure
+formality, which gave him no power, and was designed to avoid possible
+trouble in the future. In 1831 he was married to Anna, daughter of
+Victor Emmanuel I. of Sardinia. The marriage was barren. When Francis I.
+died on the 2nd of March 1835, Ferdinand was recognized as his
+successor. But his incapacity was so notorious that the conduct of
+affairs was entrusted to a council of state, consisting of Prince
+Metternich (q.v.) with other ministers, and two archdukes, Louis and
+Francis Charles. They composed the _Staatsconferenz_, the
+ill-constructed and informal regency which led the Austrian dominions to
+the revolutionary outbreaks of 1846-1849. (See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.) The
+emperor, who was subject to fits of actual insanity, and in his lucid
+intervals was weak and confused in mind, was a political nullity. His
+personal amiability earned him the affectionate pity of his subjects,
+and he became the hero of popular stories which did not tend to maintain
+the dignity of the crown. It was commonly said that having taken refuge
+on a rainy day in a farmhouse he was so tempted by the smell of the
+dumplings which the farmer and his family were eating for dinner, that
+he insisted on having one. His doctor, who knew them to be indigestible,
+objected, and thereupon Ferdinand, in an imperial rage, made the
+answer:--"Kaiser bin i', und Knüdel müss i' haben" (I am emperor, and
+will have the dumpling)--which has become a Viennese proverb. His
+popular name of _Der Gütige_ (the good sort of man) expressed as much
+derision as affection. Ferdinand had good taste for art and music. Some
+modification of the tight-handed rule of his father was made by the
+_Staatsconferenz_ during his reign. In the presence of the revolutionary
+troubles, which began with agrarian riots in Galicia in 1846, and then
+spread over the whole empire, he was personally helpless. He was
+compelled to escape from the disorders of Vienna to Innsbruck on the
+17th of May 1848. He came back on the invitation of the diet on the 12th
+of August, but soon had to escape once more from the mob of students and
+workmen who were in possession of the city. On the 2nd of December he
+abdicated at Olmütz in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. He lived
+under supervision by doctors and guardians at Prague till his death on
+the 29th of June 1855.
+
+  See Krones von Marchland, _Grundriss der österreichischen Geschichte_
+  (Vienna, 1882), which gives an ample bibliography; Count F. Hartig,
+  _Genesis der Revolution in Österreich_ (Leipzig, 1850),--an enlarged
+  English translation will be found in the 4th volume of W. Coxe's
+  _House of Austria_ (London, 1862).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I. (1423-1494), also called Don Ferrante, king of Naples, the
+natural son of Alphonso V. of Aragon and I. of Sicily and Naples, was
+horn in 1423. In accordance with his father's will, he succeeded him on
+the throne of Naples in 1458, but Pope Calixtus III. declared the line
+of Aragon extinct and the kingdom a fief of the church. But although he
+died before he could make good his claim (August 1458), and the new Pope
+Pius II. recognized Ferdinand, John of Anjou, profiting by the
+discontent of the Neapolitan barons, decided to try to regain the throne
+conquered by his ancestors, and invaded Naples. Ferdinand was severely
+defeated by the Angevins and the rebels at Sarno in July 1460, but with
+the help of Alessandro Sforza and of the Albanian chief, Skanderbeg,
+who chivalrously came to the aid of the prince whose father had aided
+him, he triumphed over his enemies, and by 1464 had re-established his
+authority in the kingdom. In 1478 he allied himself with Pope Sixtus IV.
+against Lorenzo de' Medici, but the latter journeyed alone to Naples
+when he succeeded in negotiating an honourable peace with Ferdinand. In
+1480 the Turks captured Otranto, and massacred the majority of the
+inhabitants, but in the following year it was retaken by his son
+Alphonso, duke of Calabria. His oppressive government led in 1485 to an
+attempt at revolt on the part of the nobles, led by Francesca Coppola
+and Antonello Sanseverino and supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; the
+rising having been crushed, many of the nobles, notwithstanding
+Ferdinand's promise of a general amnesty, were afterwards treacherously
+murdered at his express command. In 1493 Charles VIII. of France was
+preparing to invade Italy for the conquest of Naples, and Ferdinand
+realized that this was a greater danger than any he had yet faced. With
+almost prophetic instinct he warned the Italian princes of the
+calamities in store for them, but his negotiations with Pope Alexander
+VI. and Ludovico il Moro, lord of Milan, having failed, he died in
+January 1494, worn out with anxiety. Ferdinand was gifted with great
+courage and real political ability, but his method of government was
+vicious and disastrous. His financial administration was based on
+oppressive and dishonest monopolies, and he was mercilessly severe and
+utterly treacherous towards his enemies.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Codice Aragonese_, edited by F. Trinchera (Naples,
+  1866-1874); P. Giannone, _Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli_; J.
+  Alvini, _De gestis regum Neapol. ab Aragonia_ (Naples, 1588); S. de
+  Sismondi, _Histoire des républiques italiennes_, vols. v. and vi.
+  (Brussels, 1838); P. Villari, _Machiavelli_, pp. 60-64 (Engl. transl.,
+  London, 1892); for the revolt of the nobles in 1485 see Camillo
+  Porzio, _La Congiura dei Baroni_ (first published Rome, 1565; many
+  subsequent editions), written in the Royalist interest.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND II. (1469-1496), king of Naples, was the grandson of the
+preceding, and son of Alphonso II. Alphonso finding his tenure of the
+throne uncertain on account of the approaching invasion of Charles VIII.
+of France and the general dissatisfaction of his subjects, abdicated in
+his son's favour in 1495, but notwithstanding this the treason of a
+party in Naples rendered it impossible to defend the city against the
+approach of Charles VIII. Ferdinand fled to Ischia; but when the French
+king left Naples with most of his army, in consequence of the formation
+of an Italian league against him, he returned, defeated the French
+garrisons, and the Neapolitans, irritated by the conduct of their
+conquerors during the occupation of the city, received him back with
+enthusiasm; with the aid of the great Spanish general Gonzalo de Cordova
+he was able completely to rid his state of its invaders shortly before
+his death, which occurred on the 7th of September 1496.
+
+  For authorities see under FERDINAND I. of Naples; for the exploits of
+  Gonzalo de Cordova see H.P. del Pulgar, _Crónica del gran capitano don
+  Gonzalo de Cordoba_ (new ed., Madrid, 1834).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND IV. (1751-1825), king of Naples (III. of Sicily, and I. of the
+Two Sicilies), third son of Don Carlos of Bourbon, king of Naples and
+Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain), was born in Naples on the
+12th of January 1751. When his father ascended the Spanish throne in
+1759 Ferdinand, in accordance with the treaties forbidding the union of
+the two crowns, succeeded him as king of Naples, under a regency
+presided over by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci. The latter, an able,
+ambitious man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his
+own hands, purposely neglected the young king's education, and
+encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his excessive
+devotion to outdoor sports. Ferdinand grew up athletic, but ignorant,
+ill-bred, addicted to the lowest amusements; he delighted in the company
+of the _lazzaroni_ (the most degraded class of the Neapolitan people),
+whose dialect and habits he affected, and he even sold fish in the
+market, haggling over the price.
+
+His minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion of the
+Jesuits. The following year he married Maria Carolina, daughter of the
+empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage contract the queen was to have a
+voice in the council of state after the birth of her first son, and she
+was not slow to avail herself of this means of political influence.
+Beautiful, clever and proud, like her mother, but cruel and treacherous,
+her ambition was to raise the kingdom of Naples to the position of a
+great power; she soon came to exercise complete sway over her stupid and
+idle husband, and was the real ruler of the kingdom. Tanucci, who
+attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777, and the Englishman Sir
+John Acton (1736), who in 1779 was appointed director of marine,
+succeeded in so completely winning the favour of Maria Carolina, by
+supporting her in her scheme to free Naples from Spanish influence and
+securing a _rapprochement_ with Austria and England, that he became
+practically and afterwards actually prime minister. Although not a mere
+grasping adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the
+internal administration of the country to an abominable system of
+espionage, corruption and cruelty. On the outbreak of the French
+Revolution the Neapolitan court was not hostile to the movement, and the
+queen even sympathized with the revolutionary ideas of the day. But when
+the French monarchy was abolished and the royal pair beheaded, Ferdinand
+and Carolina were seized with a feeling of fear and horror and joined
+the first coalition against France in 1793. Although peace was made with
+France in 1796, the demands of the French Directory, whose troops
+occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and at his wife's instigation
+he took advantage of Napoleon's absence in Egypt and of Nelson's
+victories to go to war. He marched with his army against the French and
+entered Rome (29th of November), but on the defeat of some of his
+columns he hurried back to Naples, and on the approach of the French,
+fled on board Nelson's ship the "Vanguard" to Sicily, leaving his
+capital in a state of anarchy. The French entered the city in spite of
+the fierce resistance of the _lazzaroni_, who were devoted to the king,
+and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeois established the
+Parthenopaean Republic (January 1799). When a few weeks later the French
+troops were recalled to the north of Italy, Ferdinand sent an expedition
+composed of Calabrians, brigands and gaol-birds, under Cardinal Ruffo, a
+man of real ability, great devotion to the king, and by no means so bad
+as he has been painted, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo was
+completely successful, and reached Naples in May. His army and the
+_lazzaroni_ committed nameless atrocities, which he honestly tried to
+prevent, and the Parthenopaean Republic collapsed.
+
+The savage punishment of the Neapolitan Republicans is dealt with in
+more detail under NAPLES, NELSON and CARACCIOLO, but it is necessary to
+say here that the king, and above all the queen, were particularly
+anxious that no mercy should be shown to the rebels, and Maria Carolina
+made use of Lady Hamilton, Nelson's mistress, to induce him to execute
+her own spiteful vengeance. Her only excuse is that as a sister of Marie
+Antoinette the very name of Republican or Jacobin filled her with
+loathing. The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and ordered
+wholesale arrests and executions of supposed Liberals, which continued
+until the French successes forced him to agree to a treaty in which
+amnesty for members of the French party was included. When war broke out
+between France and Austria in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty of
+neutrality with the former, but a few days later he allied himself with
+Austria and allowed an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples. The French
+victory at Austerlitz enabled Napoleon to despatch an army to southern
+Italy. Ferdinand with his usual precipitation fled to Palermo (23rd of
+January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son, and on the 14th
+of February the French again entered Naples. Napoleon declared that the
+Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the crown, and proclaimed his brother
+Joseph king of Naples and Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over
+the latter kingdom under British protection. Parliamentary institutions
+of a feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William
+Bentinck (q.v.), the British minister, insisted on a reform of the
+constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed practically
+abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis regent, and the queen,
+at Bentinck's instance, was exiled to Austria, where she died in 1814.
+
+After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded Joseph
+Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned, and Ferdinand
+returned to Naples. By a secret treaty he had bound himself not to
+advance further in a constitutional direction than Austria should at any
+time approve; but, though on the whole he acted in accordance with
+Metternich's policy of preserving the _status quo_, and maintained with
+but slight change Murat's laws and administrative system, he took
+advantage of the situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in
+violation of his oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into
+the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (December 12th, 1816). He was now
+completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent, being even
+made commander-in-chief of the army; and for four years he reigned as a
+despot, every tentative effort at the expression of liberal opinion
+being ruthlessly suppressed. The result was an alarming spread of the
+influence and activity of the secret society of the Carbonari (q.v.),
+which in time affected a large part of the army. In July 1820 a military
+revolt broke out under General Pepe, and Ferdinand was terrorized into
+subscribing a constitution on the model of the impracticable Spanish
+constitution of 1812. On the other hand, a revolt in Sicily, in favour
+of the recovery of its independence, was suppressed by Neapolitan
+troops.
+
+The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously alarmed the
+powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it might spread to other
+Italian states and so lead to that general European conflagration which
+it was their main preoccupation to avoid (see EUROPE: _History_). After
+long diplomatic negotiations, it was decided to hold a congress _ad hoc_
+at Troppau (October 1820). The main results of this congress were the
+issue of the famous Troppau Protocol, signed by Austria, Prussia and
+Russia only, and an invitation to King Ferdinand to attend the adjourned
+congress at Laibach (1821), an invitation of which Great Britain
+approved "as implying negotiation" (see TROPPAU, LAIBACH, CONGRESSES
+OF). At Laibach Ferdinand played so sorry a part as to provoke the
+contempt of those whose policy it was to re-establish him in absolute
+power. He had twice sworn, with gratuitous solemnity, to maintain the
+new constitution; but he was hardly out of Naples before he repudiated
+his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns of Europe,
+declared his acts to have been null and void. An attitude so indecent
+threatened to defeat the very objects of the reactionary powers, and
+Gentz congratulated the congress that these sorry protests would be
+buried in the archives, offering at the same time to write for the king
+a dignified letter in which he should express his reluctance at having
+to violate his oaths in the face of irresistible force! But, under these
+circumstances, Metternich had no difficulty in persuading the king to
+allow an Austrian army to march into Naples "to restore order."
+
+The campaign that followed did little credit either to the Austrians or
+the Neapolitans. The latter, commanded by General Pepe (q.v.), who made
+no attempt to defend the difficult defiles of the Abruzzi, were
+defeated, after a half-hearted struggle at Rieti (March 7th, 1821), and
+the Austrians entered Naples. The parliament was now dismissed, and
+Ferdinand inaugurated an era of savage persecution, supported by spies
+and informers, against the Liberals and Carbonari, the Austrian
+commandant in vain protesting against the savagery which his presence
+alone rendered possible.
+
+Ferdinand died on the 4th of January 1825. Few sovereigns have left
+behind so odious a memory. His whole career is one long record of
+perjury, vengeance and meanness, unredeemed by a single generous act,
+and his wife was a worthy helpmeet and actively co-operated in his
+tyranny.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard authority on Ferdinand's reign is Pietro
+  Colletta's _Storia del Reame di Napoli_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1848),
+  which, although heavily written and not free from party passion, is
+  reliable and accurate; L. Conforti, _Napoli nel 1799_ (Naples, 1886);
+  G. Pepe, _Memorie_ (Paris, 1847), a most valuable book; C. Auriol, _La
+  France, l'Angleterre, et Naples_ (Paris, 1906); for the Sicilian
+  period and the British occupation, G. Bianco, _La Sicilia durante
+  l'occupazione Inglese_ (Palermo, 1902), which contains many new
+  documents of importance; Freiherr A. von Helfert has attempted the
+  impossible task of whitewashing Queen Carolina in his _Königin
+  Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien_ (Vienna, 1878), and _Maria Karolina
+  von Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1884); he has also written a useful life of
+  _Fabrizio Ruffo_ (Italian edit., Florence, 1885); for the Sicilian
+  revolution of 1820 see G. Bianco's _La Rivoluzione in Sicilia del
+  1820_ (Florence, 1905), and M. Amari's _Carteggio_ (Turin, 1896).
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I., king of Portugal (1345-1383), sometimes referred to as _el
+Gentil_ (the Gentleman), son of Pedro I. of Portugal (who is not to be
+confounded with his Spanish contemporary Pedro the Cruel), succeeded his
+father in 1367. On the death of Pedro of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as
+great-grandson of Sancho IV. by the female line, laid claim to the
+vacant throne, for which the kings of Aragon and Navarre, and afterwards
+the duke of Lancaster (married in 1370 to Constance, the eldest daughter
+of Pedro), also became competitors. Meanwhile Henry of Trastamara, the
+brother (illegitimate) and conqueror of Pedro, had assumed the crown and
+taken the field. After one or two indecisive campaigns, all parties were
+ready to accept the mediation of Pope Gregory XI. The conditions of the
+treaty, ratified in 1371, included a marriage between Ferdinand and
+Leonora of Castile. But before the union could take place the former had
+become passionately attached to Leonora Tellez, the wife of one of his
+own courtiers, and having procured a dissolution of her previous
+marriage, he lost no time in making her his queen. This strange conduct,
+although it raised a serious insurrection in Portugal, did not at once
+result in a war with Henry; but the outward concord was soon disturbed
+by the intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, who prevailed on Ferdinand to
+enter into a secret treaty for the expulsion of Henry from his throne.
+The war which followed was unsuccessful; and peace was again made in
+1373. On the death of Henry in 1379, the duke of Lancaster once more put
+forward his claims, and again found an ally in Portugal; but, according
+to the Continental annalists, the English proved as offensive to their
+companions in arms as to their enemies in the field; and Ferdinand made
+a peace for himself at Badajoz in 1382, it being stipulated that
+Beatrix, the heiress of Ferdinand, should marry King John of Castile,
+and thus secure the ultimate union of the crowns. Ferdinand left no male
+issue when he died on the 22nd of October 1383, and the direct
+Burgundian line, which had been in possession of the throne since the
+days of Count Henry (about 1112), became extinct. The stipulations of
+the treaty of Badajoz were set aside, and John, grand-master of the
+order of Aviz, Ferdinand's illegitimate brother, was proclaimed. This
+led to a war which lasted for several years.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I., _El Magno_ or "the Great," king of Castile (_d._ 1065),
+son of Sancho of Navarre, was put in possession of Castile in 1028, on
+the murder of the last count, as the heir of his mother Elvira, daughter
+of a previous count of Castile. He reigned with the title of king. He
+married Sancha, sister and heiress of Bermudo, king of Leon. In 1038
+Bermudo was killed in battle with Ferdinand at Tamaron, and Ferdinand
+then took possession of Leon by right of his wife, and was recognized in
+Spain as emperor. The use of the title was resented by the emperor Henry
+IV. and by Pope Victor II. in 1055, as implying a claim to the headship
+of Christendom, and as a usurpation on the Holy Roman Empire. It did
+not, however, mean more than that Spain was independent of the Empire,
+and that the sovereign of Leon was the chief of the princes of the
+peninsula. Although Ferdinand had grown in power by a fratricidal strife
+with Bermudo of Leon, and though at a later date he defeated and killed
+his brother Garcia of Navarre, he ranks high among the kings of Spain
+who have been counted religious. To a large extent he may have owed his
+reputation to the victories over the Mahommedans, with which he began
+the period of the great reconquest. But there can be no doubt that
+Ferdinand was profoundly pious. Towards the close of his reign he sent a
+special embassy to Seville to bring back the body of Santa Justa. The
+then king of Seville, Motadhid, one of the small princes who had divided
+the caliphate of Cordova, was himself a sceptic and poisoner, but he
+stood in wholesome awe of the power of the Christian king. He favoured
+the embassy in every way, and when the body of Santa Justa could not be
+found, helped the envoys who were also aided by a vision seen by one of
+them in a dream, to discover the body of Saint Isidore, which was
+reverently carried away to Leon. Ferdinand died on the feast of Saint
+John the Evangelist, the 24th of June 1065, in Leon, with many
+manifestations of ardent piety--having laid aside his crown and royal
+mantle, dressed in the frock of a monk and lying on a bier, covered with
+ashes, which was placed before the altar of the church of Saint Isidore.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND II., king of Leon only (d. 1188), was the son of Alphonso VII.
+and of Berenguela, of the house of the counts of Barcelona. On the
+division of the kingdoms which had obeyed his father, he received Leon.
+His reign of thirty years was one of strife marked by no signal success
+or reverse. He had to contend with his unruly nobles, several of whom he
+put to death. During the minority of his nephew Alphonso VIII. of
+Castile he endeavoured to impose himself on the kingdom as regent. On
+the west he was in more or less constant strife with Portugal, which was
+in process of becoming an independent kingdom. His relations to the
+Portuguese house must have suffered by his repudiation of his wife
+Urraca, daughter of Alphonso I. of Portugal. Though he took the king of
+Portugal prisoner in 1180, he made no political use of his success. He
+extended his dominions southward in Estremadura at the expense of the
+Moors. Ferdinand, who died in 1188, left the reputation of a good knight
+and hard fighter, but did not display political or organizing faculty.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND III., _El Santo_ or "the Saint," king of Castile (1199-1252),
+son of Alphonso IX. of Leon, and of Berengaria, daughter of Alphonso
+VIII. of Castile, ranks among the greatest of the Spanish kings. The
+marriage of his parents, who were second cousins, was dissolved as
+unlawful by the pope, but the legitimacy of the children was recognized.
+Till 1217 he lived with his father in Leon. In that year the young king
+of Castile, Henry, was killed by accident. Berengaria sent for her son
+with such speed that her messenger reached Leon before the news of the
+death of the king of Castile, and when he came to her she renounced the
+crown in his favour. Alphonso of Leon considered himself tricked, and
+the young king had to begin his reign by a war against his father and a
+faction of the Castilian nobles. His own ability and the remarkable
+capacity of his mother proved too much for the king of Leon and his
+Castilian allies. Ferdinand, who showed himself docile to the influence
+of Berengaria, so long as she lived, married the wife she found for him,
+Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Philip (of Hohenstaufen), and followed
+her advice both in prosecuting the war against the Moors and in the
+steps which she took to secure his peaceful succession to Leon on the
+death of his father in 1231. After the union of Castile and Leon in that
+year he began the series of campaigns which ended by reducing the
+Mahommedan dominions in Spain to Granada. Cordova fell in 1236, and
+Seville in 1248. The king of Granada did homage to Ferdinand, and
+undertook to attend the cortes when summoned. The king was a severe
+persecutor of the Albigenses, and his formal canonization was due as
+much to his orthodoxy as to his crusading by Pope Clement X. in 1671. He
+revived the university first founded by his grandfather Alphonso VIII.,
+and placed it at Salamanca. By his second marriage with Joan (d. 1279),
+daughter of Simon, of Dammartin, count of Ponthieu, by right of his wife
+Marie, Ferdinand was the father of Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. of
+England.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND IV., _El Emplazado_ or "the Summoned," king of Castile (_d_.
+1312), son of Sancho El Bravo, and his wife Maria de Molina, is a figure
+of small note in Spanish history. His strange title is given him in the
+chronicles on the strength of a story that he put two brothers of the
+name of Carvajal to death tyrannically, and was given a time, a _plazo_,
+by them in which to answer for his crime in the next world. But the tale
+is not contemporary, and is an obvious copy of the story told of Jacques
+de Molay, grand-master of the Temple, and Philippe Le Bel. Ferdinand IV.
+succeeded to the throne when a boy of six. His minority was a time of
+anarchy. He owed his escape from the violence of competitors and nobles,
+partly to the tact and undaunted bravery of his mother Maria de Molina,
+and partly to the loyalty of the citizens of Avila, who gave him refuge
+within their walls. As a king he proved ungrateful to his mother, and
+weak as a ruler. He died suddenly in his tent at Jaen when preparing for
+a raid into the Moorish territory of Granada, on the 7th of September
+1312.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I., king of Aragon (1373-1416), called "of Antequera," was the
+son of John I. of Castile by his wife Eleanor, daughter of the third
+marriage of Peter IV. of Aragon. His surname "of Antequera" was given
+him because he was besieging that town, then in the hands of the Moors,
+when he was told that the cortes of Aragon had elected him king in
+succession to his uncle Martin, the last male of the old line of Wilfred
+the Hairy. As infante of Castile Ferdinand had played an honourable
+part. When his brother Henry III. died at Toledo, in 1406, the cortes
+was sitting, and the nobles offered to make him king in preference to
+his nephew John. Ferdinand refused to despoil his brother's infant son,
+and even if he did not act on the moral ground he alleged, his sagacity
+must have shown him that he would be at the mercy of the men who had
+chosen him in such circumstances. As co-regent of the kingdom with
+Catherine, widow of Henry III. and daughter of John of Gaunt by his
+marriage with Constance, daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de
+Padilla, Ferdinand proved a good ruler. He restrained the follies of his
+sister-in-law, and kept the realm quiet, by firm government, and by
+prosecuting the war with the Moors. As king of Aragon his short reign of
+two years left him little time to make his mark. Having been bred in
+Castile, where the royal authority was, at least in theory, absolute, he
+showed himself impatient under the checks imposed on him by the
+_fueros_, the chartered rights of Aragon and Catalonia. He particularly
+resented the obstinacy of the Barcelonese, who compelled the members of
+his household to pay municipal taxes. His most signal act as king was to
+aid in closing the Great Schism in the Church by agreeing to the
+deposition of the antipope Benedict XIV., an Aragonese. He died at
+Ygualada in Catalonia on the 2nd of April 1416.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND V. of Castile and Leon, and II. of Aragon (1452-1516), was the
+son of John I. of Aragon by his second marriage with Joanna Henriquez,
+of the family of the hereditary grand admirals of Castile, and was born
+at Sos in Aragon on the 16th of March 1452. Under the name of "the
+Catholic" and as the husband of Isabella, queen of Castile, he played a
+great part in Europe. His share in establishing the royal authority in
+all parts of Spain, in expelling the Moors from Granada, in the conquest
+of Navarre, in forwarding the voyages of Columbus, and in contending
+with France for the supremacy in Italy, is dealt with elsewhere (see
+SPAIN: _History_). In personal character he had none of the attractive
+qualities of his wife. It may fairly be said of him that he was purely a
+politician. His marriage in 1469 to his cousin Isabella of Castile was
+dictated by the desire to unite his own claims to the crown, as the head
+of the younger branch of the same family, with hers, in case Henry IV.
+should die childless. When the king died in 1474 he made an ungenerous
+attempt to procure his own proclamation as king without recognition of
+the rights of his wife. Isabella asserted her claims firmly, and at all
+times insisted on a voice in the government of Castile. But though
+Ferdinand had sought a selfish political advantage at his wife's
+expense, he was well aware of her ability and high character. Their
+married life was dignified and harmonious; for Ferdinand had no common
+vices, and their views in government were identical. The king cared for
+nothing but dominion and political power. His character explains the
+most ungracious acts of his life, such as his breach of his promises to
+Columbus, his distrust of Ximenez and of the Great Captain. He had given
+wide privileges to Columbus on the supposition that the discoverer would
+reach powerful kingdoms. When islands inhabited by feeble savages were
+discovered, Ferdinand appreciated the risk that they might become the
+seat of a power too strong to be controlled, and took measures to avert
+the danger. He feared that Jiménez and the Great Captain would become
+too independent, and watched them in the interest of the royal
+authority. Whether he ever boasted, as he is said to have boasted, that
+he had deceived Louis XII. of France twelve times, is very doubtful; but
+it is certain that when Ferdinand made a treaty, or came to an
+understanding with any one, the contract was generally found to contain
+implied meanings favourable to himself which the other contracting party
+had not expected. The worst of his character was prominently shown after
+the death of Isabella in 1504. He endeavoured to lay hands on the
+regency of Castile in the name of his insane daughter Joanna, and
+without regard to the claims of her husband Philip of Habsburg. The
+hostility of the Castilian nobles, by whom he was disliked, baffled him
+for a time, but on Philip's early death he reasserted his authority. His
+second marriage with Germaine of Foix in 1505 was apparently contracted
+in the hope that by securing an heir male he might punish his Habsburg
+son-in-law. Aragon did not recognize the right of women to reign, and
+would have been detached together with Catalonia, Valencia and the
+Italian states if he had had a son. This was the only occasion on which
+Ferdinand allowed passion to obscure his political sense, and lead him
+into acts which tended to undo his work of national unification. As king
+of Aragon he abstained from inroads on the liberties of his subjects
+which might have provoked rebellion. A few acts of illegal violence are
+recorded of him--as when he invited a notorious demagogue of Saragossa
+to visit him in the palace, and caused the man to be executed without
+form of trial. Once when presiding over the Aragonese cortes he found
+himself sitting in a thorough draught and ordered the window to be shut,
+adding in a lower voice, "If it is not against the _fueros_." But his
+ill-will did not go beyond such sneers. He was too intent on building up
+a great state to complicate his difficulties by internal troubles. His
+arrangement of the convention of Guadalupe, which ended the fierce
+Agrarian conflicts of Catalonia, was wise and profitable to the country,
+though it was probably dictated mainly by a wish to weaken the
+landowners by taking away their feudal rights. Ferdinand died at
+Madrigalejo in Estremadura on the 23rd of February 1516.
+
+  The lives of the kings of this name before Ferdinand V. are contained
+  in the chronicles, and in the _Anales de Aragon_ of Zurita, and the
+  History of Spain by Mariana. Both deal at length with the life of
+  Ferdinand V. Prescott's _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and
+  Isabella_, in any of its numerous editions, gives a full life of him
+  with copious references to authorities.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND VI., king of Spain (1713-1759), second son of Philip V.,
+founder of the Bourbon dynasty, by his first marriage with Maria Louisa
+of Savoy, was born at Madrid on the 23rd of September 1713. His youth
+was depressed. His father's second wife, Elizabeth Farnese, was a
+managing woman, who had no affection except for her own children, and
+who looked upon her stepson as an obstacle to their fortunes. The
+hypochondria of his father left Elizabeth mistress of the palace.
+Ferdinand was married in 1729 to Maria Magdalena Barbara, daughter of
+John V. of Portugal. The very homely looks of his wife were thought by
+observers to cause the prince a visible shock when he was first
+presented to her. Yet he became deeply attached to his wife, and proved
+in fact nearly as uxorious as his father. Ferdinand was by temperament
+melancholy, shy and distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented
+on his shooting, he replied, "It would be hard if there were not
+something I could do." As king he followed a steady policy of neutrality
+between France and England, and refused to be tempted by the offers of
+either into declaring war on the other. In his life he was orderly and
+retiring, averse from taking decisions, though not incapable of acting
+firmly, as when he cut short the dangerous intrigues of his able
+minister Ensenada by dismissing and imprisoning him. Shooting and music
+were his only pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous
+singer Farinelli (q.v.), whose voice soothed his melancholy. The death
+of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully
+abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between the date of
+her death in 1758 and his own on the 10th of August 1759 he fell into a
+state of prostration in which he would not even dress, but wandered
+unshaven, unwashed and in a night-gown about his park. The memoirs of
+the count of Fernan Nuñez give a shocking picture of his death-bed.
+
+  A good account of the reign and character of Ferdinand VI. will be
+  found in vol. iv. of Coxe's _Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the
+  House of Bourbon_ (London, 1815). See also _Vida de Carlos III._, by
+  the count of Fernan Nuñez, ed. M. Morel Fatio and Don A. Paz y Melia
+  (1898).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND VII., king of Spain (1784-1833), the eldest son of Charles
+IV., king of Spain, and of his wife Maria Louisa of Parma, was born at
+the palace of San Ildefonso near Balsain in the Somosierra hills, on the
+14th of October 1784. The events with which he was connected were many,
+tragic and of the widest European interest. In his youth he occupied the
+painful position of an heir apparent who was carefully excluded from all
+share in government by the jealousy of his parents, and the prevalence
+of a royal favourite. National discontent with a feeble government
+produced a revolution in 1808 by which he passed to the throne by the
+forced abdication of his father. Then he spent years as the prisoner of
+Napoleon, and returned in 1814 to find that while Spain was fighting for
+independence in his name a new world had been born of foreign invasion
+and domestic revolution. He came back to assert the ancient doctrine
+that the sovereign authority resided in his person only. Acting on this
+principle he ruled frivolously, and with a wanton indulgence of whims.
+In 1820 his misrule provoked a revolt, and he remained in the hands of
+insurgents till he was released by foreign intervention in 1823. When
+free, he revenged himself with a ferocity which disgusted his allies. In
+his last years he prepared a change in the order of succession
+established by his dynasty in Spain, which angered a large part of the
+nation, and made a civil war inevitable. We have to distinguish the part
+of Ferdinand VII. in all these transactions, in which other and better
+men were concerned. It can confidently be said to have been uniformly
+base. He had perhaps no right to complain that he was kept aloof from
+all share in government while only heir apparent, for this was the
+traditional practice of his family. But as heir to the throne he had a
+right to resent the degradation of the crown he was to inherit, and the
+power of a favourite who was his mother's lover. If he had put himself
+at the head of a popular rising he would have been followed, and would
+have had a good excuse. His course was to enter on dim intrigues at the
+instigation of his first wife, Maria Antonietta of Naples. After her
+death in 1806 he was drawn into other intrigues by flatterers, and, in
+October 1807, was arrested for the conspiracy of the Escorial. The
+conspiracy aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon. When
+detected, Ferdinand betrayed his associates, and grovelled to his
+parents. When his father's abdication was extorted by a popular riot at
+Aranjuez in March 1808, he ascended the throne--not to lead his people
+manfully, but to throw himself into the hands of Napoleon, in the
+fatuous hope that the emperor would support him. He was in his turn
+forced to make an abdication and imprisoned in France, while Spain, with
+the help of England, fought for its life. At Valançay, where he was sent
+as a prisoner of state, he sank contentedly into vulgar vice, and did
+not scruple to applaud the French victories over the people who were
+suffering unutterable misery in his cause. When restored in March 1814,
+on the fall of Napoleon, he had just cause to repudiate the
+impracticable constitution made by the cortes without his consent. He
+did so, and then governed like an evil-disposed boy--indulging the
+merest animal passions, listening to a small _camarilla_ of low-born
+favourites, changing his ministers every three months, and acting on the
+impulse of whims which were sometimes mere buffoonery, but were at times
+lubricous, or ferocious. The autocratic powers of the Grand Alliance,
+though forced to support him as the representative of legitimacy in
+Spain, watched his proceedings with disgust and alarm. "The king," wrote
+Gentz to the hospodar Caradja on the 1st of December 1814, "himself
+enters the houses of his first ministers, arrests them, and hands them
+over to their cruel enemies"; and again, on the 14th of January 1815,
+"The king has so debased himself that he has become no more than the
+leading police agent and gaoler of his country." When at last the
+inevitable revolt came in 1820 he grovelled to the insurgents as he had
+done to his parents, descending to the meanest submissions while fear
+was on him, then intriguing and, when detected, grovelling again. When
+at the beginning of 1823, as a result of the congress of Verona, the
+French invaded Spain,[1] "invoking the God of St Louis, for the sake of
+preserving the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry IV., and of
+reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe," and in May the revolutionary
+party carried Ferdinand to Cadiz, he continued to make promises of
+amendment till he was free. Then, in violation of his oath to grant an
+amnesty, he revenged himself for three years of coercion by killing on a
+scale which revolted his "rescuers," and against which the duke of
+Angoulême, powerless to interfere, protested by refusing the Spanish
+decorations offered him for his services. During his last years
+Ferdinand's energy was abated. He no longer changed ministers every few
+months as a sport, and he allowed some of them to conduct the current
+business of government. His habits of life were telling on him. He
+became torpid, bloated and horrible to look at. After his fourth
+marriage in 1829 with Maria Christina of Naples, he was persuaded by his
+wife to set aside the law of succession of Philip V., which gave a
+preference to all the males of the family in Spain over the females. His
+marriage had brought him only two daughters. When well, he consented to
+the change under the influence of his wife. When ill, he was terrified
+by priestly advisers, who were partisans of his brother Don Carlos. What
+his final decision was is perhaps doubtful. His wife was mistress by his
+death-bed, and she could put the words she chose into the mouth of a
+dead man--and could move the dead hand at her will. Ferdinand died on
+the 29th of September 1833. It had been a frequent saying with the more
+zealous royalists of Spain that a king must be wiser than his ministers,
+for he was placed on the throne and directed by God. Since the reign of
+Ferdinand VII. no one has maintained this unqualified version of the
+great doctrine of divine right.
+
+  King Ferdinand VII. kept a diary during the troubled years 1820-1823,
+  which has been published by the count de Casa Valencia.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Louis XVIII.'s speech from the throne, Jan. 28, 1823.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND II. (1810-1859), king of the Two Sicilies, son of Francis I,
+was born at Palermo on the 12th of January 1810. In his early years he
+was credited with Liberal ideas and he was fairly popular, his free and
+easy manners having endeared him to the _lazzaroni_. On succeeding his
+father in 1830, he published an edict in which he promised to "give his
+most anxious attention to the impartial administration of justice," to
+reform the finances, and to "use every effort to heal the wounds which
+had afflicted the kingdom for so many years"; but these promises seem to
+have been meant only to lull discontent to sleep, for although he did
+something for the economic development of the kingdom, the existing
+burden of taxation was only slightly lightened, corruption continued to
+flourish in all departments of the administration, and an absolutism was
+finally established harsher than that of all his predecessors, and
+supported by even more extensive and arbitrary arrests. Ferdinand was
+naturally shrewd, but badly educated, grossly superstitious and
+possessed of inordinate self-esteem. Though he kept the machinery of his
+kingdom fairly efficient, and was a patriot to the extent of brooking no
+foreign interference, he made little account of the wishes or welfare of
+his subjects. In 1832 he married Cristina, daughter of Victor Emmanuel
+I., king of Sardinia, and shortly after her death in 1836 he took for a
+second wife Maria Theresa, daughter of archduke Charles of Austria.
+After his Austrian alliance the bonds of despotism were more closely
+tightened, and the increasing discontent of his subjects was manifested
+by various abortive attempts at insurrection; in 1837 there was a rising
+in Sicily in consequence of the outbreak of cholera, and in 1843 the
+Young Italy Society tried to organize a general rising, which, however,
+only manifested itself in a series of isolated outbreaks. The expedition
+of the Bandiera brothers (q.v.) in 1844, although it had no practical
+result, aroused great ill-feeling owing to the cruel sentences passed on
+the rebels. In January 1848 a rising in Sicily was the signal for
+revolutions all over Italy and Europe; it was followed by a movement in
+Naples, and the king granted a constitution which he swore to observe.
+A dispute, however, arose as to the nature of the oath which should be
+taken by the members of the chamber of deputies, and as neither the king
+nor the deputies would yield, serious disturbances broke out in the
+streets of Naples on the 15th of May; so the king, making these an
+excuse for withdrawing his promise, dissolved the national parliament on
+the 13th of March 1849. He retired to Gaeta to confer with various
+deposed despots, and when the news of the Austrian victory at Novara
+(March 1849) reached him, he determined to return to a reactionary
+policy. Sicily, whence the Royalists had been expelled, was subjugated
+by General Filangieri (q.v.), and the chief cities were bombarded, an
+expedient which won for Ferdinand the epithet of "King Bomba." During
+the last years of his reign espionage and arbitrary arrests prevented
+all serious manifestations of discontent among his subjects. In 1851 the
+political prisoners of Naples were calculated by Mr Gladstone in his
+letters to Lord Aberdeen (1851) to number 15,000 (probably the real
+figure was nearer 40,000), and so great was the scandal created by the
+prevailing reign of terror, and the abominable treatment to which the
+prisoners were subjected, that in 1856 France and England made
+diplomatic representations to induce the king to mitigate his rigour and
+proclaim a general amnesty, but without success. An attempt was made by
+a soldier to assassinate Ferdinand in 1856. He died on the 22nd of May
+1856, just after the declaration of war by France and Piedmont against
+Austria, which was to result in the collapse of his kingdom and his
+dynasty. He was bigoted, cruel, mean, treacherous, though not without a
+certain bonhomie; the only excuse that can be made for him is that with
+his heredity and education a different result could scarcely be
+expected.
+
+  See _Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Naples and Sicily,
+  1848-1849, presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her
+  Majesty_, 4th May 1849; _Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen_, by the
+  Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone, 1st ed., 1851 (an edition published in 1852
+  and the subsequent editions contain an _Examination of the Official
+  Reply of the Neapolitan Government_); N. Nisco, _Ferdinando II. il suo
+  regno_ (Naples, 1884); H. Remsen Whitehouse, _The Collapse of the
+  Kingdom of Naples_ (New York, 1899); R. de Cesare, _La Caduta d' un
+  Regno_, vol. i. (Città di Castello, 1900), which contains a great deal
+  of fresh information, but is badly arranged and not always reliable.
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND III. (1769-1824), grand duke of Tuscany, and archduke of
+Austria, second son of the emperor Leopold II., was born on the 6th of
+May 1769. On his father becoming emperor in 1790, he succeeded him as
+grand duke of Tuscany. Ferdinand was one of the first sovereigns to
+enter into diplomatic relations with the French republic (1793); and
+although, a few months later, he was compelled by England and Russia to
+join the coalition against France, he concluded peace with that power in
+1795, and by observing a strict neutrality saved his dominions from
+invasion by the French, except for a temporary occupation of Livorno,
+till 1799, when he was compelled to vacate his throne, and a provisional
+Republican government was established at Florence. Shortly afterwards
+the French arms suffered severe reverses in Italy, and Ferdinand was
+restored to his territories; but in 1801, by the peace of Lunéville,
+Tuscany was converted into the kingdom of Etruria, and he was again
+compelled to return to Vienna. In lieu of the sovereignty of Tuscany, he
+obtained in 1802 the electorship of Salzburg, which he exchanged by the
+peace of Pressburg in 1805 for that of Würzburg. In 1806 he was admitted
+as grand duke of Würzburg to the confederation of the Rhine. He was
+restored to the throne of Tuscany after the abdication of Napoleon in
+1814 and was received with enthusiasm by the people, but had again to
+vacate his capital for a short time in 1815, when Murat proclaimed war
+against Austria. The final overthrow of the French supremacy at the
+battle of Waterloo secured him, however, in the undisturbed possession
+of his grand duchy during the remainder of his life. The restoration in
+Tuscany was not accompanied by the reactionary excesses which
+characterized it elsewhere, and a large part of the French legislation
+was retained. His prime minister was Count V. Fossombroni (q.v.). The
+mild rule of Ferdinand, his solicitude for the welfare of his subjects,
+his enlightened patronage of art and science, his encouragement of
+commerce, and his toleration render him an honourable exception to the
+generality of Italian princes. At the same time his paternal despotism
+tended to emasculate the Tuscan character. He died in June 1824, and was
+succeeded by his son Leopold II. (q.v.).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. von Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas_ (Gotha, 1877);
+  and "Federico Manfredini e la politica Toscana nei primi anni di
+  Ferdinando III." (in the _Archivio Storico Italiano_, 1877); Emmer,
+  _Erzherzog Ferdinand III._, _Grossherzog von Toskana_ (Salzburg,
+  1871); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia durante il dominio francese_, ii. 1-44
+  (Turin, 1889), and _L' Italia durante il dominio austriaco_, ii. 1-18
+  (Turin, 1893). See also under FOSSOMBRONI; VITTORIO; and CAPPONI,
+  GINO.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA, king of Bulgaria (1861- ),
+fifth and youngest son of Prince Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was
+born on the 26th of February 1861. Great care was exercised in his
+education, and every encouragement given to the taste for natural
+history which he exhibited at an early age. In 1879 he travelled with
+his brother Augustus to Brazil, and the results of their botanical
+observations were published at Vienna, 1883-1888, under the title of
+_Itinera Principum S. Coburgi_. Having been appointed to a lieutenancy
+in the 2nd regiment of Austrian hussars, he was holding this rank when,
+by unanimous vote of the National Assembly, he was elected prince of
+Bulgaria, on the 7th of July 1887, in succession to Prince Alexander,
+who had abdicated on the 7th of September preceding. He assumed the
+government on the 14th of August 1887, for Russia for a long time
+refused to acknowledge the election, and he was accordingly exposed to
+frequent military conspiracies, due to the influence or attitude of that
+power. The firmness and vigour with which he met all attempts at
+revolution were at length rewarded, and his election was confirmed in
+March 1896 by the Porte and the great powers. On the 20th of April 1893
+he married Marie Louise de Bourbon (d. 1899), eldest daughter of Duke
+Robert of Parma, and in May following the Grand Sobranye confirmed the
+title of Royal Highness to the prince and his heir. The prince adhered
+to the Roman Catholic faith, but his son and heir, the young Prince
+Boris, was received into the Orthodox Greek Church on the 14th of
+February 1896. Prince Boris, to whom the tsar Nicholas III. became
+godfather, accompanied his father to Russia in 1898, when Prince
+Ferdinand visited St Petersburg and Moscow, and still further
+strengthened the bond already existing between Russia and Bulgaria. In
+1908 Ferdinand married Eleanor (b. 1860), a princess of the house of
+Reuss. Later in the year, in connexion with the Austrian annexation of
+Bosnia-Herzegovina and the crisis with Turkey, he proclaimed the
+independence of Bulgaria, and took the title of king or tsar. (See
+BULGARIA, and EUROPE: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND, duke of Brunswick (1721-1792), Prussian general field marshal,
+was the fourth son of Ferdinand Albert, duke of Brunswick, and was born
+at Wolfenbüttel on the 12th of January 1721. He was carefully educated
+with a view to a military career, and in his twentieth year he was made
+chief of a newly-raised Brunswick regiment in the Prussian service. He
+was present in the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusitz. In succession to
+Margrave Wilhelm of Brandenburg, killed at Prague (1744), Ferdinand
+received the command of Frederick the Great's _Leibgarde_ battalion, and
+at Sohr (1745) he distinguished himself so greatly at the head of his
+brigade that Frederick wrote of him, "le Prince Ferdinand s'est
+surpassé." The height which he captured was defended by his brother
+Ludwig as an officer of the Austrian service, and another brother of Duke
+Ferdinand was killed by his side in the charge. During the ten years'
+peace he was in the closest touch with the military work of Frederick the
+Great, who supervised the instruction of the guard battalion, and sought
+to make it a model of the whole Prussian army. Ferdinand was, moreover,
+one of the most intimate friends of the king, and thus he was peculiarly
+fitted for the tasks which afterwards fell to his lot. In this time he
+became successively major-general and lieutenant-general. In the first
+campaign of the Seven Years' War Ferdinand commanded one of the Prussian
+columns which converged upon Dresden, and in the operations which led up
+to the surrender of the Saxon army at Pirna (1756), and at the battle of
+Lobositz, he led the right wing of the Prussian infantry. In 1757 he was
+present, and distinguished himself, at Prague, and he served also in the
+campaign of Rossbach. Shortly after this he was appointed to command the
+allied forces which were being organized for the war in western Germany.
+He found this army dejected by a reverse and a capitulation, yet within a
+week of his taking up the command he assumed the offensive, and thus
+began the career of victory which made his European reputation as a
+soldier. His conduct of the five campaigns which followed (see SEVEN
+YEARS' WAR) was naturally influenced by the teachings of Frederick, whose
+pupil the duke had been for so many years. Ferdinand, indeed,
+approximated more closely to Frederick in his method of making war than
+any other general of the time. Yet his task was in many respects far more
+difficult than that of the king. Frederick was the absolute master of his
+own homogeneous army, Ferdinand merely the commander of a group of
+contingents, and answerable to several princes for the troops placed
+under his control. The French were by no means despicable opponents in
+the field, and their leaders, if not of the first grade, were cool and
+experienced veterans. In 1758 he fought and won the battle of Crefeld,
+several marches beyond the Rhine, but so advanced a position he could not
+well maintain, and he fell back to the Lippe. He resumed a bold offensive
+in 1759, only to be repulsed at Bergen (near Frankfort-on-Main). On the
+1st of August of this year Ferdinand won the brilliant victory of Minden
+(q.v.). Vellinghausen, Wilhelmsthal, Warburg and other victories attested
+the increasing power of Ferdinand in the following campaigns, and
+Frederick, hard pressed in the eastern theatre of war, owed much of his
+success in an almost hopeless task to the continued pressure exerted by
+Ferdinand in the west. In promoting him to be a field marshal (November
+1758) Frederick acknowledged his debt in the words, "Je n'ai fait que ce
+que je dois, mon cher Ferdinand." After Minden, King George II. gave the
+duke the order of the Garter, and the thanks of the British parliament
+were voted on the same occasion to the "Victor of Minden." After the war
+he was honoured by other sovereigns, and he received the rank of field
+marshal and a regiment from the Austrians. During the War of American
+Independence there was a suggestion, which came to nothing, of offering
+him the command of the British forces. He exerted himself to compensate
+those who had suffered by the Seven Years' War, devoting to this purpose
+most of the small income he received from his various offices and the
+rewards given to him by the allied princes. The estrangement of Frederick
+and Ferdinand in 1766 led to the duke's retirement from Prussian service,
+but there was no open breach between the old friends, and Ferdinand
+visited the king in 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782. After 1766 he passed the
+remainder of his life at his castle of Veschelde, where he occupied
+himself in building and other improvements, and became a patron of
+learning and art, and a great benefactor of the poor. He died on the 3rd
+of July 1792. The merits, civil and military, of the prince were
+recognized by memorials not only in Prussia and Hanover, but also in
+Denmark, the states of western Germany and England. The Prussian
+memorials include an equestrian statue at Berlin (1863).
+
+  See E. v. L. Knesebeck, _Ferdinand, Herzog von Braunschweig und
+  Lüneburg, während des Siebenjährigen Kriegs_ (2 vols., Hanover,
+  1857-1858); Von Westphalen, _Geschichte der Feldzüge des Herzogs
+  Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Lüneburg_ (5 vols., Berlin, 1859-1872); v.
+  d. Osten, _Tagebuch des Herzogl. Gen. Adjutanten v. Reden_ (Hamburg,
+  1805); v. Schafer, _Vie militaire du maréchal Prince Ferdinand_
+  (Magdeburg, 1796; Nuremberg, 1798); also the _Oeuvres_ of Frederick
+  the Great, _passim_, and authorities for the SEVEN YEARS' WAR.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND (1577-1650), elector and archbishop of Cologne, son of William
+V., duke of Bavaria, was born on the 7th of October 1577. Intended for
+the church, he was educated by the Jesuits at the university of
+Ingolstadt, and in 1595 became coadjutor archbishop of Cologne. He
+became elector and archbishop in 1612 on the death of his uncle Ernest,
+whom he also succeeded as bishop of Liége, Munster and Hildesheim. He
+endeavoured resolutely to root out heresy in the lands under his rule,
+and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in every possible way. He
+supported the league founded by his brother Maximilian I., duke of
+Bavaria, and wished to involve the leaguers in a general attack on the
+Protestants of north Germany. The cool political sagacity of the duke
+formed a sharp contrast to the impetuosity of the archbishop, and he
+refused to accede to his brother's wish; but, in spite of these
+temporary differences, Ferdinand sent troops and money to the assistance
+of the league when the Thirty Years' War broke out in 1619. The
+elector's alliance with the Spaniards secured his territories to a great
+extent from the depredations of the war until the arrival of the Swedes
+in Germany in 1630, when the extension of the area of the struggle to
+the neighbourhood of Cologne induced him to enter into negotiations for
+peace. Nothing came of these attempts until 1647, when he joined his
+brother Maximilian in concluding an armistice with France and Sweden at
+Ulm. The elector's later years were marked by a conflict with the
+citizens of Liége; and when the peace of Westphalia freed him from his
+enemies, he was able to crush the citizens and deprive them of many
+privileges. Ferdinand, who had held the bishopric of Paderborn since
+1618, died at Arnsberg on the 13th of September 1650, and was buried in
+the cathedral at Cologne.
+
+  See L. Ennen, _Frankreich und der Niederrhein oder Geschichte von
+  Stadt und Kurstadt Köln seit dem 30 jährigen Kriege_, Band i.
+  (Cologne, 1855-1856).
+
+
+
+
+FERENTINO (anc. _Ferentinum_, to be distinguished from Ferentum or
+Ferentinum in Etruria), a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the
+province of Rome, from which it is 48 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901)
+7957 (town), 12,279 (commune). It is picturesquely situated on a hill
+1290 ft. above sea-level, and still possesses considerable remains of
+ancient fortifications. The lower portion of the outer walls, which
+probably did not stand free, is built of roughly hewn blocks of a
+limestone which naturally splits into horizontal layers; above this in
+places is walling of rectangular blocks of tufa. Two gates, the Porta
+Sanguinaria (with an arch with tufa voussoirs), and the Porta S. Maria,
+a double gate constructed entirely of rectangular blocks of tufa, are
+preserved. Outside this gate is the tomb of A. Quinctilius Priscus, a
+citizen of Ferentinum, with a long inscription cut in the rock. See Th.
+Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x. (Berlin, 1883), No. 5853.
+
+The highest part of the town, the acropolis, is fortified also; it has
+massive retaining walls similar to those of the lower town. At the
+eastern corner, under the present episcopal palace, the construction is
+somewhat more careful. A projecting rectangular terrace has been
+erected, supported by walls of quadrilateral blocks of limestone
+arranged almost horizontally; while upon the level thus formed a
+building of rectangular blocks of local travertine was raised. The
+projecting cornice of this building bears two inscriptions of the period
+of Sulla, recording its construction by two censors (local officials);
+and in the interior, which contains several chambers, there is an
+inscription of the same censors over one of the doors, and another over
+a smaller external side door. The windows lighting these chambers come
+immediately above the cornice, and the wall continues above them again.
+The whole of this construction probably belongs to one period (Mommsen,
+_op. cit._ No. 5837 seq.). The cathedral occupies a part of the level
+top of the ancient acropolis; it was reconstructed on the site of an
+older church in 1099-1118; the interior was modernized in 1693, but was
+restored to its original form in 1902. It contains a fine canopy in the
+"Cosmatesque" style (see _Relazione dei lavori eseguiti dall' ufficio
+tecnico per la conservazione dei monumenti di Rome a provincia_, Rome,
+1903, 175 seq.). The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore, in the lower
+town (13th-14th century), has a very fine exterior; the interior, the
+plan of which is a perfect rectangle, has been spoilt by restoration.
+There are several other Gothic churches in the town.
+
+Ferentinum was the chief town of the Hernici; it was captured from them
+by the Romans in 364 B.C. and took no part in the rising of 306 B.C. The
+inhabitants became Roman citizens after 195 B.C., and the place later
+became a _municipium_. It lay just above the Via Latina and, being a
+strong place, served for the detention of hostages. Horace praises its
+quietness, and it does not appear much in later history. (T. As.)
+
+  See further Ashby, _Röm. Mittell._ xxiv. (1909).
+
+
+
+
+FERENTUM, or FERENTINUM, an ancient town of Etruria, about 6 m. N. of
+Viterbo (the ancient name of which is unknown) and 3½ m. E. of the Via
+Cassia. It was the birthplace (32 A.D.) of the emperor Otho, was
+destroyed in the 11th century, and is now entirely deserted, though it
+retains its ancient name. It occupied a ridge running from east to west,
+with deep ravines on three sides. There are some remains of the city
+walls, and of various Roman structures, but the most important ruin is
+that of the theatre. The stage front is still standing; it is pierced by
+seven openings with flat arches, and shows traces of reconstruction. The
+acropolis was on the hill called Talone on the north-east.
+
+  See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London, 1883), i.
+  156; _Notizie degli scavi_, 1900, 401; 1902, 84; 1905, 31.
+
+
+
+
+FERETORY (from Lat. _feretrum_, a bier, from _ferre_, to bear), in
+architecture, the enclosure or chapel within which the "fereter" shrine,
+or tomb (as in Henry VII.'s chapel), was placed.
+
+
+
+
+FERGHANA, or FERGANA, a province of Russian Turkestan, formed in 1876
+out of the former khanate of Khokand. It is bounded by the provinces of
+Syr-darya on the N. and N.W., Samarkand on the W., and Semiryechensk on
+the N.E., by Chinese Turkestan (Kashgaria) on the E., and by Bokhara and
+Afghanistan on the S. Its southern limits, on the Pamirs, were fixed by
+an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from Zor-kul (Victoria Lake) to the
+Chinese frontier; and Shignan, Roshan and Wakhan were assigned to
+Bokhara in exchange for part of Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj),
+which was given to Afghanistan. The area amounts to some 53,000 sq. m.,
+of which 17,600 sq. m. are on the Pamirs. The most important part of the
+province is a rich and fertile valley (1200-1500 ft.), opening towards
+the S.W. Thence the province stretches northwards across the mountains
+of the Tian-shan system and southwards across the Alai and Trans-Alai
+Mts., which reach their highest point in Peak Kaufmann (23,000 ft.), in
+the latter range. The valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the Naryn
+and the Karadarya, which unite within its confines, near Namangan, to
+form the Syr-darya or Jaxartes. These streams, and their numerous
+mountain affluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but also bring
+down vast quantities of sand, which is deposited alongside their
+courses, more especially alongside the Syr-darya where it cuts its way
+through the Khojent-Ajar ridge, forming there the Karakchikum. This
+expanse of moving sands, covering an area of 750 sq. m., under the
+influence of south-west winds, encroaches upon the agricultural
+districts. The climate of this valley is dry and warm. In March the
+temperature reaches 68° F., and then rapidly rises to 95° in June, July
+and August. During the five months following April no rain falls, but it
+begins again in October. Snow and frost (down to -4° F.) occur in
+December and January.
+
+Out of some 3,000,000 acres of cultivated land, about two-thirds are
+under constant irrigation and the remaining third under partial
+irrigation. The soil is admirably cultivated, the principal crops being
+wheat, rice, barley, maize, millet, lucerne, tobacco, vegetables and
+fruit. Gardening is conducted with a high degree of skill and success.
+Large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep are kept, and a good many
+camels are bred. Over 17,000 acres are planted with vines, and some
+350,000 acres are under cotton. Nearly 1,000,000 acres are covered with
+forests. The government maintains a forestry farm at Marghelan, from
+which 120,000 to 200,000 young trees are distributed free every year
+amongst the inhabitants of the province.
+
+Silkworm breeding, formerly a prosperous industry, has decayed, despite
+the encouragement of a state farm at New Marghelan. Coal, iron, sulphur,
+gypsum, rock-salt, lacustrine salt and naphtha are all known to exist,
+but only the last two are extracted. Some seventy or eighty factories
+are engaged in cotton cleaning; while leather, saddlery, paper and
+cutlery are the principal products of the domestic industries. A
+considerable trade is carried on with Russia; raw cotton, raw silk,
+tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit and cotton and leather goods are
+exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar are imported
+and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara. The total trade of
+Ferghana reaches an annual value of nearly £3,500,000. A new impulse was
+given to trade by the extension (1899) of the Transcaspian railway into
+Ferghana and by the opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent railway (1906). The
+routes to Kashgaria and the Pamirs are mere bridle-paths over the
+mountains, crossing them by lofty passes. For instance, the passes of
+Kara-kazyk (14,400 ft.) and Tenghiz-bai (11,200 ft.), both passable all
+the year round, lead from Marghelan to Kara-teghin and the Pamirs, while
+Kashgar is reached via Osh and Gulcha, and then over the passes of
+Terek-davan (12,205 ft.; open all the year round), Taldyk (11,500 ft.),
+Archat (11,600 ft.), and Shart-davan (14,000 ft.). Other passes leading
+out of the valley are the Jiptyk (12,460 ft.), S. of Khokand; the
+Isfairam (12,000 ft.), leading to the glen of the Surkhab, and the Kavuk
+(13,000 ft.), across the Alai Mts.
+
+The population numbered 1,571,243 in 1897, and of that number 707,132
+were women and 286,369 were urban. In 1906 it was estimated at
+1,796,500. Two-thirds of the total are Sarts and Uzbegs (of Turkic
+origin). They live mostly in the valley; while the mountain slopes above
+it are occupied by Kirghiz, partly nomad and pastoral, partly
+agricultural and settled. The other races are Tajiks, Kashgarians,
+Kipchaks, Jews and Gypsies. The governing classes are of course
+Russians, who constitute also the merchant and artizan classes. But the
+merchants of West Turkestan are called all over central Asia Andijanis,
+from the town of Andijan in Ferghana. The great mass of the population
+are Mussulmans (1,039,115 in 1897). The province is divided into five
+districts, the chief towns of which are New Marghelan, capital of the
+province (8977 inhabitants in 1897), Andijan (49,682 in 1900), Khokand
+(86,704 in 1900), Namangan (61,906 in 1897), and Osh (37,397 in 1900);
+but Old Marghelan (42,855 in 1900) and Chust (13,686 in 1897) are also
+towns of importance. For the history, see KHOKAND.
+     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+FERGUS FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Otter Tail county,
+Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red river, 170 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop.
+(1890) 3772; (1900) 6072, of whom 2131 were foreign-born; (1905) 6692;
+(1910) 6887. A large part of the population is of Scandinavian birth or
+descent. Fergus Falls is served by the Great Northern and the Northern
+Pacific railways. Situated in the celebrated "park region" of the state,
+the city possesses great natural beauty, which has been enhanced by a
+system of boulevards and well-kept private lawns. Lake Alice, in the
+residential district, adds to the city's attractions. The city has a
+public library, a county court house, St Luke's hospital, the G.B.
+Wright memorial hospital, and a city hall. It is the seat of a state
+hospital for the insane (1887) with about 1600 patients, of a business
+college, of the Park Region Luther College (Norwegian Lutheran, 1892),
+and of the North-western College (Swedish Lutheran; opened in 1901). It
+has one of the finest water-powers in the state. Flour is the principal
+product; among others are woollen goods, foundry and machine-shop
+products, wooden ware, sash, doors and blinds, caskets, shirts, wagons
+and packed meats. The city owns and operates its water-works and its
+electric-lighting plant. Fergus Falls was settled about 1859 and was
+incorporated in 1863.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816), Scottish philosopher and historian, was born
+on the 20th of June 1723, at Logierait, Perthshire. He was educated at
+Perth grammar school and the university of St Andrews. In 1745, owing to
+his knowledge of Gaelic, he was appointed deputy chaplain of the 43rd
+(afterwards the 42nd) regiment (the Black Watch), the licence to preach
+being granted him by special dispensation, although he had not completed
+the required six years of theological study. At the battle of Fontenoy
+(1745) Ferguson fought in the ranks throughout the day, and refused to
+leave the field, though ordered to do so by his colonel. He continued
+attached to the regiment till 1754, when, disappointed at not obtaining
+a living, he abandoned the clerical profession and resolved to devote
+himself to literary pursuits. In January 1757 he succeeded David Hume as
+librarian to the faculty of advocates, but soon relinquished this office
+on becoming tutor in the family of Lord Bute.
+
+In 1759 Ferguson was appointed professor of natural philosophy in the
+university of Edinburgh, and in 1764 was transferred to the chair of
+"pneumatics" (mental philosophy) "and moral philosophy." In 1767,
+against Hume's advice, he published his _Essay on the History of Civil
+Society_, which was well received and translated into several European
+languages. In 1776 appeared his (anonymous) pamphlet on the American
+revolution in opposition to Dr Price's _Observations on the Nature of
+Civil Liberty_, in which he sympathized with the views of the British
+legislature. In 1778 Ferguson was appointed secretary to the commission
+which endeavoured, but without success, to negotiate an arrangement with
+the revolted colonies. In 1783 appeared his _History of the Progress and
+Termination of the Roman Republic_; it was very popular, and went
+through several editions. Ferguson was led to undertake this work from a
+conviction that the history of the Romans during the period of their
+greatness was a practical illustration of those ethical and political
+doctrines which were the object of his special study. The history is
+written in an agreeable style and a spirit of impartiality, and gives
+evidence of a conscientious use of authorities. The influence of the
+author's military experience shows itself in certain portions of the
+narrative. Finding himself unequal to the labour of teaching, he
+resigned his professorship in 1785, and devoted himself to the revision
+of his lectures, which he published (1792) under the title of
+_Principles of Moral and Political Science_.
+
+When in his seventieth year, Ferguson, intending to prepare a new
+edition of the history, visited Italy and some of the principal cities
+of Europe, where he was received with honour by learned societies. From
+1795 he resided successively at the old castle of Neidpath near Peebles,
+at Hallyards on Manor Water and at St Andrews, where he died on the 22nd
+of February 1816.
+
+In his ethical system Ferguson treats man throughout as a social being,
+and illustrates his doctrines by political examples. As a believer in
+the progression of the human race, he placed the principle of moral
+approbation in the attainment of perfection. His speculations were
+carefully criticized by Cousin (see his _Cours d'histoire de la
+philosophie morale au dix-huitième siècle_, pt. ii., 1839-1840):--"We
+find in his method the wisdom and circumspection of the Scottish school,
+with something more masculine and decisive in the results. The principle
+of _perfection_ is a new one, at once more rational and comprehensive
+than benevolence and sympathy, which in our view places Ferguson as a
+moralist above all his predecessors." By this principle Ferguson
+endeavours to reconcile all moral systems. With Hobbes and Hume he
+admits the power of self-interest or utility, and makes it enter into
+morals as the law of self-preservation. Hutcheson's theory of universal
+benevolence and Smith's idea of sympathy he combines under the law of
+society. But, as these laws are the means rather than the end of human
+destiny, they are subordinate to a supreme end, and this supreme end is
+perfection. In the political part of his system Ferguson follows
+Montesquieu, and pleads the cause of well-regulated liberty and free
+government. His contemporaries, with the exception of Hume, regarded his
+writings as of great importance; in point of fact they are superficial.
+The facility of their style and the frequent occurrence of would-be
+weighty epigrams blinded his critics to the fact that, in spite of his
+recognition of the importance of observation, he made no real
+contribution to political theory (see Sir Leslie Stephen, _English
+Thought in the Eighteenth Century_, x. 89-90).
+
+  The chief authority for Ferguson's life is the _Biographical Sketch_
+  by John Small (1864); see also _Public Characters_ (1799-1800);
+  _Gentleman's Magazine_, i. (1816 supp.); W.R. Chambers's _Biographical
+  Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen_; memoir by Principal Lee in early
+  editions of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; J. McCosh, _The Scottish
+  Philosophy_ (1875); articles in _Dictionary of National Biography_ and
+  _Edinburgh Review_ (January 1867); Lord Henry Cockburn, _Memorials of
+  his Time_ (1856).
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSON, JAMES (1710-1776), Scottish mechanician and astronomer, was
+born near Rothiemay in Banffshire on the 25th of April 1710, of parents
+in very humble circumstances. He first learned to read by overhearing
+his father teach his elder brother, and with the help of an old woman
+was "able," he says in his autobiography, "to read tolerably well before
+his father thought of teaching him." After receiving further instruction
+in reading from his father, who also taught him to write, he was sent at
+the age of seven for three months to the grammar school at Keith. His
+taste for mechanics was about this time accidentally awakened on seeing
+his father making use of a lever to raise a part of the roof of his
+house--an exhibition of seeming strength which at first "excited his
+terror as well as wonder." In 1720 he was sent to a neighbouring farm to
+keep sheep, where in the daytime he amused himself by making models of
+mills and other machines, and at night in studying the stars.
+Afterwards, as a servant with a miller, and then with a doctor, he met
+with hardships which rendered his constitution feeble through life.
+Being compelled by his weak health to return home, he there amused
+himself with making a clock having wooden wheels and a whalebone spring.
+When slightly recovered he showed this and some other inventions to a
+neighbouring gentleman, who engaged him to clean his clocks, and also
+desired him to make his house his home. He there began to draw patterns
+for needlework, and his success in this art led him to think of becoming
+a painter. In 1734 he went to Edinburgh, where he began to take
+portraits in miniature, by which means, while engaged in his scientific
+studies, he supported himself and his family for many years.
+Subsequently he settled at Inverness, where he drew up his _Astronomical
+Rotula_ for showing the motions of the planets, places of the sun and
+moon, &c., and in 1743 went to London, which was his home for the rest
+of his life. He wrote various papers for the Royal Society, of which he
+became a fellow in 1763, devised astronomical and mechanical models, and
+in 1748 began to give public lectures on experimental philosophy. These
+he repeated in most of the principal towns in England. His deep interest
+in his subject, his clear explanations, his ingeniously constructed
+diagrams, and his mechanical apparatus rendered him one of the most
+successful of popular lecturers on scientific subjects. It is, however,
+as the inventor and improver of astronomical and other scientific
+apparatus, and as a striking instance of self-education, that he claims
+a place among the most remarkable men of science of his country. During
+the latter years of his life he was in receipt of a pension of £50 from
+the privy purse. He died in London on the 17th of November 1776.
+
+  Ferguson's principal publications are _Astronomical Tables_ (1763);
+  _Lectures on Select Subjects_ (1st ed., 1761, edited by Sir David
+  Brewster in 1805); _Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Newton's
+  Principles_ (1756, edited by Sir David Brewster in 1811); and _Select
+  Mechanical Exercises, with a Short Account of the Life of the Author,
+  written by himself_ (1773). This autobiography is included in a _Life_
+  by E. Henderson, LL.D. (1st ed., 1867; 2nd, 1870), which also contains
+  a full description of Ferguson's principal inventions, accompanied
+  with illustrations. See also _The Story of the Peasant-Boy
+  Philosopher_, by Henry Mayhew (1857).
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSON, ROBERT (c. 1637-1714), British conspirator and pamphleteer,
+called the "Plotter," was a son of William Ferguson (d. 1699) of
+Badifurrow, Aberdeenshire, and after receiving a good education,
+probably at the university of Aberdeen, became a Presbyterian minister.
+According to Bishop Burnet he was cast out by the Presbyterians; but
+whether this be so or not, he soon made his way to England and became
+vicar of Godmersham, Kent, from which living he was expelled by the Act
+of Uniformity in 1662. Some years later, having gained meanwhile a
+reputation as a theological controversialist and become a person of
+importance among the Nonconformists, he attracted the notice of the earl
+of Shaftesbury and the party which favoured the exclusion of the duke of
+York (afterwards King James II.) from the throne, and he began to write
+political pamphlets just at the time when the feeling against the Roman
+Catholics was at its height. In 1680 he wrote "A Letter to a Person of
+Honour concerning the 'Black Box,'" in which he supported the claim of
+the duke of Monmouth to the crown against that of the duke of York;
+returning to the subject after Charles II. had solemnly denied the
+existence of a marriage between himself and Lucy Waters. He took an
+active part in the controversy over the Exclusion Bill, and claimed to
+be the author of the whole of the pamphlet "No Protestant Plot" (1681),
+parts of which are usually ascribed to Shaftesbury. Ferguson was deeply
+implicated in the Rye House Plot, although he asserted that he had
+frustrated both this and a subsequent attempt to assassinate the king,
+and he fled to Holland with Shaftesbury in 1682, returning to England
+early in 1683. For his share in another plot against Charles II. he was
+declared an outlaw, after which he entered into communication with
+Argyll, Monmouth and other malcontents. Ferguson then took a leading
+part in organizing the rising of 1685. Having overcome Monmouth's
+reluctance to take part in this movement, he accompanied the duke to the
+west of England and drew up the manifesto against James II., escaping to
+Holland after the battle of Sedgemoor. He landed in England with William
+of Orange in 1688, and aided William's cause with his pen; but William
+and his advisers did not regard him as a person of importance, although
+his services were rewarded with a sinecure appointment in the Excise.
+Chagrined at this treatment, Ferguson was soon in correspondence with
+the exiled Jacobites. He shared in all the plots against the life of
+William, and after his removal from the Excise in 1692 wrote violent
+pamphlets against the government. Although he was several times arrested
+on suspicion, he was never brought to trial. He died in great poverty in
+1714, leaving behind him a great and deserved reputation for treachery.
+It has been thought by Macaulay and others that Ferguson led the English
+government to believe that he was a spy in their interests, and that his
+frequent escapes from justice were due to official connivance. In a
+proclamation issued for his arrest in 1683 he is described as "a tall
+lean man, dark brown hair, a great Roman nose, thin-jawed, heat in his
+face, speaks in the Scotch tone, a sharp piercing eye, stoops a little
+in the shoulders." Besides numerous pamphlets Ferguson wrote: _History
+of the Revolution_ (1706); _Qualifications requisite in a Minister of
+State_ (1710); and part of the _History of all the Mobs, Tumults and
+Insurrections in Great Britain_ (London, 1715).
+
+  See James Ferguson, _Robert Ferguson, the Plotter_ (Edinburgh, 1887),
+  which gives a favourable account of Ferguson.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886), Irish poet and antiquary, was born at
+Belfast, on the 10th of March 1810. He was educated at Trinity College,
+Dublin, was called to the Irish bar in 1838, and was made Q.C. in 1859,
+but in 1867 retired from practice upon his appointment as deputy-keeper
+of the Irish records, then in a much neglected condition. He was an
+excellent civil servant, and was knighted in 1878 for his services to
+the department. His spare time was given to general literature, and in
+particular to poetry. He had long been a leading contributor to the
+_Dublin University Magazine_ and to _Blackwood_, where he had published
+his two literary masterpieces, "The Forging of the Anchor," one of the
+finest of modern ballads, and the humorous prose extravaganza of "Father
+Tom and the Pope." He published _Lays of the Western Gael_ in 1865,
+_Poems_ in 1880, and in 1872 _Congal_, a metrical narrative of the
+heroic age of Ireland, and, though far from ideal perfection, perhaps
+the most successful attempt yet made by a modern Irish poet to revivify
+the spirit of the past in a poem of epic proportions. Lyrics have
+succeeded better in other hands; many of Ferguson's pieces on modern
+themes, notably his "Lament for Thomas Davis" (1845), are, nevertheless,
+excellent. He was an extensive contributor on antiquarian subjects to
+the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, and was elected its
+president in 1882. His manners were delightful, and his hospitality was
+boundless. He died at Howth on the 9th of August 1886. His most
+important antiquarian work, _Ogham Inscriptions in Ireland, Wales,
+Scotland_, was published in the year after his death.
+
+  See _Sir Samuel Ferguson in the Ireland of his Day_ (1896), by his
+  wife, Mary C. Ferguson; also an article by A.P. Graves in _A Treasury
+  of Irish Poetry in the English Tongue_ (1900), edited by Stopford
+  Brooke and T.W. Rolleston.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSSON, JAMES (1808-1886), Scottish writer on architecture, was born
+at Ayr on the 22nd of January 1808. His father was an army surgeon.
+After being educated first at the Edinburgh high school, and afterwards
+at a private school at Hounslow, James went to Calcutta as partner in a
+mercantile house. Here he was attracted by the remains of the ancient
+architecture of India, little known or understood at that time. The
+successful conduct of an indigo factory, as he states in his own
+account, enabled him in about ten years to retire from business and
+settle in London. The observations made on Indian architecture were
+first embodied in his book on _The Rock-cut Temples of India_, published
+in 1845. The task of analysing the historic and aesthetic relations of
+this type of ancient buildings led him further to undertake a historical
+and critical comparative survey of the whole subject of architecture in
+_The Handbook of Architecture_, a work which first appeared in 1855.
+This did not satisfy him, and the work was reissued ten years later in a
+much more extended form under the title of _The History of
+Architecture_. The chapters on Indian architecture, which had been
+considered at rather disproportionate length in the _Handbook_, were
+removed from the general _History_, and the whole of this subject
+treated more fully in a separate volume, _The History of Indian and
+Eastern Architecture_, which appeared in 1876, and, although complete in
+itself, formed a kind of appendix to _The History of Architecture_.
+Previously to this, in 1862, he issued his _History of Modern
+Architecture_, in which the subject was continued from the Renaissance
+to the present day, the period of "modern architecture" being
+distinguished as that of revivals and imitations of ancient styles,
+which began with the Renaissance. The essential difference between this
+and the spontaneously evolved architecture of preceding ages Fergusson
+was the first clearly to point out and characterize. His treatise on
+_The True Principles of Beauty in Art_, an early publication, is a most
+thoughtful metaphysical study. Some of his essays on special points in
+archaeology, such as the treatise on _The Mode in which Light was
+introduced into Greek Temples_, included theories which have not
+received general acceptance. His real monument is his _History of
+Architecture_ (later edition revised by R. Phenè Spiers), which, for
+grasp of the whole subject, comprehensiveness of plan, and thoughtful
+critical analysis, stands quite alone in architectural literature. He
+received the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in
+1871. Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are: _A Proposed
+New System of Fortification_ (1849)_, Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis
+restored_ (1851), _Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored_ (1862), _Tree
+and Serpent Worship_ (1868), _Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries_
+(1872), and _The Temples of the Jews and the other Buildings in the
+Haram Area at Jerusalem_ (1878). The sessional papers of the Institute
+of British Architects include papers by him on _The History of the
+Pointed Arch_, _Architecture of Southern India_, _Architectural
+Splendour of the City of Beejapore_, _On the Erechtheum_ and on the
+_Temple of Diana at Ephesus_.
+
+Although Fergusson never practised architecture he took a keen interest
+in all the professional work of his time. He was adviser with Austen
+Layard in the scheme of decoration for the Assyrian court at the Crystal
+Palace, and indeed assumed in 1856 the duties of general manager to the
+Palace Company, a post which he held for two years. In 1847 Fergusson
+had published an "Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem," in
+which he had contended that the "Mosque of Omar" was the identical
+church built by Constantine the Great over the tomb of our Lord at
+Jerusalem, and that it, and not the present church of the Holy
+Sepulchre, was the genuine burial-place of Jesus. The burden of this
+contention was further explained by the publication in 1860 of his
+_Notes on the Site of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem_; and _The Temples
+of the Jews and the other Buildings in the Haram Area at Jerusalem_,
+published in 1878, was a still completer elaboration of these theories,
+which are said to have been the origin of the establishment of the
+Palestine Exploration fund. His manifold activities continued till his
+death, which took place in London on the 9th of January 1886.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774), Scottish poet, son of Sir William
+Fergusson, a clerk in the British Linen Company, was born at Edinburgh
+on the 5th of September 1750. Robert was educated at the grammar school
+of Dundee, and at the university of St Andrews, where he matriculated in
+1765. His father died while he was still at college; but a bursary
+enabled him to complete his four years of study. He refused to study for
+the church, and was too nervous to study medicine as his friends wished.
+He quarrelled with his uncle, John Forbes of Round Lichnot,
+Aberdeenshire, and went to Edinburgh, where he obtained employment as
+copying clerk in a lawyer's office. In this humble occupation he passed
+the remainder of his life. While at college he had written a clever
+elegy on Dr David Gregory, and in 1771 he began to contribute verses
+regularly to Ruddiman's _Weekly Magazine_. He was a member of the Cape
+Club, celebrated by him in his poem of "Auld Reekie." "The Knights of
+the Cape" assembled at a tavern in Craig's Close, in the vicinity of the
+Cross; each member had a name and character assigned to him, which he
+was required to maintain at all gatherings of the order. David Herd
+(1732-1810), the collector of the classic edition of _Ancient and Modern
+Scottish Songs_ (1776), was sovereign of the Cape (in which he was known
+as "Sir Scrape") when Fergusson was dubbed a knight of the order, with
+the title of "Sir Precentor," in allusion to his fine voice. Alexander
+Runciman, the historical painter, his pupil Jacob More, and Sir Henry
+Raeburn were all members. The old minute books of the club abound with
+pencilled sketches by them, one of the most interesting of which,
+ascribed to Runciman's pencil, is a sketch of Fergusson in his character
+of "Sir Precentor."
+
+Fergusson's gaiety and wit made him an entertaining companion, and he
+indulged too freely in the convivial habits of the time. After a meeting
+with John Brown of Haddington he became, however, very serious, and
+would read nothing but his Bible. A fall by which his head was severely
+injured aggravated symptoms of mental aberration which had begun to show
+themselves; and after about two months' confinement in the old Darien
+House--then the only public asylum in Edinburgh--the poet died on the
+16th of October 1774.
+
+Fergusson's poems were collected in the year before his death. The
+influence of his writings on Robert Burns is undoubted. His "Leith
+Races" unquestionably supplied the model for the "Holy Fair." Not only
+is the stanza the same, but the Mirth who plays the part of conductor to
+Fergusson, and the Fun who renders a like service to Burns, are
+manifestly conceived on the same model. "The Mutual Complaint of
+Plainstanes and Causey" probably suggested "The Brigs of Ayr"; "On
+seeing a Butterfly in the Street" has reflections in it which strikingly
+correspond with "To a Mouse"; nor will a comparison of "The Farmer's
+Ingle" of the elder poet with "The Cottar's Saturday Night" admit of a
+doubt as to the influence of the city-bred poet's muse on that exquisite
+picturing of homely peasant life. Burns was himself the first to render
+a generous tribute to the merits of Fergusson; on his visit to Edinburgh
+in 1787 he sought out the poet's grave, and petitioned the authorities
+of the Canongate burying-ground for permission to erect the memorial
+stone which is preserved in the existing monument. The date there
+assigned for his birth differs from the one given above, which rests on
+the authority of his younger sister Margaret.
+
+  The first edition of Fergusson's poems was published by Ruddiman at
+  Edinburgh in 1773, and a supplement containing additional poems, in
+  1779. A second edition appeared in 1785. There are later editions, by
+  Robert Chambers (1850) and Dr A.B. Grosart (1851). A life of Fergusson
+  is included in Dr David Irving's _Lives of the Scottish Poets_, and in
+  Robert Chambers's Lives of _Illustrious and Distinguished Scotsmen_.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1808-1877), British surgeon, the son of
+James Fergusson of Lochmaben, Dumfriesshire, was born at Prestonpans,
+East Lothian, on the 20th of March 1808. After receiving his early
+education at Lochmaben and the high school of Edinburgh, he entered the
+university of Edinburgh with the view of studying law, but soon
+afterwards abandoned his intention and became a pupil of the anatomist
+Robert Knox (1791-1862) whose demonstrator he was appointed at the age
+of twenty. In 1836 he succeeded Robert Liston as surgeon to the
+Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and coming to London in 1840 as professor of
+surgery in King's College, and surgeon to King's College Hospital, he
+acquired a commanding position among the surgeons of the metropolis. He
+revived the operation for cleft-palate, which for many years had fallen
+into disrepute, and invented a special mouth-gag for the same. He also
+devised many other surgical instruments, chief among which, and still in
+use to-day, are his bone forceps, lion forceps and vaginal speculum. In
+1866 he was created a baronet. He died in London on the 10th of February
+1877. As a surgeon Fergusson's greatest merit is that of having
+introduced the practice of "conservative surgery," by which he meant the
+excision of a joint rather than the amputation of a limb. He made his
+diagnosis with almost intuitive certainty; as an operator he was
+characterized by self-possession in the most critical circumstances, by
+minute attention to details and by great refinement of touch, and he
+relied more on his mechanical dexterity than on complicated instruments.
+He was the author of _The Progress of Anatomy and Surgery in the
+Nineteenth Century_ (1867), and of a _System of Practical Surgery_
+(1842), which went through several editions.
+
+
+
+
+FERINGHI, or FERINGHEE, a Frank (Persian, _Farangi_). This term for a
+European is very old in Asia, and was originally used in a purely
+geographical sense, but now generally carries a hostile or contemptuous
+significance. The combatants on either side during the Indian Mutiny
+called each other Feringhies and Pandies.
+
+
+
+
+FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM (c. 1570-c. 1611), Persian historian, was born
+at Astrabad, on the shores of the Caspian Sea. While he was still a
+child his father was summoned away from his native country into
+Hindostan, where he held high office in the Deccan; and by his influence
+the young Ferishta received court promotion. In 1589 Ferishta removed to
+Bijapur, where he spent the remainder of his life under the immediate
+protection of the shah Ibrahim Adil II., who engaged him to write a
+history of India. At the court of this monarch he died about 1611. In
+the introduction to his work a _résumé_ is given of the history of
+Hindostan prior to the times of the Mahommedan conquest, and also of the
+victorious progress of the Arabs through the East. The first ten books
+are each occupied with a history of the kings of one of the provinces;
+the eleventh book gives an account of the Mussulmans of Malabar; the
+twelfth a history of the Mussulman saints of India; and the conclusion
+treats of the geography and climate of India. Ferishta is reputed one of
+the most trustworthy of the Oriental historians, and his work still
+maintains a high place as an authority. Several portions of it have been
+translated into English; but the best as well as the most complete
+translation is that published by General J. Briggs under the title of
+_The History of the Rise of the Mahometan Power in India_ (London, 1829,
+4 vols. 8vo). Several additions were made by Briggs to the original work
+of Ferishta, but he omitted the whole of the twelfth book, and various
+other passages which had been omitted in the copy from which he
+translated.
+
+
+
+
+FERMANAGH, a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, bounded N.W.
+by Donegal, N.E. by Tyrone, E. by Monaghan and S.W. by Cavan and
+Leitrim. The area is 457,369 acres or about 715 sq. m. The county is
+situated mostly in the basin of the Erne, which divides the county into
+two nearly equal sections. Its surface is hilly, and its appearance (in
+many parts) somewhat sterile, though in the main, and especially in the
+neighbourhood of Lough Erne, it is picturesque and attractive. The
+climate, though moist, is healthy, and the people are generally tall and
+robust. The chief mountains are Cuilcagh (2188 ft.), partly in Leitrim
+and Cavan, Belmore (1312), Glenkeel (1223), North Shean (1135), Tappahan
+(1110), Carnmore (1034). Tossett or Toppid and Turaw mountains command
+extensive prospects, and form striking features in the scenery of the
+county. But the most distinguishing features of Fermanagh are the Upper
+and Lower Loughs Erne, which occupy a great extent of its surface,
+stretching for about 45 m. from S.E. to N.W. These lakes are expansions
+of the river Erne, which enters the county from Cavan at Wattle Bridge.
+It passes Belturbet, the Loughs Erne, Enniskillen and Belleek, on its
+way to the Atlantic, into which it descends at Ballyshannon. At Belleek
+it forms a considerable waterfall and is here well known to sportsmen
+for its good salmon fishing. Trout are taken in most of the loughs, and
+pike of great size in the Loughs Erne. There are several mineral springs
+in the county, some of them chalybeate, others sulphurous. At Belcoo,
+near Enniskillen, there is a famous well called Daragh Phadric, held in
+repute by the peasantry for its cure of paralytic and other diseases;
+and 4 m. N.W. of the same town, at a place called "the Daughton," are
+natural caves of considerable size.
+
+This county includes in the north an area of the gneiss that is
+discussed under county Donegal, and, west of Omagh, a metamorphic region
+that stretches in from the central axis of Tyrone. A fault divides the
+latter from the mass of red-brown Old Red Sandstone that spreads south
+nearly to Enniskillen. Lower Carboniferous sandstone and limestone occur
+on the north of Lower Lough Erne. The limestone forms fine scarps on the
+southern side of the lake, capped by beds regarded as the Yoredale
+series. The scenery about the two Loughs Macnean is carved out in
+similarly scarped hills, rising to 2188 ft. in Cuilcagh on the south.
+The "Marble Arch" cave near Florence-court, with its emerging river, is
+a characteristic example of the subterranean waterways in the limestone.
+Upper Lough Erne is a typical meandering lake of the limestone lowland,
+with outliers of higher Carboniferous strata forming highlands
+north-east and south-west of it.
+
+With the exception of the pottery works at Belleek, where iridescent
+ware of good quality is produced, Fermanagh has no distinguishing
+manufactures. It is chiefly an agricultural county. The proportion of
+tillage to pasture is roughly as 1 to 2½. Cattle and poultry are the
+principal classes of live stock. Oats and potatoes are the crops most
+extensively cultivated. The north-western division of the Great Northern
+railway passes through the most populous portion of the county, one
+branch connecting Enniskillen with Clones, another connecting
+Enniskillen with Londonderry via Omagh, and a third connecting Bundoran
+Junction with Bundoran, in county Donegal. The Sligo, Leitrim & Northern
+Counties railway connects with the Great Northern at Enniskillen, and
+the Clogher Valley light railway connects southern county Tyrone with
+the Great Northern at Maguiresbridge.
+
+The population (74,170 in 1891; 65,430 in 1901; almost wholly rural)
+shows a decrease among the most serious of the county populations of
+Ireland. It includes 55% of Roman Catholics and about 35% of Protestant
+Episcopalians. Enniskillen (the county town, pop. 5412) is the only town
+of importance, the rest being little more than villages. The principal
+are Lisnaskea, Irvinestown (formerly Lowtherstown), Maguiresbridge,
+Tempo, Newtownbutler, Belleek, Derrygonnelly and Kesh, at which fairs
+are held. Garrison, a fishing station on the wild Lough Melvin, and
+Pettigo, near to the lower Lough Erne, are market villages. Fermanagh
+returns two members to parliament, one each for the north and south
+divisions. It comprises eight baronies and nineteen civil parishes. The
+assizes are held at Enniskillen, quarter sessions at Enniskillen and
+Newtownbutler. The headquarters of the constabulary are at Enniskillen.
+Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant and Roman Catholic
+dioceses of Clogher and Kilmore.
+
+By the ancient Irish the district was called _Feor-magh-Eanagh_, or the
+"country of the lakes" (lit. "the mountain-valley marsh district"); and
+also Magh-uire, or "the country of the waters." A large portion was
+occupied by the _Guarii_, the ancestors of the MacGuires or Maguires, a
+name still common in the district. This family was so influential that
+for centuries the county was called after it Maguire's Country, and one
+of the towns still existing bears its name, Maguiresbridge. Fermanagh
+was formed into a county on the shiring of Ulster in 1585 by Sir John
+Perrot, and was included in the well-known scheme of colonization of
+James I., the Plantation of Ulster. In 1689 battles were fought between
+William III.'s army and the Irish under Macarthy (for James II.),
+Lisnaskea (26th July) and Newtownbutler (30th July). The chief place of
+interest to the antiquary is Devenish Island in Lough Erne, about 2½ m.
+N.W. from Enniskillen (q.v.), with its ruined abbey, round tower and
+cross. In various places throughout the county may be seen the ruins of
+several ancient castles, Danish raths or encampments, and tumuli, in the
+last of which urns and stone coffins have sometimes been found. The
+round tower on Devenish Island is one of the finest examples in the
+country.
+
+
+
+
+FERMAT, PIERRE DE (1601-1665), French mathematician, was born on the
+17th of August 1601, at Beaumont-de-Lomagne near Montauban. While still
+young, he, along with Blaise Pascal, made some discoveries in regard to
+the properties of numbers, on which he afterwards built his method of
+calculating probabilities. He discovered a simpler method of quadrating
+parabolas than that of Archimedes, and a method of finding the greatest
+and the smallest ordinates of curved lines analogous to that of the then
+unknown differential calculus. His great work _De maximis et minimis_
+brought him into conflict with René Descartes, but the dispute was
+chiefly due to a want of explicitness in the statement of Fermat (see
+INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). His brilliant researches in the theory of
+numbers entitle him to rank as the founder of the modern theory. They
+originally took the form of marginal notes in a copy of Bachet's
+_Diophantus_, and were published in 1670 by his son Samuel, who
+incorporated them in a new edition of this Greek writer. Other theorems
+were published in his _Opera Varia_, and in John Wallis's _Commercium
+epistolicum_ (1658). He died in the belief that he had found a relation
+which every prime number must satisfy, namely 2^2n + 1 = a prime. This
+was afterwards disproved by Leonhard Euler for the case when n = 5.
+_Fermat's Theorem_, if p is prime and a is prime to p then a^(p-1) - 1
+is divisible by p, was first given in a letter of 1640. _Fermat's
+Problem_ is that x^n + y^n = z^n is impossible for integral values of x,
+y and z when n is greater than 2.
+
+Fermat was for some time councillor for the parliament of Toulouse, and
+in the discharge of the duties of that office he was distinguished both
+for legal knowledge and for strict integrity of conduct. Though the
+sciences were the principal objects of his private studies, he was also
+an accomplished general scholar and an excellent linguist. He died at
+Toulouse on the 12th of January 1665. He left a son, Samuel de Fermat
+(1630-1690) who published translations of several Greek authors and
+wrote certain books on law in addition to editing his father's works.
+
+  The _Opera mathematica_ of Fermat were published at Toulouse, in 2
+  vols. folio, 1670 and 1679. The first contains the "Arithmetic of
+  Diophantus," with notes and additions. The second includes a "Method
+  for the Quadrature of Parabolas," and a treatise "on Maxima and
+  Minima, on Tangents, and on Centres of Gravity," containing the same
+  solutions of a variety of problems as were afterwards incorporated
+  into the more extensive method of fluxions by Newton and Leibnitz. In
+  the same volume are treatises on "Geometric Loci, or Spherical
+  Tangencies," and on the "Rectification of Curves," besides a
+  restoration of "Apollonius's Plane Loci," together with the author's
+  correspondence addressed to Descartes, Pascal, Roberval, Huygens and
+  others. The _Oeuvres_ of Fermat have been re-edited by P. Tannery and
+  C. Henry (Paris, 1891-1894).
+
+  See Paul Tannery, "Sur la date des principales découvertes de Fermat,"
+  in the _Bulletin Darboux_ (1883); and "Les Manuscrits de Fermat," in
+  the _Annales de la faculté des lettres de Bordeaux_.
+
+
+
+
+FERMENTATION. The process of fermentation in the preparation of wine,
+vinegar, beer and bread was known and practised in prehistoric times.
+The alchemists used the terms fermentation, digestion and putrefaction
+indiscriminately; any reaction in which chemical energy was displayed in
+some form or other--such, for instance, as the effervescence occasioned
+by the addition of an acid to an alkaline solution--was described as a
+fermentation (Lat. _fervere_, to boil); and the idea of the
+"Philosopher's Stone" setting up a fermentation in the common metals and
+developing the essence or germ, which should transmute them into silver
+or gold, further complicated the conception of fermentation. As an
+outcome of this alchemical doctrine the process of fermentation was
+supposed to have a purifying and elevating effect on the bodies which
+had been submitted to its influence. Basil Valentine wrote that when
+yeast was added to wort "an internal inflammation is communicated to the
+liquid, so that it raises in itself, and thus the segregation and
+separation of the feculent from the clear takes place." Johann Becher,
+in 1669, first found that alcohol was formed during the fermentation of
+solutions of sugar; he distinguished also between fermentation and
+putrefaction. In 1697 Georg Stahl admitted that fermentation and
+putrefaction were analogous processes, but that the former was a
+particular case of the latter.
+
+The beginning of definite knowledge on the phenomenon of fermentation
+may be dated from the time of Antony Leeuwenhoek, who in 1680 designed a
+microscope sufficiently powerful to render yeast cells and bacteria
+visible; and a description of these organisms, accompanied by diagrams,
+was sent to the Royal Society of London. This investigator just missed a
+great discovery, for he did not consider the spherical forms to be
+living organisms but compared them with starch granules. It was not
+until 1803 that L.J. Thénard stated that yeast was the cause of
+fermentation, and held it to be of an animal nature, since it contained
+nitrogen and yielded ammonia on distillation, nor was it conclusively
+proved that the yeast cell was the originator of fermentation until the
+researches of C. Cagniard de la Tour, T. Schwann and F. Kützing from
+1836 to 1839 settled the point. These investigators regarded yeast as a
+plant, and Meyer gave to the germs the systematic name of
+"Saccharomyces" (sugar fungus). In 1839-1840 J. von Liebig attacked the
+doctrine that fermentation was caused by micro-organisms, and enunciated
+his theory of mechanical decomposition. He held that every fermentation
+consisted of molecular motion which is transmitted from a substance in a
+state of chemical motion--that is, of decomposition--to other
+substances, the elements of which are loosely held together. It is clear
+from Liebig's publications that he first regarded yeast as a lifeless,
+albuminoid mass; but, although later he considered they were living
+cells, he would never admit that fermentation was a physiological
+process, the chemical aspect being paramount in the mind of this
+distinguished investigator.
+
+In 1857 Pasteur decisively proved that fermentation was a physiological
+process, for he showed that the yeast which produced fermentation was no
+dead mass, as assumed by Liebig, but consisted of living organisms
+capable of growth and multiplication. His own words are: "The chemical
+action of fermentation is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a
+vital act, beginning and ending with it. I think that there is never any
+alcoholic fermentation without there being at the same time
+organization, development and multiplication of globules, or the
+continued consecutive life of globules already formed." Fermentation,
+according to Pasteur, was caused by the growth and multiplication of
+unicellular organisms out of contact with free oxygen, under which
+circumstance they acquire the power of taking oxygen from chemical
+compounds in the medium in which they are growing. In other words
+"fermentation is life without air, or life without oxygen." This theory
+of fermentation was materially modified in 1892 and 1894 by A.J. Brown,
+who described experiments which were in disagreement with Pasteur's
+dictum. A.J. Brown writes: "If for the theory 'life without air' is
+substituted the consideration that yeast cells can use oxygen in the
+manner of ordinary aërobic fungi, and probably do require it for the
+full completion of their life-history, but that the exhibition of their
+fermentative functions is independent of their environment with regard
+to free oxygen, it will be found that there is nothing contradictory in
+Pasteur's experiments to such a hypothesis."
+
+Liebig and Pasteur were in agreement on the point that fermentation is
+intimately connected with the presence of yeast in the fermenting
+liquid, but their explanations concerning the mechanism of fermentation
+were quite opposed. According to M. Traube (1858), the active cause of
+fermentation is due to the action of different enzymes contained in
+yeast and not to the yeast cell itself. As will be seen later this
+theory was confirmed by subsequent researches of E. Fischer and E.
+Buchner.
+
+In 1879 C. Nägeli formulated his well-known molecular-physical theory,
+which supported Liebig's chemical theory on the one hand and Pasteur's
+physiological hypothesis on the other: "Fermentation is the
+transference of the condition of motion of the molecules, atomic groups
+and atoms of the various compounds constituting the living plasma, to
+the fermenting material, in consequence of which equilibrium in the
+molecules of the latter is destroyed, the result being their
+disintegration." He agreed with Pasteur that the presence of living
+cells is essential to the transformation of sugar into alcohol, but
+dissented from the view that the process occurs within the cell. This
+investigator held that the decomposition of the sugar molecules takes
+place outside the cell wall. In 1894 and 1895, Fischer, in a remarkable
+series of papers on the influence of molecular structure upon the action
+of the enzyme, showed that various species of yeast behave very
+differently towards solutions of sugars. For example, some species
+hydrolyse cane sugar and maltose, and then carry on fermentation at the
+expense of the simple sugars (hexoses) so formed. _Saccharomyces
+Marxianus_ will not hydrolyse maltose, but it does attack cane sugar and
+ferment the products of hydrolysis. Fischer next suggested that enzymes
+can only hydrolyse those sugars which possess a molecular structure in
+harmony with their own, or to use his ingenious analogy, "the one may be
+said to fit into the other as a key fits into a lock." The preference
+exhibited by yeast cells for sugar molecules is shared by mould fungi
+and soluble enzymes in their fermentative actions. Thus, Pasteur showed
+that _Penicillium glaucum_, when grown in an aqueous solution of
+ammonium racemate, decomposed the dextro-tartrate, leaving the
+laevo-tartrate, and the solution which was originally inactive to
+polarized light became dextro-rotatory. Fischer found that the enzyme
+"invertase," which is present in yeast, attacks methyl-_d_-glucoside but
+not methyl-_l_-glucoside.
+
+In 1897 Buchner submitted yeast to great pressure, and isolated a
+nitrogenous substance, enzymic in character, which he termed "zymase."
+This body is being continually formed in the yeast cell, and decomposes
+the sugar which has diffused into the cell. The freshly-expressed yeast
+juice causes concentrated solutions of cane sugar, glucose, laevulose
+and maltose to ferment with the production of alcohol and carbon
+dioxide, but not milk-sugar and mannose. In this respect the plasma
+behaves in a similar manner towards the sugars as does the living yeast
+cell. Pasteur found that, when cane sugar was fermented by yeast, 49.4%
+of carbonic acid and 51.1% of alcohol were produced; with expressed
+yeast juice cane sugar yields 47% of carbonic acid and 47.7% of alcohol.
+According to Buchner the fermentative activity of yeast-cell juice is
+not due to the presence of living yeast cells, or to the action of
+living yeast protoplasm, but it is caused by a soluble enzyme. A.
+Macfadyen, G.H. Morris and S. Rowland, in repeating Buchner's
+experiments, found that zymase possessed properties differing from all
+other enzymes, thus: dilution with twice its volume of water practically
+destroys the fermentative power of the yeast juice. These investigators
+considered that differences of this nature cannot be explained by the
+theory that it is a soluble enzyme, which brings about the alcoholic
+fermentation of sugar. The remarkable discoveries of Fischer and Buchner
+to a great extent confirm Traube's views, and reconcile Liebig's and
+Pasteur's theories. Although the action of zymase may be regarded as
+mechanical, the enzyme cannot be produced by any other than living
+protoplasm.
+
+Pasteur's important researches mark an epoch in the technical aspect of
+fermentation. His investigations on vinegar-making revolutionized that
+industry, and he showed how, instead of waiting two or three months for
+the elaboration of the process, the vinegar could be made in eight or
+ten days by exposing the vats containing the mixture of wine and vinegar
+to a temperature of 20° to 25° C., and sowing with a small quantity of
+the acetic organism. To the study of the life-history of the butyric and
+acetic organisms we owe the terms "anaërobic" and "aërobic." His
+researches from 1860 and onwards on the then vexed question of
+spontaneous generation proved that, in all cases where spontaneous
+generation appeared to have taken place, some defect or other was in the
+experiment. Although the direct object of Pasteur was to prove a
+negative, yet it was on these experiments that sterilization as known
+to us was developed. It is only necessary to bear in mind the great part
+played by sterilization in the laboratory, and pasteurization on the
+fermentation industries and in the preservation of food materials.
+Pasteur first formulated the idea that bacteria are responsible for the
+diseases of fermented liquids; the corollary of this was a demand for
+pure yeast. He recommended that yeast should be purified by cultivating
+it in a solution of sugar containing tartaric acid, or, in wort
+containing a small quantity of phenol. It was not recognized that many
+of the diseases of fermented liquids are occasioned by foreign yeasts;
+moreover, this process, as was shown later by Hansen, favours the
+development of foreign yeasts at the expense of the good yeast.
+
+About this time Hansen, who had long been engaged in researches on the
+biology of the fungi of fermentation, demonstrated that yeast free from
+bacteria could nevertheless occasion diseases in beer. This discovery
+was of great importance to the zymo-technical industries, for it showed
+that bacteria are not the only undesirable organisms which may occur in
+yeast. Hansen set himself the task of studying the properties of the
+varieties of yeast, and to do this he had to cultivate each variety in a
+pure state. Having found that some of the commonest diseases of beer,
+such as yeast turbidity and the objectionable changes in flavour, were
+caused not by bacteria but by certain species of yeast, and, further,
+that different species of good brewery yeast would produce beers of
+different character, Hansen argued that the pitching yeast should
+consist only of a single species--namely, that best suited to the
+brewery in question. These views met with considerable opposition, but
+in 1890 Professor E. Duclaux stated that the yeast question as regards
+low fermentation has been solved by Hansen's investigations. He
+emphasized the opinion that yeast derived from one cell was of no good
+for top fermentation, and advocated Pasteur's method of purification.
+But in the course of time, notwithstanding many criticisms and
+objections, the reform spread from bottom fermentation to top
+fermentation breweries on the continent and in America. In the United
+Kingdom the employment of brewery yeasts selected from a single cell has
+not come into general use; it may probably be accounted for in a great
+measure by conservatism and the wrong application of Hansen's theories.
+
+_Pure Cultivation of Yeasts._--The methods which were first adopted by
+Hansen for obtaining pure cultures of yeast were similar in principle to
+one devised by J. Lister for isolating a pure culture of lactic acid
+bacterium. Lister determined the number of bacteria present in a drop of
+the liquid under examination by counting, and then diluted this with a
+sufficient quantity of sterilized water so that each drop of the mixture
+should contain, on an average, less than one bacterium. A number of
+flasks containing a nutrient medium were each inoculated with one drop
+of this mixture; it was found that some remained sterile, and Lister
+assumed that the remaining flasks each contained a pure culture. This
+method did not give very certain results, for it could not be guaranteed
+that the growth in the inoculated flask was necessarily derived from a
+single bacterium. Hansen counted the number of yeast cells suspended in
+a drop of liquid diluted with sterilized water. A volume of the diluted
+yeast was introduced into flasks containing sterilized wort, the degree
+of dilution being such that only a small proportion of the flasks became
+infected. The flasks were then well shaken, and the yeast cell or cells
+settled to the bottom, and gave rise to a separate yeast speck. Only
+those cultures which contained a single yeast speck were assumed to be
+pure cultivations. By this method several races of _Saccharomycetes_ and
+brewery yeasts were isolated and described.
+
+The next important advance was the substitution of solid for liquid
+media; due originally to Schroter. R. Koch subsequently improved the
+method. He introduced bacteria into liquid sterile nutrient gelatin.
+After being well shaken, the liquid was poured into a sterile glass
+Petrie dish and covered with a moist and sterile bell-jar. It was
+assumed that each separate speck contained a pure culture. Hansen
+pointed out that this was by no means the case, for it is more
+difficult to separate the cells from each other in the gelatin than in
+the liquid. To obtain an absolutely pure culture with certainty it is
+necessary, even when the gelatin method is employed, to start from a
+single cell. To effect this some of the nutrient gelatin containing
+yeast cells is placed on the under-surface of the cover-glass of the
+moist chamber. Those cells are accurately marked, the position of which
+is such that the colonies, to which they give rise, can grow to their
+full size without coming into contact with other colonies. The growth of
+the marked cells is kept under observation for three or four days, by
+which time the colonies will be large enough to be taken out of the
+chamber and placed in flasks. The contents of the flasks can then be
+introduced into larger flasks, and finally into an apparatus suitable
+for making enough yeast for technical purposes. Such, in brief, are the
+methods devised by that brilliant investigator Hansen; and these methods
+have not only been the basis on which our modern knowledge of the
+_Saccharomycetes_ is founded, but are the only means of attack which the
+present-day observer has at his disposal.
+
+From the foregoing it will be seen that the term fermentation has now a
+much wider significance than when it was applied to such changes as the
+decomposition of must or wort with the production of carbon dioxide and
+alcohol. Fermentation now includes all changes in organic compounds
+brought about by ferments elaborated in the living animal or vegetable
+cell. There are two distinct types of fermentation: (1) those brought
+about by living organisms (organized ferments), and (2) those brought
+about by non-living or unorganized ferments (enzymes). The first class
+include such changes as the alcoholic fermentation of sugar solutions,
+the acetic acid fermentation of alcohol, the lactic acid fermentation of
+milk sugar, and the putrefaction of animal and vegetable nitrogenous
+matter. The second class include all changes brought about by the agency
+of enzymes, such as the action of diastase on starch, invertase on cane
+sugar, glucase on maltose, &c. The actions are essentially hydrolytic.
+
+_Biological Aspect of Yeast._--The Saccharomycetes belong to that
+division of the Thallophyta called the Hyphomycetes or Fungi (q.v.). Two
+great divisions are recognized in the Fungi: (i.) the _Phycomycetes_ or
+Algal Fungi, which retain a definitely sexual method of reproduction as
+well as asexual (vegetative) methods, and (ii.) the _Mycomycetes_,
+characterized by extremely reduced or very doubtful sexual reproduction.
+The Mycomycetes may be divided as follows: (A) forms bearing both
+sporangia and conidia (see FUNGI), (B) forms bearing conidia only, e.g.
+the common mushroom. Division A comprises (a) the true _Ascomycetes_, of
+which the moulds Eurotium and Penicillium are examples, and (b) the
+_Hemiasci_, which includes the yeasts. The gradual disappearance of the
+sexual method of reproduction, as we pass upwards in the fungi from the
+points of their departure from the Algae, is an important fact, the last
+traces of sexuality apparently disappearing in the ascomycetes.
+
+With certain rare exceptions the Saccharomycetes have three methods of
+asexual reproduction:--
+
+1. The most common.--The formation of _buds_ which separate to form new
+cells. A portion of the nucleus of the parent cell makes its way through
+the extremely narrow neck into the daughter cell. This method obtains
+when yeast is vigorously fermenting a saccharine solution.
+
+2. A division by _fission_ followed by Endogenous spore formation,
+characteristic of the Schizosaccharomycetes. Some species show
+fermentative power.
+
+3. _Endospore_ formation, the conditions for which are as follows: (1)
+suitable temperature, (2) presence of air, (3) presence of moisture, (4)
+young and vigorous cells, (5) a food supply in the case of one species
+at least is necessary, and is in no case prejudicial. In some cases a
+sexual act would appear to precede spore formation. In most cases four
+spores are formed within the cell by free formation. These may readily
+be seen after appropriate staining.
+
+In some of the true Ascomycetes, such as _Penicillium glaucum_, the
+conidia if grown in saccharine solutions, which they have the power of
+fermenting, develop single cell yeast-like forms, and do not--at any
+rate for a time--produce again the characteristic branching mycelium.
+This is known as the _Torula_ condition. It is supposed by some that
+Saccharomyces is a very degraded Ascomycete, in which the Torula
+condition has become fixed.
+
+The yeast plant and its allies are saprophytes and form no chlorophyll.
+Their extreme reduction in form and loss of sexuality may be correlated
+with the saprophytic habit, the proteids and other organic material
+required for the growth and reproduction being appropriated ready
+synthesized, the plant having entirely lost the power of forming them
+for itself, as evidenced by the absence of chlorophyll. The beer yeast
+_S. cerevisiae_, is never found wild, but the wine yeasts occur
+abundantly in the soil of vineyards, and so are always present on the
+fruit, ready to ferment the expressed juice.
+
+_Chemical Aspect of Alcoholic Fermentation._--Lavoisier was the first
+investigator to study fermentation from a quantitative standpoint. He
+determined the percentages of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the sugar
+and in the products of fermentation, and concluded that sugar in
+fermenting breaks up into alcohol, carbonic acid and acetic acid. The
+elementary composition of sugar and alcohol was fixed in 1815 by
+analyses made by Gay-Lussac, Thénard and de Saussure. The
+first-mentioned chemist proposed the following formula to represent the
+change which takes place when sugar is fermented:--
+
+  C6H12O6    =      2CO2     +    2C2H6O.
+   Sugar.      Carbon dioxide.    Alcohol.
+
+This formula substantially holds good to the present day, although a
+number of definite bodies other than carbon dioxide and alcohol occur in
+small and varying quantities, according to the conditions of the
+fermentation and the medium fermented. Prominent among these are
+glycerin and succinic acid. In this connexion Pasteur showed that 100
+parts of cane sugar on inversion gave 105.4 parts of invert sugar,
+which, when fermented, yielded 51.1 parts alcohol, 49.4 carbonic acid,
+0.7 succinic acid, 3.2 glycerin and 1.0 unestimated. A. Béchamp and E.
+Duclaux found that acetic acid is formed in small quantities during
+fermentation; aldehyde has also been detected. The higher alcohols such
+as propyl, isobutyl, amyl, capryl, oenanthyl and caproyl, have been
+identified; and the amount of these vary according to the different
+conditions of the fermentation. A number of esters are also produced.
+The characteristic flavour and odour of wines and spirits is dependent
+on the proportion of higher alcohols, aldehydes and esters which may be
+produced.
+
+Certain yeasts exercise a reducing action, forming sulphuretted
+hydrogen, when sulphur is present. The "stinking fermentations"
+occasionally experienced in breweries probably arise from this, the free
+sulphur being derived from the hops. Other yeasts are stated to form
+sulphurous acid in must and wort. Another fact of considerable technical
+importance is, that the various races of yeast show considerable
+differences in the amount and proportion of fermentation products other
+than ethyl alcohol and carbonic acid which they produce. From these
+remarks it will be clear that to employ the most suitable kind of yeast
+for a given alcoholic fermentation is of fundamental importance in
+certain industries. It is beyond the scope of the present article to
+attempt to describe the different forms of budding fungi
+(Saccharomyces), mould fungi and bacteria which are capable of
+fermenting sugar solutions. Thus, six species isolated by Hansen,
+_Saccharomyces cerevisiae_, _S. Pasteurianus_ I.,[1] II., III., and _S.
+ellipsoideus_, contained invertase and maltase, and can invert and
+subsequently ferment cane sugar and maltose. _S. exiguus_ and _S.
+Ludwigii_ contain only invertase and not maltase, and therefore ferment
+cane sugar but not maltose. _S. apiculatus_ (a common wine yeast)
+contains neither of these enzymes, and only ferments solutions of
+glucose or laevulose.
+
+Previously to Hansen's work the only way of differentiating yeasts was
+by studying morphological differences with the aid of the microscope.
+Max Reess distinguished the species according to the appearance of the
+cells thus, the ellipsoidal cells were designated _Saccharomyces
+ellipsoideus_, the sausage-shaped _Saccharomyces Pasteurianus_, and so
+on. It was found by Hansen that the same species of yeast can assume
+different shapes; and it therefore became necessary to determine how the
+different varieties of yeast could be distinguished with certainty. The
+formation of spores in yeast (first discovered by T. Schwann in 1839)
+was studied by Hansen, who found that each species only developed spores
+between certain definite temperatures. The time taken for spore
+formation varies greatly; thus, at 52° F., _S. cerevisiae_ takes 10, _S.
+Pasteurianus_ I. and II. about 4, _S. Pasteurianus_ III. about 7, and
+_S. ellipsoideus_ about 4½ days. The formation of spores is used as an
+analytical method for determining whether a yeast is contaminated with
+another species,--for example: a sample of yeast is placed on a gypsum
+or porcelain block saturated with water; if in ten days at a temperature
+of 52° F. no spores make their appearance, the yeast in question may be
+regarded as _S. cerevisiae_, and not associated with _S. Pasteurianus_
+or _S. ellipsoideus_.
+
+The formation of films on fermented liquids is a well-known phenomenon
+and common to all micro-organisms. A free still surface with a direct
+access of air are the necessary conditions. Hansen showed that the
+microscopic appearance of film cells of the same species of
+Saccharomycetes varies according to the temperature of growth; the
+limiting temperatures of film formation, as well as the time of its
+appearance for the different species, also vary.
+
+In the zymo-technical industries the various species of yeast exhibit
+different actions during fermentations. A well-known instance of this is
+the "top" and "bottom" brewery fermentations (see BREWING). In a top
+fermentation--typical of English breweries--the yeast rises, in a bottom
+fermentation, as the phrase implies, it settles in the vessel. Sometimes
+a bottom yeast may for a time exhibit signs of a top fermentation. It
+has not, however, been possible to transform a typical top yeast into a
+permanent typical bottom yeast. There appear to be no true distinctive
+characteristics for these two types. Their selection for a particular
+purpose depends upon some special quality which they possess; thus for
+brewing certain essentials are demanded as regards stability,
+clarification, taste and smell; whereas, in distilleries, the production
+of alcohol and a high multiplying power in the yeast are required.
+Culture yeasts have also been successfully employed in the manufacture
+of wine and cider. By the judicious selection of a type of yeast it is
+possible to improve the bouquet, and from an inferior must obtain a
+better wine or cider than would otherwise be produced.
+
+Certain acid fermentations are of common occurrence. The _Bacterium
+acidi lacti_ described by Pasteur decomposes milk sugar into lactic
+acid. _Bacillus amylobacter_ usually accompanies the lactic acid
+organism, and decomposes lactic and other higher acids with formation of
+butyric acid. Moulds have been isolated which occasion the formation of
+citric acid from glucose. The production of acetic acid from alcohol has
+received much attention at the hands of investigators, and it has an
+important technical aspect in the manufacture of vinegar. The phenomenon
+of nitrification (see BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE and MANURE), i.e. the
+formation of nitrites and nitrates from ammonia and its compounds in the
+soil, was formerly held to be a purely chemical process, until
+Schloesing and Müntz suggested in 1877 that it was biological. It is now
+known that the action takes place in two stages; the ammonium salt is
+first oxidized to the nitrite stage and subsequently to the nitrate.
+     (J. L. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Hansen found there were three species of spore-bearing
+    Saccharomycetes and that these could be subdivided into varieties.
+    Thus, _S. cerevisiae_ I., _S. cerevisiae_ II., _S. Pasteurianus_ I.,
+    &c.
+
+
+
+
+FERMO (anc. _Firmum Picenum_), a town and archiepiscopal see of the
+Marches, Italy, in the province of Ascoli Piceno, on a hill with a fine
+view, 1046 ft. above sea-level, on a branch from Porto S. Giorgio on the
+Adriatic coast railway. Pop. (1901) town, 16,577, commune 20,542. The
+summit of the hill was occupied by the citadel until 1446. It is crowned
+by the cathedral, reconstructed in 1227 by Giorgio da Como; the fine
+façade and campanile of this period still remain, and the side portal
+is good; the beautiful rose-window over the main door dates from 1348.
+In the porch are several good tombs, including one of 1366 by Tura da
+Imola, and also the modern monument of Giuseppe Colucci, a famous writer
+on the antiquities of Picenum. The interior has been modernized. The
+building is now surrounded by a garden, with a splendid view. Against
+the side of the hill was built the Roman theatre; scanty traces of an
+amphitheatre also exist. Remains of the city wall, of rectangular blocks
+of hard limestone, may be seen just outside the Porta S. Francesco;
+whether the walling under the Casa Porti belongs to them is doubtful.
+The medieval battlemented walls superposed on it are picturesque. The
+church of S. Francesco has a good tower and choir in brickwork of 1240,
+the rest having been restored in the 17th century. Under the Dominican
+monastery is a very large Roman reservoir in two storeys, belonging to
+the imperial period, divided into many chambers, at least 24 on each
+level, each 30 by 20 ft., for filtration (see G. de Minicis in _Annali
+dell' Istituto_, 1846, p. 46; 1858, p. 125). The piazza contains the
+Palazzo Comunale, restored in 1446, with a statue of Pope Sixtus V. in
+front of it. The Biblioteca Comunale contains a collection of
+inscriptions and antiquities. Porto S. Giorgio has a fine castle of
+1269, blocking the valley which leads to Fermo.
+
+The ancient Firmum Picenum was founded as a Latin colony in 264 B.C.,
+after the conquest of the Picentes, as the local headquarters of the
+Roman power, to which it remained faithful. It was originally governed
+by five quaestors. It was made a colony with full rights after the
+battle of Philippi, the 4th legion being settled there. It lay at the
+junction of roads to Pausulae, Urbs Salvia and Asculum, being connected
+with the coast road by a short branch road from Castellum Firmanum
+(Porto S. Giorgio). In the 10th century it became the capital of the
+_Marchia Firmana_. In 1199 it became a free city, and remained
+independent until 1550, when it became subject to the papacy.
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FERMOY, a market town in the east riding of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the
+north-east parliamentary division, 21 m. by road N.E. of Cork, and 14 m.
+E. of Mallow by a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 6126. It is situated on the river Blackwater,
+which divides the town into two parts, the larger of which is on the
+southern bank, and there the trade of the town, which is chiefly in
+flour and agricultural produce, is mainly carried on. The town has
+several good streets and some noteworthy buildings. Of the latter, the
+most prominent are the military barracks on the north bank of the river,
+the Protestant church, the Roman Catholic cathedral and St Colman's
+Roman Catholic college. Fermoy rose to importance only at the beginning
+of the 19th century, owing entirely to the devotion of John Anderson, a
+citizen, on becoming landlord. The town is a centre for salmon and trout
+fishing on the Blackwater and its tributary the Funshion. The
+neighbouring scenery is attractive, especially in the Glen of Araglin,
+once famed for its ironworks.
+
+
+
+
+FERN (from O. Eng. _fearn_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf.
+Dutch _varen_, and Ger. _Farn_; the Indo-European root, seen in the
+Sanskrit _parna_, a feather, shows the primary meaning; cf. Gr. [Greek:
+pteron], feather, [Greek: pteris], fern), a name often used to denote
+the whole botanical class of Pteridophytes, including both the true
+ferns, Filicales, by far the largest group of this class in the existing
+flora, and the fern-like plants, Equisetales, Sphenophyllales,
+Lycopodiales (see PTERIDOPHYTA).
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, ALVARO, one of the leading Portuguese explorers of the
+earlier 15th century, the age of Henry the Navigator. He was brought up
+(as a page or esquire) in the household of Prince Henry, and while still
+"young and audacious" took an important part in the discovery of
+"Guinea." He was a nephew of João Gonçalvez Zarco, who had rediscovered
+the Madeira group in Henry's service (1418-1420), and had become
+part-governor of Madeira and commander of Funchal; when the great
+expedition of 1445 sailed for West Africa he was entrusted by his uncle
+with a specially fine caravel, under particular injunctions to devote
+himself to discovery, the most cherished object of his princely master,
+so constantly thwarted. Fernandez, as a pioneer, outstripped all other
+servants of the prince at this time. After visiting the mouth of the
+Senegal, rounding Cape Verde, and landing in Goree (?), he pushed on to
+the "Cape of Masts" (Cabo dos Matos, or Mastos, so called from its tall
+spindle-palms), probably between Cape Verde and the Gambia, the most
+southerly point till then attained. Next year (1446) he returned, and
+coasted on much farther, to a bay one hundred and ten leagues "south"
+(i.e. S.S.E.) of Cape Verde, perhaps in the neighbourhood of Konakry and
+the Los Islands, and but little short of Sierra Leone. This record was
+not broken till 1461, when Sierra Leone was sighted and named. A wound,
+received from a poisoned arrow in an encounter with natives, now
+compelled Fernandez to return to Portugal, where he was received with
+distinguished honour and reward by Prince Henry and the regent of the
+kingdom, Henry's brother Pedro.
+
+  See Gomes Eannes de Azurara, _Chronica de ... Guiné_, chs. lxxv.,
+  lxxxvii.; João de Barros, _Asia_, Decade I., bk. i. chs. xiii., xiv.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, DIEGO, a Spanish adventurer and historian of the 16th
+century. Born at Palencia, he was educated for the church, but about
+1545 he embarked for Peru, where he served in the royal army under
+Alonzo de Alvarado. Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, marquess of Cañeté, who
+became viceroy of Peru in 1655, bestowed on Fernandez the office of
+chronicler of Peru; and in this capacity he wrote a narrative of the
+insurrection of Francisco Hernandez Giron, of the rebellion of Gonzalo
+Pizarro, and of the administration of Pedro de la Gasca. The whole work,
+under the title _Primera y segunda parte de la Historia del Piru_, was
+published at Seville in 1571 and was dedicated to King Philip II. It is
+written in a clear and intelligible style, and with more art than is
+usual in the compositions of the time. It gives copious details, and, as
+he had access to the correspondence and official documents of the
+Spanish leaders, it is, although necessarily possessing bias, the
+fullest and most authentic record existing of the events it relates.
+
+  A notice of the work will be found in W.H. Prescott's _History of the
+  Conquest of Peru_ (new ed., London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, JOHN (_João_, _Joam_), Portuguese traveller of the 15th
+century. He was perhaps the earliest of modern explorers in the upland
+of West Africa, and a pioneer of the European slave- and gold-trade of
+Guinea. We first hear of him (before 1445) as a captive of the Barbary
+Moors in the western Mediterranean; while among these he acquired a
+knowledge of Arabic, and probably conceived the design of exploration in
+the interior of the continent whose coasts the Portuguese were now
+unveiling. In 1445 he volunteered to stay in Guinea and gather what
+information he could for Prince Henry the Navigator; with this object he
+accompanied Antam Gonçalvez to the "River of Gold" (Rio d'Ouro, Rio de
+Oro) in 23° 40' N., where he landed and went inland with some native
+shepherds. He stayed seven months in the country, which lay just within
+Moslem Africa, slightly north of Pagan Negroland (W. Sudan); he was
+taken off again by Antam Gonçalvez at a point farther down the coast,
+near the "Cape of Ransom" (Cape Mirik), in 19° 22' 14"; and his account
+of his experiences proved of great interest and value, not only as to
+the natural features, climate, fauna and flora of the south-western
+Sahara, but also as to the racial affinities, language, script,
+religion, nomad habits, and trade of its inhabitants. These
+people--though Mahommedans, maintaining a certain trade in slaves, gold,
+&c., with the Barbary coast (especially with Tunis), and classed as
+"Arabs," "Berbers," and "Tawny Moors"--did not then write or speak
+Arabic. In 1446 and 1447 John Fernandez accompanied other expeditions to
+the Rio d'Ouro and other parts of West Africa in the service of Prince
+Henry. He was personally known to Gomes Eannes de Azurara, the historian
+of this early period of Portuguese expansion; and from Azurara's
+language it is clear that Fernandez' revelation of unknown lands and
+races was fully appreciated at home.
+
+  See Azurara, _Chronica de ... Guiné_, chs. xxix., xxxii., xxxiv.,
+  xxxv., lxxvii., lxxviii., xc., xci., xciii.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, JUAN (fl. c. 1570), Spanish navigator and discoverer. While
+navigating the coasts of South America it occurred to him that the south
+winds constantly prevailing near the shore, and retarding voyages
+between Peru and Chile, might not exist farther out at sea. His idea
+proved correct, and by the help of the trade winds and some currents at
+a distance from the coast he sailed with such rapidity (thirty days)
+from Callao to Chile that he was apprehended on a charge of sorcery. His
+inquisitors, however, accepted his natural explanation of the marvel.
+During one of his voyages in 1563 (from Lima to Valdivia) Fernandez
+discovered the islands which now bear his name. He was so enchanted with
+their beauty and fertility that he solicited the concession of them from
+the Spanish government. It was granted in 1572, but a colony which he
+endeavoured to establish at the largest of them (Isla Mas-a-Tierra) soon
+broke up, leaving behind the goats, whose progeny were hunted by
+Alexander Selkirk. In 1574 Fernandez discovered St Felix and St Ambrose
+islands (in 27° S., 82° 7' W.); and in 1576, while voyaging in the
+southern ocean, he is said to have sighted not only Easter Island, but
+also a continent, which was probably Australia or New Zealand if the
+story (rejected by most critics, but with reservations as to Easter
+Island) is to be accepted.
+
+  See J.L. Arias, _Memoir recommending to the king the conversion of the
+  new discovered islands_ (in Spanish, 1609; Eng. trans., 1773); Ulloa,
+  _Relacion del Viaje_, bk. ii. ch. iv.; Alexander Dalrymple, _An
+  Historical Collection of the several Voyages and Discoveries in the
+  South Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1769-1771); Fréville, _Voyages de la Mer
+  du Sud par les Espagnols_.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, LUCAS, Spanish dramatist, was born at Salamanca about the
+middle of the 15th century. Nothing is known of his life, and he is
+represented by a single volume of plays, _Farsas y églogas al modo y
+estilo pastoril_ (1514). In his secular pieces--a _comedia_ and two
+_farsas_--he introduces few personages, employs the simplest possible
+action, and burlesques the language of the uneducated class; the secular
+and devout elements are skilfully intermingled in his two _Farsas del
+nascimiento de Nuestro Señor Jesucristo_. But the best of his dramatic
+essays is the _Auto de la Pasión_, a devout play intended to be given on
+Maundy Thursday. It is written in the manner of Encina, with less
+spontaneity, but with a sombre force to which Encina scarcely attained.
+
+  Fernandez' plays were reprinted by the Spanish Academy in 1867.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDINA, a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of Nassau
+county, Florida, U.S.A., a winter and summer resort, in the N.E. part of
+the state, 36 m. N.E. of Jacksonville, on Amelia Island (about 22 m.
+long and from ½ m. to 1½ m. wide), which is separated from the mainland
+by an arm of the sea, known as Amelia river and bay. Pop. (1900) 3245;
+(1905, state census), 4959 (2957 negroes); (1910) 3482. Fernandina is
+served by the Seaboard Air Line railway, and by steamship lines
+connecting with domestic and foreign ports; its harbour, which has the
+deepest water on the E. coast of Florida, opens on the N. to Cumberland
+Sound, which was improved by the Federal government, beginning in 1879,
+reducing freight rates at Fernandina by 25 to 40%. Under an act of 1907
+the channel of Fernandina harbour, 1300 ft. wide at the entrance and
+about 2 m. long, was dredged to a depth of 20 to 24 ft. at mean low
+water with a width of 400 to 600 ft. The "inside" water-route between
+Savannah, Georgia and Fernandina is improved by the Federal government
+(1892 sqq.) and has a 7-ft. channel. The principal places of interest
+are "Amelia Beach," more than 20 m. long and 200 ft. wide, connected
+with the city by a compact shell road nearly 2 m. long and by electric
+line; the Amelia Island lighthouse, in the N. end of the island,
+established in 1836 and rebuilt in 1880; Fort Clinch, at the entrance to
+the harbour; Cumberland Island, in Georgia, N. of Amelia Island, where
+land was granted to General Nathanael Greene after the War of American
+Independence by the state of Georgia; and Dungeness, the estate of the
+Carnegie family. Ocean City, on Amelia Beach, is a popular pleasure
+resort. The principal industries are the manufacture of lumber, cotton,
+palmetto fibres, and cigars, the canning of oysters, and the building
+and repair of railway cars. The foreign exports, chiefly lumber, railway
+ties, cotton, phosphate rock, and naval stores, were valued at
+$9,346,704 in 1907; and the imports in 1907 at $116,514.
+
+The harbour of Fernandina was known to the early explorers of Florida,
+and it was here that Dominic de Gourgues landed when he made his
+expedition against the Spanish at San Mateo in 1568. An Indian mission
+was established by Spanish priests later in the same century, but it was
+not successful. When Georgia was founded, General James Oglethorpe
+placed a military guard on Amelia Island to prevent sudden attack upon
+his colony by the Spanish, and the first blood shed in the petty warfare
+between Georgia and Florida was the murder of two unarmed members of the
+guard by a troop of Spanish soldiers and Indians in 1739. The first
+permanent settlement was made by the Spanish in 1808, at what is now the
+village of Old Fernandina, about 1 m. from the city. The island was a
+centre for smuggling during the period of the embargo and
+non-importation acts preceding the war of 1812. This was the pretext for
+General George Matthews (1738-1812) to gather a band of adventurers at
+St Mary's, Georgia, invade the island, and capture Fernandina in 1812.
+In the following year the American forces were withdrawn. In 1817 Gregor
+MacGregor, a filibuster who had aided the Spanish provinces of South
+America in their revolt against Spain, fitted out an expedition in
+Baltimore and seized Fernandina, but departed soon after. Later in the
+same year Louis Aury, another adventurer, appeared with a small force
+from Texas, and took possession of the place in the name of the Republic
+of Mexico. In the following year Aury was expelled by United States
+troops, who held Fernandina in trust for Spain until Florida was finally
+ceded to the United States in 1821. Fernandina was first incorporated in
+1859. In 1861 Fort Clinch was seized by the Confederates, and Fernandina
+harbour was a centre of blockade running in the first two years of the
+Civil War. In 1862 the place was captured by a Federal naval force from
+Port Royal, South Carolina, commanded by Commodore S.F. Du Pont.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDO DE NORONHA [_Fernão de N._], an island in the South Atlantic,
+125 m. from the coast of Brazil, to which country it belongs, in 3° 50'
+S., 32° 25' W. It is about 7 m. long and 1½ wide, and some other islets
+lie adjacent to it. Its surface is rugged, and it contains a number of
+rocky hills from 500 to 700 ft. high, and one peak towering to the
+height of 1089 ft. It is formed of basalt, trachyte and phonolite, and
+the soil is very fertile. The climate is healthy. It is defended by
+forts, and serves as a place of banishment for criminals from Brazil.
+The next largest island of the group is about a mile in circumference,
+and the others are small barren rocks. The population is about 2000, all
+males, including some 1400 criminals, and a garrison of 150.
+Communication is maintained by steamer with Pernambuco. The island takes
+name from its Portuguese discoverer (1503), the count of Noronha.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDO PO, or FERNANDO PÓO, a Spanish island on the west coast of
+Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, about 20 m. from the mainland, in 3° 12'
+N. and 8° 48' E. It is of volcanic origin, related to the Cameroon
+system of the adjacent mainland, is the largest island in the Gulf of
+Guinea, is 44 m. long from N.N.E. to S.S.W., about 20 m. broad, and has
+an area of about 780 sq. m. Fernando Po is noted for its beautiful
+aspect, seeming from a short distance to be a single mountain rising
+from the sea, its sides covered with luxuriant vegetation. The shores
+are steep and rocky and the coast plain narrow. This plain is succeeded
+by the slopes of the mountains which occupy the rest of the island and
+culminate in the magnificent cone of Clarence Peak or Pico de Santa
+Isabel (native name Owassa). Clarence Peak, about 10,000 ft. high,[1] is
+in the north-central part of the island. In the south Musolo Mt. attains
+a height of 7400 ft. There are numerous other peaks between 4000 and
+6000 ft. high. The mountains contain craters and crater lakes, and are
+covered, most of them to their summits, with forests. Down the narrow
+intervening valleys rush torrential streams which have cut deep beds
+through the coast plains. The trees most characteristic of the forest
+are oil palms and tree ferns, but there are many varieties, including
+ebony, mahogany and the African oak. The undergrowth is very dense; it
+includes the sugar-cane and cotton and indigo plants. The fauna includes
+antelopes, monkeys, lemurs, the civet cat, porcupine, pythons and green
+tree-snakes, crocodiles and turtles. The climate is very unhealthy in
+the lower districts, where malarial fever is common. The mean
+temperature on the coast is 78° Fahr. and varies little, but in the
+higher altitudes there is considerable daily variation. The rainfall is
+very heavy except during November-January, which is considered the dry
+season.
+
+The inhabitants number about 25,000. In addition to about 500 Europeans,
+mostly Spaniards and Cubans, they are of two classes, the Bubis or Bube
+(formerly also called Ediya), who occupy the interior, and the coast
+dwellers, a mixed Negro race, largely descended from slave ancestors
+with an admixture of Portuguese and Spanish blood, and known to the
+Bubis as "Portos"--a corruption of Portuguese. The Bubis are of Bantu
+stock and early immigrants from the mainland. Physically they are a
+finely developed race, extremely jealous of their independence and
+unwilling to take service of any kind with Europeans. They go unclothed,
+smearing their bodies with a kind of pomatum. They stick pieces of wood
+in the lobes of their ears, wear numerous armlets made of ivory, beads
+or grass, and always wear hats, generally made of palm leaves. Their
+weapons are mainly of wood; stone axes and knives were in use as late as
+1858. They have no knowledge of working iron. Their villages are built
+in the densest parts of the forest, and care is taken to conceal the
+approach to them. The Bubis are sportsmen and fishermen rather than
+agriculturists. The staple foods of the islanders generally are millet,
+rice, yams and bananas. Alcohol is distilled from the sugar-cane. The
+natives possess numbers of sheep, goats and fowls.
+
+The principal settlement is Port Clarence (pop. 1500), called by the
+Spaniards Santa Isabel, a safe and commodious harbour on the north
+coast. In its graveyard are buried Richard Lander and several other
+explorers of West Africa. Port Clarence is unhealthy, and the seat of
+government has been removed to Basile, a small town 5 m. from Port
+Clarence and over 1000 ft. above the sea. On the west coast are the bay
+and port of San Carlos, on the east coast Concepcion Bay and town. The
+chief industry until the close of the 19th century was the collection of
+palm-oil, but the Spaniards have since developed plantations of cocoa,
+coffee, sugar, tobacco, vanilla and other tropical plants. The kola nut
+is also cultivated. The cocoa plantations are of most importance. The
+amount of cocoa exported in 1905 was 1800 tons, being 370 tons above the
+average export for the preceding five years. The total value of the
+trade of the island (1900-1905) was about £250,000 a year.
+
+_History._--The island was discovered towards the close of the 15th
+century by a Portuguese navigator called Fernão do Po, who, struck by
+its beauty, named it Formosa, but it soon came to be called by the name
+of its discoverer.[2] A Portuguese colony was established in the island,
+which together with Annobon was ceded to Spain in 1778. The first
+attempts of Spain to develop the island ended disastrously, and in 1827,
+with the consent of Spain, the administration of the island was taken
+over by Great Britain, the British "superintendent" having a Spanish
+commission as governor. By the British Fernando Po was used as a naval
+station for the ships engaged in the suppression of the slave trade. The
+British headquarters were named Port Clarence and the adjacent
+promontory Cape William, in honour of the duke of Clarence (William
+IV.). In 1844 the Spaniards reclaimed the island, refusing to sell their
+rights to Great Britain. They did no more at that time, however, than
+hoist the Spanish flag, appointing a British resident, John Beecroft,
+governor. Beecroft, who was made British consul in 1849, died in 1854.
+During the British occupation a considerable number of Sierra Leonians,
+West Indians and freed slaves settled in the island, and English became
+and remains the common speech of the coast peoples. In 1858 a Spanish
+governor was sent out, and the Baptist missionaries who had laboured in
+the island since 1843 were compelled to withdraw. They settled in Ambas
+Bay on the neighbouring mainland (see CAMEROON). The Jesuits who
+succeeded the Baptists were also expelled, but mission and educational
+work is now carried on by other Roman Catholic agencies, and (since
+1870) by the Primitive Methodists. In 1879 the Spanish government
+recalled its officials, but a few years later, when the partition of
+Africa was being effected, they were replaced and a number of Cuban
+political prisoners were deported thither. Very little was done to
+develop the resources of the island until after the loss of the Spanish
+colonies in the West Indies and the Pacific, when Spain turned her
+attention to her African possessions. Stimulated by the success of the
+Portuguese cocoa plantations in the neighbouring island of St Thomas,
+the Spaniards started similar plantations, with some measure of success.
+The strategical importance and commercial possibilities of the island
+caused Germany and other powers to approach Spain with a view to its
+acquisition, and in 1900 the Spaniards gave France, in return for
+territorial concessions on the mainland, the right of pre-emption over
+the island and her other West African possessions.
+
+The administration of the island is in the hands of a governor-general,
+assisted by a council, and responsible to the ministry of foreign
+affairs at Madrid. The governor-general has under his authority the
+sub-governors of the other Spanish possessions in the Gulf of Guinea,
+namely, the Muni River Settlement, Corisco and Annobon (see those
+articles). None of these possessions is self-supporting.
+
+  See E. d'Almonte, "Someras Notas ... de la isla de Fernando Póo y de
+  la Guinea continental española," in _Bol. Real. Soc. Geog._ of Madrid
+  (1902); and a further article in the _Riv. Geog. Col._ of Madrid
+  (1908); E.L. Vilches, "Fernando Póo y la Guinea española," in the
+  _Bol. Real. Soc. Geog._ (1901); San Javier, _Tres Años en Fernando
+  Póo_ (Madrid, 1875); O. Baumann, _Eine africanische Tropeninsel:
+  Fernando Póo und die Bube_ (Vienna, 1888); Sir H.H. Johnston, _George
+  Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on Fernando Pô_ (London, 1908);
+  Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, ch. iii. (London, 1897);
+  T.J. Hutchinson, sometime British Consul at Fernando Po, _Impressions
+  of Western Africa_, chs. xii. and xiii. (London, 1858), and _Ten
+  Years' Wanderings among the Ethiopians_, chs. xvii. and xviii.
+  (London, 1861). For the Bubi language see J. Clarke, _The Adeeyah
+  Vocabulary_ (1841), and _Introduction to the Fernandian Tongue_
+  (1848). Consult also _Wanderings in West Africa_ (1863) and other
+  books written by Sir Richard Burton as the result of his consulship at
+  Fernando Po, 1861-1865, and the works cited under MUNI RIVER
+  SETTLEMENTS.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The heights given by explorers vary from 9200 to 10,800 ft.
+
+  [2] Some authorities maintain that another Portuguese seaman, Lopes
+    Gonsalves, was the discoverer of the island. The years 1469, 1471 and
+    1486 are variously given as those of the date of the discovery.
+
+
+
+
+FERNEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS (1497-1558), French physician, was born at
+Clermont in 1497, and after receiving his early education at his native
+town, entered the college of Sainte-Barbe, Paris. At first he devoted
+himself to mathematical and astronomical studies; his _Cosmotheoria_
+(1528) records a determination of a degree of the meridian, which he
+made by counting the revolutions of his carriage wheels on a journey
+between Paris and Amiens. But from 1534 he gave himself up entirely to
+medicine, in which he graduated in 1530. His extraordinary general
+erudition, and the skill and success with which he sought to revive the
+study of the old Greek physicians, gained him a great reputation, and
+ultimately the office of physician to the court. He practised with great
+success, and at his death in 1558 left behind him an immense fortune. He
+also wrote_ Monalosphaerium, sive astrolabii genus, generalis horarii
+structura et usus_ (1526); _De proportionibus_ (1528); _De evacuandi
+ratione_ (1545); _De abditis rerum causis_ (1548); and _Medicina ad
+Henricum II._ (1554).
+
+
+
+
+FERNIE, an important city in the east Kootenay district of British
+Columbia. Pop. about 4000. It is situated on the Crow's Nest branch of
+the Canadian Pacific railway, at the junction of Coal Creek with the Elk
+river, and owes its importance to the extensive coal mines in its
+vicinity. There are about 500 coke ovens in operation at Fernie, which
+supply most of the smelting plants in southern British Columbia with
+fuel.
+
+
+
+
+FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG (1763-1808), German art-critic and archaeologist,
+was born in Pomerania on the 19th of November 1763. His father was a
+servant in the household of the lord of Blumenhagen. At the age of
+twelve he became clerk to a notary, and was afterwards apprenticed to a
+druggist. While serving his time he had the misfortune accidentally to
+shoot a young man who came to visit him; and although through the
+intercession of his master he escaped prosecution, the untoward event
+weighed heavily on his mind, and led him at the close of his
+apprenticeship to quit his native place. He obtained a situation at
+Lübeck, where he had leisure to cultivate his natural taste for drawing
+and poetry. Having formed an acquaintance with the painter Carstens,
+whose influence was an important stimulus and help to him, he renounced
+his trade of druggist, and set up as a portrait-painter and
+drawing-master. At Ludwigslust he fell in love with a young girl, and
+followed her to Weimar; but failing in his suit, he went next to Jena.
+There he was introduced to Professor Reinhold, and in his house met the
+Danish poet Baggesen. The latter invited him to accompany him to
+Switzerland and Italy, a proposal which he eagerly accepted (1794) for
+the sake of the opportunity of furthering his studies in the fine arts.
+On Baggesen's return to Denmark, Fernow, assisted by some of his
+friends, visited Rome and made some stay there. He now renewed his
+intercourse with Carstens, who had settled at Rome, and applied himself
+to the study of the history and theory of the fine arts and of the
+Italian language and literature. Making rapid progress, he was soon
+qualified to give a course of lectures on archaeology, which was
+attended by the principal artists then at Rome. Having married a Roman
+lady, he returned in 1802 to Germany, and was appointed in the following
+year professor extraordinary of Italian literature at Jena. In 1804 he
+accepted the post of librarian to Amelia, duchess-dowager of Weimar,
+which gave him the leisure he desired for the purpose of turning to
+account the literary and archaeological researches in which he had
+engaged at Rome. His most valuable work, the _Römische Studien_,
+appeared in 3 vols. (1806-1808). Among his other works are--_Das Leben
+des Künstlers Carstens_ (1806), _Ariosto's Lebenslauf_ (1809), and
+_Francesco Petrarca_ (1818). Fernow died at Weimar, December 4, 1808.
+
+  A memoir of his life by Johanna Schopenhauer, mother of the
+  philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, appeared in 1810, and a complete
+  edition of his works in 1829.
+
+
+
+
+FEROZEPUR, or FIROZPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
+Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is a railway junction
+connecting the North-Western and Rajputana railways, and is situated
+about 4 m. from the present south bank of the Sutlej. Pop. (1901)
+49,341. The arsenal is the largest in India, and Ferozepur is the
+headquarters of a brigade in the 3rd division of the northern army
+corps. British rule was first established at Ferozepur in 1835, when, on
+the failure of heirs to the Sikh family who possessed it, a small
+territory 86 m. in extent became an escheat to the British government,
+and the present district has been gradually formed around this nucleus.
+The strategic importance of Ferozepur was at this time very great; and
+when, in 1839, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) Lawrence took charge of
+the station as political officer, it was the outpost of British India in
+the direction of the Sikh power. Ferozepur accordingly became the scene
+of operations during the first Sikh War. The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej in
+December 1845, and were defeated successively at Mudki, Ferozepur,
+Aliwal and Sobraon; after which they withdrew into their own territory,
+and peace was concluded at Lahore. At the time of the mutiny Ferozepur
+cantonments contained two regiments of native infantry and a regiment of
+native cavalry, together with the 61st Foot and two companies of
+European artillery. One of the native regiments, the 57th, was disarmed;
+but the other, the 45th, broke into mutiny, and, after an unsuccessful
+attempt to seize the magazine, which was held by the Europeans,
+proceeded to join the rebel forces in Delhi. Throughout the mutiny
+Ferozepur remained in the hands of the English.
+
+Ferozepur has rapidly advanced in material prosperity of late years, and
+is now a very important seat of commerce, trade being mainly in grain.
+The main streets of the city are wide and well paved, and the whole is
+enclosed by a low brick wall. Great improvements have been made in the
+surroundings of the city. The cantonment lies 2 m. to the south of the
+city, and is connected with it by a good metalled road.
+
+The DISTRICT OF FEROZEPUR comprises an area of 4302 sq. m. The surface
+is level, with the exception of a few sand-hills in the south and
+south-east. The country consists of two distinct tracts, that liable to
+annual fertilizing inundations from the Sutlej, known as the _bhet_, and
+the _rohi_ or upland tract. The only river is the Sutlej, which runs
+along the north-western boundary. The principal crops are wheat, barley,
+millet, gram, pulses, oil-seeds, cotton, tobacco, &c. The manufactures
+are of the humblest kind, consisting chiefly of cotton and wool-weaving,
+and are confined entirely to the supply of local wants. The Lahore and
+Ludhiana road runs for 51 m. through the district, and forms an
+important trade route. The North-Western, the Southern Punjab, and a
+branch of the Rajputana-Malwa railways serve the district. The other
+important towns and seats of commerce are Fazilka (pop. 8505), Dharmkot
+(6731), Moga (6725), and Muktsar (6389). Owing principally to the
+dryness of its climate, Ferozepur has the reputation of being an
+exceptionally healthy district. In September and October, however, after
+the annual rains, the people suffer a good deal from remittent fever. In
+1901 the population was 958,072. Distributaries of the Sirhind canal
+water the whole district.
+
+
+
+
+FEROZESHAH, a village in the Punjab, India, notable as the scene of one
+of the chief battles in the first Sikh War. The battle immediately
+succeeded that of Mudki, and was fought on the 21st and 22nd of December
+1845. During its course Sir Hugh Gough, the British commander, was
+overruled by the governor-general, Lord Hardinge, who was acting as his
+second in command (see SIKH WARS). At the end of the first day's
+fighting the British had occupied the Sikh position, but had not gained
+an undisputed victory. On the following morning the battle was resumed,
+and the Sikhs were reinforced by a second army under Tej Singh; but
+through cowardice or treachery Tej Singh withdrew at the critical
+moment, leaving the field to the British. In the course of the fight the
+British lost 694 killed and 1721 wounded, the vast majority being
+British troops, while the Sikhs lost 100 guns and about 5000 killed and
+wounded.
+
+
+
+
+FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS CLAUDE, COMTE (1751-1825), French statesman
+and political writer, was born in Paris on the 4th of July 1751, and
+became a member of the parlement of Paris at eighteen. He left France
+with the first party of emigrants, and attached himself to the prince of
+Condé; later he was a member of the council of regency formed by the
+comte de Provence after the death of Louis XVI. He lived at Regensburg
+until 1801, when he returned to France, though he still sought to serve
+the royalist cause. In 1814 Ferrand was made minister of state and
+postmaster-general. He countersigned the act of sequestration of
+Napoleon's property, and introduced a bill for the restoration of the
+property of the emigrants, establishing a distinction, since become
+famous, between royalists of _la ligne droite_ and those of _la ligne
+courbe_. At the second restoration Ferrand was again for a short time
+postmaster-general. He was also made a peer of France, member of the
+privy council, grand-officer and secretary of the orders of Saint Michel
+and the Saint Esprit, and in 1816 member of the Academy, He continued
+his active support of ultra-royalist views until his death, which took
+place in Paris on the 17th of January 1825.
+
+  Besides a large number of political pamphlets, Ferrand is the author
+  of _L'Esprit de l'histoire, ou Lettres d'un père à son fils sur la
+  manière d'étudier l'histoire_ (4 vols., 1802), which reached seven
+  editions, the last number in 1826 having prefixed to it a biographical
+  sketch of the author by his nephew Héricart de Thury; _Éloge
+  historique de Madame Élisabeth de France_ (1814); _Oeuvres dramatiques
+  _(1817); _Théorie des révolutions rapprochée des événements qui en ont
+  été l'origine, le développement, ou la suite_ (4 vols., 1817); and
+  _Histoire des trois démembrements de la Pologne, pour faire suite à
+  l'Histoire de l'anarchie de Pologne par Rulhière_ (3 vols., 1820).
+
+
+
+
+FERRAR, NICHOLAS (1592-1637), English theologian, was born in London in
+1592 and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, graduating in 1610. He was
+obliged for some years to travel for his health, but on returning to
+England in 1618 became actively connected with the Virginia Company.
+When this company was deprived of its patent in 1623 Ferrar turned his
+attention to politics, and was elected to parliament. But he soon
+decided to devote himself to a religious life; he purchased the manor
+of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where he organized a small
+religious community. Here, in 1626, he was ordained a deacon by Laud,
+and declining preferment, he lived an austere, almost monastic life of
+study and good works. He died on the 4th of December 1637, and the house
+was despoiled and the community broken up ten years later. There are
+extant a number of "harmonies" of the Gospel, printed and bound by the
+community, two of them by Ferrar himself. One of the latter was made for
+Charles I. on his request, after a visit in 1633 to see the "Arminian
+Nunnery at Little Gidding," which had been the subject of some
+scandalous--and undeserved--criticism.
+
+
+
+
+FERRAR, ROBERT (d. 1555), bishop of St David's and martyr, born about
+the end of the 15th century of a Yorkshire family, is said to have been
+educated at Cambridge, whence he proceeded to Oxford and became a canon
+regular of St Augustine. He came under the influence of Thomas Gerrard
+and Lutheran theology, and was compelled to bear a faggot with Anthony
+Dalaber and others in 1528. He graduated B.D. in 1533, accompanied
+Bishop Barlow on his embassy to Scotland in 1535, and was made prior of
+St Oswald's at Nostell near Pontefract. At the dissolution he
+surrendered his priory without compunction to the crown, and received a
+liberal pension. For the rest of Henry's reign his career is obscure;
+perhaps he fled abroad on the enactment of the Six Articles. He
+certainly married, and is said to have been made Cranmer's chaplain, and
+bishop of Sodor and Man; but he was never consecrated to that see.
+
+After the accession of Edward VI., Ferrar was, probably through the
+influence of Bishop Barlow, appointed chaplain to Protector Somerset, a
+royal visitor, and bishop of St David's on Barlow's translation to Bath
+and Wells in 1548. He was the first bishop appointed by letters patent
+under the act passed in 1547 without the form of capitular election; and
+the service performed at his consecration was also novel, being in
+English; he also preached at St Paul's on the 11th of November clad only
+as a priest and not as a bishop, and inveighed against vestments and
+altars. At St David's he had trouble at once with his singularly
+turbulent chapter, who, finding that he was out of favour at court since
+Somerset's fall in 1549, brought a long list of fantastic charges
+against him. He had taught his child to whistle, dined with his
+servants, talked of "worldly things such as baking, brewing, enclosing,
+ploughing and mining," preferred walking to riding, and denounced the
+debasement of the coinage. He seems to have been a kindly, homely,
+somewhat feckless person like many an excellent parish priest, who did
+not conceal his indignation at some of Northumberland's deeds. He had
+voted against the act of November 1549 for a reform of the canon law,
+and on a later occasion his nonconformity brought him into conflict with
+the Council; he was also the only bishop who satisfied Hooper's test of
+sacramental orthodoxy. The Council accordingly listened to the
+accusations of Ferrar's chapter, and in 1552 he was summoned to London
+and imprisoned on a charge of _praemunire_ incurred by omitting the
+king's authority in a commission which he issued for the visitation of
+his diocese.
+
+Imprisonment on such a charge under Northumberland might have been
+expected to lead to liberation under Mary. But Ferrar had been a monk
+and was married. Even so, it is difficult to see on what legal ground he
+was kept in the queen's bench prison after July 1553; for Mary herself
+was repudiating the royal authority in religion. Ferrar's marriage
+accounts for the loss of his bishopric in March 1554, and his opinions
+for his further punishment. As soon as the heresy laws and
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction had been re-established, Ferrar was examined
+by Gardiner, and then with signal indecency sent down to be tried by
+Morgan, his successor in the bishopric of St David's. He appealed from
+Morgan's sentence to Pole as papal legate, but in vain, and was burnt at
+Caermarthen on the 30th of March 1555. It was perhaps the most wanton of
+all Mary's acts of persecution; Ferrar had been no such protagonist of
+the Reformation as Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper and Latimer; he had had
+nothing to do with Northumberland's or Wyatt's conspiracy. He had taken
+no part in politics, and, so far as is known, had not said a word or
+raised a hand against Mary. He was burnt simply because he could not
+change his religion with the law and would not pretend that he could;
+and his execution is a complete refutation of the idea that Mary only
+persecuted heretics because and when they were traitors.
+
+  See _Dictionary of National Biography_, xviii. 380-382, and
+  authorities there cited. Also Acts of the Privy Council (1550-1554);
+  H.A.L. Fisher, _Political History of England_, vol. vi.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+FERRARA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy, capital of the
+province of Ferrara, 30 m. N.N.E. of Bologna, situated 30 ft. above
+sea-level on the Po di Vomano, a branch channel of the main stream of
+the Po, which is 3½ m. N. Pop. (1901) 32,968 (town), 86,392 (commune).
+The town has broad streets and numerous palaces, which date from the
+16th century, when it was the seat of the court of the house of Este,
+and had, it is said, 100,000 inhabitants.
+
+The most prominent building is the square castle of the house of Este,
+in the centre of the town, a brick building surrounded by a moat, with
+four towers. It was built after 1385 and partly restored in 1554; the
+pavilions on the top of the towers date from the latter year. Near it is
+the hospital of S. Anna, where Tasso was confined during his attack of
+insanity (1579-1586). The Palazzo del Municipio, rebuilt in the 18th
+century, was the earlier residence of the Este family. Close by is the
+cathedral of S. Giorgio, consecrated in 1135, when the Romanesque lower
+part of the main façade and the side façades were completed. It was
+built by Guglielmo degli Adelardi (d. 1146), who is buried in it. The
+upper part of the main façade, with arcades of pointed arches, dates
+from the 13th century, and the portal has recumbent lions and elaborate
+sculptures above. The interior was restored in the baroque style in
+1712. The campanile, in the Renaissance style, dates from 1451-1493, but
+the last storey was added at the end of the 16th century. Opposite the
+cathedral is the Gothic Palazzo della Ragione, in brick (1315-1326), now
+the law-courts. A little way off is the university, which has faculties
+of law, medicine and natural science (hardly 100 students in all); the
+library has valuable MSS., including part of that of the _Orlando
+Furioso_ and letters by Tasso. The other churches are of less interest
+than the cathedral, though S. Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Maria in Vado
+and S. Cristoforo are all good early Renaissance buildings. The numerous
+early Renaissance palaces, often with good terra-cotta decorations, form
+quite a feature of Ferrara; few towns of Italy have so many of them
+proportionately, though they are mostly comparatively small in size.
+Among them may be noted those in the N. quarter (especially the four at
+the intersection of its two main streets), which was added by Ercole
+(Hercules) I. in 1492-1505, from the plans of Biagio Rossetti, and hence
+called the "Addizione Erculea." The finest of these is the Palazzo de'
+Diamanti, so called from the diamond points into which the blocks of
+stone with which it is faced are cut. It contains the municipal picture
+gallery, with a large number of pictures of artists of the school of
+Ferrara. This did not require prominence until the latter half of the
+15th century, when its best masters were Cosimo Tura (1432-1495),
+Francesco Cossa (d. 1480) and Ercole dei Roberti (d. 1496). To this
+period are due famous frescoes in the Palazzo Schifanoia, which was
+built by the Este family; those of the lower row depict the life of
+Borso of Este, in the central row are the signs of the zodiac, and in
+the upper are allegorical representations of the months. The vestibule
+was decorated with stucco mouldings by Domenico di Paris of Padua. The
+building also contains fine choir-books with miniatures, and a
+collection of coins and Renaissance medals. The simple house of Ariosto,
+erected by himself after 1526, in which he died in 1532, lies farther
+west. The best Ferrarese masters of the 16th century of the Ferrara
+school were Lorenzo Costa (1460-1535), and Dosso Dossi (1479-1542), the
+most eminent of all, while Benvenuto Tisi (Garofalo, 1481-1559) is
+somewhat monotonous and insipid.
+
+The origin of Ferrara is uncertain, and probabilities are against the
+supposition that it occupies the site of the ancient Forum Alieni. It
+was probably a settlement formed by the inhabitants of the lagoons at
+the mouth of the Po. It appears first in a document of Aistulf of 753 or
+754 as a city forming part of the exarchate of Ravenna. After 984 we
+find it a fief of Tedaldo, count of Modena and Canossa, nephew of the
+emperor Otho I. It afterwards made itself independent, and in 1101 was
+taken by siege by the countess Matilda. At this time it was mainly
+dominated by several great families, among them the Adelardi.
+
+In 1146 Guglielmo, the last of the Adelardi, died, and his property
+passed, as the dowry of his niece Marchesella, to Azzolino d' Este.
+There was considerable hostility between the newly entered family and
+the Salinguerra, but after considerable struggles Azzo Novello was
+nominated perpetual podestà in 1242; in 1259 he took Ezzelino of Verona
+prisoner in battle. His grandson, Obizzo II. (1264-1293), succeeded him,
+and the pope nominated him captain-general and defender of the states of
+the Church; and the house of Este was from henceforth settled in
+Ferrara. Niccolò III. (1393-1441) received several popes with great
+magnificence, especially Eugene IV., who held a council here in 1438.
+His son Borso received the fiefs of Modena and Reggio from the emperor
+Frederick III. as first duke in 1452 (in which year Girolamo Savonarola
+was born here), and in 1470 was made duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II.
+Ercole I. (1471-1505) carried on a war with Venice and increased the
+magnificence of the city. His son Alphonso I. married Lucrezia Borgia,
+and continued the war with Venice with success. In 1509 he was
+excommunicated by Julius II., and attacked the pontifical army in 1512
+outside Ravenna, which he took. Gaston de Foix fell in the battle, in
+which he was supporting Alphonso. With the succeeding popes he was able
+to make peace. He was the patron of Ariosto from 1518 onwards. His son
+Ercole II. married Renata, daughter of Louis XII. of France; he too
+embellished Ferrara during his reign (1534-1559). His son Alphonso II.
+married Barbara, sister of the emperor Maximilian II. He raised the
+glory of Ferrara to its highest point, and was the patron of Tasso and
+Guarini, favouring, as the princes of his house had always done, the
+arts and sciences. He had no legitimate male heir, and in 1597 Ferrara
+was claimed as a vacant fief by Pope Clement VIII., as was also
+Comacchio. A fortress was constructed by him on the site of the castle
+of Tedaldo, at the W. angle of the town. The town remained a part of the
+states of the Church, the fortress being occupied by an Austrian
+garrison from 1832 until 1859, when it became part of the kingdom of
+Italy.
+
+A considerable area within the walls of Ferrara is unoccupied by
+buildings, especially on the north, where, the handsome Renaissance
+church of S. Cristoforo, with the cemetery, stands; but modern times
+have brought a renewal of industrial activity. Ferrara is on the main
+line from Bologna to Padua and Venice, and has branches to Ravenna and
+Poggio Rusco (for Suzzara).
+
+  See G. Agnelli, _Ferrara e Pomposa_ (Bergamo, 1902); E.G. Gardner,
+  _Dukes and Poets of Ferrara_ (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+FERRARA-FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF (1438 ff.). The council of Ferrara and
+Florence was the culmination of a series of futile medieval attempts to
+reunite the Greek and Roman churches. The emperor, John VI. Palaeologus,
+had been advised by his experienced father to avoid all serious
+negotiations, as they had invariably resulted in increased bitterness;
+but John, in view of the rapid dismemberment of his empire by the Turks,
+felt constrained to seek a union. The situation was, however,
+complicated by the strife which broke out between the pope (Eugenius
+IV.) and the oecumenical council of Basel. Both sides sent embassies to
+the emperor at Constantinople, as both saw the importance of gaining the
+recognition and support of the East, for on this practically depended
+the victory in the struggle between papacy and council for the supreme
+jurisdiction over the church (see COUNCILS). The Greeks, fearing the
+domination of the papacy, were at first more favourably inclined toward
+the conciliar party; but the astute diplomacy of the Roman
+representatives, who have been charged by certain Greek writers with the
+skilful use of money and of lies, won over the emperor. With a retinue
+of about 700 persons, entertained in Italy at the pope's expense, he
+reached Ferrara early in March 1438. Here a council had been formally
+opened in January by the papal party, a bull of the previous year having
+promptly taken advantage of the death of the Emperor Sigismund by
+ordering the removal of the council of Basel to Ferrara; and one of the
+first acts of the assemblage at Ferrara had been to excommunicate the
+remnant at Basel. A month after the coming of the Greeks, the Union
+Synod was solemnly inaugurated on the 9th of April 1438. After six
+months of negotiation, the first formal session was held on the 8th of
+October, and on the 14th the real issues were reached. The time-honoured
+question of the _filioque_ was still in the foreground when it seemed
+for several reasons advisable to transfer the council to Florence:
+Ferrara was threatened by condottieri, the pest was raging; Florence
+promised a welcome subvention, and a situation further inland would make
+it more difficult for uneasy Greek bishops to flee the synod.
+
+The first session at Florence and the seventeenth of the union council
+took place on the 26th of February 1439; there ensued long debates and
+negotiations on the _filioque_, in which Markos Eugenikos, archbishop of
+Ephesus, spoke for the irreconcilables; but the Greeks under the
+leadership of Bessarion, archbishop of Nicaea, and Isidor, metropolitan
+of Kiev, at length made a declaration on the _filioque_ (4th of June),
+to which all save Markos Eugenikos subscribed. On the next topic of
+importance, the primacy of the pope, the project of union nearly
+suffered shipwreck; but here a vague formula was finally constructed
+which, while acknowledging the pope's right to govern the church,
+attempted to safeguard as well the rights of the patriarchs. On the
+basis of the above-mentioned agreements, as well as of minor discussions
+as to purgatory and the Eucharist, the decree of union was drawn up in
+Latin and in Greek, and signed on the 5th of July by the pope and the
+Greek emperor, and all the members of the synod save Eugenikos and one
+Greek bishop who had fled; and on the following day it was solemnly
+published in the cathedral of Florence. The decree explains the
+_filioque_ in a manner acceptable to the Greeks, but does not require
+them to insert the term in their symbol; it demands that celebrants
+follow the custom of their own church as to the employment of leavened
+or unleavened bread in the Eucharist. It states essentially the Roman
+doctrine of purgatory, and asserts the world-wide primacy of the pope as
+the "true vicar of Christ and the head of the whole Church, the Father
+and teacher of all Christians"; but, to satisfy the Greeks,
+inconsistently adds that all the rights and privileges of the Oriental
+patriarchs are to be maintained unimpaired. After the consummation of
+the union the Greeks remained in Florence for several weeks, discussing
+matters such as the liturgy, the administration of the sacraments, and
+divorce; and they sailed from Venice to Constantinople in October.
+
+The council, however, desirous of negotiating unions with the minor
+churches of the East, remained in session for several years, and seems
+never to have reached a formal adjournment. The decree for the Armenians
+was published on the 22nd of November 1439; they accepted the _filioque_
+and the Athanasian creed, rejected Monophysitism and Monothelitism,
+agreed to the developed scholastic doctrine concerning the seven
+sacraments, and conformed their calendar to the Western in certain
+points. On the 26th of April 1441 the pope announced that the synod
+would be transferred to the Lateran; but before leaving Florence a union
+was negotiated with the Oriental Christians known as Jacobites, through
+a monk named Andreas, who, at least as regards Abyssinia, acted in
+excess of his powers. The _Decretum pro Jacobitis_, published on the 4th
+of February 1442, is, like that for the Armenians, of high dogmatic
+interest, as it summarizes the doctrine of the great medieval
+scholastics on the points in controversy. The decree for the Syrians,
+published at the Lateran on the 30th of September 1444, and those for
+the Chaldeans (Nestorians) and the Maronites (Monothelites), published
+at the last known session of the council on the 7th of August 1445,
+added nothing of doctrinal importance. Though the direct results of
+these unions were the restoration of prestige to the absolutist papacy
+and the bringing of Byzantine men of letters, like Bessarion, to the
+West, the outcome was on the whole disappointing. Of the complicated
+history of the "United" churches of the East it suffices to say that
+Rome succeeded in securing but fragments, though important fragments, of
+the greater organizations. As for the Greeks, the union met with much
+opposition, particularly from the monks, and was rejected by three
+Oriental patriarchs at a synod of Jerusalem in 1443; and after various
+ineffective attempts to enforce it, the fall of Constantinople in 1453
+put an end to the endeavour. As Turkish interests demanded the isolation
+of the Oriental Christians from their western brethren, and as the
+orthodox Greek nationalists feared Latinization more than Mahommedan
+rule, a patriarch hostile to the union was chosen, and a synod of
+Constantinople in 1472 formally rejected the decisions of Florence.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Hardouin, vol. 9; Mansi, vols. 31 A, 31 B, 35; Sylvester
+  Sguropulus (properly Syropulus), _Vera historia Unionis_, transl. R.
+  Creyghton (Hague, 1660); Cecconi, _Studi storici sul concilio di
+  Firenze_ (Florence, 1869), (appendix); J. Zhishman, _Die
+  Unionsverhandlungen ... bis zum Concil von Ferrara_ (Vienna, 1858);
+  Gorski, of Moscow, 1847, _The History of the Council of Florence_,
+  trans. from the Russian by Basil Popoff, ed. by J.M. Neale (London,
+  1861); C.J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 7 (Freiburg i. B.,
+  1874), 659-761, 793 ff., 814 ff.; H. Vast, _Le Cardinal Bessarion_
+  (Paris, 1878), 53-113; A. Warschauer, _Über die Quellen zur Geschichte
+  des Florentiner Concils_ (Breslau, 1881), (Dissertation); M.
+  Creighton, _A History of the Papacy during the Period of the
+  Reformation_, vol. 2 (London, 1882), 173-194 (vivid); Knöpfler, in
+  Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. 4 (2nd ed., Freiburg i. B.,
+  1885), 1363-1380 (instructive); L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_,
+  vol. 1 (London, 1891), 315 ff.; F. Kattenbusch, _Lehrbuch der
+  vergleichenden Confessionskunde_, vol. 1 (Freiburg i. B., 1892), 128
+  ff.; N. Kalogeras, archbishop of Patras, "Die Verhandlungen zwischen
+  der orthodox-katholischen Kirche und dem Konzil von Basel über die
+  Wiedervereinigung der Kirchen" (_Internationale Theologische
+  Zeitschrift_), vol. 1 (Bern, 1893, 39-57); P. Tschackert, in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, vol. 6 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1899),
+  45-48 (good bibliography); Walter Norden, _Das Papsttum und Byzanz:
+  Die Trennung der beiden Mächte und das Problem ihrer Wiedervereinigung
+  bis 1453_ (Berlin, 1903), 712 ff.     (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+FERRARI, GAUDENZIO (1484-1549), Italian painter and sculptor, of the
+Milanese, or more strictly the Piedmontese, school, was born at
+Valduggia, Piedmont, and is said (very dubiously) to have learned the
+elements of painting at Vercelli from Girolamo Giovenone. He next
+studied in Milan, in the school of Scotto, and some say of Luini;
+towards 1504 he proceeded to Florence, and afterwards (it used to be
+alleged) to Rome. His pictorial style may be considered as derived
+mainly from the old Milanese school, with a considerable tinge of the
+influence of Da Vinci, and later on of Raphael; in his personal manner
+there was something of the demonstrative and fantastic. The gentler
+qualities diminished, and the stronger intensified, as he progressed. By
+1524 he was at Varallo in Piedmont, and here, in the chapel of the Sacro
+Monte, the sanctuary of the Piedmontese pilgrims, he executed his most
+memorable work. This is a fresco of the Crucifixion, with a multitude of
+figures, no less than twenty-six of them being modelled in actual
+relief, and coloured; on the vaulted ceiling are eighteen lamenting
+angels, powerful in expression. Other leading examples are the
+following. In the Royal Gallery, Turin, a "Pietà," an able early work.
+In the Brera Gallery, Milan, "St Katharine miraculously preserved from
+the Torture of the Wheel," a very characteristic example, hard and
+forcible in colour, thronged in composition, turbulent in emotion; also
+several frescoes, chiefly from the church of Santa Maria della Pace,
+three of them being from the history of Joachim and Anna. In the
+cathedral of Vercelli, the choir, the "Virgin with Angels and Saints
+under an Orange Tree." In the refectory of San Paolo, the "Last Supper."
+In the church of San Cristoforo, the transept (in 1532-1535), a series
+of paintings in which Ferrari's scholar Lanini assisted him; by Ferrari
+himself are the "Birth of the Virgin," the "Annunciation," the
+"Visitation," the "Adoration of the Shepherds and Kings," the
+"Crucifixion," the "Assumption of the Virgin," all full of life and
+decided character, though somewhat mannered. In the Louvre, "St Paul
+Meditating." In Varallo, convent of the Minorites (1507), a
+"Presentation in the Temple," and "Christ among the Doctors," and (after
+1510) the "History of Christ," in twenty-one subjects; also an ancona in
+six compartments, named the "Ancona di San Gaudenzio." In Santa Maria di
+Loreto, near Varallo (after 1527), an "Adoration." In the church of
+Saronno, near Milan, the cupola (1535), a "Glory of Angels," in which
+the beauty of the school of Da Vinci alternates with bravura of
+foreshortenings in the mode of Correggio. In Milan, Santa Maria delle
+Grazie (1542), the "Scourging of Christ," an "Ecce Homo" and a
+"Crucifixion." The "Scourging," or else a "Last Supper," in the Passione
+of Milan (unfinished), is regarded as Ferrari's latest work. He was a
+very prolific painter, distinguished by strong expression, animation and
+fulness of composition, and abundant invention; he was skilful in
+painting horses, and his decisive rather hard colour is marked by a
+partiality for shot tints in drapery. In general character, his work
+appertains more to the 15th than the 16th century. His subjects were
+always of the sacred order. Ferrari's death took place in Milan. Besides
+Lanini, already mentioned, Andrea Solario, Giambattista della Cerva and
+Fermo Stella were three of his principal scholars. He is represented to
+us as a good man, attached to his country and his art, jovial and
+sometimes facetious, but an enemy of scandal. The reputation which he
+enjoyed soon after his death was very great, but it has not fully stood
+the test of time. Lomazzo went so far as to place him seventh among the
+seven prime painters of Italy.
+
+  See G. Bordiga, two works concerning _Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (1821 and
+  1835); G. Colombo, _Vita ed opere di Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (1881); Ethel
+  Halsey, _Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (in the series _Great Masters_, 1904).
+
+  There was another painter nearly contemporary with Gaudenzio,
+  Difendente Ferrari, also of the Lombard school. His celebrity is by no
+  means equal to that of Gaudenzio; but _Kugler_ (1887, as edited by
+  Layard) pronounced him to be "a good and original colourist, and the
+  best artist that Piedmont has produced."     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FERRARI, GIUSEPPE (1812-1876), Italian philosopher, historian and
+politician, was born at Milan on the 7th of March 1812, and died in Rome
+on the 2nd of July 1876. He studied law at Pavia, and took the degree of
+doctor in 1831. A follower of Romagnosi (d. 1835) and Giovan Battista
+Vico (q.v.), his first works were an article in the _Biblioteca
+Italiana_ entitled "Mente di Gian Domenico Romagnosi" (1835), and a
+complete edition of the works of Vico, prefaced by an appreciation
+(1835). Finding Italy uncongenial to his ideas, he went to France and,
+in 1839, produced in Paris his _Vico et l'Italie_, followed by _La
+Nouvelle Religion de Campanella_ and _La Théorie de l'erreur_. On
+account of these works he was made Docteur-ès-lettres of the Sorbonne
+and professor of philosophy at Rochefort (1840). His views, however,
+provoked antagonism, and in 1842 he was appointed to the chair of
+philosophy at Strassburg. After fresh trouble with the clergy, he
+returned to Paris and published a defence of his theories in a work
+entitled _Idées sur la politique de Platon et d'Aristote_. After a short
+connexion with the college at Bourges, he devoted himself from 1849 to
+1858 exclusively to writing. The works of this period are _Les
+Philosophes Salariés, Machiavel juge des révolutions de notre temps_
+(1849), _La Federazione repubblicana_ (1851), _La Filosofia della
+rivoluzione_ (1851), _L' Italia dopo il colpo di Stato_ (1852),
+_Histoire des révolutions, ou Guelfes et Gibelins_ (1858; Italian
+trans., 1871-1873). In 1859 he returned to Italy, where he opposed
+Cavour, and upheld federalism against the policy of a single Italian
+monarchy. In spite of this opposition, he held chairs of philosophy at
+Turin, Milan and Rome in succession, and during several administrations
+represented the college of Gavirate in the chamber. He was a member of
+the council of education and was made senator on the 15th of May 1876.
+Amongst other works may be mentioned _Histoire de la raison d'état, La
+China et l' Europa, Corso d' istoria degli scrittori politici italiani_.
+A sceptic in philosophy and a revolutionist in politics, rejoicing in
+controversy of all kinds, he was admired as a man, as an orator, and as
+a writer.
+
+  See Marro Macchi, _Annuario istorico italiano_ (Milan, 1877);
+  Mazzoleni, _Giuseppe Ferrari_; Werner, _Die ital. Philosophie des 19.
+  Jahrh._ vol. 3 (Vienna, 1885); Überweg, _History of Philosophy_ (Eng.
+  trans. ii. 461 foll.).
+
+
+
+
+
+FERRARI, PAOLO (1822-1889), Italian dramatist, was born at Modena. After
+producing some minor pieces, in 1852 he made his reputation as a
+playwright with _Goldoni e le sue sedici commedie_. Among numerous later
+plays his comedy _Parini e la satira_ (1857) had considerable success.
+Ferrari may be regarded as a follower of Goldoni, modelling himself on
+the French theatrical methods. His collected plays were published in
+1877-1880.
+
+
+
+
+FERREIRA, ANTONIO (1528-1569), Portuguese poet, was a native of Lisbon;
+his father held the post of _escrivão de fazenda_ in the house of the
+duke of Coimbra at Setubal, so that he must there have met the great
+adventurer Mendes Pinto. In 1547-1548 he went to the university of
+Coimbra, and on the 16th of July 1551 took his bachelor's degree. The
+Sonnets forming the First Book in his collected works date from 1552 and
+contain the history of his early love for an unknown lady. They seem to
+have been written in Coimbra or during vacations in Lisbon; and if some
+are dry and stilted, others, like the admirable No. 45, are full of
+feeling and tears. The Sonnets in the Second Book were inspired by D.
+Maria Pimentel, whom he afterwards married, and they are marked by that
+chastity of sentiment, seriousness and ardent patriotism which
+characterized the man and the writer. Ferreira's ideal, as a poet, was
+to win "the applause of the good," and, in the preface to his poems, he
+says, "I am content with this glory, that I have loved my land and my
+people." He was intimate with princes, nobles and the most distinguished
+literary men of the time, such as the scholarly Diogo de Teive and the
+poets Bernardes, Caminha and Corte-Real, as well as with the aged Sá de
+Miranda, the founder of the classical school of which Ferreira became
+the foremost representative.
+
+The death in 1554 of Prince John, the heir to the throne, drew from him,
+as from Camoens, Bernardes and Caminha, a poetical lament, which
+consisted of an elegy and two eclogues, imitative of Virgil and Horace,
+and devoid of interest. On the 14th of July 1555 he took his doctor's
+degree, an event which was celebrated, according to custom, by a sort of
+Roman triumph, and he stayed on as a professor, finding Coimbra with its
+picturesque environs congenial to his poetical tastes and love of a
+country life. The year 1557 produced his sixth elegy, addressed to the
+son of the great Albuquerque, a poem of noble patriotism expressed in
+eloquent and sonorous verse, and in the next year he married. After a
+short and happy married life, his wife died, and the ninth sonnet of
+Book 2 describes her end in moving words. This loss lent Ferreira's
+verse an added austerity, and the independence of his muse is remarkable
+when he addresses King Sebastian and reminds him of his duties as well
+as his rights. On the 14th of October 1567 he became _Disembargador da
+Casa do Civel_, and had to leave the quiet of Coimbra for Lisbon. His
+verses tell how he disliked the change, and how the bustle of the
+capital, then a great commercial emporium, made him sad and almost
+tongue-tied for poetry. The intrigues and moral twists of the courtiers
+and traders, among whom he was forced to live, hurt his fine sense of
+honour, and he felt his mental isolation the more, because his friends
+were few and scattered in that great city which the discoveries and
+conquests of the Portuguese had made the centre of a world empire. In
+1569 a terrible epidemic of carbunculous fever broke out and carried off
+50,000 inhabitants of Lisbon, and, on the 29th of November, Ferreira,
+who had stayed there doing his duty when others fled, fell a victim.
+
+Horace was his favourite poet, erudition his muse, and his admiration of
+the classics made him disdain the popular poetry of the Old School
+(_Escola Velha_) represented by Gil Vicente. His national feeling would
+not allow him to write in Latin or Spanish, like most of his
+contemporaries, but his Portuguese is as Latinized as he could make it,
+and he even calls his poetical works _Poemas Lusitanos_. Sá de Miranda
+had philosophized in the familiar _redondilha_, introduced the epistle
+and founded the comedy of learning. It was the beginning of a
+revolution, which Ferreira completed by abandoning the hendecasyllable
+for the Italian decasyllable, and by composing the noble and austere
+Roman poetry of his letters, odes and elegies. It was all done of set
+purpose, for he was a reformer conscious of his mission and resolved to
+carry it out. The gross realism of the popular poetry, its lack of
+culture and its carelessness of form, offended his educated taste, and
+its picturesqueness and ingenuity made no appeal to him. It is not
+surprising, however, that though he earned the applause of men of
+letters he failed to touch the hearts of his countrymen. Ferreira wrote
+the Terentian prose comedy _Bristo_, at the age of twenty-five (1553),
+and dedicated it to Prince John in the name of the university. It is
+neither a comedy of character nor manners, but its _vis comica_ lies in
+its plot and situations. The _Cioso_, a later product, may almost be
+called a comedy of character. _Castro_ is Ferreira's most considerable
+work, and, in date, is the first tragedy in Portuguese, and the second
+in modern European literature. Though fashioned on the great models of
+the ancients, it has little plot or action, and the characters, except
+that of the prince, are ill-designed. It is really a splendid poem, with
+a chorus which sings the sad fate of Ignez in musical odes, rich in
+feeling and grandeur of expression. Her love is the chaste, timid
+affection of a wife and a vassal rather than the strong passion of a
+mistress, but Pedro is really the man history describes, the
+love-fettered prince whom the tragedy of Ignez's death converted into
+the cruel tyrant. King Alfonso is little more than a shadow, and only
+meets Ignez once, his son never; while, stranger still, Pedro and Ignez
+never come on the stage together, and their love is merely narrated.
+Nevertheless, Ferreira merits all praise for choosing one of the most
+dramatic episodes in Portuguese history for his subject, and though it
+has since been handled by poets of renown in many different languages,
+none has been able to surpass the old master.
+
+  The _Castro_ was first printed in Lisbon in 1587, and it is included
+  in Ferreira's _Poemas_, published in 1598 by his son. It has been
+  translated by Musgrave (London, 1825), and the chorus of Act I.
+  appeared again in English in the _Savoy_ for July 1896. It has also
+  been done into French and German. The _Bristo_ and _Cioso_ first
+  appeared with the comedies of Sá de Miranda in Lisbon in 1622. There
+  is a good modern edition of the Complete Works of Ferreira (2 vols.,
+  Paris, 1865). See Castilho's _Antonio Ferreira_ (3 vols., Rio, 1865),
+  which contains a full biographical and critical study with extracts.
+      (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+FERREL'S LAW, in physical geography. "If a body moves in any direction
+on the earth's surface, there is a deflecting force arising from the
+earth's rotation, which deflects it to the right in the northern
+hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere." This law applies
+to every body that is set in motion upon the surface of the rotating
+earth, but usually the duration of the motion of any body due to a
+single impulse is so brief, and there are so many frictional
+disturbances, that it is not easy to observe the results of this
+deflecting force. The movements of the atmosphere, however, are upon a
+scale large enough to make this observation easy, and the simplest
+evidence is obtained from a study of the direction of the air movements
+in the great wind systems of the globe. (See METEOROLOGY.)
+
+
+
+
+FERRERS, the name of a great Norman-English feudal house, derived from
+Ferrières-St-Hilaire, to the south of Bernay, in Normandy. Its ancestor
+Walkelin was slain in a feud during the Conqueror's minority, leaving a
+son Henry, who took part in the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday
+survey his fief extended into fourteen counties, but the great bulk of
+it was in Derbyshire and Leicestershire, especially the former. He
+himself occurs in Worcestershire as one of the royal commissioners for
+the survey. He established his chief seat at Tutbury Castle,
+Staffordshire, on the Derbyshire border, and founded there a Cluniac
+priory. As was the usual practice with the great Norman houses, his
+eldest son succeeded to Ferrières, and, according to Stapleton, he was
+ancestor of the Oakham house of Ferrers, whose memory is preserved by
+the horseshoes hanging in the hall of their castle. Robert, a younger
+son of Henry, inherited his vast English fief, and, for his services at
+the battle of the Standard (1138), was created earl of Derby by Stephen.
+He appears to have died a year after.
+
+Both the title and the arms of the earls have been the subject of much
+discussion, and they seem to have been styled indifferently earls of
+Derby or Nottingham (both counties then forming one shrievalty) or of
+Tutbury, or simply (de) Ferrers. Robert, the 2nd earl, who founded
+Merevale Abbey, was father of William, the 3rd earl, who began the
+opposition of his house to the crown by joining in the great revolt of
+1173, when he fortified his castles of Tutbury and Duffield and
+plundered Nottingham, which was held for the king. On his subsequent
+submission his castles were razed. Dying at the siege of Acre, 1190, he
+was succeeded by his son William, who attacked Nottingham on Richard's
+behalf in 1194, but whom King John favoured and confirmed in the earldom
+of Derby, 1199. A claim that he was heir to the honour of Peveral of
+Nottingham, which has puzzled genealogists, was compromised with the
+king, whom the earl thenceforth stoutly supported, being with him at his
+death and witnessing his will, with his brother-in-law the earl of
+Chester, and with William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, whose daughter
+married his son. With them also he acted in securing the succession of
+the young Henry, joining in the siege of Mountsorrel and the battle of
+Lincoln. But he was one of those great nobles who looked with jealousy
+on the rising power of the king's favourites. In 1227 he was one of the
+earls who rose against him on behalf of his brother Richard and made him
+restore the forest charters, and in 1237 he was one of the three
+counsellors forced on the king by the barons. His influence had by this
+time been further increased by the death, in 1232, of the earl of
+Chester, whose sister, his wife, inherited a vast estate between the
+Ribble and the Mersey. On his death in 1247, his son William succeeded
+as 5th earl, and inherited through his wife her share of the great
+possessions of the Marshals, earls of Pembroke. By his second wife, a
+daughter of the earl of Winchester, he was father of Robert, 6th and
+last earl. Succeeding as a minor in 1254, Robert had been secured by the
+king, as early as 1249, as a husband for his wife's niece, Marie,
+daughter of Hugh, count of Angoulême, but, in spite of this, he joined
+the opposition in 1263 and distinguished himself by his violence. He was
+one of the five earls summoned to Simon de Montfort's parliament,
+though, on taking the earl of Gloucester's part, he was arrested by
+Simon. In spite of this he was compelled on the king's triumph to
+forfeit his castles and seven years' revenues. In 1266 he broke out
+again in revolt on his own estates in Derbyshire, but was utterly
+defeated at Chesterfield by Henry "of Almain," deprived of his earldom
+and lands and imprisoned. Eventually, in 1269, he agreed to pay £50,000
+for restoration, and to pledge all his lands save Chartley and Holbrook
+for its payment. As he was not able to find the money, the lands passed
+to the king's son, Edmund, to whom they had been granted on his
+forfeiture.
+
+The earl's son John succeeded to Chartley, a Staffordshire estate long
+famous for the wild cattle in its chase, and was summoned as a baron in
+1299, though he had joined the baronial opposition in 1297. On the
+death, in 1450, of the last Ferrers lord of Chartley, the barony passed
+with his daughter to the Devereux family and then to the Shirleys, one
+of whom was created Earl Ferrers in 1711. The barony has been in
+abeyance since 1855.
+
+The line of Ferrers of Groby was founded by William, younger brother of
+the last earl, who inherited from his mother Margaret de Quinci her
+estate of Groby in Leicestershire, and some Ferrers manors from his
+father. His son was summoned as a baron in 1300, but on the death of his
+descendant, William, Lord Ferrers of Groby, in 1445, the barony passed
+with his granddaughter to the Grey family and was forfeited with the
+dukedom of Suffolk in 1554. A younger son of William, the last lord,
+married the heiress of Tamworth Castle, and his line was seated at
+Tamworth till 1680, when an heiress carried it to a son of the first
+Earl Ferrers. From Sir Henry, a younger son of the first Ferrers of
+Tamworth, descended Ferrers of Baddesley Clinton, seated there in the
+male line till towards the end of the 19th century. The line of Ferrers
+of Wemme was founded by a younger son of Lord Ferrers of Chartley, who
+married the heiress of Wemme, Co. Salop, and was summoned as a baron in
+her right; but it ended with their son. There are doubtless male
+descendants of this great Norman house still in existence.
+
+Higham Ferrers, Northants, and Woodham Ferrers, Essex, take their names
+from this family. It has been alleged that they bore horseshoes for
+their arms in allusion to Ferrières (i.e. ironworks); but when and why
+they were added to their coat is a moot point.
+
+  See Dugdale's _Baronage_; J.R. Planché's _The Conqueror and his
+  Companions_; G.E. C(okayne)'s _Complete Peerage_; _Chronicles and
+  Memorials_ (Rolls Series); T. Stapleton's _Rotuli Scaccarii
+  Normannie_.     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY, 4TH EARL (1720-1760), the last nobleman in
+England to suffer a felon's death, was born on the 18th of August 1720.
+There was insanity in his family, and from an early age his behaviour
+seems to have been eccentric, and his temper violent, though he was
+quite capable of managing his business affairs. In 1758 his wife
+obtained a separation from him for cruelty. The Ferrers estates were
+then vested in trustees, the Earl Ferrers secured the appointment of an
+old family steward, Johnson, as receiver of rents. This man faithfully
+performed his duty as a servant to the trustees, and did not prove
+amenable to Ferrer's personal wishes. On the 18th of January 1760,
+Johnson called at the earl's mansion at Staunton Harold, Leicestershire,
+by appointment, and was directed to his lordship's study. Here, after
+some business conversation, Lord Ferrers shot him. In the following
+April Ferrers was tried for murder by his peers in Westminster Hall. His
+defence, which he conducted in person with great ability, was a plea of
+insanity, and it was supported by considerable evidence, but he was
+found guilty. He subsequently said that he had only pleaded insanity to
+oblige his family, and that he had himself always been ashamed of such a
+defence. On the 5th of May 1760, dressed in a light-coloured suit,
+embroidered with silver, he was taken in his own carriage from the Tower
+of London to Tyburn and there hanged. It has been said that as a
+concession to his order the rope used was of silk.
+
+  See Peter Burke, _Celebrated Trials connected with the Aristocracy in
+  the Relations of Private Life_ (London, 1849); Edward Walford, _Tales
+  of our Great Families_ (London, 1877); _Howell's State Trials_ (1816),
+  xix. 885-980.
+
+
+
+
+FERRET, a domesticated, and frequently albino breed of quadruped,
+derived from the wild polecat (_Putorius foetidus_, or _P. putorius_),
+which it closely resembles in size, form, and habits, and with which it
+interbreeds. It differs in the colour of its fur, which is usually
+yellowish-white, and of its eyes, which are pinky-red. The
+"polecat-ferret" is a brown breed, apparently the product of the
+above-mentioned cross. The ferret attains a length of about 14 in.,
+exclusive of the tail, which measures 5 in. Although exhibiting
+considerable tameness, it seems incapable of attachment, and when not
+properly fed, or when irritated, is apt to give painful evidence of its
+ferocity. It is chiefly employed in destroying rats and other vermin,
+and in driving rabbits from their burrows. The ferret is remarkably
+prolific, the female bringing forth two broods annually, each numbering
+from six to nine young. It is said to occasionally devour its young
+immediately after birth, and in this case produces another brood soon
+after. The ferret was well known to the Romans, Strabo stating that it
+was brought from Africa into Spain, and Pliny that it was employed in
+his time in rabbit-hunting, under the name _Viverra_; the English name
+is not derived from this, but from Fr. _furet_, Late Lat. _furo_,
+robber. The date of its introduction into Great Britain is uncertain,
+but it has been known in England for at least 600 years.
+
+The ferret should be kept in dry, clean, well-ventilated hutches, and
+fed twice daily on bread, milk, and meat, such as rabbits' and fowls'
+livers. When used to hunt rabbits it is provided with a muzzle, or,
+better and more usual, a cope, made by looping and knotting twine about
+the head and snout, in order to prevent it killing its quarry, in which
+case it would gorge itself and go to sleep in the hole. As the ferret
+enters the hole the rabbits flee before it, and are shot or caught by
+dogs as they break ground. A ferret's hold on its quarry is as obstinate
+as that of a bulldog, but can easily be broken by a strong pressure of
+the thumb just above the eyes. Only full-grown ferrets are "worked to"
+rats. Several are generally used at a time and without copes, as rats
+are fierce fighters.
+
+  See Ferrets, by Nicholas Everitt (London, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+FERRI, CIRO (1634-1689), Roman painter, the chief disciple and successor
+of Pietro da Cortona. He was born in the Roman territory, studied under
+Pietro, to whom he became warmly attached, and, at an age a little past
+thirty, completed the painting of the ceilings and other internal
+decorations begun by his instructor in the Pitti palace, Florence. He
+also co-operated in or finished several other works by Pietro, both in
+Florence and in Rome, approaching near to his style and his particular
+merits, but with less grace of design and native vigour, and in especial
+falling short of him in colour. Of his own independent productions, the
+chief is an extensive series of scriptural frescoes in the church of S.
+Maria Maggiore in Bergamo; also a painting (rated as Ferri's best work)
+of St Ambrose healing a sick person, the principal altarpiece in the
+church of S. Ambrogio della Massima in Rome. The paintings of the cupola
+of S. Agnese in the same capital might rank even higher than these; but
+this labour remained uncompleted at the death of Ferri, and was marred
+by the performances of his successor Corbellini. He executed also a
+large amount of miscellaneous designs, such as etchings and
+frontispieces for books; and he was an architect besides. Ferri was
+appointed to direct the Florentine students in Rome, and Gabbiani was
+one of his leading pupils. As regards style, Ferri ranks as chief of the
+so-called Machinists, as opposed to the school founded by Sacchi, and
+continued by Carlo Maratta. He died in Rome--his end being hastened, as
+it is said, by mortification at his recognized inferiority to Bacciccia
+in colour.
+
+
+
+
+FERRI, LUIGI (1826-1895), Italian philosopher, was born at Bologna on
+the 15th of June 1826. His education was obtained mainly at the École
+Normale in Paris, where his father, a painter and architect, was engaged
+in the construction of the Théâtre Italien. From his twenty-fifth year
+he began to lecture in the colleges of Evreux, Dieppe, Blois and
+Toulouse. Later, he was lecturer at Annecy and Casal-Montferrat, and
+became head of the education department under Mamiani in 1860. Three
+years later he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Istituto
+di Perfezionamento at Florence, and, in 1871, was made professor of
+philosophy in the university of Rome. On the death of Mamiani in 1885 he
+became editor of the _Filosofia delle scuole italiane_, the title of
+which he changed to _Rivista italiana di filosofia_. He wrote both on
+psychology and on metaphysics, but is known especially as a historian of
+philosophy. His original work is eclectic, combining the psychology of
+his teachers, Jules Simon, Saisset and Mamiani, with the idealism of
+Rosmini and Gioberti. Among his works may be mentioned _Studii sulla
+coscienza_; _Il Fenomeno nelle sue relazioni con la sensazione_; _Della
+idea del vero_; _Della filosofia del diritto presso Aristotile_ (1885);
+_Il Genio di Aristotile_; _La Psicologia di Pietro Pomponazzi_ (1877),
+and, most important, _Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en Italie
+au XIX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1869), and _La Psychologie de l'association
+depuis Hobbes jusqu'à nos jours_.
+
+
+
+
+FERRIER, ARNAUD DU (c. 1508-1585), French jurisconsult and diplomatist,
+was born at Toulouse about 1508, and practised as a lawyer first at
+Bourges, afterwards at Toulouse. Councillor to the _parlement_ of the
+latter town, and then to that of Rennes, he later became president of
+the _parlement_ of Paris. He represented Charles IX., king of France, at
+the council of Trent in 1562, but had to retire in consequence of the
+attitude he had adopted, and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he
+remained till 1567, returning again in 1570. On his return to France he
+came into touch with the Calvinists whose tenets he probably embraced,
+and consequently lost his place in the privy council and part of his
+fortune. As compensation, Henry, king of Navarre, appointed him his
+chancellor. He died in the end of October 1585.
+
+  See also E. Frémy, _Un Ambassadeur libéral sous Charles IX et Henri
+  III, Arnaud du Ferrier_ (Paris, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864), Scottish metaphysical writer, was
+born in Edinburgh on the 16th of June 1808, the son of John Ferrier,
+writer to the signet. His mother was a sister of John Wilson
+(Christopher North). He was educated at the university of Edinburgh and
+Magdalen College, Oxford, and subsequently, his metaphysical tastes
+having been fostered by his intimate friend, Sir William Hamilton, spent
+some time at Heidelberg studying German philosophy. In 1842 he was
+appointed professor of civil history in Edinburgh University, and in
+1845 professor of moral philosophy and political economy at St Andrews.
+He was twice an unsuccessful candidate for chairs in Edinburgh, for that
+of moral philosophy on Wilson's resignation in 1852, and for that of
+logic and metaphysics in 1856, after Hamilton's death. He remained at St
+Andrews till his death on the 11th of June 1864. He married his cousin,
+Margaret Anne, daughter of John Wilson. He had five children, one of
+whom became the wife of Sir Alexander Grant.
+
+Ferrier's first contribution to metaphysics was a series of articles in
+_Blackwood's Magazine_ (1838-1839), entitled _An Introduction to the
+Philosophy of Consciousness_. In these he condemns previous philosophers
+for ignoring in their psychological investigations the fact of
+consciousness, which is the distinctive feature of man, and confining
+their observation to the so-called "states of the mind." Consciousness
+comes into manifestation only when the man has used the word "I" with
+full knowledge of what it means. This notion he must originate within
+himself. Consciousness cannot spring from the states which are its
+object, for it is in antagonism to them. It originates in the will,
+which in the act of consciousness puts the "I" in the place of our
+sensations. Morality, conscience, and responsibility are necessary
+results of consciousness. These articles were succeeded by a number of
+others, of which the most important were _The Crisis of Modern
+Speculation_ (1841), _Berkeley and Idealism_ (1842), and an important
+examination of Hamilton's edition of Reid (1847), which contains a
+vigorous attack on the philosophy of common sense. The perception of
+matter is pronounced to be the _ne plus ultra_ of thought, and Reid, for
+presuming to analyse it, is declared to be a representationist in fact,
+although he professed to be an intuitionist. A distinction is made
+between the "perception of matter" and "our apprehension of the
+perception of matter." Psychology vainly tries to analyse the former.
+Metaphysic shows the latter alone to be analysable, and separates the
+subjective element, "our apprehension," from the objective element, "the
+perception of matter,"--not matter _per se_, but the perception of
+matter is the existence independent of the individual's thought. It
+cannot, however, be independent of thought. It must belong to some mind,
+and is therefore the property of the Divine Mind. There, he thinks, is
+an indestructible foundation for the _a priori_ argument for the
+existence of God.
+
+Ferrier's matured philosophical doctrines find expression in the
+_Institutes of Metaphysics_ (1854), in which he claims to have met the
+twofold obligation resting on every system of philosophy, that it should
+be reasoned and true. His method is that of Spinoza, strict
+demonstration, or at least an attempt at it. All the errors of natural
+thinking and psychology must fall under one or other of three
+topics:--Knowing and the Known, Ignorance, and Being. These are
+all-comprehensive, and are therefore the departments into which
+philosophy is divided, for the sole end of philosophy is to correct the
+inadvertencies of ordinary thinking.
+
+The problems of knowing and the known are treated in the "Epistemology
+or Theory of Knowing." The truth that "along with whatever any
+intelligence knows it must, as the ground or condition of its knowledge,
+have some cognizance of itself," is the basis of the whole philosophical
+system. Object + subject, thing + me, is the only possible knowable.
+This leads to the conclusion that the only independent universe which
+any mind can think of is the universe in synthesis with some _other_
+mind or _ego_.
+
+The leading contradiction which is corrected in the "Agnoiology or
+Theory of Ignorance" is this: that there can be an ignorance of that of
+which there can be no knowledge. Ignorance is a defect. But there is no
+defect in not knowing what cannot be known by any intelligence (e.g.
+that two and two make five), and therefore there can be an ignorance
+only of that of which there can be a knowledge, i.e. of
+some-object-_plus_-some-subject. The knowable alone is the ignorable.
+Ferrier lays special claim to originality for this division of the
+_Institutes_.
+
+The "Ontology or Theory of Being" forms the third and final division. It
+contains a discussion of the origin of knowledge, in which Ferrier
+traces all the perplexities and errors of philosophers to the assumption
+of the absolute existence of matter. The conclusion arrived at is that
+the only true real and independent existences are
+minds-together-with-that-which-they-apprehend, and that the one strictly
+necessary absolute existence is a supreme and infinite and everlasting
+mind in synthesis with all things.
+
+  Ferrier's works are remarkable for an unusual charm and simplicity of
+  style. These qualities are especially noticeable in the _Lectures on
+  Greek Philosophy_, one of the best introductions on the subject in the
+  English language. A complete edition of his philosophical writings was
+  published in 1875, with a memoir by E.L. Lushington; see also
+  monograph by E.S. Haldane in the Famous Scots Series.
+
+
+
+
+FERRIER, PAUL (1843-   ), French dramatist, was born at Montpellier on
+the 29th of March 1843. He had already produced several comedies when in
+1873 he secured real success with two short pieces, _Chez l'avocat_ and
+_Les Incendies de Massoulard_. Others of his numerous plays are _Les
+Compensations_ (1876); _L'Art de tromper les femmes_ (1890), with M.
+Najac. One of Ferrier's greatest triumphs was the production with
+Fabrice Carré of _Joséphine vendue par ses soeurs_ (1886), an _opéra
+bouffe_ with music by Victor Roger. His opera libretti include _La
+Marocaine_ (1879), music of J. Offenbach; _Le Chevalier d'Harmental_
+(1896) after the play of Dumas père, for the music of A. Messager; _La
+Fille de Tabarin_ (1901), with Victorien Sardou, music of Gabriel
+Pierné.
+
+
+
+
+FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE (1782-1854), Scottish novelist, born in
+Edinburgh on the 7th of September 1782, was the daughter of James
+Ferrier, for some years factor to the duke of Argyll, and at one time
+one of the clerks of the court of session with Sir Walter Scott. Her
+mother was a Miss Coutts, the beautiful daughter of a Forfarshire
+farmer. James Frederick Ferrier, noticed above, was Susan Ferrier's
+nephew.
+
+Miss Ferrier's first novel, _Marriage_, was begun in concert with a
+friend, Miss Clavering, a niece of the duke of Argyll; but this lady
+only wrote a few pages, and _Marriage_, completed by Miss Ferrier as
+early as 1810, appeared in 1818. It was followed in 1824 by _The
+Inheritance_, a better constructed and more mature work; and the last
+and perhaps best of her novels, _Destiny_, dedicated to Sir Walter Scott
+(who himself undertook to strike the bargain with the publisher Cadell),
+appeared in 1831. All these novels were published anonymously; but, with
+their clever portraiture of contemporary Scottish life and manners, and
+even recognizable caricatures of some social celebrities of the day,
+they could not fail to become popular north of the Tweed. "Lady
+MacLaughlan" represents Mrs Seymour Damer in dress and Lady Frederick
+Campbell, whose husband, Lord Ferrier, was executed in 1760, in manners.
+Mary, Lady Clark, well known in Edinburgh, figured as "Mrs Fox" and the
+three maiden aunts were the Misses Edmonstone. Many were the conjectures
+as to the authorship of the novels. In the _Noctes Ambrosianae_
+(November 1826), James Hogg is made to mention _The Inheritance_, and
+adds, "which I aye thought was written by Sir Walter, as weel's
+_Marriage_, till it spunked out that it was written by a leddy." Scott
+himself gave Miss Ferrier a very high place indeed among the novelists
+of the day. In his diary (March 27, 1826), criticizing a new work which
+he had been reading, he says, "The women do this better. Edgeworth,
+Ferrier, Austen, have all given portraits of real society far superior
+to anything man, vain man, has produced of the like nature." Another
+friendly recognition of Miss Ferrier is to be found at the conclusion of
+his _Tales of my Landlord_, where Scott calls her his "sister shadow,"
+the still anonymous author of "the very lively work entitled
+_Marriage_." Lively, indeed, all Miss Ferrier's works are,--written in
+clear, brisk English, and with an inexhaustible fund of humour. It is
+true her books portray the eccentricities, the follies, and foibles of
+the society in which she lived, caricaturing with terrible exactness its
+hypocrisy, boastfulness, greed, affectation, and undue subservience to
+public opinion. Yet Miss Ferrier wrote less to reform than to amuse. In
+this she is less like Miss Edgeworth than Miss Austen. Miss Edgeworth
+was more of a moralist; her wit is not so involuntary, her caricatures
+not always so good-natured. But Miss Austen and Miss Ferrier were
+genuine humorists, and with Miss Ferrier especially a keen sense of the
+ludicrous was always dominant. Her humorous characters are always her
+best. It was no doubt because she felt this that in the last year of her
+life she regretted not having devoted her talents more exclusively to
+the service of religion. But if she was not a moralist, neither was she
+a cynic; and her wit, even where it is most caustic, is never
+uncharitable.
+
+Miss Ferrier's mother died in 1797, and from that date she kept house
+for her father until his death in 1829. She lived quietly at Morningside
+House and in Edinburgh for more than twenty years after the publication
+of her last work. The pleasantest picture that we have of her is in
+Lockhart's description of her visit to Scott in May 1831. She was asked
+there to help to amuse the dying master of Abbotsford, who, when he was
+not writing _Count Robert of Paris_, would talk as brilliantly as ever.
+Only sometimes, before he had reached the point in a narrative, "it
+would seem as if some internal spring had given way." He would pause,
+and gaze blankly and anxiously round him. "I noticed," says Lockhart,
+"the delicacy of Miss Ferrier on such occasions. Her sight was bad, and
+she took care not to use her glasses when he was speaking; and she
+affected to be also troubled with deafness, and would say, 'Well, I am
+getting as dull as a post; I have not heard a word since you said
+so-and-so,'--being sure to mention a circumstance behind that at which
+he had really halted. He then took up the thread with his habitual smile
+of courtesy--as if forgetting his case entirely in the consideration of
+the lady's infirmity."
+
+Miss Ferrier died on the 5th of November 1854, at her brother's house in
+Edinburgh. She left among her papers a short unpublished article,
+entitled "Recollections of Visits to Ashestiel and Abbotsford." This is
+her own very interesting account of her long friendship with Sir Walter
+Scott, from the date of her first visit to him and Lady Scott at
+Ashestiel, where she went with her father in the autumn of 1811, to her
+last sad visit to Abbotsford in 1831. It contains some impromptu verses
+written by Scott in her album at Ashestiel.
+
+  Miss Ferrier's letters to her sister, which contained much interesting
+  biographical matter, were destroyed at her particular request, but a
+  volume of her correspondence with a memoir by her grand-nephew, John
+  Ferrier, was published in 1898.
+
+
+
+
+FERROL [_El Ferrol_], a seaport of north-western Spain, in the province
+of Corunna; situated 12 m. N.E. of the city of Corunna, and on the Bay
+of Ferrol, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 25,281. Together
+with San Fernando, near Cadiz, and Cartagena, Ferrol is governed by an
+admiral, with the special title of captain-general; and it ranks beside
+these two ports as one of the principal naval stations of Spain. The
+town is beautifully situated on a headland overlooking the bay, and is
+surrounded by rocky hills which render it invisible from the sea. Its
+harbour, naturally one of the best in Europe, and the largest in Spain
+except those of Vigo and Corunna, is deep, capacious and secure; but the
+entrance is a narrow strait about 2 m. long, which admits only one
+vessel at a time, and is commanded by modern and powerfully armed forts,
+while the neighbouring heights are also crowned by defensive works.
+Ferrol is provided with extensive dockyards, quays, warehouses and an
+arsenal; most of these, with the palace of the captain-general, the
+bull-ring, theatres, and other principal buildings, were built or
+modernized between 1875 and 1905. The local industries are mainly
+connected with the shipping trade, or the refitting of warships. Owing
+to the lack of railway communication, and the competition of Corunna at
+so short a distance, Ferrol is not a first-class commercial port; and in
+the early years of the 20th century its trade, already injured by the
+loss to Spain of Cuba and Porto Rico in 1898, showed little prospect of
+improvement. The exports are insignificant, and consist chiefly of
+wooden staves and beams for use as pit-props; the chief imports are
+coal, cement, timber, iron and machinery. In 1904, 282 vessels of
+155,881 tons entered the harbour. In the same year the construction of a
+railway to the neighbouring town of Betanzos was undertaken, and in 1909
+important shipbuilding operations were begun.
+
+Ferrol was a mere fishing village until 1752, when Ferdinand VI. began
+to fit it for becoming an arsenal. In 1799 the British made a fruitless
+attempt to capture it, but on the 4th of November 1805 they defeated the
+French fleet in front of the town, which they compelled to surrender. On
+the 27th of January 1809 it was through treachery delivered over to the
+French, but it was vacated by them on the 22nd of July. On the 15th of
+July 1823 another blockade was begun by the French, and Ferrol
+surrendered to them on the 27th of August.
+
+
+
+
+FERRUCCIO, or FERRUCCI, FRANCESCO (1489-1530), Florentine captain. After
+spending a few years as a merchant's clerk he took to soldiering at an
+early age, and served in the _Bande Nere_ in various parts of Italy,
+earning a reputation as a daring fighter and somewhat of a swashbuckler.
+When Pope Clement VII. and the emperor Charles V. decided to reinstate
+the Medici in Florence, they made war on the Florentine republic, and
+Ferruccio was appointed Florentine military commissioner at Empoli,
+where he showed great daring and resource by his rapid marches and
+sudden attacks on the Imperialists. Early in 1530 Volterra had thrown
+off Florentine allegiance and had been occupied by an Imperialist
+garrison, but Ferruccio surprised and recaptured the city. During his
+absence, however, the Imperialists captured Empoli by treachery, thus
+cutting off one of the chief avenues of approach to Florence. Ferruccio
+proposed to the government of the republic that he should march on Rome
+and terrorize the pope by the threat of a sack into making peace with
+Florence on favourable terms, but although the war committee appointed
+him commissioner-general for the operations outside the city, they
+rejected his scheme as too audacious. Ferruccio then decided to attempt
+a diversion by attacking the Imperialists in the rear and started from
+Volterra for the Apennines. But at Pisa he was laid up for a month with
+a fever--a misfortune which enabled the enemy to get wind of his plan
+and to prepare for his attack. At the end of July Ferruccio left Pisa at
+the head of about 4000 men, and although the besieged in Florence,
+knowing that a large part of the Imperialists under the prince of Orange
+had gone to meet Ferruccio, wished to co-operate with the latter by
+means of a sortie, they were prevented from doing so by their own
+traitorous commander-in-chief, Malatesta Baglioni. Ferruccio encountered
+a much larger force of the enemy on the 3rd of August at Gavinana; a
+desperate battle ensued, and at first the Imperialists were driven back
+by Ferruccio's fierce onslaught and the prince of Orange himself was
+killed, but reinforcements under Fabrizio Maramaldo having arrived, the
+Florentines were almost annihilated and Ferruccio was wounded and
+captured. Maramaldo out of personal spite despatched the wounded man
+with his own hand. This defeat sealed the fate of the republic, and nine
+days later Florence surrendered. Ferruccio was one of the great soldiers
+of the age, and his enterprise is the finest episode of the last days of
+the Florentine republic. See also under FLORENCE and MEDICI.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Sassetti, _Vita di Francesco Ferrucci_, written in
+  the 16th century and published in the _Archivio storico_, vol. iv. pt.
+  ii. (Florence, 1853), with an introduction by C. Monzani; E. Aloisi,
+  _La Battaglia di Gavinana_ (Bologna, 1881); cf. P. Villari's criticism
+  of the latter work, "Ferruccio e Maramaldo," in his _Arte, storia, e
+  filosofia_ (Florence, 1884); Gino Capponi, _Storia della repubblica di
+  Firenze_, vol. ii. (Florence, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+FERRULE, a small metal cap or ring used for holding parts of a rod, &c.,
+together, and for giving strength to weakened materials, or especially,
+when attached to the end of a stick, umbrella, &c., for preventing
+wearing or splitting. The word is properly _verrel_ or _verril_, in
+which form it was used till the 18th century, and is derived through the
+O. Fr. _virelle_, modern _virole_, from a diminutive Latin _viriola_ of
+_viriae_, bracelets. The form in which the word is now known is due to
+the influence of Latin _ferrum_, iron. "Ferrule" must be distinguished
+from "ferule" or "ferula," properly the Latin name of the "giant
+fennel." From the use of the stalk of this plant as a cane or rod for
+punishment, comes the application of the word to many instruments used
+in chastisement, more particularly a short flat piece of wood or leather
+shaped somewhat like the sole of a boot, and applied to the palms of the
+hand. It is the common form of disciplinary instrument in Roman Catholic
+schools; the pain inflicted is exceedingly sharp and immediate, but the
+effects are momentary and leave no chance for any dangerous results. The
+word is sometimes applied to the ordinary cane as used by schoolmasters.
+
+
+
+
+FERRY, JULES FRANÇOIS CAMILLE (1832-1893), French statesman, was born at
+Saint Dié (Vosges) on the 5th of April 1832. He studied law, and was
+called to the bar at Paris, but soon went into politics, contributing to
+various newspapers, particularly to the _Temps_. He attacked the Empire
+with great violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron
+Haussmann, prefect of the Seine. Elected republican deputy for Paris in
+1869, he protested against the declaration of war with Germany, and on
+the 6th of September 1870 was appointed prefect of the Seine by the
+government of national defence. In this position he had the difficult
+task of administering Paris during the siege, and after the Commune was
+obliged to resign (5th of June 1871). From 1872-1873 he was sent by
+Thiers as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy for
+the Vosges, and became one of the leaders of the republican party. When
+the first republican ministry was formed under W.H. Waddington on the
+4th of February 1879, he was one of its members, and continued in the
+ministry until the 30th of March 1885, except for two short
+interruptions (from the 10th of November 1881 to the 30th of January
+1882, and from the 29th of July 1882 to the 21st of February 1883),
+first as minister of education and then as minister of foreign affairs.
+He was twice premier (1880-1881 and 1883-1885). Two important works are
+associated with his administration, the non-clerical organization of
+public education, and the beginning of the colonial expansion of France.
+Following the republican programme he proposed to destroy the influence
+of the clergy in the university. He reorganized the committee of public
+education (law of the 27th of February 1880), and proposed a regulation
+for the conferring of university degrees, which, though rejected,
+aroused violent polemics because the 7th article took away from the
+unauthorized religious orders the right to teach. He finally succeeded
+in passing the great law of the 28th of March 1882, which made primary
+education in France free, non-clerical and obligatory. In higher
+education the number of professors doubled under his ministry. After the
+military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, he formed the idea of
+acquiring a great colonial empire, not to colonize it, but for the sake
+of economic exploitation. He directed the negotiations which led to the
+establishment of a French protectorate in Tunis (1881), prepared the
+treaty of the 17th of December 1885 for the occupation of Madagascar;
+directed the exploration of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above
+all he organized the conquest of Indo-China. The excitement caused at
+Paris by an unimportant reverse of the French troops at Lang-son caused
+his downfall (30th of March 1885), but the treaty of peace with China
+(9th of June 1885) was his work. He still remained an influential member
+of the moderate republican party, and directed the opposition to General
+Boulanger. After the resignation of President Grévy (2nd of December
+1887), he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the
+radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favour of Sadi
+Carnot. The violent polemics aroused against him at this time caused a
+madman to attack him with a revolver, and he died from the wound, on the
+17th of March 1893. The chamber of deputies voted him a state funeral.
+
+  See Edg. Zevort, _Histoire de la troisième République_; A. Rambaud,
+  _Jules Ferry_ (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+
+FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb "to fare," to journey or
+travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _fahren_; it is connected
+with the root of Gr. [Greek: poros], way, and Lat. _portare_, to carry),
+a place where boats ply regularly across a river or arm of the sea for
+the conveyance of goods and persons. The word is also applied to the
+boats employed (ferry boats). In a car-ferry or train-ferry railway cars
+or complete trains are conveyed across a piece of water in vessels which
+have railway lines laid on their decks, so that the vehicles run on and
+off them on their own wheels. In law the right of ferrying persons or
+goods across a particular river or strait, and of exacting a reasonable
+toll for the service, belongs, like the right of fair and market, to the
+class of rights known as franchises. Its origin must be by statute,
+royal grant, or prescription. It is wholly unconnected with the
+ownership or occupation of land, so that the owner of the ferry need not
+be proprietor of the soil on either side of the water over which the
+right is exercised. He is bound to maintain safe and suitable boats
+ready for the use of the public, and to employ fit persons as ferrymen.
+As a correlative of this duty he has a right of action, not only against
+those who evade or refuse payment of toll when it is due, but also
+against those who disturb his franchise by setting up a new ferry, so as
+to diminish his custom, unless a change of circumstances, such as an
+increase of population near the ferry, justify other means of passage,
+whether of the same kind or not. See also WATER RIGHTS.
+
+
+
+
+FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL, COUNT VON (1719-1794), Swedish politician, was a
+son of Lieutenant-General Hans Reinhold Fersen and entered the Swedish
+Life Guards in 1740, and from 1743 to 1748 was in the French service
+(_Royal-Suédois_), where he rose to the rank of brigadier. In the Seven
+Years' War Fersen distinguished himself during the operations round
+Usedom and Wollin (1759), when he inflicted serious loss on the
+Prussians. But it is as a politician that he is best known. At the diet
+of 1755-1756 he was elected _landtmarskalk_, or marshal of the diet, and
+from henceforth, till the revolution of 1772, led the Hat party (see
+SWEDEN: _History_). In 1756 he defeated the projects of the court for
+increasing the royal power; but, after the disasters of the Seven Years'
+War, gravitated towards the court again and contributed, by his energy
+and eloquence, to uphold the tottering Hats for several years. On the
+accession of the Caps to power in 1766, Fersen assisted the court in its
+struggle with them by refusing to employ the Guards to keep order in the
+capital when King Adolphus Frederick, driven to desperation by the
+demands of the Caps, publicly abdicated, and a seven days' interregnum
+ensued. At the ensuing diet of 1769, when the Hats returned to power,
+Fersen was again elected marshal of the diet; but he made no attempt to
+redeem his pledges to the crown prince Gustavus, as to a very necessary
+reform of the constitution, which he had made before the elections, and
+thus involuntarily contributed to the subsequent establishment of
+absolutism. When Gustavus III. ascended the throne in 1772, and
+attempted to reconcile the two factions by a composition which aimed at
+dividing all political power between them, Fersen said he despaired of
+bringing back, in a moment, to the path of virtue and patriotism a
+people who had been running riot for more than half a century in the
+wilderness of political licence and corruption. Nevertheless he
+consented to open negotiations with the Caps, and was the principal Hat
+representative on the abortive composition committee. During the
+revolution of August 1772, Fersen remained a passive spectator of the
+overthrow of the constitution, and was one of the first whom Gustavus
+summoned to his side after his triumph. Yet his relations with the king
+were never cordial. The old party-leader could never forget that he had
+once been a power in the state, and it is evident, from his _Historiska
+Skrifter_, how jealous he was of Gustavus's personal qualities. There
+was a slight collision between them as early as the diet of 1778; but at
+the diet of 1786 Fersen boldly led the opposition against the king's
+financial measures (see GUSTAVUS III.) which were consequently rejected;
+while in private interviews, if his own account of them is to be
+trusted, he addressed his sovereign with outrageous insolence. At the
+diet of 1789 Fersen marshalled the nobility around him for a combat _à
+outrance_ against the throne and that, too, at a time when Sweden was
+involved in two dangerous foreign wars, and national unity was
+absolutely indispensable. This tactical blunder cost him his popularity
+and materially assisted the secret operations of the king. Obstruction
+was Fersen's chief weapon, and he continued to postpone the granting of
+subsidies by the house of nobles for some weeks. But after frequent
+stormy scenes in the diet, which were only prevented from becoming
+mêlées by Fersen's moderation, or hesitation, at the critical moment, he
+and twenty of his friends of the nobility were arrested (17th February
+1789) and the opposition collapsed. Fersen was speedily released, but
+henceforth kept aloof from politics, surviving the king two years. He
+was a man of great natural talent, with an imposing presence, and he
+always bore himself like the aristocrat he was. But his haughtiness and
+love of power are undeniable, and he was perhaps too great a
+party-leader to be a great statesman. Yet for seventeen years, with very
+brief intervals, he controlled the destinies of Sweden, and his
+influence in France was for some time pretty considerable. His
+_Historiska Skrifter_, which are a record of Swedish history, mainly
+autobiographical, during the greater part of the 18th century, is
+excellent as literature, but somewhat unreliable as an historical
+document, especially in the later parts.
+
+  See C.G. Malmström, _Sveriges politiska Historia_ (Stockholm,
+  1855-1865); R.N. Bain, _Gustavus III._ (London, 1895); C.T. Odhner,
+  _Sveriges politiska Historia under Gustaf III.'s Regering_ (Stockholm,
+  1885, &c.); F.A. Fersen, _Historiska Skrifter_ (Stockholm, 1867-1872).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FERSEN, HANS AXEL, COUNT VON (1755-1810), Swedish statesman, was
+carefully educated at home, at the Carolinum at Brunswick and at Turin.
+In 1779 he entered the French military service (_Royal-Bavière_),
+accompanied General Rochambeau to America as his adjutant, distinguished
+himself during the war with England, notably at the siege of Yorktown,
+1781, and in 1785 was promoted to be _colonel propriétaire_ of the
+regiment _Royal-Suédois_. The young nobleman was, from the first, a
+prime favourite at the French court, owing, partly to the recollection
+of his father's devotion to France, but principally because of his own
+amiable and brilliant qualities. The queen, Marie Antoinette, was
+especially attracted by the grace and wit of _le beau Fersen_, who had
+inherited his full share of the striking handsomeness which was
+hereditary in the family.
+
+It is possible that Fersen would have spent most of his life at
+Versailles, but for a hint from his own sovereign, then at Pisa, that he
+desired him to join his suite. He accompanied Gustavus III. in his
+Italian tour and returned home with him in 1784. When the war with
+Russia broke out, in 1788, Fersen accompanied his regiment to Finland,
+but in the autumn of the same year was sent to France, where the
+political horizon was already darkening. It was necessary for Gustavus
+to have an agent thoroughly in the confidence of the French royal
+family, and, at the same time, sufficiently able and audacious to help
+them in their desperate straits, especially as he had lost all
+confidence in his accredited minister, the baron de Stael. With his
+usual acumen, he fixed upon Fersen, who was at his post early in 1790.
+Before the end of the year he was forced to admit that the cause of the
+French monarchy was hopeless so long as the king and queen of France
+were nothing but captives in their own capital, at the mercy of an
+irresponsible mob. He took a leading part in the flight to Varennes. He
+found most of the requisite funds at the last moment. He ordered the
+construction of the famous carriage for six, in the name of the baroness
+von Korff, and kept it in his hotel grounds, rue Matignon, that all
+Paris might get accustomed to the sight of it. He was the coachman of
+the _fiacre_ which drove the royal family from the Carrousel to the
+Porte Saint-Martin. He accompanied them to Bondy, the first stage of
+their journey.
+
+In August 1791, Fersen was sent to Vienna to induce the emperor Leopold
+to accede to a new coalition against revolutionary France, but he soon
+came to the conclusion that the Austrian court meant to do nothing at
+all. At his own request, therefore, he was transferred to Brussels,
+where he could be of more service to the queen of France. In February
+1792, at his own mortal peril, he once more succeeded in reaching Paris
+with counterfeit credentials as minister plenipotentiary to Portugal. On
+the 13th he arrived, and the same evening contrived to steal an
+interview with the queen unobserved. On the following day he was with
+the royal family from six o'clock in the evening till six o'clock the
+next morning, and convinced himself that a second flight was physically
+impossible. On the afternoon of the 21st he succeeded in paying a third
+visit to the Tuileries, stayed there till midnight and succeeded, with
+great difficulty, in regaining Brussels on the 27th. This perilous
+expedition, a monumental instance of courage and loyalty, had no
+substantial result. In 1797 Fersen was sent to the congress of Rastatt
+as the Swedish delegate, but in consequence of a protest from the French
+government, was not permitted to take part in it.
+
+During the regency of the duke of Sudermania (1792-1796) Fersen, like
+all the other Gustavians, was in disgrace; but, on Gustavus IV.
+attaining his majority in 1796, he was welcomed back to court with open
+arms, and reinstated in all his offices and dignities. In 1801 he was
+appointed _Riksmarskalk_ (= earl-marshal). On the outbreak of the war
+with Napoleon, Fersen accompanied Gustavus IV. to Germany to assist him
+in gaining fresh allies. He prevented Gustavus from invading Prussia in
+revenge for the refusal of the king of Prussia to declare war against
+France, and during the rest of the reign was in semi-disgrace, though
+generally a member of the government when the king was abroad.
+
+Fersen stood quite aloof from the revolution of 1809. (See SWEDEN:
+_History_.) His sympathies were entirely with Prince Gustavus, son of
+the unfortunate Gustavus IV., and he was generally credited with the
+desire to see him king. When the newly elected successor to the throne,
+the highly popular prince Christian Augustus of Augustenburg, died
+suddenly in Skåne in May 1810, the report spread that he had been
+poisoned, and that Fersen and his sister, the countess Piper, were
+accessories. The source of this equally absurd and infamous libel has
+never been discovered. But it was eagerly taken up by the anti-Gustavian
+press, and popular suspicion was especially aroused by a fable called
+"The Foxes" directed against the Fersens, which appeared in _Nya
+Posten_. When, then, on the 20th of June 1810, the prince's body was
+conveyed to Stockholm, and Fersen, in his official capacity as
+_Riksmarskalk_, received it at the barrier and led the funeral cortège
+into the city, his fine carriage and his splendid robes seemed to the
+people an open derision of the general grief. The crowd began to murmur
+and presently to fling stones and cry "murderer!" He sought refuge in a
+house in the Riddarhus Square, but the mob rushed after him, brutally
+maltreated him and tore his robes to pieces. To quiet the people and
+save the unhappy victim, two officers volunteered to conduct him to the
+senate house and there place him in arrest. But he had no sooner mounted
+the steps leading to the entrance than the crowd, which had followed him
+all the way beating him with sticks and umbrellas, made a rush at him,
+knocked him down, and kicked and trampled him to death. This horrible
+outrage, which lasted more than an hour, happened, too, in the presence
+of numerous troops, drawn up in the Riddarhus Square, who made not the
+slightest effort to rescue the Riksmarskalk from his tormentors. In the
+circumstances, one must needs adopt the opinion of Fersen's
+contemporary, Baron Gustavus Armfelt, "One is almost tempted to say that
+the government wanted to give the people a victim to play with, just as
+when one throws something to an irritated wild beast to distract its
+attention. The more I consider it all, the more I am certain that the
+mob had the least to do with it.... But in God's name what were the
+troops about? How could such a thing happen in broad daylight during a
+procession, when troops and a military escort were actually present?"
+The responsibility certainly rests with the government of Charles XIII.,
+which apparently intended to intimidate the Gustavians by the removal of
+one of their principal leaders. Armfelt escaped in time, so Fersen fell
+the victim.
+
+  See R.M. Klinckowström, _Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France_
+  (Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., London, 1902); _Historia om Axel von Fersens
+  mord_ (Stockholm, 1844); R.N. Bain, _Gustavus III._, vol. ii. (London,
+  1895); P. Gaulot, _Un Ami de la reine_ (Paris, 1892); F.F. Flach,
+  _Grefve Hans Axel von Fersen_ (Stockholm, 1896); E. Tegner, _Gustaf
+  Mauritz Armfelt_, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1883-1887).      (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST (1789-1826), German violinist and composer of
+instrumental music, was born on the 15th of February 1789 at Magdeburg,
+where he received his early musical education. He completed his studies
+at Leipzig under Eberhard Müller, and at the early age of fifteen
+appeared before the public with several concerti for the violin, which
+were received with general applause, and resulted in his being appointed
+leading violinist of the Leipzig orchestra. This position he occupied
+till 1806, when he became concert-master to the duke of Oldenburg. In
+1808 he was appointed solo-violinist by King Jerome of Westphalia at
+Cassel, and there he remained till the end of the French occupation
+(1814), when he went to Vienna, and soon afterwards to Carlsruhe, having
+been appointed concert-master to the grand-duke of Baden. His failing
+health prevented him from enjoying the numerous and well-deserved
+triumphs he owed to his art, and in 1826 he died of consumption at the
+early age of thirty-seven. As a virtuoso Fesca ranks amongst the best
+masters of the German school of violinists, the school subsequently of
+Spohr and of Joachim. Especially as leader of a quartet he is said to
+have been unrivalled with regard to classic dignity and simplicity of
+style. Amongst his compositions, his quartets for stringed instruments
+and other pieces of chamber music are the most remarkable. His two
+operas, _Cantemira_ and _Omar and Leila_, were less successful, lacking
+dramatic power and originality. He also wrote some sacred compositions,
+and numerous songs and vocal quartets.
+
+
+
+
+FESCENNIA, an ancient city of Etruria, which is probably to be placed
+immediately to the N. of the modern Corchiano, 6 m. N.W. of Civita
+Castellana (see FALERII). The Via Amerina traverses it. G. Dennis
+(_Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, London, 1883, i. 115) proposed to
+place it at the Riserva S. Silvestro, 3 m. E. of Corchiano, nearer the
+Tiber, where remains of Etruscan walls exist. At Corchiano itself,
+however, similar walls may be traced, and the site is a strong and
+characteristic one--a triangle between two deep ravines, with the third
+(west) side cut off by a ditch. Here, too, remains of two bridges may be
+seen, and several rich tombs have been excavated.
+
+  See A. Buglione, "Conte di Monale," in _Römische Mitteilungen_ (1887),
+  p. 21 seq.
+
+
+
+
+FESCENNINE VERSES (_Fescennina carmina_), one of the earliest kinds of
+Italian poetry, subsequently developed into the Satura and the Roman
+comic drama. Originally sung at village harvest-home rejoicings, they
+made their way into the towns, and became the fashion at religious
+festivals and private gatherings--especially weddings, to which in later
+times they were practically restricted. They were usually in the
+Saturnian metre and took the form of a dialogue, consisting of an
+interchange of extemporaneous raillery. Those who took part in them wore
+masks made of the bark of trees. At first harmless and good-humoured, if
+somewhat coarse, these songs gradually outstripped the bounds of
+decency; malicious attacks were made upon both gods and men, and the
+matter became so serious that the law intervened and scurrilous
+personalities were forbidden by the Twelve Tables (Cicero, _De re
+publica_, iv. 10). Specimens of the Fescennines used at weddings are the
+Epithalamium of Manlius (Catullus, lxi. 122) and the four poems of
+Claudian in honour of the marriage of Honorius and Maria; the first,
+however, is distinguished by a licentiousness which is absent in the
+latter. Ausonius in his _Cento nuptialis_ mentions the Fescennines of
+Annianus Faliscus, who lived in the time of Hadrian. Various derivations
+have been proposed for _Fescennine_. According to Festus, they were
+introduced from Fescennia in Etruria, but there is no reason to assume
+that any particular town was specially devoted to the use of such songs.
+As an alternative Festus suggests a connexion with _fascinum_, either
+because the Fescennina were regarded as a protection against evil
+influences (see Munro, _Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus_, p. 76)
+or because _fascinum_ (= _phallus_), as the symbol of fertility, would
+from early times have been naturally associated with harvest festivals.
+H. Nettleship, in an article on "The Earliest Italian Literature"
+(_Journal of Philology_, xi. 1882), in support of Munro's view,
+translates the expression "verses used by charmers," assuming a noun
+_fescennus_, connected with _fas fari_.
+
+  The _locus classicus_ in ancient literature is Horace, _Epistles_, ii.
+  1. 139; see also Virgil, _Georgics_, ii. 385; Tibullus ii. 1. 55; E.
+  Hoffmann, "Die Fescenninen," in _Rheinisches Museum_, li. p. 320
+  (1896); art. LATIN LITERATURE.
+
+
+
+
+FESCH, JOSEPH (1763-1839), cardinal, was born at Ajaccio on the 3rd of
+January 1763. His father, a Swiss officer in the service of the Genoese
+Republic, had married the mother of Laetitia Bonaparte, after the
+decease of her first husband. Fesch therefore stood almost in the
+relation of an uncle to the young Bonapartes, and after the death of
+Lucien Bonaparte, archdeacon of Ajaccio, he became for a time the
+protector and patron of the family. In the year 1789, when the French
+Revolution broke out, he was archdeacon of Ajaccio, and, like the
+majority of the Corsicans, he felt repugnance for many of the acts of
+the French government during that period; in particular he protested
+against the application to Corsica of the act known as the "Civil
+Constitution of the Clergy" (July 1790). As provost of the "chapter" in
+that city he directly felt the pressure of events; for on the
+suppression of religious orders and corporations, he was constrained to
+retire into private life.
+
+Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Bonaparte family in the
+intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually by that family into
+espousing the French cause against Paoli and the Anglophiles, he was
+forced to leave Corsica and to proceed with Laetitia and her son to
+Toulon, in the early part of the autumn of 1793. Failing to find
+clerical duties at that time (the period of the Terror), he entered
+civil life, and served in various capacities, until on the appointment
+of Napoleon Bonaparte to the command of the French "Army of Italy" he
+became a commissary attached to that army. This part of his career is
+obscure and without importance. His fortunes rose rapidly on the
+attainment of the dignity of First Consul by his former charge,
+Napoleon, after the _coup d'état_ of Brumaire (November 1799).
+Thereafter, when the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion was in
+the mind of the First Consul, Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and
+took an active part in the complex negotiations which led to the signing
+of the Concordat with the Holy See on the 15th of July 1801. His reward
+came in the prize of the archbishopric of Lyons, on the duties of which
+he entered in August 1802. Six months later he received a still more
+signal reward for his past services, being raised to the dignity of
+cardinal.
+
+In 1804 on the retirement of Cacault from the position of French
+ambassador at Rome, Fesch received that important appointment. He was
+assisted by Châteaubriand, but soon sharply differed with him on many
+questions. Towards the close of the year 1804 Napoleon entrusted to
+Fesch the difficult task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII. at
+the forthcoming coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (Dec.
+2nd, 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope to be
+present at the coronation (it was only eight months after the execution
+of the duc d'Enghien) received further recognition. He received the
+grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, became grand-almoner of the empire
+and had a seat in the French senate. He was to receive further honours.
+In 1806 one of the most influential of the German clerics, Karl von
+Dalberg, then prince bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor
+and designated him as his successor.
+
+Events, however, now occurred which overclouded his prospects. In the
+course of the years 1806-1807 Napoleon came into sharp collision with
+the pope on various matters both political and religious. Fesch sought
+in vain to reconcile the two potentates. Napoleon was inexorable in his
+demands, and Pius VII. refused to give way where the discipline and
+vital interests of the church seemed to be threatened. The emperor on
+several occasions sharply rebuked Fesch for what he thought to be
+weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however, that the cardinal went
+as far as possible in counselling the submission of the spiritual to the
+civil power. For a time he was not on speaking terms with the pope; and
+Napoleon recalled him from Rome.
+
+Affairs came to a crisis in the year 1809, when Napoleon issued at
+Vienna the decree of the 17th of May, ordering the annexation of the
+papal states to the French empire. In that year Napoleon conferred on
+Fesch the archbishopric of Paris, but he refused the honour. He,
+however, consented to take part in an ecclesiastical commission formed
+by the emperor from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in
+1810 the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect to
+Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year 1810 whereby
+Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria.
+
+In the year 1811 the emperor convoked a national council of Gallican
+clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and Fesch was appointed to
+preside over their deliberations. Here again, however, he failed to
+satisfy the inflexible emperor and was dismissed to his diocese. The
+friction between uncle and nephew became more acute in the following
+year. In June 1812, Pius VII. was brought from his first place of
+detention, Savona, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under
+surveillance in the hope that he would give way in certain matters
+relating to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured
+to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands of the
+emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he stopped the sum of
+150,000 florins which had been accorded to him. The disasters of the
+years 1812-1813 brought Napoleon to treat Pius VII. with more lenity and
+the position of Fesch thus became for a time less difficult. On the
+first abdication of Napoleon (April 11th, 1814) and the restoration of
+the Bourbons, he, however, retired to Rome where he received a welcome.
+The events of the Hundred Days (March-June, 1815) brought him back to
+France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at Lyons and was further
+named a member of the senate. On the second abdication of the emperor
+(June 22nd, 1815) Fesch retired to Rome, where he spent the rest of his
+days in dignified ease, surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many
+of which he bequeathed to the city of Lyons. He died at Rome on the 13th
+of May 1839.
+
+  See J.B. Monseigneur Lyonnet, _Le Cardinal Fesch_ (2 vols., Lyons,
+  1841); Ricard, _Le Cardinal Fesch_ (Paris, 1893); H. Welschinger, _Le
+  Pape et l'empereur_ (Paris, 1905); F. Masson, _Napoléon et sa famille_
+  (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).
+
+
+
+
+FESSA, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars. The town
+is situated in a fertile plain in 29° N. and 90 m. from Shiraz, and has
+a population of about 5000. The district has forty villages and extends
+about 40 m. north-south from Runiz to Nassirabad and 16 m. east-west
+from Vasilabad to Deh Dasteh (Dastajah); it produces much grain, dates,
+tobacco, opium and good fruit.
+
+
+
+
+FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT (1806-1869), American statesman and financier,
+was born in Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the 16th of October 1806. After
+graduating at Bowdoin College in 1823, he studied law, and in 1827 was
+admitted to the bar, eventually settling in Portland, Maine, where for
+two years he was associated in practice with his father, Samuel
+Fessenden (1784-1869), a prominent lawyer and anti-slavery leader. In
+1832 and in 1840 Fessenden was a representative in the Maine
+legislature, and in 1841-1843 was a Whig member of the national House of
+Representatives. When his term in this capacity was over, he devoted
+himself unremittingly and with great success to the law. He became well
+known, also, as an eloquent advocate of slavery restriction. In
+1845-1846 and 1853-1854 he again served in the state House of
+Representatives, and in 1854 was chosen by the combined votes of Whigs
+and Anti-Slavery Democrats to the United States Senate. Within a
+fortnight after taking his seat he delivered a speech in opposition to
+the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which at once made him a force in the
+congressional anti-slavery contest. From then on he was one of the most
+eloquent and frequent debaters among his colleagues, and in 1859, almost
+without opposition, he was re-elected to the Senate as a member of the
+Republican party, in the organization of which he had taken an
+influential part. He was a delegate in 1861 to the Peace Congress, but
+after the actual outbreak of hostilities he insisted that the war should
+be prosecuted vigorously. As chairman of the Senate Committee on
+Finance, his services were second in value only to those of President
+Lincoln and Secretary Salmon P. Chase in efforts to provide funds for
+the defence of the Union; and in July 1864 Fessenden succeeded Chase as
+secretary of the treasury. The finances of the country in the early
+summer of 1864 were in a critical condition; a few days before leaving
+office Secretary Chase had been compelled to withdraw from the market
+$32,000,000 of 6% bonds, on account of the lack of acceptable bids; gold
+had reached 285 and was fluctuating between 225 and 250, while the value
+of the paper dollar had sunk as low as 34 cents. It was Secretary
+Fessenden's policy to avoid a further increase of the circulating
+medium, and to redeem or consolidate the temporary obligations
+outstanding. In spite of powerful pressure the paper currency was not
+increased a dollar during his tenure of the office. As the sales of
+bonds and treasury notes were not sufficient for the needs of the
+Treasury, interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness were issued to
+cover the deficits; but when these began to depreciate the secretary,
+following the example of his predecessors, engaged the services of the
+Philadelphia banker Jay Cooke (q.v.) and secured the consent of Congress
+to raise the balance of the $400,000,000 loan authorized on the 30th of
+June 1864 by the sale of the so-called "seven-thirty" treasury notes
+(i.e. notes bearing interest at 7.3% payable in currency in three years
+or convertible at the option of the holder into 6% 5-20 year gold
+bonds). Through Cooke's activities the sales became enormous; the notes,
+issued in denominations as low as $50, appealed to the patriotic
+impulses of the people who could not subscribe for bonds of a higher
+denomination. In the spring of 1865 Congress authorized an additional
+loan of $600,000,000 to be raised in the same manner, and for the first
+time in four years the Treasury was able to meet all its obligations.
+After thus securing ample funds for the enormous expenditures of the
+war, Fessenden resigned the treasury portfolio in March 1865, and again
+took his seat in the Senate, serving till his death. In the Senate he
+again became chairman of the finance committee, and also of the joint
+committee on reconstruction. He was the author of the report of this
+last committee (1866), in which the Congressional plan of reconstruction
+was set forth and which has been considered a state paper of remarkable
+power and cogency. He was not, however, entirely in accord with the more
+radical members of his own party, and this difference was exemplified in
+his opposition to the impeachment of President Johnson and subsequently
+in his voting for Johnson's acquittal. He bore with calmness the storm
+of reproach from his party associates which followed, and lived to
+regain the esteem of those who had attacked him. He died at Portland,
+Maine, on the 6th of September 1869.
+
+  See Francis Fessenden, _Life and Public Services of William Pitt
+  Fessenden_ (2 vols., Boston, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS (1756-1839), Hungarian ecclesiastic, historian
+and freemason, was born on the 18th of May 1756 at the village of Zurány
+in the county of Moson. In 1773 he joined the order of Capuchins, and in
+1779 was ordained priest. He had meanwhile continued his classical and
+philological studies, and his liberal views brought him into frequent
+conflict with his superiors. In 1784, while at the monastery of Mödling,
+near Vienna, he wrote to the emperor Joseph II., making suggestions for
+the better education of the clergy and drawing his attention to the
+irregularities of the monasteries. The searching investigation which
+followed raised up against him many implacable enemies. In 1784 he was
+appointed professor of Oriental languages and hermeneutics in the
+university of Lemberg, when he took the degree of doctor of divinity;
+and shortly afterwards he was released from his monastic vows on the
+intervention of the emperor. In 1788 he brought out his tragedy of
+_Sidney_, an _exposé_ of the tyranny of James II. and of the fanaticism
+of the papists in England. This was attacked so violently as profane and
+revolutionary that he was compelled to resign his office and seek refuge
+in Silesia. In Breslau he met with a cordial reception from G.W. Korn
+the publisher, and was, moreover, subsequently employed by the prince of
+Carolath-Schönaich as tutor to his sons. In 1791 Fessler was converted
+to Lutheranism and next year contracted an unhappy marriage, which was
+dissolved in 1802, when he married again. In 1796 he went to Berlin,
+where he founded a humanitarian society, and was commissioned by the
+freemasons of that city to assist Fichte in reforming the statutes and
+ritual of their lodge. He soon after this obtained a government
+appointment in connexion with the newly-acquired Polish provinces, but
+in consequence of the battle of Jena (1806) he lost this office, and
+remained in very needy circumstances until 1809, when he was summoned to
+St Petersburg by Alexander I., to fill the post of court councillor, and
+the professorship of oriental languages and philosophy at the
+Alexander-Nevski Academy. This office, however, he was soon obliged to
+resign, owing to his alleged atheistic tendencies, but he was
+subsequently nominated a member of the legislative commission. In 1815
+he went with his family to Sarepta, where he joined the Moravian
+community and again became strongly orthodox. This cost him the loss of
+his salary, but it was restored to him in 1817. In November 1820 he was
+appointed consistorial president of the evangelical communities at
+Saratov and subsequently became chief superintendent of the Lutheran
+communities in St Petersburg. Fessler's numerous works are all written
+in German. In recognition of his important services to Hungary as a
+historian, he was in 1831 elected a corresponding member of the
+Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He died at St Petersburg on the 15th of
+December 1839.
+
+Fessler was a voluminous writer, and during his life exercised great
+influence; but, with the possible exception of the history of Hungary,
+none of his books has any value now. He did not pretend to any critical
+treatment of his materials, and most of his historical works are
+practically historical novels. He did much, however, to make the study
+of history popular. His most important works are--_Die Geschichten der
+Ungarn und ihrer Landsassen_ (10 vols. Leipzig, 1815-1825); _Marcus
+Aurelius_ (3 vols., Breslau, 1790-1792; 3rd edition, 4 vols., 1799);
+_Aristides und Themistokles_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1792; 3rd edition, 1818);
+_Attila, König der Hunnen_ (Breslau, 1794); _Mathias Corvinus_ (2 vols.,
+Breslau, 1793-1794); and _Die drei grossen Könige der Hungarn aus dem
+Arpadischen Stamme_ (Breslau, 1808).
+
+  See Fessler's _Rückblicke auf seine siebzigjährige Pilgerschaft_
+  (Breslau, 1824; 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1851).
+
+
+
+
+FESTA, CONSTANZO (c. 1495-1545), Italian singer and musical composer,
+became a member of the Pontifical choir in Rome in 1517, and soon
+afterwards _maestro_ at the Vatican. His motets and madrigals (the first
+book of which appeared in 1537) excited Dr Burney's warm praise in his
+_History of Music_; and, among other church music, his _Te Deum_
+(published in 1596) is still sung at important services in Rome. His
+madrigal, called in English "Down in a flow'ry vale," is well known.
+
+
+
+
+FESTINIOG (or FFESTINIOG), a town of Merionethshire, North Wales, at the
+head of the Festiniog valley, 600 ft. above the sea, in the midst of
+rugged scenery, near the stream Dwyryd, 31 m. from Conway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901), 11,435. There are many large slate quarries in this
+parish, especially at Blaenau Festiniog, the junction of three railways,
+London & North Western, Great Western and Festiniog, a narrow-gauge line
+between Portmadoc and Duffws. This light railway runs at a considerable
+elevation (some 700 ft.), commanding a view across the valley and lake
+of Tan y Bwlch. Lord Lyttelton's letter to Mr Bower is a well-known
+panegyric on Festiniog. Thousands of workmen are employed in the slate
+quarries. The Cynfael falls are famous. Near are _Beddau gwyr Ardudwy_
+(the graves of the men of Ardudwy), memorials of a fight to recover
+women of the Clwyd valley from the men of Ardudwy. Near, too, is a rock
+named "Hugh Lloyd's pulpit" (Lloyd lived in the time of Charles I.,
+Cromwell and Charles II.).
+
+
+
+
+FESTOON (from Fr. _feston_, Ital. _festone_, from a Late Lat. _festo_,
+originally a "festal garland," Lat. _festum_, feast), a wreath or
+garland, and so in architecture a conventional arrangement of flowers,
+foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons, either from a
+decorated knot, or held in the mouths of lions, or suspended across the
+back of bulls' heads as in the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. The "motif" is
+sometimes known as a "swag." It was largely employed both by the Greeks
+and Romans and formed the principal decoration of altars, friezes and
+panels. The ends of the ribbons are sometimes formed into bows or
+twisted curves; when in addition a group of foliage or flowers is
+suspended it is called a "drop." Its origin is probably due to the
+representation in stone of the garlands of natural flowers, &c., which
+were hung up over an entrance doorway on fête days, or suspended round
+the altar.
+
+
+
+
+FESTUS (? RUFUS or RUFIUS), one of the Roman writers of _breviaria_
+(epitomes of Roman history). The reference to the defeat of the Goths at
+Noviodunum (A.D. 369) by the emperor Valens, and the fact that the
+author is unaware of the constitution of Valentia as a province (which
+took place in the same year) are sufficient indication to fix the date
+of composition. Mommsen identifies the author with Rufius Festus,
+proconsul of Achaea (366), and both with Rufius Festus Avienus (q.v.),
+the translator of Aratus. But the absence of the name Rufius in the best
+MSS. is against this. Others take him to be Festus of Tridentum,
+_magister memoriae_ (secretary) to Valens and proconsul of Asia, where
+he was sent to punish those implicated in the conspiracy of Theodorus, a
+commission which he executed with such merciless severity that his name
+became a byword. The work itself (_Breviarium rerum gestarum populi
+Romani_) is divided into two parts--one geographical, the other
+historical. The chief authorities used are Livy, Eutropius and Florus.
+It is extremely meagre, but the fact that the last part is based on the
+writer's personal recollections makes it of some value for the history
+of the 4th century.
+
+  Editions by W. Förster (Vienna, 1873) and C. Wagener (Prague, 1886);
+  see also R. Jacobi, _De Festi breviarii fontibus_ (Bonn, 1874), and H.
+  Peter, _Die geschichtliche Litt. über die römische Kaiserzeit_ ii. p.
+  133 (1897), where the epitomes of Festus, Aurelius Victor and
+  Eutropius are compared.
+
+
+
+
+FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS, Roman grammarian, probably flourished in the
+2nd century A.D. He made an epitome of the celebrated work _De verborum
+significatu_, a valuable treatise alphabetically arranged, written by M.
+Verrius Flaccus, a freedman and celebrated grammarian who flourished in
+the reign of Augustus. Festus gives the etymology as well as the meaning
+of every word; and his work throws considerable light on the language,
+mythology and antiquities of ancient Rome. He made a few alterations,
+and inserted some critical remarks of his own. He also omitted such
+ancient Latin words as had long been obsolete; these he discussed in a
+separate work now lost, entitled _Priscorum verborum cum exemplis_. Of
+Flaccus's work only a few fragments remain, and of Festus's epitome only
+one original copy is in existence. This MS., the Codex Festi Farnesianus
+at Naples, only contains the second half of the work (M-V) and that not
+in a perfect condition. It has been published in facsimile by Thewrewk
+de Ponor (1890). At the close of the 8th century Paulus Diaconus
+abridged the abridgment. From his work and the solitary copy of the
+original attempts have been made with the aid of conjecture to
+reconstruct the treatise of Festus.
+
+  Of the early editions the best are those of J. Scaliger (1565) and
+  Fulvius Ursinus (1581); in modern times, those of C.O. Müller (1839,
+  reprinted 1880) and de Ponor (1889); see J.E. Sandys, _History of
+  Classical Scholarship_, vol. i. (1906).
+
+
+
+
+FÉTIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1784-1871), Belgian composer and writer on
+music, was born at Mons in Belgium on the 25th of March 1784, and was
+trained as a musician by his father, who followed the same calling. His
+talent for composition manifested itself at the age of seven, and at
+nine years old he was an organist at Sainte-Waudru. In 1800 he went to
+Paris and completed his studies at the conservatoire under such masters
+as Boieldieu, Rey and Pradher. In 1806 he undertook the revision of the
+Roman liturgical chants in the hope of discovering and establishing
+their original form. In this year he married the granddaughter of the
+Chevalier de Kéralio, and also began his _Biographie universelle des
+musiciens_, the most important of his works, which did not appear until
+1834. In 1821 he was appointed professor at the conservatoire. In 1827
+he founded the _Revue musicale_, the first serious paper in France
+devoted exclusively to musical matters. Fétis remained in the French
+capital till in 1833, at the request of Leopold I., he became director
+of the conservatoire of Brussels and the king's chapel-master. He also
+was the founder, and, till his death, the conductor of the celebrated
+concerts attached to the conservatoire of Brussels, and he inaugurated a
+free series of lectures on musical history and philosophy. He produced a
+large quantity of original compositions, from the opera and the oratorio
+down to the simple _chanson_. But all these are doomed to oblivion.
+Although not without traces of scholarship and technical ability, they
+show total absence of genius. More important are his writings on music.
+They are partly historical, such as the _Curiosités historiques de la
+musique_ (Paris, 1850), and the _Histoire universelle de musique_
+(Paris, 1869-1876); partly theoretical, such as the _Méthode des
+méthodes de piano_ (Paris, 1837), written in conjunction with Moscheles.
+Fétis died at Brussels on the 26th of March 1871. His valuable library
+was purchased by the Belgian government and presented to the Brussels
+conservatoire. His work as a musical historian was prodigious in
+quantity, and, in spite of many inaccuracies and some prejudice revealed
+in it, there can be no question as to its value for the student.
+
+
+
+
+FETISHISM, an ill-defined term, used in many different senses: (a) the
+worship of inanimate objects, often regarded as peculiarly African; (b)
+negro religion in general; (c) the worship of inanimate objects
+conceived as the residence of spirits not inseparably bound up with, nor
+originally connected with, such objects; (d) the doctrine of spirits
+embodied in, or attached to, or conveying influence through, certain
+material objects (Tylor); (e) the use of charms, which are not
+worshipped, but derive their magical power from a god or spirit; (f) the
+use as charms of objects regarded as magically potent in themselves. A
+further extension is given by some writers, who use the term as
+synonymous with the religions of primitive peoples, including under it
+not only the worship of inanimate objects, such as the sun, moon or
+stars, but even such phases of primitive philosophy as totemism. Comte
+applied the term to denominate the view of nature more commonly termed
+animism.
+
+_Derivation._--The word fetish (or fetich) was first used in connexion
+with Africa by the Portuguese discoverers of the last half of the 15th
+century; relics of saints, rosaries and images were then abundant all
+over Europe and were regarded as possessing magical virtue; they were
+termed by the Portuguese _feiticos_ (_i.e._ charms). Early voyagers to
+West Africa applied this term to the wooden figures, stones, &c.,
+regarded as the temporary residence of gods or spirits, and to charms.
+There is no reason to suppose that the word _feitico_ was applied either
+to an animal or to the local spirit of a river, hill or forest.
+_Feitico_ is sometimes interpreted to mean artificial, made by man, but
+the original sense is more probably "magically active or artful." The
+word was probably brought into general use by C. de Brosses, author of
+_Du culte des dieux fétiches_ (1760), but it is frequently used by W.
+Bosman in his _Description of Guinea_ (1705), in the sense of "the false
+god, Bossum" or "Bohsum," properly a tutelary deity of an individual.
+
+_Definition._--The term fetish is commonly understood to mean the
+worship of or respect for material, inanimate objects, conceived as
+magically active from a virtue inherent in them, temporarily or
+permanently, which does not arise from the fact that a god or spirit is
+believed to reside in them or communicate virtue to them. Taken in this
+sense fetishism is probably a mark of decadence. There is no evidence
+of any such belief in Africa or elsewhere among primitive peoples. It is
+only after a certain grade of culture has been attained that the belief
+in luck appears; the fetish is essentially a mascot or object carried
+for luck.
+
+_Ordinary Usage._--In the sense in which Dr Tylor uses the term the
+fetish is (1) a "god-house" or (2) a charm derived from a tutelary deity
+or spirit, and magically active in virtue of its association with such
+deity or spirit. In the first of these senses the word is applied to
+objects ranging from the unworked stone to the pot or the wooden figure,
+and is thus hardly distinguishable from idolatry. (a) The _bohsum_ or
+tutelary deity of a particular section of the community is derived from
+the local gods through the priests by the performance of a certain
+series of rites. The priest indicates into what object the _bohsum_ will
+enter and proceeds to the abode of the local god to procure the object
+in question. After making an offering the object is carried to an
+appropriate spot and a "fetish" tree set up as a shade for it, which is
+sacred so long as the _bohsum_ remains beneath it. The fall of the tree
+is believed to mark the departure of the spirit. A _bohsum_ may also be
+procured through a dream; but in this case, too, it is necessary to
+apply to the priest to decide whether the dream was veridical. (b) The
+_suhman_ or tutelary deity of an individual is not an object selected at
+random to be the residence of the spirit. It is only procurable at the
+residence of a Sasabonsum, a malicious non-human being. Various
+ceremonies are performed, and a spirit connected with the Sasabonsum is
+finally asked to enter an object. This is then kept for three days; if
+no good fortune results it is concluded either that the spirit did not
+enter the object selected, or that it is disinclined to extend its
+protection. In either case the ceremonies must be commenced afresh.
+Otherwise offerings and even human sacrifices in exceptional cases are
+made to the _suhman_. It is commonly believed that the negro claims the
+power of coercing his tutelary deity. This is denied by Colonel Ellis.
+It is certain that coercion of deities is not unknown, but further
+evidence is required that the negro uses it when his deity is
+refractory.
+
+The _suhman_ can, it is believed, communicate a part of his powers to
+various objects in which he does not dwell; these are also termed
+_suhman_ by the natives and may have given rise to the belief that the
+practices commonly termed fetishism are not animistic. These charms are
+many in number; offerings of food and drink are made, _i.e._ to the
+portion of the power of the _suhman_ which resides in them. These charms
+can only be made by the possessor of the _suhman_.
+
+On the Guinea Coast the spirit implanted in the object is usually, if
+not invariably, non-human. Farther south on the Congo the "fetish" is
+inhabited by human souls also. The priest goes into the forest and cuts
+an image; when a party enters a wood for this purpose they may not
+mention the name of any living being unless they wish him to die and his
+soul to enter the fetish. The right person having been selected, his
+name is mentioned; and he is believed to die within ten days, his soul
+passing into the _nkissi_. It is into these figures that the nails are
+driven, in order to procure the vengeance of the indwelling spirit on
+some enemy.
+
+In many cases the fetish spirit is believed to leave the "god-house" and
+pass for the time being into the body of the priest, who manifests the
+phenomena of possession (q.v.). It is a common error to suppose that the
+whole of African religion is embraced in the practices connected with
+these tutelary deities; so far from this being the case, belief in
+higher gods, not necessarily accompanied with worship or propitiation,
+is common in many parts of Africa, and there is no reason to suppose
+that it had been derived in every case, perhaps not in any case, from
+Christian or Mahommedan missionaries.
+
+  See A.B. Ellis, _Tshi-speaking Peoples_, chs. vii., viii. and xii.;
+  Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, ii. 174; R.E. Dennett in
+  _Folklore_, vol. xvi.; R.H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (1904);
+  also Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii. 143, and M.H. Kingsley, _West
+  African Studies_ (2nd ed., 1901), where the term is used in a more
+  extended sense.     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+FETTERCAIRN, a burgh of barony of Kincardineshire, Scotland, 4½ m. N.W.
+of Laurencekirk. Pop. of parish (1901) 1390. The chief structures
+include a public hall, library and reading-room, and the arch built to
+commemorate the visit of Queen Victoria in 1861. The most interesting
+relic, however, is the market cross, which originally belonged to the
+extinct town of Kincardine. To the S.W. is Balbegno Castle, dating from
+1509, and planned on a scale that threatened to ruin its projector. It
+contains a lofty hall of fine proportions. Two miles N. is Fasque, the
+estate of the Gladstones, which was acquired in 1831 by Sir John
+Gladstone (1764-1851), the father of W.E. Gladstone. The castle, which
+stands in beautiful grounds, was built in 1809. Sir John Gladstone's
+tomb is in the Episcopal church of St Andrew, which he erected and
+endowed. In the immediate vicinity are the ruins of the royal castle of
+Kincardine, where, according to tradition, Kenneth III. was assassinated
+in 1005, although he is more generally said to have been slain in battle
+at Monzievaird, near Crieff in Perthshire.
+
+
+
+
+FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS, instruments for securing the feet and hands of
+prisoners under arrest, or as a means of punishment. The old names were
+manacles, shackbolts or shackles, gyves and swivels. Until within recent
+times handcuffs were of two kinds, the figure-8 ones which confined the
+hands close together either in front or behind the prisoner, or the
+rings from the wrists were connected by a short chain much on the model
+of the handcuffs in use by the police forces of to-day. Much improvement
+has been made in handcuffs of late. They are much lighter and they are
+adjustable, fitting any wrist, and thus the one pair will serve a police
+officer for any prisoner. For the removal of gangs of convicts an
+arrangement of handcuffs connected by a light chain is used, the chain
+running through a ring on each fetter and made fast at both ends by what
+are known as _end-locks_. Several recently invented appliances are used
+as handcuffs, e.g. snaps, nippers, twisters. They differ from handcuffs
+in being intended for one wrist only, the other portion being held by
+the captor. In the snap the smaller circlet is snapped to on the
+prisoner's wrist. The nippers can be instantly fastened on the wrist.
+The twister, not now used in England as being liable to injure prisoners
+seriously, is a chain attached to two handles; the chain is put round
+the wrist and the two handles twisted till the chain is tight enough.
+
+Leg-irons are anklets of steel connected by light chains long enough to
+permit of the wearer walking with short steps. An obsolete form was an
+anklet and chain to the end of which was attached a heavy weight,
+usually a round shot. The Spanish used to secure prisoners in bilboes,
+shackles round the ankles secured by a long bar of iron. This form of
+leg-iron was adopted in England, and was much employed in the services
+during the 17th and 18th centuries. An ancient example is preserved in
+the Tower of London. The French marine still use a kind of leg-iron of
+the bilbo type.
+
+
+
+
+FEU, in Scotland, the commonest mode of land tenure. The word is the
+Scots variant of "fee" (q.v.). The relics of the feudal system still
+dominate Scots conveyancing. That system has recognized as many as seven
+forms of tenure--ward, socage, mortification, feu, blench, burgage,
+booking. Ward, the original military holding, was abolished in 1747 (20
+G. II. c. 20), as an effect of the rising of 1745. Socage and
+mortification have long since disappeared. Booking is a conveyance
+peculiar to the borough of Paisley, but does not differ essentially from
+feu. Burgage is the system by which land is held in royal boroughs.
+Blench holding is by a nominal payment, as of a penny Scots, or a red
+rose, often only to be rendered upon demand. In feu holding there is a
+substantial annual payment in money or in kind in return for the
+enjoyment of the land. The crown is the first overlord or superior, and
+land is held of it by crown vassals, but they in their turn may "feu"
+their land, as it is called, to others who become _their_ vassals,
+whilst they themselves are mediate overlords or superiors; and this
+process of sub-infeudation may be repeated to an indefinite extent. The
+Conveyancing Act of 1874 renders any clause in a disposition against
+sub-infeudation null and void. In England on the other hand, since
+1290, when the statute _Quia Emptores_ was passed, sub-infeudation is
+impossible, as the new holder simply effaces the grantor, holding by the
+same title as the grantor himself. Casualties, which are a feature of
+land held in feu, are certain payments made to the superior, contingent
+on the happening of certain events. The most important was the payment
+of an amount equal to one year's feu-duty by a new holder, whether heir
+or purchaser of the feu. The Conveyancing Act of 1874 abolished
+casualties in all feus after that date, and power was given to redeem
+this burden on feus already existing. If the vassal does not pay the
+feu-duty for two years, the superior, among other remedies, may obtain
+by legal process a decree of irritancy, whereupon _tinsel_ or forfeiture
+of the feu follows. Previously to 1832 only the vassals of the crown had
+votes in parliamentary elections for the Scots counties, and this made
+in favour of sub-infeudation as against sale outright. In Orkney and
+Shetland land is still largely possessed as udal property, a holding
+derived or handed down from the time when these islands belonged to
+Norway. Such lands may be converted into feus at the will of the
+proprietor and held from the crown or Lord Dundas. At one time the
+system of conveyancing by which the transfer of feus was effected was
+curious and complicated, requiring the presence of parties on the land
+itself and the symbolical handing over of the property, together with
+the registration of various documents. But legislation since the middle
+of the 19th century has changed all that. The system of feuing in
+Scotland, as contrasted with that of long leaseholds in England, has
+tended to secure greater solidity and firmness in the average buildings
+of the northern country.
+
+  See Erskine's _Principles_; Bell's _Principles_; Rankine, _Law of
+  Landownership in Scotland_.
+
+
+
+
+FEUCHÈRES, SOPHIE, BARONNE DE (1795-1840), Anglo-French adventuress, was
+born at St Helens, Isle of Wight, in 1795, the daughter of a drunken
+fisherman named Dawes. She grew up in the workhouse, went up to London
+as a servant, and became the mistress of the duc de Bourbon, afterwards
+prince de Condé. She was ambitious, and he had her well educated not
+only in modern languages but, as her exercise books--still extant--show,
+in Greek and Latin. He took her to Paris and, to prevent scandal and to
+qualify her to be received at court, had her married in 1818 to Adrien
+Victor de Feuchères, a major in the Royal Guards. The prince provided
+her dowry, made her husband his aide-de-camp and a baron. The baroness,
+pretty and clever, became a person of consequence at the court of Louis
+XVIII. De Feuchères, however, finally discovered the relations between
+his wife and Condé, whom he had been assured was her father, left
+her--he obtained a legal separation in 1827--and told the king, who
+thereupon forbade her appearance at court. Thanks to her influence,
+however, Condé was induced in 1829 to sign a will bequeathing about ten
+million francs to her, and the rest of his estate--more than sixty-six
+millions--to the duc d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe. Again she
+was in high favour. Charles X. received her at court, Talleyrand visited
+her, her niece married a marquis and her nephew was made a baron. Condé,
+wearied by his mistress's importunities, and but half pleased by the
+advances made him by the government of July, had made up his mind to
+leave France secretly. When on the 27th of August 1830 he was found
+hanging dead from his window, the baroness was suspected and an inquiry
+was held, but the evidence of death being the result of any crime
+appearing insufficient, she was not prosecuted. Hated as she was alike
+by legitimatists and republicans, life in Paris was no longer agreeable
+for her, and she returned to London, where she died in December 1840.
+
+
+
+
+FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1806-1849), Austrian physician,
+poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna on the 29th of April 1806; of
+an old Saxon noble family. He attended the "Theresian Academy" in his
+native city, and in 1825 entered its university as a student of
+medicine. In 1833 he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine, settled
+in Vienna as a practising surgeon, and in 1834 married. The young doctor
+kept up his connexion with the university, where he lectured, and in
+1844 was appointed dean of the faculty of medicine. He cultivated the
+acquaintance of Franz Grillparzer, Heinrich Laube, and other
+intellectual lights of the Viennese world, interested himself greatly in
+educational matters, and in 1848, while refusing the presidency of the
+ministry of education, accepted the appointment of under secretary of
+state in that department. His health, however, gave way, and he died at
+Vienna on the 3rd of September 1849. He was not only a clever physician,
+but a poet of fine aesthetical taste and a philosopher. Among his
+medical works may be mentioned: _Über das Hippokratische erste Buch von
+der Diät_ (Vienna, 1835), _Ärzte und Publicum_ (Vienna, 1848) and
+_Lehrbuch der ärztlichen Seelenkunde_ (1845). His poetical works include
+_Gedichte_ (Stutt. 1836), among which is the well-known beautiful hymn,
+which Mendelssohn set to music. "_Es ist bestimmt in Gottes Rat._" As a
+philosopher he is best known by his _Zur Diätetik der Seele_ [Dietetics
+of the soul] (Vienna, 1838), which attained great popularity, and the
+tendency of which, in contrast to Hufeland's _Makrobiotik_ (On the Art
+of Prolonging Life), is to show the true way of rendering life
+harmonious and lovely. This work had by 1906 gone into fifty editions.
+Noteworthy also is his _Beiträge zur Litteratur-, Kunst- und
+Lebenstheorie_ (Vienna, 1837-1841), and an anthology, _Geist der
+deutschen_ Klassiker (Vienna, 1851; 3rd ed. 1865-1866).
+
+  His collected works (with the exception of the purely medical ones)
+  were published in 7 vols. by Fr. Hebbel (Vienna, 1851-1853). See M.
+  Necker, "Ernst von Feuchtersleben, der Freund Grillparzers," in the
+  _Jahrbuch der Grillparzer Gesellschaft_, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+FEUD, animosity, hatred, especially a permanent condition of hostilities
+between persons, and hence applied to a state of private warfare between
+tribes, clans or families, a "vendetta." The word appears in Mid. Eng.
+as _fede_, which came through the O. Fr. from the O. High Ger. _fehida_,
+modern _Fehde_. The O. Teutonic _faiho_, an adjective, the source of
+_fehida_, gives the O. Eng. fáh, foe. "Fiend," originally an enemy (cf.
+Ger. _Feind_), hence the enemy of mankind, the devil, and so any evil
+spirit, is probably connected with the same source. The word _fede_ was
+of Scottish usage, but in the 16th century took the form _foode_, _fewd_
+in English. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that "feud, fee
+(Lat. _feudum_) could not have influenced the change, for it appears
+fifty years later than the first instances of _foode_, &c., and was only
+used by writers on feudalism." For the etymology of "feud" (_feudum_)
+see FEE, and for its history see FEUDALISM.
+
+
+
+
+FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. _feodum_ or _feudum_, a fee or fiel; see FEE).
+In every case of institutional growth in history two things are to be
+clearly distinguished from the beginning for a correct understanding of
+the process and its results. One of these is the change of conditions in
+the political or social environment which made growth necessary. The
+other is the already existing institutions which began to be transformed
+to meet the new needs. In studying the origin and growth of political
+feudalism, the distinction is easy to make. The all-prevailing need of
+the later Roman and early medieval society was protection--protection
+against the sudden attacks of invading tribes or revolted peasants,
+against oppressive neighbours, against the unwarranted demands of
+government officers, or even against the legal but too heavy exactions
+of the government itself. In the days of the decaying empire and of the
+chaotic German settlement, the weak freeman, the small landowner, was
+exposed to attack in almost every relation of life and on every side.
+The protection which normally it is the business of government to
+furnish he could no longer obtain. He must seek protection elsewhere
+wherever he could get it, and pay the price demanded for it. This is the
+great social fact--the failure of government to perform one of its most
+primary duties, the necessity of finding some substitute in private
+life--extending in greater or less degree through the whole formative
+period of feudalism, which explains the transformation of institutions
+that brought it into existence. Similar conditions have produced an
+organization which may be called feudal, in various countries, and in
+widely separated periods of history. While these different feudal
+systems have shown a general similarity of organization, there has been
+also great variation in their details, because they have started from
+different institutions and developed in different ways. The feudal
+system with which history most concerns itself is that of medieval
+western Europe, and it is that which will be here described.
+
+
+  Roman origins.
+
+The institutions which the need of protection seized upon when it first
+began to turn away from the state were twofold. They had both long
+existed in the private, not public, relations of the Romans, and they
+had up to this time shown no tendency to grow. One of them related to
+the person, to the man himself, without reference to property, the other
+related to land. There are thus distinguished at the beginning those two
+great sides of feudalism which remained to the end of its history more
+or less distinct, the personal relation and the land relation. The
+personal institution needs little description. It was the Roman patron
+and client relationship which had remained in existence into the days of
+the empire, in later times less important perhaps legally than socially,
+and which had been reinforced in Gaul by very similar practices in use
+among the Celts before their conquest. The description of this
+institution which has come down to us from Roman sources of the days
+when feudalism was beginning is not so detailed as we could wish, but we
+can see plainly enough that it met a frequent need, that it was called
+by a new name, the _patrocinium_, and that it was firmly enough
+entrenched in usage to survive the German conquest, and to be taken up
+and continued by the conquerors. In its new use, alike in the later
+Roman and the early German state, the landless freeman who could not
+support himself went to some powerful man, stated his need, and offered
+his services, those proper to a freeman, in return for shelter and
+support. This transaction, which was called commendation, gave rise in
+the German state to a written contract which related the facts and
+provided a penalty for its violation. It created a relationship of
+protection and support on one side, and of free service on the other.
+
+The other institution, relating to land, was that known to the Roman law
+as the _precarium_, a name derived from one of its essential features
+through all its history, the prayer of the suppliant by which the
+relationship was begun. The _precarium_ was a form of renting land not
+intended primarily for income, but for use when the lease was made from
+friendship for example, or as a reward, or to secure a debt. Legally its
+characteristic feature was that the lessee had no right of any kind
+against the grantor. The owner could call in his land and terminate the
+relation at any time, for any reason, or for none at all. Even a
+definite understanding at the outset that the lease might be enjoyed to
+a specified date was no protection.[1] It followed of course that the
+heir had no right in the land which his father held in this way, nor was
+the heir of the donor bound by his father's act. The legal character of
+this transaction is summed up in a well-known passage in the
+_Digest:--Interdictum de precariis merito introductum est, quia nulla eo
+nomine juris civilis actio esset, magis enim ad donationes et beneficii
+causam, quam ad negotii contracti spectat precarii conditio._[2] This
+may be paraphrased as follows:--The _precarium_ tenant may employ the
+interdict against a third party, because he cannot use the ordinary
+civil action, his holding being not a matter of business but rather of
+favour and kindness. It should be noted that from its very beginning the
+land relationship of feudalism was not created primarily for the
+grantor's income, but that it emphasized in the most striking way his
+continued ownership.
+
+As used for protection in later Roman days the _precarium_ gave rise to
+what was called the commendation of lands, _patrocinium fundorum_. The
+poor landowner, likely to lose all that he had from one kind of
+oppression or another, went to the great landowner, his neighbour, whose
+position gave him immunity from attack or the power to prevent official
+abuses, and begged to be protected. The rich man answered, I can only
+protect my own. Of necessity the poor man must surrender to his powerful
+neighbour the ownership of his lands, which he then received back as a
+_precarium_--gaining protection during his lifetime at the cost of his
+children, who were left without legal claim and compelled to make the
+best terms they could.[3] Applied to this use the _precarium_ found
+extensive employment in the last age of the empire. The government
+looked on the practice with great disfavour, because it transferred
+large areas from the easy access of the state to an ownership beyond its
+reach. The laws repeatedly forbade it under increasing penalties, but
+clearly it could not be stopped. The motive was too strong on both
+sides--the need of protection on one side, the natural desire to
+increase large possessions and means of self-defence on the other.
+
+
+  Frankish development.
+
+These practices the Frankish conquerors of Gaul found in full possession
+of society when they entered into that province. They seem to have
+understood them at once, and, like much else Roman, to have made them
+their own without material change. The _patrocinium_ they were made
+ready to understand by the existence of a somewhat similar institution
+among themselves, the _comitatus_, described by Tacitus. In this
+institution the chief of the tribe, or of some plainly marked division
+of the tribe, gathered about himself a band of chosen warriors, who
+formed a kind of private military force and body-guard. The special
+features of the institution were the strong tie of faith and service
+which bound the man, the support and rewards given by the lord, and the
+pride of both in the relationship. The _patrocinium_ might well seem to
+the German only a form of the _comitatus_, but it was a form which
+presented certain advantages in his actual situation. The chief of these
+was perhaps the fact that it was not confined to king or tribal chief,
+but that every noble was able in the Roman practice to surround himself
+with his organized private army. Probably this fact, together with the
+more general fact of the absorption in most things of the German in the
+Roman, accounts for the substitution of the _patrocinium_ for the
+_comitatus_ which took place under the Merovingians.
+
+This change did not occur, however, without some modification of the
+Roman customs. The _comitatus_ made contributions of its own to future
+feudalism, to some extent to its institutional side, largely to the
+ideas and spirit which ruled in it. Probably the ceremony which grew
+into feudal homage, and the oath of fealty, certainly the honourable
+position of the vassal and his pride in the relationship, the strong tie
+which bound lord and man together, and the idea that faith and service
+were due on both sides in equal measure, we may trace to German sources.
+But we must not forget that the origin of the vassal relationship, as an
+institution, is to be found on Roman and not on German soil. The
+_comitatus_ developed and modified, it did not originate. Nor was the
+feudal system established in any sense by the settlement of the
+_comitatus_ group on the conquered land. The uniting of the personal and
+the land sides of feudalism came long after the conquest, and in a
+different way.
+
+To the _precarium_ German institutions offered no close parallel. The
+advantages, however, which it afforded were obvious, and this side of
+feudalism developed as rapidly after the conquest as the personal. The
+new German noble was as eager to extend the size of his lands and to
+increase the numbers of his dependants as the Roman had been. The new
+German government furnished no better protection from local violence,
+nor was it able any more effectively to check the practices which were
+creating feudalism; indeed for a long time it made no attempt to do so.
+_Precarium_ and _patrocinium_ easily passed from the Roman empire to the
+Frankish kingdom, and became as firmly rooted in the new society as they
+had ever been in the old. Up to this point we have seen only the small
+landowner and the landless man entering into these relations. Feudalism
+could not be established, however, until the great of the land had
+adopted them for themselves, and had begun to enter the clientage of
+others and to hold lands by the _precarium_ tenure. The first step
+towards this result was easily and quickly taken. The same class
+continued to furnish the king's men, and to form his household and
+body-guard whether the relation was that of the _patrocinium_ or the
+_comitatus_, and to be made noble by entering into it. It was later that
+they became clients of one another, and in part at least as a result of
+their adoption of the _precarium_ tenure. In this latter step the
+influence of the Church rather than of the king seems to have been
+effective. The large estates which pious intentions had bestowed on the
+Church it was not allowed to alienate. It could most easily make them
+useful to gain the influence and support which it needed, and to provide
+for the public functions which fell to its share, by employing the
+_precarium_ tenure. On the other side, the great men coveted the wide
+estates of bishop and abbot, and were ready without persuasion to annex
+portions of them to their own on the easy terms of this tenure, not
+always indeed observed by the holder, or able to be enforced by the
+Church. The employment of the _precarium_ by the Church seems to have
+been one of the surest means by which this form of landholding was
+carried over from the Romans to the Frankish period and developed into
+new forms. It came to be made by degrees the subject of written
+contract, by which the rights of the holder were more definitely defined
+and protected than had been the case in Roman law. The length of time
+for which the holding should last came to be specified, at first for a
+term of years and then for life, and some payment to the grantor was
+provided for, not pretending to represent the economic value of the
+land, but only to serve as a mark of his continued ownership.
+
+These changes characterize the Merovingian age of Frankish history. That
+period had practically ended, however, before these two institutions
+showed any tendency to join together as they were joined in later
+feudalism. Nor had the king up to that time exerted any apparent
+influence on the processes that were going forward. Grants of land of
+the Merovingian kings had carried with them ownership and not a limited
+right, and the king's _patrocinium_ had not widened in extent in the
+direction of the later vassal relation. It was the advent of the
+Carolingian princes and the difficulties which they had to overcome that
+carried these institutions a stage further forward. Making their way up
+from a position among the nobility to be the rulers of the land, and
+finally to supplant the kings, the Carolingians had especial need of
+resources from which to purchase and reward faithful support. This need
+was greatly increased when the Arab attack on southern Gaul forced them
+to transform a large part of the old Frankish foot army into cavalry.[4]
+The fundamental principle of the Frankish military system, that the man
+served at his own expense, was still unchanged. It had indeed begun to
+break down under the strain of frequent and distant campaigns, but it
+was long before it was changed as the recognized rule of medieval
+service. If now, in addition to his own expenses, the soldier must
+provide a horse and its keeping, the system was likely to break down
+altogether. It was this problem which led to the next step. To solve it
+the early Carolingian princes, especially Charles Martel, who found the
+royal domains exhausted and their own inadequate, grasped at the land of
+the Church. Here was enough to endow an army, if some means could be
+devised to permit its use. This means was found in the _precarium_
+tenure. Keeping alive, as it did, the fact of the grantor's ownership,
+it did not in form deprive the Church of the land. Recognizing that
+ownership by a small payment only, not corresponding to the value of the
+land, it left the larger part of the income to meet the need which had
+arisen. At the same time undoubtedly the new holder of the land, if not
+already the vassal of the prince, was obliged to become so and to assume
+an obligation of service with a mounted force when called upon.[5] This
+expedient seems to have solved the problem. It gave rise to the numerous
+_precariae verbo regis_, of the Church records, and to the condemnation
+of Charles Martel in the visions of the clergy to worse difficulties in
+the future life than he had overcome in this. The most important
+consequences of the expedient, however, were not intended or perceived
+at the time. It brought together the two sides of feudalism, vassalage
+and benefice, as they were now commonly called, and from this age their
+union into what is really a single institution was rapid;[6] it
+emphasized military service as an essential obligation of the vassal;
+and it spread the vassal relation between individual proprietors and the
+sovereign widely over the state.
+
+In the period that followed, the reign of Charlemagne and the later
+Carolingian age, continued necessities, military and civil, forced the
+kings to recognize these new institutions more fully, even when standing
+in a position between the government and the subject, intercepting the
+public duties of the latter. The incipient feudal baron had not been
+slow to take advantage of the break-down of the old German military
+system. As in the last days of the Roman empire the poor landowner had
+found his only refuge from the exactions of the government in the
+protection of the senator, who could in some way obtain exemptions, so
+the poor Frank could escape the ruinous demands of military service only
+by submitting himself and his lands to the count, who did not hesitate
+on his side to force such submission. Charlemagne legislated with vigour
+against this tendency, trying to make it easier for the poor freeman to
+fulfil his military duties directly to the state, and to forbid the
+misuse of power by the rich, but he was not more successful than the
+Roman government had been in a like attempt. Finally the king found
+himself compelled to recognize existing facts, to lay upon the lord the
+duty of producing his men in the field and to allow him to appear as
+their commander. This solved the difficulty of military service
+apparently, but with decisive consequences. It completed the
+transformation of the army into a vassal army; it completed the
+recognition of feudalism by the state, as a legitimate relation between
+different ranks of the people; and it recognized the transformation in a
+great number of cases of a public duty into a private obligation.
+
+In the meantime another institution had grown up in this Franco-Roman
+society, which probably began and certainly assisted in another
+transformation of the same kind. This is the immunity. Suggested
+probably by Roman practices, possibly developed directly from them, it
+received a great extension in the Merovingian period, at first and
+especially in the interest of the Church, but soon of lay land-holders.
+By the grant of an immunity to a proprietor the royal officers, the
+count and his representatives, were forbidden to enter his lands to
+exercise any public function there. The duties which the count should
+perform passed to the proprietor, who now represented the government for
+all his tenants free and unfree. Apparently no modification of the royal
+rights was intended by this arrangement, but the beginning of a great
+change had really been made. The king might still receive the same
+revenues and the same services from the district held by the lord as
+formerly, but for their payment a private person in his capacity as
+overlord was now responsible. In the course of a long period
+characterized by a weak central government, it was not difficult to
+enlarge the rights which the lord thus obtained, to exclude even the
+king's personal authority from the immunity, and to translate the duties
+and payments which the tenant had once owed to the state into
+obligations which he owed to his lord, even finally into incidents of
+his tenure. The most important public function whose transformation into
+a private possession was assisted by the growth of the immunity was the
+judicial. This process had probably already begun in a small way in the
+growth of institutions which belong to the economic side of feudalism,
+the organization of agriculture on the great estates. Even in Roman days
+the proprietor had exercised a jurisdiction over the disputes of his
+unfree tenants. Whether this could by its own growth have been extended
+over his free tenants and carried so far as to absorb a local court,
+like that of the hundred, into private possession, is not certain. It
+seems probable that it could. But in any case, the immunity easily
+carried the development of private jurisdiction through these stages.
+The lord's court took the place of the public court in civil, and even
+by degrees in criminal cases. The plaintiff, even if he were under
+another lord, was obliged to sue in the court of the defendant's lord,
+and the portion of the fine for a breach of the peace which should have
+gone to the state went in the end to the lord.
+
+The transfer of the judicial process, and of the financial and
+administrative sides of the government as well, into private possession,
+was not, however, accomplished entirely by the road of the immunity. As
+government weakened after the strong days of Charlemagne, and disorder,
+invasion, and the difficulty of intercommunication tended to throw the
+locality more and more upon its own resources, the officer who had once
+been the means of centralization, the count, found success in the effort
+for independence which even Charlemagne had scarcely overcome. He was
+able to throw off responsibility to any central authority, and to
+exercise the powers which had been committed to him as an agent of the
+king, as if they were his own private possession. Nor was the king's aid
+lacking to this method of dividing up the royal authority, any more than
+to the immunity, for it became a frequent practice to make the
+administrative office into a fief, and to grant it to be held in that
+form of property by the count. In this way the feudal county, or duchy,
+formed itself, corresponding in most cases only roughly to the old
+administrative divisions of the state, for within the bounds of the
+county there had often formed private feudal possessions too powerful to
+be forced into dependence upon the count, sometimes the vice-comes had
+followed the count's example, and often, on the other hand, the count
+had attached to his county like private possessions of his own lying
+outside its boundaries. In time the private lord, who had never been an
+officer of the state, assumed the old administrative titles and called
+himself count or viscount, and perhaps with some sort of right, for his
+position in his territories, through the development of the immunity,
+did not differ from that now held by the man who had been originally a
+count.
+
+In these two ways then the feudal system was formed, and took possession
+of the state territorially, and of its functions in government. Its
+earliest stage of growth was that of the private possession only. Under
+a government too weak to preserve order, the great landowner formed his
+estate into a little territory which could defend itself. His smaller
+neighbours who needed protection came to him for it. He forced them to
+become his dependants in return under a great variety of forms, but
+especially developing thereby the _precarium_ land tenure and the
+_patrocinium_ personal service, and organizing a private jurisdiction
+over his tenants, and a private army for defence. Finally he secured
+from the king an immunity which excluded the royal officers from his
+lands and made him a quasi-representative of the state. In the meantime
+his neighbour the count had been following a similar process, and in
+addition he had enjoyed considerable advantages of his own. His right to
+exact military, financial and judicial duties for the state he had used
+to force men to become his dependants, and then he had stood between
+them and the state, freeing them from burdens which he threw with
+increased weight upon those who still stood outside his personal
+protection. In ignorance of their danger, and later in despair of
+getting public services adequately performed in any other way, the kings
+first adopted for themselves some of the forms and practices which had
+thus grown up, and by degrees recognized them as legally proper for all
+classes. It proved to be easier to hold the lord responsible for the
+public duties of all his dependants because he was the king's vassal and
+by attaching them as conditions to the benefices which he held, than to
+enforce them directly upon every subject.
+
+When this stage was reached the formative age of feudalism may be
+considered at an end. When the government of the state had entered into
+feudalism, and the king was as much senior as king; when the vassal
+relationship was recognized as a proper and legal foundation of public
+duties; when the two separate sides of early feudalism were united as
+the almost universal rule, so that a man received a fief because he owed
+a vassal's duties, or looked at in the other and finally prevailing way,
+that he owed a vassal's duties because he had received a fief; and
+finally, when the old idea of the temporary character of the _precarium_
+tenure was lost sight of, and the right of the vassal's heir to receive
+his father's holding was recognized as the general rule--then the feudal
+system may be called full grown. Not that the age of growth was really
+over. Feudal history was always a becoming, always a gradual passing
+from one stage to another, so long as feudalism continued to form the
+main organization of society. But we may say that the formative age was
+over when these features of the system had combined to be its
+characteristic marks. What follows is rather a perfection of details in
+the direction of logical completeness. To assign any specific date to
+the end of this formative age is of course impossible, but meaning by
+the end what has just been stated, we shall not be far wrong if we place
+it somewhere near the beginning of the 10th century.
+
+Before we leave the history of feudal origins another word is necessary.
+We have traced a definite line of descent for feudal institutions from
+Roman days through the Merovingian and Carolingian ages to the 10th
+century. That line of descent can be made out with convincing clearness
+and with no particular difficulty from epoch to epoch, from the
+_precarium_ and the _patrocinium_, through the benefice and
+commendation, to the fief and vassalage. But the definiteness of this
+line should not cause us to overlook the fact that there was during
+these centuries much confusion of custom and practice. All round and
+about this line of descent there was a crowd of varying forms branching
+off more or less widely from the main stem, different kinds of
+commendation, different forms of _precarium_, some of which varied
+greatly from that through which the fief descends, and some of which
+survived in much the old character and under the old name for a long
+time after later feudalism was definitely established.[7] The variety
+and seeming confusion which reign in feudal society, under uniform
+controlling principles, rule also in the ages of beginning. It is easy
+to lose one's bearings by over-emphasizing the importance of variation
+and exception. It is indeed true that what was the exception, the
+temporary offshoot, might have become the main line. It would then have
+produced a system which would have been feudal, in the wide sense of the
+term, but it would have been marked by different characteristics, it
+would have operated in a somewhat different way. The crowd of varying
+forms should not prevent us from seeing that we can trace through their
+confusion the line along which the characteristic traits and
+institutions of European feudalism, as it actually was, were growing
+constantly more distinct.[8] That is the line of the origin of the
+feudal system. (See also FRANCE: _Law and Institutions_.)
+
+
+  Results in England.
+
+The growth which we have traced took place within the Frankish empire.
+When we turn to Anglo-Saxon England we find a different situation and a
+different result. There _precarium_ and _patrocinium_ were lacking.
+Certain forms of personal commendation did develop, certain forms of
+dependent land tenure came into use. These do not show, however, the
+characteristic marks of the actual line of feudal descent. They belong
+rather in the varying forms around that line. Scholars are not yet
+agreed as to what would have been their result if their natural
+development had not been cut off by the violent introduction of Frankish
+feudalism with the Norman conquest, whether the historical feudal
+system, or a feudal system in the general sense. To the writer it seems
+clear that the latter is the most that can be asserted. They were forms
+which may rightly be called feudal, but only in the wider meaning in
+which we speak of the feudalism of Japan, or of Central Africa, not in
+the sense of 12th-century European feudalism; Saxon commendation may
+rightly be called vassalage, but only as looking back to the early
+Frankish use of the term for many varying forms of practice, not as
+looking forward to the later and more definite usage of completed
+feudalism; and such use of the terms feudal and vassalage is sure to be
+misleading. It is better to say that European feudalism is not to be
+found in England before the Conquest, not even in its beginnings. If
+these had really been in existence it would require no argument to show
+the fact. There is no trace of the distinctive marks of Frankish
+feudalism in Saxon England, not where military service may be thought to
+rest upon the land, nor even in the rare cases where the tenant seems to
+some to be made responsible for it, for between these cases as they are
+described in the original accounts, legally interpreted, and the feudal
+conception of the vassal's military service, there is a great gulf.
+
+
+  The completed system.
+
+In turning from the origin of feudalism to a description of the
+completed system one is inevitably reminded of the words with which de
+Quincey opens the second part of his essay on style. He says: "It is a
+natural resource that whatsoever we find it difficult to investigate as
+a result, we endeavour to follow as a growth. Failing analytically to
+probe its nature, historically we seek relief to our perplexities by
+tracing its origin.... Thus for instance when any feudal institution (be
+it Gothic, Norman, or Anglo-Saxon) eludes our deciphering faculty from
+the imperfect records of its use and operation, then we endeavour
+conjecturally to amend our knowledge by watching the circumstances in
+which that institution arose." The temptation to use the larger part of
+any space allotted to the history of feudalism for a discussion of
+origins does not arise alone from greater interest in that phase of the
+subject. It is almost impossible even with the most discriminating care
+to give a brief account of completed feudalism and convey no wrong
+impression. We use the term "feudal system" for convenience sake, but
+with a degree of impropriety if it conveys the meaning "systematic."
+Feudalism in its most flourishing age was anything but systematic. It
+was confusion roughly organized. Great diversity prevailed everywhere,
+and we should not be surprised to find some different fact or custom in
+every lordship. Anglo-Norman feudalism attained a logical completeness
+and a uniformity of practice which, in the feudal age proper, can hardly
+be found elsewhere through so large a territory; but in Anglo-Norman
+feudalism the exception holds perhaps as large a place as the regular,
+and the uniformity itself was due to the most serious of exceptions from
+the feudal point of view--centralization under a powerful monarchy.
+
+But too great emphasis upon variation conveys also a wrong impression.
+Underlying all the apparent confusion of fact and practice were certain
+fundamental principles and relationships, which were alike everywhere,
+and which really gave shape to everything that was feudal, no matter
+what its form might be. The chief of these are the following: the
+relation of vassal and lord; the principle that every holder of land is
+a tenant and not an owner, until the highest rank is reached, sometimes
+even the conception rules in that rank; that the tenure by which a thing
+of value is held is one of honourable service, not intended to be
+economic, but moral and political in character; the principle of mutual
+obligations of loyalty, protection and service binding together all the
+ranks of this society from the highest to the lowest; and the principle
+of contract between lord and tenant, as determining all rights,
+controlling their modification, and forming the foundation of all law.
+There was actually in fact and practice a larger uniformity than this
+short list implies, because these principles tended to express
+themselves in similar forms, and because historical derivation from a
+common source in Frankish feudalism tended to preserve some degree of
+uniformity in the more important usages.
+
+The foundation of the feudal relationship proper was the fief, which was
+usually land, but might be any desirable thing, as an office, a revenue
+in money or kind, the right to collect a toll, or operate a mill. In
+return for the fief, the man became the vassal of his lord; he knelt
+before him, and, with his hands between his lord's hands, promised him
+fealty and service; he rose to his feet and took the oath of fealty
+which bound him to the obligations he had assumed in homage; he received
+from his lord ceremonial investiture with the fief. The faithful
+performance of all the duties he had assumed in homage constituted the
+vassal's right and title to his fief. So long as they were fulfilled,
+he, and his heir after him, held the fief as his property, practically
+and in relation to all under tenants as if he were the owner. In the
+ceremony of homage and investiture, which is the creative contract of
+feudalism, the obligations assumed by the two parties were, as a rule,
+not specified in exact terms. They were determined by local custom. What
+they were, however, was as well known, as capable of proof, and as
+adequate a check on innovation by either party, as if committed to
+writing. In many points of detail the vassal's services differed widely
+in different parts of the feudal world. We may say, however, that they
+fall into two classes, general and specific. The general included all
+that might come under the idea of loyalty, seeking the lord's interests,
+keeping his secrets, betraying the plans of his enemies, protecting his
+family, &c. The specific services are capable of more definite
+statement, and they usually received exact definition in custom and
+sometimes in written documents. The most characteristic of these was the
+military service, which included appearance in the field on summons with
+a certain force, often armed in a specified way, and remaining a
+specified length of time. It often included also the duty of guarding
+the lord's castle, and of holding one's own castle subject to the plans
+of the lord for the defence of his fief. Hardly less characteristic was
+court service, which included the duty of helping to form the court on
+summons, of taking one's own cases to that court instead of to some
+other, and of submitting to its judgments. The duty of giving the lord
+advice was often demanded and fulfilled in sessions of the court, and in
+these feudal courts the obligations of lord and vassal were enforced,
+with an ultimate appeal to war. Under this head may be enumerated also
+the financial duties of the vassal, though these were not regarded by
+the feudal law as of the nature of the tenure, i.e. failure to pay them
+did not lead to confiscation, but they were collected by suit and
+distraint like any debt. They did not have their origin in economic
+considerations, but were either intended to mark the vassal's tenant
+relation, like the relief, or to be a part of his service, like the aid,
+that is, he was held to come to the aid of his lord in a case of
+financial as of military necessity. The relief was a sum paid by the
+heir for the lord's recognition of his succession. The aids were paid on
+a few occasions, determined by custom, where the lord was put to unusual
+expense, as for his ransom when captured by the enemy, or for the
+knighting of his eldest son. There was great variety regarding the
+occasion and amount of these payments, and in some parts of the feudal
+world they did not exist at all. The most lucrative of the lord's rights
+were wardship and marriage, but the feudal theory of these also was
+non-economic. The fief fell into the hands of the lord, and he enjoyed
+its revenues during the minority of the heir, because the minor could
+not perform the duties by which it was held. The heiress must marry as
+the lord wished, because he had a right to know that the holder of the
+fief could meet the obligations resting upon it. Both wardship and
+marriage were, however, valuable rights which the lord could exercise
+himself or sell to others. These were by no means the only rights and
+duties which could be described as existing in feudalism, but they are
+the most characteristic, and on them, or some of them, as a foundation,
+the whole structure of feudal obligation was built, however detailed.
+
+Ideally regarded, feudalism covered Europe with a network of these
+fiefs, rising in graded ranks one above the other from the smallest, the
+knight's fee, at the bottom, to the king at the top, who was the supreme
+landowner, or who held the kingdom from God. Actually not even in the
+most regular of feudal countries, like England or Germany, was there any
+fixed gradation of rank, titles or size. A knight might hold directly of
+the king, a count of a viscount, a bishop of an abbot, or the king
+himself of one of his own vassals, or even of a vassal's vassal, and in
+return his vassal's vassal might hold another fief directly of him. The
+case of the count of Champagne, one of the peers of France, is a famous
+example. His great territory was held only in small part of the king of
+France. He held a portion of a foreign sovereign, the emperor, and other
+portions of the duke of Burgundy, of two archbishops, of four bishops,
+and of the abbot of St Denis. Frequently did great lay lords, as in this
+case, hold lands by feudal tenure of ecclesiastics.
+
+It is now possible perhaps to get some idea of the way in which the
+government of a feudal country was operated. The early German
+governments whose chief functions, military, judicial, financial,
+legislative, were carried on by the freemen of the nation because they
+were members of the body politic, and were performed as duties owed to
+the community for its defence and sustenance, no longer existed. New
+forms of organization had arisen in which indeed these conceptions had
+not entirely disappeared, but in which the vast majority of cases a
+wholly different idea of the ground of service and obligation prevailed.
+Superficially, for example, the feudal court differed but little from
+its Teutonic predecessor. It was still an assembly court. Its procedure
+was almost the same as the earlier. It often included the same classes
+of men. Saxon Witenagemot and Norman _Curia regis_ seem very much alike.
+But the members of the feudal court met, not to fulfil a duty owed to
+the community, but a private obligation which they had assumed in return
+for the fiefs they held, and in the history of institutions it is
+differences of this sort which are the determining principles. The
+feudal state was one in which, as it has been said, private law had
+usurped the place of public law. Public duty had become private
+obligation. To understand the feudal state it is essential to make clear
+to one's mind that all sorts of services, which men ordinarily owe to
+the public or to one another, were translated into a form of rent paid
+for the use of land, and defined and enforced by a private contract. In
+every feudal country, however, something of the earlier conception
+survived. A general military levy was occasionally made. Something like
+taxation occasionally occurred, though the government was usually
+sustained by the scanty feudal payments, by the proceeds of justice and
+by the income of domain manors. About the office of king more of this
+earlier conception gathered than elsewhere in the state, and gradually
+grew, aided not merely by traditional ideas, but by the active influence
+of the Bible, and soon of the Roman law. The kingship formed the nucleus
+of new governments as the feudal system passed away.
+
+Actual government in the feudal age was primitive and undifferentiated.
+Its chief and almost only organ, for kingdom and barony alike, was the
+_curia_--a court formed of the vassals. This acted at once and without
+any consciousness of difference of function, as judiciary, as
+legislature, in so far as there was any in the feudal period, and as
+council, and it exercised final supervision and control over revenue and
+administration. Almost all the institutions of modern states go back to
+the _curia regis_, branching off from it at different dates as the
+growing complexity of business forced differentiation of function and
+personnel. In action it was an assembly court, deciding all questions by
+discussion and the weight of opinion, though its decisions obtained
+their legal validity by the formal pronunciation of the presiding
+member, i.e. of the lord whose court it was. It can readily be seen that
+in a government of this kind the essential operative element was the
+baron. So long as the government remained dependent on the baron, it
+remained feudal in its character. When conditions so changed that
+government could free itself from its dependence on the baron, feudalism
+disappeared as the organization of society; when a professional class
+arose to form the judiciary, when the increased circulation of money
+made regular taxation possible and enabled the government to buy
+military and other services, and when better means of intercommunication
+and the growth of common ideas made a wide centralization possible and
+likely to be permanent. Feudalism had performed a great service, during
+an age of disintegration, by maintaining a general framework of
+government, while allowing the locality to protect and care for itself.
+When the function of protection and local supervision could be resumed
+by the general government the feudal age ended. In nearly all the states
+of Europe this end was reached during, or by the close of, the 13th
+century.
+
+
+  Decline and survivals.
+
+At the moment, however, when feudalism was disappearing as the
+organization of society, it gave rise to results which in a sense
+continued it into after ages and even to our own day. One of these
+results was the system of law which it created. As feudalism passed
+from its age of supremacy into its age of decline, its customs tended to
+crystallize into fixed forms. At the same time a class of men arose
+interested in these forms for their own sake, professional lawyers or
+judges, who wrote down for their own and others' use the feudal usages
+with which they were familiar. The great age of these codes was the 13th
+century, and especially the second half of it. The codes in their turn
+tended still further to harden these usages into fixed forms, and we may
+date from the end of the 13th century an age of feudal law regulating
+especially the holding and transfer of land, and much more uniform in
+character than the law of the feudal age proper. This was particularly
+the case in parts of France and Germany where feudalism continued to
+regulate the property relations of lords and vassals longer than
+elsewhere, and where the underlying economic feudalism remained in large
+part unchanged. In this later pseudo-feudalism, however, the political
+had given way to the economic, and customs which had once had no
+economic significance came to have that only.
+
+Feudalism formed the starting-point also of the later social nobilities
+of Europe. They drew from it their titles and ranks and many of their
+regulative ideas, though these were formed into more definite and
+regular systems than ever existed in feudalism proper. It was often the
+policy of kings to increase the social privileges and legal exemptions
+of the nobility while taking away all political power, so that it is
+necessary in the history of institutions to distinguish sharply between
+these nobilities and the feudal baronage proper. It is only in certain
+backward parts of Europe that the terms feudal and baronage in any
+technical sense can be used of the nobility of the 15th century.
+     (G. B. A.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For more detailed information the reader is referred to
+  the articles ENGLISH LAW; FRANCE: _French Law and Institutions_,
+  VILLENAGE; MANOR; SCUTAGE; KNIGHT SERVICE; HIDE. For a general sketch
+  of Feudalism the chapters in tome ii. of the _Histoire générale_ of
+  Lavisse and Rambaud should be consulted. Other general works are J.T.
+  Abdy, _Feudalism_ (1890); Paul Roth, _Feudalität und Unterthanverband_
+  (Weimar, 1863); and _Geschichte des Beneficialwesens_ (1850); M.M.
+  Kovalevsky, _Ökonomische Entwickelung Europas_ (1902); E. de Laveleye,
+  _De la propriété et de ses formes primitives_ (1891); and _The Origin
+  of Property in Land_, a translation by M. Ashley from the works of
+  N.D. Fustel de Coulanges, with an introductory chapter by Professor
+  W.J. Ashley. Two other works of value are Sir H.S. Maine, _Village
+  Communities in the East and West_ (1876); and Léon Gautier, _La
+  Chevalerie_ (Paris, 1884; Eng. trans. by Henry Frith, _Chivalry_,
+  London, 1891).
+
+  For feudalism in England see the various constitutional histories,
+  especially W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i.
+  (ed. 1897). Very valuable also are the writings of Mr J.H. Round, of
+  Professor F.W. Maitland and of Professor P. Vinogradoff. Among Round's
+  works may be mentioned _Feudal England_ (1895); _Geoffrey de
+  Mandeville_ (1892); and _Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer_
+  (1898). Maitland's _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897) is
+  indispensable; and the same remark applies to his _History of English
+  Law before the time of Edward I._ (Cambridge, 1895), written in
+  conjunction with Sir Frederick Pollock. Vinogradoff has illuminated
+  the subject in his _Villainage in England_ (1892) and his _English
+  Society in the 11th century_ (1908). See also J.F. Baldwin, _The
+  Scutage and Knight Service in England_ (Chicago, 1897); Rudolf Gneist,
+  _Adel und Ritterschaft in England_ (1853); and F. Seebohm, _The
+  English Village Community_ (1883).
+
+  For feudalism in France see N.D. Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des
+  institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_ (_Les Origines du
+  système féodal_, 1890; _Les Transformations de la royauté pendant
+  l'époque carolingienne_, 1892); A. Luchaire, _Histoire des
+  institutions monarchiques de la France sous les premiers Capétiens,
+  987-1180_ (2nd ed., 1890); and _Manuel des institutions françaises:
+  période des Capétiens directs_ (1892); J. Flach, _Les Origines de
+  l'ancienne France_ (1886-1893); Paul Viollet, _Droit public: Histoires
+  des institutions politiques et administratives de la France_
+  (1890-1898); and Henri Sée, _Les classes rurales et le régime
+  domanial_ (1901).
+
+  For Germany see G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Kiel and
+  Berlin, 1844 foll.); H. Brunner, _Grundzüge der deutschen
+  Rechtsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1901); V. Menzel, _Die Entstehung des
+  Lebenswesens_ (Berlin, 1890); and G.L. von Maurer's works on the early
+  institutions of the Germans.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Digest_, xliii. 26. 12.
+
+  [2] _Ibid._ xliii. 26. 14, and cf. 17.
+
+  [3] Salvian, _De gub. Dei_, v. 8, ed. Halm, p. 62.
+
+  [4] H. Brunner, _Zeitschr. der sav. Stift. für Rechtsgeschichte_,
+    Germ. Abth. viii. 1-38 (1887). Also in his Forschungen, 39-74 (1894).
+
+  [5] See F. Dahn, _Könige der Germanen_, viii. 2, 90 ff.
+
+  [6] F. Dahn, _Könige der Germanen_, viii. 2, 197.
+
+  [7] G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, vi. 112 ff. (1896).
+    Most fully described in G. Seeliger, _Die soziale u. politische
+    Bedeutung d. Grundherrschaft im früheren Mittelalter_ (1903).
+
+  [8] F. Dahn, _Könige_, viii. 2, 89-90; 95.
+
+
+
+
+FEUERBACH, ANSELM (1829-1880), German painter, born at Spires, the son
+of a well-known archaeologist, was the leading classicist painter of the
+German 19th-century school. He was the first to realize the danger
+arising from contempt of technique, that mastery of craftsmanship was
+needed to express even the loftiest ideas, and that an ill-drawn
+coloured cartoon can never be the supreme achievement in art. After
+having passed through the art schools of Düsseldorf and Munich, he went
+to Antwerp and subsequently to Paris, where he benefited by the teaching
+of Couture, and produced his first masterpiece, "Hafiz at the Fountain"
+in 1852. He subsequently worked at Karlsruhe, Venice (where he fell
+under the spell of the greatest school of colourists), Rome and Vienna.
+He was steeped in classic knowledge, and his figure compositions have
+the statuesque dignity and simplicity of Greek art. Disappointed with
+the reception given in Vienna to his design of "The Fall of the Titans"
+for the ceiling of the Museum of Modelling, he went to live in Venice,
+where he died in 1880. His works are to be found at the leading public
+galleries of Germany; Stuttgart has his "Iphigenia"; Karlsruhe, the
+"Dante at Ravenna"; Munich, the "Medea"; and Berlin, "The Concert," his
+last important picture. Among his chief works are also "The Battle of
+the Amazons," "Pietà," "The Symposium of Plato," "Orpheus and Eurydice"
+and "Ariosto in the Park of Ferrara."
+
+
+
+
+FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS (1804-1872), German philosopher, fourth son of
+the eminent jurist (see below), was born at Landshut in Bavaria on the
+28th of July 1804. He matriculated at Heidelberg with the intention of
+pursuing an ecclesiastical career. Through the influence of Prof. Daub
+he was led to an interest in the then predominant philosophy of Hegel
+and, in spite of his father's opposition, went to Berlin to study under
+the master himself. After two years' discipleship the Hegelian influence
+began to slacken. "Theology," he wrote to a friend, "I can bring myself
+to study no more. I long to take nature to my heart, that nature before
+whose depth the faint-hearted theologian shrinks back; and with nature
+man, man in his entire quality." These words are a key to Feuerbach's
+development. He completed his education at Erlangen with the study of
+natural science. His first book, published anonymously, _Gedanken über
+Tod und Unsterblichkeit_ (1830, 3rd ed. 1876), contains an attack upon
+personal immortality and an advocacy of the Spinozistic immortality of
+reabsorption in nature. These principles, combined with his embarrassed
+manner of public speaking, debarred him from academic advancement. After
+some years of struggling, during which he published his_ Geschichte der
+neueren Philosophie_ (2 vols., 1833-1837, 2nd ed. 1844), and _Abälard
+und Heloise_ (1834, 3rd ed. 1877), he married in 1837 and lived a rural
+existence at Bruckberg near Nuremberg, supported by his wife's share in
+a small porcelain factory. In two works of this period, _Pierre Bayle_
+(1838) and _Philosophie und Christentum_ (1839), which deal largely with
+theology, he held that he had proved "that Christianity has in fact long
+vanished not only from the reason but from the life of mankind, that it
+is nothing more than a fixed idea" in flagrant contradiction to the
+distinctive features of contemporary civilization. This attack is
+followed up in his most important work, _Das Wesen des Christentums_
+(1841), which was translated into English (_The Essence of Religion_, by
+George Eliot, 1853, 2nd ed. 1881), French and Russian. Its aim may be
+described shortly as an effort to humanize theology. He lays it down
+that man, so far as he is rational, is to himself his own object of
+thought. Religion is consciousness of the infinite. Religion therefore
+is "nothing else than the consciousness of the infinity of the
+consciousness; or, in the consciousness of the infinite, the conscious
+subject has for his object the infinity of his own nature." Thus God is
+nothing else than man: he is, so to speak, the outward projection of
+man's inward nature. In part 1 of his book he develops what he calls the
+"true or anthropological essence of religion." Treating of God in his
+various aspects "as a being of the understanding," "as a moral being or
+law," "as love" and so on, Feuerbach shows that in every aspect God
+corresponds to some feature or need of human nature. "If man is to find
+contentment in God, he must find himself in God." In part 2 he discusses
+the "false or theological essence of religion," i.e. the view which
+regards God as having a separate existence over against man. Hence arise
+various mistaken beliefs, such as the belief in revelation which not
+only injures the moral sence, but also "poisons, nay destroys, the
+divinest feeling in man, the sense of truth," and the belief in
+sacraments such as the Lord's Supper, a piece of religious materialism
+of which "the necessary consequences are superstition and immorality."
+In spite of many admirable qualities both of style and matter the
+_Essence of Christianity_ has never made much impression upon British
+thought. To treat the actual forms of religion as expressions of our
+various human needs is a fruitful idea which deserves fuller development
+than it has yet received; but Feuerbach's treatment of it is fatally
+vitiated by his subjectivism. Feuerbach denied that he was rightly
+called an atheist, but the denial is merely verbal: what he calls
+"theism" is atheism in the ordinary sense. Feuerbach labours under the
+same difficulty as Fichte; both thinkers strive in vain to reconcile the
+religious consciousness with subjectivism.
+
+During the troubles of 1848-1849 Feuerbach's attack upon orthodoxy made
+him something of a hero with the revolutionary party; but he never threw
+himself into the political movement, and indeed had not the qualities of
+a popular leader. During the period of the diet of Frankfort he had
+given public lectures on religion at Heidelberg. When the diet closed he
+withdrew to Bruckberg and occupied himself partly with scientific study,
+partly with the composition of his _Theogonie_ (1857). In 1860 he was
+compelled by the failure of the porcelain factory to leave Bruckberg,
+and he would have suffered the extremity of want but for the assistance
+of friends supplemented by a public subscription. His last book,
+_Gottheit, Freiheit und Unsterblichkeit_, appeared in 1866 (2nd ed.,
+1890). After a long period of decay he died on the 13th of September
+1872.
+
+Feuerbach's influence has been greatest upon the anti-Christian
+theologians such as D.F. Strauss, the author of the _Leben Jesu_, and
+Bruno Bauer, who like Feuerbach himself had passed over from Hegelianism
+to a form of naturalism. But many of his ideas were taken up by those
+who, like Arnold Ruge, had entered into the struggle between church and
+state in Germany, and those who, like F. Engels and Karl Marx, were
+leaders in the revolt of labour against the power of capital. His work
+was too deliberately unsystematic ("keine Philosophie ist meine
+Philosophie") ever to make him a power in philosophy. He expressed in an
+eager, disjointed, but condensed and laboured fashion, certain
+deep-lying convictions--that philosophy must come back from
+unsubstantial metaphysics to the solid facts of human nature and natural
+science, that the human body was no less important than the human spirit
+("Der Mensch ist was er isst") and that Christianity was utterly out of
+harmony with the age. His convictions gained weight from the simplicity,
+uprightness and diligence of his character; but they need a more
+effective justification than he was able to give them.
+
+  His works appeared in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1846-1866); his
+  correspondence has been edited with an indifferent biography by Karl
+  Grün (1874). See A. Lévy, _La Philosophie de Feuerbach_ (1904); M.
+  Meyer, _L. Feuerbach's Moralphilosophie_ (Berlin, 1899); E. v.
+  Hartmann, _Geschichte d. Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1899-1900), ii.
+  437-444: F. Engels, _L. Feuerbach und d. Ausgang d. class, deutsch.
+  Philos._ (2nd ed., 1895).     (H. St.)
+
+
+
+
+FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM, RITTER VON (1775-1833), German jurist and
+writer on criminal law, was born at Hainichen near Jena on the 14th of
+November 1775. He received his early education at Frankfort on Main,
+whither his family had removed soon after his birth. At the age of
+sixteen, however, he ran away from home, and, going to Jena, was helped
+by relations there to study at the university. In spite of poor health
+and the most desperate poverty, he made rapid progress. He attended the
+lectures of Karl Leonhard Reinhold and Gottlieb Hufeland, and soon
+published some literary essays of more than ordinary merit. In 1795 he
+took the degree of doctor in philosophy, and in the same year, though he
+only possessed 150 thalers (£22: 10s.), he married. It was this step
+which led him to success and fame, by forcing him to turn from his
+favourite studies of philosophy and history to that of law, which was
+repugnant to him, but which offered a prospect of more rapid
+advancement. His success in this new and uncongenial sphere was soon
+assured. In 1796 he published _Kritik des natürlichen Rechts als
+Propädeutik zu einer Wissenschaft der natürlichen Rechte_, which was
+followed, in 1798, by _Anti-Hobbes, oder über die Grenzen der
+bürgerlichen Gewalt_, a dissertation on the limits of the civil power
+and the right of resistance on the part of subjects against their
+rulers, and by _Philosophische, juristische Untersuchungen über das
+Verbrechen des Hochverraths_. In 1799 he obtained the degree of doctor
+of laws. Feuerbach, as the founder of a new theory of penal law, the
+so-called "psychological-coercive or intimidation theory," occupied a
+prominent place in the history of criminal science. His views, which he
+first made known in his _Revision der Grundsätze und Grundbegriffe des
+positiven peinlichen Rechts_ (1799), were further elucidated and
+expounded in the _Bibliothek für die peinliche Rechtswissenschaft_
+(1800-1801), an encyclopaedic work produced in conjunction with Karl
+L.W.G. Grolmann and Ludwig Harscher von Almendingen, and in his famous
+_Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland geltenden peinlichen Rechts_
+(1801). These works were a powerful protest against vindictive
+punishment, and did much towards the reformation of the German criminal
+law. The _Carolina_ (the penal code of the emperor Charles V.) had long
+since ceased to be respected. What in 1532 was an inestimable blessing,
+as a check upon the arbitrariness and violence of the effete German
+procedure, had in the course of time outlived its usefulness and become
+a source of evils similar to those it was enacted to combat. It availed
+nothing that, at the commencement of the 18th century, a freer and more
+scientific spirit had been breathed into Roman law; it failed to reach
+the criminal law. The administration of justice was, before Feuerbach's
+time, especially distinguished by two characteristics: the superiority
+of the judge to all law, and the blending of the judicial and executive
+offices, with the result that the individual was practically at the
+mercy of his prosecutors. This state of things Feuerbach set himself to
+reform, and using as his chief weapon the _Revision der Grundbegriffe_
+above referred to, was successful in his task. His achievement in the
+struggle may be summed up as: _nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege_ (no
+wrong and no punishment without a remedy). In 1801 Feuerbach was
+appointed extraordinary professor of law without salary, at the
+university of Jena, and in the following year accepted a chair at Kiel,
+where he remained two years. In 1804 he removed to the university of
+Landshut; but on being commanded by King Maximilian Joseph to draft a
+penal code for Bavaria (_Strafgesetzbuch für das Königreich Bayern_), he
+removed in 1805 to Munich, where he was given a high appointment in the
+ministry of justice and was ennobled in 1808. Meanwhile the practical
+reform of penal legislation in Bavaria was begun under his influence in
+1806 by the abolition of torture. In 1808 appeared the first volume of
+his _Merkwürdige Criminalfälle_, completed in 1811--a work of deep
+interest for its application of psychological considerations to cases Of
+crime, and intended to illustrate the inevitable imperfection of human
+laws in their application to individuals. In his _Betrachtungen über das
+Geschworenengericht_ (1811) Feuerbach declared against trial by jury,
+maintaining that the verdict of a jury was not adequate legal proof of a
+crime. Much controversy was aroused on the subject, and the author's
+view was subsequently to some extent modified. The result of his labours
+was promulgated in 1813 as the Bavarian penal code. The influence of
+this code, the embodiment of Feuerbach's enlightened views, was immense.
+It was at once made the basis for new codes in Württemberg and
+Saxe-Weimar; it was adopted in its entirety in the grand-duchy of
+Oldenburg; and it was translated into Swedish by order of the king.
+Several of the Swiss cantons reformed their codes in conformity with it.
+Feuerbach had also undertaken to prepare a civil code for Bavaria, to be
+founded on the Code Napoléon. This was afterwards set aside, and the
+Codex Maximilianus adopted as a basis. But the project did not become
+law. During the war of liberation (1813-1814) Feuerbach showed himself
+an ardent patriot, and published several political brochures which, from
+the writer's position, had almost the weight of state manifestoes. One
+of these is entitled _Über deutsche Freiheit und Vertretung deutsche
+Volker durch Landstände_ (1514). In 1814 Feuerbach was appointed second
+president of the court of appeal at Bamberg, and three years later he
+became first president of the court of appeal at Anspach. In 1821 he was
+deputed by the government to visit France, Belgium, and the Rhine
+provinces for the purpose of investigating their juridical institutions.
+As the fruit of this visit, he published his treatises _Betrachtungen
+über Öffentlichkeit und Mündigkeit der Gerechtigkeitspflege_ (1821) and
+_Über die Gerichtsverfassung und das gerichtliche Verfahren Frankreichs_
+(1825). In these he pleaded unconditionally for publicity in all legal
+proceedings. In his later years he took a deep interest in the fate of
+the strange foundling Kaspar Hauser (q.v.), which had excited so much
+attention in Europe; and he was the first to publish a critical summary
+of the ascertained facts, under the title of _Kaspar Hauser, ein
+Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben_ (1832). Shortly before his
+death appeared a collection of his _Kleine Schriften_ (1833). Feuerbach,
+still in the full enjoyment of his intellectual powers, died suddenly at
+Frankfort, while on his way to the baths of Schwalbach, on the 29th of
+May 1833. In 1853 was published the _Leben und Wirken Ans. von
+Feuerbachs_, 2 vols., consisting of a selection of his letters and
+journals, with occasional notes by his fourth son Ludwig, the
+distinguished philosopher.
+
+  See also, for an estimate of Feuerbach's life and work, Marquardtsen,
+  in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol. vi.; and an "in memoriam"
+  notice in _Die allgemeine Zeitung_ (Augsburg), 15th Nov. 1875, by
+  Professor Dr Karl Binding of Leipzig University.
+
+
+
+
+FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE, a political association which played a
+prominent part during the French Revolution. It was founded on the 16th
+of July 1791 by several members of the Jacobin Club, who refused to sign
+a petition presented by this body, demanding the deposition of Louis
+XVI. Among the dissident members were B. Barère; and E.J. Sieyès, who
+were later joined by other politicians, among them being Dupont de
+Nemours. The name of Feuillants was popularly given to this group of
+men, because they met in the fine buildings which had been occupied by
+the religious order bearing this name, in the rue Saint-Honoré, near the
+Place Vendôme, in Paris. The members of the club preserved the title of
+_Amis de la Constitution_, as being a sufficient indication of the line
+they intended to pursue. This consisted in opposing everything not
+contained in the Constitution; in their opinion, the latter was in need
+of no modification, and they hated alike all those who were opposed to
+it, whether _émigrés_ or Jacobins; they affected to avoid all political
+discussion, and called themselves merely a "conservative assembly."
+
+This attitude they maintained after the Constituent Assembly had been
+succeeded by the Legislative, but not many of the new deputies became
+members of the club. With the rapid growth of extreme democratic ideas
+the Feuillants soon began to be looked upon as reactionaries, and to be
+classed with "aristocrats." They did, indeed, represent the aristocracy
+of wealth, for they had to pay a subscription of four louis, a large sum
+at that time, besides six livres for attendance. Moreover, the luxury
+with which they surrounded themselves, and the restaurant which they had
+annexed to their club, seemed to mock the misery of the half-starved
+proletariat, and added to the suspicion with which they were viewed,
+especially after the popular triumphs of the 20th of June and the 10th
+of August 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). A few days after the
+insurrection of the 10th of August, the papers of the Feuillants were
+seized, and a list was published containing the names of 841 members
+proclaimed as suspects. This was the death-blow of the club. It had made
+an attempt, though a weak one, to oppose the forward march of the
+Revolution, but, unlike the Jacobins, had never sent out branches into
+the provinces. The name of Feuillants, as a party designation, survived
+the club. It was applied to those who advocated a policy of "cowardly
+moderation," and _feuillantisme_ was associated with _aristocratie_ in
+the mouths of the sansculottes.
+
+  The act of separation of the Feuillants from the Jacobins was
+  published in a pamphlet dated the 16th of July 1791, beginning with
+  the words, _Les Membres de l'assemblée nationale_ ... (Paris, 1791).
+  The statutes of the club were also published in Paris. See also A.
+  Aulard, _Histoire politique de la Révolution française_ (Paris, 1903),
+  2nd ed., p. 153.
+
+
+
+
+
+FEUILLET, OCTAVE (1821-1890), French novelist and dramatist, was born at
+Saint-Lô, Manche, on the 11th of August 1821. He was the son of a Norman
+gentleman of learning and distinction, who would have played a great
+part in politics "sans ses diables de nerfs," as Guizot said. This
+nervous excitability was inherited, though not to the same excess, by
+Octave, whose mother died in his infancy and left him to the care of the
+hyper-sensitive invalid. The boy was sent to the lycée Louis-le Grand,
+in Paris, where he achieved high distinction, and was destined for the
+diplomatic service. In 1840 he appeared before his father at Saint-Lô,
+and announced that he had determined to adopt the profession of
+literature. There was a stormy scene, and the elder Feuillet cut off his
+son, who returned to Paris and lived as best he could by a scanty
+journalism. In company with Paul Bocage he began to write for the stage,
+and not without success; at all events, he continued to exist until,
+three years after the quarrel, his father consented to forgive him.
+Enjoying a liberal allowance, he now lived in Paris in comfort and
+independence, and he published his early novels, none of which is quite
+of sufficient value to retain the modern reader. The health and spirits
+of the elder M. Feuillet, however, having still further declined, he
+summoned his son to leave Paris and bury himself as his constant
+attendant in the melancholy château at Saint-Lô. This was to demand a
+great sacrifice, but Octave Feuillet cheerfully obeyed the summons. In
+1851 he married his cousin, Mlle Valérie Feuillet, who helped him to
+endure the mournful captivity to which his filial duty bound him.
+Strangely enough, in this exile--rendered still more irksome by his
+father's mania for solitude and by his tyrannical temper--the genius of
+Octave Feuillet developed. His first definite success was gained in the
+year 1852, when he published the novel _Bellah_ and produced the comedy
+_La Crise_. Both were reprinted from the _Revue des deux mondes_, where
+many of his later novels also appeared. He wrote books which have long
+held their place, _La Petite Comtesse_ (1857), _Dalila_ (1857), and in
+particular that universal favourite, _Le Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre_
+(1858). He himself fell into a nervous state in his "prison," but he was
+sustained by the devotion and intelligence of his wife and her mother.
+In 1857, having been persuaded to make a play of the novel of _Dalila_,
+he brought out this piece at the Vaudeville, and enjoyed a brilliant
+success; on this occasion he positively broke through the _consigne_ and
+went up to Paris to see his play rehearsed. His father bore the shock of
+his temporary absence, and the following year Octave ventured to make
+the same experiment on occasion of the performance of _Un Jeune Homme
+pauvre_. To his infinite chagrin, during this brief absence his father
+died. Octave was now, however, free, and the family immediately moved to
+Paris, where they took part in the splendid social existence of the
+Second Empire. The elegant and distinguished young novelist became a
+favourite at court; his pieces were performed at Compiègne before they
+were given to the public, and on one occasion the empress Eugénie
+deigned to play the part of Mme de Pons in _Les Portraits de la
+Marquise_. Feuillet did not abandon the novel, and in 1862 he achieved a
+great success with _Sibylle_. His health, however, had by this time
+begun to decline, affected by the sad death of his eldest son. He
+determined to quit Paris, where the life was far too exciting for his
+nerves, and to regain the quietude of Normandy. The old château of the
+family had been sold, but he bought a house called "Les Paillers" in the
+suburbs of Saint-Lô, and there he lived, buried in his roses, for
+fifteen years. He was elected to the French Academy in 1862, and in 1868
+he was made librarian of Fontainebleau palace, where he had to reside
+for a month or two in each year. In 1867 he produced his masterpiece of
+_Monsieur de Camors_, and in 1872 he wrote _Julia de Tréoeur_, which is
+hardly less admirable. His last years, after the sale of "Les Paillers,"
+were passed in a ceaseless wandering, the result of the agitation of his
+nerves. He was broken by sorrow and by ill-health, and when he passed
+away in Paris on the 29th of December 1890, his death was a release. His
+last book was _Honneur d'artiste_ (1890). Among the too-numerous
+writings of Feuillet, the novels have lasted longer than the dramas; of
+the former three or four seem destined to retain their charm as
+classics. He holds a place midway between the romanticists and the
+realists, with a distinguished and lucid portraiture of life which is
+entirely his own. He drew the women of the world whom he saw around him
+with dignity, with indulgence, with extraordinary penetration and
+clairvoyance. There is little description in his novels, which sometimes
+seem to move on an almost bare and colourless stage, but, on the other
+hand, the analysis of motives, of emotions, and of "the fine shades" has
+rarely been carried further. Few have written French with greater purity
+than Feuillet, and his style, reserved in form and never excessive in
+ornament, but full of wit and delicate animation, is in admirable
+uniformity with his subjects and his treatment. It is probably in
+_Sibylle_ and in _Julia de Trécoeur_ that he can now be studied to most
+advantage, though _Monsieur de Camors_ gives a greater sense of power,
+and though _Le Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre_ still preserves its
+popularity.
+
+  See also Sainte-Beuve, _Nouveaux Lundis_, vol. v.; F. Brunetière,
+  _Nouveaux Essais sur la littérature contemporaine_ (1895).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FEUILLETON (a diminutive of the Fr. _feuillet_, the leaf of a book),
+originally a kind of supplement attached to the political portion of
+French newspapers. Its inventor was Bertin the elder, editor of the
+_Débats_. It was not usually printed on a separate sheet, but merely
+separated from the political part of the newspaper by a line, and
+printed in smaller type. In French newspapers it consists chiefly of
+non-political news and gossip, literature and art criticism, a chronicle
+of the fashions, and epigrams, charades and other literary trifles; and
+its general characteristics are lightness, grace and sparkle. The
+_feuilleton_ in its French sense has never been adopted by English
+newspapers, though in various modern journals (in the United States
+especially) the sort of matter represented by it is now included. But
+the term itself has come into English use to indicate the instalment of
+a serial story printed in one part of a newspaper.
+
+
+
+
+FEUQUIÈRES, ISAAC MANASSÈS DE PAS, MARQUIS DE (1590-1640), French
+soldier, came of a distinguished family of which many members held high
+command in the civil wars of the 16th century. He entered the Royal army
+at the age of thirty, and soon achieved distinction. In 1626 he served
+in the Valtelline, and in 1628-1629 at the celebrated siege of La
+Rochelle, where he was taken prisoner. In 1629 he was made _Maréchal de
+Camp_, and served in the fighting on the southern frontiers of France.
+After occupying various military positions in Lorraine, he was sent as
+an ambassador into Germany, where he rendered important services in
+negotiations with Wallenstein. In 1636 he commanded the French corps
+operating with the duke of Weimar's forces (afterwards Turenne's "Army
+of Weimar"). With these troops he served in the campaigns of 1637 (in
+which he became lieutenant-general), 1638 and 1639. At the siege of
+Thionville (Diedenhofen) he received a mortal wound. His _lettres
+inédites_ appeared (ed. Gallois) in Paris in 1845.
+
+His son ANTOINE MANASSÈS DE PAS, Marquis de Feuquières (1648-1711), was
+born at Paris in 1648, and entered the army at the age of eighteen. His
+conduct at the siege of Lille in 1667, where he was wounded, won him
+promotion to the rank of captain. In the campaigns of 1672 and 1673 he
+served on the staff of Marshal Luxemburg, and at the siege of Oudenarde
+in the following year the king gave him command of the Royal Marine
+regiment, which he held until he obtained a regiment of his own in 1676.
+In 1688 he served as a brigadier at the siege of Philipsburg, and
+afterwards led a ravaging expedition into south Germany, where he
+acquired much booty. Promoted _Maréchal de Camp_, he served under
+Catinat against the Waldenses, and in the course of the war won the
+nickname of the "Wizard." In 1692 he made a brilliant defence of
+Speierbach against greatly superior forces, and was rewarded with the
+rank of lieutenant-general. He bore a distinguished part in Luxemburg's
+great victory of Neerwinden or Landen in 1693. Marshal Villeroi
+impressed him less favourably than his old commander Luxemburg, and the
+resumption of war in 1701 found him in disfavour in consequence. The
+rest of his life, embittered by the refusal of the marshal's baton, he
+spent in compiling his celebrated memoirs, which, coloured as they were
+by the personal animosities of the writer, were yet considered by
+Frederick the Great and the soldiers of the 18th century as the standard
+work on the art of war as a whole. He died in 1711. The _Mémoires sur la
+guerre_ appeared in the same year and new editions were frequently
+published (Paris 1711, 1725, 1735, &c., London 1736, Amsterdam
+subsequently). An English version appeared in London 1737, under the
+title _Memoirs of the Marquis de Feuquières_, and a German translation
+(_Feuquières geheime Nachrichten_) at Leipzig 1732, 1738, and Berlin
+1786. They deal in detail with every branch of the art of war and of
+military service.
+
+
+
+
+FÉVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN (1817-1887), French novelist and dramatist,
+was born on the 27th of September 1817, at Rennes in Brittany, and much
+of his best work deals with the history of his native province. He was
+educated for the bar, but after his first brief he went to Paris, where
+he gained a footing by the publication of his "Club des phoques" (1841)
+in the _Revue de Paris_. The _Mystères de Londres_ (1844), in which an
+Irishman tries to avenge the wrongs of his countrymen by seeking the
+annihilation of England, was published under the ingenious pseudonym
+"Sir Francis Trolopp." Others of his novels are: _Le Fils du diable_
+(1846); _Les Compagnons du silence_ (1857); _Le Bossu_ (1858); _Le
+Poisson d'or_ (1863); _Les Habits noirs_ (1863); _Jean le diable_
+(1868), and _Les Compagnons du trésor_ (1872). Some of his novels were
+dramatized, _Le Bossu_ (1863), in which he had M. Victorien Sardou for a
+collaborator, being especially successful in dramatic form. His
+chronicles of crime exercised an evil influence, eventually recognized
+by the author himself. In his later years he became an ardent Catholic,
+and occupied himself in revising his earlier works from his new
+standpoint and in writing religious pamphlets. Reverses of fortune and
+consequent overwork undermined his mental and bodily health, and he died
+of paralysis in the monastery of the Brothers of Saint John in Paris on
+the 8th of March 1887.
+
+His son, PAUL FÉVAL (1860- ), became well known as a novelist and
+dramatist. Among his works are _Nouvelles_ (1890), _Maria Laura_ (1891),
+and _Chantepie_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+FEVER (Lat. _febris_, connected with _fervere_, to burn), a term
+generally used to include all conditions in which the normal temperature
+of the animal body is markedly exceeded for any length of time. When the
+temperature reaches as high a point as 106° F. the term hyperpyrexia
+(excessive fever) is applied, and is regarded as indicating a condition
+of danger; while, if it exceeds 107° or 108° for any length of time,
+death almost always results. The diseases which are called specific
+fevers, because of its being a predominant factor in them, are discussed
+separately under their ordinary names. Occasionally in certain specific
+fevers and febrile diseases the temperature may attain the elevation of
+110°-112° prior to the fatal issue. For the treatment of fever in
+general, see THERAPEUTICS.
+
+_Pathology._--Every rise of temperature is due to a disturbance in the
+heat-regulating mechanism, the chief variable in which is the action of
+the skin in eliminating heat (see ANIMAL HEAT). Although for all
+practical purposes this mechanism works satisfactorily, it is not by any
+means perfect, and many physiological conditions cause a transient rise
+of temperature; e.g. severe muscular exercise, in which the cutaneous
+eliminating mechanism is unable at once to dispose of the increased
+amount of heat produced in the muscles. Pathologically, the
+heat-regulating mechanism may be disturbed in three different ways: 1st,
+by mechanical interference with the nervous system; 2nd, by interference
+with heat elimination; 3rd, by the action of various poisons.
+
+1. In the human subject, fever the result of _mechanical interference_
+with the nervous system rarely occurs, but it can readily be produced in
+the lower animals by stimulating certain parts of the great brain, e.g.
+the anterior portion of the corpus striatum. This leads to a rise of
+temperature with increased heat production. The high temperature seems
+to cause disintegration of cell protoplasm and increased excretion of
+nitrogen and of carbonic acid. Possibly some of the cases of high
+temperature recorded after injuries to the nervous system may be caused
+in this way; but some may also be due to stimulation of vaso-constrictor
+fibres to the cutaneous vessels diminishing heat elimination. So far the
+pathology of this condition has not been studied with the same care that
+has been devoted to the investigation of the third type of fever.
+
+2. Fever may readily be produced by _interference with heat
+elimination_. This has been done by submitting dogs to a temperature
+slightly below that of the rectum, and it is seen in man in _Sunstroke_.
+The typical nervous symptoms of fever are thus produced, and the rate of
+chemical change in the tissues is accelerated, as is shown by the
+increased excretion of carbonic acid. The protoplasm is also injured and
+the proteids are broken down, and thus an increased excretion of
+nitrogen is produced and the cells undergo degenerative changes.
+
+3. The products of various micro-organisms have a toxic action on the
+protoplasm of a large number of animals, and among the symptoms of this
+toxic action one of the most frequent is a rise in temperature. While
+this is by no means a necessary accompaniment, its occurrence is so
+general that the term _Fever_ has been applied to the general reaction
+of the organism to the microbial poison. Toxins which cause a marked
+rise of temperature in men may cause a fall in other animals. It is not
+the alteration of temperature which is the great index of the severity
+of the struggle between the host and the parasite, but the death and
+removal to a greater or lesser extent of the protoplasm of the host. In
+this respect fever resembles poisoning with phosphorus and arsenic and
+other similar substances. The true measure of the intensity of a fever
+is the extent of disintegration of protoplasm, and this may be estimated
+by the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine. The increased
+disintegration of protoplasm is also indicated by the rise in the
+excretion of sulphur and phosphorus and by the appearance in the urine
+of acetone, aceto-acetic and [beta]-oxybutyric acids (see NUTRITION).
+Since the temperature is generally proportionate to the intensity of the
+toxic action, its height is usually proportionate to the excretion of
+nitrogen. But sometimes the rise of temperature is not marked, while the
+excretion of nitrogen is very decidedly increased. When the temperature
+is sufficiently elevated, the heat has of itself an injurious action on
+the protoplasm, and tends to increase disintegration just as when heat
+elimination is experimentally retarded. But the increase due to rise of
+temperature is small compared to that produced by the destructive action
+of the microbial products. In the beginning of a fever the activity of
+the metabolism is not increased to any marked extent, and any increase
+is necessarily largely due to the greater activity of the muscles of the
+heart and respiratory mechanism, and to the muscular contractions which
+produce the initial rigors. Thus the excretion of carbon dioxide--the
+great measure of the _activity of metabolism_--is not usually increased,
+and there is no evidence of an increased combustion. In the later stages
+the increased temperature may bring about an acceleration in the rate of
+chemical change; but this is comparatively slight, less in fact than the
+increase observed on taking muscular exercise after rest. The _rise of
+temperature_ is primarily due to diminished heat elimination. This
+diminished giving off of heat was demonstrated by means of the
+calorimeter by I. Rosenthal, while E. Maragliano showed that the
+cutaneous vessels are contracted. Even in the later stages, until
+defervescence occurs, heat elimination is inadequate to get rid of the
+heat produced.
+
+The toxic action is manifested not only by the increased disintegration
+of protoplasm, but also by disturbances in the functions of the various
+organs. The activity of the _digestive glands_ is diminished and
+appetite is lost. Food is therefore not taken, although when taken it
+appears to be absorbed in undiminished quantities. As a result of this
+the patient suffers from inanition, and lives largely on his own fats
+and proteids, and for this reason rapidly emaciates. The functions of
+the _liver_ are also diminished in activity. Glycogen is not stored in
+the cells, and the bile secretion is modified, the essential
+constituents disappearing almost entirely in some cases. The production
+of urea is also interfered with, and the proportion of nitrogen in the
+urine not in the urea increases. This is in part due to the increased
+disintegration of proteids setting free sulphur and phosphorus, which,
+oxidized into sulphuric and phosphoric acids, combine with the ammonia
+which would otherwise have been changed to urea. Thus the proportion of
+ammonia in the urine is increased. Concurrently with these alterations
+in the functions of the liver-cells, a condition of granular
+degeneration and probably a state of fatty degeneration makes its
+appearance. That the functional activity of the _kidneys_ is modified,
+is shown by the frequent appearance of proteoses or of albumen and
+globulin in the urine. Frequently the toxin acts very markedly on the
+protoplasm of the kidney epithelium, and causes a shedding of the cells
+and sometimes inflammatory reaction. The _muscles_ are weakened, but so
+far no satisfactory study has been made of the influence of microbial
+poisons on muscular contraction. A granular and fatty degeneration
+supervenes, and the fibres waste. The _nervous structures_, especially
+the nerve-cells, are acted upon, and not only is their functional
+activity modified, but they also undergo structural changes of a
+chromatolytic nature. The _blood_ shows two important changes--first, a
+fall in the alkalinity due to the products of disintegration of
+protoplasm; and, secondly, an increase in the number of leucocytes, and
+chiefly in the polymorpho-nuclear variety. This is best marked in
+pneumonia, where the normal number is often increased twofold and
+sometimes more than tenfold, while it is altogether absent in enteric
+fever.
+
+An interesting general modification in the metabolism is the enormous
+fall in the excretion of chlorine, a fall far in excess of what could be
+accounted for by inanition, and out of all proportion to the fall in the
+sodium and potassium with which the chlorine is usually combined in the
+urine. The fevered animal in fact stores chlorine in its tissues, though
+in what manner and for what reason is not at present known.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Von Noorden, L_ehrbuch der Pathologie des Stoffwechsels_
+  (Berlin, 1893); _Metabolism and Practical Medicine_, vol. ii., article
+  "Fever" by F. Kraus (1907); Dr A. Rabe, _Die modernen Fiebertheorien_
+  (Berlin, 1894); Dr G.B. Ughetti, _Das Fieber_, trans. by Dr R.
+  Teuscher (Jena, 1895); Dr M. Lövit, "Die Lehre von Fieber,"
+  _Vorlesungen über allgemeine Pathologie_, erstes Heft (Jena, 1897);
+  Louis Guinon, "De la fièvre," in Bouchard's _Traité de pathologie
+  générale_, t. iii. 2nd partie (Paris, 1899); Sir J.B. Sanderson, "The
+  Doctrine of Fever," in Allbutt's _System of Medicine_, vol. i. p. 139
+  (London, 1896).     (D. N. P.)
+
+
+
+
+FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIMÉ (1821-1873), French author, was born in Paris, on
+the 16th of March 1821. He began his literary career in 1844, by the
+publication of a volume of poetry, _Les Nationales_. Either the partial
+failure of this literary effort, or his marriage soon afterwards to a
+daughter of the economist Blanqui, caused him to devote himself to
+finance and to archaeology. He gained a great success with his novel
+_Fanny_ (1858), a success due chiefly to the cleverness with which it
+depicted and excused the corrupt manners of a certain portion of French
+society. This was followed in rapid succession by a series of fictions,
+similar in character, but wanting the attraction of novelty; none of
+them enjoyed the same vogue as _Fanny_. Besides his novels Feydeau wrote
+several plays, and he is also the author of _Histoire générale des
+usages funèbres et des sépultures des peuples anciens_ (3 vols.,
+1857-1861); _Le Secret du bonheur_ (sketches of Algerian life) (2 vols.,
+1864); and _L'Allemagne en 1871_ (1872), a clever caricature of German
+life and manners. He died in Paris on the 27th of October 1873.
+
+  See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. xiv., and Barbey
+  d'Aurevilly, _Les Oeuvres et les hommes au XIX^e siècle_.
+
+
+
+
+FEZ (_Fas_), the chief city of Morocco, into which empire it was
+incorporated in 1548. It lies in 34° 6' 3" N., 4° 38' 15" W., about 230
+m. N.E. of Marrakesh, 100 m. E. from the Atlantic and 85 m. S. of the
+Mediterranean. It is beautifully situated in a deep valley on the Wad
+Fas, an affluent of the Wad Sebu, which divides the town into two
+parts--the ancient town, Fas el Bali, on the right bank, and the new,
+Fas el Jadid, on the left.
+
+Like many other Oriental cities, Fez from a distance appears a very
+attractive place. It stretches out between low hills, crowned by the
+ruins of ancient fortresses, and though there is nothing imposing,
+there is something particularly impressive in the sight of that
+white-roofed conglomeration of habitations, broken only by occasional
+mosque towers or, on the outskirts, by luxuriant foliage. Except on the
+south side the city is surrounded by hills, interspersed with groves of
+orange, pomegranate and other fruit trees, and large olive gardens.
+
+From its peculiar situation Fez has a drainage superior to that of most
+Moorish towns. When the town becomes very dirty, the water is allowed to
+run down the streets by opening lids for the purpose in the conduits and
+closing the ordinary exits, so that it overflows and cleanses the
+pavements. The Fasis as a rule prefer to drink the muddy river water
+rather than that of the pure springs which abound in certain quarters of
+the town. But the assertion that the supply and drainage system are one
+is a libel, since the drainage system lies below the level of the fresh
+river water, and was organized by a French renegade, under Mohammed
+XVI., about the close of the 18th century. The general dampness of the
+town renders it unhealthy, however, as the pallid faces of the
+inhabitants betoken, but this is considered a mark of distinction and is
+jealously guarded.
+
+Most of the streets are exceedingly narrow, and as the houses are high
+and built in many cases over the thoroughfares these are often very dark
+and gloomy, though, since wooden beams, rough stones and mortar are used
+in building, there is less of that ruined, half-decayed appearance so
+common in other Moorish towns where mud concrete is the material
+employed.
+
+As a commercial town Fez is a great depot for the trade of Barbary and
+wares brought from the east and south by caravans. The manufactures
+still carried on are those of yellow slippers of the famous Morocco
+leather, fine white woollen and silk haiks, of which it is justly proud,
+women's embroidered sashes, various coarse woollen cloths and blankets,
+cotton and silk handkerchiefs, silk cords and braids, swords and guns,
+saddlery, brass trays, Moorish musical instruments, rude painted pottery
+and coloured tiles. Until recent times the city had a monopoly of the
+manufacture of Fez caps, for it was supposed that the dye which imparts
+the dull crimson hue of these caps could not be procured elsewhere; they
+are now, however, made both in France and Turkey. The dye is obtained
+from the juice of a berry which grows in large quantities near the town,
+and is also used in the dyeing of leather. Some gold ornaments are made,
+the gold being brought from the interior by caravans which trade
+regularly with Timbuktu.
+
+As in other capitals each trade has a district or street devoted chiefly
+to its activities. Old Fez is the business portion of the town, new Fez
+being occupied principally by government quarters and the Jews' mellah.
+The tradesman usually sits cross-legged in a corner of his shop with his
+goods so arranged that he can reach most of them without moving.
+
+In the early days of Mahommedan rule in Morocco, Fez was the seat of
+learning and the empire's pride. Its schools of religion, philosophy and
+astronomy enjoyed a great reputation in Africa and also in southern
+Europe, and were even attended by Christians. On the expulsion of the
+Moors from Spain, refugees of all kinds flocked to Fez, and brought with
+them some knowledge of arts, sciences and manufactures, and thither
+flocked students to make use of its extensive libraries. But its glories
+were brief, and though still "the university town" of Morocco, it
+retains but a shadow of its greatness. Its library, estimated by Gerhard
+Rohlfs in 1861 to contain 5000 volumes, is open on Fridays, and any Moor
+of known respectability may borrow volumes on getting an order and
+signing a receipt for them. There are about 1500 students who read at
+the Karueein. They pay no rents, but buy the keys of the rooms from the
+last occupants, selling them again on leaving.
+
+The Karueein is celebrated as the largest mosque in Africa, but it is by
+no means the most magnificent. On account of the vast area covered, the
+roof, supported by three hundred and sixty-six pillars of stone, appears
+very low. The side chapel for services for the dead contains twenty-four
+pillars. All these columns support horse-shoe arches, on which the roof
+is built, long vistas of arches being seen from each of the eighteen
+doors of the mosque. The large lamp is stated to weigh 1763 lb. and to
+have 509 lights, but it is very seldom lit. The total number of lights
+in the Karueein is given as seventeen hundred, and they are said to
+require 3½ cwt. of oil for one filling. The mosque of Mulai Idris, built
+by the founder of Fez about the year 810, is considered so sacred that
+the streets which approach its entrance are forbidden to Jews,
+Christians or four-footed beasts. The sanctity of the shrine in
+particular is esteemed very great, and this accounts for the crowds
+which daily flock to it. The Tumiat door leading to it was once very
+fine, but is now much faded. Opposite to it is a refuge for friendless
+sharifas--the female descendants of Mahomet--built by Mohammed XVII.
+
+It is believed that the foundation stone of Fez was laid in 808 by Idris
+II. Since then its history has been chequered, as it was successfully
+besieged no fewer than eight times in the first five hundred years of
+its existence, yet only once knew foreign masters, when in 1554 the
+Turks took possession of it without a siege and held it for a short
+time. Fez became the chief residence of the Filali dynasty, who obtained
+possession of the town in 1649 (see further MOROCCO: _History_).
+
+The population has been very varyingly estimated; probably the
+inhabitants number under one hundred thousand, even when the court is in
+residence.
+
+  See H. Gaillard, _Une Ville de l'Islam. Fès_ (Paris, 1905); C.
+  René-Leclerc, "Le commerce et l'industrie à Fez" in _Renseignements
+  col. comité afrique française_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+FEZZAN (the ancient _Phazania_, or country of the Garamantes), a region
+of the Sahara, forming a "kaimakamlik" of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripoli
+(q.v.). Its frontiers, ill-defined, run from Bonjem, within 50 m. of the
+Mediterranean on the north, south-westward to the Akakus range of hills,
+which separates Fezzan from Ghat, thence eastward for over 400 m., and
+then turn north and west to Bonjem again, embracing an area of about
+156,000 sq. m.
+
+_Physical Features._--The general form of the country is determined by
+the ranges of hills, including the Jebel-es-Suda (highest peak about
+4000 ft.), the Haruj-el-Aswad and the Haruj-el-Abiad, which between 14°
+and 19° E. and 27° and 29° N. form the northern edge of a broad desert
+plateau, and shut off the northern region draining to the Mediterranean
+from the depressions in which lie the oases of Fezzan proper in the
+south. The central depression of Hofra ("ditch"), as it is called, lies
+in about 26° N. It does not form a continuous fertile tract, but
+consists of a monotonous sandy expanse somewhat more thickly studded
+with oases than the surrounding wastes. The Hofra at its lowest part is
+not more than 600 ft. above the sea-level, and in this hollow is
+situated the capital Murzuk. It has a general east to west direction.
+North-west of the Hofra is a long narrow valley, the Wadi-el-Gharbi,
+which trends north-east and is the most fertile district of Fezzan. It
+contains several perennial springs and lake-like basins. One of these
+basins, the saline Bahr-el-Dud ("Sea of Worms"), has an extent of 600
+sq. m., and is in places 26 ft. deep. Southwards the Hofra rises to a
+height of 2000 ft., and in this direction lies the oasis of Gatron,
+followed by Tejerri on the verge of the desert, which marks the southern
+limit of the date and the northern of the dum palm. Beyond Tejerri the
+Saharan plateau rises continuously to the Tibesti highlands. (See
+further TRIPOLI.)
+
+_Climate._--The average temperature of Murzuk was found by Rohlfs to be
+70° F. Frost is not uncommon in the winter months. The climate is a very
+regular one, and is in general healthy, the dryness of the air in summer
+making the heat more bearable than on the sea coast. An almost perpetual
+blue sky overhangs the desert, and the people of Fezzan are so
+unaccustomed to and so ill-prepared for wet weather that, as in Tuat and
+Tidikelt, they pray to be spared from rain. Water is found almost
+everywhere at small depths.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--The date-palm is the characteristic tree of Fezzan,
+and constitutes the chief wealth of the land. Many different kinds of
+date-palms are found in the oases: in that of Murzuk alone more than 30
+varieties are counted, the most esteemed being named the Tillis, Tuati
+and Auregh. In all Fezzan the date is the staple food, not only for men,
+but for camels, horses and dogs. Even the stones of the fruit are
+softened and given to the cattle. The huts of the poorer classes are
+entirely made of date-palm leaves, and the more substantial habitations
+consist chiefly of the same material. The produce of the tree is small,
+100 full-grown trees yielding only about 40 cwt. of dates. Besides the
+date there are numerous olive, fig and almond trees. Various grains are
+cultivated. Wheat and barley are sown in winter, and in spring, summer
+and autumn several kinds of durra, especially ksob and gafoli. Cotton
+flourishes, is perennial for six or seven years, and gives large pods of
+moderate length of staple.
+
+There are no large carnivora in Fezzan. In the uninhabited oases
+gazelles and antelopes are occasionally found. The most important animal
+is the camel, of which there are two varieties, the Tebu or Sudan camel
+and the Arabian, differing very much in size, form and capabilities.
+Horses and cattle are not numerous. Among birds are ostriches, falcons,
+vultures, swallows and ravens; in summer wild pigeons and ducks are
+numerous, but in winter they seek a warmer climate. There are no
+remarkable insects or snakes. A species of _Artemia_ or brine shrimp,
+about a quarter of an inch in length, of a colour resembling the bright
+hue of the gold fish, is fished for with cotton nets in the "Sea of
+Worms," and mixed with dates and kneaded into a paste, which has the
+taste and smell of salt herring, is considered a luxury by the people of
+Fezzan.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The total population is estimated at between 50,000 and
+80,000. The inhabitants are a mixed people, derived from the surrounding
+Teda and Bornu on the south, Tuareg of the plateaus on the west, Berbers
+and Arabs from the north. The primitive inhabitants, called by their
+Arab conquerors Berauna, are believed to have been of Negro origin. They
+no longer persist as a distinct people. In colour the present
+inhabitants vary from black to white, but the prevailing hue of skin is
+a Malay-like yellow, the features and woolly hair being Negro. The chief
+languages are the Kanuri or Bornu language and Arabic. Many understand
+Targish, the Teda and the Hausa tongues. If among such a mixed people
+there can be said to be any national language, it is that of Bornu,
+which is most widely understood and spoken. The people of Sokna, north
+of the Jebel-es-Suda, have a peculiar Berber dialect which Rohlfs found
+to be very closely allied to that of Ghadames. The men wear a haik or
+barakan like those of Tripoli, and a fez; short hose, and a large loose
+shirt called mansaria, with red or yellow slippers, complete their
+toilet. Yet one often sees the large blue or white _tobe_ of Bornu, and
+the _litham_ or shawl-muffler of the Tuareg, wound round the mouth to
+keep out the blown sand of the desert. The women, who so long as they
+are young have very plump forms, and who are generally small, are more
+simply dressed, as a rule, in the barakan, wound round their bodies;
+they seldom wear shoes, but generally have sandals made of palm leaf.
+Like the Arab women they load arms and legs with heavy metal rings,
+which are of silver among the more wealthy. The hair, thickly greased
+with butter, soon catching the dust which forms a crust over it, is done
+up in numberless little plaits round the head, in the same fashion as in
+Bornu and the Hausa countries. Children run about naked until they
+attain the age of puberty, which comes very early, for mothers of ten or
+twelve years of age are not uncommon. The Fezzani are of a gay
+disposition, much given to music and dancing.
+
+_Towns and Trade._--Murzuk, the present capital, which is in telegraphic
+communication with the town of Tripoli, lies in the western corner of
+the Hofra depression, in 25° 55' N. and 14° 10' E. It was founded about
+1310, about which time the _kasbah_ or citadel was built. The Turks
+repaired it, as well as the town-wall, which has, however, again fallen
+into a ruinous condition. Murzuk, which had in 1906 some 3000
+inhabitants, is cut in two by a wide street, the _dendal_. The citadel
+and most of the houses are built of salt-saturated dried mud. Sokna,
+about midway between Tripoli and Murzuk, situated on a great gravel
+plain north of the Suda range, has a population of about 2500.
+
+Garama (Jerma-el-Kedima), the capital under the Garamantes and the
+Romans, was in the Wadi-el-Gharbi. It was a flourishing town at the time
+of the Arab conquest but is now deserted. Among the ruins is a
+well-preserved stone monument marking the southern limit of the Roman
+dominions in this part of Africa. The modern Jerma is a small place a
+little north of the site of Garama. Zuila, the capital under the Arabs,
+lies in a depression called the Sherguia east of Murzuk on the most
+direct caravan route to Barca and Egypt. Of Traghen, the capital under
+the Nesur dynasty, which was on the same caravan route and between Zuila
+and Murzuk, little besides the ruined kasbah remains.
+
+Placed roughly midway between the countries of the central Sudan and
+Tripoli, Fezzan serves as a depot for caravans crossing the Sahara; its
+commerce is unimportant. Its most important export is that of dates.
+Slave dealing, formerly the most lucrative occupation of the people, is
+moribund owing to the stoppage of slave raiding by the European
+governments in their Sudan territories.
+
+_History._--The country formed part of the territory of the Garamantes,
+described by Herodotus as a very powerful people. Attempts have been
+made to identify the Garamantes with the Berauna of the Arabs of the 7th
+century, and to the period of the Garamantes Duveyrier assigns the
+remains of remarkable hydraulic works, and certain tombs and rock
+sculptures--indications, it is held, of a Negro civilization of ancient
+date which existed in the northern Sahara. The Garamantes, whether of
+Libyan or Negro origin, had certainly a considerable degree of
+civilization when in the year 19 B.C. they were conquered by the
+proconsul L. Cornelius Balbus Minor and their country added to the Roman
+empire. By the Romans it was called Phazania, whence the present name
+Fezzan. After the Vandal invasion Phazania appears to have regained
+independence and to have been ruled by a Berauna dynasty. At this time
+the people were Christians, but in 666 the Arabs conquered the country
+and all traces of Christianity seem speedily to have disappeared.
+Subject at first to the caliphs, an independent Arab dynasty, that of
+the Beni Khattab, obtained power early in the 10th century. In the 13th
+century the country came under the rule of the king of Kanem (Bornu),
+but soon afterwards the Nesur, said to have been a native or Berauna
+dynasty, were in power. More probably the Nesur were hereditary
+governors originally appointed by the rulers of Kanem. In the 14th
+century the Nesur were conquered and dethroned by an Arab tribe, that of
+Khorman, who reduced the people of Fezzan to a state of slavery, a
+position from which they were rescued about the middle of the 16th
+century by a sherif of Morocco, Montasir-b.-Mahommed, who founded the
+dynasty of Beni Mahommed. This dynasty, which came into frequent
+conflict with the Turks, who had about the same time that Montasir
+secured Fezzan established themselves in Tripoli, gradually extended its
+borders as far as Sokna in the north. It was the Beni Mahommed who chose
+Murzuk as their capital. They became intermittently tributary to the
+pasha of Tripoli, but within Fezzan the power of the sultans was
+absolute. They maintained a body-guard of mamelukes, mostly
+Europeans--Greeks, Genoese, or their immediate descendants. The annual
+tribute was paid to the pasha either in money or in gold, senna or
+slaves. The last of the Beni Mahommed sultans was killed in the vicinity
+of Traghen in 1811 by El-Mukkeni, one of the lieutenants of Yusef Pasha,
+the last sovereign but one of the independent Karamanli dynasty of
+Tripoli. El-Mukkeni now made himself sultan of Fezzan, and became
+notorious by his slaving expeditions into the central Sudan, in which he
+advanced as far as Bagirmi. In 1831, Abd-el-Jelil, a chief of the
+Walid-Sliman Arabs, usurped the sovereign authority. After a troublous
+reign of ten years he was slain in battle by a Turkish force under Bakir
+Bey, and Fezzan was added to the Turkish empire. Towards the end of the
+19th century the Turks, alarmed at the increase of French influence in
+the neighbouring countries, reinforced their garrison in Fezzan. The
+kaimakamlik is said to yield an annual revenue of £6000 only to the
+Tripolitan treasury.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The most notable of the European travellers who have
+  visited Fezzan, and to whose works reference should be made for more
+  detailed information regarding it, are, taking them in the order of
+  date, as follows: F. Hornemann, 1798; G.F. Lyon, 1819; D. Denham, H.
+  Clapperton and W. Oudney, 1822; J. Richardson, 1845; H. Barth,
+  1850-1855; E. Vogel, 1854; H. Duveyrier, 1859-1861; M. von Beurmann,
+  1862; G. Rohlfs, 1865; G. Nachtigal, 1869; P.L. Monteil, 1892; H.
+  Vischer, 1906. Nachtigal's _Sahara and Sudan_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879),
+  gathers up much of the information in earlier works, and a list of the
+  Beni Mahommed sovereigns is given in A.M.H.J. Stokvis, _Manuel
+  d'histoire_, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888), p. 471. Miss Tinné (q.v.), who
+  travelled with Nachtigal as far as Murzuk, was shortly afterwards
+  murdered at the Sharaba wells on the road to Ghat.
+
+
+
+
+FIACRE, SAINT (Celt. _Fiachra_), an anchorite of the 7th century, of
+noble Irish descent. We have no information concerning his life in his
+native country. His _Acta_, which have scarcely any historical value,
+relate that he left Ireland, and came to France with his companions. He
+approached St Faro, the bishop of Meaux, to whom he made known his
+desire to live a life of solitude in the forest. St Faro assigned him a
+spot called Prodilus (Brodolium), the modern Breuil, in the province of
+Brie. There St Fiacre built a monastery in honour of the Holy Virgin,
+and to it added a small house for guests, to which he himself withdrew.
+Here he received St Chillen (? Killian), who was returning from a
+pilgrimage to Rome, and here he remained until his death, having
+acquired a great reputation for miracles. His remains rested for a long
+time in the place which he had sanctified. In 1568, at the time of the
+religious troubles, they were transferred to the cathedral of Meaux,
+where his shrine may still be seen in the sacristy. Various relics of St
+Fiacre were given to princes and great personages. His festival is
+celebrated on the 30th of August. He is the patron of Brie, and
+gardeners invoke him as their protector. French hackney-coaches received
+the name of _fiacre_ from the Hôtel St Fiacre, in the rue St Martin,
+Paris, where one Sauvage, who was the first to provide cabs for hire,
+kept his vehicles.
+
+  See _Acta Sanctorum_, Augusti vi. 598-620; J. O'Hanlon, _Lives of the
+  Irish Saints_, viii. 421-447 (Dublin, 1875-1904); J.C. O'Meagher,
+  "Saint Fiacre de la Brie," in _Proceedings of the Royal Irish
+  Academy_, 3rd series, ii. 173-176.     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+FIARS PRICES, in the law of Scotland, the average prices of each of the
+different sorts of grain grown in each county, as fixed annually by the
+sheriff, usually after the verdict of a jury; they serve as a rule for
+ascertaining the value of the grain due to feudal superiors, to the
+clergy or to lay proprietors of teinds, to landlords as a part or the
+whole of their rents and in all cases where the price of grain has not
+been fixed by the parties. It is not known when or how the practice of
+"striking the fiars," as it is called, originated. It probably was first
+used to determine the value of the grain rents and duties payable to the
+crown. In confirmation of this view it seems that at first the duty of
+the sheriffs was merely to make a return to the court of exchequer of
+the prices of grain within their counties, the court itself striking the
+fiars; and from an old case it appears that the fiars were struck above
+the true prices, being regarded rather as punishments to force the
+king's tenants to pay their rents than as the proper equivalent of the
+grain they had to pay. Co-existent, however, with these fiars, which
+were termed sheriffs' fiars, there was at an early period another class
+called commissaries' fiars, by which the values of teinds were
+regulated. They have been traced back to the Reformation, and were under
+the management of the commissary or consistorial courts, which then took
+the place of the bishops and their officials. They have now been long
+out of use, but they were perhaps of greater antiquity than the
+sheriffs' fiars, and the model upon which these were instituted. In 1723
+the court of session passed an Act of Sederunt for the purpose of
+regulating the procedure in fiars courts. Down to that date the practice
+of striking the fiars was by no means universal over Scotland; and even
+in those counties into which it had been introduced, there was, as the
+preamble of the act puts it, "a general complaint that the said fiars
+are struck and given out by the sheriffs without due care and inquiry
+into the current and just prices." The act in consequence provided that
+all sheriffs should summon annually, between the 4th and the 20th of
+February, a competent number of persons, living in the shire, of
+experience in the prices of grain within its bounds, and that from these
+they should choose a jury of fifteen, of whom at least eight were to be
+heritors; that witnesses and other evidence as to the price of grain
+grown in the county, especially since the 1st of November preceding
+until the day of inquiry, were to be brought before the jury, who might
+also proceed on "their own proper knowledge"; that the verdict was to be
+returned and the sentence of the sheriff pronounced by the 1st of March;
+and further, where custom or expediency recommended it, the sheriff was
+empowered to fix fiars of different values according to the different
+qualities of the grain. It cannot be said that this act has remedied all
+the evils of which it complained. The propriety of some of its
+provisions has been questioned, and the competency of the court to pass
+it has been doubted, even by the court itself. Its authority has been
+entirely disregarded in one county--Haddingtonshire--where the fiars are
+struck by the sheriff alone, without a jury; and when this practice was
+called in question the court declined to interfere, observing that the
+fiars were better struck in Haddingtonshire than anywhere else. The
+other sheriffs have in the main followed the act, but with much variety
+of detail, and in many instances on principles the least calculated to
+reach the true average prices. Thus in some counties the averages are
+taken on the number of transactions, without regard to the quantities
+sold. In one case, in 1838, the evidence was so carelessly collected
+that the second or inferior barley fiars were 2s. 4d. higher than the
+first. Formerly the price was struck by the boll, commonly the
+Linlithgowshire boll; now the imperial quarter is always used.
+
+  The origin of the plural word fiars (feors, feers, fiers) is
+  uncertain. Jamieson, in his _Dictionary_, says that it comes from the
+  Icelandic _fe_, wealth; Paterson derives it from an old French word
+  _feur_, an average; others connect it with the Latin _forum_ (i.e.
+  market). The _New English Dictionary_ accepts the two latter
+  connexions. On the general subject of fiars prices see Paterson's
+  _Historical Account of the Fiars in Scotland_ (Edin., 1852); Connell,
+  _On Tithes_; Hunter's _Landlord and Tenant_.
+
+
+
+
+FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. _fibra_, apparently
+connected either with _filum_, thread, or _findere_, to split), the
+general term for certain structural components of animal and vegetable
+tissue utilized in manufactures, and in respect of such uses, divided
+for the sake of classification into textile, papermaking, brush and
+miscellaneous fibres.
+
+I. _Textile Fibres_ are mostly products of the organic world, elaborated
+in their elongated form to subserve protective functions in animal life
+(as wool and epidermal hairs, &c.) or as structural components of
+vegetable tissues (flax, hemp and wood cells). It may be noted that the
+inorganic world provides an exception to this general statement in the
+fibrous mineral asbestos (q.v.), which is spun or twisted into coarse
+textiles. Other silicates are also transformed by artificial processes
+into fibrous forms, such as "glass," which is fused and drawn or spun to
+a continuous fibre, and various "slags" which, in the fused state, are
+transformed into "slag wool." Lastly, we note that a number of metals
+are drawn down to the finest dimensions, in continuous lengths, and
+these are woven into cloth or gauze, such metallic cloths finding
+valuable applications in the arts. Certain metals in the form of fine
+wire are woven into textile fabrics used as dress materials. Such
+exceptional applications are of insignificant importance, and will not
+be further considered in this article.
+
+The common characteristics of the various forms of matter comprised in
+the widely diversified groups of textile fibres are those of the
+colloids. Colloidal matter is intrinsically devoid of structure, and in
+the mass may be regarded as homogeneous; whereas crystalline matter in
+its proximate forms assumes definite and specific shapes which express a
+complex of internal stresses. The properties of matter which condition
+its adaptation to structural functions, first as a constituent of a
+living individual, and afterwards as a textile fibre, are homogeneous
+continuity of substance, with a high degree of interior cohesion, and
+associated with an irreducible minimum of elasticity or extensibility.
+The colloids show an infinite diversity of variations in these essential
+properties: certain of them, and notably cellulose (q.v.), maintain
+these characteristics throughout a cycle of transformations such as
+permit of their being brought into a soluble plastic form, in which
+condition they may be drawn into filaments in continuous length. The
+artificial silks or lustra-celluloses are produced in this way, and have
+already taken an established position as staple textiles. For a more
+detailed account of these products see CELLULOSE.
+
+The animal fibres are composed of nitrogenous colloids of which the
+typical representatives are the albumens, fibrines and gelatines. They
+are of highly complex constitution and their characteristics have only
+been generally investigated. The vegetable fibre substances are
+celluloses and derivatives of celluloses, also typically colloidal
+bodies. The broad distinction between the two groups is chiefly evident
+in their relationship to alkalis. The former group are attacked,
+resolved and finally dissolved, under conditions of action by no means
+severe. The celluloses, on the other hand, and therefore the vegetable
+fibres, are extraordinarily resistant to the action of alkalis.
+
+The animal fibres are relatively few in number but of great industrial
+importance. They occur as detached units and are of varying dimensions;
+sheep's wool having lengths up to 36 in., the fleeces being shorn for
+textile uses at lengths of 2 to 16 in.; horse hair is used in lengths of
+4 to 24 in., whereas the silks may be considered as being produced in
+continuous length, "reeled silks" having lengths measured in hundreds of
+yards, but "spun silks" are composed of silk fibres purposely broken up
+into short lengths.
+
+The vegetable fibres are extremely numerous and of very diversified
+characteristics. They are individualized units only in the case of seed
+hairs, of which cotton is by far the most important; with this exception
+they are elaborated as more or less complex aggregates. The bast tissues
+of dicotyledonous annuals furnish such staple materials as flax, hemp,
+rhea or ramie and jute. The bast occurs in a peripheral zone, external
+to the wood and beneath the cortex, and is mechanically separated from
+the stem, usually after steeping, followed by drying.
+
+The commercial forms of these fibres are elongated filaments composed of
+the elementary bast cells (ultimate fibres) aggregated into bundles. The
+number of these as any part of the filament may vary from 3 to 20 (see
+figs.). In the processes of refinement preparatory to the spinning
+(hackling, scutching) and in the spinning process itself, the
+fibre-bundles are more or less subdivided, and the divisibility of the
+bundles is an element in the textile value of the raw material. But the
+value of the material is rather determined by the length of the ultimate
+fibres (for, although not the spinning unit, the tensile strength of the
+yarn is ultimately limited by the cohesion of these fibres), qualified
+by the important factor of uniformity.
+
+Thus, the ultimate fibre of flax has a length of 25 to 35 mm.; jute, on
+the other hand, 2 to 3 mm.; and this disparity is an essential condition
+of the difference of values of these fibres. Rhea or ramie, to cite
+another typical instance, has an ultimate fibre of extraordinary length,
+but of equally conspicuous variability, viz. from 50 to 200 mm. The
+variability is a serious impediment in the preparation of the material
+for spinning and this defect, together with low drawing or spinning
+quality, limits the applications of this fibre to the lower counts or
+grades of yarn.
+
+The monocotyledons yield still more complex fibre aggregates, which are
+the fibro-vascular bundles of leaves and stems. These complex structures
+as a class do not yield to the mechanical treatment by which the bast
+fibres are subdivided, nor is there any true spinning quality such as is
+conditioned by bringing the ultimate fibres into play under the drawing
+process, which immediately precedes the twisting into yarn. Such
+materials are therefore only used for the coarsest textiles, such as
+string or rope. An exception to be noted in passing is to be found in
+the pine apple (_Ananassa Sativa_) the fibres of which are worked into
+yarns and cloth of the finest quality. The more important fibres of this
+class are manila, sisal, phormium. A heterogeneous mass of still more
+complex fibre aggregates, in many cases the entire stem (cereal straws,
+esparto), in addition to being used in plaited form, e.g. in hats,
+chairs, mats, constitute the staple raw material for paper
+manufacturers, requiring a severe chemical treatment for the separation
+of the ultimate fibres.
+
+In this class we must include the woods which furnish wood pulps of
+various classes and grades. Chemical processes of two types, (a) acid
+and (b) alkaline, are also employed in resolving the wood, and the
+resolution not only effects a complete isolation of the wood cells, but,
+by attacking the hydrolysable constituents of the wood substance
+(lignocellulose), the cells are obtained in the form of cellulose. These
+cellulose pulps are known in commerce as "sulphite pulps" and "soda
+pulps" respectively. In addition to these raw materials or "half stuffs"
+the paper-maker employs the rejecta of the vegetable and textile
+industries, scutching, spinning and cloth wastes of all kinds, which are
+treated by chemical (boiling) and mechanical means (beating) to separate
+the ultimate fibres and reduce them to the suitable dimensions (0.5-2.0
+mm.). These papermaking fibres have also to be reckoned with as textile
+raw materials, in view of a new and growing industry in "pulp yarns"
+(_Papierstoffgarn_), a coarse textile obtained by treating paper as
+delivered in narrow strips from the paper machine; the strips are
+reeled, dried to retain 30-40% moisture, and in this condition subjected
+to the twisting operation, which confers the cylindrical form and adds
+considerably to the strength of the fibrous strip. The following are the
+essential characteristics of the economically important fibres.
+
+_Animal._--A. Silk. (a) The true silks are produced by the _Bombyx
+Mori_, the worm feeding on the leaves of the mulberry. The fibre is
+extruded as a viscous liquid from the glands of the worm, and solidifies
+to a cylindrical thread. The cohesion of these threads in pairs gives to
+raw silk the form of a dual cylinder (Plate I. fig. 2). For textile
+purposes the thread is reeled from the cocoon, and several units, five
+and upwards, are brought together and suitably twisted. (b) The "Wild"
+silks are produced by a large variety of insects, of which the most
+important are the various species of Antherea, which yield the Tussore
+silks. These silks differ in form and composition from the true silks.
+While they consist of a "dual" thread, each unit of these is complex,
+being made up of a number of fibrillae. This unit thread is quadrangular
+in section, and of larger diameter than the true silk, the mean breadth
+being 0.052 mm., as compared with 0.018, the mean diameter of the true
+silks. The variations in structure as well as in dimensions are,
+however, very considerable.
+
+B. Epidermal hairs. Of these (a) wool, the epidermal protective covering
+of sheep, is the most important. The varying species of the animal
+produce wools of characteristic qualities, varying considerably in
+fineness, in length of staple, in composition and in spinning quality.
+Hence the classing of the fleeces or raw wool followed by the elaborate
+processes of selection, i.e. "sorting" and preparation, which precede
+the actual spinning or twisting of the yarn. These consist in entirely
+freeing the fibres and sorting them mechanically (combing, &c.),
+thereafter forming them into continuous lengths of parallelized units.
+This is followed by the spinning process which consists in a
+simultaneous drawing and twisting, and a continuous production of the
+yarn with the structural characteristics of worsted yarns. The shorter
+staple--from 5 to 25% of average fleeces--is prepared by the "carding"
+process for the spinning operation, in which drawing and twisting are
+simultaneous, the length spun being then wound up, and the process being
+consequently intermittent. This section of the industry is known as
+"woollen spinning" in contrast to the former or "_worsted_ spinning."
+
+(b) An important group of raw material closely allied to the wools are
+the epidermal hairs of the Angora goat (mohair), the llama, alpaca.
+Owing to their form and the nature of the substance of which they are
+composed, they possess more lustre than the wools. They present
+structural differences from sheep wools which influence the processes by
+which they are prepared or spun, and the character of the yarns; but the
+differences are only of subordinate moment.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  FIG. 1.--RAW SILK. _Bombyx mori_. Filament of bave, viewed in length.
+  × 110.
+
+  FIG. 2.--RAW SILK. _Bombyx mori_. Single fibres in transverse section
+  showing each fibre or "bave" as dual cylinder. × 235.
+
+  FIG. 3.--ARTIFICIAL "SILK." Lustra-cellulose viscose process, single
+  fibres in transverse section × 235. Normal type--polygon of 5
+  sides--with concave sides due to contact of the component units of
+  textile filament.
+
+  FIG. 4.--WOOL FIBRES. Australian merino viewed in length, × 235.
+  Surface imbrications--the structural cause of true felting properties.
+
+  FIG. 5.--FLAX STEM. _Linum usitatissimum_. Transverse section of stem,
+  × 235, showing bast fibres occupying central zone.
+
+  FIG. 6.--RAMIE. Section of bast region, × 235. Showing bast fibres
+  bundles but only slightly occurring as individuals.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  FIG. 7.--JUTE. Bast bundles. Section of bast region, × 235, showing
+  agglomerated bundles of bast fibre, each bundle representing a
+  spinning unit or filament.
+
+  FIG. 8.--MAIZE STEM. _Zea mais_. Fibro-vascular bundle in section. ×
+  110, typical of monocotyledonous structure.
+
+  FIG. 9.--COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres in the length, ×
+  110. Portions selected to show typical structural characteristics.
+
+  FIG. 10.--COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres--transverse
+  section, × 110. Note similarity of ramie to cotton and jute to flax.
+
+  FIG. 11.--ESPARTO. Cellulose. Ultimate fibres of paper making pulp.
+  Typical fusiform bast fibres. × 65.
+
+  FIG. 12.--SECTION OF HAND-MADE PAPER. × 110. Ultimate component fibres
+  disposed in every plane.]
+
+(c) Various animal hairs, such as those of the cow, camel and rabbit,
+are also employed; the latter is largely worked into the class of
+fabrics known as felts. In these the hairs are compacted together by
+taking advantage of the peculiarity of structure which causes the
+imbrications of the surface.
+
+(d) Horse hair is employed in its natural form as an individual filament
+or monofil.[1]
+
+_Vegetable Fibres._--The subjoined scheme of classification sets out the
+morphological structural characteristics of the vegetable fibres:--
+
+  Produced from
+
+  _Dicotyledons._      _Monocotyledons._
+
+  A. Seed hairs.       D. Fibro-vascular bundles.
+  B. Bast fibres.      E. Entire leaves and stems.
+  C. Bast aggregates.
+
+In the list of the more important fibrous raw materials subjoined, the
+capital letter immediately following the name refers the individual to
+its position in this classification. In reference to the important
+question of chemical composition and the actual nature of the fibre
+substance, it may be premised that the vegetable fibres are composed of
+cellulose, an important representative of the group of carbohydrates, of
+which the cotton fibre substance is the chemical prototype, mixed and
+combined with various derivatives belonging to the subgroups. (a)
+Carbohydrates. (b) Unsaturated compounds of benzenoid and furfuroid
+constitutions. (c) "Fat and wax" derivatives, i.e. groups belonging to
+the fatty series, and of higher molecular dimensions--of such compound
+celluloses the following are the prototypes:--
+
+(a) Cellulose combined and mixed with "pectic" bodies (i.e.
+pecto-celluloses), flax, rhea.
+
+(b) Cellulose combined with unsaturated groups or ligno-celluloses, jute
+and the woods.
+
+(c) Cellulose combined and mixed with higher fatty acids, alcohols,
+ethers, cuto-celluloses, protective epidermal covering of leaves.
+
+The letters a, b, c in the table below and following the capitals, which
+have reference to the structural basis of classification, indicate the
+main characteristics of the fibre substances. (See also CELLULOSE.)
+
+_Miscellaneous._--Various species of the family Palmaceae yield fibrous
+products of value, of which mention must be made of the following.
+_Raffia_, epidermal strips of the leaves of _Raphia ruffia_
+(Madagascar), _R. taedigera_ (Japan), largely employed as binder twine
+in horticulture, replacing the "bast" (linden) formerly employed.
+_Coir_, the fibrous envelope of the fruit of the _Cocos nucifera_,
+extensively used for matting and other coarse textiles. _Carludovica
+palmata_ (Central America) yields the raw material for Panama hats, the
+_Corypha australis_ (Australia) yields a similar product. The leaves of
+the date palm, _Phoenix dactylifera_, are employed locally in making
+baskets and mats, and the fibro-vascular bundles are isolated for
+working up into coarse twine and rope; similarly, the leaves of the
+_Elaeis guineensis_, the fruit of which yields the "palm oil" of
+commerce, yield a fibre which finds employment locally (Africa) for
+special purposes. _Chamaerops humilis_, the dwarf palm, yields the
+well-known "Crin d'Afrique." Locally (Algiers) it is twisted into ropes,
+but its more general use, in Europe, is in upholstery as a stuffing
+material. The cereal straws are used in the form of plait in the making
+of hats and mats. Esparto grass is also used in the making of coarse
+mats.
+
+The processes by which the fibres are transformed into textile fabrics
+are in the main determined by their structural features. The following
+are the distinctive types of treatment.
+
+A. The fibre is in virtually continuous lengths. The textile yarn is
+produced by assembling together the unit threads, which are wound
+together and suitably twisted (silk; artificial silk).
+
+
+  +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |                |    Botanical    |                            |                        |                                     |
+  |                |    Identity.    |     Country of Origin.     | Dimensions of Ultimate.|            Textile Uses.            |
+  |                | Genus and Order.|                            |                        |                                     |
+  +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |Cotton, A.a.    | Gossypium       |Tropical and subtropical    |12-40 mm. 0.019-0.025.  | Universal. Also as a raw material   |
+  |                | Malvaceae       |  countries                 |  Av. 28 mm.            |   in chemical industries, notably   |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   explosives, celluloid.            |
+  |Flax, B.a       | Linum           |Temperate (and subtropical) |6.60 mm. 0.011-0.025.   | General. Special effects in lustre  |
+  |                | Linaceae        |  countries, chiefly        |  Av. 28 mm.            |   damasks. In India and America     |
+  |                |                 |  European                  |                        |   plants grown for seed (linseed).  |
+  |Hemp, B.a       | Cannabis        |Temperate countries, chiefly|5-55 mm. 0.016-0.050.   | Coarser textiles, sail-cloth,       |
+  |                | Cannabineae     |  Europe                    |  Av. 22. mm. Av. 0.022 |   rope and twine.                   |
+  |Ramie, B.a.     | Boehmeria       |Tropical countries (some    |60-200 mm. 0.03-0.08.   | Coarse textiles. Cost of preparation|
+  |                | Urticaceae      |  temperate)                |  Av. 120 mm. Av. 0.050 |   for fine textiles prohibitive.    |
+  |Jute, B.b       | Corchorus       |Tropical countries, chiefly |1.5-5 mm. 0.020-0.025.  | Coarse textiles, chiefly "Hessians" |
+  |                | Tiliaceae       |  India                     |  Av. 2.5 mm. Av. 0.022 |   and sacking. "Line" spun yarns    |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   used in cretonne and furniture    |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   textiles.                         |
+  |      B.b       | Crotalaria      |India                       |4.0-12.0. 0.025-0.050.  | Twine and rope. Coarse textiles.    |
+  |                | Leguminosae     |                            |  Av. 7.5. Av. 0.022    |                                     |
+  |Hibiscus, B.b   | Hibiscus        |Tropical, chiefly India     |2-6 mm. 0.014-0.033.    | Coarse textiles. H. Elams has been  |
+  |                |                 |                            |  Av. 4 mm. Av. 0.021   |   extensively used in making mats.  |
+  |Sida, B.b       | Sida            |Tropical and subtropical    |1.5-4 mm. 0.013-0.02.   | Coarse textiles. Appears capable of |
+  |                | Malvaceae       |                            |  Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.015   |   substituting jute.                |
+  |Lime or         | Tilia           |European countries, chiefly |1.5 mm. 0.014-0.020.    | Matting and binder twine.           |
+  |  Linden,C.b    | Tiliaceae       |  Russia                    |  Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.016   |                                     |
+  |Mulberry, C     | Broussonetia    |Far East                    |5-31 mm. 0.02-0.04.     | Paper and paper cloths.             |
+  |                | Moraceae        |                            |  Av. 15 mm. Av. 0.03   |                                     |
+  |Monocotyledons--|                 |                            |                        |                                     |
+  |  Manila, D.    | Musa            |Tropical countries, chiefly |3-12 mm. 0.016-0.032.   | Twine and ropes. Produces papers    |
+  |                | Musaceae        |  Philippine Islands        |  Av. 6 mm. Av. 0.024   |   of special quality.               |
+  |  Sisal, D      | Agave           |Tropical countries, chiefly |1.5-4 mm. 0.020-0.032.  | Twine and ropes.                    |
+  |                | Amaryllideae    |   Central America          |  Av. 2.5. Av. 0.024    |                                     |
+  |                | Yucca           |       do.                  |0.5-6 mm. 0.01-0.02.    |           do.                       |
+  |                | Liliaceae       |                            |                        |                                     |
+  |                | Sansevieria     |East Indies, Ceylon, East   |1.5-6 mm. 0.015-0.026.  |           do.                       |
+  |                | Liliaceae       |  Africa                    |  Av. 3 mm. Av. 0.020   |                                     |
+  |  Phormium, D.  | Phormium tenax  |New Zealand                 |5.0-15 mm. 0.010-0.020. | Twine and ropes. Distinguished by   |
+  |                | Liliaceae       |                            |  Av. 9 mm. Av. 0.016   |   high yield of fibre from green    |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   leaf.                             |
+  |  Pine-apple, D.| Ananassa        |Tropical East and West      |3.0-9.0 mm. 0.004-0.008.| Textiles of remarkable fineness.    |
+  |                | Bromeliaceae    |  Indies                    |  Av. 5. Av. 0.006      |   Exceptional fineness of ultimate  |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   fibre.                            |
+  +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+
+B. The fibres in the form of units of variable short dimensions are
+treated by more or less elaborate processes of scutching, hackling,
+combing, with the aim of producing a mass of free parallelized units of
+uniform dimensions; these are then laid together and drawn into
+continuous bands of sliver and roving, which are finally drawn and
+twisted into yarns. In this group are comprised the larger number of
+textile products, such as cotton, wool, flax and jute, and it also
+includes at the other extreme the production of coarse textiles, such as
+twine and rope.
+
+C. The fibres of still shorter dimensions are treated in various ways
+for the production of a fabric in continuous length.
+
+The distinction of type of manufacturing processes in which the
+relatively short fibres are utilized, either as disintegrated units or
+comminuted long fibres, follows the lines of division into long and
+short fibres; the long fibres are worked into yarns by various
+processes, whereas the shorter fibres are agglomerated by both dry and
+wet processes to felted tissues or felts. It is obvious, however, that
+these distinctions do not constitute rigid dividing lines. Thus the
+principles involved in felting are also applied in the manipulation of
+long fibre fabrics. For instance, woollen goods are closed or shrunk by
+milling, the web being subjected to a beating or hammering treatment in
+an apparatus known as "the Stocks," or is continuously run through
+squeezing rollers, in weak alkaline liquids. Flax goods are "closed" by
+the process of beetling, a long-continued process of hammering, under
+which the ultimate fibres are more or less subdivided, and at the same
+time welded or incorporated together. As already indicated, paper, which
+is a web composed of units of short dimensions produced by deposition
+from suspension in water and agglomerated by the interlacing of the
+component fibres in all planes within the mass, is a species of textile.
+Further, whereas the silks are mostly worked up in the extreme lengths
+of the cocoon, there are various systems of spinning silk wastes of
+variable short lengths, which are similar to those required for spinning
+the fibres which occur naturally in the shorter lengths.
+
+The fibres thus enumerated as commercially and industrially important
+have established themselves as the result of a struggle for survival,
+and each embodies typical features of utility. There are innumerable
+vegetable fibres, many of which are utilized in the locality or region
+of their production, but are not available for the highly specialized
+applications of modern competitive industry to qualify for which a very
+complex range of requirements has to be met. These include primarily the
+factors of production and transport summed up in cost of production,
+together with the question of regularity of supply; structural
+characteristics, form and dimensions, including uniformity of ultimate
+unit and adaptability to standard methods of preparing and spinning,
+together with tenacity and elasticity, lustre. Lastly, composition,
+which determines the degree of resistance to chemical disintegrating
+influences as well as subsidiary questions of colour and relationship to
+colouring matters. The quest for new fibres, as well as modified methods
+of production of those already known, require critical investigation
+from the point of view of established practice. The present perspective
+outline of the group will be found to contain the elements of a grammar
+of the subject. But those who wish to pursue the matter will require to
+amplify this outlined picture by a study of the special treatises which
+deal with general principles, as well as the separate articles on the
+various fibres.
+
+_Analysis and Identification._--For the analysis of textile fabrics and
+the identification of component fibre, a special treatise must be
+consulted. The following general facts are to be noted as of importance.
+
+All animal fibres are effectively dissolved by 10% solution of caustic
+potash or soda. The fabric or material is boiled in this solution for 10
+minutes and exhaustively washed. Any residue will be vegetable or
+cellulose fibre. It must not be forgotten that the chemical properties
+of the fibre substances are modified more or less by association in
+combination with colouring matters and mordants. These may, in many
+cases, be removed by treatments which do not seriously modify the fibre
+substances.
+
+Wool is distinguished from silk by its relative resistance to the action
+of sulphuric acid. The cold concentrated acid rapidly dissolves silk as
+well as the vegetable fibres. The attack on wool is slow, and the
+epidermal scales of wool make their appearance. The true silks are
+distinguished from the wild silks by the action of concentrated
+hydrochloric acid in the cold, which reagent dissolves the former, but
+has only a slight effect on Tussore silk. After preliminary resolution
+by these group reagents, the fabric is subjected to microscopical
+analysis for the final identification of its component fibres (see H.
+Schlichter, _Journal Soc. Chem. Ind_., 1890, p. 241).
+
+A scheme for the commercial analysis or assay of vegetable fibres,
+originally proposed by the author,[2] and now generally adopted,
+includes the following operations:--
+
+  1. Determination of moisture.
+
+  2. Determination of ash left after complete ignition.
+
+  3. Hydrolysis:
+
+    (a) loss of weight after boiling the raw fibre with a 1% caustic
+      soda solution for five minutes;
+    (b) loss after boiling for one hour.
+
+  4. Determination of cellulose: the white residue after
+
+    (a) boiling for five minutes with 1% caustic soda,
+    (b) exposure to chlorine gas for one hour,
+    (c) boiling with basic sodium sulphite solution.
+
+  5. Mercerizing: the loss of weight after digestion with a 20% solution
+  of sodium hydrate for one hour in the cold.
+
+  6. Nitration: the weight of the product obtained after digestion with
+  a mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric and nitric acids for one hour
+  in the cold.
+
+  7. Acid purification: treatment of the raw fibre with 20% acetic acid
+  for one minute, the product being washed with water and alcohol, and
+  then dried.
+
+  8. Determination of the total carbon by combustion.
+
+II. _Papermaking._--The papermaking industry (see PAPER) employs as raw
+materials a large proportion of the vegetable fibre products already
+enumerated, and, for the reasons incidentally mentioned, they may be,
+and are, employed in a large variety of forms: in fact any fibrous
+material containing over 30% "cellulose" and yielding ultimate fibres of
+a length exceeding 1 mm. can be used in this industry. Most important
+staples are cotton and flax; these are known to the paper-maker as "rag"
+fibres, rags, i.e. cuttings of textile fabrics, new and old, being their
+main source of supply. These are used for writing and drawing papers. In
+the class of "printings" two of the most important staples are wood
+pulp, prepared by chemical treatment from both pine and foliage woods,
+and in England esparto cellulose, the cellulose obtained from esparto
+grass by alkali treatment; the cereal straws are also used and are
+resolved into cellulose by alkaline boiling followed by bleaching. In
+the class of "wrappings" and miscellaneous papers a large number of
+other materials find use, such as various residues of manufacturing and
+preparing processes, scutching wastes, ends of rovings and yarns, flax,
+hemp and manila rope waste, adansonia bast, and jute wastes, raw
+(cuttings) and manufactured (bagging). Other materials have been
+experimentally tried, and would no doubt come into use on their
+papermaking merits, but as a matter of fact the actually suitable raw
+materials are comprised in the list above enumerated, and are limited in
+number, through the influence of a number of factors of value or
+utility.
+
+III. _Brush Fibres, &c._--In addition to the textile industries there
+are manufactures which utilize fibres of both animal and vegetable
+character. The most important of these is brush-making. The familiar
+brushes of everyday use are extremely diversified in form and texture.
+The supplies of animal fibres are mainly drawn from the badger, hog,
+bear, sable, squirrel and horse. These fibres and bristles cover a large
+range of effects. Brushes required for cleansing purposes are composed
+of fibres of a more or less hard and resilient character, such as horse
+hairs, and other tail hairs and bristles. For painting work brushes of
+soft quality are employed, graduating for fine work into the extreme
+softness of the "camel hair" pencil. Of vegetable fibres the following
+are used in this industry. The _Caryota urens_ furnishes the Kittul
+fibre, obtained from the base of the leaf stalks. Piassava is obtained
+from the _Attalea funifera_, also from the _Leopoldina piassaba_
+(Brazil). Palmyra fibre is obtained from the _Borassus flabellifer_.
+These are all members of the natural order of the Palmaceae. Mexican
+fibre, or Istle, is obtained from the agave. The fibre known as Whisk,
+largely used for dusting brushes, is obtained from various species of
+the Gramineae; the "Mexican Whisk" from _Epicampeas macroura_; and
+"Italian Whisk" from _Andropogon_. The _coir_ fibre mentioned above in
+connexion with coarse textiles is also extensively used in brush-making.
+Aloe and Agave fibres in their softer forms are also used for
+plasterers' brushes. Many of the whitewashes and cleansing solutions
+used in house decoration are alkaline in character, and for such uses
+advantage is taken of the specially resistant character of the cellulose
+group of materials.
+
+_Stuffing and Upholstery._--Another important use for fibrous materials
+is for filling or stuffing in connexion with the seats and cushions in
+upholstery. In the large range of effects required, a corresponding
+number and variety of products find employment. One of the most
+important is the floss or seed-hair of the _Eriodendron anfractuosum_,
+known as Kapok, the use of which in Europe was created by the Dutch
+merchants who drew their supplies from Java. The fibre is soft, silky
+and elastic, and maintains its elasticity in use. Many fibres when used
+in the mass show, on the other hand, a tendency to become matted and
+compressed in use, and to restore them to their original state the fibre
+requires to be removed and subjected to a teasing or carding process.
+This defect limits the use of other "flosses" or seed hairs in
+competition with Kapok. Horse hair is extensively used in this industry,
+as are also wool flocks and other short animal hairs and wastes.
+
+_Hats and Matting._--For these manufactures a large range of the fibrous
+products above described are employed, chiefly in their natural or raw
+state.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The list of works appended comprises only a small
+  fraction of the standard literature of the subject, but they are
+  sufficiently representative to enable the specialist, by referring to
+  them, to cover the subject-matter. F.H. Bowman, _The Structure of the
+  Wood Fibre_ (1885), _The Structure of Cotton Fibre_ (1882); Cross,
+  Bevan and King, _Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances_ (London, 1887);
+  C.F. Cross, _Report on Miscellaneous Fibres_, Colonial Indian
+  Exhibition, 1886 (London, 1887); Cross and Bevan, _Cellulose,
+  Researches on Cellulose_, i. and ii. (London, 1895-1905); C.R. Dodge,
+  _A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World_ (Report
+  No. 9, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1897); von Höhmel, _Die
+  Mikroskopie der technisch verwendeten Faserstoffe_ (Leipzig, 1905);
+  J.J. Hummel, _The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics_ (London, 1885); J.M.
+  Matthews, _The Textile Fibres, their Physical, Microscopical and
+  Chemical Properties_ (New York, 1904); H. Müller, _Die Pflanzenfaser_
+  (Braunschweig, 1877); H. Schlichter, "The Examination of Textile
+  Fibres and Fabrics" (_Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind._, 1890, 241); M.
+  Vetillart, _Études sur les fibres végétales textiles_ (Paris, 1876);
+  Sir T.H. Wardle, _Silk and Wild Silks_, original memoirs in connexion
+  with Col. Ind. Ex., 1886, Jubilee Ex. Manchester, 1887; Sir G. Watt,
+  _Dictionary of Economic Products of India_ (London, 1891); Wiesner,
+  _Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs_ (Leipzig, 1873); O.N. Witt,
+  _Chemische Technologie der Gespinnstfasern_ (Braunschweig, 1888); _Kew
+  Bulletin_; _The Journal of the Imperial Institute_; _The Journal of
+  the Society of Arts_; W.I. Hannam, _The Textile Fibres of Commerce_
+  (London, 1902); J. Jackson, _Commercial Botany_; J. Zipser, _Die
+  Textilen Rohmaterialien_ (Wien, 1895); F. Zetzsche, _Die wichtigsten
+  Faserstoffe der europäischen Industrie_ (Leipzig, 1895).
+       (C. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See also ALPACA, FELT, MOHAIR, SHODDY and WOOL.
+
+  [2] Col. Ind. Exhibition, 1886, _Miscellaneous Reports_.
+
+
+
+
+FIBRIN, or FIBRINE, a protein formed by the action of the so-called
+fibrin-ferment on fibrinogen, a constituent of the blood-plasma of all
+vertebrates. This change takes place when blood leaves the arteries, and
+the fibrin thus formed occasions the clotting which ensues (see BLOOD).
+To obtain pure coagulated fibrin it is best to heat blood-plasma
+(preferably that of the horse) to 56° C. The usual method of beating a
+blood-clot with twigs and removing the filamentous fibrin which attaches
+itself to them yields a very impure product containing haemoglobin and
+much globulin; moreover, it is very difficult to purify. Fibrin is a
+very voluminous, tough, strongly elastic, jelly-like substance; when
+denaturalized by heat, alcohol or salts, it behaves as any other
+coagulated albumin.
+
+
+
+
+FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally HARTMANN) VON (1797-1879), German
+philosopher, son of J.G. Fichte, was born at Jena on the 18th of July
+1797. Having held educational posts at Saarbrücken and Düsseldorf, in
+1836 he became extraordinary professor of philosophy at Bonn, and in
+1840 full professor. In 1842 he received a call to Tübingen, retired in
+1867, and died at Stuttgart on the 8th of August 1879. The most
+important of his comprehensive writings are: _System der Ethik_
+(1850-1853), _Anthropologie_ (1856, 3rd ed. 1876), _Psychologie_
+(1864-1873), _Die theistische Weltansicht_ (1873). In 1837 he had
+founded the _Zeitschrift für Philosophie_ as an organ of his views, more
+especially on the subject of the philosophy of religion, where he was in
+alliance with C.H. Weisse; but, whereas Weisse thought that the Hegelian
+structure was sound in the main, and that its imperfections might be
+mended, Fichte held it to be incurably defective, and spoke of it as a
+"masterpiece of erroneous consistency or consistent error." Fichte's
+general views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he
+advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain
+inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is strengthened
+by his predominantly historical treatment of problems, his desire to
+include divergent systems within his own, and his conciliatory tone. His
+philosophy is an attempt to reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism
+(Herbart) by means of theism (Leibnitz). He attacks Hegelianism for its
+pantheism, its lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition
+of the demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be
+regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose nature it
+is that he should realize himself in finite persons. These persons are
+objects of God's love, and he arranges the world for their good. The
+direct connecting link between God and man is the "genius," a higher
+spiritual individuality existing in man by the side of his lower,
+earthly individuality. Fichte, in short, advocates an ethical theism,
+and his arguments might easily be turned to account by the apologist of
+Christianity. In his conception of finite personality he recurs to
+something like the monadism of Leibnitz. His insistence on moral
+experience is connected with his insistence on personality. One of the
+tests by which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is the
+adequateness with which they interpret moral experience. The same reason
+that made him depreciate Hegel made him praise Krause (panentheism) and
+Schleiermacher, and speak respectfully of English philosophy. It is
+characteristic of Fichte's almost excessive receptiveness that in his
+latest published work, _Der neuere Spiritualismus_ (1878), he supports
+his position by arguments of a somewhat occult or theosophical cast, not
+unlike those adopted by F.W.H. Myers. He also edited the complete works
+and literary correspondence of his father, including his life.
+
+  See R. Eucken, "Zur Erinnerung I. H. F.," in _Zeitschrift für
+  Philosophie_, ex. (1897); C.C. Scherer, _Die Gotteslehre von I. H. F._
+  (1902); article by Karl Hartmann in _Allegemeine deutsche Biographie_
+  xlviii. (1904). Some of his works were translated by J.D. Morell under
+  the title of _Contributions to Mental Philosophy_ (1860).
+
+
+
+
+FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814), German philosopher, was born at
+Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the 19th of May 1762. His father, a
+ribbon-weaver, was a descendant of a Swedish soldier who (in the service
+of Gustavus Adolphus) was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there.
+The family was distinguished for piety, uprightness, and solidity of
+character. With these qualities Fichte himself combined a certain
+impetuosity and impatience probably derived from his mother, a woman of
+a somewhat querulous and jealous disposition.
+
+At a very early age the boy showed remarkable mental vigour and moral
+independence. A fortunate accident which brought him under the notice of
+a neighbouring nobleman, Freiherr von Miltitz, was the means of
+procuring him a more excellent education than his father's circumstances
+would have allowed. He was placed under the care of Pastor Krebel at
+Niederau. After a short stay at Meissen he was entered at the celebrated
+school at Pforta, near Naumburg. In 1780 he entered the university of
+Jena as a student of theology. He supported himself mainly by private
+teaching, and during the years 1784-1787 acted as tutor in various
+families of Saxony. In 1787, after an unsuccessful application to the
+consistory for pecuniary assistance, he seems to have been driven to
+miscellaneous literary work. A tutorship at Zürich was, however,
+obtained in the spring of 1788, and Fichte spent in Switzerland two of
+the happiest years of his life. He made several valuable acquaintances,
+among others Lavater and his brother-in-law Hartmann Rahn, to whose
+daughter, Johanna Maria, he became engaged.
+
+Settling at Leipzig, still without any fixed means of livelihood, he was
+again reduced to literary drudgery. In the midst of this work occurred
+the most important event of his life, his introduction to the philosophy
+of Kant. At Schulpforta he had read with delight Lessing's _Anti-Goeze_,
+and during his Jena days had studied the relation between philosophy and
+religion. The outcome of his speculations, _Aphorismen über Religion und
+Deismus_ (unpublished, date 1790; _Werke_, i. 1-8), was a species of
+Spinozistic determinism, regarded, however, as lying altogether outside
+the boundary of religion. It is remarkable that even for a time fatalism
+should have been predominant in his reasoning, for in character he was
+opposed to such a view, and, as he has said, "according to the man, so
+is the system of philosophy he adopts."
+
+Fichte's _Letters_ of this period attest the influence exercised on him
+by the study of Kant. It effected a revolution in his mode of thinking;
+so completely did the Kantian doctrine of the inherent moral worth of
+man harmonize with his own character, that his life becomes one effort
+to perfect a true philosophy, and to make its principles practical
+maxims. At first he seems to have thought that the best method for
+accomplishing his object would be to expound Kantianism in a popular,
+intelligible form. He rightly felt that the reception of Kant's
+doctrines was impeded by their phraseology. An abridgment of the _Kritik
+der Urtheilskraft_ was begun, but was left unfinished.
+
+Fichte's circumstances had not improved. It had been arranged that he
+should return to Zürich and be married to Johanna Rahn, but the plan was
+overthrown by a commercial disaster which affected the fortunes of the
+Rahn family. Fichte accepted a post as private tutor in Warsaw, and
+proceeded on foot to that town. The situation proved unsuitable; the
+lady, as Kuno Fischer says, "required greater submission and better
+French" than Fichte could yield, and after a fortnight's stay Fichte set
+out for Königsberg to see Kant. His first interview was disappointing;
+the coldness and formality of the aged philosopher checked the
+enthusiasm of the young disciple, though it did not diminish his
+reverence. He resolved to bring himself before Kant's notice by
+submitting to him a work in which the principles of the Kantian
+philosophy should be applied. Such was the origin of the work, written
+in four weeks, the _Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung_ (Essay
+towards a Critique of all Revelation). The problem which Fichte dealt
+with in this essay was one not yet handled by Kant himself, the
+relations of which to the critical philosophy furnished matter for
+surmise. Indirectly, indeed, Kant had indicated a very definite opinion
+on theology: from the _Critique of Pure Reason_ it was clear that for
+him speculative theology must be purely negative, while the _Critique of
+Practical Reason_ as clearly indicated the view that the moral law is
+the absolute content or substance of any religion. A _critical_
+investigation of the conditions under which religious belief was
+possible was still wanting. Fichte sent his essay to Kant, who approved
+it highly, extended to the author a warm reception, and exerted his
+influence to procure a publisher. After some delay, consequent on the
+scruples of the theological censor of Halle, who did not like to see
+miracles rejected, the book appeared (Easter, 1792). By an oversight
+Fichte's name did not appear on the title-page, nor was the preface
+given, in which the author spoke of himself as a beginner in philosophy.
+Outsiders, not unnaturally, ascribed the work to Kant. The _Allgemeine
+Literatur-Zeitung_ went so far as to say that no one who had read a line
+of Kant's writings could fail to recognize the eminent author of this
+new work. Kant himself corrected the mistake, at the same time highly
+commending the work. Fichte's reputation was thus secured at a stroke.
+
+The _Critique of Revelation_ marks the culminating point of Fichte's
+Kantian period. The exposition of the conditions under which revealed
+religion is possible turns upon the absolute requirements of the moral
+law in human nature. Religion itself is the belief in this moral law as
+divine, and such belief is a practical postulate, necessary in order to
+add force to the law. It follows that no revealed religion, so far as
+matter or substance is concerned, can contain anything beyond this law;
+nor can any fact in the world of experience be recognized by us as
+supernatural. The supernatural element in religion can only be the
+divine character of the moral law. Now, the revelation of this divine
+character of morality is possible only to a being in whom the lower
+impulses have been, or are, successful in overcoming reverence for the
+law. In such a case it is conceivable that a revelation might be given
+in order to add strength to the moral law. Religion ultimately then
+rests upon the practical reason, and expresses some demand or want of
+the pure ego. In this conclusion we can trace the prominence assigned by
+Fichte to the practical element, and the tendency to make the
+requirements of the ego the ground for all judgment on reality. It was
+not possible that having reached this point he should not press forward
+and leave the Kantian position.
+
+This success was coincident with an improvement in the fortunes of the
+Rahn family, and the marriage took place at Zürich in October 1793. The
+remainder of the year he spent at Zürich, slowly perfecting his thoughts
+on the fundamental problems left for solution in the Kantian philosophy.
+During this period he published anonymously two remarkable political
+works, _Zurückforderung der Denkfreiheit von den Fürsten Europas_ and
+_Beiträge zur Berichtigung der Urtheile des Publicums über die
+französische Revolution_. Of these the latter is much the more
+important. The French Revolution seemed to many earnest thinkers the one
+great outcry of modern times for the liberty of thought and action which
+is the eternal heritage of every human being. Unfortunately the
+political condition of Germany was unfavourable to the formation of an
+unbiassed opinion on the great movement. The principles involved in it
+were lost sight of under the mass of spurious maxims on social order
+which had slowly grown up and stiffened into system. To direct attention
+to the true nature of revolution, to demonstrate how inextricably the
+right of liberty is interwoven with the very existence of man as an
+intelligent agent, to point out the inherent progressiveness of state
+arrangements, and the consequent necessity of reform or amendment, such
+are the main objects of the _Beiträge_; and although, as is often the
+case with Fichte, the arguments are too formal and the distinctions too
+wire-drawn, yet the general idea is nobly conceived and carried out. As
+in the _Critique of Revelation_ so here the rational nature of man and
+the conditions necessary for its manifestation or realization become the
+standard for critical judgment.
+
+Towards the close of 1793 Fichte received an invitation to succeed K.L.
+Reinhold as extraordinary professor of philosophy at Jena. This chair,
+not in the ordinary faculty, had become, through Reinhold, the most
+important in the university, and great deliberation was exercised in
+selecting his successor. It was desired to secure an exponent of
+Kantianism, and none seemed so highly qualified as the author of the
+_Critique of Revelation_. Fichte, while accepting the call, desired to
+spend a year in preparation; but as this was deemed inexpedient he
+rapidly drew out for his students an introductory outline of his system,
+and began his lectures in May 1794. His success was instantaneous and
+complete. The fame of his predecessor was altogether eclipsed. Much of
+this success was due to Fichte's rare power as a lecturer. In oral
+exposition the vigour of thought and moral intensity of the man were
+most of all apparent, while his practical earnestness completely
+captivated his hearers. He lectured not only to his own class, but on
+general moral subjects to all students of the university. These general
+addresses, published under the title _Bestimmung des Gelehrten_
+(Vocation of the Scholar), were on a subject dear to Fichte's heart, the
+supreme importance of the highest intellectual culture and the duties
+incumbent on those who had received it. Their tone is stimulating and
+lofty.
+
+The years spent at Jena were unusually productive; indeed, the completed
+Fichtean philosophy is contained in the writings of this period. A
+general introduction to the system is given in the tractate _Über den
+Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre_ (On the Notion of the Theory of
+Science), 1794, and the theoretical portion is worked out in the
+_Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre_ (Foundation of the whole
+Theory of Science, 1794) and _Grundriss des Eigenthümlichen d.
+Wissenschaftslehre_ (Outline of what is peculiar in the Theory of
+Science, 1794). To these were added in 1797 a _First_ and a _Second
+Introduction to the Theory of Science_, and an _Essay towards a new
+Exposition of the Theory of Science_. The _Introductions_ are masterly
+expositions. The practical philosophy was given in the _Grundlage des
+Naturrechts_ (1796) and _System der Sittenlehre_ (1798). The last is
+probably the most important of all Fichte's works; apart from it, his
+theoretical philosophy is unintelligible.
+
+During this period Fichte's academic career had been troubled by various
+storms, the last so violent as to put a close to his professorate at
+Jena. The first of them, a complaint against the delivery of his general
+addresses on Sundays, was easily settled. The second, arising from
+Fichte's strong desire to suppress the _Landsmannschaften_ (students'
+orders), which were productive of much harm, was more serious. Some
+misunderstanding caused an outburst of ignorant ill-feeling on the part
+of the students, who proceeded to such lengths that Fichte was compelled
+to reside out of Jena. The third storm, however, was the most violent.
+In 1798 Fichte, who, with F.I. Niethammer (1766-1848), had edited the
+_Philosophical Journal_ since 1795, received from his friend F.K.
+Forberg (1770-1848) an essay on the "Development of the Idea of
+Religion." With much of the essay he entirely agreed, but he thought the
+exposition in so many ways defective and calculated to create an
+erroneous impression, that he prefaced it with a short paper _On the
+Grounds of our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe_, in which
+God is defined as the moral order of the universe, the eternal law of
+right which is the foundation of all our being. The cry of atheism was
+raised, and the electoral government of Saxony, followed by all the
+German states except Prussia, suppressed the _Journal_ and confiscated
+the copies found in their universities. Pressure was put by the German
+powers on Charles Augustus, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, in whose
+dominions Jena university was situated, to reprove and dismiss the
+offenders. Fichte's defences (_Appellation an das Publicum gegen die
+Anklage des Atheismus_, and _Gerichtliche Verantwortung der Herausgeber
+der phil. Zeitschrift_, 1799), though masterly, did not make it easier
+for the liberal-minded grand-duke to pass the matter over, and an
+unfortunate letter, in which he threatened to resign in case of
+reprimand, turned the scale against him. The grand-duke accepted his
+threat as a request to resign, passed censure, and extended to him
+permission to withdraw from his chair at Jena; nor would he alter his
+decision, even though Fichte himself endeavoured to explain away the
+unfortunate letter.
+
+Berlin was the only town in Germany open to him. His residence there
+from 1799 to 1806 was unbroken save for a course of lectures during the
+summer of 1805 at Erlangen, where he had been named professor.
+Surrounded by friends, including Schlegel and Schleiermacher, he
+continued his literary work, perfecting the _Wissenschaftslehre_. The
+most remarkable of the works from this period are--(1) the _Bestimmung
+des Menschen_ (Vocation of Man, 1800), a book which, for beauty of
+style, richness of content, and elevation of thought, may be ranked with
+the Meditations of Descartes; (2) _Der geschlossene Handelsstaat_, 1800
+(The Exclusive or Isolated Commercial State), a very remarkable
+treatise, intensely socialist in tone, and inculcating organized
+protection; (3) _Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grössere Publicum über die
+neueste Philosophie_, 1801. In 1801 was also written the _Darstellung
+der Wissenschaftslehre_, which was not published till after his death.
+In 1804 a set of lectures on the _Wissenschaftslehre_ was given at
+Berlin, the notes of which were published in the _Nachgelassene Werke_,
+vol. ii. In 1804 were also delivered the noble lectures entitled
+_Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters_ (Characteristics of the Present
+Age, 1804), containing a most admirable analysis of the _Aufklärung_,
+tracing the position of such a movement of thought in the natural
+evolution of the general human consciousness, pointing out its inherent
+defects, and indicating as the ultimate goal of progress the life of
+reason in its highest aspect as a belief in the divine order of the
+universe. The philosophy of history sketched in this work has something
+of value with much that is fantastic. In 1805 and 1806 appeared the
+_Wesen des Gelehrten_ (Nature of the Scholar) and the _Anweisung zum
+seligen Leben oder Religionslehre_ (Way to a Blessed Life), the latter
+the most important work of this Berlin period. In it the union between
+the finite self-consciousness and the infinite ego or God is handled in
+an almost mystical manner. The knowledge and love of God is the end of
+life; by this means only can we attain blessedness (_Seligkeit_), for in
+God alone have we a permanent, enduring object of desire. The infinite
+God is the all; the world of independent objects is the result of
+reflection or self-consciousness, by which the infinite unity is broken
+up. God is thus over and above the distinction of subject and object;
+our knowledge is but a reflex or picture of the infinite essence. Being
+is not thought.
+
+The disasters of Prussia in 1806 drove Fichte from Berlin. He retired
+first to Stargard, then to Königsberg (where he lectured for a time),
+then to Copenhagen, whence he returned to the capital in August 1807.
+From this time his published writings are practical in character; not
+till after the appearance of the _Nachgelassene Werke_ was it known in
+what shape his final speculations had been thrown out. We may here note
+the order of these posthumous writings as being of importance for
+tracing the development of Fichte's thought. From the year 1806 we have
+the remarkable _Bericht über die Wissenschaftslehre_ (_Werke_, vol.
+viii.), with its sharp critique of Schelling; from 1810 we have the
+_Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_, published in 1817, of which another
+treatment is given in lectures of 1813 (_Nachgel. Werke_, vol. i.). Of
+the _Wissenschaftslehre_ we have, in 1812-1813, four separate treatments
+contained in the _Nachgel Werke_. As these consist mainly of notes for
+lectures, couched in uncouth phraseology, they cannot be held to throw
+much light on Fichte's views. Perhaps the most interesting are the
+lectures of 1812 on _Transcendental Logic_ (_Nach. Werke_, i. 106-400).
+
+From 1812 we have notes of two courses on practical philosophy,
+_Rechtslehre_ (_Nach. Werke_, vol. ii.) and _Sittenlehre_ (_ib._ vol.
+iii.). A finished work in the same department is the _Staatslehre_,
+published in 1820. This gives the Fichtean utopia organized on
+principles of pure reason; in too many cases the proposals are identical
+with principles of pure despotism.
+
+During these years, however, Fichte was mainly occupied with public
+affairs. In 1807 he drew up an elaborate and minute plan for the
+proposed new university of Berlin. In 1507-1808 he delivered at Berlin,
+amidst danger and discouragement, his noble addresses to the German
+people (_Reden an die deutsche Nation_). Even if we think that in these
+pure reason is sometimes overshadowed by patriotism, we cannot but
+recognize the immense practical value of what he recommended as the only
+true foundation for national prosperity.
+
+In 1810 he was elected rector of the new university founded in the
+previous year. This post he resigned in 1812, mainly on account of the
+difficulties he experienced in his endeavour to reform the student life
+of the university.
+
+In 1813 began the great effort of Germany for national independence.
+Debarred from taking an active part, Fichte made his contribution by way
+of lectures. The addresses on the idea of a true war (_Über den Begriff
+eines wahrhaften Kriegs_, forming part of the _Staatslehre_) contain a
+very subtle contrast between the positions of France and Germany in the
+war.
+
+In the autumn of 1813 the hospitals of Berlin were filled with sick and
+wounded from the campaign. Among the most devoted in her exertions was
+Fichte's wife, who, in January 1814, was attacked with a virulent
+hospital fever. On the day after she was pronounced out of danger Fichte
+was struck down. He lingered for some days in an almost unconscious
+state, and died on the 27th of January 1814.
+
+  The philosophy of Fichte, worked out in a series of writings, and
+  falling chronologically into two distinct periods, that of Jena and
+  that of Berlin, seemed in the course of its development to undergo a
+  change so fundamental that many critics have sharply separated and
+  opposed to one another an earlier and a later phase. The ground of the
+  modification, further, has been sought and apparently found in quite
+  external influences, principally that of Schelling's
+  _Naturphilosophie_, to some extent that of Schleiermacher. But as a
+  rule most of those who have adopted this view have done so without the
+  full and patient examination which the matter demands; they have been
+  misled by the difference in tone and style between the earlier and
+  later writings, and have concluded that underlying this was a
+  fundamental difference of philosophic conception. One only, Erdmann,
+  in his _Entwicklung d. deut. Spek. seit Kant_, § 29, seems to give
+  full references to justify his opinion, and even he, in his later
+  work, _Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos._ (ed. 3), § 311, admits that
+  the difference is much less than he had at the first imagined. He
+  certainly retains his former opinion, but mainly on the ground, in
+  itself intelligible and legitimate, that, so far as Fichte's
+  philosophical reputation and influence are concerned, attention may be
+  limited to the earlier doctrines of the _Wissenschaftslehre_. This may
+  be so, but it can be admitted neither that Fichte's views underwent
+  radical change, nor that the _Wissenschaftslehre_ was ever regarded as
+  in itself complete, nor that Fichte was unconscious of the apparent
+  difference between his earlier and later utterances. It is
+  demonstrable by various passages in the works and letters that he
+  never looked upon the _Wissenschaftslehre_ as containing the whole
+  system; it is clear from the chronology of his writings that the
+  modifications supposed to be due to other thinkers were from the first
+  implicit in his theory; and if one fairly traces the course of thought
+  in the early writings, one can see how he was inevitably led on to the
+  statement of the later and, at first sight, divergent views. On only
+  one point, the position assigned in the _Wissenschaftslehre_ to the
+  absolute ego, is there any obscurity; but the relative passages are
+  far from decisive, and from the early work, _Neue Darstellung der
+  Wissenchaftslehre_, unquestionably to be included in the Jena period,
+  one can see that from the outset the doctrine of the absolute ego was
+  held in a form differing only in statement from the later theory.
+
+  Fichte's system cannot be compressed with intelligibility. We shall
+  here note only three points:--(a) the origin in Kant; (b) the
+  fundamental principle and method of the _Wissenschaftslehre_; (c) the
+  connexion with the later writings. The most important works for (a)
+  are the "Review of Aenesidemus," and the _Second Introduction to the
+  Wissenschaftslehre_; for (b) the great treatises of the Jena period;
+  for (c) the _Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_ of 1810.
+
+  (a) The Kantian system had for the first time opened up a truly
+  fruitful line of philosophic speculation, the transcendental
+  consideration of knowledge, or the analysis of the conditions under
+  which cognition is possible. To Kant the fundamental condition was
+  given in the synthetical unity of consciousness. The primitive fact
+  under which might be gathered the special conditions of that synthesis
+  which we call cognition was this unity. But by Kant there was no
+  attempt made to show that the said special conditions were necessary
+  from the very nature of consciousness itself. Their necessity was
+  discovered and proved in a manner which might be called empirical.
+  Moreover, while Kant in a quite similar manner pointed out that
+  intuition had special conditions, space and time, he did not show any
+  link of connexion between these and the primitive conditions of pure
+  cognition. Closely connected with this remarkable defect in the
+  Kantian view--lying, indeed, at the foundation of it--was the doctrine
+  that the matter of cognition is altogether _given_, or thrown into the
+  _form_ of cognition from without. So strongly was this doctrine
+  emphasized by Kant, that he seemed to refer the _matter_ of knowledge
+  to the action upon us of a non-ego or _Ding-an-sich_, absolutely
+  beyond consciousness. While these hints towards a completely
+  intelligible account of cognition were given by Kant, they were not
+  reduced to system, and from the way in which the elements of cognition
+  were related, could not be so reduced. Only in the sphere of practical
+  reason, where the intelligible nature prescribed to itself its own
+  laws, was there the possibility of systematic deduction from a single
+  principle.
+
+  The peculiar position in which Kant had left the theory of cognition
+  was assailed from many different sides and by many writers, specially
+  by Schultze (Aenesidemus) and Maimon. To the criticisms of the latter,
+  in particular, Fichte owed much, but his own activity went far beyond
+  what they supplied to him. To complete Kant's work, to demonstrate
+  that all the necessary conditions of knowledge can be deduced from a
+  single principle, and consequently to expound the complete system of
+  reason, that is the business of the _Wissenschaftslehre_. By it the
+  theoretical and practical reason shall be shown to coincide; for while
+  the categories of cognition and the whole system of pure thought can
+  be expounded from one principle, the ground of this principle is
+  scientifically, or to cognition, inexplicable, and is made conceivable
+  only in the practical philosophy. The ultimate basis for the activity
+  of cognition is given by the will. Even in the practical sphere,
+  however, Fichte found that the contradiction, insoluble to cognition,
+  was not completely suppressed, and he was thus driven to the higher
+  view, which is explicitly stated in the later writings though not, it
+  must be confessed, with the precision and scientific clearness of the
+  _Wissenschaftslehre_.
+
+  (b) What, then, is this single principle, and how does it work itself
+  out into system? To answer this one must bear in mind what Fichte
+  intended by designating all philosophy _Wissenschaftslehre_, or theory
+  of science. Philosophy is to him the rethinking of actual cognition,
+  the _theory_ of knowledge, the complete, systematic exposition of the
+  principles which lie at the basis of all reasoned cognition. It
+  traces the necessary acts by which the cognitive consciousness comes
+  to be what it is, both in form and in content. Not that it is a
+  natural history, or even a _phenomenology_ of consciousness; only in
+  the later writings did Fichte adopt even the genetic method of
+  exposition; it is the complete statement of the pure principles of the
+  understanding in their rational or necessary order. But if complete,
+  this _Wissenschaftslehre_ must be able to deduce the whole organism of
+  cognition from certain fundamental axioms, themselves unproved and
+  incapable of proof; only thus can we have a _system_ of reason. From
+  these primary axioms the whole body of necessary thoughts must be
+  developed, and, as Socrates would say, the argument itself will
+  indicate the path of the development.
+
+  Of such primitive principles, the absolutely necessary conditions of
+  possible cognition, only three are thinkable--one perfectly
+  unconditioned both in form and matter; a second, unconditioned in form
+  but not in matter; a third, unconditioned in matter but not in form.
+  Of these, evidently the first must be the fundamental; to some extent
+  it conditions the other two, though these cannot be deduced from it or
+  proved by it. The statement of these principles forms the introduction
+  to _Wissenschaftslehre_.
+
+  The method which Fichte first adopted for stating these axioms is not
+  calculated to throw full light upon them, and tends to exaggerate the
+  apparent airiness and unsubstantiality of his deduction. They may be
+  explained thus. The primitive condition of all intelligence is that
+  the ego shall posit, affirm or be aware of itself. The ego is the ego;
+  such is the first pure act of conscious intelligence, that by which
+  alone consciousness can come to be what it is. It is what Fichte
+  called a Deed-act (_Thathandlung_); we cannot be aware of the
+  process,--the ego _is_ not until it has affirmed itself,--but we are
+  aware of the result, and can see the necessity of the act by which it
+  is brought about. The ego then posits itself, as real. What the ego
+  posits is real. But in consciousness there is equally given a
+  primitive act of op-positing, or contra-positing, formally distinct
+  from the act of position, but materially determined, in so far as what
+  is op-posited must be the negative of that which was posited. The
+  non-ego--not, be it noticed, the world as we know it--is op-posed in
+  consciousness to the ego. The ego is not the non-ego. How this act of
+  op-positing is possible and necessary, only becomes clear in the
+  practical philosophy, and even there the inherent difficulty leads to
+  a higher view. But third, we have now an absolute antithesis to our
+  original thesis. Only the ego is real, but the non-ego is posited in
+  the ego. The contradiction is solved in a higher synthesis, which
+  takes up into itself the two opposites. The ego and non-ego _limit_
+  one another, or determine one another; and, as limitation is negation
+  of part of a divisible quantum, in this third act, the divisible ego
+  is op-posed to a divisible non-ego.
+
+  From this point onwards the course proceeds by the method already made
+  clear. We progress by making explicit the oppositions contained in the
+  fundamental synthesis, by uniting these opposites, analysing the new
+  synthesis, and so on, until we reach an ultimate pair. Now, in the
+  synthesis of the third act two principles may be distinguished:--(1)
+  the non-ego determines the ego; (2) the ego determines the non-ego. As
+  determined the ego is theoretical, as determining it is practical;
+  ultimately the opposed principles must be united by showing how the
+  ego is both determining and determined.
+
+  It is impossible to enter here on the steps by which the theoretical
+  ego is shown to develop into the complete system of cognitive
+  categories, or to trace the deduction of the processes (productive
+  imagination, intuition, sensation, understanding, judgment, reason) by
+  which the quite indefinite non-ego comes to assume the appearance of
+  definite objects in the forms of time and space. All this evolution is
+  the necessary consequence of the determination of the ego by the
+  non-ego. But it is clear that the non-ego cannot really determine the
+  ego. There is no reality beyond the ego itself. The contradiction can
+  only be suppressed if the ego itself opposes to itself the non-ego,
+  places it as an _Anstoss_ or plane on which its own activity breaks
+  and from which it is reflected. Now, this op-positing of the _Anstoss_
+  is the necessary condition of the practical ego, of the will. If the
+  ego be a striving power, then of necessity a limit must be set by
+  which its striving is manifest. But how can the infinitely active ego
+  posit a limit to its own activity? Here we come to the _crux_ of
+  Fichte's system, which is only partly cleared up in the _Rechtslehre_
+  and _Sittenlehre_. If the ego be pure activity, free activity, it can
+  only become aware of itself by positing some limit. We cannot possibly
+  have any cognition of how such an act is possible. But as it is a free
+  act, the ego cannot be determined to it by anything beyond itself; it
+  cannot be aware of its own freedom otherwise than as determined by
+  other free egos. Thus in the _Rechtslehre_ and _Sittenlehre_, the
+  multiplicity of egos is deduced, and with this deduction the first
+  form of the _Wissenschaftslehre_ appeared to end.
+
+  (c) But in fact deeper questions remained. We have spoken of the ego
+  as becoming aware of its own freedom, and have shown how the existence
+  of other egos and of a world in which these egos may act are the
+  necessary conditions of consciousness of freedom. But all this is the
+  work of the ego. All that has been expounded follows if the ego comes
+  to consciousness. We have therefore to consider that the absolute ego,
+  from which spring all the individual egos, is not subject to these
+  conditions, but freely determines itself to them. How is this
+  absolute ego to be conceived? As early as 1797 Fichte had begun to see
+  that the ultimate basis of his system was the absolute ego, in which
+  is no difference of subject and object; in 1800 the _Bestimmung des
+  Menschen_ defined this absolute ego as the infinite moral will of the
+  universe, God, in whom are all the individual egos, from whom they
+  have sprung. It lay in the nature of the thing that more precise
+  utterances should be given on this subject, and these we find in the
+  _Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_ and in all the later lectures. God in
+  them is the absolute Life, the absolute One, who becomes conscious of
+  himself by self-diremption into the individual egos. The individual
+  ego is only possible as opposed to a non-ego, to a world of the
+  senses; thus God, the infinite will, manifests himself in the
+  individual, and the individual has over against him the non-ego or
+  thing. "The individuals do not make part of the being of the one life,
+  but are a pure form of its absolute freedom." "The individual is not
+  conscious of himself, but the Life is conscious of itself in
+  individual form and as an individual." In order that the Life may act,
+  though it is not necessary that it _should act_, individualization is
+  necessary. "Thus," says Fichte, "we reach a final conclusion.
+  Knowledge is not mere knowledge of itself, but of being, and of the
+  one being that truly is, viz. God.... This one possible object of
+  knowledge is never known in its purity, but ever broken into the
+  various forms of knowledge which are and can be shown to be necessary.
+  The demonstration of the necessity of these forms is philosophy or
+  _Wissenschaftslehre_" (_Thats. des Bewuss. Werke_, ii. 685). This
+  ultimate view is expressed throughout the lectures (in the _Nachgel.
+  Werke_) in uncouth and mystical language.
+
+  It will escape no one (1) how the idea and method of the
+  _Wissenschaftslehre_ prepare the way for the later Hegelian dialectic,
+  and (2) how completely the whole philosophy of Schopenhauer is
+  contained in the later writings of Fichte. It is not to the credit of
+  historians that Schopenhauer's debt should have been allowed to pass
+  with so little notice.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fichte's complete works were published by his son J.H.
+  Fichte, _Sämmtliche Werke_ (8 vols., Berlin, 1845-1846), with
+  _Nachgelassene Werke_ (3 vols., Bonn, 1834-1835); also _Leben und
+  Briefwechsel_ (2 vols., 1830, ed. 1862). Among translations are those
+  of William Smith, _Popular Writings of Fichte, with Memoir_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1848-1849, 4th ed. 1889); A.E. Kroeger, portions of the
+  _Wissenschaftslehre_ (_Science of Knowledge_, Philadelphia, 1868; ed.
+  London, 1889), the _Naturrecht_ (_Science of Rights_, 1870; ed.
+  London, 1889); of the _Vorlesungen ü. d. Bestimmung d. Gelehrten_
+  (_The Vocation of the Scholar_, by W. Smith, 1847); _Destination of
+  Man_, by Mrs P. Sinnett; _Discours à la nation allemande_, French by
+  Léon Philippe (1895), with preface by F. Picavet, and a biographical
+  memoir.
+
+  The number of critical works is very large. Besides the histories of
+  post-Kantian philosophy by Erdmann, Fortlage (whose account is
+  remarkably good), Michelet, Biedermann and others, see Wm. Busse,
+  _Fichte und seine Beziehung zur Gegenwart des deutschen Volkes_
+  (Halle, 1848-1849); J.H. Löwe, _Die Philosophic Fichtes_ (Stuttgart,
+  1862); Kuno Fischer, _Geschichte d. neueren Philosophie_ (1869, 1884,
+  1890); Ludwig Noack, _Fichte nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken_
+  (Leipzig, 1862); R. Adamson, Fichte (1881, in Knight's "Philosophical
+  Classics"); Oscar Benzow, _Zu Fichtes Lekre von Nicht-Ich_ (Bern,
+  1898); E.O. Burmann, _Die Transcendentalphilosophie Fichtes und
+  Schellings_ (Upsala, 1890-1892); M. Carrière, _Fichtes
+  Geistesentwickelung in die Reden über d. Bestimmung des Gelehrten_
+  (1894); C.C. Everett, _Fichte's Science of Knowledge_ (Chicago, 1884);
+  O. Pfleiderer, J.G. _Fichtes Lebensbild eines deutschen Denkers und
+  Patrioten_ (Stuttgart, 1877); T. Wotschke, _Fichte und Erigena_
+  (1896); W. Kabitz, _Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichtehen
+  Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophie_ (1902); E. Lask,
+  _Fichtes Idealismus und die Geschichte_ (1902); X. Léon, _La Philos.
+  de Fichte_ (1902); M. Wiener, J.G. _Fichtes Lehre vom Wesen und Inhalt
+  der Geschichte_ (1906).
+
+  On Fichte's social philosophy see, e.g., F. Schmidt-Warneck, _Die
+  Sociologie Fichtes_ (Berlin, 1884); W. Windelband, _Fichtes Idee des
+  deutschen Staates_ (1890); M. Weber, _Fichtes Sozialismus und sein
+  Verhältnis zur Marx'schen Doctrin_ (1900); S.H. Gutman, J.G. _Fichtes
+  Sozialpädogogik_ (1907); H. Lindau, _Johann G. Fichte und der neuere
+  Socialismus_ (1900).     (R. Ad.; X.)
+
+
+
+
+FICHTELGEBIRGE, a mountain group of Bavaria, forming the centre from which
+various mountain ranges proceed,--the Elstergebirge, linking it to the
+Erzgebirge, in a N.E., the Frankenwald in a N.W., and the Böhmerwald in a
+S.E. direction. The streams to which it gives rise flow towards the four
+cardinal points,--e.g. the Eger eastward and the Saale northward, both to
+the Elbe; the Weisser Main westward to the Rhine, and the Naab southward
+to the Danube. The chief points of the mass are the Schneeberg and the
+Ochsenkopf, the former having a height of 3448, and the latter of 3356 ft.
+The whole district is pretty thickly populated, and there is great
+abundance of wood, as well as of iron, vitriol, sulphur, copper, lead and
+many kinds of marble. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the iron
+mines, at forges and blast furnaces, and in charcoal burning and the
+manufacture of blacking from firewood. Although surrounded by railways and
+crossed by the lines Nuremberg-Eger and Regensburg-Oberkotzau, the
+Fichtelgebirge, owing principally to its raw climate and bleakness, is not
+much visited by strangers, the only important points of interest being
+Alexandersbad (a delightfully situated watering-place) and the granite
+labyrinth of Luisenburg.
+
+  See A. Schmidt, _Führer durch das Fichtelgebirge_ (1899); Daniel,
+  _Deutschland_; and Meyer, _Conversations-Lexikon_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+FICINO, MARSILIO (1433-1499), Italian philosopher and writer, was born
+at Figline, in the upper Arno valley, in the year 1433. His father, a
+physician of some eminence, settled in Florence, and attached himself to
+the person of Cosimo de' Medici. Here the young Marsilio received his
+elementary education in grammar and Latin literature at the high school
+or studio pubblico. While still a boy, he showed promise of rare
+literary gifts, and distinguished himself by his facility in the
+acquisition of knowledge. Not only literature, but the physical
+sciences, as then taught, had a charm for him; and he is said to have
+made considerable progress in medicine under the tuition of his father.
+He was of a tranquil temperament, sensitive to music and poetry, and
+debarred by weak health from joining in the more active pleasures of his
+fellow-students. When he had attained the age of eighteen or nineteen
+years, Cosimo received him into his household, and determined to make
+use of his rare disposition for scholarship in the development of a
+long-cherished project. During the session of the council for the union
+of the Greek and Latin churches at Florence in 1439, Cosimo had made
+acquaintance with Gemistos Plethon, the Neo-Platonic sage of Mistra,
+whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated
+the learned society of Florence that they named him the second Plato. It
+had been the dream of this man's whole life to supersede both forms of
+Christianity by a semi-pagan theosophy deduced from the writings of the
+later Pythagoreans and Platonists. When, therefore, he perceived the
+impression he had made upon the first citizen of Florence, Gemistos
+suggested that the capital of modern culture would be a fit place for
+the resuscitation of the once so famous Academy of Athens. Cosimo took
+this hint. The second half of the 15th century was destined to be the
+age of academies in Italy, and the regnant passion for antiquity
+satisfied itself with any imitation, however grotesque, of Greek or
+Roman institutions. In order to found his new academy upon a firm basis
+Cosimo resolved not only to assemble men of letters for the purpose of
+Platonic disputation at certain regular intervals, but also to appoint a
+hierophant and official expositor of Platonic doctrine. He hoped by
+these means to give a certain stability to his projected institution,
+and to avoid the superficiality of mere enthusiasm. The plan was good;
+and with the rare instinct for character which distinguished him, he
+made choice of the right man for his purpose in the young Marsilio.
+
+Before he had begun to learn Greek, Marsilio entered upon the task of
+studying and elucidating Plato. It is known that at this early period of
+his life, while he was yet a novice, he wrote voluminous treatises on
+the great philosopher, which he afterwards, however, gave to the flames.
+In the year 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on the Greek language
+and literature at Florence, and Marsilio became his pupil. He was then
+about twenty-three years of age. Seven years later he felt himself a
+sufficiently ripe Greek scholar to begin the translation of Plato, by
+which his name is famous in the history of scholarship, and which is
+still the best translation of that author Italy can boast. The MSS. on
+which he worked were supplied by this patron Cosimo de' Medici and by
+Amerigo Benci. While the translation was still in progress Ficino from
+time to time submitted its pages to the scholars, Angelo Poliziano,
+Cristoforo Landino, Demetrios Chalchondylas and others; and since these
+men were all members of the Platonic Academy, there can be no doubt that
+the discussions raised upon the text and Latin version greatly served to
+promote the purpose of Cosimo's foundation. At last the book appeared
+in 1482, the expenses of the press being defrayed by the noble
+Florentine, Filippo Valori. About the same time Marsilio completed and
+published his treatise on the Platonic doctrine of immortality
+(_Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animae_), the work by which his
+claims to take rank as a philosopher must be estimated. This was shortly
+followed by the translation of Plotinus into Latin, and by a voluminous
+commentary, the former finished in 1486, the latter in 1491, and both
+published at the cost of Lorenzo de' Medici just one month after his
+death. As a supplement to these labours in the field of Platonic and
+Alexandrian philosophy, Marsilio next devoted his energies to the
+translation of Dionysius the Areopagite, whose work on the celestial
+hierarchy, though recognized as spurious by the Neapolitan humanist,
+Lorenzo Valla, had supreme attraction for the mystic and uncritical
+intellect of Ficino.
+
+It is not easy to value the services of Marsilio Ficino at their proper
+worth. As a philosopher, he can advance no claim to originality, his
+laborious treatise on Platonic theology being little better than a mass
+of ill-digested erudition. As a scholar, he failed to recognize the
+distinctions between different periods of antiquity and various schools
+of thought. As an exponent of Plato he suffered from the fatal error of
+confounding Plato with the later Platonists. It is true that in this
+respect he did not differ widely from the mass of his contemporaries.
+Lorenzo Valla and Angelo Poliziano, almost alone among the scholars of
+that age, showed a true critical perception. For the rest, it was enough
+that an author should be ancient to secure their admiration. The whole
+of antiquity seemed precious in the eyes of its discoverers; and even a
+thinker so acute as Pico di Mirandola dreamed of the possibility of
+extracting the essence of philosophical truth by indiscriminate
+collation of the most divergent doctrines. Ficino was, moreover, a firm
+believer in planetary influences. He could not separate his
+philosophical from his astrological studies, and caught eagerly at any
+fragment of antiquity which seemed to support his cherished delusions.
+It may here be incidentally mentioned that this superstition brought him
+into trouble with the Roman Church. In 1489 he was accused of magic
+before Pope Innocent VIII., and had to secure the good offices of
+Francesco Soderini, Ermolao Barbaro, and the archbishop Rinaldo Orsini,
+in order to purge himself of a most perilous imputation. What Ficino
+achieved of really solid, was his translation. The value of that work
+cannot be denied; the impulse which it gave to Platonic studies in
+Italy, and through them to the formation of the new philosophy in
+Europe, is indisputable. Ficino differed from the majority of his
+contemporaries in this that, while he felt the influence of antiquity no
+less strongly than they did, he never lost his faith in Christianity, or
+contaminated his morals by contact with paganism. For him, as for
+Petrarch, St Augustine was the model of a Christian student. The
+cardinal point of his doctrine was the identity of religion and
+philosophy. He held that philosophy consists in the study of truth and
+wisdom, and that God alone is truth and wisdom,--so that philosophy is
+but religion, and true religion is genuine philosophy. Religion, indeed,
+is common to all men, but its pure form is that revealed through Christ;
+and the teaching of Christ is sufficient to a man in all circumstances
+of life. Yet it cannot be expected that every man should accept the
+faith without reasoning; and here Ficino found a place for Platonism. He
+maintained that the Platonic doctrine was providentially made to
+harmonize with Christianity, in order that by its means speculative
+intellects might be led to Christ. The transition from this point of
+view to an almost superstitious adoration of Plato was natural; and
+Ficino, we know, joined in the hymns and celebrations with which the
+Florentine Academy honoured their great master on the day of his birth
+and death. Those famous festivals in which Lorenzo de' Medici delighted
+had indeed a pagan tone appropriate to the sentiment of the Renaissance;
+nor were all the worshippers of the Athenian sage so true to
+Christianity as his devoted student.
+
+Of Ficino's personal life there is but little to be said. In order that
+he might have leisure for uninterrupted study, Cosimo de' Medici gave
+him a house near S. Maria Nuova in Florence, and a little farm at
+Montevecchio, not far from the villa of Careggi. Ficino, like nearly all
+the scholars of that age in Italy, delighted in country life. At
+Montevecchio he lived contentedly among his books, in the neighbourhood
+of his two friends, Pico at Querceto, and Poliziano at Fiesole, cheering
+his solitude by playing on the lute, and corresponding with the most
+illustrious men of Italy. His letters, extending over the years
+1474-1494, have been published, both separately and in his collected
+works. From these it may be gathered that nearly every living scholar of
+note was included in the list of his friends, and that the subjects
+which interested him were by no means confined to his Platonic studies.
+As instances of his close intimacy with illustrious Florentine families,
+it may be mentioned that he held the young Francesco Guicciardini at the
+font, and that he helped to cast the horoscope of the Casa Strozzi in
+the Via Tornabuoni.
+
+At the age of forty Ficino took orders, and was honoured with a canonry
+of S. Lorenzo. He was henceforth assiduous in the performance of his
+duties, preaching in his cure of Novoli, and also in the cathedral and
+the church of the Angeli at Florence. He used to say that no man was
+better than a good priest, and none worse than a bad one. His life
+corresponded in all points to his principles. It was the life of a
+sincere Christian and a real sage,--of one who found the best fruits of
+philosophy in the practice of the Christian virtues. A more amiable and
+a more harmless man never lived; and this was much in that age of
+discordant passions and lawless licence. In spite of his weak health, he
+was indefatigably industrious. His tastes were of the simplest; and
+while scholars like Filelfo were intent on extracting money from their
+patrons by flattery and threats, he remained so poor that he owed the
+publication of all his many works to private munificence. For his old
+patrons of the house of Medici Ficino always cherished sentiments of the
+liveliest gratitude. Cosimo he called his second father, saying that
+Ficino had given him life, but Cosimo new birth,--the one had devoted
+him to Galen, the other to the divine Plato,--the one was physician of
+the body, the other of the soul. With Lorenzo he lived on terms of
+familiar, affectionate, almost parental intimacy. He had seen the young
+prince grow up in the palace of the Via Larga, and had helped in the
+development of his rare intellect. In later years he did not shrink from
+uttering a word of warning and advice, when he thought that the master
+of the Florentine republic was too much inclined to yield to pleasure. A
+characteristic proof of his attachment to the house of Medici was
+furnished by a yearly custom which he practised at his farm at
+Montevecchio. He used to invite the contadini who had served Cosimo to a
+banquet on the day of Saints Cosimo and Damiano (the patron saints of
+the Medici), and entertained them with music and singing. This affection
+was amply returned. Cosimo employed almost the last hours of his life in
+listening to Ficino's reading of a treatise on the highest good; while
+Lorenzo, in a poem on true happiness, described him as the mirror of the
+world, the nursling of sacred muses, the harmonizer of wisdom and beauty
+in complete accord. Ficino died at Florence in 1499.
+
+Besides the works already noticed, Ficino composed a treatise on the
+Christian religion, which was first given to the world in 1476, a
+translation into Italian of Dante's _De monarchia_, a life of Plato, and
+numerous essays on ethical and semi-philosophical subjects. Vigour of
+reasoning and originality of view were not his characteristics as a
+writer; nor will the student who has raked these dust-heaps of
+miscellaneous learning and old-fashioned mysticism discover more than a
+few sentences of genuine enthusiasm and simple-hearted aspiration to
+repay his trouble and reward his patience. Only in familiar letters,
+prolegomena, and prefaces do we find the man Ficino, and learn to know
+his thoughts and sentiments unclouded by a mist of citations; these
+minor compositions have therefore a certain permanent value, and will
+continually be studied for the light they throw upon the learned circle
+gathered round Lorenzo in the golden age of humanism.
+
+  The student may be referred for further information to the following
+  works:--_Marsilii Ficini opera_ (Basileae, 1576); _Marsilii Ficini
+  vita_, auctore Corsio (ed. Bandini, Pisa, 1771); Roscoe's _Life of
+  Lorenzo de' Medici_; Pasquale Villari, _La Storia di Girolamo
+  Savonarola_ (Firenze, Le Monnier, 1859); Von Reumont, _Lorenzo de'
+  Medici_ (Leipzig, 1874).     (J. A. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FICKSBURG, a town of Orange Free State 110 m. by rail E. by N. of
+Bloemfontein. Pop. (1904) 1954, of whom 1021 were whites. The town is
+situated near the north bank of the Caledon river and is the capital of
+one of the finest agricultural and stock-raising regions of the
+province. It has direct railway communication with Natal and an
+extensive trade. In the neighbourhood are petroleum wells and a diamond
+mine. In the fossilized ooze of the Wonderkop, a table mountain of the
+adjacent Wittebergen, are quantities of petrified fish.
+
+
+
+
+FICTIONS, or legal fictions, in law, the term used for false averments,
+the truth of which is not permitted to be called in question. English
+law as well as Roman law abounds in fictions. Sometimes they are merely
+the condensed expression of a rule of law,--e.g., the fiction of English
+law that husband and wife were one person, and the fiction of Roman law
+that the wife was the daughter of the husband. Sometimes they must be
+regarded as reasons invented in order to justify a rule of law according
+to an implied ethical standard. Of this sort seems to be the fiction or
+presumption that every one knows the law, which reconciles the rule that
+ignorance is no excuse for crime with the moral commonplace that it is
+unfair to punish a man for violating a law of whose existence he was
+unaware. Again, some fictions are deliberate falsehoods, adopted as true
+for the purpose of establishing a remedy not otherwise attainable. Of
+this sort are the numerous fictions of English law by which the
+different courts obtained jurisdiction in private business, removed
+inconvenient restrictions in the law relating to land, &c.
+
+What to the scientific jurist is a stumbling-block is to the older
+writers on English law a beautiful device for reconciling the strict
+letter of the law with common sense and justice. Blackstone, in noticing
+the well-known fiction by which the court of king's bench established
+its jurisdiction in common pleas (viz. that the defendant was in custody
+of the marshal of the court), says, "These fictions of law, though at
+first they may startle the student, he will find upon further
+consideration to be highly beneficial and useful; especially as this
+maxim is ever invariably observed, that no fiction shall extend to work
+an injury; its proper operation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an
+inconvenience that might result from the general rule of law. So true it
+is that _in fictione juris semper subsistit aequitas_." Austin, on the
+other hand, while correctly assigning as the cause of many fictions the
+desire to combine the necessary reform with some show of respect for the
+abrogated law, makes the following harsh criticism as to others:--"Why
+the plain meanings which I have now stated should be obscured by the
+fictions to which I have just adverted I cannot conjecture. A wish on
+the part of the authors of the fictions to render the law as
+_uncognoscible_ as may be is probably the cause which Mr Bentham would
+assign. I judge not, I confess, so uncharitably; I rather impute such
+fictions to the sheer imbecility (or, if you will, to the active and
+sportive fancies) of their grave and venerable authors, than to any
+deliberate design, good or evil." Bentham, of course, saw in fictions
+the instrument by which the great object of his abhorrence, _judiciary
+law_, was produced. It was the means by which judges usurped the
+functions of legislators. "A fiction of law." he says, "may be defined
+as a wilful falsehood, having for its object the stealing legislative
+powers by and for hands which could not or durst not openly claim it,
+and but for the delusion thus produced could not exercise it." A
+partnership, he says, was formed between the kings and the judges
+against the interests of the people. "Monarchs found force, lawyers
+fraud; thus was the capital found" (_Historical Preface to the second
+edition of the Fragment on Government_).[1]
+
+Sir H. Maine (_Ancient Law_) supplies the historical element which is
+always lacking in the explanations of Austin and Bentham. Fictions form
+one of the agencies by which, in progressive societies, positive law is
+brought into harmony with public opinion. The others are equity and
+statutes. Fictions in this sense include, not merely the obvious
+falsities of the English and Roman systems, but any assumption which
+conceals a change of law by retaining the old formula after the change
+has been made. It thus includes both the case law of the English and the
+_Responsa Prudentum_ of the Romans. "At a particular stage of social
+progress they are invaluable expedients for overcoming the rigidity of
+law; and, indeed, without one of them, the fiction of adoption, which
+permits the family tie to be artificially created, it is difficult to
+understand how society would ever have escaped from its swaddling
+clothes, and taken its first steps towards civilization."
+
+The bolder remedial fictions of English law have been to a large extent
+removed by legislation, and one great obstacle to any reconstruction of
+the legal system has thus been partially removed. Where the real remedy
+stood in glaring contrast to the nominal rule, it has been openly
+ratified by statute. In ejectment cases the mysterious sham litigants
+have disappeared. The bond of entail can be broken without having
+recourse to the collusive proceedings of fine and recovery. Fictions
+have been almost entirely banished from the procedure of the courts. The
+action for damages on account of seduction, which is still nominally an
+action by the father for loss of his daughter's services, is perhaps the
+only fictitious action now remaining.
+
+Fictions which appear in the form of principles are not so easily dealt
+with by legislation. To expel them formally from the system would
+require the re-enactment of vast portions of law. A change in legal
+modes of speech and thought would be more effective. The legal mind
+instinctively seizes upon concrete aids to abstract reasoning. Many hard
+and revolting fictions must have begun their career as metaphors. In
+some cases the history of the change may still almost be traced. The
+conception that a man-of-war is a floating island, or that an
+ambassador's house is beyond the territorial limits of the country in
+which he resides, was originally a figure of speech designed to set a
+rule of law in a striking light. It is then gravely accepted as true in
+fact, and other rules of law are deduced from it. Its beginning is to be
+compared with such phrases as "an Englishman's house is his castle,"
+which have had no legal offshoots and still remain mere figures of
+speech.
+
+Constitutional law is of course honeycombed with fictions. Here there is
+hardly ever anything like direct legislative change, and yet real change
+is incessant. The rules defining the sovereign power and fixing the
+authority of its various members are in most points the same as they
+were at the last revolution,--in many points they have been the same
+since the beginning of parliamentary government. But they have long
+ceased to be true in fact; and it would hardly be too much to say that
+the entire series of formal propositions called the constitution is
+merely a series of fictions. The legal attributes of the king, and even
+of the House of Lords, are fictions. If we could suppose that the
+effects of the Reform Acts had been brought about, not by legislation,
+but by the decisions of law courts and the practice of House of Commons
+committees--by such assumptions as that freeholder includes lease-holder
+and that ten means twenty--we should have in the legal constitution of
+the House of Commons the same kind of fictions that we find in the legal
+statement of the attributes of the crown and the House of Lords. Here,
+too, fictions have been largely resorted to for the purpose of
+supporting particular theories,--popular or monarchical,--and such have
+flourished even more vigorously than purely legal fictions.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the same essay Bentham notices the comparative rarity of
+    fictions in Scots law. As to fiction in particular, compared with the
+    work done by it in English law, the use made of it by the Scottish
+    lawyers is next to nothing. No need have they had of any such clumsy
+    instrument. They have two others "of their own making, by which
+    things of the same sort have been done with much less trouble.
+    _Nobile officium_ gives them the creative power of legislation; this
+    and the word desuetude together the annihilative." And he notices
+    aptly enough that, while the English lawyers declared that James II.
+    had abdicated the throne (which everybody knew to be false), the
+    Scottish lawyers boldly said he had forfeited it.
+
+
+
+
+FIDDES, RICHARD (1671-1725), English divine and historian, was born at
+Hunmanby and educated at Oxford. He took orders, and obtained the living
+of Halsham in Holderness in 1696. Owing to ill-health he applied for
+leave to reside at Wickham, and in 1712 he removed to London on the plea
+of poverty, intending to pursue a literary career. In London he met
+Swift, who procured him a chaplaincy at Hull. He also became chaplain to
+the earl of Oxford. After losing the Hull chaplaincy through a change of
+ministry in 1714, he devoted himself to writing. His best book is a
+_Life of Cardinal Wolsey_ (London, 1724), containing documents which are
+still valuable for reference; of his other writings the _Prefatory
+Epistle containing some remarks to be published on Homer's Iliad_
+(London, 1714), was occasioned by Pope's proposed translation of the
+_Iliad_, and his _Theologia speculativa_ (London, 1718), earned him the
+degree of D.D. at Oxford. In his own day he had a considerable
+reputation as an author and man of learning.
+
+
+
+
+FIDDLE (O. Eng. _fithele_, _fidel_, &c., Fr. _vièle_, viole, _violon_;
+M. H. Ger. _videle_, mod. Ger. _Fiedel_), a popular term for the violin,
+derived from the names of certain of its ancestors. The word fiddle
+antedates the appearance of the violin by several centuries, and in
+England did not always represent an instrument of the same type. The
+word has first been traced in 1205 in Layamon's _Brut_ (7002), "of
+harpe, of salteriun, of fithele and of coriun." In Chaucer's time the
+fiddle was evidently a well-known instrument:
+
+  "For him was lever have at his beddes hed
+   A twenty bokes, clothed in black or red.
+   Of Aristotle and his Philosophie,
+   Than robes riche or fidel or sautrie."
+
+    (_Prologue_, v. 298.)
+
+The origin of the fiddle is of the greatest interest; it will be found
+inseparable from that of the violin both as regards the instruments and
+the etymology of the words; the remote common ancestor is the _ketharah_
+of the Assyrians, the parent of the Greek cithara. The Romans are
+responsible for the word fiddle, having bestowed upon a kind of
+cithara--probably then in its first transition--the name of _fidiculae_
+(more rarely _fidicula_), a diminutive form of _fides_. In Alain de
+Lille's _De planctu naturae_ against the word _lira_ stands as
+equivalent _vioel_, with the definition "Lira est quoddam genue citharae
+vel fitola alioquin de reot. Hoc instrumentum est multum vulgare." This
+is a marginal note in writing of the 13th century.[1]
+
+Some of the transitions from _fidicula_ to fiddle are made evident in
+the accompanying table:
+
+  Latin               fidiculae
+  Medieval Latin      vitula, fitola.
+  French              vièle, vielle, viole.
+  Provencal           viula.
+  Spanish             viguela, vihuela, vigolo.
+  Old High German     fidula.
+  Middle High German  videle.
+  German              fiedel, violine.
+  Italian             viola, violino.
+  Dutch               vedel.
+  Danish              fiddel.
+  Anglo-Saxon         fithele.
+  Old English         fithele, fythal, fithel, fythylle, fidel fidylle,
+                        (south) vithele.
+
+For the descent of the guitar-fiddle, the first bowed ancestor of the
+violin, through many transitions from the cithara, see CITHARA, GUITAR
+and GUITAR-FIDDLE.
+
+In the minnesinger and troubadour fiddles, of which evidences abound
+during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, are to be observed the
+structural characteristics of the violin and its ancestors in the course
+of evolution. The principal of these are first of all the shallow
+sound-chest, composed of belly and back, almost flat, connected by ribs
+(also present in the cithara), with incurvations more or less
+pronounced, an arched bridge, a finger-board and strings (varying in
+number), vibrated by means of a bow. The central rose sound-holes of
+stringed instruments whose strings are plucked by fingers, or plectrum
+have given place to smaller lateral sound-holes placed on each side of
+the strings. It is in Germany,[2] where contemporary drawings of fiddles
+of the 13th and 14th centuries furnish an authoritative clue, and in
+France, that the development may best be followed. The German
+minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders was the prototype of the
+viols, whereas the guitar-fiddle produced the violin through the
+intermediary of the Italian bowed _Lyra_.
+
+[Illustration: From Julius Rühlmann's _Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_.
+
+Minnesinger Fiddle. Germany, 13th Century, from the Manesse MSS.]
+
+The fiddle of the Carolingian epoch,--such, for instance, as that
+mentioned by Otfrid of Weissenburg[3] in his _Harmony of the Gospels_
+(c. 868),
+
+  "Sih thar ouch al ruarit
+   This organo fuarit
+   Lira joh fidula," &c.,--
+
+was in all probability still an instrument whose strings were plucked by
+the fingers, a cithara in transition.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See C.E.H. de Coussemaker, Mémoire sur Hucbald (Paris, 1841).
+
+  [2] See the Manesse MSS. reproduced in part by F.H. von der Hagen,
+    _Heldenbilder_ (Leipzig and Berlin, 1855) and _Bildersaal_. The
+    fiddles are reproduced in J. Rühlmann's _Geschichte der
+    Bogeninstrumente_ (Brunswick, 1882), plates.
+
+  [3] See Schiller's _Thesaurus antiq. Teut._ vol. i. p. 379.
+
+
+
+
+FIDENAE, an ancient town of Latium, situated about 5 m. N. of Rome on
+the Via Salaria, which ran between it and the Tiber. It was for some
+while the frontier of the Roman territory and was often in the hands of
+Veii. It appears to have fallen under the Roman sway after the capture
+of this town, and is spoken of by classical authors as a place almost
+deserted in their time. It seems, however, to have had some importance
+as a post station. The site of the _arx_ of the ancient town is probably
+to be sought on the hill on which lies the Villa Spada, though no traces
+of early buildings or defences are to be seen: pre-Roman tombs are to be
+found in the cliffs to the north. The later village lay at the foot of
+the hill on the eastern edge of the high-road, and its _curia_, with a
+dedicatory inscription to M. Aurelius by the _Senatus Fidenatium_, was
+excavated in 1889. Remains of other buildings may also be seen.
+
+  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 17.
+
+
+
+
+FIDUCIARY (Lat. _fiduciaries_, one in whom trust, fiducia, is reposed),
+of or belonging to a position of trust, especially of one who stands in
+a particular relationship of confidence to another. Such relationships
+are, in law, those of parent and child, guardian and ward, trustee and
+_cestui que trust_, legal adviser and client, spiritual adviser, doctor
+and patient, &c. In many of these the law has attached special
+obligations in the case of gifts made to the "fiduciary," on whom is
+laid the onus of proving that no "undue influence" has been exercised.
+(See CONTRACT; CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; INFANT; TRUST.)
+
+
+
+
+FIEF, a feudal estate in land, land held from a superior (see
+FEUDALISM). The word is the French form, which is represented in
+Medieval Latin as _feudum_ or _feodum_, and in English as "fee" or "feu"
+(see FEE). The A. Fr. _feoffer_, to invest with a fief or fee, has given
+the English law terms "feoffee" and "feoffment" (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892), American capitalist, projector of the
+first Atlantic cable, was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the
+30th of November 1819. He was a brother of David Dudley Field. At
+fifteen he became a clerk in the store of A.T. Stewart & Co., of New
+York, and stayed there three years; then worked for two years with his
+brother, Matthew Dickinson Field, in a paper-mill at Lee, Massachusetts;
+and in 1840 went into the paper business for himself at Westfield,
+Massachusetts, but almost immediately became a partner in E. Root & Co.,
+wholesale paper dealers in New York City, who failed in the following
+year. Field soon afterwards formed with a brother-in-law the firm of
+Cyrus W. Field & Co., and in 1853 had accumulated $250,000, paid off the
+debts of the Root company and retired from active business, leaving his
+name and $100,000 with the concern. In the same year he travelled with
+Frederick E. Church, the artist, through South America. In 1854 he
+became interested, through his brother Matthew, a civil engineer, in the
+project of Frederick Newton Gisborne (1824-1892) for a telegraph across
+Newfoundland; and he was attracted by the idea of a trans-Atlantic
+telegraphic cable, as to which he consulted S.F.B. Morse and Matthew F.
+Maury, head of the National Observatory at Washington. With Peter
+Cooper, Moses Taylor (1806-1882), Marshall Owen Roberts (1814-1880) and
+Chandler White, he formed the New York, Newfoundland & London Telegraph
+Company, which procured a more favourable charter than Gisborne's, and
+had a capital of $1,500,000. Having secured all the practicable landing
+rights on the American side of the ocean, he and John W. Brett, who was
+now his principal colleague, approached Sir Charles Bright (q.v.) in
+London, and in December 1556 the Atlantic Telegraph Company was
+organized by them in Great Britain, a government grant being secured of
+£14,000 annually for government messages, to be reduced to £10,000
+annually when the cable should pay a 6% yearly dividend; similar grants
+were made by the United States government. Unsuccessful attempts to lay
+the cable were made in August 1857 and in June 1858, but the complete
+cable was laid between the 7th of July and the 5th of August 1858; for a
+time messages were transmitted, but in October the cable became useless,
+owing to the failure of its electrical insulation. Field, however, did
+not abandon the enterprise, and finally in July 1866, after a futile
+attempt in the previous year, a cable was laid and brought successfully
+into use. From the Congress of the United States he received a gold
+medal and a vote of thanks, and he received many other honours both at
+home and abroad. In 1877 he bought a controlling interest in the New
+York Elevated Railroad Company, controlling the Third and Ninth Avenue
+lines, of which he was president in 1877-1880. He worked with Jay Gould
+for the completion of the Wabash railway, and at the time of his
+greatest stock activity bought _The New York Evening Express_ and _The
+Mail_ and combined them as _The Mail and Express_, which he controlled
+for six years. In 1879 Field suffered financially by Samuel J. Tilden's
+heavy sales (during Field's absence in Europe) of "Elevated" stock,
+which forced the price down from 200 to 164; but Field lost much more in
+the great "Manhattan squeeze" of the 24th of June 1887, when Jay Gould
+and Russell Sage, who had been supposed to be his backers in an attempt
+to bring the Elevated stock to 200, forsook him, and the price fell from
+156½ to 114 in half an hour. Field died in New York on the 12th of July
+1892.
+
+  See the biography by his daughter, Isabella (Field) Judson, _Cyrus W.
+  Field, His Life and Work_ (New York, 1896); H.M. Field, _History of
+  the Atlantic Telegraph_ (New York, 1866); and Charles Bright, _The
+  Story of the Atlantic Cable_ (New York, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (1805-1894), American lawyer and law reformer, was
+born in Haddam, Connecticut, on the 13th of February 1805. He was the
+oldest of the four sons of the Rev. David Dudley Field (1781-1867), a
+well-known American clergyman and author. He graduated at Williams
+College in 1825, and settled in New York City, where he studied law, was
+admitted to the bar in 1828, and rapidly won a high position in his
+profession. Becoming convinced that the common law in America, and
+particularly in New York state, needed radical changes in respect to the
+unification and simplification of its procedure, he visited Europe in
+1836 and thoroughly investigated the courts, procedure and codes of
+England, France and other countries, and then applied himself to the
+task of bringing about in the United States a codification of the common
+law procedure. For more than forty years every moment that he could
+spare from his extensive practice was devoted to this end. He entered
+upon his great work by a systematic publication of pamphlets and
+articles in journals and magazines in behalf of his reform, but for some
+years he met with a discouraging lack of interest. He appeared
+personally before successive legislative committees, and in 1846
+published a pamphlet, "The Reorganization of the Judiciary," which had
+its influence in persuading the New York State Constitutional Convention
+of that year to report in favour of a codification of the laws. Finally
+in 1847 he was appointed as the head of a state commission to revise the
+practice and procedure. The first part of the commission's work,
+consisting of a code of civil procedure, was reported and enacted in
+1848, and by the 1st of January 1850 the complete code of civil and
+criminal procedure was completed, and was subsequently enacted by the
+legislature. The basis of the new system, which was almost entirely
+Field's work, was the abolition of the existing distinction in forms of
+procedure between suits in law and equity requiring separate actions,
+and their unification and simplification in a single action. Eventually
+the civil code with some changes was adopted in twenty-four states, and
+the criminal code in eighteen, and the whole formed a basis of the
+reform in procedure in England and several of her colonies. In 1857
+Field became chairman of a state commission for the reduction into a
+written and systematic code of the whole body of law of the state,
+excepting those portions already reported upon by the Commissioners of
+Practice and Pleadings. In this work he personally prepared almost the
+whole of the political and civil codes. The codification, which was
+completed in February 1865, was adopted only in small part by the state,
+but it has served as a model after which most of the law codes of the
+United States have been constructed. In 1866 he proposed to the British
+National Association for the Promotion of Social Science a revision and
+codification of the laws of all nations. For an international commission
+of lawyers he prepared _Draft Outlines of an International Code_ (1872),
+the submission of which resulted in the organization of the
+international Association for the Reform and Codification of the Laws of
+Nations, of which he became president. In politics Field was originally
+an anti-slavery Democrat, and he supported Van Buren in the Free Soil
+campaign of 1848. He gave his support to the Republican party in 1856
+and to the Lincoln administration throughout the Civil War. After 1876,
+however, he returned to the Democratic party, and from January to March
+1877 served out in Congress the unexpired term of Smith Ely, elected
+mayor of New York City. During his brief Congressional career he
+delivered six speeches, all of which attracted attention, introduced a
+bill in regard to the presidential succession, and appeared before the
+Electoral Commission in Tilden's interest. He died in New York City on
+the 13th of April 1894.
+
+  Part of his numerous pamphlets and addresses were collected in his
+  _Speeches, Arguments and Miscellaneous Papers_ (3 vols., 1884-1890).
+  See also the _Life of David Dudley Field_ (New York, 1898), by Rev.
+  Henry Martyn Field.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895), American poet, was born at St Louis,
+Missouri, on the 2nd of September 1850. He spent his boyhood in Vermont
+and Massachusetts; studied for short periods at Williams and Knox
+Colleges and the University of Missouri, but without taking a degree;
+and worked as a journalist on various papers, finally becoming connected
+with the Chicago _News_. _A Little Book of Profitable Tales_ appeared in
+Chicago in 1889 and in New York the next year; but Field's place in
+later American literature chiefly depends upon his poems of
+Christmas-time and childhood (of which "Little Boy Blue" and "A Dutch
+Lullaby" are most widely known), because of their union of obvious
+sentiment with fluent lyrical form. His principal collections of poems
+are: _A Little Book of Western Verse_ (1889); _A Second Book of Verse_
+(1892); _With Trumpet and Drum_ (1892); and _Love Songs of Childhood_
+(1894). Field died at Chicago on the 4th of November 1895.
+
+  His works were collected in ten volumes (1896), at New York. His prose
+  _Love-affairs of a Bibliomaniac_ (1896) contains a Memoir by his
+  brother Roswell Martin Field (b. 1851). See also Slason Thompson,
+  _Eugene Field: a study in heredity and contradictions_ (2 vols., New
+  York, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, FREDERICK (1801-1885), English divine and biblical scholar, was
+born in London and educated at Christ's hospital and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship in 1824. He took orders in
+1828, and began a close study of patristic theology. Eventually he
+published an emended and annotated text of Chrysostom's _Homiliae in
+Matthaeum_ (Cambridge, 1839), and some years later he contributed to
+Pusey's _Bibliotheca Patrum_ (Oxford, 1838-1870), a similarly treated
+text of Chrysostom's homilies on Paul's epistles. The scholarship
+displayed in both of these critical editions is of a very high order. In
+1839 he had accepted the living of Great Saxham, in Suffolk, and in 1842
+he was presented by his college to the rectory of Reepham in Norfolk. He
+resigned in 1863, and settled at Norwich, in order to devote his whole
+time to study. Twelve years later he completed the _Origenis Hexaplorum
+quae supersunt_ (Oxford, 1867-1875), now well known as _Field's
+Hexapla_, a text reconstructed from the extant fragments of Origen's
+work of that name, together with materials drawn from the
+_Syro-hexaplar_ version and the _Septuagint_ of Holmes and Parsons
+(Oxford, 1798-1827). Field was appointed a member of the Old Testament
+revision company in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907), American author and clergyman, brother
+of Cyrus Field, was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of
+April 1822; he graduated at Williams College in 1838, and was pastor of
+a Presbyterian church in St Louis, Missouri, from 1842 to 1847, and of a
+Congregational church in West Springfield, Massachusetts, from 1850 to
+1854. The interval between his two pastorates he spent in Europe. From
+1854 to 1898 he was editor and for many years he was also sole
+proprietor of _The Evangelist_, a New York periodical devoted to the
+interests of the Presbyterian church. He spent the last years of his
+life in retirement at Stockbridge, Mass., where he died on the 26th of
+January 1907. He was the author of a series of books of travel, which
+achieved unusual popularity. His two volumes descriptive of a trip round
+the world in 1875-1876, entitled _From the Lakes of Killarney to the
+Golden Horn_ (1876) and _From Egypt to Japan_ (1877), are almost classic
+in their way, and have passed through more than twenty editions. Among
+his other publications are _The Irish Confederates and the Rebellion of
+1798_ (1850), _The History of the Atlantic Telegraph_ (1866), _Faith or
+Agnosticism? the Field-Ingersoll Discussion_ (1888), _Old Spain and New
+Spain_ (1888), and _Life of David Dudley Field_ (1898).
+
+He is not to be confused with another HENRY MARTYN FIELD, the
+gynaecologist, who was born in 1837 at Brighton, Mass., and graduated at
+Harvard in 1859 and at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New
+York City in 1862; he was professor of Materia Medica and therapeutics
+at Dartmouth from 1871 to 1887 and of therapeutics from 1887 to 1893.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, JOHN (1782-1837), English musical composer and pianist, was born
+at Dublin in 1782. He came of a musical family, his father being a
+violinist, and his grandfather the organist in one of the churches of
+Dublin. From the latter the boy received his first musical education.
+When a few years later the family settled in London, Field became the
+favourite pupil of the celebrated Clementi, whom he accompanied to
+Paris, and later, in 1802, on his great concert tour through France,
+Germany and Russia. Under the auspices of his master Field appeared in
+public in most of the great European capitals, especially in St
+Petersburg, and in that city he remained when Clementi returned to
+England. During his stay with the great pianist Field had to suffer many
+privations owing to Clementi's all but unexampled parsimony; but when
+the latter left Russia his splendid connexion amongst the highest
+circles of the capital became Field's inheritance. His marriage with a
+French lady of the name of Charpentier was anything but happy, and had
+soon to be dissolved. Field made frequent concert tours to the chief
+cities of Russia, and in 1820 settled permanently in Moscow. In 1831 he
+came to England for a short time, and for the next four years led a
+migratory life in France, Germany and Italy, exciting the admiration of
+amateurs wherever he appeared in public. In Naples he fell seriously
+ill, and lay several months in the hospital, till a Russian family
+discovered him and brought him back to Moscow. There he lingered for
+several years till his death on the 11th of January 1837. Field's
+training and the cast of his genius were not of a kind to enable him to
+excel in the larger forms of instrumental music, and his seven concerti
+for the pianoforte are now forgotten. Neither do his quartets for
+strings and pianoforte hold their own by the side of those of the great
+masters. But his "nocturnes," a form of music highly developed if not
+actually created by him, remain all but unrivalled for their tenderness
+and dreaminess of conception, combined with a continuous flow of
+beautiful melody. They were indeed Chopin's models. Field's execution on
+the pianoforte was nearly allied to the nature of his compositions,
+beauty and poetical charm of touch being one of the chief
+characteristics of his style. Moscheles, who heard Field in 1831, speaks
+of his "enchanting legato, his tenderness and elegance and his beautiful
+touch."
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, MARSHALL (1835-1906), American merchant, was born at Conway,
+Massachusetts, on the 18th of August 1835. Reared on a farm, he obtained
+a common school and academy education, and at the age of seventeen
+became a clerk in a dry goods store at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1856 he
+removed to Chicago, where he became a clerk in the large mercantile
+establishment of Cooley, Wadsworth & Company. In 1860 the firm was
+reorganized as Cooley, Farwell & Company, and he was admitted to a
+junior partnership. In 1865, with Potter Palmer (1826-1902) and Levi Z.
+Leiter (1834-1904), he organized the firm of Field, Palmer & Leiter,
+which subsequently became Field, Leiter & Company, and in 1881 on the
+retirement of Leiter became Marshall Field & Company. Under Field's
+management the annual business of the firm increased from $12,000,000 in
+1871 to more than $40,000,000 in 1895, when it ranked as one of the two
+or three largest mercantile establishments in the world. He died in New
+York city on the 16th of January 1906. He had married, for the second
+time, in the previous year. Field's public benefactions were numerous;
+notable among them being his gift of land valued at $300,000 and of
+$100,000 in cash to the University of Chicago, an endowment fund of
+$1,000,000 to support the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, and a
+bequest of $8,000,000 to this museum.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, NATHAN (1587-1633), English dramatist and actor, was baptized on
+the 17th of October 1587. His father, the rector of Cripplegate, was a
+Puritan divine, author of a _Godly Exhortation_ directed against
+play-acting, and his brother Theophilus became bishop of Hereford. Nat.
+Field early became one of the children of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and
+in that capacity he played leading parts in Ben Jonson's _Cynthia's
+Revels_ (in 1600), in the _Poetaster_ (in 1601), and in _Epicoene_ (in
+1608), and the title rôle in Chapman's _Bussy d'Ambois_ (in 1606). Ben
+Jonson was his dramatic model, and may have helped his career. The two
+plays of which he was author were probably both written before 1611.
+They are boisterous, but well-constructed comedies of contemporary
+London life; the earlier one, _A Woman is a Weathercock_ (printed 1612),
+dealing with the inconstancy of woman, while the second, _Amends for
+Ladies_ (printed 1618), was written with the intention, as the title
+indicates, of retracting the charge. From Henslowe's papers it appears
+that Field collaborated with Robert Daborne and with Philip Massinger,
+one letter from all three authors being a joint appeal for money to free
+them from prison. In 1614 Field received £10 for playing before the king
+in _Bartholomew Fair_, a play in which Jonson records his reputation as
+an actor in the words "which is your Burbadge now?... Your best actor,
+your Field?" He joined the King's Players some time before 1619, and his
+name comes seventeenth on the list prefixed to the Shakespeare folio of
+1623 of the "principal actors in all these plays." He retired from the
+stage before 1625, and died on the 20th of February 1633. Field was part
+author with Massinger in the _Fatal Dowry_ (printed 1632), and he
+prefixed commendatory verses to Fletcher's _Faithful Shepherdess_.
+
+  His two plays were reprinted in J.P. Collier's _Five Old Plays_
+  (1833), in Hazlitt's edition of _Dodsley's Old Plays_, and in _Nero
+  and other Plays_ (Mermaid series, 1888), with an introduction by Mr
+  A.W. Verity.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899), American jurist, was born at Haddam,
+Connecticut, on the 4th of November 1816. He was the brother of David
+Dudley Field, Cyrus W. Field and Henry M. Field. At the age of thirteen
+he accompanied his sister Emilia and her husband the Rev. Josiah Brewer
+(the parents of the distinguished judge of the Supreme Court, David J.
+Brewer) to Smyrna, Turkey, for the purpose of studying Oriental
+languages, but after three years he returned to the United States, and
+in 1837 graduated at Williams College at the head of his class. He then
+studied law in his elder brother's office, and in 1841 he was admitted
+to the New York bar. He was associated in practice there with his
+brother until 1848, and early in 1849 removed to California, settling
+soon afterward at Marysville, of which place, in 1850, he became the
+first alcalde or mayor. In the same year he was chosen a member of the
+first state legislature of California, in which he drew up and secured
+the enactment of two bodies of law known as the Civil and Criminal
+Practices Acts, based on the similar codes prepared by his brother David
+Dudley for New York. In the former act he embodied a provision
+regulating and giving authority to the peculiar customs, usages, and
+regulations voluntarily adopted by the miners in various districts of
+the state for the adjudication of disputed mining claims. This, as Judge
+Field truly says, "was the foundation of the jurisprudence respecting
+mines in the country," having greatly influenced legislation upon this
+subject in other states and in the Congress of the United States. He was
+elected, in 1857, a justice of the California Supreme Court, of which he
+became chief justice in 1859, on the resignation of Judge David S. Terry
+to fight the duel with the United States senator David C. Broderick
+which ended fatally for the latter. Field held this position until 1863,
+when he was appointed by President Lincoln a justice of the United
+States Supreme Court. In this capacity he was conspicuous for fearless
+independence of thought and action in his opinion in the test oath case,
+and in his dissenting opinions in the legal tender, conscription and
+"slaughter house" cases, which displayed unusual legal learning, and
+gave powerful expression to his strict constructionist theory of the
+implied powers of the Federal constitution. Originally a Democrat, and
+always a believer in states' rights, his strong Union sentiments caused
+him nevertheless to accept Lincoln's doctrine of coercion, and that,
+together with his anti-slavery sympathies, led him to act with the
+Republican party during the period of the Civil War. He was a member of
+the commission which revised the California code in 1873 and of the
+Electoral Commission in 1877, voting in favour of Tilden. In 1880 he
+received sixty-five votes on the first ballot for the presidential
+nomination at the Democratic National Convention at Cincinnati. In
+August 1889, as a result of a ruling in the course of the Sharon-Hill
+litigation, a notorious conspiracy case, he was assaulted in a
+California railway station by Judge David S. Terry, who in turn was shot
+and killed by a United States deputy marshall appointed to defend
+Justice Field against the carrying out of Terry's often-expressed
+threats. He retired from the Supreme Court on the 1st of December 1897
+after a service of thirty-four years and six months, the longest in the
+court's history, and died in Washington on the 9th of April 1899.
+
+  His _Personal Reminiscences of Early Days in California_, originally
+  privately printed in 1878, was republished in 1893 with George C.
+  Gorham's _Story of the Attempted Assassination of Justice Field_.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907), English judge, second
+son of Thomas Flint Field, of Fielden, Bedfordshire, was born on the
+21st of August 1813. He was educated at King's school, Bruton,
+Somersetshire, and entered the legal profession as a solicitor. In 1843,
+however, he ceased to practise as such, and entered at the Inner Temple,
+being called to the bar in 1850, after having practised for some time as
+a special pleader. He joined the Western circuit, but soon exchanged it
+for the Midland. He obtained a large business as a junior, and became a
+queen's counsel and bencher of his inn in 1864. As a Q.C. he had a very
+extensive common law practice, and had for some time been the leader of
+the Midland circuit, when in February 1875, on the retirement of Mr
+Justice Keating, he was raised to the bench as a justice of the queen's
+bench. Mr Justice Field was an excellent puisne judge of the type that
+attracts but little public attention. He was a first-rate lawyer, had a
+good knowledge of commercial matters, great shrewdness and a quick
+intellect, while he was also painstaking and scrupulously fair. When the
+rules of the Supreme Court 1883 came into force in the autumn of that
+year, Mr Justice Field was so well recognized an authority upon all
+questions of practice that the lord chancellor selected him to sit
+continuously at Judges' Chambers, in order that a consistent practice
+under the new rules might as far as possible be established. This he did
+for nearly a year, and his name will always, to a large extent, be
+associated with the settling of the details of the new procedure, which
+finally did away with the former elaborate system of "special pleading."
+In 1890 he retired from the bench and was raised to the peerage as Baron
+Field of Bakeham, becoming at the same time a member of the privy
+council. In the House of Lords he at first took part, not infrequently,
+in the hearing of appeals, and notably delivered a carefully-reasoned
+judgment in the case of the _Bank of England_ v. _Vagliano Brothers_
+(5th of March 1891), in which, with Lord Bramwell, he differed from the
+majority of his brother peers. Before long, however, deafness and
+advancing years rendered his attendances less frequent. Lord Field died
+at Bognor on the 23rd of January 1907, and as he left no issue the
+peerage became extinct.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. _Feld_,
+Dutch _veld_, possibly cognate with O.E. _folde_, the earth, and
+ultimately with root of the Gr. [Greek: platos], broad), open country as
+opposed to woodland or to the town, and particularly land for
+cultivation divided up into separate portions by hedges, banks, stone
+walls, &c.; also used in combination with words denoting the crop grown
+on such a portion of land, such as corn-field, turnip-field, &c. The
+word is similarly applied to a region with particular reference to its
+products, as oil-field, gold-field, &c. For the "open" or "common field"
+system of agriculture in village communities see COMMONS. Generally with
+a reference to their "wild" as opposed to their "domestic" nature
+"field" is applied to many animals, such as the "field-mouse." There are
+many applications of the word; thus from the use of the term for the
+place where a battle is fought, and widely of the whole theatre of war,
+come such phrases as to "take the field" for the opening of a campaign,
+"in the field" of troops that are engaged in the operations of a
+campaign. It is frequently used figuratively in this sense, of the
+subject matter of a controversy, and also appears in military usage, in
+field-fortification, field-day and the like. A "field-officer" is one
+who ranks above a captain and below a general (see OFFICERS); a field
+marshal is the highest rank of general officer in the British and many
+European armies (see MARSHAL). "Field" is used in many games, partly
+with the idea of an enclosed space, partly with the idea of the ground
+of military operations, for the ground in which such games as cricket,
+football, baseball and the like are played. Hence it is applied to those
+players in cricket and baseball who are not "in," and "to field" is to
+perform the functions of such a player--to stop or catch the ball played
+by the "in" side. "The field" is used in hunting, &c., for those taking
+part in the sport, and in racing for all the horses entered for a race,
+and, in such expressions as "to back the field," is confined to all the
+horses with the exception of the "favourite." A common application of
+the word is to a surface, more or less wide, as of the sky or sea, or of
+such physical phenomena as ice or snow, and particularly of the ground,
+of a special "tincture," on which armorial bearings are displayed (see
+HERALDRY); it is thus used also of the "ground" of a flag, thus the
+white ensign of the British navy has a red St George's cross on a white
+"field." In scientific usage the word is also used of the sphere of
+observation or of operations, and has come to be almost equivalent to a
+department of knowledge. In physics, a particular application is that to
+the area which is influenced by some agent, as in the magnetic or
+electric field. The field of observation or view is the area within
+which objects can be seen through any optical instrument at any one
+position. A "field-glass" is the name given to a binocular glass used in
+the field (see BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT); the older form of field-glass was
+a small achromatic telescope with joints. This terms is also applied, in
+an astronomical telescope or compound microscope, to that one of the
+two lenses of the "eye-piece" which is next to the object-glass; the
+other is called the "eye-glass."
+
+
+
+
+FIELDFARE (O.E. _fealo-for_ = fallow-farer), a large species of thrush,
+the _Turdus pilaris_ of Linnaeus--well known as a regular and common
+autumnal visitor throughout the British Islands and a great part of
+Europe, besides western Asia, and even reaching northern Africa. It is
+the _Veldjakker_ and _Veld-lyster_ of the Dutch, the _Wachholderdrossel_
+and _Kramtsvogel_ of Germans, the _Litorne_ of the French, and the
+_Cesena_ of Italians. This bird is of all thrushes the most gregarious
+in. habit, not only migrating in large bands and keeping in flocks
+during the winter, but even commonly breeding in society--200 nests or
+more having been seen within a very small space. The birch-forests of
+Norway, Sweden and Russia are its chief resorts in summer, but it is
+known also to breed sparingly in some districts of Germany. Though its
+nest has been many times reported to have been found in Scotland, there
+is perhaps no record of such an incident that is not open to doubt; and
+unquestionably the missel-thrush (_T. viscivorus_) has been often
+mistaken for the fieldfare by indifferent observers. The head, neck,
+upper part of the back and the rump are grey; the wings, wing-coverts
+and middle of the back are rich hazel-brown; the throat is ochraceous;
+and the breast reddish-brown--both being streaked or spotted with black,
+while the belly and lower wing-coverts are white, and the legs and toes
+very dark-brown. The nest and eggs resemble those of the blackbird (_T.
+merula_), but the former is usually built high up in a tree. The
+fieldfare's call-note is harsh and loud, sounding like _t'chatt'chat_:
+its song is low, twittering and poor. It usually arrives in Britain
+about the middle or end of October, but sometimes earlier, and often
+remains till the middle of May before departing for its northern
+breeding-places. In hard weather it throngs to the berry-bearing bushes
+which then afford it sustenance, but in open winters the flocks spread
+over the fields in search of animal food--worms, slugs and the larvae of
+insects. In very severe seasons it will altogether leave the country,
+and then return for a shorter or longer time as spring approaches. From
+_William of Palerne_ (translated from the French c. 1350) to the writers
+of our own day the fieldfare has occasionally been noticed by British
+poets with varying propriety. Thus Chaucer's association Of its name
+with frost is as happy as true, while Scott was more than unlucky in his
+well-known reference to its "lowly nest" in the Highlands.
+
+Structurally very like the fieldfare, but differing greatly in many
+other respects, is the bird known in North America as the "robin"--its
+ruddy breast and familiar habits reminding the early British settlers in
+the New World of the household favourite of their former homes. This
+bird, the _Turdus migratorius_ of Linnaeus, has a wide geographical
+range, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Greenland to
+Guatemala, and, except at its extreme limits, is almost everywhere a
+very abundant species. As its scientific name imports, it is essentially
+a migrant, and gathers in flocks to pass the winter in the south, though
+a few remain in New England throughout the year. Yet its social
+instincts point rather in the direction of man than of its own kind, and
+it is not known to breed in companies, while it affects the homesteads,
+villages and even the parks and gardens of the large cities, where its
+fine song, its attractive plumage, and its great services as a destroyer
+of noxious insects, combine to make it justly popular.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855), commonly called Copley
+Fielding, English landscape painter (son of a portrait painter), became
+at an early age a pupil of John Varley. He took to water-colour
+painting, and to this he confined himself almost exclusively. In 1810 he
+became an associate exhibitor in the Water-colour Society, in 1813 a
+full member, and in 1831 president of that body. He also engaged largely
+in teaching the art, and made ample profits. His death took place at
+Worthing in March 1855. Copley Fielding was a painter of much elegance,
+taste and accomplishment, and has always been highly popular with
+purchasers, without reaching very high in originality of purpose or of
+style: he painted in vast number all sorts of views (occasionally in
+oil-colour) including marine subjects in large proportion. Specimens of
+his work are to be seen in the water-colour gallery of the Victoria and
+Albert Museum, of dates ranging from 1829 to 1850. Among the engraved
+specimens of his art is the _Annual of British Landscape Scenery_,
+published in 1839.     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754), English novelist and playwright, was born
+at Sharpham Park, near Glastonbury, Somerset, on the 22nd of April 1707.
+His father was Lieutenant Edmund Fielding, third son of John Fielding,
+who was canon of Salisbury and fifth son of the earl of Desmond. The
+earl of Desmond belonged to the younger branch of the Denbigh family,
+who, until lately, were supposed to be connected with the Habsburgs. To
+this claim, now discredited by the researches of Mr J. Horace Round
+(_Studies in Peerage_, 1901, pp. 216-249), is to be attributed the
+famous passage in Gibbon's _Autobiography_ which predicts for _Tom
+Jones_--"that exquisite picture of human manners"--a diuturnity
+exceeding that of the house of Austria. Henry Fielding's mother was
+Sarah Gould, daughter of Sir Henry Gould, a judge of the king's bench.
+It is probable that the marriage was not approved by her father, since,
+though she remained at Sharpham Park for some time after that event, his
+will provided that her husband should have nothing to do with a legacy
+of £3000 left her in 1710. About this date the Fieldings moved to East
+Stour in Dorset. Two girls, Catherine and Ursula, had apparently been
+born at Sharpham Park; and three more, together with a son, Edmund,
+followed at East Stour. Sarah, the third of the daughters, born November
+1710, and afterwards the author of _David Simple_ and other works,
+survived her brother.
+
+Fielding's education up to his mother's death, which took place in April
+1718 at East Stour, seems to have been entrusted to a neighbouring
+clergyman, Mr Oliver of Motcombe, in whom tradition traces the uncouth
+lineaments of "Parson Trulliber" in _Joseph Andrews_. But he must have
+contrived, nevertheless, to prepare his pupil for Eton, to which place
+Fielding went about this date, probably as an oppidan. Little is known
+of his schooldays. There is no record of his name in the college lists;
+but, if we may believe his first biographer, Arthur Murphy, by no means
+an unimpeachable authority, he left "uncommonly versed in the Greek
+authors, and an early master of the Latin classics,"--a statement which
+should perhaps be qualified by his own words to Sir Robert Walpole in
+1730:--
+
+  "Tuscan and French are in my head;
+   Latin I write, and Greek--I read."
+
+But he certainly made friends among his class-fellows--some of whom
+continued friends for life. Winnington and Hanbury-Williams were among
+these. The chief, however, and the most faithful, was George, afterwards
+Sir George, and later Baron Lyttelton of Frankley.
+
+When Fielding left Eton is unknown. But in November 1725 we hear of him
+definitely in what seems like a characteristic escapade. He was staying
+at Lyme (in company with a trusty retainer, ready to "beat, maim or
+kill" in his young master's behalf), and apparently bent on carrying
+off, if necessary by force, a local heiress, Miss Sarah Andrew, whose
+fluttered guardians promptly hurried her away, and married her to some
+one else (_Athenaeum_, 2nd June 1883). Her baffled admirer consoled
+himself by translating part of Juvenal's sixth satire into verse as "all
+the Revenge taken by an injured Lover." After this he must have lived
+the usual life of a young man about town, and probably at this date
+improved the acquaintance of his second cousin, Lady Mary Wortley
+Montagu, to whom he inscribed his first comedy, _Love in Several
+Masques_, produced at Drury Lane in February 1728. The moment was not
+particularly favourable, since it succeeded Cibber's _Provok'd Husband_,
+and was contemporary with Gay's popular _Beggar's Opera_. Almost
+immediately afterwards (March 16th) Fielding entered himself as "Stud.
+Lit." at Leiden University. He was still there in February 1729. But he
+had apparently left before the annual registration of February 1730,
+when his name is absent from the books (_Macmillan's Magazine_, April
+1907); and in January 1730 he brought out a second comedy at the
+newly-opened theatre in Goodman's Fields. Like its predecessor, the
+_Temple Beau_ was an essay in the vein of Congreve and Wycherley,
+though, in a measure, an advance on _Love in Several Masques_.
+
+With the _Temple Beau_ Fielding's dramatic career definitely begins. His
+father had married again; and his Leiden career had been interrupted for
+lack of funds. Nominally, he was entitled to an allowance of £200 a
+year; but this (he was accustomed to say) "any body might pay that
+would." Young, handsome, ardent and fond of pleasure, he began that
+career as a hand-to-mouth playwright around which so much legend has
+gathered--and gathers. Having--in his own words--no choice but to be a
+hackney coachman or a hackney writer, he chose the pen; and his
+inclinations, as well as his opportunities, led him to the stage. From
+1730 to 1736 he rapidly brought out a large number of pieces, most of
+which had merit enough to secure their being acted, but not sufficient
+to earn a lasting reputation for their author. His chief successes, from
+a critical point of view, the _Author's Farce_ (1730) and _Tom Thumb_
+(1730, 1731), were burlesques; and he also was fortunate in two
+translations from Molière, the _Mock Doctor_ (1732) and the _Miser_
+(1733). Of the rest (with one or two exceptions, to be mentioned
+presently) the names need only be recorded. They are _The Coffee-House
+Politician_, a comedy (1730); _The Letter Writers_, a farce (1731); _The
+Grub-Street Opera_, a burlesque (1731); _The Lottery_, a farce (1732);
+_The Modern Husband_, a comedy (1732); _The Covent Garden Tragedy_, a
+burlesque (1732); _The Old Debauchees_, a comedy (1732); _Deborah; or, a
+Wife for you all_, an after-piece (1733); _The Intriguing Chambermaid_
+(from Regnard), a two-act comedy (1734); and _Don Quixote in England_, a
+comedy, which had been partly sketched at Leiden.
+
+_Don Quixote_ was produced in 1734, and the list of plays may be here
+interrupted by an event of which the date has only recently been
+ascertained, namely, Fielding's first marriage. This took place on the
+28th of November 1734 at St Mary, Charlcornbe, near Bath (_Macmillan's
+Magazine_, April 1907), the lady being a Salisbury beauty, Miss
+Charlotte Cradock, of whom he had been an admirer, if not a suitor, as
+far back as 1730. This is a fact which should be taken into
+consideration in estimating the exact Bohemianism of his London life,
+for there is no doubt that he was devotedly attached to her. After a
+fresh farce entitled _An Old Man taught Wisdom_, and the comparative
+failure of a new comedy, _The Universal Gallant_, both produced early in
+1735, he seems for a time to have retired with his bride, who came into
+£1500, to his old home at East Stour. Around this rural seclusion
+fiction has freely accreted. He is supposed to have lived for three
+years on the footing of a typical 18th-century country gentleman; to
+have kept a pack of hounds; to have put his servants into impossible
+yellow liveries; and generally, by profuse hospitality and reckless
+expenditure, to have made rapid duck and drake of Mrs Fielding's modest
+legacy. Something of this is demonstrably false; much, grossly
+exaggerated. In any case, he was in London as late as February 1735 (the
+date of the "Preface" to _The Universal Gallant_); and early in March
+1736 he was back again managing the Haymarket theatre with a so-called
+"_Great Mogul's_ Company of _English_ Comedians."
+
+Upon this new enterprise fortune, at the outset, seemed to smile. The
+first piece (produced on the 5th of March) was _Pasquin, a Dramatick
+Satire on the Times_ (a piece akin in its plan to Buckingham's
+_Rehearsal_), which contained, in addition to much admirable burlesque,
+a good deal of very direct criticism of the shameless political
+corruption of the Walpole era. Its success was unmistakable; and when,
+after bringing out the remarkable _Fatal Curiosity_ of George Lillo, its
+author followed up _Pasquin_ by the _Historical Register for the Year
+1736_, of which the effrontery was even more daring than that of its
+predecessor, the ministry began to bethink themselves that matters were
+going too far. How they actually effected their object is obscure: but
+grounds were speedily concocted for the Licensing Act of 1737, which
+restricted the number of theatres, rendered the lord chamberlain's
+licence an indispensable preliminary to stage representation, and--in a
+word--effectually put an end to Fielding's career as a dramatist.
+
+Whether, had that career been prolonged to its maturity, the result
+would have enriched the theatrical repertoire with a new species of
+burlesque, or reinforced it with fresh variations on the "wit-traps" of
+Wycherley and Congreve, is one of those inquiries that are more academic
+than, profitable. What may be affirmed is, that Fielding's plays, as we
+have them, exhibit abundant invention and ingenuity; that they are full
+of humour and high spirits; that, though they may have been hastily
+written, they were by no means thoughtlessly constructed; and that, in
+composing them, their author attentively considered either managerial
+hints, or the conditions of the market. Against this, one must set the
+fact that they are often immodest; and that, whatever their intrinsic
+merit, they have failed to rival in permanent popularity the work of
+inferior men. Fielding's own conclusion was, "that he left off writing
+for the stage, when he ought to have begun"--which can only mean that he
+himself regarded his plays as the outcome of imitation rather than
+experience. They probably taught him how to construct _Tom Jones_; but
+whether he could ever have written a comedy at the level of that novel,
+can only be established by a comparison which it is impossible to make,
+namely, a comparison with _Tom Jones_ of a comedy written at the same
+age, and in similar circumstances.
+
+_Tumble-Down Dick; or, Phaeton in the Suds_, _Eurydice_ and _Eurydice
+hissed_ are the names of three occasional pieces which belong to the
+last months of Fielding's career as a Haymarket manager. By this date he
+was thirty, with a wife and daughter. As a means of support, he reverted
+to the profession of his maternal grandfather; and, in November 1737, he
+entered the Middle Temple, being described in the books of the society
+as "of East Stour in Dorset." That he set himself strenuously to master
+his new profession, is admitted; though it is unlikely that he had
+entirely discarded the irregular habits which had grown upon him in his
+irresponsible bachelorhood. He also did a good deal of literary work,
+the best known of which is contained in the _Champion_, a "News-Journal"
+of the _Spectator_ type undertaken with James Ralph, whose poem of
+"Night" is made notorious in the _Dunciad_. That the _Champion_ was not
+without merit is undoubted; but the essay-type was for the moment
+out-worn, and neither Fielding nor his coadjutor could lend it fresh
+vitality. Fielding contributed papers from the 15th of November 1739 to
+the 19th of June 1740. On the 20th of June he was called to the bar, and
+occupied chambers in Pump Court. It is further related that, in the
+diligent pursuit of his calling, he travelled the Western Circuit, and
+attended the Wiltshire sessions.
+
+Although, with the _Champion_, he professed, for the time, to have
+relinquished periodical literature, he still wrote at intervals, a fact
+which, taken in connexion with his past reputation as an effective
+satirist, probably led to his being "unjustly censured" for much that he
+never produced. But he certainly wrote a poem "Of True Greatness"
+(1741); a first book of a burlesque epic, the _Vernoniad_, prompted by
+Vernon's expedition of 1739; a vision called the _Opposition_, and,
+perhaps, a political sermon entitled the _Crisis_ (1741). Another piece,
+now known to have been attributed to him by his contemporaries (_Hist.
+MSS. Comm., Rept._ 12, App. Pt. ix., p. 204), is the pamphlet entitled
+_An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews_, a clever but coarse
+attack upon the prurient side of Richardson's _Pamela_, which had been
+issued in 1740, and was at the height of its popularity. _Shamela_
+followed early in 1741. Richardson, who was well acquainted with
+Fielding's four sisters, at that date his neighbours at Hammersmith,
+confidently attributed it to Fielding (_Corr._ 1804, iv. 286, and
+unpublished letter at South Kensington); and there are suggestive points
+of internal evidence (such as the transformation of _Pamela's_ "MR B."
+into "Mr Booby") which tend to connect it with the future _Joseph
+Andrews_. Fielding, however, never acknowledged it, or referred to it;
+and a great deal has been laid to his charge that he never deserved
+("Preface" to _Miscellanies_, 1743).
+
+But whatever may be decided in regard to the authorship of _Shamela_, it
+is quite possible that it prompted the more memorable _Joseph Andrews_,
+which made its appearance in February 1742, and concerning which there
+is no question. Professing, on his title-page, to imitate Cervantes,
+Fielding set out to cover _Pamela_ with Homeric ridicule by transferring
+the heroine's embarrassments to a hero, supposed to be her brother.
+Allied to this purpose was a collateral attack upon the slipshod
+_Apology_ of the playwright Colley Cibber, with whom, for obscure
+reasons, Fielding had long been at war. But the avowed object of the
+book fell speedily into the background as its author warmed to his
+theme. His secondary speedily became his primary characters, and Lady
+Booby and Joseph Andrews do not interest us now as much as Mrs Slipslop
+and Parson Adams--the latter an invention that ranges in literature with
+Sterne's "Uncle Toby" and Goldsmith's "Vicar." Yet more than these and
+others equally admirable in their round veracity, is the writer's
+penetrating outlook upon the frailties and failures of human nature. By
+the time he had reached his second volume, he had convinced himself that
+he had inaugurated a new fashion of fiction; and in a "Preface" of
+exceptional ability, he announced his discovery. Postulating that the
+epic might be "comic" or "tragic," prose or verse, he claimed to have
+achieved what he termed the "Comic Epos in Prose," of which the action
+was "ludicrous" rather than "sublime," and the personages selected from
+society at large, rather than the restricted ranks of conventional high
+life. His plan, it will be observed, was happily adapted to his gifts of
+humour, satire, and above all, irony. That it was matured when it began
+may perhaps be doubted, but it was certainly matured when it ended.
+Indeed, except for the plot, which, in his picaresque first idea, had
+not preceded the conception, _Joseph Andrews_ has all the
+characteristics of _Tom Jones_, even (in part) to the initial chapters.
+
+_Joseph Andrews_ had considerable success, and the exact sum paid for it
+by Andrew Millar, the publisher, according to the assignment now at
+South Kensington, was £183:11s., one of the witnesses being the author's
+friend, William Young, popularly supposed to be the original of Parson
+Adams. It was with Young that Fielding undertook what, with exception of
+"a very small share" in the farce of _Miss Lucy in Town_ (1742),
+constituted his next work, a translation of the _Plutus_ of
+Aristophanes, which never seems to have justified any similar
+experiments. Another of his minor works was a _Vindication of the
+Dowager Duchess of Marlborough_ (1742), then much before the public by
+reason of the _Account of her Life_ which she had recently put forth.
+Later in the same year, Garrick applied to Fielding for a play; and a
+very early effort, _The Wedding Day_, was hastily patched together, and
+produced at Drury Lane in February 1743 with no great success. It was,
+however, included in Fielding's next important publication, the three
+volumes of _Miscellanies_ issued by subscription in the succeeding
+April. These also comprised some early poems, some essays, a Lucianic
+fragment entitled a _Journey from this World to the Next_, and, last but
+not least, occupying the entire final volume, the remarkable performance
+entitled the _History of the Life of the late Mr Jonathan Wild the
+Great_.
+
+It is probable that, in its composition, _Jonathan Wild_ preceded
+_Joseph Andrews_. At all events it seems unlikely that Fielding would
+have followed up a success in a new line by an effort so entirely
+different in character. Taking for his ostensible hero a well-known
+thief-taker, who had been hanged in 1725, he proceeds to illustrate, by
+a mock-heroic account of his progress to Tyburn, the general proposition
+that greatness without goodness is no better than badness. He will not
+go so far as to say that all "Human Nature is Newgate with the Mask on";
+but he evidently regards the description as fairly applicable to a good
+many so-called great people. Irony (and especially Irony neat) is not a
+popular form of rhetoric; and the remorseless pertinacity with which
+Fielding pursues his demonstration is to many readers discomforting and
+even distasteful. Yet--in spite of Scott--_Jonathan Wild_ has its softer
+pages; and as a purely intellectual conception it is not surpassed by
+any of the author's works.
+
+His actual biography, both before and after _Jonathan Wild_, is
+obscure. There are evidences that he laboured diligently at his
+profession; there are also evidences of sickness and embarrassment. He
+had become early a martyr to the malady of his century--gout, and the
+uncertainties of a precarious livelihood told grievously upon his
+beautiful wife, who eventually died of fever in his arms, leaving him
+for the time so stunned and bewildered by grief that his friends feared
+for his reason. For some years his published productions were
+unimportant. He wrote "Prefaces" to the _David Simple_ of his sister
+Sarah in 1744 and 1747; and, in 1745-1746 and 1747-1748, produced two
+newspapers in the ministerial interest, the _True Patriot_ and the
+_Jacobite's Journal_, both of which are connected with, or derive from,
+the rebellion of 1745, and were doubtless, when they ceased, the pretext
+of a pension from the public service money (_Journal of a Voyage to
+Lisbon_, "Introduction"). In November 1747 he married his wife's maid,
+Mary Daniel, at St Bene't's, Paul's Wharf; and in December 1748, by the
+interest of his old school-fellow, Lyttelton, he was made a principal
+justice of peace for Middlesex and Westminster, an office which put him
+in possession of a house in Bow Street, and £300 per annum "of the
+dirtiest money upon earth" (_ibid._), which might have been more had he
+condescended to become what was known as a "trading" magistrate.
+
+For some time previously, while at Bath, Salisbury, Twickenham and other
+temporary resting-places, he had intermittently occupied himself in
+composing his second great novel, _Tom Jones; or, the History of a
+Foundling_. For this, in June 1748, Millar had paid him £600, to which
+he added £100 more in 1749. In the February of the latter year it was
+published with a dedication to Lyttelton, to whose pecuniary assistance
+to the author during the composition it plainly bears witness. In _Tom
+Jones_ Fielding systematically developed the "new Province of Writing"
+he had discovered incidentally in _Joseph Andrews_. He paid closer
+attention to the construction and evolution of the plot; he elaborated
+the initial essays to each book which he had partly employed before, and
+he compressed into his work the flower and fruit of his forty years'
+experience of life. He has, indeed, no character quite up to the level
+of Parson Adams, but his Westerns and Partridges, his Allworthys and
+Blifils, have the inestimable gift of life. He makes no pretence to
+produce "models of perfection," but pictures of ordinary humanity,
+rather perhaps in the rough than the polished, the natural than the
+artificial, and his desire is to do this with absolute truthfulness,
+neither extenuating nor disguising defects and shortcomings. One of the
+results of this unvarnished naturalism has been to attract more
+attention to certain of the episodes than their inventor ever intended.
+But that, in the manners of his time, he had chapter and verse for
+everything he drew is clear. His sincere purpose was, he declared, "to
+recommend goodness and innocence," and his obvious aversions are vanity
+and hypocrisy. The methods of fiction have grown more sophisticated
+since his day, and other forms of literary egotism have taken the place
+of his once famous introductory essays, but the traces of _Tom Jones_
+are still discernible in most of our manlier modern fiction.
+
+Meanwhile, its author was showing considerable activity in his
+magisterial duties. In May 1749, he was chosen chairman of quarter
+sessions for Westminster; and in June he delivered himself of a weighty
+charge to the grand jury. Besides other pamphlets, he produced a careful
+and still readable _Enquiry into the Causes of the late Increase of
+Robbers_, &c. (1751), which, among its other merits, was not ineffectual
+in helping on the famous Gin Act of that year, a practical result to
+which the "Gin Lane" and "Beer Street" of his friend Hogarth also
+materially contributed. These duties and preoccupations left their mark
+on his next fiction, _Amelia_ (1752), which is rather more taken up with
+social problems and popular grievances than its forerunners. But the
+leading personage, in whom, as in the Sophia Western of _Tom Jones_, he
+reproduced the traits of his first wife, is certainly, as even Johnson
+admitted, "the most pleasing heroine of all the romances." The minor
+characters, too, especially Dr Harrison and Colonel Bath, are equal to
+any in _Tom Jones_. The book nevertheless shows signs, not of failure
+but of fatigue, perhaps of haste--a circumstance heightened by the
+absence of those "prolegomenous" chapters over which the author had
+lingered so lovingly in _Tom Jones_. In 1749 he had been dangerously
+ill, and his health was visibly breaking. The £1000 which Millar is said
+to have given for _Amelia_ must have been painfully earned.
+
+Early in 1752 his still indomitable energy prompted him to start a third
+newspaper, the _Covent Garden Journal_, which ran from the 4th of
+January to the 25th of November. It is an interesting contemporary
+record, and throws a good deal of light on his Bow Street duties. But it
+has no great literary value, and it unhappily involved him in harassing
+and undignified hostilities with Smollett, Dr John Hill, Bonnell
+Thornton and other of his contemporaries. To the following year belong
+pamphlets on "Provision for the Poor," and the case of the strange
+impostor, Elizabeth Canning (1734-1773).[1] By 1754 his own case, as
+regards health, had grown desperate; and he made matters worse by a
+gallant and successful attempt to break up a "gang of villains and
+cut-throats," who had become the terror of the metropolis. This
+accomplished, he resigned his office to his half-brother John
+(afterwards Sir John) Fielding. But it was now too late. After fruitless
+essay both of Dr Ward's specifics and the tar-water of Bishop Berkeley,
+it was felt that his sole chance of prolonging life lay in removal to a
+warmer climate. On the 26th of June 1754 he accordingly left his little
+country house at Fordhook, Ealing, for Lisbon, in the "Queen of
+Portugal," Richard Veal master. The ship, as often, was tediously
+wind-bound, and the protracted discomforts of the sick man and his
+family are narrated at length in the touching posthumous tract entitled
+the _Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon_, which, with a fragment of a comment
+on Bolingbroke's then recently issued essays, was published in February
+1755 "for the Benefit of his [Fielding's] Wife and Children." Reaching
+Lisbon at last in August 1754, he died there two months later (8th
+October), and was buried in the English cemetery, where a monument was
+erected to him in 1830._ Luget Britannia gremio non dari fovere natum_
+is inscribed upon it.
+
+His estate, including the proceeds of a fair library, only covered his
+just debts (_Athenaeum_, 25th Nov. 1905); but his family, a daughter by
+his first, and two boys and a girl by his second wife, were faithfully
+cared for by his brother John, and by his friend Ralph Allen of Prior
+Park, Bath, the Squire Allworthy of _Tom Jones_. His will (undated) was
+printed in the _Athenaeum_ for the 1st of February 1890. There is but
+one absolutely authentic portrait of him, a familiar outline by Hogarth,
+executed from memory for Andrew Millar's edition of his works in 1762.
+It is the likeness of a man broken by ill-health, and affords but faint
+indication of the handsome Harry Fielding who in his salad days "warmed
+both hands before the fire of life." Far too much stress, it is now
+held, has been laid by his first biographers upon the unworshipful side
+of his early career. That he was always profuse, sanguine and more or
+less improvident, is as probable as that he was always manly, generous
+and sympathetic. But it is also plain that, in his later years, he did
+much, as father, friend and magistrate, to redeem the errors, real and
+imputed, of a too-youthful youth.
+
+As a playwright and essayist his rank is not elevated. But as a novelist
+his place is a definite one. If the _Spectator_ is to be credited with
+foreshadowing the characters of the novel, Defoe with its earliest form,
+and Richardson with its first experiments in sentimental analysis, it is
+to Henry Fielding that we owe its first accurate delineation of
+contemporary manners. Neglecting, or practically neglecting, sentiment
+as unmanly, and relying chiefly on humour and ridicule, he set out to
+draw life precisely as he saw it around him, without blanks or dashes.
+He was, it may be, for a judicial moralist, too indulgent to some of its
+frailties, but he was merciless to its meaner vices. For reasons which
+have been already given, his high-water mark is _Tom Jones_, which has
+remained, and remains, a model in its way of the kind he inaugurated.
+
+  An essay on Fielding's life and writings is prefixed to Arthur
+  Murphy's edition of his works (1762), and short biographies have been
+  written by Walter Scott and William Roscoe. There are also lives by
+  Watson (1807), Lawrence (1855), Austin Dobson ("Men of Letters," 1883,
+  1907) and G.M. Godden (1909). An annotated edition of the _Journal of
+  a Voyage to Lisbon_ is included in the "World's Classics" (1907).
+       (A. D.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For a full account of this celebrated case see Howell, _State
+    Trials_ (1813), vol. xix.
+
+
+
+
+FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS (1848-   ), Canadian journalist and statesman,
+was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the 24th of November 1848. From
+1864 to 1884 he was one of the staff of the _Morning Chronicle_, the
+chief Liberal paper of the province, and worked at all departments of
+newspaper life. In 1882 he entered the local legislature as Liberal
+member for Halifax, and from 1884 to 1896 was premier and provincial
+secretary of the province, but in the latter year became finance
+minister in the Dominion administration of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, and was
+elected to the House of Commons for Shelburne and Queen's county. He
+opposed Confederation in 1864-1867, and as late as 1886 won a provincial
+election on the promise to advocate the repeal of the British North
+America Act. His administration as finance minister of Canada was
+important, since in 1897 he introduced a new tariff, granting to the
+manufactures of Great Britain a preference, subsequently increased; and
+later he imposed a special surtax on German imports owing to unfriendly
+tariff legislation by that country. In 1902 he represented Canada at the
+Colonial Conference in London.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD-MOUSE, the popular designation of such mouse-like British rodents
+as are not true or "house" mice. The term thus includes the long-tailed
+field mouse, _Mus (Micromys) sylvaticus_, easily recognized by its white
+belly, and sometimes called the wood-mouse; and the two species of
+short-tailed field-mice, _Microtus agrestis_ and _Evotomys glareolus_,
+together with their representatives in Skomer island and the Orkneys
+(see MOUSE and VOLE).
+
+
+
+
+FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, the French _Camp du drap d'or_, the name
+given to the place between Guînes and Ardres where Henry VIII. of
+England met Francis I. of France in June 1520. The most elaborate
+arrangements were made for the accommodation of the two monarchs and
+their large retinues; and on Henry's part especially no efforts were
+spared to make a great impression in Europe by this meeting. Before the
+castle of Guînes a temporary palace, covering an area of nearly 12,000
+sq. yds., was erected for the reception of the English king. It was
+decorated in the most sumptuous fashion, and like the chapel, served by
+thirty-five priests, was furnished with a profusion of golden ornaments.
+Some idea of the size of Henry's following may be gathered from the fact
+that in one month 2200 sheep and other viands in a similar proportion
+were consumed. In the fields beyond the castle, tents to the number of
+2800 were erected for less distinguished visitors, and the whole scene
+was one of the greatest animation. Ladies gorgeously clad, and knights,
+showing by their dress and bearing their anxiety to revive the glories
+and the follies of the age of chivalry, jostled mountebanks, mendicants
+and vendors of all kinds.
+
+Journeying from Calais Henry reached his headquarters at Guînes on the
+4th of June 1520, and Francis took up his residence at Ardres. After
+Cardinal Wolsey, with a splendid train had visited the French king, the
+two monarchs met at the Val Doré, a spot midway between the two places,
+on the 7th. The following days were taken up with tournaments, in which
+both kings took part, banquets and other entertainments, and after
+Wolsey had said mass the two sovereigns separated on the 24th. This
+meeting made a great impression on contemporaries, but its political
+results were very small.
+
+  The _Ordonnance_ for the _Field_ is printed by J.S. Brewer in the
+  _Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII_. vol. iii. (1867). See also
+  J.S. Brewer, _Reign of Henry VIII_. (1884).
+
+
+
+
+FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881), American publisher and author, was
+born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 31st of December 1817. At the
+age of seventeen he went to Boston as clerk in a bookseller's shop.
+Afterwards he wrote for the newspapers, and in 1835 he read an
+anniversary poem entitled "Commerce" before the Boston Mercantile
+Library Association. In 1839 he became junior partner in the publishing
+and bookselling firm known after 1846 as Ticknor & Fields, and after
+1868 as Fields, Osgood & Company. He was the publisher of the foremost
+contemporary American writers, with whom he was on terms of close
+personal friendship, and he was the American publisher of some of the
+best-known British writers of his time, some of whom, also, he knew
+intimately. The first collected edition of De Quincey's works (20 vols.,
+1850-1855) was published by his firm. As a publisher he was
+characterized by a somewhat rare combination of keen business acumen and
+sound, discriminating literary taste, and as a man he was known for his
+geniality and charm of manner. In 1862-1870, as the successor of James
+Russell Lowell, he edited the _Atlantic Monthly_. In 1871 Fields retired
+from business and from his editorial duties, and devoted himself to
+lecturing and to writing. Of his books the chief were the collection of
+sketches and essays entitled _Underbrush_ (1877) and the chapters of
+reminiscence composing _Yesterdays with Authors_ (1871), in which he
+recorded his personal friendship with Wordsworth, Thackeray, Dickens,
+Hawthorne and others. He died in Boston on the 24th of April 1881.
+
+His second wife, ANNIE ADAMS FIELDS (b. 1834), whom he married in 1854,
+published _Under the Olive_ (1880), a book of verses; _James T. Fields:
+Biographical Notes and Personal Sketches_ (1882); _Authors and Friends_
+(1896); _The Life and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe_ (1897); and
+_Orpheus_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FIENNES, NATHANIEL (c. 1608-1669) English politician, second son of
+William, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, by Elizabeth, daughter of John
+Temple, of Stow in Buckinghamshire, was born in 1607 or 1608, and
+educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where as founder's
+kin he was admitted a perpetual fellow in 1624. After about five years'
+residence he left without taking a degree, travelled abroad, and in
+Switzerland imbibed or strengthened those religious principles and that
+hostility to the Laudian church which were to be the chief motive in his
+future political career. He returned to Scotland in 1639, and
+established communications with the Covenanters and the Opposition in
+England, and as member for Banbury in both the Short and Long
+Parliaments he took a prominent part in the attacks upon the church. He
+spoke against the illegal canons on the 14th of December 1640, and again
+on the 9th of February 1641 on the occasion of the reception of the
+London petition, when he argued against episcopacy as constituting a
+political as well as a religious danger and made a great impression on
+the House, his name being added immediately to the committee appointed
+to deal with church affairs. He took a leading part in the examination
+into the army plot; was one of the commissioners appointed to attend the
+king to Scotland in August 1641; and was nominated one of the committee
+of safety in July 1642. On the outbreak of hostilities he took arms
+immediately, commanded a troop of horse in the army of Lord Essex, was
+present at the relief of Coventry in August, and at the fight at
+Worcester in September, where he distinguished himself, and subsequently
+at Edgehill. Of the last two engagements he wrote accounts, viz. _True
+and Exact Relation of both the Battles fought by ... Earl of Essex ...
+against the Bloudy Cavaliers_ (1642). (See also _A Narrative of the Late
+Battle before Worcester taken by a Gentleman of the Inns of Court from
+the mouth of Master Fiennes_, 1642). In February 1643 Fiennes was sent
+down to Bristol, arrested Colonel Essex the governor, executed the two
+leaders of a plot to deliver up the city, and received a commission
+himself as governor on the 1st of May 1643. On the arrival, however, of
+Prince Rupert on the 22nd of July the place was in no condition to
+resist an attack, and Fiennes capitulated. He addressed to Essex a
+letter in his defence (Thomason Tracts E. 65, 26), drew up for the
+parliament a _Relation concerning the Surrender_ ... (1643), answered by
+Prynne and Clement Walker accusing him of treachery and cowardice, to
+which he opposed _Col. Fiennes his Reply_.... He was tried at St Albans
+by the council of war in December, was pronounced guilty of having
+surrendered the place improperly, and sentenced to death. He was,
+however, pardoned, and the facility with which Bristol subsequently
+capitulated to the parliamentary army induced Cromwell and the generals
+to exonerate him completely. His military career nevertheless now came
+to an end. He went abroad, and it was some time before he reappeared on
+the political scene. In September 1647 he was included in the army
+committee, and on the 3rd of January 1648 he became a member of the
+committee of safety. He was, however, in favour of accepting the king's
+terms at Newport in December, and in consequence was excluded from the
+House by Pride's Purge. An opponent of church government in any form, he
+was no friend to the rigid and tyrannical Presbyterianism of the day,
+and inclined to Independency and Cromwell's party. He was a member of
+the council of state in 1654, and in June 1655 he received the strange
+appointment of commissioner for the custody of the great seal, for which
+he was certainly in no way fitted. In the parliament of 1654 he was
+returned for Oxford county and in that of 1656 for the university, while
+in January 1658 he was included in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was in
+favour of the Protector's assumption of the royal title and urged his
+acceptance of it on several occasions. His public career closes with
+addresses delivered in his capacity as chief commissioner of the great
+seal at the beginning of the sessions of January 20, 1658, and January
+2, 1659, in which the religious basis of Cromwell's government is
+especially insisted upon, the feature to which Fiennes throughout his
+career had attached most value. On the reassembling of the Long
+Parliament he was superseded; he took no part in the Restoration, and
+died at Newton Tony in Wiltshire on the 16th of December 1669. Fiennes
+married (1), Elizabeth, daughter of the famous parliamentarian Sir John
+Eliot, by whom he had one son, afterwards 3rd Viscount Saye and Sele;
+and (2), Frances, daughter of Richard Whitehead of Tuderley, Hants, by
+whom he had three daughters.
+
+  Besides the pamphlets already cited, a number of his speeches and
+  other political tracts were published (see Gen. Catalogue, British
+  Museum). Wood also attributed to him _Monarchy Asserted_ (1666)
+  (reprinted in Somers Tracts, vi. 346 [ed. Scott]), but there seems no
+  reason to ascribe to him with Clement Walker the authorship of
+  Sprigge's _Anglia Rediviva_.
+
+
+
+
+FIERI FACIAS, usually abbreviated _fi. fa._ (Lat. "that you cause to be
+made"), in English law, a writ of execution after judgment obtained in
+action of debt or damages. It is addressed to the sheriff, and commands
+him to make good the amount out of the goods of the person against whom
+judgment has been obtained. (See EXECUTION.)
+
+
+
+
+FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO (1790-1836), the chief conspirator in the
+attempt on the life of Louis Philippe in July 1835, was a native of
+Murato in Corsica. He served under Murat, then returned to Corsica,
+where he was condemned to ten years' imprisonment and perpetual
+surveillance by the police for theft and forgery. After a period of
+vagabondage he eluded the police and obtained a small post in Paris by
+means of forged papers; but losing it on account of his suspicious
+manner of living, he resolved to revenge himself on society. He took
+lodgings on the Boulevard du Temple, and there, with two members of the
+Société des Droits de l'Homme, Morey and Pépin by name, contrived an
+"infernal machine," constructed with twenty gun barrels, to be fired
+simultaneously. On the 28th of July 1835, as Louis Philippe was passing
+along the boulevard to the Bastille, accompanied by his three sons and a
+numerous staff, the machine was exploded. A ball grazed the king's
+forehead, and his horse, with those of the duke of Nemours and of the
+prince de Joinville, was shot; Marshal Mortier was killed, with
+seventeen other persons, and many were wounded; but the king and the
+princes escaped as if by miracle. Fieschi himself was severely wounded
+by the discharge of his machine, and vainly attempted to escape. The
+attentions of the most skilful physicians were lavished upon him, and
+his life was saved for the stroke of justice. On his trial he named his
+accomplices, displayed much bravado, and expected or pretended to expect
+ultimate pardon. He was condemned to death, and was guillotined on the
+19th of February 1836. Morey and Pépin were also executed, another
+accomplice was sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment and one was
+acquitted. No less than seven plots against the life of Louis Philippe
+had been discovered by the police within the year, and apologists were
+not wanting in the revolutionary press for the crime of Fieschi.
+
+  See _Procès de Fieschi, precédé de sa vie privée, sa condamnation par
+  la Cour des Pairs et celles de ses complices_ (2 vols., 1836); also P.
+  Thureau-Dangin, _Hist, de la monarchie de Juillet_ (vol. iv. ch. xii.,
+  1884).
+
+
+
+
+FIESCO (DE' FIESCHI), GIOVANNI LUIGI (c. 1523-1547), count of Lavagna,
+was descended from one of the greatest families of Liguria, first
+mentioned in the 10th century. Among his ancestors were two popes
+(Innocent IV. and Adrian V.), many cardinals, a king of Sicily, three
+saints, and many generals and admirals of Genoa and other states.
+Sinibaldo Fiesco, his father, had been a close friend of Andrea Doria
+(q.v.), and had rendered many important services to the Genoese
+republic. On his death in 1532 Giovanni found himself at the age of nine
+the head of the family and possessor of immense estates. He grew up to
+be a handsome, intelligent youth, of attractive manners and very
+ambitious. He married Eleonora Cibò, marchioness of Massa, in 1540, a
+woman of great beauty and family influence. There were many reasons
+which inspired his hatred of the Doria family; the almost absolute power
+wielded by the aged admiral and the insolence of his nephew and heir
+Giannettino Doria, the commander of the galleys, were galling to him as
+to many other Genoese, and it is said that Giannettino was the lover of
+Fiesco's wife. Moreover, the Fiesco belonged to the French or popular
+party, while the Doria were aristocrats and Imperialists. When Fiesco
+determined to conspire against Doria he found friends in many quarters.
+Pope Paul III. was the first to encourage him, while both Pier Luigi
+Farnese, duke of Parma, and Francis I. of France gave him much
+assistance and promised him many advantages. Among his associates in
+Genoa were his brothers Girolamo and Ottobuono, Verrina and R. Sacco. A
+number of armed men from the Fiesco fiefs were secretly brought to
+Genoa, and it was agreed that on the 2nd of January 1547, during the
+interregnum before the election of the new doge, the galleys in the port
+should be seized and the city gates held. The first part of the
+programme was easily carried out, and Giannettino Doria, aroused by the
+tumult, rushed down to the port and was killed, but Andrea escaped from
+the city in time. The conspirators attempted to gain possession of the
+government, but unfortunately for them Giovanni Luigi, while crossing a
+plank from the quay to one of the galleys, fell into the water and was
+drowned. The news spread consternation among the Fiesco faction, and
+Girolamo Fiesco found few adherents. They came to terms with the senate
+and were granted a general amnesty. Doria returned to Genoa on the 4th
+thirsting for revenge, and in spite of the amnesty he confiscated the
+Fiesco estates; Girolamo had shut himself up, with Verrina and Sacco and
+other conspirators, in his castle of Montobbia, which the Genoese at
+Doria's instigation besieged and captured. Girolamo Fiesco and Verrina
+were tried, tortured and executed; all their estates were seized, some
+of which, including Torriglia, Doria obtained for himself. Ottobuono
+Fiesco, who had escaped, was captured eight years afterwards and put to
+death by Doria's orders.
+
+  There are many accounts of the conspiracy, of which perhaps the best
+  is contained in E. Petit's _André Doria_ (Paris, 1887), chs. xi. and
+  xii., where all the chief authorities are quoted; see also Calligari,
+  _La Congiura del Fiesco_ (Venice 1892), and Gavazzo, _Nuovi documenti
+  sulla congiura del conte Fiesco_ (Genoa, 1886); E. Bernabò-Brea, in
+  his _Sulla congiura di Giovanni Luigi Fieschi_, publishes many
+  important documents, while L. Capelloni's _Congiura del Fiesco_,
+  edited by Olivieri, and A. Mascardi's _Congiura del conte Giovanni
+  Luigi de' Fieschi_ (Antwerp, 1629) may be commended among the earlier
+  works. The Fiesco conspiracy has been the subject of many poems and
+  dramas, of which the most famous is that by Schiller. See also under
+  DORIA, ANDREA; FARNESE.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FIESOLE (anc. _Faesulae_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Tuscany,
+Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it is 3 m. N.E. by
+electric tramway. Pop. (1901) town 4951, commune 16,816. It is situated
+on a hill 970 ft. above sea-level, and commands a fine view. The
+cathedral of S. Romolo is an early and simple example of the Tuscan
+Romanesque style; it is a small basilica, begun in 1028 and restored in
+1256. The picturesque battlemented campanile belongs to 1213. The tomb
+of the bishop Leonardo Salutati (d. 1466). with a beautiful portrait
+bust by the sculptor, Mino da Fiesole (1431-1484), is fine. The
+13th-century Palazzo Pretorio contains a small museum of antiquities.
+The Franciscan monastery commands a fine view. The church of S. Maria
+Primerana has some works of art, and S. Alessandro, which is attributed
+to the 6th century, contains fifteen ancient columns of cipollino. The
+inhabitants of Fiesole are largely engaged in straw-plaiting.
+
+Below Fiesole, between it and Florence, lies San Domenico di Fiesole
+(485 ft.); in the Dominican monastery the painter, Fra Giovanni Angelico
+da Fiesole (1387-1455), lived until he went to S. Marco at Florence.
+Here, too, is the Badia di Fiesole, founded in 1028 and re-erected about
+1456-1466 by a follower of Brunelleschi. It is an irregular pile of
+buildings, in fine and simple early Renaissance style; a small part of
+the original façade of 1028 in black and white marble is preserved. The
+interior of the Church is decorated with sculptures by pupils of
+Desiderio da Settignano. The slopes of the hill on which Fiesole stands
+are covered with fine villas. To the S.E. of Fiesole lies Monte Ceceri
+(1453 ft.), with quarries of grey _pietra serena_, largely used in
+Florence for building. To the E. of this lies the 14th-century castle of
+Vincigliata restored and fitted up in the medieval style.
+
+
+
+
+FIFE, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Tay, E.
+by the North Sea, S. by the Firth of Forth, and W. by the shires of
+Perth, Kinross and Clackmannan. The Isle of May, Inchkeith, Inchcolm,
+Inchgarvie and the islet of Oxcar belong to the shire. It has an area of
+322,844, acres or 504 sq. m. Its coast-line measure 108 m. The Lomond
+Hills to the S. and S.W. of Falkland, of which West Lomond is 1713 ft.
+high and East Lomond 1471 ft., Saline Hill (1178 ft.) to the N.W. of
+Dunfermline, and Benarty (1131 ft.) on the confines of Kinross are the
+chief heights. Of the rivers the Eden is the longest; formed on the
+borders of Kinross-shire by the confluence of Beattie Burn and Carmore
+Burn, it pursues a wandering course for 25 m. N.E., partly through the
+Howe, or Hollow of Fife, and empties into the North Sea. There is good
+trout fishing in its upper waters, but weirs prevent salmon from
+ascending it. The Leven drains the loch of that name and enters the
+Forth at the town of Leven after flowing eastward for 15 m. There are
+numerous factories at various points on its banks. The Ore, rising not
+far from Roscobie Hills to the north of Dunfermline, follows a mainly
+north-easterly course for 15 m. till it joins the Leven at Windygates.
+The old loch of Ore which was an expansion of its water was long ago
+reclaimed. Motray Water finds its source in the parish of Kilmany, a few
+miles W. by N. of Cupar, makes a bold sweep towards the north-east, and
+then, taking a southerly turn, enters the head-waters of St Andrews Bay,
+after a course of 12 m. The principal lochs are Loch Fitty, Loch Gelly,
+Loch Glow and Loch Lindores; they are small but afford some sport for
+trout, perch and pike. "Freshwater mussels" occur in Loch Fitty. There
+are no glens, and the only large valley is the fertile Stratheden, which
+supplies part of the title of the combined baronies of Stratheden
+(created 1836) and Campbell (created 1841).
+
+  _Geology._--Between Damhead and Tayport on the northern side of the
+  low-lying Howe of Fife the higher ground is formed of Lower Old Red
+  Sandstone volcanic rocks, consisting of red and purple porphyrites and
+  andesites and some coarse agglomerates, which, in the neighbourhood of
+  Auchtermuchty, are rounded and conglomeratic. These rocks have a
+  gentle dip towards the S.S.E. They are overlaid unconformably by the
+  soft red sandstones of the Upper Old Red series which underlie the
+  Howe of Fife from Loch Leven to the coast. The quarries in these rocks
+  in Dura Den are famous for fossil fishes. Following the Old Red rocks
+  conformably are the Carboniferous formations which occupy the
+  remainder of the county, and are well exposed on the coast and in the
+  numerous quarries. The Carboniferous rocks include, at the base, the
+  Calciferous Sandstone series of dark shales with thin limestones,
+  sandstones and coals. They are best developed around Fife Ness,
+  between St Andrews and Elie, and again around Burntisland between
+  Kirkcaldy and Inverkeithing Bay. In the Carboniferous Limestone
+  series, which comes next in upward succession, are the valuable
+  gas-coals and ironstones worked in the coal-fields of Dunfermline,
+  Saline, Oakley, Torryburn, Kirkcaldy and Markinch. The true Coal
+  Measures lie in the district around Dysart and Leven, East Wemyss and
+  Kinglassie, and they are separated from the coal-bearing
+  Carboniferous Limestone series by the sandstones and conglomerates of
+  the Millstone Grit, Fourteen seams of coal are found in the Dysart
+  Coal Measures, associated with sandstones, shales and clay ironstones.
+  Fife is remarkably rich in evidences of former volcanic activity.
+  Besides the Old Red Sandstone volcanic rocks previously mentioned,
+  there are many beds of contemporaneous basaltic lavas and tuffs in the
+  Carboniferous rocks; Saline Hill and Knock Hill were the sites of
+  vents, which at that time threw out ashes; these interbedded rocks are
+  well exposed on the shore between Burntisland and and Seafield Tower.
+  There were also many intrusive sheets of dolerite and basalt forced
+  into the lower Carboniferous rocks, and these now play an important
+  part in the scenery of the county. They form the summits of the Lomond
+  Hills and Benarty, and they may be followed from Cult Hill by the
+  Cleish Hills to Blairadam; and again near Dunfermline, Burntisland,
+  Torryburn, Auchtertool and St Andrews. Later, in Permian times,
+  eastern Fife was the seat of further volcanic action, and great
+  numbers of "necks" or vents pierce the Carboniferous rocks; Largo Law
+  is a striking example. In one of these necks on the shore at Kincraig
+  Point is a fine example of columnar basalt; the "Rock and Spindle"
+  near St Andrews is another. Last of all in Tertiary times, east and
+  west rifts in the Old Red Sandstone were filled by basalt dikes.
+  Glacial deposits, ridges of gravel and sand, boulder clay, &c.,
+  brought from the N. W., cover much of the older rocks, and traces of
+  old raised beaches are found round the coast and in the Howe cf Fife.
+  In the 25-ft. beach in the East Neuk of Fife is an island sea-cliff
+  with small caves.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--Since the higher hills all lie in the west,
+most of the county is exposed to the full force of the east winds from
+the North Sea, which often, save in the more sheltered areas, check the
+progress of vegetation. At an elevation of 500 or 600 ft. above the sea
+harvests are three or four weeks later than in the valleys and low-lying
+coast-land. The climate, on the whole, is mild, proximity to the sea
+qualifying the heat in summer and the cold in winter. The average annual
+rainfall is 31 in., rather less in the East Neuk district and around St
+Andrews, somewhat more as the hills are approached, late summer and
+autumn being the wet season. The average temperature for January is 38°
+F., for July 59.5°, and for the year 47.6°. Four-fifths of the total
+area is under cultivation, and though the acreage under grain is smaller
+than it was, the yield of each crop is still extraordinarily good, oats,
+barley, wheat being the order of acreage. Of the green crops most
+attention is given to turnips. Potatoes also do well. The acreage under
+permanent pasture and wood is very considerable. Cattle are mainly kept
+for feeding purposes, and dairy farming, though attracting more notice,
+has never been followed more than to supply local markets.
+Sheep-farming, however, is on the increase, and the raising of horses,
+especially farm horses, is an important pursuit. They are strong, active
+and hardy, with a large admixture, or purely, of Clydesdale blood. The
+ponies, hunters and carriage horses so bred are highly esteemed. The
+strain of pigs has been improved by the introduction of Berkshires.
+North of the Eden the soil, though generally thin, is fertile, but the
+sandy waste of Tents Moor is beyond redemption. From St Andrews
+southwards all along the coast the land is very productive. That
+adjacent to the East Neuk consists chiefly of clay and rich loam. From
+Leven to Inverkeithing it varies from a light sand to a rich clayey
+loam. Excepting Stratheden and Strathleven, which are mostly rich,
+fertile loam, the interior is principally cold and stiff clay or thin
+loam with strong clayey subsoil. Part of the Howe of Fife is light and
+shingly and covered with heather. Some small peat mosses still exist,
+and near Lochgelly there is a tract of waste, partly moss and partly
+heath. The character of the farm management may be judged by its
+results. The best methods are pursued, and houses, steadings and
+cottages are all in good order, commodious and comfortable. Rabbits,
+hares, pheasants and partridges are common in certain districts; roe
+deer are occasionally seen; wild geese, ducks and teal haunt the lochs;
+pigeon-houses are fairly numerous; and grouse and blackcock are
+plentiful on the Lomond moors. The shire is well suited for fox-hunting,
+and there are packs in both the eastern and the western division of
+Fife.
+
+_Mining._--Next to Lanarkshire, Fife is the largest coal-producing
+county in Scotland. The coal-field may roughly be divided into the
+Dunfermline basin (including Halbeath, Lochgelly and Kelty), where the
+principal house coals are found, and the Wemyss or Dysart basin
+(including Methil and the hinterland), where gas-coal of the best
+quality is obtained. Coal is also extensively worked at Culross,
+Carnock, Falfield, Donibristle, Ladybank, Kilconquhar and elsewhere.
+Beds of ironstone, limestone, sandstone and shale lie in many places
+contiguous to the coal. Blackband ironstone is worked at Lochgelly and
+Oakley, where there are large smelting furnaces. Oil shale is worked at
+Burntisland and Airdrie near Crail. Among the principal limestone
+quarries are those at Charlestown, Burntisland and Cults. Freestone of
+superior quality is quarried at Strathmiglo, Burntisland and
+Dunfermline. Whinstone of unusual hardness and durability is obtained in
+nearly every district. Lead has been worked in the Lomond Hills and
+copper and zinc have been met with, though not in paying quantities. It
+is of interest to note that in the trap tufa at Elie there have been
+found pyropes (a variety of dark-red garnet), which are regarded as the
+most valuable of Scottish precious stones and are sold under the name of
+Elie rubies.
+
+_Other Industries._--The staple manufacture is linen, ranging from the
+finest damasks to the coarsest ducks and sackings. Its chief seats are
+at Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline, but it is carried on at many of the inland
+towns and villages, especially those situated near the Eden and Leven,
+on the banks of which rivers, as well as at Kirkcaldy, Dunfermline and
+Ceres, are found the bleaching-greens. Kirkcaldy is famous for its
+oil-cloth and linoleum. Most of the leading towns possess breweries and
+tanneries, and the largest distilleries are at Cameron Bridge and
+Burntisland. Woollen cloth is made to a small extent in several towns,
+and fishing-net at Kirkcaldy, Largo and West Wemyss. Paper is
+manufactured at Guardbridge, Markinch and Leslie; earthenware at
+Kirkcaldy; tobacco at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy; engineering works and
+iron foundries are found at Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline; and shipbuilding
+is carried on at Kinghorn, Dysart, Burntisland, Inverkeithing and
+Tayport. From Inverkeithing all the way round the coast to Newburgh
+there are harbours at different points. They are mostly of moderate
+dimensions, the principal port being Kirkcaldy. The largest salmon
+fisheries are conducted at Newburgh and the chief seat of the herring
+fishery is Anstruther, but most of the coast towns take some part in the
+fishing either off the shore, or at stations farther north, or in the
+deep sea.
+
+_Communications._--The North British railway possesses a monopoly in the
+shire. From the Forth Bridge the main line follows the coast as far as
+Dysart and then turns northwards to Ladybank, where it diverges to the
+north-east for Cupar and the Tay Bridge. From Thornton Junction a branch
+runs to Dunfermline and another to Methil, and here begins also the
+coast line for Leven, Crail and St Andrews which touches the main line
+again at Leuchars Junction; at Markinch a branch runs to Leslie; at
+Ladybank there are branches to Mawcarse Junction, and to Newburgh and
+Perth; and at Leuchars Junction a loop line runs to Tayport and Newport,
+joining the main at Wormit. From the Forth Bridge the system also
+connects, via Dunfermline, with Alloa and Stirling in the W. and with
+Kinross and Perth in the N. From Dunfermline there is a branch to
+Charlestown, which on that account is sometimes called the port of
+Dunfermline.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population was 190,365 in 1891, and
+218,840 in 1901, when 844 persons spoke Gaelic and English and 3 Gaelic
+only. The chief towns are the Anstruthers (pop. in 1901, 4233),
+Buckhaven (8828), Burntisland (4846), Cowdenbeath (7908), Cupar (4511),
+Dunfermline (25,250), Dysart (3562), Kelty (3986), Kirkcaldy (34,079),
+Leslie (3587), Leven (5577), Lochgelly (5472), Lumphinnans (2071),
+Newport (2869), St Andrews (7621), Tayport (3325) and Wemyss (2522). For
+parliamentary purposes Fife is divided into an eastern and a western
+division, each returning one member. It also includes the Kirkcaldy
+district of parliamentary burghs (comprising Burntisland, Dysart,
+Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy), and the St Andrews district (the two
+Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, Pittenweem and St Andrews); while
+Culross, Dunfermline and Inverkeithing are grouped with the Stirling
+district. As regards education the county is under school-board
+jurisdiction, and in respect of higher education its equipment is
+effective. St Andrews contains several excellent schools; at Cupar there
+is the Bell-Baxter school; at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy there are high
+schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy.
+
+_History._--In remote times the term Fife was applied to the peninsula
+lying between the estuaries of the Tay and Forth and separated from the
+rest of the mainland by the Ochil Hills. Its earliest inhabitants were
+Picts of the northern branch and their country was long known as
+Pictavia. Doubtless it was owing to the fact that the territory was long
+subject to the rule of an independent king that Fife itself came to be
+called distinctively The Kingdom, a name of which the natives are still
+proud. The Romans effected no settlement in the province, though it is
+probable that they temporarily occupied points here and there. In any
+case the Romans left no impression on the civilization of the natives.
+With the arrival of the missionaries--especially St Serf, St Kenneth, St
+Rule, St Adrian, St Moran and St Fillan--and conversion of the Picts
+went on apace. Interesting memorials of these devout missionaries exist
+in the numerous coast caves between Dysart and St Andrews and in the
+crosses and sculptured stones, some doubtless of pre-Christian origin,
+to be seen at various places. The word Fife, according to Skene, seems
+to be identical with the Jutland _Fibh_ (pronounced _Fife_) meaning
+"forest," and was probably first used by the Frisians to describe the
+country behind the coasts of the Forth and Tay, where Frisian tribes are
+supposed to have settled at the close of the 4th century. The next
+immigration was Danish, which left lasting traces in many place-names
+(such as the frequent use of _law_ for hill). An ancient division of the
+Kingdom into Fife and Fothrif survived for a period for ecclesiastical
+purposes. The line of demarcation ran from Leven to the east of Cults,
+thence to the west of Collessie and thence to the east of Auchtermuchty.
+To the east of this line lay Fife proper. In 1426 the first shire of
+Kinross was formed, consisting of Kinross and Orwell, and was enlarged
+to its present dimensions by the transference from Fife of the parishes
+of Portmoak, Cleish and Tulliebole. Although the county has lain outside
+of the main stream of Scottish history, its records are far from dull or
+unimportant. During the reigns of the earlier Stuarts, Dunfermline,
+Falkland and St Andrews were often the scene of solemn pageantry and
+romantic episodes. Out of the seventy royal burghs in Scotland no fewer
+than eighteen are situated in the shire. However, notwithstanding the
+marked preference of the Stuarts, the Kingdom did not hesitate to play
+the leading part in the momentous dramas of the Reformation and the
+Covenant, and by the 18th century the people had ceased to regard the
+old royal line with any but sentimental interest, and the Jacobite
+risings of 1715 and 1745 evoked only the most lukewarm support.
+
+  See Sir Robert Sibbald, _History of the Sheriffdoms of Fife and
+  Kinross_; Rev. J.W. Taylor, _Historical Antiquities of Fife_ (1875);
+  A.H. Millar, _Fife, Pictorial and Historical_ (Cupar, 1895); Sheriff
+  Aeneas Mackay, sketch of the _History of Fife_ (Edinburgh, 1890);
+  _History of Fife and Kinross_ (Scottish County History series)
+  (Edinburgh, 1896); John Geddie, _The Fringe of Fife_ (Edinburgh,
+  1894).
+
+
+
+
+FIFE (Fr. _fifre_; Med. Ger. _Schweizerpfeiff_, _Feldpfeiff_; Ital.
+_ottavino_), originally the small primitive cylindrical transverse
+flute, now the small B[flat] military flute, usually conoidal in bore,
+used in a drum and fife band. The pitch of the fife lies between that of
+the concert flute and piccolo. The fife, like the flute, is an open
+pipe, for although the upper end is stopped by means of a cork, an
+outlet is provided by the embouchure which is never entirely closed by
+the lips. The six finger-holes of the primitive flute, with the open end
+of the tube for a key-note, gave the diatonic scale of the fundamental
+octave; the second octave was produced by overblowing the notes of the
+fundamental scale an octave higher; part of a third octave was obtained
+by means of the higher harmonics produced by using certain of the
+finger-holes as vent-holes. The modern fife has, in addition to the six
+finger-holes, 4, 5 or 6 keys. Mersenne describes and figures the fife,
+which had in his day the compass of a fifteenth.[1] The fife, which, he
+states, differed from the German flute only in having a louder and more
+brilliant tone and a shorter and narrower bore, was the instrument used
+by the Swiss with the drum. The sackbut, or serpent, was used as its
+bass, for, as Mersenne explains, the bass instrument could not be made
+long enough, nor could the hands reach the holes, although some flutes
+were actually made with keys and had the tube doubled back as in the
+bassoon.[2]
+
+  The words _fife_ and the Fr. _fifre_ were undoubtedly derived from the
+  Ger. _Pfeiff_, the fife being called by Praetorius[3]
+  _Schweizerpfeiff_ and _Feldpfeiff_, while Martin Agricola,[4] writing
+  a century earlier (1529), mentions the transverse flute by the names
+  of _Querchpfeiff_ or _Schweizerpfeiff_, which Sebastian Virdung[5]
+  writes _Zwerchpfeiff_. The Old English spelling was _phife_, _phiphe_
+  or _ffyffe_. The fife was in use in England in the middle of the 16th
+  century, for at a muster of the citizens of London in 1540, _droumes_
+  and ffyffes are mentioned. At the battle of St Quentin (1557) the list
+  of the English army[6] employed states that one trumpet was allowed to
+  each cavalry troop of 100 men, and a drum and fife to each hundred of
+  foot. A drumme and _phife_ were also employed at one shilling per diem
+  for the "Trayne of Artillery."[7] This was the nucleus of the modern
+  military band, and may be regarded as the first step in its formation.
+  In England the adoption of the fife as a military instrument was due
+  to the initiative of Henry VIII., who sent to Vienna for ten good
+  drums and as many fifers.[8] Ralph Smith[9] gives rules for drummers
+  and fifers who, in addition to the duty of giving signals in peace and
+  war to the company, were expected to be brave, secret and ingenious,
+  and masters of several languages, for they were oft sent to parley
+  with the enemy and were entrusted with honourable but dangerous
+  missions. In 1585 the drum and fife formed part of the furniture for
+  war among the companies of the city of London.[10] Queen Elizabeth
+  (according to Michaud, _Biogr. universelle_, tome xiii. p. 60) had a
+  peculiar taste for noisy music, and during meals had a concert of
+  twelve trumpets, two kettledrums, with fifes and drums. The fife
+  became such a favourite military instrument during the 16th and 17th
+  centuries in England that it displaced the bagpipe; it was, however,
+  in turn superseded early in the 18th century by the hautboy (see
+  OBOE), introduced from France. In the middle of the 18th century the
+  fife was reintroduced into the British army band by the duke of
+  Cumberland[11] in the Guards in 1745, commemorated by William
+  Hogarth's picture of the "March of the Guards towards Scotland in
+  1745," in which are seen a drummer and fifer; and by Colonel Bedford
+  into the royal regiment of artillery in 1748, at the end of the war,
+  when a Hanoverian fifer, John Ulrich, was brought over from Flanders
+  as instructor.[12] In 1747 the 19th regiment, known as Green Howards,
+  also had the advantage of a Hanoverian fifer as teacher, a youth
+  presented by his colonel to Lieutenant-Colonel Williams commanding the
+  regiment at Bois-le-Duc. Drum and fife bands in a short time became
+  common in all infantry regiments, while among the cavalry the trumpet
+  prevailed.
+
+  For the acoustics, construction and origin of the fife see FLUTE.
+  Illustrations of the fife may be seen in Cowdray's picture of an
+  encampment at Portsmouth in 1548; in Sandford's "Coronation Procession
+  of James II.," and in C.R. Day's _Descriptive Catalogue_, pl. i. (F)
+  (description No. 42, p. 27).     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), bk. v. prop. 9, pp.
+    241-244.
+
+  [2] For an illustration of one of these bass flutes see article
+    FLUTE, Fig. 2.
+
+  [3] _Syntagma musicum_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pp. 40-41 of Reprint.
+
+  [4] _Musica instrumentalis_ (Wittenberg, 1529).
+
+  [5] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [6] See Sir S.D. Scott, _The British Army_, vol. ii. p. 396.
+
+  [7] See H.G. Farmer, _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ (London,
+    1904).
+
+  [8] _Id._
+
+  [9] _Id._
+
+  [10] Stowe's _Chronicles_, p. 702.
+
+  [11] Grose, _Military Antiquities_ (London, 1801), vol. ii.
+
+  [12] See Colonel P. Forbes Macbean, _Memoirs of the Royal Regiment of
+    Artillery_.
+
+
+
+
+FIFTH MONARCHY MEN, the name of a Puritan sect in England which for a
+time supported the government of Oliver Cromwell in the belief that it
+was a preparation for the "fifth monarchy," that is for the monarchy
+which should succeed the Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman,
+and during which Christ should reign on earth with His saints for a
+thousand years. These sectaries aimed at bringing about the entire
+abolition of the existing laws and institutions, and the substitution of
+a simpler code based upon the law of Moses. Disappointed at the delay in
+the fulfilment of their hopes, they soon began to agitate against the
+government and to vilify Cromwell; but the arrest of their leaders and
+preachers, Christopher Feake, John Rogers and others, cooled their
+ardour, and they were, perforce, content to cherish their hopes in
+secret until after the Restoration. Then, on the 6th of January 1661, a
+band of fifth monarchy men, headed by a cooper named Thomas Venner, who
+was one of their preachers, made an attempt to obtain possession of
+London. Most of them were either killed or taken prisoners, and on the
+19th and 21st of January Venner and ten others were executed for high
+treason. From that time the special doctrines of the sect either died
+out, or became merged in a milder form of millenarianism, similar to
+that which exists at the present day.
+
+  For the proceedings of the sect see S.R. Gardiner, _History of the
+  Commonwealth and Protectorate_, _passim_ (London, 1894-1901); and for
+  an account of the rising of 1661 see Sir John Reresby, _Memoirs_,
+  1634-1689, edited by J.J. Cartwright (London, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+FIG, the popular name given to plants of the genus _Ficus_, an extensive
+group, included in the natural order Moraceae, and characterized by a
+remarkable development of the pear-shaped receptacle, the edge of which
+curves inwards, so as to form a nearly closed cavity, bearing the
+numerous fertile and sterile flowers mingled on its surface. The figs
+vary greatly in habit,--some being low trailing shrubs, others gigantic
+trees, among the most striking forms of those tropical forests to which
+they are chiefly indigenous. They have alternate leaves, and abound in a
+milky juice, usually acrid, though in a few instances sufficiently mild
+to be used for allaying thirst. This juice contains caoutchouc in large
+quantity.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--Fruiting Branch of Fig, _Ficus Carica_; about
+2/7 nat. size.
+
+1. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise; about ½ nat. size. 2. Female flower
+taken from 1; enlarged. 3. Ripe fruit cut lengthwise; about ½ nat.
+size.]
+
+_Ficus Carica_ (figure 1), which yields the well-known figs of commerce,
+is a bush or small tree--rarely more than 18 or 20 ft. high,--with
+broad, rough, deciduous leaves, very deeply lobed in the cultivated
+varieties, but in the wild plant sometimes nearly entire. The green,
+rough branches bear the solitary, nearly sessile receptacles in the
+axils of the leaves. The male flowers are placed chiefly in the upper
+part of the cavity, and in most varieties are few in number. As it
+ripens, the receptacle enlarges greatly, and the numerous single-seeded
+pericarps or true fruits become imbedded in it. The fruit of the wild
+fig never acquires the succulence of the cultivated kinds. The fig seems
+to be indigenous to Asia Minor and Syria, but now occurs in a wild state
+in most of the countries around the Mediterranean. From the ease with
+which the nutritious fruit can be preserved, it was probably one of the
+earliest objects of cultivation, as may be inferred from the frequent
+allusions to it in the Hebrew Scriptures.[1] From a passage in
+Herodotus the fig would seem to have been unknown to the Persians in the
+days of the first Cyrus; but it must have spread in remote ages over all
+the districts around the Aegean and Levant. The Greeks are said to have
+received it from Caria (hence the specific name); but the fruit so
+improved under Hellenic culture that Attic figs became celebrated
+throughout the East, and special laws were made to regulate their
+exportation. From the contemptuous name given to informers against the
+violation of those enactments, [Greek: sukophantai (sukon, phainô)], our
+word sycophant is usually derived. The fig was one of the principal
+articles of sustenance among the Greeks; the Spartans especially used it
+largely at their public tables. From Hellas, at some prehistoric period,
+it was transplanted to Italy and the adjacent islands. Pliny enumerates
+many varieties, and alludes to those from Ebusus (the modern Iviza) as
+most esteemed by Roman epicures; while he describes those of home growth
+as furnishing a large portion of the food of the slaves, particularly
+those employed in agriculture, by whom great quantities were eaten in
+the fresh state at the periods of fig-harvest. In Latin myths the plant
+plays an important part. Held sacred to Bacchus, it was employed in
+religious ceremonies; and the fig-tree that overshadowed the twin
+founders of Rome in the wolf's cave, as an emblem of the future
+prosperity of the race, testified to the high value set upon the fruit
+by the nations of antiquity. The tree is now cultivated in all the
+Mediterranean countries, but the larger portion of our supply of figs
+comes from Asia Minor, the Spanish Peninsula and the south of France.
+Those of Asiatic Turkey are considered the best. The varieties are
+extremely numerous, and the fruit is of various colours, from deep
+purple to yellow, or nearly white. The trees usually bear two
+crops,--one in the early summer from the buds of the last year, the
+other in the autumn from those on the spring growth; the latter forms
+the chief harvest. Many of the immature receptacles drop off from
+imperfect fertilization, which circumstance has led, from very ancient
+times, to the practice of _caprification_.[2] Branches of the wild fig
+in flower are placed over the cultivated bushes. Certain hymenopterous
+insects, of the genera _Blastophaga_ and _Sycophaga_, which frequent the
+wild fig, enter the minute orifice of the receptacle, apparently to
+deposit their eggs; conveying thus the pollen more completely to the
+stigmas, they ensure the fertilization and consequent ripening of the
+fruit. By some the nature of the process has been questioned, and the
+better maturation of the fruit attributed merely to the stimulus given
+by the puncture of the insect, as in the case of the apple; but the
+arrangement of the unisexual flowers in the fig renders the first theory
+the more probable. In some districts a straw or small twig is thrust
+into the receptacle with a similar object. When ripe the figs are
+picked, and spread out to dry in the sun,--those of better quality being
+much pulled and extended by hand during the process. Thus prepared, the
+fruit is packed closely in barrels, rush baskets, or wooden boxes, for
+commerce. The best kind, known as elemi, are shipped at Smyrna, where
+the pulling and packing of figs form one of the most important
+industries of the people.
+
+This fruit still constitutes a large part of the food of the natives of
+western Asia and southern Europe, both in the fresh and dried state. A
+sort of cake made by mashing up the inferior kinds serves in parts of
+the Archipelago as a substitute for bread. Alcohol is obtained from
+fermented figs in some southern countries; and a kind of wine, still
+made from the ripe fruit, was known to the ancients, and mentioned by
+Pliny under the name of _sycites_. Medicinally the fig is employed as a
+gentle laxative, when eaten abundantly often proving useful in chronic
+constipation; it forms a part of the well-known "confection of senna."
+The milky juice of the stems and leaves is very acrid, and has been used
+in some countries for raising blisters. The wood is porous and of little
+value; though a piece, saturated with oil and spread with emery, is in
+France a common substitute for a hone.
+
+The fig is grown for its fresh fruit (eaten as an article of dessert) in
+all the milder parts of Europe, and in the United States, with
+protection in winter, succeeds as far north as Pennsylvania. The fig was
+introduced into England by Cardinal Pole, from Italy, early in the 16th
+century. It lives to a great age, and along the southern coast of
+England bears fruit abundantly as a standard; but in Scotland and in
+many parts of England a south wall is indispensable for its successful
+cultivation out of doors.
+
+  Fig trees are propagated by cuttings, which should be put into pots,
+  and placed in a gentle hotbed. They may be obtained more speedily from
+  layers, which should consist of two or three years old shoots, and
+  these, when rooted, will form plants ready to bear fruit the first or
+  second year after planting. The best soil for a fig border is a
+  friable loam, not too rich, but well drained; a chalky subsoil is
+  congenial to the tree, and, to correct the tendency to over-luxuriance
+  of growth, the roots should be confined within spaces surrounded by a
+  wall enclosing an area of about a square yard. The sandy soil of
+  Argenteuil, near Paris, suits the fig remarkably well; but the best
+  trees are those which grow in old quarries, where their roots are free
+  from stagnant water, and where they are sheltered from cold, while
+  exposed to a very hot sun, which ripens the fruit perfectly. The fig
+  succeeds well planted in a paved court against a building with a south
+  aspect.
+
+  The fig tree naturally produces two sets of shoots and two crops of
+  fruit in the season. The first shoots generally show young figs in
+  July and August, but these in the climate of England very seldom
+  ripen, and should therefore be rubbed off. The late or midsummer
+  shoots likewise put forth fruit-buds, which, however, do not develop
+  themselves till the following spring; and these form the only crop of
+  figs on which the British gardener can depend.
+
+  The fig tree grown as a standard should get very little pruning, the
+  effect of cutting being to stimulate the buds to push shoots too
+  vigorous for bearing. When grown against a wall, it has been
+  recommended that a single stem should be trained to the height of a
+  foot. Above this a shoot should be trained to the right, and another
+  to the left; from these principals two other subdivisions should be
+  encouraged, and trained 15 in. apart; and along these branches, at
+  distances of about 8 in., shoots for bearing, as nearly as possible of
+  equal vigour, should be encouraged. The bearing shoots produced along
+  the leading branches should be trained in at full length, and in
+  autumn every alternate one should be cut back to one eye. In the
+  following summer the trained shoots should bear and ripen fruit, and
+  then be cut back in autumn to one eye, while shoots from the bases of
+  those cut back the previous autumn should be trained for succession.
+  In this way every leading branch will be furnished alternately with
+  bearing and successional shoots.
+
+  When protection is necessary, as it may be in severe winters, though
+  it is too often provided in excess, spruce branches have been found to
+  answer the purpose exceedingly well, owing to the fact that their
+  leaves drop off gradually when the weather becomes milder in spring,
+  and when the trees require less protection and more light and air. The
+  principal part requiring protection is the main stem, which is more
+  tender than the young wood.
+
+  In forcing, the fig requires more heat than the vine to bring it into
+  leaf. It may be subjected to a temperature of 50° at night, and from
+  60° to 65 ° C in the day, and this should afterwards be increased to
+  60° and 65° by night, and 70° to 75° by day, or even higher by sun
+  heat, giving plenty of air at the same time. In this temperature the
+  evaporation from the leaves is very great, and this must be replaced
+  and the wants of the swelling fruit supplied by daily watering, by
+  syringing the foliage, and by moistening the floor, this atmospheric
+  moisture being also necessary to keep down the red spider. When the
+  crop begins to ripen, a moderately dry atmosphere should be
+  maintained, with abundant ventilation when the weather permits.
+
+  The fig tree is easily cultivated in pots, and by introducing the
+  plants into heat in succession the fruiting season may be
+  considerably extended. The plants should be potted in turfy loam mixed
+  with charcoal and old mortar rubbish, and in summer top-dressings of
+  rotten manure, with manure water two or three times a week, will be
+  beneficial. While the fruit is swelling, the pots should be plunged in
+  a bed of fermenting leaves.
+
+  The following are a few of the best figs; those marked F, are good
+  forcing sorts, and those marked W. suitable for walls:--
+
+  Agen: brownish-green, turbinate.
+
+  Brown Ischia, F.: chestnut-coloured, roundish-turbinate.
+
+  Brown Turkey (Lee's Perpetual), F., W.: purplish-brown, turbinate.
+
+  Brunswick, W.: brownish-green, pyriform.
+
+  Col di Signora Bianca, F.: greenish-yellow, pyriform.
+
+  Col di Signora Nero: dark chocolate, pyriform.
+
+  Early Violet, F.: brownish-purple, roundish.
+
+  Grizzly Bourjassotte: chocolate, round.
+
+  Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari: pale chestnut, turbinate.
+
+  Negro Largo, F.: black, long pyriform.
+
+  White Ischia, F.: greenish-yellow, roundish-obovate.
+
+  White Marseilles, F., W.: pale green, roundish-obovate.
+
+The sycamore fig, _Ficus Sycomorus_, is a tree of large size, with
+heart-shaped leaves, which, from their fancied resemblance to those of
+the mulberry, gave origin to the name [Greek: Sukomoros]. From the deep
+shade cast by its spreading branches, it is a favourite tree in Egypt
+and Syria, being often planted along roads and near houses. It bears a
+sweet edible fruit, somewhat like that of the common fig, but produced
+in racemes on the older boughs. The apex of the fruit is sometimes
+removed, or an incision made in it, to induce earlier ripening. The
+ancients, after soaking it in water, preserved it like the common fig.
+The porous wood is only fit for fuel.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--India-rubber Tree, _Ficus elastica_, showing
+spreading woody roots.]
+
+The sacred fig, peepul, or bo, _Ficus religiosa_, a large tree with
+heart-shaped, long-pointed leaves on slender footstalks, is much grown
+in southern Asia. The leaves are used for tanning, and afford lac, and a
+gum resembling caoutchouc is obtained from the juice; but in India it is
+chiefly planted with a religious object, being regarded as sacred by
+both Brahmans and Buddhists. The former believe that the last avatar of
+Vishnu took place beneath its shade. A gigantic bo, described by Sir J.
+Emerson Tennent as growing near Anarajapoora, in Ceylon, is, if
+tradition may be trusted, one of the oldest trees in the world. It is
+said to have been a branch of the tree under which Gautama Buddha became
+endued with his divine powers, and has always been held in the greatest
+veneration. The figs, however, hold as important a place in the
+religious fables of the East as the ash in the myths of Scandinavia.
+
+_Ficus elastica_, the India-rubber tree (figure 2), the large, oblong,
+glossy leaves, and pink buds of which are so familiar in our
+greenhouses, furnishes most of the caoutchouc obtained from the East
+Indies. It grows to a large size, and is remarkable for the snake-like
+roots that extend in contorted masses around the base of the trunk. The
+small fruit is unfit for food.
+
+_Ficus bengalensis_, or the Banyan, wild in parts of northern India, but
+generally planted throughout the country, has a woody stem, branching to
+a height of 70 to 100 ft. and of vast extent with heart-shaped entire
+leaves terminating in acute points. Every branch from the main body
+throws out its own roots, at first in small tender fibres, several yards
+from the ground; but these continually grow thicker until they reach the
+surface, when they strike in, increase to large trunks, and become
+parent trees, shooting out new branches from the top, which again in
+time suspend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks, produce other
+branches, the growth continuing as long as the earth contributes her
+sustenance. On the bank's of the Nerbudda stood a celebrated tree of
+this kind, which is supposed to be that described by Nearchus, the
+admiral of Alexander the Great. This tree once covered an area so
+immense, that it was known to shelter no fewer than 7000 men, and though
+much reduced in size by the destructive power of the floods, the
+remainder was described by James Forbes (1749-1819), in his _Oriental
+Memoirs_ (1813-1815) as nearly 2000 ft. in circumference, while the
+trunks large and small exceeded 3000 in number. The tree usually grows
+from seeds dropped by birds on other trees. The leaf-axil of a palm
+forms a frequent receptacle for their growth, the palm becoming
+ultimately strangled by the growth of the fig, which by this time has
+developed numerous daughter stems which continue to expand and cover
+ultimately a large area. The famous tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens,
+Calcutta, began its growth at the end of the 18th century on a sacred
+date-palm. In 1907 it had nearly 250 aerial roots, the parent trunk was
+42 ft. in girth, and its leafy crown had a circumference of 857 ft.; and
+it was still growing vigorously. Both this tree and _F. religiosa_ cause
+destruction to buildings, especially in Bengal, from seeds dropped by
+birds germinating on the walls. The tree yields an inferior rubber, and
+a coarse rope is prepared from the bark and from the aerial roots.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Of these the case of the Barren Fig-tree (Mark. xi. 12-14, 20-21:
+    compare Matt. xxi. 18-20), which Jesus cursed and which then withered
+    away, has been much discussed among theologians. The difficulty is in
+    Mark xi. 13: "And seeing a fig-tree afar off having leaves, he came,
+    if haply he might find anything thereon; and when he came to it he
+    found nothing but leaves, for the time of figs was not yet." These
+    last words obviously raise the question whether the expectation of
+    Jesus of finding figs, and his cursing of the tree on finding none,
+    were not unreasonable. Many ingenious solutions have been propounded,
+    by suggested emendations of the text and otherwise, for which consult
+    M'Clintock and Strong's _Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature_ (_sub_
+    "Fig") and the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ ("Fig-tree"); the former
+    demurs to the unreasonableness, and contends that the appearance of
+    the leaves at this season (March) indicated a pretentious precocity
+    in this particular fig-tree, so that Jesus was entitled to expect
+    that it would also have fruit, even though the season had not
+    arrived; the _Ency. Biblica_, on the other hand, supposes that some
+    "early Christian," confounding parable with history, has
+    misunderstood the parable in Luke xiii. 6-9, and, forgetting that the
+    season was not one for figs, has transformed it here into the
+    narrative of an act of Jesus. The probability seems to be that the
+    words "for the time of figs was not yet" are an unintelligent gloss
+    by an early reader, which has made its way into the text. For
+    authorities see the works mentioned above.
+
+  [2] From Lat. _caprificus_, a wild fig; O. Eng. _caprifig_.
+
+
+
+
+FIGARO, a famous dramatic character first introduced on the stage by
+Beaumarchais in the _Barbier de Séville_, the _Mariage de Figaro_, and
+the _Folle Journée_. The name is said to be an old Spanish and Italian
+word for a wigmaker, connected with the verb _cigarrar_, to roll in
+paper. Many of the traits of the character are to be found in earlier
+comic types of the Roman and Italian stage, but as a whole the
+conception was marked by great originality; and Figaro soon, seized the
+popular imagination, and became the recognized representative of daring,
+clever and nonchalant roguery and intrigue. Almost immediately after its
+appearance, Mozart chose the _Marriage of Figaro_ as the subject of an
+opera, and the _Barber of Seville_ was treated first by Paisiello, and
+afterwards in 1816 by Rossini. In 1826 the name of the witty rogue was
+taken by a journal which continued till 1833 to be one of the principal
+Parisian periodicals, numbering among its contributors such men as Jules
+Janin, Paul Lacroix, Léon Gozlan, Alphonse Karr, Dr Veron, Jules Sandeau
+and George Sand. Various abortive attempts were made to restore the
+_Figaro_ during the next twenty years; and in 1854 the efforts of M. de
+Villemessant were crowned with success (see NEWSPAPERS: _France_).
+
+  See Marc Monnier, _Les Aieux de Figaro_ (1868); H. de Villemessant,
+  _Mémoires d'un journaliste_ (1867).
+
+
+
+
+FIGEAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Lot, 47 m. E.N.E. of Cahors on the Orléans railway.
+Pop. (1906) 4330. It is enclosed by an amphitheatre of wooded and
+vine-clad hills, on the right bank of the Célé, which is here crossed by
+an old bridge. It is ill-built and the streets are narrow and dirty; on
+the outskirts shady boulevards have taken the place of the ramparts by
+which it was surrounded. The town is very rich in old houses of the 13th
+and 14th centuries; among them may be mentioned the Hôtel de Balène, of
+the 14th century, used as a prison. Another house, dating from the 15th
+century, was the birthplace of the Egyptologist J.F. Champollion, in
+memory of whom the town has erected an obelisk. The principal church is
+that of St Sauveur, which once belonged to the abbey of Figeac. It was
+built at the beginning of the 12th century, but restored later; the
+façade in particular is modern. Notre-Dame du Puy, in the highest part
+of the town, belongs to the 12th and 13th centuries. It has no transept
+and its aisles extend completely round the interior. The altar-screen is
+a fine example of carved woodwork of the end of the 17th century. Of the
+four obelisks which used to mark the limits of the authority of the
+abbots of Figeac, those to the south and the west of the town remain.
+Figeac is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance,
+and a communal college. Brewing, tanning, printing, cloth-weaving and
+the manufacture of agricultural implements are among the industries.
+Trade is in cattle, leather, wool, plums, walnuts and grain, and there
+are zinc mines in the neighbourhood.
+
+Figeac grew up round an abbey founded by Pippin the Short in the 8th
+century, and throughout the middle ages it was the property of the
+monks. At the end of the 16th century the lordship was acquired by King
+Henry IV.'s minister, the duke of Sully, who sold it to Louis XIII. in
+1622.
+
+
+
+
+FIGUEIRA DA FOZ, or FIGUEIRA, a seaport of central Portugal, in the
+district of Coimbra, formerly included in the province of Beira; on the
+north bank of the river Mondego, at its mouth, and at the terminus of
+the Lisbon-Figueira and Guarda-Figueira railways. Pop. (1900) 6221.
+Figueira da Foz is an important fishing-station, and one of the
+headquarters of the coasting trade in grain, fruit, wine, olive oil,
+cork and coal; but owing to the bar at the mouth of the Mondego large
+ships cannot enter. Glass is manufactured, and the city attracts many
+visitors by its excellent climate and sea-bathing. A residential suburb,
+the Bairro Novo, exists chiefly for their accommodation, to the
+north-west of the old town. Figueira is connected by a tramway running 4
+m. N. W. with Buarcos (pop. 5033) and with the coal-mines of Cape
+Mondego. Lavos (pop. 7939), on the south bank of the Mondego, was the
+principal landing-place of the British troops which came, in 1808, to
+take part in the Peninsular War. Figueira da Foz received the title and
+privileges of city by a decree dated the 20th of September 1882.
+
+
+
+
+FIGUERAS, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Gerona, 14
+m. S. of the French frontier, on the Barcelona-Perpignan railway. Pop.
+(1900) 10,714. Figueras is built at the foot of the Pyrenees, and on the
+northern edge of El Ampurdan, a fertile and well-irrigated plain, which
+produces wine, olives and rice, and derives its name from the seaport of
+Ampurias, the ancient Emporiae. The castle of San Fernando, 1 m. N.W.,
+is an irregular pentagonal structure, built by order of Ferdinand VI.
+(1746-1759), on the site of a Capuchin convent. Owing to its situation,
+and the rocky nature of the ground over which a besieger must advance,
+it is still serviceable as the key to the frontier. It affords
+accommodation for 16,000 men and is well provided with bomb-proof cover.
+In 1794 Figueras was surrendered to the French, but it was regained in
+1795. During the Peninsular War it was taken by the French in 1808,
+recaptured by the Spaniards in 1811, and retaken by the French in the
+same year. In 1823, after a long defence, it was once more captured by
+the French. An annual pilgrimage from Figueras to the chapel of Nuestra
+Señora de Requesens, 15 m. N., commemorates the deliverance of the town
+from a severe epidemic of fever in 1612.
+
+
+
+
+FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS (c. 98-45 B.C.), Roman savant, next to Varro
+the most learned Roman of the age. He was a friend of Cicero, to whom he
+gave his support at the time of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Plutarch,
+_Cicero_, 20; Cicero, _Pro Sulla_, xiv. 42). In 58 he was praetor, sided
+with Pompey in the Civil War, and after his defeat was banished by
+Caesar, and died in exile. According to Cicero (_Timaeus_, 1), Figulus
+endeavoured with some success to revive the doctrines of Pythagoreanism.
+With this was included mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and even
+the magic arts. According to Suetonius (_Augustus_, 94) he foretold the
+greatness of the future emperor on the day of his birth, and Apuleius
+(_Apologia_, 42) records that, by the employment of "magic boys"
+(_magici pueri_), he helped to find a sum of money that had been lost.
+Jerome (the authority for the date of his death) calls him _Pythagoricus
+et magus_. The abstruse nature of his studies, the mystical character of
+his writings, and the general indifference of the Romans to such
+subjects, caused his works to be soon forgotten. Amongst his scientific,
+theological and grammatical works mention may be made of _De diis_,
+containing an examination of various cults and ceremonials; treatises on
+divination and the interpretation of dreams; on the sphere, the winds
+and animals. His _Commentarii grammatici_ in at least 29 books was an
+ill-arranged collection of linguistic, grammatical and antiquarian
+notes. In these he expressed the opinion that the meaning of words was
+natural, not fixed by man. He paid especial attention to orthography,
+and sought to differentiate the meanings of cases of like ending by
+distinctive marks (the apex to indicate a long vowel is attributed to
+him). In etymology he endeavoured to find a Roman explanation of words
+where possible (according to him _frater_ was = _fere alter_).
+Quintilian (_Instit. orat._ xi, 3. 143) speaks of a rhetorical treatise
+_De gestu_ by him.
+
+  See Cicero, _Ad Fam._ iv. 13; scholiast on Lucan i. 639; several
+  references in Aulus Gellius; Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Literature_,
+  170; M. Hertz, De N.F. _studiis atque operibus_ (1845); _Quaestiones
+  Nigidianae_ (1890), and edition of the fragments (1889) by A. Swoboda.
+
+
+
+
+FIGURATE NUMBERS, in mathematics. If we take the sum of n terms of the
+series 1 + 1 + 1 + ..., i.e. n, as the nth term of a new series, we
+obtain the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ..., the sum of n terms of which is ½ n ·
+n + 1. Taking this sum as the nth term, we obtain the series 1 + 3 + 6 +
+10 + ..., which has for the sum of n terms n (n + 1)(n + 2)/3![1] This
+sum is taken as the nth term of the next series, and proceeding in this
+way we obtain series having the following nth terms:--1, n, n(n + 1)/2!,
+n(n + 1) (n + 2)/3!, ... n(n + 1) ... (n + r - 2)/(r - 1)!. The numbers
+obtained by giving n any value in these expressions are of the first,
+second, third, ... or rth order of figurate numbers.
+
+  1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1
+  /  | /  | /  | /  | /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 2 /| 3 /| 4 /| 5 /| 6 /| 7  |
+  /  | /  | /  | /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 3 /| 6 /| 10/| 15/| 21 |
+  /  | /  | /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 4 /| 10/| 20/| 35 |
+  /  | /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 5 /| 15/| 35 |
+  /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 6 /| 21 |
+  /  | /  |
+  1 /| 7  |
+  /  |
+  1  |
+
+Pascal treated these numbers in his _Traité du triangle arithmetique_
+(1665), using them to develop a theory of combinations and to solve
+problems in probability. His table is here shown in its simplest form.
+It is to be noticed that each number is the sum of the numbers
+immediately above and to the left of it; and that the numbers along a
+line, termed a _base_, which cuts off an equal number of units along the
+top row and column are the coefficients in the binomial expansion of
+(1 + x)^(r - 1), where r represents the number of units cut off.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The notation n! denotes the product 1 . 2 . 3.... n, and is
+    termed "factorial n."
+
+
+
+
+FIJI (_Viti_), a British colony consisting of an archipelago in the
+Pacific Ocean, the most important in Polynesia, between 15° and 20° S.,
+and on and about the meridian of 180°. The islands number about 250, of
+which some 80 are inhabited. The total land area is 7435 sq. m. (thus
+roughly equalling that of Wales), and the population is about 121,000.
+The principal island is Viti Levu, 98 m. in length (E. to W.) and 67 in
+extreme breadth, with an area of 4112 sq. m. Forty miles N.E. lies Vanua
+Levu, measuring 117 m. by 30, with an area of 2432 sq. m. Close off the
+south-eastern shore of Vanua Levu is Taviuni, 26 m. in length by 10 in
+breadth; Kandavu or Kadavu, 36 m. long and very narrow, is 41 m. S. of
+Viti Levu, and the three other main islands, lying east of Viti Levu in
+the Koro Sea, are Koro, Ngau or Gau, and Ovalau. South-east from Vanua
+Levu a loop of islets extends nearly to 20° S., enclosing the Koro Sea.
+North-west of Viti Levu lies another chain, the Yasawa or western group;
+and, finally, the colony includes the island of Rotumah (q.v.), 300 m.
+N.W. by N. of Vanua Levu.
+
+The formation of the larger islands is volcanic, their surface rugged,
+their vegetation luxuriant, and their appearance very beautiful; their
+hills rise often above 3000, and, in the case of a few summits, above
+4000 ft., and they contrast strongly with the low coral formation of the
+smaller members of the group. There is not much level country, except in
+the coral islets, and certain rich tracts along the coasts of the two
+large islands, especially near the mouths of the rivers. The large
+islands have a considerable extent of undulating country, dry and open
+on their lee sides. Streams and rivers are abundant, the latter very
+large in proportion to the size of the islands, affording a waterway to
+the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive mud flats
+and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, by which their fertility
+is increased, though at a heavy cost to the cultivator. The Rewa,
+debouching through a wide delta at the south-east of Viti Levu, is
+navigable for small vessels for 40 m. There are also in this island the
+Navua and Sigatoka (flowing S.), the Nandi (W.), and the Ba (N.W.). The
+Dreketi, flowing W., is the chief stream of Vanua Levu. It breaches the
+mountains in a fine valley; for this island consists practically of one
+long range, whereas the main valleys and ranges separating them in Viti
+Levu radiate for the most part from a common centre. With few exceptions
+the islands are surrounded by barriers of coral, broken by openings
+opposite the mouths of streams. Viti Levu is the most important island
+not only from its size, but from its fertility, variety of surface, and
+population, which is over one-third of that of the whole group. The town
+of Suva lies on an excellent harbour at the south-east of the island,
+and has been the capital of the colony since 1882, containing the
+government buildings and other offices. Vanua Levu is less fertile than
+Viti Levu; it has good anchorages along its entire southern coast. Of
+the other islands, Taviuni, remarkable for a lake (presumably a
+crater-lake) at the top of its lofty central ridge, is fertile, but
+exceptionally devoid of harbours; whereas the well-timbered island of
+Kandavu has an excellent one. On the eastern shore of Ovalau, an island
+which contains in a small area a remarkable series of gorge-like valleys
+between commanding hills, is the town of Levuka, the capital until 1882.
+It stands partly upon the narrow shore, and partly climbs the rocky
+slope behind. The chief islands on the west of the chain enclosing the
+Koro Sea are Koro, Ngau, Moala and Totoya, all productive, affording
+good anchorage, elevated and picturesque. The eastern islands of the
+chain are smaller and more numerous, Vanua Batevu (one of the Exploring
+Group) being a centre of trade. Among others, Mago is remarkable for a
+subterranean outlet of the waters of the fertile valley in its midst.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Fiji.]
+
+The land is of recent geological formation, the principal ranges being
+composed of igneous rock, and showing traces of much volcanic
+disturbance. There are boiling springs in Vanua Levu and Ngau, and
+slight shocks of earthquake are occasionally felt. The tops of many of
+the mountains, from Kandavu in the S.W., through Nairai and Koro, to the
+Ringgold group in the N.E., have distinct craters, but their activity
+has long ceased. The various decomposing volcanic rocks--tufas,
+conglomerates and basalts--mingled with decayed vegetable matter, and
+abundantly watered, form a very fertile soil. Most of the high peaks on
+the larger islands are basaltic, and the rocks generally are igneous,
+with occasional upheaved coral found sometimes over 1000 ft. above the
+sea; but certain sedimentary rocks observed on Viti Levu seem to imply a
+nucleus of land of considerable age. Volcanic activity in the
+neighbourhood is further shown by the quantities of pumice-stone drifted
+on to the south coasts of Kandavu and Viti Levu; malachite, antimony and
+graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron-sand occur.
+
+_Climate._--The colony is beyond the limits of the perpetual S.E.
+trades, while not within the range of the N.W. monsoons. From April to
+November the winds are steady between S.E. and E.N.E., and the climate
+is cool and dry, after which the weather becomes uncertain and the winds
+often northerly, this being the wet warm season. In February and March
+heavy gales are frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur, causing
+scarcity by destroying the crops. The rainfall is much greater on the
+windward than on the lee sides of the islands (about 110 in. at Suva),
+but the mean temperature is much the same, viz., about 80° F. In the
+hills the temperature sometimes falls below 50°. The climate, especially
+from November to April, is somewhat enervating to the Englishman, but
+not unhealthy. Fevers are hardly known. Dysentery, which is common, and
+the most serious disease in the islands, is said to have been unknown
+before the advent of Europeans.
+
+  _Fauna._--Besides the dog and the pig, which (with the domestic fowl)
+  must have been introduced in early times, the only land mammals are
+  certain species of rats and bats. Insects are numerous, but the
+  species few. Bees have been introduced. The avifauna is not
+  remarkable. Birds of prey are few; the parrot and pigeon tribes are
+  better represented. Fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are numerous and
+  varied; Mollusca, especially marine, and Crustaceae are also very
+  numerous. These three form an important element in the food supply.
+
+  _Flora._--The vegetation is mostly of a tropical Indo-Malayan
+  character--thick jungle with great trees covered with creepers and
+  epiphytes. The lee sides of the larger islands, however, have grassy
+  plains suitable for grazing, with scattered trees, chiefly _Pandanus_,
+  and ferns. The flora has also some Australian and New Zealand
+  affinities (resembling in this respect the New Caledonia and New
+  Hebrides groups), shown especially in these western districts by the
+  _Pandanus_, by certain acacias and others. At an elevation of about
+  2000 ft. the vegetation assumes a more mountainous type. Among the
+  many valuable timber trees are the vesi (_Afzelia bijuga_); the dilo
+  (_Calophyllum Inophyllum_), the oil from its seeds being much used in
+  the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheumatism; the dakua
+  (_Dammara Vitiensis_), allied to the New Zealand kauri, and others.
+  The dakua or Fiji pine, however, has become scarce. Most of the fruit
+  trees are also valuable as timber. The native cloth (_masi_) is beaten
+  out from the bark of the paper mulberry cultivated for the purpose. Of
+  the palms the cocoanut is by far the most important. The yasi or
+  sandal-wood was formerly a valuable product, but is now rarely found.
+  There are various useful drugs, spices and perfumes; and many plants
+  are cultivated for their beauty, to which the natives are keenly
+  alive. Among the plants used as pot-herbs are several ferns, and two
+  or three Solanums, one of which, _S. anthropophagorum_, was one of
+  certain plants always cooked with human flesh, which was said to be
+  otherwise difficult of digestion. The use of the kava root, here
+  called yanggona, from which the well-known national beverage is made,
+  is said to have been introduced from Tonga. Of fruit trees, besides
+  the cocoanut, there may be mentioned the many varieties of the
+  bread-fruit, of bananas and plantains, of sugar-cane and of lemon; the
+  wi (_Spondias dulcis_), the kavika (_Eugenia malaccensis_), the ivi or
+  Tahitian chestnut (_Inocarpus edulis_), the pine-apple and others
+  introduced in modern times. Edible roots are especially abundant. The
+  chief staple of life is the yam, the names of several months in the
+  calendar having reference to its cultivation and ripening. The natives
+  use no grain or pulse, but make a kind of bread (_mandrai_) from this,
+  the taro, and other roots, as well as from the banana (which is the
+  best), the bread-fruit, the ivi, the kavika, the arrowroot, and in
+  times of scarcity the mangrove. This bread is made by burying the
+  materials for months, till the mass is thoroughly fermented and
+  homogeneous, when it is dug up and cooked by baking or steaming. This
+  simple process, applicable to such a variety of substances, is a
+  valuable security against famine.
+
+_People._--The Fijians are a people of Melanesian (Papuan) stock much
+crossed with Polynesians (Tongans and Samoans). They occupy the extreme
+east limits of Papuan territory and are usually classified as
+Melanesians; but they are physically superior to the pure examples of
+that race, combining their dark colour, harsh hirsute skin, crisp hair,
+which is bleached with lime and worn in an elaborately trained mop, and
+muscular limbs, with the handsome features and well proportioned bodies
+of the Polynesians. They are tall and well built. The features are
+strongly marked, but not unpleasant, the eyes deep set, the beard thick
+and bushy. The chiefs are fairer, much better-looking, and of a less
+negroid type of face than the people. This negroid type is especially
+marked on the west coasts, and still more in the interior of Viti Levu.
+The Fijians have other characteristics of both Pacific races, e.g. the
+quick intellect of the fairer, and the savagery and suspicion of the
+dark. They wear a minimum of covering, but, unlike the Melanesians, are
+strictly decent, while they are more moral than the Polynesians. They
+are cleanly and particular about their personal appearance, though,
+unlike other Melanesians, they care little for ornament, and only the
+women are tattooed. A partial circumcision is practised, which is
+exceptional with the Melanesians, nor have these usually an elaborate
+political and social system like that of Fiji. The status of the women
+is also somewhat better, those of the upper class having considerable
+freedom and influence. If less readily amenable to civilizing influences
+than their neighbours to the eastward, the Fijians show greater force of
+character and ingenuity. Possessing the arts of both races they practise
+them with greater skill than either. They understand the principle of
+division of labour and production, and thus of commerce. They are
+skilful cultivators and good boat-builders, the carpenters being an
+hereditary caste; there are also tribes of fishermen and sailors; their
+mats, baskets, nets, cordage and other fabrics are substantial and
+tasteful; their pottery, made, like many of the above articles, by
+women, is far superior to any other in the South Seas; but many native
+manufactures have been supplanted by European goods.
+
+The Fijians were formerly notorious for cannibalism, which may have had
+its origin in religion, but long before the first contact with Europeans
+had degenerated into gluttony. The Fijian's chief table luxury was human
+flesh, euphemistically called by him "long pig," and to satisfy his
+appetite he would sacrifice even friends and relatives. The Fijians
+combined with this greediness a savage and merciless nature. Human
+sacrifices were of daily occurrence. On a chief's death wives and slaves
+were buried alive with him. When building a chief's house a slave was
+buried alive in the hole dug for each foundation post. At the launching
+of a war-canoe living men were tied hand and foot between two plantain
+stems making a human ladder over which the vessel was pushed down into
+the water. The people acquiesced in these brutal customs, and willingly
+met their deaths. Affection and a firm belief in a future state, in
+which the exact condition of the dying is continued, are the Fijians'
+own explanations of the custom, once universal, of killing sick or aged
+relatives. Yet in spite of this savagery the Fijians have always been
+remarkable for their hospitality, open-handedness and courtesy. They are
+a sensitive, proud, if vindictive, and boastful people, with good
+conversational and reasoning powers, much sense of humour, tact and
+perception of character. Their code of social etiquette is minute and
+elaborate, and the graduations of rank well marked. These are (1)
+chiefs, greater and lesser; (2) priests; (3) _Mata ni Vanua_ (lit., eyes
+of the land), employés, messengers or counsellors; (4) distinguished
+warriors of low birth; (5) common people; (6) slaves.
+
+The family is the unit of political society. The families are grouped in
+townships or otherwise (_qali_) under the lesser chiefs, who again owe
+allegiance to the supreme chief of the _matanitu_ or tribe. The chiefs
+are a real aristocracy, excelling the people in physique, skill,
+intellect and acquirements of all sorts; and the reverence felt for
+them, now gradually diminishing, was very great, and had something of a
+religious character. All that a man had belonged to his chief. On the
+other hand, the chief's property practically belonged to his people,
+and they were as ready to give as to take. In a time of famine, a chief
+would declare the contents of the plantations to be common property. A
+system of feudal service-tenures (_lala_) is the institution on which
+their social and political fabric mainly depended. It allowed the chief
+to call for the labour of any district, and to employ it in planting,
+house or canoe-building, supplying food on the occasion of another
+chief's visit, &c. This power was often used with much discernment; thus
+an unpopular chief would redeem his character by calling for some
+customary service and rewarding it liberally, or a district would be
+called on to supply labour or produce as a punishment. The privilege
+might, of course, be abused by needy or unscrupulous chiefs, though they
+generally deferred somewhat to public opinion; it has now, with similar
+customary exactions of cloth, mats, salt, pottery, &c. been reduced
+within definite limits. An allied custom, _solevu_, enabled a district
+in want of any particular article to call on its neighbours to supply
+it, giving labour or something else in exchange. Although, then, the
+chief is lord of the soil, the inferior chiefs and individual families
+have equally distinct rights in it, subject to payment of certain dues;
+and the idea of permanent alienation of land by purchase was never
+perhaps clearly realized. Another curious custom was that of _vasu_
+(lit. nephew). The son of a chief by a woman of rank had almost
+unlimited rights over the property of his mother's family, or of her
+people. In time of war the chief claimed absolute control over life and
+property. Warfare was carried on with many courteous formalities, and
+considerable skill was shown in the fortifications. There were
+well-defined degrees of dependence among the different tribes or
+districts: the first of these, _bati_, is an alliance between two nearly
+equal tribes, but implying a sort of inferiority on one side,
+acknowledged by military service; the second, _qali_, implies greater
+subjection, and payment of tribute. Thus A, being bati to B, might hold
+C in qali, in which case C was also reckoned subject to B, or might be
+protected by B for political purposes.
+
+The former religion of the Fijians was a sort of ancestor-worship, had
+much in common with the creeds of Polynesia, and included a belief in a
+future existence. There were two classes of gods--the first immortal, of
+whom Ndengei is the greatest, said to exist eternally in the form of a
+serpent, but troubling himself little with human or other affairs, and
+the others had usually only a local recognition. The second rank (who,
+though far above mortals, are subject to their passions, and even to
+death) comprised the spirits of chiefs, heroes and other ancestors. The
+gods entered and spoke through their priests, who thus pronounced on the
+issue of every enterprise, but they were not represented by idols;
+certain groves and trees were held sacred, and stones which suggest
+phallic associations. The priesthood usually was hereditary, and their
+influence great, and they had generally a good understanding with the
+chief. The institution of Taboo existed in full force. The _mburé_ or
+temple was also the council chamber and place of assemblage for various
+purposes.
+
+The weapons of the Fijians are spears, slings, throwing clubs and bows
+and arrows. Their houses, of which the framework is timber and the rest
+lattice and thatch, are ingeniously constructed, with great taste in
+ornamentation, and are well furnished with mats, mosquito-curtains,
+baskets, fans, nets and cooking and other utensils. Their canoes,
+sometimes more than 100 ft. long, are well built. Ever excellent
+agriculturists, their implements were formerly digging sticks and hoes
+of turtlebone or flat oyster-shells. In irrigation they showed skill,
+draining their fields with built watercourses and bamboo pipes. Tobacco,
+maize, sweet potatoes, yams, kava, taro, beans and pumpkins, are the
+principal crops.
+
+Fijians are fond of amusements. They have various games, and dancing,
+story-telling and songs are especially popular. Their poetry has
+well-defined metres, and a sort of rhyme. Their music is rude, and is
+said to be always in the major key. They are clever cooks, and for their
+feasts preparations are sometimes made months in advance, and enormous
+waste results from them. Mourning is expressed by fasting, by shaving
+the head and face, or by cutting off the little finger. This last is
+sometimes done at the death of a rich man in the hope that his family
+will reward the compliment; sometimes it is done vicariously, as when
+one chief cuts off the little finger of his dependent in regret or in
+atonement for the death of another.
+
+A steady, if not a very rapid, decrease in the native population set in
+after 1875. A terrible epidemic of measles in that year swept away
+40,000, or about one-third of the Fijians. Subsequent epidemics have not
+been attended by anything like this mortality, but there has, however,
+been a steady decrease, principally among young children, owing to
+whooping-cough, tuberculosis and croup. Every Fijian child seems to
+contract yaws at some time in its life, a mistaken notion existing on
+the part of the parents that it strengthens the child's physique.
+Elephantiasis, influenza; rheumatism, and a skin disease, _thoko_, also
+occur. One per cent of the natives are lepers. A commission appointed in
+1891 to inquire into the causes of the native decrease collected much
+interesting anthropological information regarding native customs, and
+provincial inspectors and medical officers were specially appointed to
+compel the natives to carry out the sanitary reforms recommended by the
+commission. A considerable sum was also spent in laying on good water to
+the native villages. The Fijians show no disposition to intermarry with
+the Indian coolies. The European half-castes are not prolific _inter
+se_, and they are subject to a scrofulous taint. The most robust cross
+in the islands is the offspring of the African negro and the Fijian.
+Miscegenation with the Micronesians, the only race in the Pacific which
+is rapidly increasing, is regarded as the most hopeful manner of
+preserving the native Fijian population. There is a large Indian
+immigrant population.
+
+_Trade, Administration, &c._--The principal industries are the
+cultivation of sugar and fruits and the manufacture of sugar and copra,
+and these three are the chief articles of export trade, which is carried
+on almost entirely with Australia and New Zealand. The fruits chiefly
+exported are bananas and pineapples. There are also exported maize,
+vanilla and a variety of fruits in small quantities; pearl and other
+shells and bêche-de-mer. There is a manufacture of soap from coconut
+oil; a fair quantity of tobacco is grown, and among other industries may
+be included boat-building and saw-milling. Regular steamship
+communications are maintained with Sydney, Auckland and Vancouver. Good
+bridle-tracks exist in all the larger islands, and there are some
+macadamized roads, principally in Viti Levu. There is an overland mail
+service by native runners. The export trade is valued at nearly £600,000
+annually, and the imports at £500,000. The annual revenue of the colony
+is about £140,000 and the expenditure about £125,000. The currency and
+weights and measures are British. Besides the customs and stamp duties,
+some £18,000 of the annual revenue is raised from native taxation. The
+seventeen provinces of the colony (at the head of which is either a
+European or a _roko tui_ or native official) are assessed annually by
+the legislative council for a fixed tax in kind. The tax on each
+province is distributed among districts under officials called _bulis_,
+and further among villages within these districts. Any surplus of
+produce over the assessment is sold to contractors, and the money
+received is returned to the natives.
+
+Under a reconstruction made in 1904 there is an executive council
+consisting of the governor and four official members. The legislative
+council consists of the governor, ten official, six elected and two
+native members. The native chiefs and provincial representatives meet
+annually under the presidency of the governor, and their recommendations
+are submitted for sanction to the legislative council. Suva and Levuka
+have each a municipal government, and there are native district and
+village councils. There is an armed native constabulary; and a volunteer
+and cadet corps in Suva and Levuka.
+
+The majority of the natives are Wesleyan Methodists. The Roman Catholic
+missionaries have about 3000 adherents; the Church of England is
+confined to the Europeans and _kanakas_ in the towns; the Indian coolies
+are divided between Mahommedans and Hindus. There are public schools for
+Europeans and half-castes in the towns, but there is no provision for
+the education of the children of settlers in the out-districts. By an
+ordinance of 1890 provision was made for the constitution of school
+boards, and the principle was first applied in Suva and Levuka. The
+missions have established schools in every native village, and most
+natives are able to read and write their own language. The government
+has established a native technical school for the teaching of useful
+handicrafts. The natives show themselves very slow in adopting European
+habits in food, clothing and house-building.
+
+_History._--A few islands in the north-east of the group were first seen
+by Abel Tasman in 1643. The southernmost of the group, Turtle Island,
+was discovered by Cook in 1773. Lieutenant Bligh, approaching them in
+the launch of the "Bounty," 1789, had a hostile encounter with natives.
+In 1827 Dumont d'Urville in the "Astrolabe" surveyed them much more
+accurately, but the first thorough survey was that of the United States
+exploring expedition in 1840. Up to this time, owing to the evil
+reputation of the islanders, European intercourse was very limited. The
+labours of the Wesleyan missionaries, however, must always have a
+prominent place in any history of Fiji. They came from Tonga in 1835 and
+naturally settled first in the eastern islands, where the Tongan
+element, already familiar to them, preponderated. They perhaps
+identified themselves too closely with their Tongan friends, whose
+dissolute, lawless, tyrannical conduct led to much mischief; but it
+should not be forgotten that their position was difficult, and it was
+mainly through their efforts that many terrible heathen practices were
+stamped out.
+
+About 1804 some escaped convicts from Australia and runaway sailors
+established themselves around the east part of Viti Levu, and by lending
+their services to the neighbouring chiefs probably led to their
+preponderance over the rest of the group. Na Ulivau, chief of the small
+island of Mbau, established before his death in 1829 a sort of
+supremacy, which was extended by his brother Tanoa, and by Tanoa's son
+Thakombau, a ruler of considerable capacity. In his time, however,
+difficulties thickened. The Tongans, who had long frequented Fiji
+(especially for canoe-building, their own islands being deficient in
+timber), now came in larger numbers, led by an able and ambitious chief,
+Maafu, who, by adroitly taking part in Fijian quarrels, made himself
+chief in the Windward group, threatening Thakombau's supremacy. He was
+harassed, too, by an arbitrary demand for £9000 from the American
+government, for alleged injuries to their consul. Several chiefs who
+disputed his authority were crushed by the aid of King George of Tonga,
+who (1855) had opportunely arrived on a visit; but he afterwards, taking
+some offence, demanded £12,000 for his services. At last Thakombau,
+disappointed in the hope that his acceptance of Christianity (1854)
+would improve his position, offered the sovereignty to Great Britain
+(1859) with the fee simple of 100,000 acres, on condition of her paying
+the American claims. Colonel Smythe, R.A., was sent out to report on the
+question, and decided against annexation, but advised that the British
+consul should be invested with full magisterial powers over his
+countrymen, a step which would have averted much subsequent difficulty.
+
+Meanwhile Dr B. Seemann's favourable report on the capabilities of the
+islands, followed by a time of depression in Australia and New Zealand,
+led to a rapid increase of settlers--from 200 in 1860 to 1800 in 1869.
+This produced fresh complications, and an increasing desire among the
+respectable settlers for a competent civil and criminal jurisdiction.
+Attempts were made at self-government, and the sovereignty was again
+offered, conditionally, to England, and to the United States. Finally,
+in 1871, a "constitutional government" was formed by certain Englishmen
+under King Thakombau; but this, after incurring heavy debt, and
+promoting the welfare of neither whites nor natives, came after three
+years to a deadlock, and the British government felt obliged, in the
+interest of all parties, to accept the unconditional cession now offered
+(1874). It had besides long been thought desirable to possess a station
+on the route between Australia and Panama; it was also felt that the
+Polynesian labour traffic, the abuses in which had caused much
+indignation, could only be effectually regulated from a point contiguous
+to the recruiting field, and the locality where that labour was
+extensively employed. To this end the governor of Fiji was also created
+"high commissioner for the western Pacific." Rotumah (q.v.) was annexed
+in 1881.
+
+At the time of the British annexation the islands were suffering from
+commercial depression, following a fall in the price of cotton after the
+American Civil War. Coffee, tea, cinchona and sugar were tried in turn,
+with limited success. The coffee was attacked by the leaf disease; the
+tea could not compete with that grown by the cheap labour of the East;
+the sugar machinery was too antiquated to withstand the fall in prices
+consequent on the European sugar bounties. In 1878 the first coolies
+were imported from India and the cultivation of sugar began to pass into
+the hands of large companies working with modern machinery. With the
+introduction of coolies the Fijians began to fall behind in the
+development of their country. Many of the coolies chose to remain in the
+colony after the termination of their indentures, and began to displace
+the European country traders. With a regular and plentiful supply of
+Indian coolies, the recruiting of _kanaka_ labourers practically ceased.
+The settlement of European land claims, and the measures taken for the
+protection of native institutions, caused lively dissatisfaction among
+the colonists, who laid the blame of the commercial depression at the
+door of the government; but with returning prosperity this feeling began
+to disappear. In 1900 the government of New Zealand made overtures to
+absorb Fiji. The Aborigines Society protested to the colonial office,
+and the imperial government refused to sanction the proposal.
+
+  See Smyth, _Ten Months in the Fiji Islands_ (London, 1864); B.
+  Seemann, _Flora Vitiensis_ (London, 1865); and _Viti: Account of a
+  Government Mission in the Vitian or Fijian Islands_ (1860-1861); W.T.
+  Pritchard, _Polynesian Reminiscences_ (London, 1866); H. Forbes, _Two
+  Years in Fiji_ (London, 1875); Commodore Goodenough, _Journal_
+  (London, 1876); H.N. Moseley, _Notes of a Naturalist in the
+  "Challenger"_ (London, 1879); Sir A.H. Gordon, _Story of a Little War_
+  (Edinburgh, privately printed, 1879); J.W. Anderson, _Fiji and New
+  Caledonia_ (London, 1880); C.F. Gordon-Cumming, _At Home in Fiji_
+  (Edinburgh, 1881); John Horne, _A Year in Fiji_ (London, 1881); H.S.
+  Cooper, _Our New Colony, Fiji_ (London, 1882); S.E. Scholes, _Fiji and
+  the Friendly Islands_ (London, 1882); Princes Albert Victor and George
+  of Wales, _Cruise of H. M. S. "Bacchante"_ (London, 1886); A. Agassiz,
+  _The Islands and Coral Reefs of Fiji_ (Cambridge, Mass., U.S., 1899);
+  H.B. Guppy, _Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific_ (1896-1899),
+  vol. i.; _Vanua Levu, Fiji_ (Phys. Geog. and Geology) (London, 1903);
+  Lorimer Fison, _Tales from Old Fiji_ (folk-lore, &c.) (London, 1904);
+  B. Thomson, _The Fijians_ (London, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+FILANDER, the name by which the Aru Island wallaby (_Macropus brunii_)
+was first described. It occurs in a translation of C. de Bruyn's
+_Travels_ (ii. 101) published in 1737.
+
+
+
+
+FILANGIERI, CARLO (1784-1867), prince of Satriano, Neapolitan soldier
+and statesman, was the son of Gaetano Filangieri (1752-1788), a
+celebrated philosopher and jurist. At the age of fifteen he decided on a
+military career, and having obtained an introduction to Napoleon
+Bonaparte, then first consul, was admitted to the Military Academy at
+Paris. In 1803 he received a commission in an infantry regiment, and
+took part in the campaign of 1805 under General Davoust, first in the
+Low Countries, and later at Ulm, Maria Zell and Austerlitz, where he
+fought with distinction, was wounded several times and promoted. He
+returned to Naples as captain on Masséna's staff to fight the Bourbons
+and the Austrians in 1806, and subsequently went to Spain, where he
+followed Jerome Bonaparte in his retreat from Madrid. In consequence of
+a fatal duel he was sent back to Naples; there he served under Joachim
+Murat with the rank of general, and fought against the Anglo-Sicilian
+forces in Calabria and at Messina. On the fall of Napoleon he took part
+in Murat's campaign against Eugène Beauharnais, and later in that
+against Austria, and was severely wounded at the battle of the Panaro
+(1815). On the restoration of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (I.),
+Filangieri retained his rank and command, but found the army utterly
+disorganized and impregnated with Carbonarism. In the disturbances of
+1820 he adhered to the Constitutionalist party, and fought under General
+Pepe (q.v.) against the Austrians. On the reestablishment of the
+autocracy he was dismissed from the service, and retired to Calabria
+where he had inherited the princely title and estates of Satriano. In
+1831 he was recalled by Ferdinand II. and entrusted with various
+military reforms. On the outbreak of the troubles of 1848 Filangieri
+advised the king to grant the constitution, which he did in February
+1848, but when the Sicilians formally seceded from the Neapolitan
+kingdom Filangieri was given the command of an armed force with which to
+reduce the island to obedience. On the 3rd of September he landed near
+Messina, and after very severe fighting captured the city. He then
+advanced southwards, besieged and took Catania, where his troops
+committed many atrocities, and by May 1849 he had conquered the whole of
+Sicily, though not without much bloodshed. He remained in Sicily as
+governor until 1855, when he retired into private life, as he could not
+carry out the reforms he desired owing to the hostility of Giovanni
+Cassisi, the minister for Sicily. On the death of Ferdinand II. (22nd of
+May 1859) the new king Francis II. appointed Filangieri premier and
+minister of war. He promoted good relations with France, then fighting
+with Piedmont against the Austrians in Lombardy, and strongly urged on
+the king the necessity of an alliance with Piedmont and a constitution
+as the only means whereby the dynasty might be saved. These proposals
+being rejected, Filangieri resigned office. In May 1860, Francis at last
+promulgated the constitution, but it was too late, for Garibaldi was in
+Sicily and Naples was seething with rebellion. On the advice of Liborio
+Romano, the new prefect of police, Filangieri was ordered to leave
+Naples. He went to Marseilles with his wife and subsequently to
+Florence, where at the instance of General La Marmora he undertook to
+write an account of the Italian army. Although he adhered to the new
+government he refused to accept any dignity at its hands, and died at
+his villa of San Giorgio a Cremano near Naples on the 9th of October
+1867.
+
+Filangieri was a very distinguished soldier, and a man of great ability;
+although he changed sides several times he became really attached to the
+Bourbon dynasty, which he hoped to save by freeing it from its
+reactionary tendencies and infusing a new spirit into it. His conduct in
+Sicily was severe and harsh, but he was not without feelings of
+humanity, and he was an honest man and a good administrator.
+
+  His biography has been written by his daughter Teresa Filangieri
+  Fieschi-Ravaschieri, _Il Generale Carlo Filangieri_ (Milan, 1902), an
+  interesting, although somewhat too laudatory volume based on the
+  general's own unpublished memoirs; for the Sicilian expedition see V.
+  Finocchiaro, _La Rivoluzione siciliana del 1848-49_ (Catania, 1906,
+  with bibliography), in which Filangieri is bitterly attacked; see also
+  under NAPLES; FERDINAND IV.; FRANCIS I.; FERDINAND II.; FRANCIS II.
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FILANGIERI, GAETANO (1752-1788), Italian publicist, was born at Naples
+on the 18th of August 1752. His father, Caesar, prince of Arianiello,
+intended him for a military career, which he commenced at the early age
+of seven, but soon abandoned for the study of the law. At the bar his
+knowledge and eloquence early secured his success, while his defence of
+a royal decree reforming abuses in the administration of justice gained
+him the favour of the king, Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain,
+and led to several honourable appointments at court. The first two books
+of his great work, _La Scienza della legislazione_, appeared in 1780.
+The first book contained an exposition of the rules on which legislation
+in general ought to proceed, while the second was devoted to economic
+questions. These two books showed him an ardent reformer, and vehement
+in denouncing the abuses of his time. He insisted on unlimited free
+trade, and the abolition of the medieval institutions which impeded
+production and national well-being. Its success was great and immediate
+not only in Italy, but throughout Europe at large. In 1783 he married,
+resigned his appointments at court, and retiring to Cava, devoted
+himself steadily to the completion of his work. In the same year
+appeared the third book, relating entirely to the principles of criminal
+jurisprudence. The suggestion which he made in it as to the need for
+reform in the Roman Catholic church brought upon him the censure of the
+ecclesiastical authorities, and it was condemned by the congregation of
+the Index in 1784. In 1785 he published three additional volumes,
+making the fourth book of the projected work, and dealing with education
+and morals. In 1787 he was appointed a member of the supreme treasury
+council by Ferdinand IV., but his health, impaired by close study and
+over-work in his new office, compelled his withdrawal to the country at
+Vico Equense. He died somewhat suddenly on the 21st of July 1788, having
+just completed the first part of the fifth book of his _Scienza_. He
+left an outline of the remainder of the work, which was to have been
+completed in six books.
+
+  _La Scienza della legislazione_ has gone through many editions, and
+  has been translated into most of the languages of Europe. The best
+  Italian edition is in 5 vols. 8vo. (1807). The Milan edition (1822)
+  contains the _Opusculi scelti_ and a life by Donato Tommasi. A French
+  translation appeared in Paris in 7 vols. 8vo. (1786-1798); it was
+  republished in 1822-1824, with the addition of the _Opuscles_ and
+  notes by Benjamin Constant. _The Science of Legislation_ was
+  translated into English by Sir R. Clayton (London, 1806).
+
+
+
+
+FILARIASIS, the name of a disease due to the nematode _Filaria sanguinis
+hominis_. A milky appearance of the urine, due to the presence of a
+substance like chyle, which forms a clot, had been observed from time to
+time, especially in tropical and subtropical countries; and it was
+proved by Dr Wucherer of Bahia, and by Dr Timothy Lewis, that this
+peculiar condition is uniformly associated with the presence in the
+blood of minute eel-like worms, visible only under the microscope, being
+the embryo forms of a _Filaria_ (see NEMATODA). Sometimes the discharge
+of lymph takes place at one or more points of the surface of the body,
+and there is in other cases a condition of naevoid elephantiasis of the
+scrotum, or lymph-scrotum. More or less of blood may occur along with
+the chylous fluid in the urine. Both the chyluria and the presence of
+filariae in the blood are curiously intermittent; it may happen that not
+a single filaria is to be seen during the daytime, while they swarm in
+the blood at night, and it has been ingeniously shown by Dr S. Mackenzie
+that they may be made to disappear if the patient sits up all night,
+reappearing while he sleeps through the day.
+
+Sir P. Manson proved that mosquitoes imbibe the embryo filariae from the
+blood of man; and that many of these reach full development within the
+mosquito, acquiring their freedom when the latter resorts to water,
+where it dies after depositing its eggs. Mosquitoes would thus be the
+intermediate host of the filariae, and their introduction into the human
+body would be through the medium of water (see PARASITIC DISEASES).
+
+
+
+
+FILDES, SIR LUKE (1844-   ), English painter, was born at Liverpool, and
+trained in the South Kensington and Royal Academy schools. At first a
+highly successful illustrator, he took rank later among the ablest
+English painters, with "The Casual Ward" (1874), "The Widower" (1876),
+"The Village Wedding" (1883), "An Al-fresco Toilette" (1889); and "The
+Doctor" (1891), now in the National Gallery of British Art. He also
+painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many notable
+portraits, among them the coronation portraits of King Edward VII. and
+Queen Alexandra. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in
+1879, and academician in 1887; and was knighted in 1906.
+
+  See David Croal Thomson, _The Life and Work of Luke Fildes, R.A._
+  (1895).
+
+
+
+
+FILE. 1. A bar of steel having sharp teeth on its surface, and used for
+abrading or smoothing hard surfaces. (The O. Eng. word is _féol_, and
+cognate forms appear in Dutch _vijl_, Ger. _Feile_, &c.; the ultimate
+source is usually taken to be an Indo-European root meaning to mark or
+scratch, and seen in the Lat. _pingere_, to paint.) Some uncivilized
+tribes polish their weapons with such things as rough stones, pieces of
+shark skin or fishes' teeth. The operation of filing is recorded in 1
+Sam. xiii. 21; and, among other facts, the similarity of the name for
+the filing instrument among various European peoples points to an early
+practice of the art. A file differs from a _rasp_ (which is chiefly used
+for working wood, horn and the like) in having its teeth cut with a
+chisel whose straight edge extends across its surface, while the teeth
+of the rasp are formed by solitary indentations of a pointed chisel.
+According to the form of their teeth, files may be _single-cut_ or
+_double-cut_; the former have only one set of parallel ridges (either
+at right angles or at some other angle with the length); the latter (and
+more common) have a second set cut at an angle with the first. The
+double-cut file presents sharp angles to the filed surface, and is
+better suited for hard metals. Files are classed according to the
+fineness of their teeth (see TOOL), and their shapes present almost
+endless varieties. Common forms are--the _flat_ file, of parallelogram
+section, with uniform breadth and thickness, or tapering, or "bellied";
+the _four-square_ file, of square section, sometimes with one side
+"safe," or left smooth; and the so-called _three-square_ file, having
+its cross section an equilateral triangle, the _half-round_ file, a
+segment of a circle, the _round_ or _rat-tail_ file, a circle, which are
+generally tapered. The _float_ file is like the _flat_, but single-cut.
+There are many others. Files vary in length from three-quarters of an
+inch (watchmakers') to 2 or 3 ft. and upwards (engineers'). The length
+is reckoned exclusively of the spike or tang which enters the handle.
+Most files are tapered; the _blunt_ are nearly parallel, with larger
+section near the middle; a few are parallel. The _rifflers_ of sculptors
+and a few other files are curvilinear in their central line.
+
+In manufacturing files, steel blanks are forged from bars which have
+been sheared or rolled as nearly as possible to the sections required,
+and after being carefully annealed are straightened, if necessary, and
+then rendered clean and accurate by grinding or filing. The process of
+cutting them used to be largely performed by hand, but machines are now
+widely employed. The hand-cutter, holding in his left hand a short
+chisel (the edge of which is wider than the width of the file), places
+it on the blank with an inclination from the perpendicular of 12° or
+14°, and beginning near the farther end (the blank is placed with the
+tang or handle end towards him) strikes it sharply with a hammer. An
+indentation is thus made, and the steel, slightly thrown up on the side
+next the tang, forms a ridge. The chisel is then transferred to the
+uncut surface and slid away from the operator till it encounters the
+ridge just made; the position of the next cut being thus determined, the
+chisel is again struck, and so on. The workman seeks to strike the blows
+as uniformly as possible, and he will make 60 or 80 cuts a minute. If
+the file is to be single-cut, it is now ready to be hardened, but if it
+is to be double-cut he proceeds to make the second series or course of
+cuts, which are generally somewhat finer than the first. Thus the
+surface is covered with teeth inclined towards the point of the file. If
+the file is flat and is to be cut on the other side, it is turned over,
+and a thin plate of pewter placed below it to protect the teeth.
+Triangular and other files are supported in grooves in lead. In cutting
+round and half-round files, a straight chisel is applied as tangent to
+the curve. The round face of a half-round file requires eight, ten or
+more courses to complete it. Numerous attempts were made, even so far
+back as the 18th century, to invent machinery for cutting files, but
+little success was attained till the latter part of the 19th century. In
+most of the machines the idea was to arrange a metal arm and hand to
+hold the chisel with a hammer to strike the blow, and so to imitate the
+manual process as closely as possible. The general principle on which
+the successful forms are constructed is that the blanks, laid on a
+moving table, are slowly traversed forward under a rapidly reciprocating
+chisel or knife.
+
+The filing of a flat surface perfectly true is the test of a good filer;
+and this is no easy matter to the beginner. The piece to be operated
+upon is generally fixed about the level of the elbow, the operator
+standing, and, except in the case of small files, grasping the file with
+both hands, the handle with the right, the farther end with the left.
+The great point is to be able to move the file forward with pressure in
+horizontal straight lines; from the tendency of the hands to move in
+arcs of circles, the heel and point of the file are apt to be
+alternately raised. This is partially compensated by the bellied form
+given to many files (which also counteracts the frequent warping effect
+of the hardening process, by which one side of a flat file may be
+rendered concave and useless). In bringing back the file for the next
+thrust it is nearly lifted off the work. Further, much delicacy and
+skill are required in adapting the pressure and velocity, ascertaining
+if foreign matters or filings remain interposed between the file and
+the work, &c. Files can be cleaned with a piece of the so-called
+_cotton-card_ (used in combing cotton wool) nailed to a piece of wood.
+In _draw-filing_, which is sometimes resorted to to give a neat finish,
+the file is drawn sideways to and fro over the work. New files are
+generally used for a time on brass or cast-iron, and when partially worn
+they are still available for filing wrought iron and steel.
+
+2. A string or thread (through the Fr. _fil_ and _file_, from Lat.
+_filum_, a thread); hence used of a device, originally a cord, wire or
+spike on which letters, receipts, papers, &c., may be strung for
+convenient reference. The term has been extended to embrace various
+methods for the preservation of papers in a particular order, such as
+expanding books, cabinets, and ingenious improvements on the simple wire
+file which enable any single document to be readily found and withdrawn
+without removing the whole series. From the devices used for filing the
+word is transferred to the documents filed, and thus is used of a
+catalogue, list, or collection of papers, &c. File is also employed to
+denote a row of persons or objects arranged one behind the other. In
+military usage a "file" is the opposite of a "rank," that is, it is
+composed of a (variable) number of men aligned from front to rear one
+behind the other, while a rank contains a number of men aligned from
+right to left abreast. Thus a British infantry company, in line two
+deep, one hundred strong, has two ranks of fifty men each, and fifty
+"files" of two men each. Up to about 1600 infantry companies or
+battalions were often sixteen deep, one front rank man and the fifteen
+"coverers" forming a file. The number of ranks and, therefore, of men in
+the file diminished first to ten (1600), then to six (1630), then to
+three (1700), and finally to two (about 1808 in the British army, 1888
+in the German). Denser formations when employed have been formed, not by
+altering the order of men within the unit, but by placing several units,
+one closely behind the other ("doubling" and "trebling" the line of
+battle, as it used to be called). In the 17th century a file formed a
+small command under the "file leader," the whole of the front rank
+consisting therefore of old soldiers or non-commissioned officers. This
+use of the word to express a unit of command gave rise to the
+old-fashioned term "file firing," to imply a species of fire (equivalent
+to the modern "independent") in which each man in the file fired in
+succession after the file leader, and to-day a corporal or sergeant is
+still ordered to take one or more files under his charge for independent
+work. In the above it is to be understood that the men are facing to the
+front or rear. If they are turned to the right or left so that the
+company now stands two men broad and fifty deep, it is spoken of as
+being "in file." From this come such phrases as "single file" or "Indian
+file" (one man leading and the rest following singly behind him).[1] The
+use of verbs "to file" and "to defile," implying the passage from
+fighting to marching formation, is to be derived from this rather than
+from the resemblance of a marching column to a long flexible thread, for
+in the days when the word was first used the infantry company whether in
+battle or on the march was a solid rectangle of men, a file often
+containing even more men than a rank.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This may also be understood as meaning simply "a single file,"
+    but the explanation given above is more probable, as it is
+    essentially a marching and not a fighting formation that is expressed
+    by the phrase.
+
+
+
+
+FILE-FISH, or TRIGGER-FISH, the names given to fishes of the genus
+_Balistes_ (and _Monacanthus_) inhabiting all tropical and subtropical
+seas. Their body is compressed and not covered with ordinary scales, but
+with small juxtaposed scutes. Their other principal characteristics
+consist in the structure of their first dorsal fin (which consists of
+three spines) and in their peculiar dentition. The first of the three
+dorsal spines is very strong, roughened in front like a file, and
+hollowed out behind to receive the second much smaller spine, which,
+besides, has a projection in front, at its base, fitting into a notch of
+the first. Thus these two spines can only be raised or depressed
+simultaneously, in such a manner that the first cannot be forced down
+unless the second has been previously depressed. The latter has been
+compared to a trigger, hence the name of Trigger-fish. Also the generic
+name _Balistes_ and the Italian name of "Pesce balistra" refer to this
+structure. Both jaws are armed with eight strong incisor-like and
+sometimes pointed teeth, by which these fishes are enabled, not only to
+break off pieces of madrepores and other corals on which they feed, but
+also to chisel a hole into the hard shells of Mollusca, in order to
+extract the soft parts. In this way they destroy an immense number of
+molluscs, and become most injurious to the pearl-fisheries. The gradual
+failure of those fisheries in Ceylon has been ascribed to this cause,
+although evidently other agencies must have been at work at the same
+time. The _Monacanthi_ are distinguished from the _Balistes_ in having
+only one dorsal spine and a velvety covering of the skin. Some 30
+different species are known of _Balistes_ and about 50 of _Monacanthus_.
+Two species (_B. maculatus_ and _capriscus_), common in the Atlantic,
+sometimes wander to the British coasts.
+
+[Illustration: _Balistes vidua_]
+
+
+
+
+FILELFO, FRANCESCO (1398-1481), Italian humanist, was born in 1398 at
+Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. When he appeared upon the scene of
+human life, Petrarch and the students of Florence had already brought
+the first act in the recovery of classic culture to conclusion. They had
+created an eager appetite for the antique, had disinterred many
+important Roman authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent
+from the barbarism of the middle ages. Filelfo was destined to carry on
+their work in the field of Latin literature, and to be an important
+agent in the still unaccomplished recovery of Greek culture. His
+earliest studies in grammar, rhetoric and the Latin language were
+conducted at Padua, where he acquired so great a reputation for learning
+that in 1417 he was invited to teach eloquence and moral philosophy at
+Venice. According to the custom of that age in Italy, it now became his
+duty to explain the language, and to illustrate the beauties of the
+principal Latin authors, Cicero and Virgil being considered the chief
+masters of moral science and of elegant diction. Filelfo made his mark
+at once in Venice. He was admitted to the society of the first scholars
+and the most eminent nobles of that city; and in 1419 he received an
+appointment from the state, which enabled him to reside as secretary to
+the consul-general (_baylo_) of the Venetians in Constantinople. This
+appointment was not only honourable to Filelfo as a man of trust and
+general ability, but it also gave him the opportunity of acquiring the
+most coveted of all possessions at that moment for a scholar--a
+knowledge of the Greek language. Immediately after his arrival in
+Constantinople, Filelfo placed himself under the tuition of John
+Chrysoloras, whose name was already well known in Italy as relative of
+Manuel, the first Greek to profess the literature of his ancestors in
+Florence. At the recommendation of Chrysoloras he was employed in
+several diplomatic missions by the emperor John Palaeologus. Before very
+long the friendship between Filelfo and his tutor was cemented by the
+marriage of the former to Theodora, the daughter of John Chrysoloras. He
+had now acquired a thorough knowledge of the Greek language, and had
+formed a large collection of Greek manuscripts. There was no reason why
+he should not return to his native country. Accordingly, in 1427 he
+accepted an invitation from the republic of Venice, and set sail for
+Italy, intending to resume his professorial career. From this time
+forward until the date of his death, Filelfo's history consists of a
+record of the various towns in which he lectured, the masters whom he
+served, the books he wrote, the authors he illustrated, the friendships
+he contracted, and the wars he waged with rival scholars. He was a man
+of vast physical energy, of inexhaustible mental activity, of quick
+passions and violent appetites; vain, restless, greedy of gold and
+pleasure and fame; unable to stay quiet in one place, and perpetually
+engaged in quarrels with his compeers.
+
+When Filelfo arrived at Venice with his family in 1427, he found that
+the city had almost been emptied by the plague, and that his scholars
+would be few. He therefore removed to Bologna; but here also he was met
+with drawbacks. The city was too much disturbed with political
+dissensions to attend to him; so Filelfo crossed the Apennines and
+settled in Florence. At Florence began one of the most brilliant and
+eventful periods of his life. During the week he lectured to large
+audiences of young and old on the principal Greek and Latin authors, and
+on Sundays he explained Dante to the people in the Duomo. In addition to
+these labours of the chair, he found time to translate portions of
+Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias from the Greek. Nor was he dead
+to the claims of society. At first he seems to have lived with the
+Florentine scholars on tolerably good terms; but his temper was so
+arrogant that Cosimo de' Medici's friends were not long able to put up
+with him. Filelfo hereupon broke out into open and violent animosity;
+and when Cosimo was exiled by the Albizzi party in 1433, he urged the
+signoria of Florence to pronounce upon him the sentence of death. On the
+return of Cosimo to Florence, Filelfo's position in that city was no
+longer tenable. His life, he asserted, had been already once attempted
+by a cut-throat in the pay of the Medici; and now he readily accepted an
+invitation from the state of Siena. In Siena, however, he was not
+destined to remain more than four years. His fame as a professor had
+grown great in Italy, and he daily received tempting offers from princes
+and republics. The most alluring of these, made him by the duke of
+Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, he decided on accepting; and in 1440 he
+was received with honour by his new master in the capital of Lombardy.
+
+Filelfo's life at Milan curiously illustrates the multifarious
+importance of the scholars of that age in Italy. It was his duty to
+celebrate his princely patrons in panegyrics and epics, to abuse their
+enemies in libels and invectives, to salute them with encomiastic odes
+on their birthdays, and to compose poems on their favourite themes. For
+their courtiers he wrote epithalamial and funeral orations; ambassadors
+and visitors from foreign states he greeted with the rhetorical
+lucubrations then so much in vogue. The students of the university he
+taught in daily lectures, passing in review the weightiest and lightest
+authors of antiquity, and pouring forth a flood of miscellaneous
+erudition. Not satisfied with these outlets for his mental energy,
+Filelfo went on translating from the Greek, and prosecuted a paper
+warfare with his enemies in Florence. He wrote, moreover, political
+pamphlets on the great events of Italian history; and when
+Constantinople was taken by the Turks, he procured the liberation of his
+wife's mother by a message addressed in his own name to the sultan. In
+addition to a fixed stipend of some 700 golden florins yearly, he was
+continually in receipt of special payments for the orations and poems he
+produced; so that, had he been a man of frugal habits or of moderate
+economy, he might have amassed a considerable fortune. As it was, he
+spent his money as fast as he received it, living in a style of
+splendour ill befitting a simple scholar, and indulging his taste for
+pleasure in more than questionable amusements. In consequence of this
+prodigality, he was always poor. His letters and his poems abound in
+impudent demands for money from patrons, some of them couched in
+language of the lowest adulation, and others savouring of literary
+brigandage.
+
+During the second year of his Milanese residence Filelfo lost his first
+wife, Theodora. He soon married again; and this time he chose for his
+bride a young lady of good Lombard family, called Orsina Osnaga. When
+she died he took in wedlock for the third time a woman of Lombard
+birth, Laura Magiolini. To all his three wives, in spite of numerous
+infidelities, he seems to have been warmly attached; and this is perhaps
+the best trait in a character otherwise more remarkable for arrogance
+and heat than for any amiable qualities.
+
+On the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Filelfo, after a short
+hesitation, transferred his allegiance to Francesco Sforza, the new duke
+of Milan; and in order to curry favour with this parvenu, he began his
+ponderous epic, the _Sforziad_, of which 12,800 lines were written, but
+which was never published. When Francesco Sforza died, Filelfo turned
+his thoughts towards Rome. He was now an old man of seventy-seven years,
+honoured with the friendship of princes, recognized as the most
+distinguished of Italian humanists, courted by pontiffs, and decorated
+with the laurel wreath and the order of knighthood by kings. Crossing
+the Apennines and passing through Florence, he reached Rome in the
+second week of 1475. The terrible Sixtus IV. now ruled in the Vatican;
+and from this pope Filelfo had received an invitation to occupy the
+chair of rhetoric with good emoluments. At first he was vastly pleased
+with the city and court of Rome; but his satisfaction ere long turned to
+discontent, and he gave vent to his ill-humour in a venomous satire on
+the pope's treasurer, Milliardo Cicala. Sixtus himself soon fell under
+the ban of his displeasure; and when a year had passed he left Rome
+never to return. Filelfo reached Milan to find that his wife had died of
+the plague in his absence, and was already buried. His own death
+followed speedily. For some time past he had been desirous of displaying
+his abilities and adding to his fame in Florence. Years had healed the
+breach between him and the Medicean family; and on the occasion of the
+Pazzi conspiracy against the life of Lorenzo de' Medici, he had sent
+violent letters of abuse to his papal patron Sixtus, denouncing his
+participation in a plot so dangerous to the security of Italy. Lorenzo
+now invited him to profess Greek at Florence, and thither Filelfo
+journeyed in 1481. But two weeks after his arrival he succumbed to
+dysentery, and was buried at the age of eighty-three in the church of
+the Annunziata.
+
+Filelfo deserves commemoration among the greatest humanists of the
+Italian Renaissance, not for the beauty of his style, not for the
+elevation of his genius, not for the accuracy of his learning, but for
+his energy, and for his complete adaptation to the times in which he
+lived. His erudition was large but ill-digested; his knowledge of the
+ancient authors, if extensive, was superficial; his style was vulgar; he
+had no brilliancy of imagination, no pungency of epigram, no grandeur of
+rhetoric. Therefore he has left nothing to posterity which the world
+would not very willingly let die. But in his own days he did excellent
+service to learning by his untiring activity, and by the facility with
+which he used his stores of knowledge. It was an age of accumulation and
+preparation, when the world was still amassing and cataloguing the
+fragments rescued from the wrecks of Greece and Rome. Men had to receive
+the very rudiments of culture before they could appreciate its niceties.
+And in this work of collection and instruction Filelfo excelled, passing
+rapidly from place to place, stirring up the zeal for learning by the
+passion of his own enthusiastic temperament, and acting as a pioneer for
+men like Poliziano and Erasmus.
+
+All that is worth knowing about Filelfo is contained in Carlo de'
+Rosmini's admirable _Vita di Filelfo_ (Milan, 1808); see also W.
+Roscoe's _Life of Lorenzo de' Medici_, Vespasiano's _Vite di uomini
+illustri_, and J.A. Symonds's _Renaissance in Italy_ (1877). (J. A. S.)
+
+  A complete edition of Filelfo's Greek letters (based on the Codex
+  Trevulzianus) was published for the first time, with French
+  translation, notes and commentaries, by E. Legrand in 1892 at Paris
+  (C. xii. of _Publications de l'école des lang. orient._). For further
+  references, especially to monographs, &c., on Filelfo's life and work,
+  see Ulysse Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources hist.,
+  bio-bibliographie_ (Paris, 1905), s.v. _Philelphe, François_.
+
+
+
+
+FILEY, a seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary division of the
+East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 9-1/2 m. S.E. of Scarborough by a
+branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3003.
+It stands upon the slope and summit of the cliffs above Filey Bay, which
+is fringed by a fine sandy beach. The northern horn of the bay is
+formed by Filey Brigg, a narrow and abrupt promontory, continued seaward
+by dangerous reefs. The coast-line sweeps hence south-eastward to the
+finer promontory of Flamborough Head, beyond which is the watering-place
+of Bridlington. The church of St Oswald at Filey is a fine cruciform
+building with central tower, Transitional Norman and Early English in
+date. There are pleasant promenades and good golf links, also a small
+spa which has fallen into disuse. Filey is in favour with visitors who
+desire a quiet resort without the accompaniment of entertainment common
+to the larger watering-places. Roman remains have been discovered on the
+cliff north of the town; the site was probably important, but nothing is
+certainly known about it.
+
+
+
+
+FILIBUSTER, a name originally given to the buccaneers (q.v.). The term
+is derived most probably from the Dutch _vry buiter_, Ger. _Freibeuter_,
+Eng. _freebooter_, the word changing first into _fribustier_, and then
+into Fr. _flibustier_, Span. _filibustero_. _Flibustier_ has passed into
+the French language, and _filibustero_ into the Spanish language, as a
+general name for a pirate. The term "filibuster" was revived in America
+to designate those adventurers who, after the termination of the war
+between Mexico and the United States, organized expeditions within the
+United States to take part in West Indian and Central American
+revolutions. From this has sprung the modern use of the word to imply
+one who engages in private, unauthorized and irregular warfare against
+any state. In the United States it is colloquially applied to
+legislators who practise obstruction.
+
+
+
+
+FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA (1642-1707), Italian poet, sprung from an ancient
+and noble family of Florence, was born in that city on the 30th of
+December 1642. From an incidental notice in one of his letters, stating
+the amount of house rent paid during his childhood, his parents must
+have been in easy circumstances, and the supposition is confirmed by the
+fact that he enjoyed all the advantages of a liberal education, first
+under the Jesuits of Florence, and then in the university of Pisa.
+
+At Pisa his mind became stored, not only with the results of patient
+study in various branches of letters, but with the great historical
+associations linked with the former glory of the Pisan republic, and
+with one remarkable institution of which Pisa was the seat. To the
+tourist who now visits Pisa the banners and emblems of the order of St
+Stephen are mere matter of curiosity, but they had a serious
+significance two hundred years ago to the young Tuscan, who knew that
+these naval crusaders formed the main defence of his country and
+commerce against the Turkish, Algerine and Tunisian corsairs. After a
+five years' residence in Pisa he returned to Florence, where he married
+Anna, daughter of the senator and marquis Scipione Capponi, and withdrew
+to a small villa at Figline, not far from the city. Abjuring the thought
+of writing amatory poetry in consequence of the premature death of a
+young lady to whom he had been attached, he occupied himself chiefly
+with literary pursuits, above all the composition of Italian and Latin
+poetry. His own literary eminence, the opportunities enjoyed by him as a
+member of the celebrated Academy Della Crusca for making known his
+critical taste and classical knowledge, and the social relations within
+the reach of a noble Florentine so closely allied with the great house
+of Capponi, sufficiently explain the intimate terms on which he stood
+with such eminent men of letters as Magalotti, Menzini, Gori and Redi.
+The last-named, the author of _Bacchus in Tuscany_, was not only one of
+the most brilliant poets of his time, and a safe literary adviser; he
+was the court physician, and his court influence was employed with zeal
+and effect in his friend's favour. Filicaja's rural seclusion was owing
+even more to his straitened means than to his rural tastes. If he ceased
+at length to pine in obscurity, the change was owing not merely to the
+fact that his poetical genius, fired by the deliverance of Vienna from
+the Turks in 1683, poured forth the right strains at the right time, but
+also to the influence of Redi, who not only laid Filicaja's verses
+before his own sovereign, but had them transmitted with the least
+possible delay to the foreign princes whose noble deeds they sung. The
+first recompense came, however, not from those princes, but from
+Christina, the ex-queen of Sweden, who, from her circle of savants and
+courtiers at Rome, spontaneously and generously announced to Filicaja
+her wish to bear the expense of educating his two sons, enhancing her
+kindness by the delicate request that it should remain a secret.
+
+The tide of Filicaja's fortunes now turned. The grand-duke of Tuscany,
+Cosmo III., conferred on him an important office, the commissionership
+of official balloting. He was named governor of Volterra in 1696, where
+he strenuously exerted himself to raise the tone of public morality.
+Both there and at Pisa, where he was subsequently governor in 1700, his
+popularity was so great that on his removal the inhabitants of both
+cities petitioned for his recall. He passed the close of his life at
+Florence; the grand-duke raised him to the rank of senator, and he died
+in that city on the 24th of September 1707. He was buried in the family
+vault in the church of St Peter, and a monument was erected to his
+memory by his sole surviving son Scipione Filicaja. In the six
+celebrated odes inspired by the great victory of Sobieski, Filicaja took
+a lyrical flight which has placed him at moments on a level with the
+greatest Italian poets. They are, however, unequal, like all his poetry,
+reflecting in some passages the native vigour of his genius and purest
+inspirations of his tastes, whilst in others they are deformed by the
+affectations of the _Seicentisti_. When thoroughly natural and
+spontaneous--as in the two sonnets "Italia, Italia, o tu cui feo la
+sorte" and "Dov' è, Italia, il tuo braccio? e a che ti serve;" in the
+verses "Alla beata Vergine," "Al divino amore;" in the sonnet "Sulla
+fede nelle disgrazie"--the truth and beauty of thought and language
+recall the verse of Petrarch.
+
+  Besides the poems published in the complete Venice edition of 1762,
+  several other pieces appeared for the first time in the small Florence
+  edition brought out by Barbera in 1864.
+
+
+
+
+FILIGREE (formerly written _filigrain_ or _filigrane_; the Ital.
+_filigrana_, Fr. _filigrane_, Span, _filigrana_, Ger. _Drahtgeflecht_),
+jewel work of a delicate kind made with twisted threads usually of gold
+and silver. The word, which is usually derived from the Lat. _filum_,
+thread, and _granum_, grain, is not found in Ducange, and is indeed of
+modern origin. According to Prof. Skeat it is derived from the Span.
+_filigrana_, from "_filar_, to spin, and _grano_, the grain or principal
+fibre of the material." Though filigree has become a special branch of
+jewel work in modern times it was anciently part of the ordinary work of
+the jeweller. Signor A. Castellani states, in his _Memoir on the
+Jewellery of the Ancients_ (1861), that all the jewelry of the Etruscans
+and Greeks (other than that intended for the grave, and therefore of an
+unsubstantial character) was made by soldering together and so building
+up the gold rather than by chiselling or engraving the material.
+
+The art may be said to consist in curling, twisting and plaiting fine
+pliable threads of metal, and uniting them at their points of contact
+with each other, and with the ground, by means of gold or silver solder
+and borax, by the help of the blowpipe. Small grains or beads of the
+same metals are often set in the eyes of volutes, on the junctions, or
+at intervals at which they will set off the wire-work effectively. The
+more delicate work is generally protected by framework of stouter wire.
+Brooches, crosses, earrings and other personal ornaments of modern
+filigree are generally surrounded and subdivided by bands of square or
+flat metal, giving consistency to the filling up, which would not
+otherwise keep its proper shape. Some writers of repute have laid equal
+stress on the _filum_ and the _granum_, and have extended the use of the
+term filigree to include the granulated work of the ancients, even where
+the twisted wire-work is entirely wanting. Such a wide application of
+the term is not approved by current usage, according to which the
+presence of the twisted threads is the predominant fact.
+
+The Egyptian jewellers employed wire, both to lay down on a background
+and to plait or otherwise arrange _à jour_. But, with the exception of
+chains, it cannot be said that filigree work was much practised by them.
+Their strength lay rather in their cloisonné work and their moulded
+ornaments. Many examples, however, remain of round plaited gold chains
+of fine wire, such as are still made by the filigree workers of India,
+and known as Trichinopoly chains. From some of these are hung smaller
+chains of finer wire with minute fishes and other pendants fastened to
+them. In ornaments derived from Phoenician sites, such as Cyprus and
+Sardinia, patterns of gold wire are laid down with great delicacy on a
+gold ground, but the art was advanced to its highest perfection in the
+Greek and Etruscan filigree of the 6th to the 3rd centuries B.C. A
+number of earrings and other personal ornaments found in central Italy
+are preserved in the Louvre and in the British Museum. Almost all of
+them are made of filigree work. Some earrings are in the form of flowers
+of geometric design, bordered by one or more rims each made up of minute
+volutes of gold wire, and this kind of ornament is varied by slight
+differences in the way of disposing the number or arrangement of the
+volutes. But the feathers and petals of modern Italian filigree are not
+seen in these ancient designs. Instances occur, but only rarely, in
+which filigree devices in wire are self-supporting and not applied to
+metal plates. The museum of the Hermitage at St Petersburg contains an
+amazingly rich collection of jewelry from the tombs of the Crimea. Many
+bracelets and necklaces in that collection are made of twisted wire,
+some in as many as seven rows of plaiting, with clasps in the shape of
+heads of animals of beaten work. Others are strings of large beads of
+gold, decorated with volutes, knots and other patterns of wire soldered
+over the surfaces. (See the _Antiquités du Bosphore Cimmérien_, by
+Gille, 1854; reissued by S. Reinach, 1892, in which will be found
+careful engravings of these objects.) In the British Museum a sceptre,
+probably that of a Greek priestess, is covered with plaited and netted
+gold wire, finished with a sort of Corinthian capital and a boss of
+green glass.
+
+It is probable that in India and various parts of central Asia filigree
+has been worked from the most remote period without any change in the
+designs. Whether the Asiatic jewellers were influenced by the Greeks
+settled on that continent, or merely trained under traditions held in
+common with them, it is certain that the Indian filigree workers retain
+the same patterns as those of the ancient Greeks, and work them in the
+same way, down to the present day. Wandering workmen are given so much
+gold, coined or rough, which is weighed, heated in a pan of charcoal,
+beaten into wire, and then worked in the courtyard or verandah of the
+employer's house according to the designs of the artist, who weighs the
+complete work on restoring it and is paid at a specified rate for his
+labour. Very fine grains or beads and spines of gold, scarcely thicker
+than coarse hair, projecting from plates of gold are methods of
+ornamentation still used.
+
+Passing to later times we may notice in many collections of medieval
+jewel work (such as that in the South Kensington Museum) reliquaries,
+covers for the gospels, &c., made either in Constantinople from the 6th
+to the 12th centuries, or in monasteries in Europe, in which Byzantine
+goldsmiths' work was studied and imitated. These objects, besides being
+enriched with precious stones, polished, but not cut into facets, and
+with enamel, are often decorated with filigree. Large surfaces of gold
+are sometimes covered with scrolls of filigree soldered on; and corner
+pieces of the borders of book covers, or the panels of reliquaries, are
+not unfrequently made up of complicated pieces of plaited work
+alternating with spaces encrusted with enamel. Byzantine filigree work
+occasionally has small stones set amongst the curves or knots. Examples
+of such decoration can be seen in the South Kensington and British
+Museums.
+
+In the north of Europe the Saxons, Britons and Celts were from an early
+period skilful in several kinds of goldsmiths' work. Admirable examples
+of filigree patterns laid down in wire on gold, from Anglo-Saxon tombs,
+may be seen in the British Museum--notably a brooch from Dover, and a
+sword-hilt from Cumberland.
+
+The Irish filigree work is more thoughtful in design and more varied in
+pattern than that of any period or country that could be named. Its
+highest perfection must be placed in the 10th and 11th centuries. The
+Royal Irish Academy in Dublin contains a number of reliquaries and
+personal jewels, of which filigree is the general and most remarkable
+ornament. The "Tara" brooch has been copied and imitated, and the shape
+and decoration of it are well known. Instead of fine curls or volutes
+of gold thread, the Irish filigree is varied by numerous designs in
+which one thread can be traced through curious knots and complications,
+which, disposed over large surfaces, balance one another, but always
+with special varieties and arrangements difficult to trace with the eye.
+The long thread appears and disappears without breach of continuity, the
+two ends generally worked into the head and the tail of a serpent or a
+monster. The reliquary containing the "Bell of St Patrick" is covered
+with knotted work in many varieties. A two-handled chalice, called the
+"Ardagh cup," found near Limerick in 1868, is ornamented with work of
+this kind of extraordinary fineness. Twelve plaques on a band round the
+body of the vase, plaques on each handle and round the foot of the vase
+have a series of different designs of characteristic patterns, in fine
+filigree wire work wrought on the front of the repoussé ground. (See a
+paper by the 3rd earl of Dunraven in _Transactions of Royal Irish
+Academy_, xxiv. pt. iii. 1873.)
+
+Much of the medieval jewel work all over Europe down to the 15th
+century, on reliquaries, crosses, croziers and other ecclesiastical
+goldsmiths' work, is set off with bosses and borders of filigree.
+Filigree work in silver was practised by the Moors of Spain during the
+middle ages with great skill, and was introduced by them and established
+all over the Peninsula, whence it was carried to the Spanish colonies in
+America. The Spanish filigree work of the 17th and 18th centuries is of
+extraordinary complexity (examples in the Victoria and Albert Museum),
+and silver filigree jewelry of delicate and artistic design is still
+made in considerable quantities throughout the country. The manufacture
+spread over the Balearic Islands, and among the populations that border
+the Mediterranean. It is still made all over Italy, and in Malta,
+Albania, the Ionian Islands and many other parts of Greece. That of the
+Greeks is sometimes on a large scale, with several thicknesses of wires
+alternating with larger and smaller bosses and beads, sometimes set with
+turquoises, &c., and mounted on convex plates, making rich ornamental
+headpieces, belts and breast ornaments. Filigree silver buttons of
+wire-work and small bosses are worn by the peasants in most of the
+countries that produce this kind of jewelry. Silver filigree brooches
+and buttons are also made in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Little chains
+and pendants are added to much of this northern work.
+
+Some very curious filigree work was brought from Abyssinia after the
+capture of Magdala--arm-guards, slippers, cups, &c., some of which are
+now in the South Kensington Museum. They are made of thin plates of
+silver, over which the wire-work is soldered. The filigree is subdivided
+by narrow borders of simple pattern, and the intervening spaces are made
+up of many patterns, some with grains set at intervals.
+
+A few words must be added as to the granulated work which, as stated
+above, some writers have classed under the term of filigree, although
+the twisted wires may be altogether wanting. Such decoration consists of
+minute globules of gold, soldered to form patterns on a metal surface.
+Its use is rare in Egypt. (See J. de Morgan, _Fouilles à Dahchour_,
+1894-1895, pl. xii.) It occurs in Cyprus at an early period, as for
+instance on a gold pendant in the British Museum from Enkomi in Cyprus
+(10th century B.C.). The pendant is in the form of a pomegranate, and
+has upon it a pattern of triangles, formed by more than 3000 minute
+globules separately soldered on. It also occurs on ornaments of the 7th
+century B.C. from Camirus in Rhodes. But these globules are large,
+compared with those which are found on Etruscan jewelry. Signor
+Castellani, who had made the antique jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks
+his special study, with the intention of reproducing the ancient models,
+found it for a long time impossible to revive this particular process of
+delicate soldering. He overcame the difficulty at last, by the discovery
+of a traditional school of craftsmen at St Angelo in Vado, by whose help
+his well-known reproductions were executed.
+
+  For examples of antique work the student should examine the gold
+  ornament rooms of the British Museum, the Louvre and the collection
+  in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The last contains a large and very
+  varied assortment of modern Italian, Spanish, Greek and other jewelry
+  made for the peasants of various countries. It also possesses
+  interesting examples of the modern work in granulated gold by
+  Castellani and Giuliano. The Celtic work is well represented in the
+  Royal Irish Academy in Dublin.
+
+
+
+
+FILLAN, SAINT, or FAELAN, the name of the two Scottish saints, of Irish
+origin, whose lives are of a purely legendary character. The St Fillan
+whose feast is kept on the 20th of June had churches dedicated to his
+honour at Ballyheyland, Queen's county, Ireland, and at Loch Earn,
+Perthshire. The other, who is commemorated on the 9th of January, was
+specially venerated at Cluain Mavscua, Co. Westmeath, Ireland, and so
+early as the 8th or 9th century at Strathfillan, Perthshire, Scotland,
+where there was an ancient monastery dedicated to him, which, like most
+of the religious houses of early times, was afterwards secularized. The
+lay-abbot, who was its superior in the reign of William the Lion, held
+high rank in the Scottish kingdom. This monastery was restored in the
+reign of Robert Bruce, and became a cell of the abbey of canons regular
+at Inchaffray. The new foundation received a grant from King Robert, in
+gratitude for the aid which he was supposed to have obtained from a
+relic of the saint on the eve of the great victory of Bannockburn.
+Another relic was the saint's staff or crozier, which became known as
+the coygerach or quigrich, and was long in the possession of a family of
+the name of Jore or Dewar, who were its hereditary guardians. They
+certainly had it in their custody in the year 1428, and their right was
+formally recognized by King James III. in 1487. The head of the crozier,
+which is of silver-gilt with a smaller crozier of bronze inclosed within
+it, is now deposited in the National Museum of the Society of
+Antiquaries of Scotland.
+
+  The legend of the second of these saints is given in the Bollandist
+  _Acta SS._ (1643), 9th of January, i. 594-595; A.P. Forbes, _Kalendars
+  of Scottish Saints_ (Edinburgh, 1872), pp. 341-346; D. O'Hanlon's
+  _Lives of Irish Saints_ (Dublin), n.d. pp. 134-144. See also
+  _Historical Notices of St Fillan's Crozier_, by Dr John Stuart
+  (Aberdeen, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+FILLET (through Fr. _filet_, from the med. Lat. _filettum_, diminutive
+of _filum_, a thread), a band or ribbon used for tying the hair, the
+Lat. _vitta_, which was used as a sacrificial emblem, and also worn by
+vestal virgins, brides and poets. The word is thus applied to anything
+in the shape of a band or strip, as, in coining, to the metal ribbon
+from which the blanks are punched. In architecture, a "fillet" is a
+narrow flat band, sometimes called a "listel," which is used to separate
+mouldings one from the other, or to terminate a suite of mouldings as at
+the top of a cornice. In the fluted column of the Ionic and Corinthian
+Orders the fillet is employed between the flutes. It is a very important
+feature in Gothic work, being frequently worked on large mouldings; when
+placed on the front and sides of the moulding of a rib it has been
+termed the "keel and wings" of the rib.
+
+In cooking, "fillet" is used of the "undercut" of a sirloin of beef, or
+of a thick slice of fish or meat; more particularly of a boned and
+rolled piece of veal or other meat, tied by a "fillet" or string.
+
+
+
+
+FILLMORE, MILLARD (1800-1874), thirteenth president of the United States
+of America, came of a family of English stock, which had early settled
+in New England. His father, Nathaniel, in 1795, made a clearing within
+the limits of what is now the town of Summerhill, Cayuga county, New
+York, and there Millard Fillmore was born, on the 7th of January 1800.
+Until he was fifteen he could have acquired only the simplest rudiments
+of education, and those chiefly from his parents. At that age he was
+apprenticed to a fuller and clothier, to card wool, and to dye and dress
+the cloth. Two years before the close of his term, with a promissory
+note for thirty dollars, he bought the remainder of his time from his
+master, and at the age of nineteen began to study law. In 1820 he made
+his way to Buffalo, then only a village, and supported himself by
+teaching school and aiding the postmaster while continuing his studies.
+
+In 1823 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice at Aurora, New
+York, to which place his father had removed. Hard study, temperance and
+integrity gave him a good reputation and moderate success, and in 1827
+he was made an attorney and, in 1829, counsellor of the supreme court
+of the state. Returning to Buffalo in 1830 he formed, in 1832, a
+partnership with Nathan K. Hall (1810-1874), later a member of Congress
+and postmaster-general in his cabinet. Solomon G. Haven (1810-1861),
+member of Congress from 1851 to 1857, joined them in 1836. The firm met
+with great success. From 1829 to 1832 Fillmore served in the state
+assembly, and, in the single term of 1833-1835, the national House of
+Representatives, coming in as anti-Jackson, or in opposition to the
+administration. From 1837 to 1843, when he declined further service, he
+again represented his district in the House, this time as a member of
+the Whig party. In Congress he opposed the annexation of Texas as slave
+territory, was an advocate of internal improvements and a protective
+tariff, supported J.Q. Adams in maintaining the right of offering
+anti-slavery petitions, advocated the prohibition by Congress of the
+slave trade between the states, and favoured the exclusion of slavery
+from the District of Columbia. His speech and tone, however, were
+moderate on these exciting subjects, and he claimed the right to stand
+free of pledges, and to adjust his opinions and his course by the
+development of circumstances. The Whigs having the ascendancy in the
+Twenty-Seventh Congress, he was made chairman of the House Committee of
+Ways and Means. Against a strong opposition he carried an appropriation
+of $30,000 to Morse's telegraph, and reported from his committee the
+Tariff Bill of 1842. In 1844 he was the Whig candidate for the
+governorship of New York, but was defeated. In November 1847 he was
+elected comptroller of the state of New York, and in 1848 he was elected
+vice-president of the United States on the ticket with Zachary Taylor as
+president. Fillmore presided over the senate during the exciting debates
+on the "Compromise Measures of 1850."
+
+President Taylor died on the 9th of July 1850, and on the next day
+Fillmore took the oath of office as his successor. The cabinet which he
+called around him contained Daniel Webster, Thomas Corwin and John J.
+Crittenden. On the death of Webster in 1852, Edward Everett became
+secretary of state. Unlike Taylor, Fillmore favoured the "Compromise
+Measures," and his signing one of them, the Fugitive Slave Law, in spite
+of the vigorous protests of anti-slavery men, lost him much of his
+popularity in the North. Few of his opponents, however, questioned his
+own full persuasion that the Compromise Measures were vitally necessary
+to pacify the nation. In 1851 he interposed promptly but ineffectively
+in thwarting the projects of the "filibusters," under Narciso Lopez for
+the invasion of Cuba. Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry's expedition,
+which opened up diplomatic relations with Japan, and the exploration of
+the valley of the Amazon by Lieutenants William L. Herndon (1813-1857)
+and Lardner Gibbon also occurred during his term. In the autumn of 1852
+he was an unsuccessful candidate for nomination for the presidency by
+the Whig National Convention, and he went out of office on the 4th of
+March 1853. In February 1856, while he was travelling abroad, he was
+nominated for the presidency by the American or Know Nothing party, and
+later this nomination was also accepted by the Whigs; but in the ensuing
+presidential election, the last in which the Know Nothings and the Whigs
+as such took any part, he received the electoral votes of only one
+state, Maryland. Thereafter he took no public share in political
+affairs. Fillmore was twice married: in 1826 to Abigail Powers (who died
+in 1853, leaving him with a son and daughter), and in 1858 to Mrs.
+Caroline C. Mclntosh. He died at Buffalo on the 8th of March 1874.
+
+  In 1907 the Buffalo Historical Society, of which Fillmore was one of
+  the founders and the first president, published the _Millard Fillmore
+  Papers_ (2 vols., vol. x. and xi. of the Society's publications;
+  edited by F.H. Severance), containing miscellaneous writings and
+  speeches, and official and private correspondence. Most of his
+  correspondence, however, was destroyed in pursuance of a direction in
+  his son's will.
+
+
+
+
+FILMER, SIR RORERT (d. 1653), English political writer, was the son of
+Sir Edward Filmer of East Sutton in Kent. He studied at Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1604. Knighted by Charles I. at the
+beginning of his reign, he was an ardent supporter of the king's cause,
+and his house is said to have been plundered by the parliamentarians ten
+times. He died on the 26th of May 1653.
+
+Filmer was already a middle-aged man when the great controversy between
+the king and the Commons roused him into literary activity. His writings
+afford an exceedingly curious example of the doctrines held by the most
+extreme section of the Divine Right party. Filmer's theory is founded
+upon the statement that the government of a family by the father is the
+true original and model of all government. In the beginning of the world
+God gave authority to Adam, who had complete control over his
+descendants, even as to life and death. From Adam this authority was
+inherited by Noah; and Filmer quotes as not unlikely the tradition that
+Noah sailed up the Mediterranean and allotted the three continents of
+the Old World to the rule of his three sons. From Shem, Ham and Japheth
+the patriarchs inherited the absolute power which they exercised over
+their families and servants; and from the patriarchs all kings and
+governors (whether a single monarch or a governing assembly) derive
+their authority, which is therefore absolute, and founded upon divine
+right. The difficulty that a man "by the secret will of God may
+unjustly" attain to power which he has not inherited appeared to Filmer
+in no way to alter the nature of the power so obtained, for "there is,
+and always shall be continued to the end of the world, a natural right
+of a supreme father over every multitude." The king is perfectly free
+from all human control. He cannot be bound by the acts of his
+predecessors, for which he is not responsible; nor by his own, for
+"impossible it is in nature that a man should give a law unto
+himself"--a law must be imposed by another than the person bound by it.
+With regard to the English constitution, he asserted, in his
+_Freeholder's Grand Inquest touching our Sovereign Lord the King and his
+Parliament_ (1648), that the Lords only give counsel to the king, the
+Commons only "perform and consent to the ordinances of parliament," and
+the king alone is the maker of laws, which proceed purely from his will.
+It is monstrous that the people should judge or depose their king, for
+they would then be judges in their own cause.
+
+The most complete expression of Filmer's opinions is given in the
+_Patriarcha_, which was published in 1680, many years after his death.
+His position, however, was sufficiently indicated by the works which he
+published during his lifetime: the _Anarchy of a Limited and Mixed
+Monarchy_ (1648), an attack upon a treatise on monarchy by Philip Hunton
+(1604?-1682), who maintained that the king's prerogative is not superior
+to the authority of the houses of parliament; the pamphlet entitled _The
+Power of Kings, and in particular of the King of England_ (1648), first
+published in 1680; and his _Observations upon Mr Hobbes's Leviathan, Mr
+Milton against Salmasius, and H. Grotius De jure belli et pacis,
+concerning the Originall of Government_ (1652). Filmer's theory, owing
+to the circumstances of the time, obtained a recognition which it is now
+difficult to understand. Nine years after the publication of the
+_Patriarcha_, at the time of the Revolution which banished the Stuarts
+from the throne, Locke singled out Filmer as the most remarkable of the
+advocates of Divine Right, and thought it worth while to attack him
+expressly in the first part of the _Treatise on Government_, going into
+all his arguments _seriatim_, and especially pointing out that even if
+the first steps of his argument be granted, the rights of the eldest
+born have been so often set aside that modern kings can claim no such
+inheritance of authority as he asserted.
+
+
+
+
+FILMY FERNS, a general name for a group of ferns with delicate
+much-divided leaves and often moss-like growth, belonging to the genera
+_Hymenophyllum_, _Todea_ and _Trichomanes_. They require to be kept in
+close cases in a cool fernery, and the stones and moss amongst which
+they are grown must be kept continually moist so that the evaporated
+water condenses on the very numerous divisions of the leaves.
+
+
+
+
+FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN (1841-   ), French man of letters, son of
+the historian Charles Auguste Désiré Filon (1800-1875), was born in
+Paris in 1841. His father became professor of history at Douai, and
+eventually "_inspecteur d'académie_" in Paris; his principal works were
+_Histoire comparée de France et de l'Angleterre_ (1832), _Histoire de
+l'Europe au XVI^e siècle_ (1838), _La Diplomatie française sous Louis
+XV_ (1843), _Histoire de l'Italie méridionale_ (1849), _Histoire du
+sénat romain_ (1850), _Histoire de la démocratie athénienne_ (1854).
+Educated at the École normale, Augustin Filon was appointed tutor to the
+prince imperial and accompanied him to England, where he remained for
+some years. He is the author of _Guy Patin, sa vie, sa correspondance_
+(1862); _Nos grands-pères_ (1887); _Prosper Mérimée_ (1894); _Sous la
+tyrannie_ (1900). On English subjects he has written chiefly under the
+pseudonym of Pierre Sandrié, _Les Mariages de Londres_ (1875); _Histoire
+de la littérature anglaise_ (1883); _Le Théâtre anglais_ (1896), and _La
+Caricature en Angleterre_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FILOSA (A. Lang), one of the two divisions of Rhizopoda, characterized
+by protoplasm granular at the surface, and fine pseudopodia branching
+and usually acutely pointed at the tips.
+
+
+
+
+FILTER (a word common in various forms to most European languages,
+adapted from the medieval Lat. _filtrum_, felt, a material used as a
+filtering agent), an arrangement for separating solid matter from
+liquids. In some cases the operation of filtration is performed for the
+sake of removing impurities from the filtrate or liquid filtered, as in
+the purification of water for drinking purposes; in others the aim is to
+recover and collect the solid matter, as when the chemist filters off a
+precipitate from the liquid in which it is suspended.
+
+In regard to the purification of water, filtration was long looked upon
+as merely a mechanical process of straining out the solid particles,
+whereby a turbid water could be rendered clear. In the course of time it
+was noticed that certain materials, such as charcoal, had the power to
+some extent also of softening hard water and of removing organic matter,
+and at the beginning of the 19th century charcoal, both animal and
+vegetable, came into use for filtering purposes. Porous carbon blocks,
+made by strongly heating a mixture of powdered charcoal with oil, resin,
+&c., were introduced about a generation later, and subsequently various
+preparations of iron (spongy iron, magnetic oxide) found favour.
+Innumerable forms of filters made with these and other materials were
+put on the market, and were extolled as removing impurities of every
+kind from water, and as affording complete protection against the
+communication of disease. But whatever merits they had as clarifiers of
+turbid water, the advent of bacteriology, and the recognition of the
+fact that the bacteria of certain diseases may be water-borne,
+introduced a new criterion of effectiveness, and it was perceived that
+the removal of solid particles, or even of organic impurities (which
+were realized to be important not so much because they are dangerous to
+health _per se_ as because their presence affords grounds for suspecting
+that the water in which they occur has been exposed to circumstances
+permitting contamination with infective disease), was not sufficient;
+the filter must also prevent the passage of pathogenic organisms, and so
+render the water sterile bacteriologically. Examined from this point of
+view the majority of domestic filters were found to be gravely
+defective, and even to be worse than useless, since unless they were
+frequently and thoroughly cleansed, they were liable to become
+favourable breeding-places for microbes. The first filter which was more
+or less completely impermeable to bacteria was the Pasteur-Chamberland,
+which was devised in Pasteur's laboratory, and is made of dense biscuit
+porcelain. The filtering medium in this, as in other filters of the same
+kind, takes the form of a hollow cylinder or "candle," through the walls
+of which the water has to pass from the outside to the inside, the
+candles often being arranged so that they may be directly attached to a
+tap, whereby the rate of flow, which is apt to be slow, is accelerated
+by the pressure of the main. But even filters of this type, if they are
+to be fully relied upon, must be frequently cleaned and sterilized, and
+great care must be taken that the joints and connexions are watertight,
+and that the candles are without cracks or flaws. In cases where the
+water supply is known to be infected, or even where it is merely
+doubtful, it is wise to have recourse to sterilization by boiling,
+rather than trust to any filter. Various machines have been constructed
+to perform this operation, some of them specially designed for the use
+of troops in the field; those in which economy of fuel is studied have
+an exchange-heater, by means of which the incoming cold water receives
+heat from the outgoing hot water, which thus arrives at the point of
+outflow at a temperature nearly as low as that of the supply. Chemical
+methods of sterilization have also been suggested, depending on the use
+of iodine, chlorine, bromine, ozone, potassium permanganate, copper
+sulphate or chloride and other substances. For the sand-filtration of
+water on a large scale, in which the presence of a surface film
+containing zooglaea of bacteria is an essential feature, see WATER
+SUPPLY.
+
+Filtration in the chemical laboratory is commonly effected by the aid of
+a special kind of unsized paper, which in the more expensive varieties
+is practically pure cellulose, impurities like ferric oxide, alumina,
+lime, magnesia and silica having been removed by treatment with
+hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. A circular piece of this paper is
+folded twice upon itself so as to form a quadrant, one of the folds is
+pulled out, and the cone thus obtained is supported in a glass or
+porcelain funnel having an apical angle of 60°. The liquid to be
+filtered is poured into the cone, preferably down a glass rod upon the
+sides of the funnel to prevent splashing and to preserve the apex of the
+filter-paper, and passes through the paper, upon which the solid matter
+is retained. In the case of liquids containing strong acids or alkalis,
+which the paper cannot withstand, a plug of carefully purified asbestos
+or glass-wool (spun glass) is often employed, contained in a bulb blown
+as an enlargement on a narrow "filter-tube." To accelerate the rate of
+filtration various devices are resorted to, such as lengthening the tube
+below the filtering material, increasing the pressure on the liquid
+being filtered, or decreasing it in the receiver of the filtrate. R.W.
+Bunsen may be regarded as the originator of the second method, and it
+was he who devised the small cone of platinum foil, sometimes replaced
+by a cone of parchment perforated with pinholes, arranged at the apex of
+the funnel to serve as a support for the paper, which is apt to burst
+under the pressure differences. In the so-called "Buchner funnel," the
+filtering vessel is cylindrical, and the paper receives support by being
+laid upon its flat perforated bottom. In filtering into a vacuum the
+flask receiving the filtrate should be connected to the exhaust through
+a second flask. The suction may be derived from any form of air-pump; a
+form often employed where water at fair pressure is available is the
+jet-pump, which in consequence is known as a filter-pump. Another method
+of filtering into a vacuum is to immerse a porous jar ("Pukall cell") in
+the liquid to be filtered, and attach a suction-pipe to its interior. A
+filtering arrangement devised by F.C. Gooch, which has come into common
+use in quantitative analysis where the solid matter has to be submitted
+to heating or ignition, consists of a crucible having a perforated
+bottom. By means of a piece of stretched rubber tubing, this crucible is
+supported in the mouth of an ordinary funnel which is connected with an
+exhausting apparatus; and water holding in suspension fine scrapings of
+asbestos, purified by boiling with strong hydrochloric acid and washing
+with water, is run through it, so that the perforated bottom is covered
+with a layer of felted asbestos. The crucible is then removed from the
+rubber support, weighed and replaced; the liquid is filtered through in
+the ordinary way; and the crucible with its contents is again removed,
+dried, ignited and weighed. A perforated cone, similarly coated with
+asbestos and fitted into a conical funnel, is sometimes employed.
+
+In many processes of chemical technology filtration plays an important
+part. A crude method consists of straining the liquid through cotton or
+other cloth, either stretched on wooden frames or formed into long
+narrow bags ("bag-filters"). Occasionally filtration into a vacuum is
+practised, but more often, as in filter-presses, the liquid is forced
+under pressure, either hydrostatic or obtained from a force-pump or
+compressed air, into a series of chambers partitioned off by cloth,
+which arrests the solids, but permits the passage of the liquid
+portions. For separating liquids from solids of a fibrous or crystalline
+character "hydro-extractors" or "centrifugals" are frequently employed.
+The material is placed in a perforated cage or "basket," which is
+enclosed in an outer casing, and when the cage is rapidly rotated by
+suitable gearing, the liquid portions are forced out into the external
+casing.
+
+
+
+
+FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS (d. 84 B.C.), Roman soldier and a violent
+partisan of Marius. He was sent to Asia in 86 B.C. as legate to L.
+Valerius Flaccus, but quarrelled with him and was dismissed. Taking
+advantage of the absence of Flaccus at Chalcedon and the discontent
+aroused by his avarice and severity, Fimbria stirred up a revolt and
+slew Flaccus at Nicomedia. He then assumed the command of the army and
+obtained several successes against Mithradates, whom he shut up in
+Pitane on the coast of Aeolis, and would undoubtedly have captured him
+had Lucullus co-operated with the fleet. Fimbria treated most cruelly
+all the people of Asia who had revolted from Rome or sided with Sulla.
+Having gained admission to Ilium by declaring that, as a Roman, he was
+friendly, he massacred the inhabitants and burnt the place to the
+ground. But in 84 Sulla crossed over from Greece to Asia, made peace
+with Mithradates, and turned his arms against Fimbria, who, seeing that
+there was no chance of escape, committed suicide. His troops were made
+to serve in Asia till the end of the third Mithradatic War.
+
+  See ROME: HISTORY; and arts, on SULLA and MARIUS.
+
+
+
+
+FIMBRIATE (from Lat. _fimbriae_, fringe), a zoological and botanical
+term, meaning fringed. In heraldry, "fimbriate" or "fimbriated" refers
+to a narrow edge or border running round a bearing.
+
+
+
+
+FINALE (Ital. for "end"), a term in music for the concluding movement in
+an instrumental composition, whether symphony, concerto or sonata, and,
+in dramatic music, the concerted piece which ends each act. Of
+instrumental finales, the great choral finale to Beethoven's 9th
+symphony, and of operatic finales, that of Mozart's _Nozze di Figaro_,
+to the second act, and to the last act of Verdi's _Falstaff_ may be
+mentioned. In the Wagnerian opera the finale has no place.
+
+
+
+
+FINANCE. The term "finance," which comes into English through French, in
+its original meaning denoted a payment (_finatio_). In the later middle
+ages, especially in Germany, it acquired the sense of usurious or
+oppressive dealing with money and capital. The specialized use of the
+word as equivalent to the management of the public expenditure and
+receipts first became prominent in France during the 16th century and
+quickly spread to other countries. The plural form (_Les Finances_) was
+particularly reserved for this application, while the singular came to
+denote business activity in respect to monetary dealings (as in the
+expression _la haute finance_). For the Germans the phrase "science of
+finance" (_Finanzwissenschaft_) refers exclusively to the economy of the
+state. English and American writers are less definite in their
+employment of the term, which varies with the convenience of the author.
+
+A work on "finance" may deal with the Money Market or the Stock
+Exchange; it may treat of banking and credit organization, or it may be
+devoted to state revenue and expenditure, which is on the whole the
+prevailing sense. The expressions "science of finance" and "public
+finance" have been suggested as suitable to delimit the last mentioned
+application. At all events, the broad sense is quite intelligible.
+"Financial" means what is concerned with business, and the idea of a
+balance between effort and return is also prominent. In the present
+article attention will be directed to "public finance"; for the other
+aspects of the subject reference may be made (_inter alia_) to the
+following:--BANKS AND BANKING; COMPANY; EXCHANGE; MARKET; STOCK
+EXCHANGE. See also ENGLISH FINANCE, and the sections on finance under
+headings of countries.
+
+Finance, regarded as state house-keeping, or "political economy" (see
+ECONOMICS) in the older sense of the term, deals with (1) the
+expenditure of the state; (2) state revenues; (3) the balance between
+expenditure and receipts; (4) the organization which collects and
+applies the public funds. Each of these large divisions presents a
+series of problems of which the practical treatment is illustrated in
+the financial history of the great nations of the world. Thus the amount
+and character of public expenditure necessarily depends on the
+functions that the state undertakes to perform--national defence, the
+maintenance of internal order, and the efficient equipment of the state
+organization; such are the tasks that all governments have to discharge,
+and for their cost due provision has to be made. The widening sphere of
+state activity, so marked a characteristic of modern civilization,
+involves outlay for what may be best described as "developmental"
+services. Education, relief of distress, regulation of labour and trade,
+are duties now in great part performed by public agencies, and their
+increasing prominence involves augmented expense. The first problem on
+this side of expenditure is the due balancing of outlay by income. The
+financier has to "cover" his outlay. There is, further, the duty of
+establishing a proper proportion between the several forms of
+expenditure. Not only has there to be a strict control over the total
+national expense; supervision has to be carried into each department of
+the state. No one branch of public activity is entitled to make
+unlimited calls on the state's revenue. The claims of the "expert"
+require to be carefully scrutinized. The great financiers have made
+their reputation quite as much by rigorous control over extravagance in
+expenditure as by dexterity in devising new forms of revenue.
+Unfortunately they have not been able to reduce their methods to rule.
+As yet no more definite principle has been discovered than the somewhat
+obvious one of measuring the proposed items of outlay (1) against each
+other, (2) against the sacrifice that additional taxation involves. Of
+almost equal importance is the rule that the utmost return is to be
+obtained for the given outlay. The canon of _economy_ is as fundamental
+in regard to public expenditure as it will appear, later, to be in
+respect to revenue. Just application of the outlay of the state, so that
+no class receives undue advantage, and the use of public funds for
+"reproductive," in preference to "unproductive" objects, are evident
+general principles whose difficulty lies in their application to the
+circumstances of each particular case.
+
+Far greater progress has been made in the formulation of general canons
+as to the nature, growth and treatment of the public revenues.
+Historically, there is, first, the tendency towards increase in state
+income to balance the advance in outlay. A second general feature is the
+relative decline of the receipts from state property and industries in
+contrast to the expansion of taxation. Regarded as an organized system,
+the body of receipts has to be made conformable to certain general
+conditions. Thus there should be revenue sufficient to meet the public
+requirements. Otherwise the financial organization has failed in one of
+its essential purposes. In order continuously to attain this end, the
+revenue must be flexible, or, as is often said, elastic enough to vary
+in response to pressure. Frequently recurring deficits are, in
+themselves, a condemnation of the methods under which they are found.
+Again, the rule of "economy" in raising revenue, or, in other words,
+taking as little as possible from the contributors over and above what
+the state receives, holds good for the whole and for each part of public
+revenue. In like manner the principle of formal justice has the same
+claim in respect to revenue as to expenditure. No class of person should
+bear more than his or its proper share. In fact the special maxims
+usually placed under the head of taxation have really a wider scope as
+governing the whole financial system. The recognition of even the most
+elementary rules has been a very slow process, as the course of
+financial history abundantly proves. Until the 18th century no
+scientific treatment of financial problems was attained, though there
+had been great advances on the administrative side.
+
+A brief description of the historical evolution of the earlier financial
+forms will be the most effective illustration of this statement. The
+theory of well-organized public finance is also discussed under TAXATION
+and NATIONAL DEBT.
+
+The earliest forms of public revenue are those obtained from the
+property of the chief or ruler. Land, cattle and slaves are the
+principal kinds of wealth, and they are all constituents of the king's
+revenue; enforced work contributed by members of the community, and the
+furnishing commodities on requisition, further aid in the maintenance
+of the primitive state. Financial organization makes its earliest
+appearance in the great Eastern monarchies, in which tribute was
+regularly collected and the oldest and most general form of
+taxation--that levied on the produce of land--was established. In its
+normal shape this impost consisted in a given proportion of the yield,
+or of certain portions of the yield, of the soil; one-fourth as in
+India, one-fifth as in Egypt, or two separate levies of a tenth as in
+Palestine, are examples of what may from the last instance be called the
+"tithe" system. Dues of various kinds were gradually added to the land
+revenue, until, as in the later Egyptian monarchy, the forms of revenue
+reached a bewildering complexity. But no Eastern state advanced beyond
+the condition generally characterized as the "patrimonial," i.e. an
+organization on the model of the household. The part played by money
+economy was small, and it is noticeable that the revenues were collected
+by the monarch's servants, the farming out of taxes being completely
+unknown. Tribute, however, was paid by subject communities as a whole,
+and was collected by them for transmission to the conquerors.
+
+
+  Ancient Greek.
+
+A much higher stage was reached in the financial methods of the Greek
+states, or more correctly speaking of Athens, the best-known specimen of
+the class. Instead of the comparatively simple expedients of the
+barbarian monarchies, as indicated above, the Athenian city state by
+degrees developed a rather complex revenue system. Some of the older
+forms are retained. The city owned public land which was let on lease
+and the rents were farmed out by auction. A specially valuable property
+of Athens was the possession of the silver mines at Laurium, which were
+worked on lease by slave labour. The produce, at first distributed
+amongst the citizens, was later a part of the state income, and forms
+the subject of some of the suggestions respecting the revenue in the
+treatise formerly ascribed to Xenophon. The reverence that attached to
+the precious metals caused undue exaltation of the services rendered by
+this property.
+
+One of the characteristics of the ancient state was its extensive
+control over the persons and property of its citizens. In respect to
+finance this authority was strikingly manifested in the burdens imposed
+on wealthy citizens by the requirements of the "liturgies" ([Greek:
+leitourgiai]), which consisted in the provision of a chorus for
+theatrical performances, or defraying the expenses of the public games,
+or, finally, the equipment of a ship, "the trierarchy," which was
+economically and politically the most important. Athenian statesmanship
+in the time of Demosthenes was gravely exercised to make this form of
+contribution more effective. The grouping into classes and the privilege
+of exchanging property, granted to the contributor against any one whom
+he believed entitled to take his place, are marks of the defective
+economic and financial organization of the age.
+
+Amongst taxes strictly so called were the market dues or tolls, which in
+some cases approximated to excise duties, though in their actual mode of
+levy they were closely similar to the _octrois_ of modern times. Of
+greater importance were the customs duties on imports and exports. These
+at the great period of Athenian history were only 2%. The prohibition of
+export of corn was an economic rather than a financial provision. In the
+treatment of her subject allies Athens was more rigorous, general import
+and export duties of 5% being imposed on their trade. The high cost of
+carriage, and the need of encouraging commerce in a community relying on
+external sources for its food supply, help to explain the comparatively
+low rates adopted. Neither as financial nor as protective expedients
+were the custom duties of classical societies of much importance.
+
+Direct taxation received much greater expansion. A special levy on the
+class of resident aliens ([Greek: metoikton]), probably paralleled by a
+duty on slaves, was in force. A far more important source of revenue was
+the general tax on property ([Greek: eisphora]), which according to one
+view existed as early as the time of Solon, who made it a part of his
+constitutional system. Modern inquiry, however, tends towards the
+conclusion that it was under the stress of the Peloponnesian War that
+this impost was introduced (428 B.C.). At first it was only levied at
+irregular intervals; afterwards, in 378 B.C., it became a permanent tax
+based on elaborate valuation under which the richer members paid on a
+larger quota of their capital; in the case of the wealthiest class the
+taxable quota was taken as one-fifth, smaller fractions being adopted
+for those belonging to the other divisions. The assessment ([Greek:
+timema]) included all the property of the contributor, whose accuracy in
+making full returns was safeguarded by the right given to other citizens
+to proceed against him for fraudulent under-valuation. A further support
+was provided in the reform of 378 B.C. by the establishment of the
+symmories, or groups of tax-paying citizens; the wealthier members of
+each group being responsible for the tax payments of all the members.
+
+The scanty and obscure references to finance, and to economic matters
+generally, in classical literature do not elucidate all the details of
+the system; but the analogies of other countries, e.g. the mode of
+levying the _taille_ in 18th century France and the "tenth and
+fifteenth" in medieval England, make it tolerably plain that in the 4th
+century B.C. the Athenian state had developed a mode of taxation on
+property which raised those questions of just distribution and effective
+valuation that present themselves in the latest tax systems of the
+modern world. Taken together with the liturgies, the "eisphora" placed a
+very heavy burden on the wealthier citizens, and this financial pressure
+accounts in great part for the hostility of the rich towards the
+democratic constitution that facilitated the imposition of graduated
+taxation and super-taxes--to use modern terms--on the larger incomes.
+The normal yield of the property tax is reported as 60 talents
+(£14,400); but on special occasions it reached 200 talents (£48,000), or
+about one-sixth of the total receipts.
+
+On the administrative side also remarkable advances were made by the
+entrusting of military expenditure to the "generals," and in the 4th
+century B.C. by the appointment of an administrator whose duty it was to
+distribute the revenue of the state under the directions of the
+assembly. The absence of settled public law and the influence of direct
+democracy made a complete ministry of finance impossible.
+
+The Athenian "hegemony" in its earlier and later phases had an important
+financial side. The confederacy of Delos made provision for the
+collection of a revenue ([Greek: phoros]) from the members of the
+league, which was employed at first for defence against Persian
+aggression, but afterwards was at the disposal of Athens as the ruling
+state. The annual collection of 460 talents (£110,400) shows
+sufficiently the magnitude of the league.
+
+Too little is known of the financial methods of the other Greek states
+and of the Macedonian kingdoms to allow of any definite account of their
+position. In the latter, particularly in Egypt, the methods of the
+earlier rulers probably survived. Their finance, like their social life
+generally, exhibited a blending of Hellenic and barbarian elements. The
+older land-taxes were probably accompanied by import dues and taxes on
+property.
+
+
+  Roman.
+
+In the infancy of the Roman republic its revenues were of the kind usual
+in such communities. The public land yielded receipts which may
+indifferently be regarded as rents or taxes; the citizens contributed
+their services or commodities, and dues were raised on certain articles
+coming to market. With the progress of the Roman dominion the financial
+organization grew in extent. In order to meet the cost of the early wars
+a special contribution from property (_tributum ex censu_) was levied at
+times of emergency, though it was in some cases regarded as an advance
+to be repaid when the occasion of expense was over. Owing to the great
+military successes, and the consequent increase of the other sources of
+revenue, it became feasible to suspend the _tributum_ in 167 B.C., and
+it was not again levied till after the death of Julius Caesar. From this
+date the expenses of the Roman state "were undisguisedly supported by
+the taxation of the provinces." Neither the state monopolies nor the
+public land in Italy afforded any appreciable revenue. The other charges
+that affected Italy were the 5% duty on manumissions, and customs dues
+on seaborne imports. But with the acquisition of the important provinces
+of Sicily, Spain and Africa, the formation of a tax system based on the
+tributes of the dependencies became possible. To a great extent the
+pre-existing forms of revenue were retained, but were gradually
+systematized. In legal theory the land of conquered communities passed
+into the ownership of the Roman state; in practice a revenue was
+obtained through land taxes in the form of either tithes (_decumae_) or
+money payments (_stipendia_). To the latter were adjoined capitation and
+trade taxes (the _tributum capitis_). For pasture land a special rent
+was paid. In some provinces (e.g. Sicily) payment in produce was
+preferred, as affording the supply needed for the free distribution of
+corn at Rome.
+
+The great form of indirect taxation consisted in the customs dues
+(_portoria_), which were collected at the provincial boundaries and
+varied in amount, though the maximum did not exceed 5%. Under the same
+head were included the town dues (or _octrois_). Further, the local
+administration was charged on the district concerned, and requisitions
+for the public service were frequently made on the provincial
+communities. Supplies of grain, ships and timber for military use were
+often demanded.
+
+The methods of levy may be regarded as an additional tax. "Vexation," as
+Adam Smith remarks, "though not strictly speaking expense, is certainly
+equivalent to the expense at which every man would be willing to redeem
+himself from it"; and the Roman system was extraordinarily vexatious.
+From an early date the collection of the taxes had been farmed out to
+companies of contractors (_societates vectigales_), who became a by-word
+for rapacity. Being bound to pay a stated sum to the public authorities
+these _publicani_ naturally aimed at extracting the largest possible
+amount from the unfortunate provincials, and, as they belonged to the
+Roman capitalist class, they were able to influence the provincial
+governors. Undue claims on the part of the tax collectors were
+aggravated by the extortion of the public officials. The defects of the
+financial organization were a serious influence in the complex of causes
+that brought about the fall of the Republic.
+
+One of the reasons that induced the subject populations to accept with
+pleasure the establishment of the Empire was the improvement in
+financial treatment that it secured. The corrupt and uneconomical method
+of farming out the collection of the revenue was, to a great extent,
+replaced by collection through the officials of the imperial household.
+The earlier Roman treasury (_aerarium_) was formally retained for the
+receipt of revenue from the senatorial provinces, but the officials were
+appointed by the Princeps and became gradually mere municipal officers.
+The real centre of finance was the _fiscus_ or imperial treasury, which
+was under the exclusive control of the ruler ("res fiscales," says
+Ulpian, "quasi propriae et privatae principis sunt"), and was
+administered by officials of his household. Under the Republic the
+Senate had been the financial authority, with the Censors as finance
+ministers and the Quaestors as secretaries of the treasury. Never very
+precise, this system in the 1st century B.C. fell into extreme decay. By
+means of his freedmen the emperor introduced the more rigorous economy
+of the Roman household into public finance. The census as a method of
+valuation was revived; the important and productive land taxes were
+placed on a more definite footing; while, above all, the substitution of
+direct collection by state officials for the letting out by auction of
+the tax-collection to the companies of _publicani_ was made general.
+Thus some of the most valuable lessons as to the normal evolution of a
+system of finance are to be learned in this connexion. Of equal, or even
+greater moment is the failure of the administrative reforms of the
+Empire to secure lasting improvement, a result due to the absence of
+constitutional guarantees. The close relation between finance and
+general policy is most impressively illustrated in this failure of
+benevolent autocracy.
+
+Viewed broadly, the financial resources of the earlier Empire were
+obtained from (1) the public land alike of the state and the Princeps;
+(2) the monopolies, principally of minerals; (3) the land tax; (4) the
+customs; (5) the taxes on inheritances, on sales and on the purchase of
+slaves (_vectigalia_). One result of the establishment of the Principate
+was the consolidation of the public domain. The old "public land" in
+Italy had nearly disappeared; but the royal possessions in the conquered
+provinces and the private properties of the emperor became ultimately a
+part of the property of the Fiscus. Such land was let either on
+five-year leases or in perpetuity to coloni. Mines were also taken over
+for public use and worked by slaves or, in later times, by convict
+labour. The tendency towards state monopoly became more marked in the
+closing days of the Empire, the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. Perhaps the
+most comprehensive of the fiscal reforms of the Empire was the
+reconstruction of the land tax, based on a census or (to use the French
+term) _cadastre_, in which the area, the modes of cultivation and the
+estimated productiveness of each holding were stated, the average of ten
+preceding years being taken as the standard. After the reconstruction
+under Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century A.D., fifteen years (the
+_indictio_)--though probably used as early as the time of Hadrian--was
+recognized as the period for revaluation. With the growing needs of the
+state this taxation became more rigorous and was one of the great
+grievances of the population, especially of the sections that were
+declining in status and passing into the condition of villenage. The
+_portoria_, or customs, received a better organization, though the
+varying rates for different provinces continued. By degrees the older
+maximum of 5% was exceeded, until in the 4th century 12½% was in some
+cases levied. Even at this higher rate the facilities for trade were
+greater than in medieval or (until the revolution in transport) modern
+times. In spite of certain prejudices against the import of luxuries and
+the export of gold, there is little indication of the influence of
+mercantilist or protectionist ideas. The nearest approach to excise was
+the duty of 1% on all sales, a tax that in Gibbon's words "has ever been
+the occasion of clamour and discontent." The higher charge of 4% on the
+purchase of slaves, and the still heavier 5% on successions after death,
+were likewise established at the beginning of the Empire and specially
+applied to the full citizens. Escheats and lapsed legacies (_caduca_)
+were further miscellaneous sources of gain to the state.
+
+Taken as a whole, the financial system of Imperial Rome shows a very
+high elaboration in _form_. The _patrimonium_, the _tributa_ and the
+_vectigalia_ are divisions parallel to the _domaine_, the _contributions
+directes_ and the _contributions indirectes_ of modern French
+administration; or the English "non-tax" revenue, inland revenue and
+"customs and excise." The careful regulations given in the Codes and the
+Digest show the observance of technical conditions as to assessment and
+accounting. In substance and spirit, however, Roman finance was
+essentially backward. Without altogether accepting Merivale's judgment
+that "their principles of finance were to the last rude and
+unphilosophical," it may be granted that Roman statesmen never seriously
+faced the questions of just distribution and maximum productiveness in
+the tax system. Still less did they perceive the connexion between these
+two aspects of finance. Mechanical uniformity and minute regulation are
+inadequate substitutes for observance of the canons of equality,
+certainty and economy in the operation of the tax system. Whether (as
+has been suggested) an Adam Smith in power could have saved the Empire
+is doubtful; but he would certainly have remodelled its finance. The
+most glaring fault was plainly the undue and increasing pressure on the
+productive classes. Each century saw heavier burdens imposed on the
+actual workers and on their employers, while expenditure was chiefly
+devoted to unproductive purposes. The distribution was also unfair as
+between the different territorial divisions. The capital and certain
+provincial towns were favoured at the expense of the provinces and the
+country districts. Again, the cost of collection, though less than under
+the farming-out system, was far too great. Some alleviation was indeed
+obtained by the apportionment of contributions amongst the districts
+liable, leaving to the community to decide as it thought best between
+its members. The allotment of the land-tax to units (_juga_) of equal
+value whatever might be the area, was a contrivance similar in
+character.
+
+The gradual way in which the several provinces were brought under the
+general tax system, and the equally gradual extension of Roman
+citizenship, account further for the irregularity and increased weight
+of the taxes; as the absence of publicity and the growth of autocracy
+explain the sense of oppression and the hopelessness of resistance so
+vividly indicated in the literature of the later Empire. Exemptions at
+first granted to the citizens were removed, while the cost of local
+government which continually increased was placed on the middle-class of
+the towns as represented by the _decuriones_, or members of the
+municipalities.
+
+The fact that no ingenuity of modern research has been able to construct
+a real budget of expenditure and receipt for any part of the long
+centuries of the Empire is significant as to the secrecy that surrounded
+the finances, especially in the later period. For at the beginning of
+the principate Augustus seems to have aimed at a complete estimate of
+the financial situation, though this may be regarded as due to the
+influence of the freer republican traditions which the reverence that
+soon attached to the emperor's dignity completely extinguished.
+
+In addition to its value as illustrating the difficulties and defects
+that beset the development of a complex financial organization from the
+simpler forms of the city and the province, Roman finance is of special
+importance in consequence of its place as supplying a model or rather a
+guide for the administration of the states that arose on its ruins. The
+barbarian invaders, though they were accustomed to contributions to
+their chiefs and to the payment of commodities as tributes or as
+penalties, had no acquaintance with the working of a regular system of
+taxation. The more astute rulers utilized the machinery that they
+inherited from the Roman government. Under the Franks the land tax and
+the provincial customs continued as forms of revenue, while beside them
+the gifts and court fees of Teutonic origin took their place. Similar
+conditions appear in Theodoric's administration of Italy. The
+maintenance of Roman forms and terms is prominent in fiscal
+administration. But institutions that have lost their life and animating
+spirit can hardly be preserved for any length of time. All over western
+Europe the elaborate devices of the _census_ and the stations for the
+collection of customs crumbled away; taxation as such disappeared,
+through the hostility of the clergy and the exemptions accorded to
+powerful subjects. This process of disintegration spread out over
+centuries. The efforts made from time to time by vigorous rulers to
+enforce the charges that remained legally due, proved quite ineffectual
+to restore the older fiscal system. The final result was a complete
+transformation of the ingredients of revenue. The character of the
+change may be best indicated as a substitution of private claims for
+public rights. Thus, the land-tax disappears in the 7th century and only
+comes into notice in the 9th century in the shape of private customary
+dues. The customs duties become the tolls and transit charges levied by
+local potentates on the diminishing trade of the earlier middle ages.
+This revolution is in accordance with--indeed it is one side of--the
+movement towards feudalism which was the great feature of this period.
+Finance is essentially a part of _public_ law and administration. It
+could, therefore, hold no prominent place in a condition of society
+which hardly recognized the state, as distinct from the members of the
+community, united by feudal ties. The same conception may be expressed
+in another way, viz. by the statement that the kingdoms which succeeded
+the Roman Empire were organized on the patrimonial basis (i.e. the
+revenues passed into the hands of the king or, rather, his domestic
+officials), and thus in fact returned to the condition of pre-classical
+times. Notwithstanding the differing features in the several countries,
+retrogression is the common characteristic of European history from the
+5th to the 10th century, and it was from the ruder state that this
+decline created that the rebuilding of social and political organization
+had to be accomplished. On the financial side the work, as already
+suggested, was aided by the ideas and institutions inherited from the
+Roman Empire. This influence was common to all the continental states
+and indirectly was felt even in England. Each of the great realms has,
+however, worked out its financial system on lines suitable to its own
+particular conditions, which are best considered in connexion with the
+separate national histories.
+
+Running through the different national systems there are some common
+elements the result not of inheritance merely but still more of
+necessity, or at the lowest of similarity in environment. Over and above
+the details of financial development there is a thread of connexion
+which requires treatment under Finance taken as a whole. As the great
+aim of this side of public activity is to secure funds for the
+maintenance of the state's life and working, the administration which
+operates for this end is the true nucleus of all national finance. The
+first sign of revival from the catastrophe of the invasions is the
+reorganization of the Imperial household under Charlemagne with the
+intention of establishing a more exact collection of revenue. The later
+German empire of Otto and the Frederics; the French Capetian monarchy
+and, in a somewhat different sphere, the medieval Italian and German
+cities show the same movement. The treasury is the centre towards which
+the special receipts of the ruler or rulers should be brought, and from
+it the public wants should be supplied. Feudalism, as the antithesis of
+this orderly treatment, had to be overthrown before national finance
+could become established. The development can be traced in the financial
+history of England, France and the German states; but the advance in the
+French financial organization of the 15th and 16th centuries affords the
+best illustration. The gradual unification operates on all the branches
+of finance,--expenditure, revenue, debt and methods of control. In
+respect to the first head there is a well-marked "integration" of the
+modes for meeting the cost of the public services. What were
+semi-private duties become public tasks, which, with the growing
+importance of "money-economy," have to be defrayed by state payments.
+Thus, the creation of the standing army in France by Charles VII. marks
+a financial change of the first order. The English navy, though more
+gradually developed, is an equally good illustration of the movement.
+All outlay by the state is brought into due co-ordination, and it
+becomes possible for constitutional government to supervise and direct
+it. This improvement, due to English initiative, has been adopted
+amongst the essential forms of financial administration on the
+continent. The immense importance of this view of public expenditure as
+representing the consumption of the state in its unified condition is
+obvious; it has affected, for the most part unconsciously, the
+conception of all modern peoples as to the functions of the state and
+the right of the people to direct them.
+
+On the side of receipts a similar unifying process has been
+accomplished. The almost universal separation between "ordinary" and
+"extraordinary" receipts, taxation being put under the latter head, has
+completely ceased. It was, however, the fundamental division for the
+early French writers on finance, and it survives for England as late as
+Blackstone's _Commentaries_. The idea that the ruler possessed a normal
+income in certain rents and dues of a quasi-private character, which on
+emergency he might supplement by calls on the revenues of his subjects,
+was a bequest of feudalism which gave way before the increasing power of
+the state. In order to meet the unified public wants, an equally unified
+public fund was requisite. The great economic changes which depreciated
+the value of the king's domain contributed towards the result. Only by
+well-adjusted taxation was it possible to meet the public necessities.
+In respect to taxation also there has been a like course of
+readjustment. Separate charges, assigned for distinct purposes, have
+been taken into the national exchequer and come to form a part of the
+general revenue. There has been--taking long periods--a steady
+absorption of special taxes into more general categories. The
+replacement of the four direct taxes by the income tax in France, as
+proposed in 1909, is a very recent example. Equally important is the
+growth of "direct" taxation. As tax contributions have taken the places
+of the revenue from land and fees, so, it would seem, are the taxes on
+commodities likely to be replaced or at least exceeded by the imposts
+levied on income as such, in the shape either of income taxes proper or
+of charges on accumulated wealth. The recent history of the several
+financial systems of the world is decisive on this point. A clearer
+perception of the conditions under which the effective attainment of
+revenue is possible is another outcome of financial development.
+Security, and in particular the absence of arbitrary impositions,
+combined with convenient modes of collection, have come to be recognized
+as indispensable auxiliaries in financial administration which further
+aims at the selection of really productive forms of charge.
+Unproductiveness is, according to modern standard, the cardinal fault of
+any particular tax. How great has been the progress in these aspects is
+best illustrated in the case of English finance, but both French and
+German fiscal history can supply many instructive examples.
+
+In a third direction the co-ordination of finance has been just as
+remarkable. Financial adjustment implies the conception of a balance,
+and this should be found in the relation of outlay and income. Under the
+pressure of war and other emergencies it has been found impossible to
+maintain this desirable equilibrium. But the use of the system of
+credit, and the general establishment of constitutional government, have
+enabled the difficulty to be surmounted by the creation on a vast scale
+of national debts. Apart from the special problems that this system of
+borrowing raises, there is the general one of its aid in making national
+finance continuous and orderly. Deficits can be transferred to the
+capital account, and the country's resources employed most usefully by
+repaying liabilities contracted in times of extreme need. The growth of
+this department, parallel with the general progress of finance, is
+significant of its function.
+
+Finally, in all countries though with diversities due to national
+peculiarities, the modes of account and control have been brought into a
+more effective condition. Previous legislative sanction for both
+expenditure and receipts in all their particular forms is absolutely
+necessary; so is thorough scrutiny of the actual application of the
+funds provided. Either by administrative survey or by judicial
+examination care is taken to see that there has been no improper
+diversion from the designed purposes. It is only when the varied systems
+of financial organization are studied in their general bearing, and with
+regard to what may be called their frame-work, that their essential
+resemblance is thoroughly realized. Such a real underlying unity is the
+reason and justification for regarding "public finance" as a distinct
+subject of study and as an independent division of political science.
+
+_Local Finance._--One of the most remarkable features of modern
+financial development has been the growth of the complementary system of
+local finance, which in extent and complication bids to rival that of
+the central authority. Under the constraining power of the Roman Empire
+the older city states were reduced to the position of municipalities,
+and their financial administration became dependent on the control of
+the Emperor--as is abundantly illustrated in the correspondence of Pliny
+and Trajan. After the fall of the Western Empire, a partial revival of
+city life, particularly in Italy and Germany, gave some scope for a
+return to the type of finance presented by the Athenian state. Florence
+affords an instructive specimen; but the passage from feudalism to the
+national state under the authority of monarchy made the cities and
+country districts parts of a larger whole. It is in this condition of
+subordination that the finance of localities has been framed and
+effectively organized. Though each great state has adopted its own
+methods, influenced by historical circumstances and by ideas of policy,
+there are general resemblances that furnish material for scientific
+treatment and allow of important generalizations being made.
+
+Amongst these the first to be noticed is the essential _subordination_
+of local finance. Alike in expenditure, in forms of receipt, and in
+methods of administration the central government has the right of
+directing and supervising the work of municipal and provincial
+agencies. The modes employed are various, but they all rest on the
+sovereignty of the state, whether exercised by the central officials or
+by the courts. A second characteristic is the predominance of the
+_economic_ element in the several tasks that local administrations have
+to perform, and the consequent tendency to treat the charges of local
+finance as payments for services rendered, or, in the usual phrase, to
+apply the "benefits" principle, in contrast to that of "ability," which
+rightly prevails in national finance. Over a great part of municipal
+administration--particularly that engaged in supplying the needs of the
+individual citizens--the finance may be assimilated to that of the
+joint-stock company, with of course the necessary differences, viz.
+that the association is compulsory; and that dividends are paid, not in
+money, but in social advantage. The great expansion in recent years of
+what is known as _Municipal Trading_ has brought this aspect of local
+finance into prominence. Water supply, transport and lighting have
+become public services, requiring careful financial management, and
+still retaining traces of their earlier private character.
+
+Corresponding to the mainly economic nature of local expenditure there
+is the further limitation imposed on the side of revenue. Unlike the
+state in this, localities are limited in respect to the amount and form
+of their taxation. Several distinct influences combine to produce this
+result. The needs of the central government lead to its retention of the
+more profitable modes of procuring revenue. No modern country can
+surrender the chief direct and indirect taxes to the local
+administrations. Another limiting condition is found in the practical
+impossibility of levying by local agencies such imposts as the customs
+and the income-tax in their modern forms. The elaborate machinery that
+is requisite for covering the national area and securing the revenue
+against loss can only be provided by an authority that can deal with the
+whole territory. Hence the very general limitation of local revenues to
+certain typical forms. Though in some cases municipal taxation is
+imposed on commodities in the form of _octrois_ or entry duties--as is
+notably the case in France--yet the prevailing tendency is towards the
+levy of direct charges on immovable property, which cannot escape by
+removal outside the tax jurisdiction. In addition to these "land" and
+"house" taxes, the employment of licence duties on trades, particularly
+those that are in special need of supervision, is a favourite method.
+Closely akin are the payments demanded for privileges to industrial
+undertakings given as "franchises," very often in connexion with
+monopolies, e.g. gas-works and tramways. Over and above the peculiar
+revenues of local bodies there is the further resource--which emphasizes
+the subordinate position of local finance--of obtaining supplemental
+revenue from the central treasury, either by taxes additional to the
+charges of the state, and collected at the same time; or by donations
+from its funds, in the shape of grants for special services, or
+assignments of certain parts of the state's receipts. Great Britain,
+France and Prussia furnish good examples of these different modes of
+preserving local administration from financial collapse.
+
+The broad resemblance between the two parts of the entire system of
+public finance is seen in another direction. To national debts there has
+been added a great mass of municipal and local indebtedness, which seems
+likely to equal, or even exceed in magnitude the liabilities of the
+central governments. But here also the essential limitations of the
+newer form are easily perceptible. The sovereignty of the state enables
+it to deal as it thinks best with the public creditor. In its methods of
+borrowing, in its plans for repayment, or, in extremity, in its power of
+repudiation it is independent of external control. Local debt on the
+other hand can only be contracted under the sanction of the appropriate
+administrative organ of the state. The creditor has the right of
+claiming the aid of the law against the defaulting municipality; and the
+amounts, the terms, and the time of duration of local debt are
+supervised in order to prevent injustice to particular persons or
+improvidence with regard to the revenue and property of the local units.
+The chief reason for contracting local debt being the establishment of
+works that are, directly or indirectly, reproductive, the governing
+conditions are evidently to be found in the character and probable yield
+of those businesses. The principles of company investments are fully
+applicable: the creation of sinking-funds, the fixing the term of each
+loan to the time at which the return from its employment ceases, and the
+avoidance of the formation of fictitious capital, become guiding rules
+from this part of finance, and indicate the connexion with what the
+commercial world calls "financial operations."
+
+Finally, there is the same set of problems in respect to accounting and
+control in local as in central finance. Though the materials are
+simpler, the need for a well-prepared budget is existent in the case of
+the city, county or department, if there is to be clear and accurate
+financial management. Perhaps the greatest weakness of local finance
+lies in this direction. The public opinion that affects the national
+budget is unfortunately too often lacking in the most important towns,
+not excluding those in which political life is highly developed.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The English literature on finance is rather
+  unsatisfactory; for public finance the available text-books are:
+  Adams, _Science of Finance_ (New York, 1898); Bastable, _Public
+  Finance_ (London, 1892; 3rd ed., 1903); Daniels, _Public Finance_ (New
+  York, 1899), and Plehn, _Public Finance_ (3rd ed., New York, 1909). In
+  French, Leroy-Beaulieu, _Traité de la science des finances_ (1877; 3rd
+  ed., 1908), is the standard work. The German literature is abundant.
+  Roscher, 5th ed. (edited by Gerlach), 1901; Wagner (4 vols.),
+  incomplete; Cohn (1889) and Eheberg (9th ed., 1908) have published
+  works entitled _Finanzwissenschaft_, dealing with all the aspects of
+  state finance. For Greek financial history Boekh, _Staalshaushaltung
+  der Athenen_ (ed. Fränkel, 1887), is still a standard work. For Rome,
+  Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, vol. ii., and Humbert, _Les
+  Finances et la comptabilité publique chez les Romains_, are valuable.
+  Clamageran, _Histoire de l'impôt en France_ (1876), gives the earlier
+  development of French finance. R.H. Patterson, _Science of Finance_
+  (London, 1868), C.S. Meade, _Trust Finance_ (1903), and E. Carroll,
+  _Principles and Practice of Finance_, deal with finance in the wider
+  sense of business transactions.     (C. F. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FINCH, FINCH-HATTON. This old English family has had many notable
+members, and has contributed in no small degree to the peerage. Sir
+Thomas Finch (d. 1563), who was knighted for his share in suppressing
+Sir T. Wyatt's insurrection against Queen Mary, was a soldier of note,
+and was the son and heir of Sir William Finch, who was knighted in 1513.
+He was the father of Sir Moyle Finch (d. 1614), who was created a
+baronet in 1611, and whose widow Elizabeth (daughter of Sir Thomas
+Heneage) was created a peeress as countess of Maidstone in 1623 and
+countess of Winchilsea in 1628; and also of Sir Henry Finch (1558-1625),
+whose son John, Baron Finch of Fordwich (1584-1660), is separately
+noticed. Thomas, eldest son of Sir Moyle, succeeded his mother as first
+earl of Winchilsea; and Sir Heneage, the fourth son (d. 1631), was the
+speaker of the House of Commons, whose son Heneage (1621-1682), lord
+chancellor, was created earl of Nottingham in 1675. The latter's second
+son Heneage (1649-1719) was created earl of Aylesford in 1714. The
+earldoms of Winchilsea and Nottingham became united in 1729, when the
+fifth earl of Winchilsea died, leaving no son, and the title passed to
+his cousin the second earl of Nottingham, the earldom of Nottingham
+having since then been held by the earl of Winchilsea. In 1826, on the
+death of the ninth earl of Winchilsea and fifth of Nottingham, his
+cousin George William Finch-Hatton succeeded to the titles, the
+additional surname of Hatton (since held in this line) having been
+assumed in 1764 by his father under the will of an aunt, a daughter of
+Christopher, Viscount Hatton (1632-1706), whose father was related to
+the famous Sir Christopher Hatton.
+
+
+
+
+FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH, BARON (1584-1660), generally known as Sir
+John Finch, English judge, a member of the old family of Finch, was born
+on the 17th of September 1584, and was called to the bar in 1611. He was
+returned to parliament for Canterbury in 1614, and became recorder of
+the same place in 1617. Having attracted the notice of Charles I., who
+visited Canterbury in 1625, and was received with an address by Finch in
+his capacity as recorder, he was the following year appointed king's
+counsel and attorney-general to the queen and was knighted. In 1628 he
+was elected speaker of the House of Commons, a post which he retained
+till its dissolution in 1629. He was the speaker who was held down in
+his chair by Holles and others on the occasion of Sir John Eliot's
+resolution on tonnage and poundage. In 1634 he was appointed chief
+justice of the court of common pleas, and distinguished himself by the
+active zeal with which he upheld the king's prerogative. Notable also
+was the brutality which characterized his conduct as chief justice,
+particularly in the cases of William Prynne and John Langton. He
+presided over the trial of John Hampden, who resisted the payment of
+ship-money, and he was chiefly responsible for the decision of the
+judges that ship-money was constitutional. As a reward for his services
+he was, in 1640, appointed lord keeper, and was also created Baron Finch
+of Fordwich. He had, however, become so unpopular that one of the first
+acts of the Long Parliament, which met in the same year was his
+impeachment. He took refuge in Holland, but had to suffer the
+sequestration of his estates. When he was allowed to return to England
+is uncertain, but in 1660 he was one of the commissioners for the trial
+of the regicides, though he does not appear to have taken much part in
+the proceedings. He died on the 27th of November 1660 and was buried in
+St Martin's church near Canterbury, his peerage becoming extinct.
+
+  See Foss, _Lives of the Judges_; Campbell, _Lives of the Chief
+  Justices_.
+
+
+
+
+FINCH (Ger. _Fink_, Lat. _Fringilla_), a name applied (but almost always
+in composition--as bullfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch, hawfinch, &c.) to a
+great many small birds of the order _Passeres_, and now pretty generally
+accepted as that of a group or family--the _Fringillidae_ of most
+ornithologists. Yet it is one the extent of which must be regarded as
+being uncertain. Many writers have included in it the buntings
+(_Emberizidae_), though these seem to be quite distinct, as well as the
+larks (_Alaudidae_), the tanagers (_Tanagridae_), and the weaver-birds
+(_Ploceidae_). Others have separated from it the crossbills, under the
+title of _Loxiidae_, but without due cause. The difficulty which at this
+time presents itself in regard to the limits of the _Fringillidae_
+arises from our ignorance of the anatomical features, especially those
+of the head, possessed by many exotic forms.
+
+Taken as a whole, the finches, concerning which no reasonable doubt can
+exist, are not only little birds with a hard bill, adapted in most cases
+for shelling and eating the various seeds that form the chief portion of
+their diet when adult, but they appear to be mainly forms which
+predominate in and are highly characteristic of the Palaearctic Region;
+moreover, though some are found elsewhere on the globe, the existence of
+but very few in the Notogaean hemisphere can as yet be regarded as
+certain.
+
+But even with this limitation, the separation of the undoubted
+_Fringillidae_[1] into groups is a difficult task. Were we merely to
+consider the superficial character of the form of the bill, the genus
+_Loxia_ (in its modern sense) would be easily divided not only from the
+other finches, but from all other birds. The birds of this genus--the
+crossbills--when their other characters are taken into account, prove to
+be intimately allied on the one hand to the grosbeaks (_Pinicola_) and
+on the other through the redpolls (_Aegiothus_) to the linnets
+(_Linota_)--if indeed these two can be properly separated. The linnets,
+through the genus _Leucosticte_, lead to the mountain-finches
+(_Montifringilla_), and the redpolls through the siskins
+(_Chrysomitris_) to the goldfinches (_Carduelis_); and these last again
+to the hawfinches, one group of which (_Coccothraustes_) is apparently
+not far distant from the chaffinches (_Fringilla_ proper), and the other
+(_Hesperiphona_) seems to be allied to the greenfinches (_Ligurinus_).
+Then there is the group of serins (_Serinus_), to which the canary
+belongs, that one is in doubt whether to refer to the vicinity of the
+greenfinches or that of the redpolls. The mountain-finches may be
+regarded as pointing first to the rock-sparrows (_Petronia_) and then to
+the true sparrows (_Passer_); while the grosbeaks pass into many varied
+forms and throw out a very well marked form--the bullfinches
+(_Pyrrhula_). Some of the modifications of the family are very gradual,
+and therefore conclusions founded on them are likely to be correct;
+others are further apart, and the links which connect them, if not
+altogether missing, can but be surmised. To avoid as much as possible
+prejudicing the case, we shall therefore take the different groups of
+_Fringillidae_ which it is convenient to consider in this article in an
+alphabetical arrangement.
+
+Of the Bullfinches the best known is the familiar bird (_Pyrrhula_
+_europaea_). The varied plumage of the cock--his bright red breast and
+his grey back, set off by his coal-black head and quills--is naturally
+attractive; while the facility with which he is tamed, with his engaging
+disposition in confinement, makes him a popular cage-bird,--to say
+nothing of the fact (which in the opinion of so many adds to his charms)
+of his readily learning to "pipe" a tune, or some bars of one. By
+gardeners the bullfinch has long been regarded as a deadly enemy, from
+its undoubted destruction of the buds of fruit-trees in spring-time,
+though whether the destruction is really so much of a detriment is by no
+means so undoubted. Northern and eastern Europe is inhabited by a larger
+form (_P. major_), which differs in nothing but size and more vivid
+tints from that which is common in the British Isles and western Europe.
+A very distinct species (_P. murina_), remarkable for its dull
+coloration, is peculiar to the Azores, and several others are found in
+Asia from the Himalayas to Japan. A bullfinch (_P. cassini_) has been
+discovered in Alaska, being the first recognition of this genus in the
+New World.
+
+The Canary (_Serinus canarius_) is indigenous to the islands whence it
+takes its name, as well, apparently, as to the neighbouring groups of
+the Madeiras and Azores, in all of which it abounds. It seems to have
+been imported into Europe at least as early as the first half of the
+16th century,[2] and has since become the commonest of cage-birds. The
+wild stock is of an olive-green, mottled with dark brown above, and
+greenish-yellow beneath. All the bright-hued examples we now see in
+captivity have been induced by carefully breeding from any chance
+varieties that have shown themselves; and not only the colour, but the
+build and stature of the bird have in this manner been greatly modified.
+The ingenuity of "the fancy," which might seem to have exhausted itself
+in the production of topknots, feathered feet, and so forth, has brought
+about a still further change from the original type. It has been found
+that by a particular treatment, in which the mixing of large quantities
+of vegetable colouring agents with the food plays an important part, the
+ordinary "canary yellow" may be intensified so as to verge upon a more
+or less brilliant flame colour.[3]
+
+Very nearly resembling the canary, but smaller in size, is the Serin
+(_Serinus hortulanus_), a species which not long since was very local in
+Europe, and chiefly known to inhabit the countries bordering on the
+Mediterranean. It has pushed its way towards the north, and has even
+been several times taken in England (Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, ed. 4, ii.
+pp. 111-116). A closely allied species (_S. canonicus_) is peculiar to
+Palestine.
+
+The Chaffinches are regarded as the type-form of _Fringillidae_. The
+handsome and sprightly _Fringilla coelebs_[4] is common throughout the
+whole of Europe. Conspicuous by his variegated plumage, his peculiar
+call note[5] and his glad song, the cock is almost everywhere a
+favourite. In Algeria the British chaffinch is replaced by a
+closely-allied species (_F. spodogenia_), while in the Atlantic Islands
+it is represented by two others (_F. tintillon_ and _F. teydea_)--all of
+which, while possessing the general appearance of the European bird, are
+clothed in soberer tints.[6] Another species of true _Fringilla_ is the
+brambling (_F. montifringilla_), which has its home in the birch forests
+of northern Europe and Asia, whence it yearly proceeds, often in flocks
+of thousands, to pass the winter in more southern countries. This bird
+is still more beautifully coloured than the chaffinch--especially in
+summer, when, the brown edges of the feathers being shed, it presents a
+rich combination of black, white and orange. Even in winter, however,
+its diversified plumage is sufficiently striking.
+
+With the exception of the single species of bullfinch already noticed as
+occurring in Alaska, all the above forms of finches are peculiar to the
+Palaearctic Region.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] About 200 species of these have been described, and perhaps 150
+    may really exist.
+
+  [2] The earliest published description seems to be that of Gesner in
+    1555 (_Orn._ p. 234), but he had not seen the bird, an account of
+    which was communicated to him by Raphael Seiler of Augsburg, under
+    the name of _Suckeruögele_.
+
+  [3] See also _The Canary Book_, by Robert L. Wallace; _Canaries and
+    Cage Birds_, by W.A. Blackston; and Darwin's _Animals and Plants
+    under Domestication_, vol. i. p. 295. An excellent monograph on the
+    wild bird is that by Dr Carl Bolle (_Journ. für Orn._, 1858, pp.
+    125-151).
+
+  [4] This fanciful trivial name was given by Linnaeus on the
+    supposition (which later observations do not entirely confirm) that
+    in Sweden the hens of the species migrated southward in autumn,
+    leaving the cocks to lead a celibate life till spring. It is certain,
+    however, that in some localities the sexes live apart during the
+    winter.
+
+  [5] This call-note, which to many ears sounds like "pink" or "spink,"
+    not only gives the bird a name in many parts of Britain, but is also
+    obviously the origin of the German _Fink_ and the English _Finch_.
+    The similar Celtic form _Pinc_ is said to have given rise to the Low
+    Latin _Pincio_, and thence come the Italian _Pincione_, the Spanish
+    _Pinzon_, and the French _Pinson_.
+
+  [6] This is especially the ease with _F. teydea_ of the Canary
+    Islands, which from its dark colouring and large size forms a kind of
+    parallel to the Azorean _Pyrrhula murina_.
+
+
+
+
+FINCHLEY, an urban district in the Hornsey parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, 7 m. N.W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on a
+branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 16,647; (1901) 22,126.
+A part, adjoining Highgate on the north, lies at an elevation between
+300 and 400 ft., while a portion in the Church End district lies lower,
+in the valley of the Dollis Brook. The pleasant, healthy situation has
+caused Finchley to become a populous residential district. Finchley
+Common was formerly one of the most notorious resorts of highwaymen near
+London; the Great North Road crossed it, and it was a haunt of Dick
+Turpin and Jack Sheppard, and was still dangerous to cross at night at
+the close of the 18th century. Sheppard was captured in this
+neighbourhood in 1724. The Common has not been preserved from the
+builder. In 1660 George Monk, marching on London immediately before the
+Restoration, made his camp on the Common, and in 1745 a regular and
+volunteer force encamped here, prepared to resist the Pretender, who was
+at Derby. The gathering of this force inspired Hogarth's famous picture,
+the "March of the Guards to Finchley."
+
+
+
+
+FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON (1718-1766), Prussian soldier, was born at
+Strelitz in 1718. He first saw active service in 1734 on the Rhine, as a
+member of the suite of Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Soon
+after this he transferred to the Austrian service, and thence went to
+Russia, where he served until the fall of his patron Marshal Münnich put
+an end to his prospects of advancement. In 1742 he went to Berlin, and
+Frederick the Great made him his aide-de-camp, with the rank of major.
+Good service brought him rapid promotion in the Seven Years' War. After
+the battle of Kolin (June 18th, 1757) he was made colonel, and at the
+end of 1757 major-general. At the beginning of 1759 Finck became
+lieutenant-general, and in this rank commanded a corps at the disastrous
+battle of Kunersdorf, where he did good service both on the field of
+battle and (Frederick having in despair handed over to him the command)
+in the rallying of the beaten Prussians. Later in the year he fought in
+concert with General Wunsch a widespread combat, called the action of
+Korbitz (Sept. 21st) in which the Austrians and the contingents of the
+minor states of the Empire were sharply defeated. For this action
+Frederick gave Finck the Black Eagle (Seyfarth, _Beilagen_, ii.
+621-630). But the subsequent catastrophe of Maxen (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR)
+abruptly put an end to Finck's active career. Dangerously exposed, and
+with inadequate forces, Finck received the king's positive order to
+march upon Maxen (a village in the Pirna region of Saxony).
+Unfortunately for himself the general dared not disobey his master, and,
+cut off by greatly superior numbers, was forced to surrender with some
+11,000 men (21st Nov. 1759). After the peace, Frederick sent him before
+a court-martial, which sentenced him to be cashiered and to suffer a
+term of imprisonment in a fortress. At the expiry of this term Finck
+entered the Danish service as general of infantry. He died at Copenhagen
+in 1766.
+
+  He left a work called _Gedanken über militärische Gegenstände_
+  (Berlin, 1788). See _Denkwürdigkeiten der militärischen Gesellschaft_,
+  vol. ii. (Berlin, 1802-1805), and the report of the Finck
+  court-martial in _Zeitschrift für Kunst, Wissenschaft und Geschichte
+  des Krieges_, pt. 81 (Berlin, 1851). There is a life of Finck in MS.
+  in the library of the Great General Staff.
+
+
+
+
+FINCK, HEINRICH (d. c. 1519), German musical composer, was probably born
+at Bamberg, but nothing is certainly known either of the place or date
+of his birth. Between 1492 and 1506 he was a musician in, and later
+possibly conductor of the court orchestra of successive kings of Poland
+at Warsaw. He held the post of conductor at Stuttgart from 1510 till
+about 1519, in which year he probably died. His works, mostly part songs
+and other vocal compositions, show great musical knowledge, and amongst
+the early masters of the German school he holds a high position. They
+are found scattered amongst ancient and modern collections of songs and
+other musical pieces (see R. Eitner, _Bibl. der Musiksammelwerke des 16.
+und 17. Jahrh._, Berlin, 1877). The library of Zwickau possesses a work
+containing a collection of fifty-five songs by Finck, printed about the
+middle of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+FINCK, HERMANN (1527-1558), German composer, the great-nephew of
+Heinrich Finck, was born on the 21st of March 1527 in Pirna, and died at
+Wittenberg on the 28th of December 1558. After 1553 he lived at
+Wittenberg, where he was organist, and there, in 1555, was published his
+collection of "wedding songs." Few details of his life have been
+preserved. His theoretical writing was good, particularly his
+observations on the art of singing and of making ornamentations in song.
+His most celebrated work is entitled _Practica musica, exempla variorum
+signorum, proportionum, et canonum, judicium de tonis ac quaedam de arte
+suaviter et artificiose cantandi continens_ (Wittenberg, 1556). It is of
+great historic value, but very rare.
+
+
+
+
+FINDEN, WILLIAM (1787-1852), English line engraver, was born in 1787. He
+served his apprenticeship to one James Mitan, but appears to have owed
+far more to the influence of James Heath, whose works he privately and
+earnestly studied. His first employment on his own account was engraving
+illustrations for books, and among the most noteworthy of these early
+plates were Smirke's illustrations to Don Quixote. His neat style and
+smooth finish made his pictures very attractive and popular, and
+although he executed several large plates, his chief work throughout his
+life was book illustration. His younger brother, Edward Finden, worked
+in conjunction with him, and so much demand arose for their productions
+that ultimately a company of assistants was engaged, and plates were
+produced in increasing numbers, their quality as works of art declining
+as their quantity rose. The largest plate executed by William Finden was
+the portrait of King George IV. seated on a sofa, after the painting by
+Sir Thomas Lawrence. For this work he received two thousand guineas, a
+sum larger than had ever before been paid for an engraved portrait.
+Finden's next and happiest works on a large scale were the "Highlander's
+Return" and the "Village Festival," after Wilkie. Later in life he
+undertook, in co-operation with his brother, aided by their numerous
+staff, the publication as well as the production of various galleries of
+engravings. The first of these, a series of landscape and portrait
+illustrations to the life and works of Byron, appeared in 1833 and
+following years, and was very successful. But by his _Gallery of British
+Art_ (in fifteen parts, 1838-1840), the most costly and best of these
+ventures, he lost the fruits of all his former success. Finden's last
+undertaking was an engraving on a large scale of Hilton's "Crucifixion."
+The plate was bought by the Art Union for £1470. He died in London on
+the 20th of September 1852.
+
+
+
+
+FINDLATER, ANDREW (1810-1885), Scottish editor, was born in 1810 near
+Aberdour, Aberdeenshire, the son of a small farmer. By hard study in the
+evening, after his day's work on the farm was finished, he qualified
+himself for entrance at Aberdeen University, and after graduating as
+M.A. he attended the Divinity classes with the idea of entering the
+ministry. In 1853 he began that connexion with the firm of W. & R.
+Chambers which gave direction to his subsequent activity. His first
+engagement was the editing of a revised edition of their _Information
+for the People_ (1857). In this capacity he gave evidence of qualities
+and acquirements that marked him as a suitable editor for _Chambers's
+Encyclopaedia_, then projected, and his was the directing mind that gave
+it its character. Many of the more important articles were written by
+him. This work occupied him till 1868, and he afterwards edited a
+revised edition (1874). He also had charge of other publications for the
+same firm, and wrote regularly for the _Scotsman_. In 1864 he was made
+LL.D. of Aberdeen University. In 1877 he gave up active work for
+Chambers, but his services were retained as consulting editor. He died
+in Edinburgh on the 1st of January 1885.
+
+
+
+
+FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE (1829-1893), English railway manager, was of pure
+Scottish descent, and was born at Rainhill, in Lancashire, on the 18th
+of May 1829. For some time he attended Halifax grammar school, but left
+at the age of fourteen, and began to learn practical masonry on the
+Halifax railway, upon which his father was then employed. Two years
+later he obtained a situation on the Trent Valley railway works, and
+when that line was finished in 1847 went up to London. There he was for
+a short time among the men employed in building locomotive sheds for the
+London & North-Western railway at Camden Town, and years afterwards,
+when he had become general manager of that railway, he was able to point
+out stones which he had dressed with his own hands. For the next two or
+three years he was engaged in a higher capacity as supervisor of the
+mining and brickwork of the Harecastle tunnel on the North Staffordshire
+line, and of the Walton tunnel on the Birkenhead, Lancashire & Cheshire
+Junction railway. In 1850 the charge of the construction of a section of
+the Shrewsbury & Hereford line was entrusted to him, and when the line
+was opened for traffic T. Brassey, the contractor, having determined to
+work it himself, installed him as manager. In the course of his duties
+he was brought for the first time into official relations with the
+London & North-Western railway, which had undertaken to work the
+Newport, Abergavenny & Hereford line, and he ultimately passed into the
+service of that company, when in 1862, jointly with the Great Western,
+it leased the railway of which he was manager. In 1864 he was moved to
+Euston as general goods manager, in 1872 he became chief traffic
+manager, and in 1880 he was appointed full general manager; this last
+post he retained until his death, which occurred on the 26th of March
+1893 at Edgware, Middlesex. He was knighted in 1892. Sir George Findlay
+was the author of a book on the _Working and Management of an English
+Railway_ (London, 1889), which contains a great deal of information,
+some of it not easily accessible to the general public, as to English
+railway practice about the year 1890.
+
+
+
+
+FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE (1824-1898), Scottish newspaper owner and
+philanthropist, was born at Arbroath on the 21st of October 1824, and
+was educated at Edinburgh University. He entered first the publishing
+office and then the editorial department of the _Scotsman_, became a
+partner in the paper in 1868, and in 1870 inherited the greater part of
+the property from his great uncle, John Ritchie, the founder. The large
+increase in the influence and circulation of the paper was in a great
+measure due to his activity and direction, and it brought him a fortune,
+which he spent during his lifetime in public benefaction. He presented
+to the nation the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, opened in
+Edinburgh in 1889, and costing over £70,000; and he contributed largely
+to the collections of the Scottish National Gallery. He held numerous
+offices in antiquarian, educational and charitable societies, showing
+his keen interest in these matters, but he avoided political office and
+refused the offer of a baronetcy. The freedom of Edinburgh was given him
+in 1896. He died at Aberlour, Banffshire, on the 16th of October 1898.
+
+
+
+
+FINDLAY, a city and the county-seat of Hancock county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+Blanchard's Fork of the Auglaize river, about 42 m. S. by W. of Toledo.
+Pop. (1890) 18,553; (1900) 17,613, (1051 foreign-born); (1910) 14,858.
+It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the
+Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Ohio
+Central railways, and by three interurban electric railways. Findlay
+lies about 780 ft. above sea-level on gently rolling ground. The city is
+the seat of Findlay College (co-educational), an institution of the
+Church of God, chartered in 1882 and opened in 1886; it has collegiate,
+preparatory, normal, commercial and theological departments, a school of
+expression, and a conservatory of music, and in 1907 had 588 students,
+the majority of whom were in the conservatory of music. Findlay is the
+centre of the Ohio natural gas and oil region, and lime and building
+stone abound in the vicinity. Among manufactures are refined petroleum,
+flour and grist-mill products, glass, boilers, bricks, tile, pottery,
+bridges, ditching machines, carriages and furniture. The total value of
+the factory product in 1905 was $2,925,309, an increase of 73.6% since
+1900. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Findlay was
+laid out as a town in 1821, was incorporated as a village in 1838, and
+was chartered as a city in 1890. The city was named in honour of Colonel
+James Findlay (c. 1775-1835), who built a fort here during the war of
+1812; he served in this war under General William Hull, and from 1825 to
+1833 was a Democratic representative in Congress.
+
+
+
+
+FINE, a word which in all its senses goes back to the Lat. _finire_, to
+bring to an end (_finis_). Thus in the common adjectival meanings of
+elegant, thin, subtle, excellent, reduced in size, &c., it is in origin
+equivalent to "finished." In the various substantival meanings in law,
+with which this article deals, the common idea underlying them is an end
+or final settlement of a matter.
+
+A fine, in the ordinary sense, is a pecuniary penalty inflicted for the
+less serious offences. Fines are necessarily discretionary as to amount;
+but a maximum is generally fixed when the penalty is imposed by statute.
+And it is an old constitutional maxim that fines must not be
+unreasonable. In Magna Carta, c. 111, it is ordained "_Liber homo non
+amercietur pro parvo delicto nisi secundum modum ipsius delicti, et pro
+magno delicto secundum magnitudinem delicti._"
+
+The term is also applied to payments made to the lord of a manor on the
+alienation of land held according to the custom of the manor, to
+payments made by a lessee on a renewal of a lease, and to other similar
+payments.
+
+Fine also denotes a fictitious suit at law, which played the part of a
+conveyance of landed property. "A fine," says Blackstone, "may be
+described to be an amicable composition or agreement of a suit, either
+actual or fictitious, by leave of the king or his justices, whereby the
+lands in question become or are acknowledged to be the right of one of
+the parties. In its original it was founded on an actual suit commenced
+at law for the recovery of the possession of land or other
+hereditaments; and the possession thus gained by such composition was
+found to be so sure and effectual that fictitious actions were and
+continue to be every day commenced for the sake of obtaining the same
+security." Freehold estates could thus be transferred from one person to
+another without the formal delivery of possession which was generally
+necessary to a feoffment. This is one of the oldest devices of the law.
+A statute of 18 Edward I. describes it as the most solemn and
+satisfactory of securities, and gives a reason for its name--"Qui quidem
+finis sic vocatur, eo quod finis et consummatio omnium placitorum esse
+debet, et hac de causa providebatur." The action was supposed to be
+founded on a breach of covenant: the defendant, owning himself in the
+wrong,[1] makes overtures of compromise, which are authorized by the
+_licentia concordandi_; then followed the concord, or the compromise
+itself. These, then were the essential parts of the performance, which
+became efficient as soon as they were complete; the formal parts were
+the _notes_, or abstract of the proceedings, and the _foot_ of the fine,
+which recited the final agreement. Fines were said to be of four kinds,
+according to the purpose they had in view, as, for instance, to convey
+lands in pursuance of a covenant, to grant revisionary interest only,
+&c. In addition to the formal record of the proceedings, various
+statutes required other solemnities to be observed, the great object of
+which was to give publicity to the transaction. Thus by statutes of
+Richard III. and Henry VII. the fine had to be openly read and
+proclaimed in court no less than sixteen times. A statute of Elizabeth
+required a list of fines to be exposed in the court of common pleas and
+at assizes. The reason for these formalities was the high and important
+nature of the conveyance, which, according to the act of Edward I. above
+mentioned, "precludes not only those which are parties and privies to
+the fine and their heirs, but all other persons in the world who are of
+full age, out of prison, of sound memory, and within the four seas, the
+day of the fine levied, unless they put in their claim on the foot of
+the fine within a year and a day." This barring by _non-claim_ was
+abolished in the reign of Edward III., but restored with an extension of
+the time to five years in the reign of Henry VII. The effect of this
+statute, intentional according to Blackstone, unintended and brought
+about by judicial construction according to others, was that a
+tenant-in-tail could bar his issue by a fine. A statute of Henry VIII.
+expressly declares this to be the law. Fines, along with the kindred
+fiction of recoveries, were abolished by the Fines and Recoveries Act
+1833, which substituted a deed enrolled in the court of chancery.
+
+Fines are so generally associated in legal phraseology with recoveries
+that it may not be inconvenient to describe the latter in the present
+place. A recovery was employed as a means for evading the strict law of
+entail. The purchaser or alienee brought an action against the
+tenant-in-tail, alleging that he had no legal title to the land. The
+tenant-in-tail brought a third person into court, declaring that he had
+warranted his title, and praying that he might be ordered to defend the
+action. This person was called the _vouchee_, and he, after having
+appeared to defend the action, takes himself out of the way. Judgment
+for the lands is given in favour of the plaintiff; and judgment to
+recover lands of equal value from the vouchee was given to the
+defendant, the tenant-in-tail. In real action, such lands when recovered
+would have fallen under the settlement of entail; but in the fictitious
+recovery the vouchee was a man of straw, and nothing was really
+recovered from him, while the lands of the tenant-in-tail were
+effectually conveyed to the successful plaintiff. A recovery differed
+from a fine, as to _form_, in being an action carried through to the
+end, while a fine was settled by compromise, and as to effect, by
+barring all reversions and remainders in estates tail, while a fine
+barred the issue only of the tenant. (See also EJECTMENT; PROCLAMATION.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Hence called _cognizor_; the other party, the purchaser, is the
+    _cognizee_.
+
+
+
+
+FINE ARTS, the name given to a whole group of human activities, which
+have for their result what is collectively known as Fine Art. The arts
+which constitute the group are the five greater arts of architecture,
+sculpture, painting, music and poetry, with a number of minor or
+subsidiary arts, of which dancing and the drama are among the most
+ancient and universal. In antiquity the fine arts were not explicitly
+named, nor even distinctly recognized, as a separate class. In other
+modern languages besides English they are called by the equivalent name
+of the beautiful arts (_belle arti_, _beaux arts_, _schöne Künste_). The
+fine or beautiful arts then, it is usually said, are those among the
+arts of man which minister, not primarily to his material necessities or
+conveniences, but to his love of beauty; and if any art fulfils both
+these purposes at once, still as fulfilling the latter only is it called
+a fine art. Thus architecture, in so far as it provides shelter and
+accommodation, is one of the useful or mechanical arts, and one of the
+fine arts only in so far as its structures impress or give pleasure by
+the aspect of strength, fitness, harmony and proportion of parts, by
+disposition and contrast of light and shade, by colour and enrichment,
+by variety and relation of contours, surfaces and intervals. But this,
+the commonly accepted account of the matter, does not really cover the
+ground. The idea conveyed by the words "love of beauty," even stretched
+to its widest, can hardly be made to include the love of caricature and
+the grotesque; and these are admittedly modes of fine art. Even the
+terrible, the painful, the squalid, the degraded, in a word every
+variety of the significant, can be so handled and interpreted as to be
+brought within the province of fine art. A juster and more inclusive,
+although clumsier, account of the matter might put it that the fine arts
+are those among the arts of man which spring from his impulse to do or
+make certain things in certain ways for the sake, first, of a special
+kind of pleasure, independent of direct utility, which it gives him so
+to do or make them, and next for the sake of the kindred pleasure which
+he derives from witnessing or contemplating them when they are so done
+or made by others.
+
+The nature of this impulse, and the several grounds of these pleasures,
+are subjects which have given rise to a formidable body of speculation
+and discussion, the chief phases of which will be found summarized under
+the heading AESTHETICS. In the present article we have only to attend to
+the concrete processes and results of the artistic activities of man; in
+other words, we shall submit (1) a definition of fine art in general,
+(2) a definition and classification of the principal fine arts
+severally, (3) some observations on their historical development.
+
+
+I. _Of Fine Art in General._
+
+  Premeditation essential to art.
+
+According to the popular and established distinction between art and
+nature, the idea of Art (q.v.) only includes phenomena of which man is
+deliberately the cause; while the idea of Nature includes all phenomena,
+both in man and in the world outside him, which take place without
+forethought or studied initiative of his own. Art, accordingly, means
+every regulated operation or dexterity whereby we pursue ends which we
+know beforehand; and it means nothing but such operations and
+dexterities. What is true of art generally is of course also true of the
+special group of the fine arts. One of the essential qualities of all
+art is premeditation; and when Shelley talks of the skylark's profuse
+strains of "unpremeditated art," he in effect lays emphasis on the fact
+that it is only by a metaphor that he uses the word art in this case at
+all; he calls attention to that which (if the songs of birds are as
+instinctive as we suppose) precisely makes the difference between the
+skylark's outpourings and his own. We are slow to allow the title of
+fine art to natural eloquence, to charm or dignity of manner, to
+delicacy and tact in social intercourse, and other such graces of life
+and conduct, since, although in any given case they may have been
+deliberately cultivated in early life, or even through ancestral
+generations, they do not produce their full effect until they are so
+ingrained as to have become unreflecting and spontaneous. When the
+exigencies of a philosophic scheme lead some writers on aesthetics to
+include such acts or traits of beautiful and expressive behaviour among
+the deliberate artistic activities of mankind, we feel that an essential
+distinction is being sacrificed to the exigencies of a system. That
+distinction common parlance very justly observes, with its opposition of
+"art" to "nature" and its phrase of "second nature" for those graces
+which have become so habitual as to seem instinctive, whether originally
+the result of discipline or not. When we see a person in all whose
+ordinary movements there are freedom and beauty, we put down the charm
+of these with good reason to inherited and inbred aptitudes of which the
+person has never thought or long since ceased to think, and could not
+still be thinking without spoiling the charm by self-consciousness; and
+we call the result a gift of nature. But when we go on to notice that
+the same person is beautifully and appropriately dressed, since we know
+that it is impossible to dress without thinking of it, we put down the
+charm of this to judicious forethought and calculation and call the
+result a work of art.
+
+
+  The active and the passive pleasures of fine art.
+
+The processes then of fine art, like those of all arts properly so
+called, are premeditated, and the property of every fine art is to give
+to the person exercising it a special kind of active pleasure, and a
+special kind of passive or receptive pleasure to the person witnessing
+the results of such exercise. This latter statement seems to imply that
+there exist in human societies a separate class producing works of fine
+art and another class enjoying them. Such an implication, in regard to
+advanced societies, is near enough the truth to be theoretically
+admitted (like the analogous assumption in political economy that there
+exist separate classes of producers and consumers). In developed
+communities the gifts and calling of the artist constitute in fact a
+separate profession of the creators or purveyors of fine art, while the
+rest of the community are its enjoyers or recipients. In the most
+primitive societies, apparently, this cannot have been so, and we can go
+back to an original or rudimentary stage of almost every fine art at
+which the separation between a class of producers or performers and a
+class of recipients hardly exists. Such an original or rudimentary stage
+of the dramatic art is presented by children, who will occupy themselves
+for ever with mimicry and make-believe for their own satisfaction, with
+small regard or none to the presence or absence of witnesses. The
+original or rudimentary type of the profession of imitative sculptors or
+painters is the cave-dweller of prehistoric ages, who, when he rested
+from his day's hunting, first took up the bone handle of his weapon, and
+with a flint either carved it into the shape, or on its surface
+scratched the outlines, of the animals of the chase. The original or
+rudimentary type of the architect, considered not as a mere builder but
+as an artist, is the savage who, when his tribe had taken to live in
+tents or huts instead of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of
+his tent or hut in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in
+some other way which was as good for shelter. The original type of the
+artificer or adorner of implements, considered in the same light, was
+the other savage who first took it into his head to fashion his club or
+spear in one way rather than another for the pleasure of the eye only
+and not for any practical reason, and to ornament it with tufts or
+markings. In none of these cases, it would seem, can the primitive
+artist have had much reason for pleasing anybody but himself. Again, the
+original or rudimentary type of lyric song and dancing arose when the
+first reveller clapped hands and stamped or shouted in time, in honour
+of his god, in commemoration of a victory, or in mere obedience to the
+blind stirring of a rhythmic impulse within him. To some very remote and
+solitary ancestral savage the presence or absence of witnesses at such a
+display may in like manner have been indifferent; but very early in the
+history of the race the primitive dancer and singer joined hands and
+voices with others of his tribe, while others again sat apart and looked
+on at the performance, and the rite thus became both choral and social.
+A primitive type of the instrumental musician is the shepherd who first
+notched a reed and drew sounds from it while his sheep were cropping.
+The father of all artists in dress and personal adornment was the first
+wild man who tattooed himself or bedecked himself with shells and
+plumes. In both of these latter instances, it may be taken as certain,
+the primitive artist had the motive of pleasing not himself only, but
+his mate, or the female whom he desired to be his mate, and in the last
+instance of all the further motive of impressing his fellow-tribesmen
+and striking awe or envy into his enemies. The tendency of recent
+speculation and research concerning the origins of art has been to
+ascribe the primitive artistic activities of man less and less to
+individual and solitary impulse, and more and more to social impulse and
+the desire of sharing and communicating pleasure. (The writer who has
+gone furthest in developing this view, and on grounds of the most
+careful study of evidence, has been Dr Yrjö Hirn of Helsingfors.)
+Whatever relative parts the individual and the social impulses may have
+in fact played at the outset, it is clear that what any one can enjoy or
+admire by himself, whether in the way of mimicry, of rhythmical
+movements or utterances, of imitative or ornamental carving and drawing,
+of the disposition and adornment of dwelling-places and utensils--the
+same things, it is clear, others are able also to enjoy or admire with
+him. And so, with the growth of societies, it came about that one class
+of persons separated themselves and became the ministers or producers of
+this kind of pleasures, while the rest became the persons ministered to,
+the participators in or recipients of the pleasures. Artists are those
+members of a society who are so constituted as to feel more acutely than
+the rest certain classes of pleasures which all can feel in their
+degree. By this fact of their constitution they are impelled to devote
+their active powers to the production of such pleasures, to the making
+or doing of some of those things which they enjoy so keenly when they
+are made and done by others. At the same time the artist does not, by
+assuming these ministering or creative functions, surrender his enjoying
+or receptive functions. He continues to participate in the pleasures of
+which he is himself the cause, and remains a conscious member of his own
+public. The architect, sculptor, painter, are able respectively to
+stand off from and appreciate the results of their own labours; the
+singer enjoys the sound of his own voice, and the musician of his own
+instrument; the poet, according to his temperament, furnishes the most
+enthusiastic or the most fastidious reader for his own stanzas. Neither,
+on the other hand, does the person who is a habitual recipient from
+others of the pleasures of fine art forfeit the privilege of producing
+them according to his capabilities, and of becoming, if he has the
+power, an _amateur_ or occasional artist.
+
+
+  Pleasures of fine art disinterested.
+
+Most of the common properties which have been recognized by consent as
+peculiar to the group of fine arts will be found on examination to be
+implied in, or deducible from, the one fundamental character generally
+claimed for them, namely, that they exist independently of direct
+practical necessity or utility. Let us take, first, a point relating to
+the frame of mind of the recipient, as distinguished from the producer,
+of the pleasures of fine art. It is an observation as old as Aristotle
+that such pleasures differ from most other pleasures of experience in
+that they are disinterested, in the sense that they are not such as
+nourish a man's body nor add to his riches; they are not such as can
+gratify him, when he receives them, by the sense of advantage or
+superiority over his fellow-creatures; they are not such as one human
+being can in any sense receive exclusively from the object which bestows
+them. Thus it is evidently characteristic of a beautiful building that
+its beauty cannot be monopolized, but can be seen and admired by the
+inhabitants of a whole city and by all visitors for all generations. The
+same thing is true of a picture or a statue, except in so far as an
+individual possessor may choose to keep such a possession to himself, in
+which case his pride in exclusive ownership is a sentiment wholly
+independent of his pleasure in artistic contemplation. Similarly, music
+is composed to be sung or played for the enjoyment of many at a time, and
+for such enjoyment a hundred years hence as much as to-day. Poetry is
+written to be read by all readers for ever who care for the ideas and
+feelings of the poet, and can apprehend the meaning and melody of his
+language. Hence, though we can speak of a class of the producers of fine
+art, we cannot speak of a class of its consumers, only of its recipients
+or enjoyers. If we consider other pleasures which might seem to be
+analogous to those of fine art, but to which common consent yet declines
+to allow that character, we shall see that one reason is that such
+pleasures are not in their nature thus disinterested. Thus the sense of
+smell and taste have pleasures of their own like the senses of sight and
+hearing, and pleasures neither less poignant nor very much less capable
+of fine graduation and discrimination than those. Why, then, is the title
+of fine art not claimed for any skill in arranging and combining them?
+Why are there no recognized arts of savours and scents corresponding in
+rank to the arts of forms, colours and sounds--or at least none among
+Western nations, for in Japan, it seems, there is a recognized and finely
+regulated social art of the combination and succession of perfumes? An
+answer commonly given is that sight and hearing are intellectual and
+therefore higher senses, that through them we have our avenues to all
+knowledge and all ideas of things outside us; while taste and smell are
+unintellectual and therefore lower senses, through which few such
+impressions find their way to us as help to build up our knowledge and
+our ideas. Perhaps a more satisfactory reason why there are no fine arts
+of taste and smell--or let us in deference to Japanese modes leave out
+smell, and say of taste only--is this, that savours yield only private
+pleasures, which it is not possible to build up into separate and durable
+schemes such that every one may have the benefit of them, and such as
+cannot be monopolized or used up. If against this it is contended that
+what the programme of a performance is in the musical art, the same is a
+_menu_ in the culinary, and that practically it is no less possible to
+serve up a thousand times and to a thousand different companies the same
+dinner than the same symphony, we must fall back upon that still more
+fundamental form of the distinction between the aesthetic and
+non-aesthetic bodily senses, upon which the physiological psychologists
+of the English school lay stress. We must say that the pleasures of
+taste cannot be pleasures of fine art, because their enjoyment is too
+closely associated with the most indispensable and the most strictly
+personal of utilities, eating and drinking. To pass from these lower
+pleasures to the highest; consider the nature of the delight derived from
+the contemplation, by the person who is their object, of the signs and
+manifestations of love. That at least is a beautiful experience; why is
+the pleasure which it affords not an artistic pleasure either? Why, in
+order to receive an artistic pleasure from human signs and manifestations
+of this kind, are we compelled to go to the theatre and see them
+exhibited in favour of a third person who is not really their object any
+more than ourselves? This is so, for one reason, evidently, because of
+the difference between art and nature. Not to art, but to nature and
+life, belongs love where it is really felt, with its attendant train of
+vivid hopes, fears, passions and contingencies. To art belongs love
+displayed where it is not really felt; and in this sphere, along with
+reality and spontaneousness of the display, and along with its momentous
+bearings, there disappear all those elements of pleasure in its
+contemplation which are not disinterested--the elements of personal
+exultation and self-congratulation, the pride of exclusive possession or
+acceptance, all these emotions, in short, which are summed up in the
+lover's triumphant monosyllable, "Mine." Thus, from the lowest point of
+the scale to the highest, we may observe that the element of personal
+advantage or monopoly in human gratifications seems to exclude, them from
+the kingdom of fine art. The pleasures of fine art, so far as concerns
+their passive or receptive part, seem to define themselves as pleasures
+of gratified contemplation, but of such contemplation only when it is
+disinterested--which is simply another way of saying, when it is
+unconcerned with ideas of utility.
+
+
+  An objection and its answer.
+
+Modern speculation has tended in some degree to modify and obscure this
+old and established view of the pleasures of fine art by urging that the
+hearer or spectator is not after all so free from self-interest as he
+seems; that in the act of artistic contemplation he experiences an
+enhancement or expansion of his being which is in truth a gain of the
+egoistic kind; that in witnessing a play, for instance, a large part of
+his enjoyment consists in sympathetically identifying himself with the
+successful lover or the virtuous hero. All this may be true, but does
+not really affect the argument, since at the same time he is well aware
+that every other spectator or auditor present may be similarly engaged
+with himself. At most the objection only requires us to define a little
+more closely, and to say that the satisfactions of the ego excluded from
+among the pleasures of fine art are not these ideal, sympathetic,
+indirect satisfactions, which every one can share together, but only
+those which arise from direct, private and incommunicable advantage to
+the individual.
+
+
+  Fine arts cannot be practised by rule and precept.
+
+Next, let us consider another generally accepted observation concerning
+the nature of the fine arts, and one, this time, relating to the
+disposition and state of mind of the practising artist himself. While
+for success in other arts it is only necessary to learn their rules and
+to apply them until practice gives facility, in the fine arts, it is
+commonly and justly said, rules and their application will carry but a
+little way towards success. All that can depend on rules, on knowledge,
+and on the application of knowledge by practice, the artist must indeed
+acquire, and the acquisition is often very complicated and laborious.
+But outside of and beyond such acquisitions he must trust to what is
+called genius or imagination, that is, to the spontaneous working
+together of an incalculably complex group of faculties, reminiscences,
+preferences, emotions, instincts in his constitution. This
+characteristic of the activities of the artist is a direct consequence
+or corollary of the fundamental fact that the art he practices is
+independent of utility. A utilitarian end is necessarily a determinate
+and prescribed end, and to every end which is determinate and prescribed
+there must be one road which is the best. Skill in any useful art means
+knowing practically, by rules and the application of rules, the best
+road to the particular ends of that art. Thus the farmer, the engineer,
+the carpenter, the builder so far as he is not concerned with the look
+of his buildings, the weaver so far as he is not concerned with the
+designing of the patterns which he weaves, possesses each his peculiar
+skill, but a skill to which fixed problems are set, and which, if it
+indulges in new inventions and combinations at all, can indulge them
+only for the sake of an improved solution of those particular problems.
+The solution once found, the invention once made, its rules can be
+written down, or at any rate its practice can be imparted to others who
+will apply it in their turn. Whereas no man can write down, in a way
+that others can act upon, how Beethoven conquered unknown kingdoms in
+the world of harmony, or how Rembrandt turned the aspects of gloom,
+squalor and affliction into pictures as worthy of contemplation as those
+into which the Italians before him had turned the aspects of spiritual
+exaltation and shadowless day. The reason why the operations of the
+artist thus differ from the operations of the ordinary craftsman or
+artificer is that his ends, being ends other than useful, are not
+determinate nor fixed as theirs are. He has large liberty to choose his
+own problems, and may solve each of them in a thousand different ways
+according to the prompting of his own ordering or creating instincts.
+The musical composer has the largest liberty of all. Having learned what
+is learnable in his art, having mastered the complicated and laborious
+rules of musical form, having next determined the particular class of
+the work which he is about to compose, he has then before him the whole
+inexhaustible world of appropriate successions and combinations of
+emotional sound. He is merely directed and not fettered, in the case of
+song, cantata, oratorio or opera, by the sense of the words which he has
+to set. The value of the result depends absolutely on his possessing or
+failing to possess powers which can neither be trained in nor
+communicated to any man. And this double freedom, alike from practical
+service and from the representation of definite objects, is what makes
+music in a certain sense the typical fine art, or art of arts.
+Architecture shares one-half of this freedom. It has not to copy or
+represent natural objects; for this service it calls in sculpture to its
+aid; but architecture is without the other half of freedom altogether.
+The architect has a sphere of liberty in the disposition of his masses,
+lines, colours, alternations of light and shadow, of plain and
+ornamented surface, and the rest; but upon this sphere he can only enter
+on condition that he at the same time fulfils the strict practical task
+of supplying the required accommodation, and obeys the strict mechanical
+necessities imposed by the laws of weight, thrust, support, resistance
+and other properties of solid matter. The sculptor again, the painter,
+the poet, has each in like manner his sphere of necessary facts, rules
+and conditions corresponding to the nature of his task. The sculptor
+must be intimately versed both in the surface aspects and the inner
+mechanism of the human frame alike in rest and motion, and in the rules
+and conditions for its representation in solid form; the painter in a
+much more extended range of natural facts and appearances, and the rules
+and conditions for representing them on a plane surface; the poet's art
+of words has its own not inconsiderable basis of positive and
+disciplined acquisition. So far as rules, precepts, formulas and other
+communicable laws or secrets can carry the artist, so far also the
+spectator can account for, analyse, and, so to speak, tabulate the
+effects of his art. But the essential character of the artist's
+operation, its very bloom and virtue, lies in those parts of it which
+fall outside this range of regulation on the one hand and analysis on
+the other. His merit varies according to the felicity with which he is
+able, in that region, to exercise his free choice and frame his
+individual ideal, and according to the tenacity with which he strives to
+grasp and realize his choice, or to attain perfection according to that
+ideal.
+
+
+  Fine arts and machinery: "art manufactures."
+
+In this connexion the question naturally arises, In what way do the
+progress and expansion of mechanical art affect the power and province
+of fine art? The great practical movement of the world in our age is a
+movement for the development of mechanical inventions and multiplication
+of mechanical products. So far as these inventions are applied to
+purposes purely useful, and so far as their products to not profess to
+offer anything delightful to contemplation, this movement in no way
+concerns our argument. But there is a vast multitude of products which
+do profess qualities of pleasantness, and upon which the ornaments
+intended to make them pleasurable are bestowed by machinery; and in
+speaking of these we are accustomed to the phrases art-industry,
+industrial art, art manufactures and the like. In these cases the
+industry or ingenuity which directs the machine is not fine art at all,
+since the object of the machine is simply to multiply as easily and as
+perfectly as possible a definite and prescribed impress or pattern. This
+is equally true whether the machine is a simple one, like the engraver's
+press, for producing and multiplying impressions from an engraved plate,
+or a highly complex one, like the loom, in which elaborate patterns of
+carpet or curtain are set for weaving. In both cases there exists behind
+the mechanical industry an industry which is one of fine art in its
+degree. In the case of the engraver's press, there exists behind the
+industry of the printer the art of the engraver, which, if the engraver
+is also the free inventor of the design, is then a fine art, or, if he
+is but the interpreter of the invention of another, is then in its turn
+a semi-mechanical skill applied in aid of the fine art of the first
+inventor. In the case of the weaver's loom there is, behind the
+mechanical industry which directs the loom at its given task, the fine
+art, or what ought to be the fine art, of the designer who has contrived
+the pattern. In the case of the engraving, the mechanical industry of
+printing only exists for the sake of bringing out and disseminating
+abroad the fine art employed upon the design. In the case of the carpet
+or curtain, the fine art is often only called in to make the product of
+the useful or mechanical industry of the loom acceptable, since the eye
+of man is so constituted as to receive pleasure or the reverse of
+pleasure from whatever it rests upon, and it is to the interest of the
+manufacturer to have his product so made as to give pleasure if it can.
+Whether the machine is thus a humble servant to the artist, or the
+artist a kind of humble purveyor to the machine, the fine art in the
+result is due to the former alone; and in any case it reaches the
+recipient at second-hand, having been put in circulation by a medium not
+artistic but mechanical.
+
+
+  Perfected machines: are they works of fine art?
+
+Again, with reference not to the application of mechanical contrivances
+but to their invention; is not, it may be inquired, the title of artist
+due to the inventor of some of the astonishingly complex and
+astonishingly efficient machines of modern-times? Does he not spend as
+much thought, labour, genius as any sculptor or musician in perfecting
+his construction according to his ideal, and is not the construction
+when it is done--so finished, so responsive in all its parts, so almost
+human--is not that worthy to be called a work of fine art? The answer is
+that the inventor has a definite and practical end before him; his ideal
+is not _free_; he deserves all credit as the perfector of a particular
+instrument for a prescribed function, but an artist, a free follower of
+the fine arts, he is not; although we may perhaps have to concede him a
+narrow sphere for the play of something like an artistic sense when he
+contrives the proportion, arrangement, form or finish of the several
+parts of his machine in one way rather than another, not because they
+work better so but simply because their look pleases him better.
+
+
+  Fine arts called a kind of play.
+
+Returning from this digression, let us consider one common observation
+more on the nature of the fine arts. They are activities, it is said,
+which were put forth not because they need but because they like. They
+have the activity to spare, and to put it forth in this way pleases
+them. Fine art is to mankind what play is to the individual, a free and
+arbitrary vent for energy which is not needed to be spent upon tasks
+concerned with the conservation, perpetuation or protection of life. To
+insist on the superfluous or optional character of the fine arts, to
+call them the play or pastime of the human race as distinguished from
+its inevitable and sterner tasks, is obviously only to reiterate our
+fundamental distinction between the fine arts and the useful or
+necessary. But the distinction, as expressed in this particular form,
+has been interpreted in a great variety of ways and followed out to an
+infinity of conclusions, conclusions regarding both the nature of the
+activities themselves and the character and value of their results.
+
+
+  The play idea as worked out by the English associationists.
+
+For instance, starting from this saying that the aesthetic activities
+are a kind of play, the English psychology of association goes back to
+the spontaneous cries and movements of children, in which their
+superfluous energies find a vent. It then enumerates pleasures of which
+the human constitution is capable apart from direct advantage or
+utility. Such are the primitive or organic pleasures of sight and
+hearing, and the secondary or derivative pleasures of association or
+unconscious reminiscence and inference that soon become mixed up with
+these. Such are also the pleasures derived from following any kind of
+mimicry, or representation of things real or like reality. The
+association psychology describes the grouping within the mind of
+predilections based upon these pleasures; it shows how the growing
+organism learns to govern its play, or direct its superfluous energies,
+in obedience to such predilections, till in mature individuals, and
+still more in mature societies, a highly regulated and accomplished
+group of leisure activities are habitually employed in supplying to a
+not less highly cultivated group of disinterested sensibilities their
+appropriate artistic pleasures. It is by Herbert Spencer that this view
+has been most fully and systematically worked out.
+
+
+  By Plato.
+
+Again, in the views of an ancient philosopher, Plato, and a modern poet,
+Schiller, the consideration that the artistic activities are in the
+nature of play, and the manifestations in which they result independent
+of realities and utilities, has led to judgments so differing as the
+following. Plato held that the daily realities of things in experience
+are not realities, indeed, but only far-off shows or reflections of the
+true realities, that is, of certain ideal or essential forms which can
+be apprehended as existing by the mind. Holding this, Plato saw in the
+works of fine art but the reflections of reflections, the shows of
+shows, and depreciated them according to their degree of remoteness from
+the ideal, typical or sense-transcending existences. He sets the arts of
+medicine, agriculture, shoemaking and the rest above the fine arts,
+inasmuch as they produce something serious or useful ([Greek:
+spoudaionti]). Fine art, he says, produces nothing useful, and makes
+only semblances ([Greek: eidolopiïke]), whereas what mechanical art
+produces are utilities, and even in the ordinary sense realities
+([Greek: autopoietike]).
+
+
+  By Schiller.
+
+In another age, and thinking according to another system, Schiller, so
+far from holding thus cheap the kingdom of play and show, regarded his
+sovereignty over that kingdom as the noblest prerogative of man.
+Schiller wrote his famous _Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man_ in
+order to throw into popular currency, and at the same time to modify and
+follow up in a particular direction, certain metaphysical doctrines
+which had lately been launched upon the schools by Kant. The spirit of
+man, said Schiller after Kant, is placed between two worlds, the
+physical world or world of sense, and the moral world or world of will.
+Both of these are worlds of constraint or necessity. In the sensible
+world, the spirit of man submits to constraint from without; in the
+moral world, it imposes constraint from within. So far as man yields to
+the importunities of sense, in so far he is bound and passive, the
+subject of outward shocks and victim of irrational forces. So far as he
+asserts himself by the exercise of will, imposing upon sense and outward
+things the dominion of the moral law within him, in so far he is free
+and active, the rational lord of nature and not her slave. Corresponding
+to these two worlds, he has within him two conflicting impulses or
+impulsions of his nature, the one driving him towards one way of living,
+the other towards another. The one, or sense-impulsion (_Stofftrieb_),
+Schiller thinks of as that which enslaves the spirit of man as the
+victim of matter, the other or moral impulsion (_Formtrieb_) as that
+which enthrones it as the dictator of form. Between the two the
+conflict at first seems inveterate. The kingdom of brute nature and
+sense, the sphere of man's subjection and passivity, wages war against
+the kingdom of will and moral law, the sphere of his activity and
+control, and every conquest of the one is an encroachment upon the
+other. Is there, then, no hope of truce between the two kingdoms, no
+ground where the two contending impulses can be reconciled? Nay, the
+answer comes, there is such a hope; such a neutral territory there
+exists. Between the passive kingdom of matter and sense, where man is
+compelled blindly to feel and be, and the active kingdom of law and
+reason, where he is compelled sternly to will and act, there is a
+kingdom where both sense and will may have their way, and where man may
+give the rein to all his powers. But this middle kingdom does not lie in
+the sphere of practical life and conduct. It lies in the sphere of those
+activities which neither subserve any necessity of nature nor fulfil any
+moral duty. Towards activities of this kind we are driven by a third
+impulsion of our nature not less essential to it than the other two, the
+impulsion, as Schiller calls it, of Play (_Spieltrieb_). Relatively to
+real life and conduct, play is a kind of harmless show; it is that which
+we are free to do or leave undone as we please, and which lies alike
+outside the sphere of needs and duties. In play we may do as we like,
+and no mischief will come of it. In this sphere man may put forth all
+his powers without risk of conflict, and may invent activities which
+will give a complete ideal satisfaction to the contending faculties of
+sense and will at once, to the impulses which bid him feel and enjoy the
+shocks of physical and outward things, and the impulse which bids him
+master such things, control and regulate them. In play you may impose
+upon Matter what Form you choose, and the two will not interfere with
+one another or clash. The kingdom of Matter and the kingdom of Form thus
+harmonized, thus reconciled by the activities of play and show, will in
+other words be the kingdom of the Beautiful. Follow the impulsion of
+play, and to the beautiful you will find your road; the activities you
+will find yourself putting forth will be the activities of aesthetic
+creation--you will have discovered or invented the fine arts.
+"Midway"--these are Schiller's own words--"midway between the formidable
+kingdom of natural forces and the hallowed kingdom of moral laws, the
+impulse of aesthetic creation builds up a third kingdom unperceived, the
+gladsome kingdom of play and show, wherein it emancipates man from all
+compulsion alike of physical and of moral forces." Schiller, the poet
+and enthusiast, thus making his own application of the Kantian
+metaphysics, goes on to set forth how the fine arts, or activities of
+play and show, are for him the typical, the ideal activities of the
+race, since in them alone is it possible for man to put forth his whole,
+that is his ideal self. "Only when he plays is man really and truly
+man." "Man ought only to play with the beautiful, and he ought to play
+with the beautiful only." "Education in taste and beauty has for its
+object to train up in the utmost attainable harmony the whole sum of the
+powers both of sense and spirit." And the rest of Schiller's argument is
+addressed to show how the activities of artistic creation, once
+invented, react upon other departments of human life, how the exercise
+of the play impulse prepares men for an existence in which the
+inevitable collision of the two other impulses shall be softened or
+averted more and more. That harmony of the powers which clash so
+violently in man's primitive nature, having first been found possible in
+the sphere of the fine arts, reflects itself, in his judgment, upon the
+whole composition of man, and attunes him, as an aesthetic being, into
+new capabilities for the conduct of his social existence.
+
+
+  The strong points of Schiller's theory.
+
+Our reasons for dwelling on this wide and enthusiastic formula of
+Schiller's are both its importance in the history of reflection--it
+remained, indeed, for nearly a century a formula almost classical--and
+the measure of positive value which it still retains. The notion of a
+sphere of voluntary activity for the human spirit, in which, under no
+compulsion of necessity or conscience, we order matters as we like them
+apart from any practical end, seems coextensive with the widest
+conception of fine art and the fine arts as they exist in civilized and
+developed communities. It insists on and brings into the light the free
+or optional character of these activities, as distinguished from others
+to which we are compelled by necessity or duty, as well as the fact that
+these activities, superfluous as they may be from the points of view of
+necessity and of duty, spring nevertheless from an imperious and a
+saving instinct of our nature. It does justice to the part which is, or
+at any rate may be, filled in the world by pleasures which are apart
+from profit, and by delights for the enjoyment of which men cannot
+quarrel. It claims the dignity they deserve for those shows and pastimes
+in which we have found a way to make permanent all the transitory
+delights of life and nature, to turn even our griefs and yearnings, by
+their artistic utterance, into sources of appeasing joy, to make amends
+to ourselves for the confusion and imperfection of reality by conceiving
+and imaging forth the semblances of things clearer and more complete,
+since in contriving them we incorporate with the experiences we have had
+the better experiences we have dreamed of and longed for.
+
+
+  Its weak points.
+
+One manifestly weak point of Schiller's theory is that though it asserts
+that man ought only to play with the beautiful, and that he is his best
+or ideal self only when he does so, yet it does not sufficiently
+indicate what kinds of play are beautiful nor why we are moved to adopt
+them. It does not show how the delights of the eye and spirit in
+contemplating forms, colours and movements, of the ear and spirit in
+apprehending musical and verbal sounds, or of the whole mind at once in
+following the comprehensive current of images called up by poetry--it
+does not clearly show how delights like these differ from those yielded
+by other kinds of play or pastime, which are by common consent excluded
+from the sphere of fine art.
+
+
+  Kinds of play which are not fine art.
+
+The chase, for instance, is a play or pastime which gives scope for any
+amount of premeditated skill; it has pleasures, for those who take part
+in it, which are in some degree analogous to the pleasures of the
+artist; we all know the claims made on behalf of the noble art of
+venerie (following true medieval precedent) by the knights and woodmen
+of Sir Walter Scott's romances. It is an obvious reply to say that
+though the chase is play to us, who in civilized communities follow it
+on no plea of necessity, yet to a not remote ancestry it was earnest; in
+primitive societies hunting does not belong to the class of optional
+activities at all, but is among the most pressing of utilitarian needs.
+But this reply loses much of its force since we have learnt how many of
+the fine arts, however emancipated from direct utility now, have as a
+matter of history been evolved out of activities primarily utilitarian.
+It would be more to the point to remark that the pleasures of the
+sportsman are the only pleasures arising from the chase; his exertions
+afford pain to the victim, and no satisfaction to any class of
+recipients but himself; or at least the sympathetic pleasures of the
+lookers-on at a hunt or at a battle are hardly to be counted as
+pleasures of artistic contemplation. The issue which they witness is a
+real issue; the skilled endeavours with which they sympathize are put
+forth for a definite practical result, and a result disastrous to one of
+the parties concerned.
+
+What then, it may be asked, about athletic games and sports, which hurt
+nobody, have no connexion with the chase, and give pleasure to thousands
+of spectators? Here the difference is, that the event which excites the
+spectator's interest and pleasure at a race or match or athletic contest
+is not a wholly unreal or simulated event; it is less real than life,
+but it is more real than art. The contest has no momentous practical
+consequences, but it is a contest, an [Greek: athlos], all the same, in
+which competitors put forth real strength, and one really wins and
+others are defeated. Such a struggle, in which the exertions are real
+and the issue uncertain, we follow with an excitement and a suspense
+different in kind from the feelings with which we contemplate a
+fictitious representation. For example, let the reader recall the
+feelings with which he may have watched a real fencing bout, and compare
+them with those with which he watches the simulated fencing bout in
+Shakespeare's _Hamlet_. The instance is a crucial one, because in the
+fictitious case the excitement is heightened by the introduction of the
+poisoned foil, and by the tremendous consequences which we are aware
+will turn, in the representation, on the issue. Yet because the fencing
+scene in _Hamlet_ is a representation, and not real, we find ourselves
+watching it in a mood quite different from that in which we watch the
+most ordinary real fencing-match with vizors and blunt foils; a mood
+more exalted, if the representation is good, but amid the aesthetic
+emotions of which the fluctuations of strained, if trivial, suspense and
+the eagerness of sympathetic participation find no place. "The delight
+of tragedy," says Johnson, "proceeds from our consciousness of fiction;
+if we thought murders and treasons real, they would please no more." So
+does the peculiar quality of our pleasure in watching the fencing-match
+in _Hamlet_, or the wrestling-match in _As You Like It_, depend on our
+consciousness of fiction: if we thought the matches real they might
+please us still, but please us in a different way. Again, of athletics
+in general, they are pursuits to a considerable degree definitely
+utilitarian, having for their specific end the training and
+strengthening of individual human bodies. Nevertheless, in some systems
+the title of fine arts has been consistently claimed, if not for
+athletics technically so called, and involving the idea of competition
+and defeat, at any rate for gymnastics, regarded simply as a display of
+the physical frame of man cultivated by exercise--as, for instance, it
+was cultivated by the ancient Greeks--to an ideal perfection of beauty
+and strength.
+
+
+  The play theory in the light of anthropological research.
+
+But apart from criticisms like these on the theory of Schiller, the
+Kantian doctrine of a metaphysical opposition between the senses and the
+reason has for most minds of to-day lost its validity, and with it falls
+away Schiller's derivative theory of a _Stofftrieb_ and a _Formtrieb_
+contending like enemies for dominion over the human spirit, with a
+neutral or reconciling _Spieltrieb_ standing between them. Even taking
+the existence of the _Spieltrieb_, or play-impulse, by itself as a plain
+and indubitable fact in human nature, the theory that this impulse is
+the general or universal source of the artistic activities of the race,
+which seemed adequate to thinkers so far apart as Schiller and Herbert
+Spencer, is found no longer to hold water. The tendency of recent
+thought and study on these subjects has been to abandon the abstract or
+dialectical method in favour of the methods of historical and
+anthropological inquiry. In the light of these methods it is claimed
+that the artistic activities of the race spring in point of fact from no
+single source but from a number of different sources. It is admitted
+that the play-impulse is one of these, and the allied and overlapping,
+but not identical, impulse of mimicry or imitation another. But it is
+urged at the same time that these twin impulses, rooted as they both are
+among the primordial faculties both of men and animals, are far from
+existing merely to provide a vent whereby the superfluous energies of
+sentient beings may discharge themselves at pleasure, but are
+indispensable utilitarian instincts, by which the young are led to
+practise and rehearse in sport those activities the exercise of which in
+earnest will be necessary to their preservation in the adult state. (The
+researches of Professor Karl Groos in this field seem to be conclusive.)
+A third impulse innate in man, though scarcely so primordial as the
+other two, and one which the animals cannot share with him, is the
+impulse of record or commemoration. Man instinctively desires, alike for
+safety, use and pleasure, to perpetuate and hand on the memory of his
+deeds and experiences whether by words or by works of his hands
+contrived for permanence. This impulse of record is the most stimulating
+ally of the impulse of mimicry or imitation, and perhaps a large part of
+the arts usually put down as springing from the love of imitation ought
+rather to be put down as springing from the commemorative or recording
+impulse, using imitation as its necessary means. Granting the existence
+in primitive man of these three allied impulses of play, of mimicry, and
+of record, it is urged that they are so many distinct though contiguous
+sources from which whole groups of the fine arts have sprung, and that
+all three in their origin served ends primarily or in great part
+utilitarian. Examining any of the rudimentary artistic activities of
+primitive man already mentioned: the decoration of the person with
+tattooings or strings of shells or teeth or feathers had primarily the
+object of attracting or impressing the opposite sex, or terrifying an
+enemy, or indicating the tribal relations of the person so adorned; some
+of the same purposes were served by the scratches and tufts and markings
+on weapons or utensils; the _graffiti_ or outline drawings of animals
+incised by cave-dwellers on bones are surmised to have sprung in like
+manner from the desire of conveying information, combined, probably,
+sometimes with that of obtaining magic power over the things
+represented; the erection of memorial shrines and images of all kinds,
+from the rudest upwards, had among other purposes the highly practical
+one of propitiating the spirits of the departed; and so on through the
+whole range of kindred activities. It is contended, next, that such
+activities only take on the character of rudimentary fine arts at a
+certain stage of their evolution. Before they can assume that character,
+they must come under the influence and control of yet another rooted and
+imperious impulse in mankind. That is the impulse of emotional
+self-expression, the instinct which compels us to seek relief under the
+stimulus of pent-up feeling; an instinct, it is added, second only in
+power to those which drive us to seek food, shelter, protection from
+enemies, and satisfaction for-sexual desires. According to a law of our
+constitution, the argument goes on, this need for emotional
+self-expression finds itself fully satisfied only by certain modes of
+activity; those, namely, which either have in themselves, or impress on
+their products, the property of rhythm, that is, of regular interval and
+recurrence, flow, order and proportion. Leaping, shouting, and clapping
+hands is the human animal's most primitive way of seeking relief under
+the pressure of emotion; so soon as one such animal found out that he
+both expressed and relieved his emotions best, and communicated them
+best to his fellows, when he moved in regular rhythm and shouted in
+regular time and with regular changes of pitch, he ceased to be a mere
+excited savage and became a primitive dancer, singer, musician--in a
+word, artist. So soon as another found himself taking pleasure in
+certain qualities of regular interval, pattern and arrangement of lines,
+shapes, and colours, apart from all questions of purpose or utility, in
+his tattooings and self-adornments, his decoration of tools or weapons
+or structures for shelter or commemoration, he in like manner became a
+primitive artist in ornamental and imitative design.
+
+The special qualities of pleasure felt and communicated by doing things
+in one way rather than another, independently of direct utility, which
+we indicated at the outset as characteristic of the whole range of the
+fine arts, appear on this showing to be dependent primarily on the
+response of our organic sensibilities of nerve and muscle, eye, ear and
+brain to the stimulus of rhythm, (using the word in its widest sense)
+imparted either to our own actions and utterances or to the works of our
+hands. Such pleasures would seem to have been first experienced by man
+directly, in the endeavour to find relief with limbs and voice from
+states of emotional tension, and then incidentally, as a kind of
+by-product arising and affording similar relief in the development of a
+wide range of utilitarian activities. Into the nature of those organic
+sensibilities, and the grounds of the relief they afford us when
+gratified, it is the province of physiological and psychological
+aesthetics to inquire: our business here is only with the activities
+directed towards their satisfaction and the results of those activities
+in the works of fine art. On the whole the account of the matter yielded
+by the method of anthropological research, and here very briefly
+summarized, may be accepted as answering more closely to the complex
+nature of the facts than any of the accounts hitherto current; and so we
+may expand our first tentative suggestion of a definition into one more
+complete, which from the nature of the case cannot be very brief or
+simple and must run somehow thus: _Fine art is everything which man does
+or makes in one way rather than another, freely and with premeditation,
+in order to express and arouse emotion, in obedience to laws of
+rhythmic movement or utterance or regulated design, and with results
+independent of direct utility and capable of affording to many permanent
+and disinterested delight._
+
+
+II. _Of the Fine Arts severally._
+
+  Modes in which the five greater arts have been classified.
+
+_Architecture_, _sculpture_, _painting_, _music_ and _poetry_ are by
+common consent, as has been said at the outset, the five principal or
+greater fine arts practised among developed communities of men. It is
+possible in thought to group these five arts in as many different orders
+as there are among them different kinds of relation or affinity. One
+thinker fixes his attention upon one kind of relations as the most
+important, and arranges his group accordingly; another upon another; and
+each, when he has done so, is very prone to claim for his arrangement
+the virtue of being the sole essentially and fundamentally true. For
+example, we may ascertain one kind of relations between the arts by
+inquiring which is the simplest or most limited in its effects, which
+next simplest, which another degree less simple, which least simple or
+most complex of them all. This, the relation of progressive complexity
+or comprehensiveness between the fine arts, is the relation upon which
+Auguste Comte fixed his attention, and it yields in his judgment the
+following order:--Architecture lowest in complexity, because both of the
+kinds of effects which it produces and of the material conditions and
+limitations under which it works; sculpture next; painting third; then
+music; and poetry highest, as the most complex or comprehensive art of
+all, both in its own special effects and in its resources for ideally
+calling up the effects of all the other arts as well as all the
+phenomena of nature and experiences of life. A somewhat similar grouping
+was adopted, though from the consideration of a wholly different set of
+relations, by Hegel. Hegel fixed his attention on the varying relations
+borne by the idea, or spiritual element, to the embodiment of the idea,
+or material element, in each art. Leaving aside that part of his
+doctrine which concerns, not the phenomena of the arts themselves, but
+their place in the dialectical world-plan or scheme of the universe,
+Hegel said in effect something like this. In certain ages and among
+certain races, as in Egypt and Assyria, and again in the Gothic age of
+Europe, mankind has only dim ideas for art to express, ideas
+insufficiently disengaged and realized, of which the expression cannot
+be complete or lucid, but only adumbrated and imperfect; the
+characteristic art of those ages is a symbolic art, with its material
+element predominating over and keeping down its spiritual; and such a
+symbolic art is architecture. In other ages, as in the Greek age, the
+ideas of men have come to be definite, disengaged, and clear; the
+characteristic art of such an age will be one in which the spiritual and
+material elements are in equilibrium, and neither predominates over nor
+keeps down the other, but a thoroughly realized idea is expressed in a
+thoroughly adequate and lucid form; this is the mode of expression
+called classic, and the classic art is sculpture. In other ages, again,
+and such are the modern ages of Europe, the idea grows in power and
+becomes importunate; the spiritual and material elements are no longer
+in equilibrium, but the spiritual element predominates; the
+characteristic arts of such an age will be those in which thought,
+passion, sentiment, aspiration, emotion, emerge in freedom, dealing with
+material form as masters or declining its shackles altogether; this is
+the romantic mode of expression, and the romantic arts are painting,
+music and poetry. A later systematizer, Lotze, fixed his attention on
+the relative degrees of freedom or independence which the several arts
+enjoy--their freedom, that is, from the necessity of either imitating
+given facts of nature or ministering, as part of their task, to given
+practical uses. In his grouping, instead of the order architecture,
+sculpture, painting, music, poetry, music comes first, because it has
+neither to imitate any natural facts nor to serve any practical end;
+architecture next, because, though it is tied to useful ends and
+material conditions, yet it is free from the task of imitation, and
+pleases the eye in its degree, by pure form, light and shade, and the
+rest, as music pleases the ear by pure sound; then, as arts all tied to
+the task of imitation, sculpture, painting and poetry, taken in
+progressive order according to the progressing comprehensiveness of
+their several resources.
+
+
+  Place of the minor or subordinate fine arts.
+
+The thinker on these subjects has, moreover, to consider the enumeration
+and classification of the lesser or subordinate fine arts. Whole
+clusters or families of these occur to the mind at once; such as
+_dancing_, an art subordinate to music, but quite different in kind;
+_acting_, an art auxiliary to _poetry_, from which in kind it differs no
+less; _eloquence_ in all kinds, so far as it is studied and not merely
+spontaneous; and among the arts which fashion or dispose material
+objects, _embroidery_ and the weaving of patterns, _pottery_,
+_glassmaking_, _goldsmith's work_ and _jewelry_, _joiner's work_,
+_gardening_ (according to the claim of some), and a score of other
+dexterities and industries which are more than mere dexterities and
+industries because they add elements of beauty and pleasure to elements
+of serviceableness and use. To decide whether any given one of these has
+a right to the title of fine art, and, if so, to which of the greater
+fine arts it should be thought of as appended and subordinate, or
+between which two of them intermediate, is often no easy task.
+
+
+  No one classification final or sufficient.
+
+The weak point of all classifications of the kind of which we have above
+given examples is that each is intended to be final, and to serve
+instead of any other. The truth is, that the relations between the
+several fine arts are much too complex for any single classification to
+bear this character. Every classification of the fine arts must
+necessarily be provisional, according to the particular class of
+relations which it keeps in view. And for practical purposes it is
+requisite to bear in mind not one classification but several. Fixing our
+attention, not upon complicated or problematical relations between the
+various arts, but only upon their simple and undisputed relations, and
+giving the first place in our consideration to the five greater arts of
+architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry, we shall find at
+least three principal modes in which every fine art either resembles or
+differs from the rest.
+
+
+    First classification: the shaping and the speaking arts.
+
+  1. _The Shaping and the Speaking Arts_ (_or Arts of Form and Arts of
+  Utterance, or Arts of Space and Arts of Time)_.--Each of the greater
+  arts either makes something or not which can be seen and handled. The
+  arts which make something which can be seen and handled are
+  architecture, sculpture and painting. In the products or results of
+  all these arts external matter is in some way or another manually put
+  together, fashioned or disposed. But music and poetry do not produce
+  any results of this kind. What music produces is something that can be
+  heard, and what poetry produces is something that can be either heard
+  or read--which last is a kind of ideal hearing, having for its avenue
+  the eye instead of the ear, and for its material, written signs for
+  words instead of the spoken words themselves. Now what the eye sees
+  from any one point of view, it sees all at once; in other words, the
+  parts of anything we see fill or occupy not time but space, and reach
+  us from various points in space at a single simultaneous perception.
+  If we are at the proper distance we see at one glance a house from the
+  ground to the chimneys, a statue from head to foot, and in a picture
+  at once the foreground and background, and everything that is within
+  the four corners of the frame. There is, indeed, this distinction to
+  be drawn, that in walking round or through a temple, church, house or
+  any other building, new parts and proportions of the building unfold
+  themselves to view; and the same thing happens in walking round a
+  statue or turning it on a turntable: so that the spectator, by his own
+  motions and the time it takes to effect them, can impart to
+  architecture and sculpture something of the character of time arts.
+  But their products, as contemplated from any one point of view, are in
+  themselves solid, stationary and permanent in space. Whereas the parts
+  of anything we hear, or, reading, can imagine that we hear, fill or
+  occupy not space at all but time, and can only reach us from various
+  points in time through a continuous series of perceptions, or, in the
+  case of reading, of images raised by words in the mind. We have to
+  wait, in music, while one note follows another in a theme, and one
+  theme another in a movement; and in poetry, while one line with its
+  images follows another in a stanza, and one stanza another in a canto,
+  and so on. It is a convenient form of expressing both aspects of this
+  difference between the two groups of arts, to say that architecture,
+  sculpture and painting are arts which give shape to things in space,
+  or, more briefly, shaping arts; and music and poetry arts which give
+  utterance to things in time, or, more briefly, speaking arts. These
+  simple terms of the _shaping_ and the _speaking_ arts (the equivalent
+  of the Ger. _bildende und redende Künste_) are not usual in English;
+  but they seem appropriate and clear; the simplest alternatives for
+  their use is to speak of the _manual_ and the _vocal_ arts, or the
+  arts of _space_ and the arts of _time_. This is practically, if not
+  logically, the most substantial and vital distinction upon which a
+  classification of the fine arts can be based. The arts which surround
+  us in space with stationary effects for the eye, as the house we live
+  in, the pictures on the walls, the marble figure in the vestibule, are
+  stationary, hold a different kind of place in our experience--not a
+  greater or a higher place, but essentially a different place--from the
+  arts which provide us with transitory effects in time, effects capable
+  of being awakened for the ear or mind at any moment, as a symphony is
+  awakened by playing and an ode by reading, but lying in abeyance until
+  we bid that moment come, and passing away when the performance or the
+  reading is over. Such, indeed, is the practical force of the
+  distinction that in modern usage the expression fine art, or even art,
+  is often used by itself in a sense which tacitly excludes music and
+  poetry, and signifies the group of manual or shaping arts alone.
+
+
+    Intermediate class of arts of motion.
+
+  As between three of the five greater arts and the other two, the
+  distinction on which we are now dwelling is complete. Buildings,
+  statues, pictures, belong strictly to sight and space; to time and to
+  hearing, real through the ear, or ideal through the mind in reading,
+  belong music and poetry. Among the lesser or subordinate arts,
+  however, there are several in which this distinction finds no place,
+  and which produce, in space and time at once, effects midway between
+  the stationary or stable, and the transitory or fleeting. Such is the
+  _dramatic_ art, in which the actor makes with his actions and
+  gestures, or several actors make with the combination of their
+  different actions and gestures, a kind of shifting picture, which
+  appeals to the eyes of the witnesses while the sung or spoken words of
+  the drama appeal to their ears; thus making of them spectators and
+  auditors at once, and associating with the pure time art of words the
+  mixed time-and-space art of bodily movements. As all movement
+  whatsoever is necessarily movement through space, and takes time to
+  happen, so every other fine art which is wholly or in part an act of
+  movement partakes in like manner of this double character. Along with
+  acting thus comes _dancing_. Dancing, when it is of the mimic
+  character, may itself be a kind of acting; historically, indeed, the
+  dancer's art was the parent of the actor's; whether apart from or in
+  conjunction with the mimic element, dancing is an art in which bodily
+  movements obey, accompany, and, as it were, express or accentuate in
+  space the time effects of music. _Eloquence_ or oratory in like
+  manner, so far as its power depends on studied and premeditated
+  gesture, is also an art which to some extent enforces its primary
+  appeal through the ear in time by a secondary appeal through the eye
+  in space. So much for the first distinction, that between the shaping
+  or space arts and the speaking or time arts, with the intermediate and
+  subordinate class of arts which, like acting, dancing, oratory, add to
+  the pure time element a mixed time-and-space element. These last can
+  hardly be called shaping arts, because it is his own person, and not
+  anything outside himself, which the actor, the dancer, the orator
+  disposes or adjusts; they may perhaps best be called arts of motion,
+  or moving arts.
+
+
+    Second classification: the imitative and non-imitative arts.
+
+  2. _The Imitative and the Non-Imitative Arts._--Each art either does
+  or does not represent or imitate something which exists already in
+  nature. Of the five greater fine arts, those which thus represent
+  objects existing in nature are sculpture, painting and poetry. Those
+  which do not represent anything so existing are music and
+  architecture. On this principle we get a new grouping. Two shaping or
+  space arts and one speaking or time art now form the imitative group
+  of sculpture, painting and poetry; while one space art and one time
+  art form the non-imitative group of music and architecture. The mixed
+  space-and-time arts of the actor, and of the dancer, so far as he or
+  she is also a mimic, belong, of course, by their very name and nature,
+  to the imitative class.
+
+
+    The imitative functions of art according to Aristotle.
+
+  It was the imitative character of the fine arts which chiefly occupied
+  the attention of Aristotle. But in order to understand the art
+  theories of Aristotle it is necessary to bear in mind the very
+  different meanings which the idea of imitation bore to his mind and
+  bears to ours. For Aristotle the idea of imitation or representation
+  (_mimesis_) was extended so as to denote the expressing, evoking or
+  making manifest of anything whatever, whether material objects or
+  ideas or feelings. Music and dancing, by which utterance or expression
+  is given to emotions that may be quite detached from all definite
+  ideas or images, are thus for him varieties of imitation. He says,
+  indeed, _most_ music and dancing, as if he was aware that there were
+  exceptions, but he does not indicate what the exceptions are; and
+  under the head of imitative music, he distinctly reckons some kinds of
+  instrumental music without words. But in our own more restricted
+  usage, to imitate means to copy, mimic or represent some existing
+  phenomenon, some definite reality of experience; and we can only call
+  those imitative arts which bring before us such things, either
+  directly by showing us their actual likeness, as sculpture does in
+  solid form, and as painting does by means of lines and colours on a
+  plane surface, or else indirectly, by calling up ideas or images of
+  them in the mind, as poetry and literature do by means of words. It is
+  by a stretch of ordinary usage that we apply the word imitation even
+  to this last way of representing things; since words are no true
+  likeness of, but only customary signs for, the thing they represent.
+  And those arts we cannot call imitative at all, which by combinations
+  of abstract sound or form express and arouse emotions unattended by
+  the recognizable likeness, idea or image of any definite thing.
+
+
+    Non-imitative character of music.
+
+  Now the emotions of music when music goes along with words, whether in
+  the shape of actual song or even of the instrumental accompaniment of
+  song, are no doubt in a certain sense attended with definite ideas;
+  those, namely, which are expressed by the words themselves. But the
+  same ideas would be conveyed to the mind equally well by the same
+  words if they were simply spoken. What the music contributes is a
+  special element of its own, an element of pure emotion, aroused
+  through the sense of hearing, which heightens the effect of the words
+  upon the feelings without helping to elucidate them for the
+  understanding. Nay, it is well known that a song well sung produces
+  its intended effect upon the feelings almost as fully though we fail
+  to catch the words or are ignorant of the language to which they
+  belong. Thus the view of Aristotle cannot be defended on the ground
+  that he was familiar with music only in an elementary form, and
+  principally as the direct accompaniment of words, and that in his day
+  the modern development of the art, as an art for building up
+  constructions of independent sound, vast and intricate fabrics of
+  melody and harmony detached from words, was a thing not yet imagined.
+  That is perfectly true; the immense technical and intellectual
+  development of music, both in its resources and its capacities, is an
+  achievement of the modern world; but the essential character of
+  musical sound is the same in its most elementary as in its most
+  complicated stage. Its privilege is to give delight, not by
+  communicating definite ideas, or calling up particular images, but by
+  appealing to certain organic sensibilities in our nerves of hearing,
+  and through such appeal expressing on the one part and arousing on the
+  other a unique kind of emotion. The emotion caused by music may be
+  altogether independent of any ideas conveyable by words. Or it may
+  serve to intensify and enforce other emotions arising at the same time
+  in connexion with the ideas conveyed by words; and it was one of the
+  contentions of Richard Wagner that in the former phase the art is now
+  exhausted, and that only in the latter are new conquests in store for
+  it. But in either case the music is the music, and _is like nothing
+  else_; it is no representation or similitude of anything whatsoever.
+
+
+    An objection and its answer.
+
+  But does not instrumental music, it will be said, sometimes really
+  imitate the sounds of nature, as the piping of birds, the whispering
+  of woods, the moaning of storms or explosion of thunder; or does it
+  not, at any rate, suggest these things by resemblances so close that
+  they almost amount in the strict sense to imitation? Occasionally, it
+  is true, music does allow itself these playful excursions into a
+  region of quasi-imitation or mimicry. It modifies the character of its
+  abstract sounds into something, so to speak, more concrete, and,
+  instead of sensations which are like nothing else, affords us
+  sensations which recognizably resemble those we receive from some of
+  the sounds of nature. But such excursions are hazardous, and to make
+  them often is the surest proof of vulgarity in a musician. Neither are
+  the successful effects of the great composers in evoking ideas of
+  particular natural phenomena generally in the nature of real
+  imitations or representations; although passages such as the notes of
+  the dove and nightingale in Haydn's _Creation_, and of the cuckoo in
+  Beethoven's _Pastoral Symphony_, the bleating of the sheep in the _Don
+  Quixote_ symphony of Richard Strauss, must be acknowledged to be
+  exceptions. Again, it is a recognized fact concerning the effect of
+  instrumental music on those of its hearers who try to translate such
+  effect into words, that they will all find themselves in tolerable
+  agreement as to the meaning of any passage so long as they only
+  attempt to describe it in terms of vague emotion, and to say such and
+  such a passage expresses, as the case may be, dejection or triumph,
+  effort or the relaxation of effort, eagerness or languor, suspense or
+  fruition, anguish or glee. But their agreement comes to an end the
+  moment they begin to associate, in their interpretation, definite
+  ideas with these vague emotions; then we find that what suggests in
+  idea to one hearer the vicissitudes of war will suggest to another, or
+  to the same at another time, the vicissitudes of love, to another
+  those of spiritual yearning and aspiration, to another, it may be,
+  those of changeful travel by forest, field and ocean, to another those
+  of life's practical struggle and ambition. The infinite variety of
+  ideas which may thus be called up in different minds by the same
+  strain of music is proof enough that the music is not _like_ any
+  particular thing. The torrent of varied and entrancing emotion which
+  it pours along the heart, emotion latent and undivined until the spell
+  of sound begins, that is music's achievement and its secret. It is
+  this effect, whether coupled or not with a trained intellectual
+  recognition of the highly abstract and elaborate nature of the laws of
+  the relation, succession and combinations of sounds on which the
+  effect depends, that has caused some thinkers, with Schopenhauer at
+  their head, to find in music the nearest approach we have to a voice
+  from behind the veil, a universal voice expressing the central purpose
+  and deepest essence of things, unconfused by fleeting actualities or
+  by the distracting duty of calling up images of particular and
+  perishable phenomena. "Music," in Schopenhauer's own words, "reveals
+  the innermost essential being of the world, and expresses the highest
+  wisdom in a language the reason does not understand."
+
+
+    Definition of music.
+
+  Aristotle endeavoured to frame a classification of the arts, in their
+  several applications and developments, on two grounds--the nature of
+  the objects imitated by each, and the means or instruments employed in
+  the imitation. But in the case of music, as it exists in the modern
+  world, the first part of this endeavour falls to the ground, because
+  the object imitated has, in the sense in which we now use the word
+  imitation, no existence. The means employed by music are successions
+  and combinations of vocal or instrumental sounds regulated according
+  to the three conditions of time and pitch (which together make up
+  melody) and harmony, or the relations of different strains of time and
+  tone cooperant but not parallel. With these means, music either
+  creates her independent constructions, or else accompanies, adorns,
+  enforces the imitative art of speech--but herself imitates not; and
+  may be best defined simply as _a speaking or time art, of which the
+  business is to express and arouse emotion by successions and
+  combinations of regulated sound_.
+
+
+    Non-imitative character of architecture.
+
+  That which music is thus among the speaking or time-arts, architecture
+  is among the shaping or space-arts. As music appeals to our faculties
+  for taking pleasure in non-imitative combinations of transitory sound,
+  so architecture appeals to our faculties for taking pleasure in
+  non-imitative combinations of stationary mass. Corresponding to the
+  system of ear-effects or combinations of time, tone and harmony with
+  which music works, architecture works with a system of eye-effects or
+  combinations of mass, contour, light and shade; colour, proportion,
+  interval, alternation of plain and decorated parts, regularity and
+  variety in regularity, apparent stability, vastness, appropriateness
+  and the rest. Only the materials of architecture are not volatile and
+  intangible like sound, but solid timber, brick, stone, metal and
+  mortar, and the laws of weight and force according to which these
+  materials have to be combined are much more severe and cramping than
+  the laws of melody and harmony which regulate the combinations of
+  music. The architect is further subject, unlike the musician, to the
+  dictates and precise prescriptions of utility. Even in structures
+  raised for purposes not of everyday use and necessity, but of
+  commemoration or worship, the rules for such commemoration and such
+  worship have prescribed a more or less fixed arrangement and
+  proportion of the parts or members, whether in the Egyptian temple or
+  temple-tomb, the Greek temple or heroon, or in the churches of the
+  middle ages and Renaissance in the West.
+
+
+    Analogies of architecture and music.
+
+  Hence the effects of architecture are necessarily less full of
+  various, rapturous and unforeseen enchantment than the effects of
+  music. Yet for those who possess sensibility to the pleasures of the
+  eye and the perfections of shaping art, the architecture of the great
+  ages has yielded combinations which, so far as comparison is
+  permissible between things unlike in their materials, fall little
+  short of the achievements of music in those kinds of excellence which
+  are common to them both. In the virtues of lucidity, of just
+  proportion and organic interdependence of the several parts or
+  members, in the mathematic subtlety of their mutual relations, and of
+  the transitions from one part or member to another, in purity and
+  finish of individual forms, in the character of one thing growing
+  naturally out of another and everything serving to complete the
+  whole--in these qualities, no musical combination can well surpass a
+  typical Doric temple such as the Parthenon at Athens. None, again, can
+  well surpass some of the great cathedrals of the middle ages in the
+  qualities of sublimity, of complexity, in the power both of expressing
+  and suggesting spiritual aspiration, in the invention of intricate
+  developments and ramifications about a central plan, in the union of
+  majesty in the main conception with fertility of adornment in detail.
+  In fancifulness, in the unexpected, in capricious and far-sought
+  opulence, in filling the mind with mingled enchantments of east and
+  west and south and north, music can hardly do more than a building
+  like St Mark's at Venice does with its blending of Byzantine elements,
+  Italian elements, Gothic elements, each carried to the utmost pitch of
+  elaboration and each enriched with a hundred caprices of ornament, but
+  all working together, all in obedience to a law, and "all beginning
+  and ending with the Cross."
+
+
+    Exceptional and limited admission of imitative forms in architecture.
+
+  In the case of architecture, however, as in the case of music, the
+  non-imitative character must not be stated quite without exception or
+  reserve. There have been styles of architecture in which forms
+  suggesting or imitating natural or other phenomena have held a place
+  among the abstract forms proper to the art. Often the mode of such
+  suggestions is rather symbolical to the mind than really imitative to
+  the eye; as when the number and relations of the heavenly planets were
+  imaged by that race of astronomers, the Babylonians, in the seven
+  concentric walls of their great temple, and in many other
+  architectural constructions; or as when the shape of the cross was
+  adopted, with innumerable slight varieties and modifications, for the
+  ground plan of the churches of Christendom. Passing to examples of
+  imitation more properly so called, it may be true, and was, at any
+  rate, long believed, that the aisles of Gothic churches, when once the
+  use of the pointed arch had been evolved as a principle of
+  construction, were partly designed to evoke the idea of the natural
+  aisles of the forest, and that the upsoaring forest trunks and
+  meeting branches were more or less consciously imaged in their piers
+  and vaultings. In the temple-palaces of Egypt, one of the regular
+  architectural members, the sustaining pier, is often systematically
+  wrought in the actual likeness of a conventionalized cluster of lotus
+  stems, with lotus flowers for the capital. When we come to the
+  fashion, not rare in Greek architecture, of carving this same
+  sustaining member, the column, in complete human likeness, and
+  employing caryatids, canephori, atlases or the like, to support the
+  entablature of a building, it then becomes difficult to say whether we
+  have to do with a work of architecture or of sculpture. The case, at
+  any rate, is different from that in which the sculptor is called in to
+  supply surface decoration to the various members of a building, or to
+  fill with the products of his own art spaces in the building specially
+  contrived and left vacant for that purpose. When the imitative feature
+  is in itself an indispensable member of the architectural
+  construction, to architecture rather than sculpture we shall probably
+  do best to assign it.
+
+
+    Definition of architecture.
+
+  Defining architecture, then (apart from its utility, which for the
+  present we leave out of consideration), as _a shaping art, of which
+  the function is to express and arouse emotion by combinations of
+  ordered and decorated mass_, we pass from the characteristics of the
+  non-imitative to those of the imitative group of arts, namely
+  sculpture, painting and poetry.
+
+
+    The imitative arts are arts of record using imitation as their means.
+
+  If we keep in mind the source and origin of these arts, we must
+  remember what has already been observed, that they spring by no means
+  from man's love of imitation alone, but from his desire to record and
+  commemorate experience, using the faculty of imitation as his means.
+  Mnemosyne (Memory) was in Greek tradition the mother of the Muses;
+  imitation, in the sense above defined, is but their instrument. Hence
+  we might think "arts of record" a better name for this group than arts
+  of imitation. The answer is--but a large part of pure architecture is
+  also commemorative; from the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt down there
+  are many monuments in which the impulse of men to perpetuate their own
+  or others' memories has worked without any aid of imitation. Hence as
+  the definition of a class of arts contrasted with architecture and
+  music the name "arts of record" would fail; and we have to fall back
+  on the current and established name of the "imitative arts." In
+  considering them we cannot do better than follow that Aristotelian
+  division which describes each art according, first, to the objects
+  which it imitates, and, secondly, to the means it employs.
+
+
+    Sculpture as an imitative art.
+
+  Taking sculpture first, as imitating a smaller range of objects than
+  the other two, and imitating them more completely: sculpture may have
+  for the objects of its imitation the shapes of whatever things possess
+  length, breadth and magnitude. For its means or instruments it has
+  solid form, which the sculptor either carves out of a hard substance,
+  as in the case of wood and stone, or models in a yielding substance,
+  as in the case of clay and wax, or casts in a dissolved or molten
+  substance, as in the case of plaster and of metal in certain uses, or
+  beats, draws or chases in a malleable and ductile substance, as in the
+  case of metal in other uses, or stamps from dies or moulds, a method
+  sometimes used in all soft or fusible materials. Thus a statue or
+  statuette may either be carved straight out of a block of stone or
+  wood, or first modelled in clay or wax, then moulded in plaster or
+  some equivalent material, and then carved in stone or cast in bronze.
+  A gem is wrought in stone by cutting and grinding. Figures in
+  jeweller's work are wrought by beating and chasing; a medallion by
+  beating and chasing or else by stamping from a die; a coin by stamping
+  from a die; and so forth. The process of modelling (Gr. [Greek:
+  plattein]) in a soft substance being regarded as the typical process
+  of the sculptor, the name _plastic art_ has been given to his
+  operations in general.
+
+
+    Sculpture in the round and in relief.
+
+  In general terms, the task of sculpture is to imitate solid form with
+  solid form. But sculptured form may be either completely or
+  incompletely solid. Sculpture in completely solid form exactly
+  reproduces, whether on the original or on a different scale, the
+  relations or proportions of the object imitated in the three
+  dimensions of length, breadth and depth or thickness. Sculpture in
+  incompletely solid form reproduces the proportions of the objects with
+  exactness only so far as concerns two of its dimensions, namely, those
+  of length and breadth; while the third dimension, that of depth or
+  thickness, it reproduces in a diminished proportion, leaving it to the
+  eye to infer, from the partial degree of projection given to the work,
+  the full projection of the object imitated. The former, or completely
+  solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture in the round; its works
+  stand free, and can be walked round and seen from all points. The
+  latter, or incompletely solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture
+  in relief; its works do not stand free, but are engaged in or attached
+  to a background, and can only be seen from in front. According, in the
+  latter kind of sculpture, to its degree of projection from the
+  background, a work is said to be in high or in low relief. Sculpture
+  in the round and sculpture in relief are alike in this, that the
+  properties of objects which they imitate are their external forms as
+  defined by their outlines--that is, by the boundaries and
+  circumscriptions of their masses--and their light and shade--the
+  lights and shadows, that is, which diversify the curved surfaces of
+  the masses in consequence of their alternations and gradations of
+  projection and recession. But the two kinds of sculpture differ in
+  this. A work of sculpture in the round imitates the whole of the
+  outlines by which the object imitated is circumscribed in the three
+  dimensions of space, and presents to the eye, as the object itself
+  would do, a new outline succeeding the last every moment as you walk
+  round it. Whereas a work of sculpture in relief imitates only one
+  outline of any object; it takes, so to speak, a section of the object
+  as seen from a particular point, and traces on the background the
+  boundary-line of that particular section, merely suggesting, by
+  modelling the surface within such boundary according to a regular, but
+  a diminished, ratio of projection, the other outlines which the object
+  would present if seen from all sides successively.
+
+
+    Subjects proper for sculpture in the round.
+
+  As sculpture in the round reproduces the real relations of a solid
+  object in space, it follows that the only kind of object which it can
+  reproduce with pleasurable effect according to the laws of regulated
+  or rhythmical design must be one not too vast or complicated, one that
+  can afford to be detached and isolated from its surroundings, and of
+  which all the parts can easily be perceived and apprehended in their
+  organic relations. Further, it will need to be an object interesting
+  enough to mankind in general to make them take delight in seeing it
+  reproduced with all its parts in complete imitation. And again, it
+  must be such that some considerable part of the interest lies in those
+  particular properties of outline, play of surface, and light and shade
+  which it is the special function of sculpture to reproduce. Thus a
+  sculptured representation in the round, say, of a mountain with cities
+  on it, would hardly be a sculpture at all; it could only be a model,
+  and as a model might have value; but value as a work of fine art it
+  could not have, because the object imitated would lack organic
+  definiteness and completeness; it would lack universality of interest,
+  and of the interest which it did possess, a very inconsiderable part
+  would depend upon its properties of outline, surface, and light and
+  shade. Obviously there is no kind of object in the world that so well
+  unites the required conditions for pleasurable imitation in sculpture
+  as the human body. It is at once the most complete of organisms, and
+  the shape of all others the most subtle as well as the most
+  intelligible in its outlines; the most habitually detached in active
+  or stationary freedom; the most interesting to mankind, because its
+  own; the richest in those particular effects, contours and
+  modulations, contrasts, harmonies and transitions of modelled surface
+  and circumscribing line, which it is the prerogative of sculpture to
+  imitate. Accordingly the object of imitation for this art is
+  pre-eminently the body of man or woman. That it has not been for the
+  sake of representing men and women as such, but for the sake of
+  representing gods in the likeness of men and women, that the human
+  form has been most enthusiastically studied, does not affect this fact
+  in the theory of the art, though it is a consideration of great
+  importance in its history. Besides the human form, sculpture may
+  imitate the forms of those of the lower animals whose physical
+  endowments have something of a kindred perfection, with other natural
+  or artificial objects as may be needed merely by way of accessory or
+  symbol. The body must for the purposes of this art be divested of
+  covering, or covered only with such tissues as reveal, translate or
+  play about without concealing it. Chiefly in lands and ages where
+  climate and social use have given the sculptor the opportunity of
+  studying human forms so draped or undraped has this art attained
+  perfection, and become exemplary and enviable to that of other races.
+
+
+    Subjects proper for sculpture in relief.
+
+  Relief sculpture is more closely connected with architecture than the
+  other kind, and indeed is commonly used in subordination to it. But if
+  its task is thus somewhat different from that of sculpture in the
+  round, its principal objects of imitation are the same. The human body
+  remains the principal theme of the sculptor in relief; but the nature
+  of his art allows, and sometimes compels, him to include other objects
+  in the range of his imitation. As he has not to represent the real
+  depth or projection of things, but only to suggest them according to a
+  ratio which he may fix himself, so he can introduce into the third or
+  depth dimension, thus arbitrarily reduced, a multitude of objects for
+  which the sculptor in the round, having to observe the real ratio of
+  the three dimensions, has no room. He cam place one figure in slightly
+  raised outline emerging from behind the more fully raised outline of
+  another, and by the same system can add to his representation rocks,
+  trees, nay mountains and cities and birds on the wing. But the more he
+  uses this liberty the less will he be truly a sculptor. Solid
+  modelling, and real light and shade, are the special means or
+  instrument of effect which the sculptor alone among imitative artists
+  enjoys. Single outlines and contours, the choice of one particular
+  section and the tracing of its circumscription, are means which the
+  sculptor enjoys in common with the painter or draughtsman. And indeed,
+  when we consider works executed wholly or in part in very low relief,
+  whether Assyrian battle-pieces and hunting-pieces in alabaster or
+  bronze, or the backgrounds carved in bronze, marble or wood by the
+  Italian sculptors who followed the example set by Ghiberti at the
+  Renaissance, we shall see that the principle of such work is not the
+  principle of sculpture at all. Its effect depends little on qualities
+  of surface-light and shadow, and mainly on qualities of contour, as
+  traced by a slight line of shadow on the side away from the light, and
+  a slight line of light on the side next to it. And we may fairly
+  hesitate whether we shall rank the artist who works on this principle,
+  which is properly a graphic rather than a plastic principle, among
+  sculptors or among draughtsmen. The above are cases in which the
+  relief sculptor exercises his liberty in the introduction of other
+  objects besides human figures into his sculptured compositions. But
+  there is another kind of relief sculpture in which the artist has less
+  choice. That is, the kind in which the sculptor is called in to
+  decorate with carved work parts of an architectural construction which
+  are not adapted for the introduction of figure subjects, or for their
+  introduction only as features in a scheme of ornament that comprises
+  many other elements. To this head belongs most of the carving of
+  capitals, mouldings, friezes (except the friezes of Greek temples),
+  bands, cornices, and, in the Gothic style, of doorway arches, niches,
+  canopies, pinnacles, brackets, spandrels and the thousand members and
+  parts of members which that style so exquisitely adorned with true or
+  conventionalized imitations of natural forms. This is no doubt a
+  subordinate function of the art; and it is impossible, as we have seen
+  already, to find a precise line of demarcation between carving, in
+  this decorative use, which is properly sculpture, and that which
+  belongs properly to architecture.
+
+
+    Definition of sculpture.
+
+  Leaving such discussions, we may content ourselves with the definition
+  of sculpture as _a shaping art, of which the business is to express
+  and arouse emotion by the imitation of natural objects, and
+  principally the human body, in solid form, reproducing either their
+  true proportions in three dimensions, or their proportions in the two
+  dimensions of length and breadth only, with a diminished proportion in
+  the third dimension of depth or thickness._
+
+
+    Painting as an imitative art.
+
+  In considering bas-relief as a form of sculpture, we have found
+  ourselves approaching the confines of the second of the shaping
+  imitative arts, the graphic art or art of painting. Painting, as to
+  its means or instruments of imitation, dispenses with the third
+  dimension altogether. It imitates natural objects by representing them
+  as they are represented on the retina of the eye itself, simply as an
+  assemblage of variously shaped and variously shaded patches of colour
+  on a flat surface. Painting does not reproduce the third dimension of
+  reality by any third dimension of its own whatever; but leaves the eye
+  to infer the solidity of objects, their recession and projection,
+  their nearness and remoteness, by the same perspective signs by which
+  it also infers those facts in nature, namely, by the direction of
+  their several boundary lines, the incidence and distribution of their
+  lights and shadows, the strength or faintness of their tones of
+  colour.
+
+
+    Range of objects imitable by painting.
+
+  Hence this art has an infinitely greater range and freedom than any
+  form of sculpture. Near and far is all the same to it, and whatever
+  comes into the field of vision can come also into the field of a
+  picture; trees as well as persons, and clouds as well as trees, and
+  stars as well as clouds; the remotest mountain snows, as well as the
+  violet of the foreground, and far-off multitudes of people as well as
+  one or two near the eye. Whatever any man has seen, or can imagine
+  himself as seeing, that he can also fix by painting, subject only to
+  one great limitation,--that of the range of brightness which he is
+  able to attain in imitating natural colour illuminated by light. In
+  this particular his art can but correspond according to a greatly
+  diminished ratio with the effects of nature. But excepting this it can
+  do for the eye almost all that nature herself does; or at least all
+  that nature would do if man had only one eye since the three
+  dimensions of space produce upon our binocular machinery of vision a
+  particular stereoscopic effect of which a picture, with its two
+  dimensions only, is incapable. The range of the art being thus almost
+  unbounded, its selections have naturally been dictated by the varying
+  interest felt in this or that subject of representation by the
+  societies among whom the art has at various times been practised. As
+  in sculpture, so in painting, the human form has always held the first
+  place. For the painter, the intervention of costume between man and
+  his environment is not a misfortune in the same degree as it is for
+  the sculptor. For him, clothes of whatever fashion or amplitude have
+  their own charm; they serve to diversify the aspect of the world, and
+  to express the characters and stations, if not the physical frames, of
+  his personages; and he is as happy or happier among the brocades of
+  Venice as among the bare limbs of the Spartan palaestra. Along with
+  man, there come into painting all animals and vegetation, all man's
+  furniture and belongings, his dwelling-places, fields and landscape;
+  and in modern times also landscape and nature for their own sakes,
+  skies, seas, mountains and wildernesses apart from man.
+
+
+    The chief forms or modes of painting: line, light-and-shade and
+      colour.
+
+  Besides the two questions about any art, what objects does it imitate,
+  and by the use of what means or instruments, Aristotle proposes (in
+  the case of poetry) the further question, which of several possible
+  forms does the imitation in any given case assume? We may transfer
+  very nearly the same inquiry to painting, and may ask, concerning any
+  painter, according to which of three possible systems he works. The
+  three possible systems are (1) that which attends principally to the
+  configuration and relations of natural objects as indicated by the
+  direction of their boundaries, for defining which there is a
+  convention in universal use, the convention, that is, of line; this
+  may be called for short the system of _line_; (2) that which attends
+  chiefly to their configuration and relations as indicated by the
+  incidence and distribution of their lights and shadows--this is the
+  system of _light-and-shade_ or _chiaroscuro_; and (3) that which
+  attends chiefly, not to their configuration at all, but to the
+  distribution, qualities and relations of local colours upon their
+  surface--this is the system of _colour_. It is not possible for a
+  painter to imitate natural objects to the eye at all without either
+  defining their boundaries by outlines, or suggesting the shape of
+  their masses by juxtapositions of light and dark or of local colours.
+  In the complete art of painting, of course, all three methods are
+  employed at once. But in what is known as outline drawing and outline
+  engraving, one of the three methods only is employed, line; in
+  monochrome pictures, and in shaded drawings and engravings, two only,
+  line with light-and-shade; and in the various shadeless forms of
+  decorative painting and colour-printing, two only, line with colour.
+  Even in the most accomplished examples of the complete art of
+  painting, as was pointed out by Ruskin, we find that there almost
+  always prevails a predilection for some one of these three parts of
+  painting over the other two. Thus among the mature Italians of the
+  Renaissance, Titian is above all things a painter in colour,
+  Michelangelo in line, Leonardo in light-and-shade. Many academic
+  painters in their day tried to combine the three methods in equal
+  balance; to the impetuous spirit of the great Venetian, Tintoretto, it
+  was alone given to make the attempt with a great measure of success. A
+  great part of the effort of modern painting has been to get rid of the
+  linear convention altogether, to banish line and develop the resources
+  of the oil medium in imitating on canvas, more strictly than the early
+  masters attempted, the actual appearance of things on the retina as an
+  assemblage of coloured streaks and patches modified and toned in the
+  play of light-and-shade and atmosphere.
+
+
+    Technical varieties of the painter's craft.
+
+  It remains to consider, for the purpose of our classification, what
+  are the technical varieties of the painter's craft. Since we gave the
+  generic name of painting to all imitation of natural objects by the
+  assemblage of lines, colours and lights and darks on a single plane,
+  we must logically include as varieties of painting not only the
+  ordinary crafts of spreading or laying pictures on an opaque surface
+  in fresco, oil, distemper or water-colour, but also the craft of
+  arranging a picture to be seen by the transmission of light through a
+  transparent substance, in glass painting; the craft of fitting
+  together a multitude of solid cubes or cylinders so that their united
+  surface forms a picture to the eye, as in mosaic; the craft of
+  spreading vitreous colours in a state of fusion so that they form a
+  picture when hardened, as in enamel; and even, it would seem, the
+  crafts of weaving, tapestry, and embroidery, since these also yield to
+  the eye a plane surface figured in imitation of nature. As drawing we
+  must also count incised or engraved work of all kinds representing
+  merely the outlines of objects and not their modellings, as for
+  instance the _graffiti_ on Greek and Etruscan mirror-backs and
+  dressing-cases; while raised work in low relief, in which outlines are
+  plainly marked and modellings neglected, furnishes, as we have seen, a
+  doubtful class between sculpture and painting. In all figures that are
+  first modelled in the solid and then variously coloured, sculpture and
+  painting bear a common share; and by far the greater part both of
+  ancient and medieval statuary was in fact tinted so as to imitate or
+  at least suggest the colours of life. But as the special
+  characteristic of sculpture, solidity in the third dimension, is in
+  these cases present, it is to that art and not to painting that we
+  shall still ascribe the resulting work.
+
+
+    Definition of painting.
+
+  With these indications we may leave the art of painting defined in
+  general terms as a _shaping or space art, of which the business is to
+  express and arouse emotion by the imitation of all kinds of natural
+  objects, reproducing on a plane surface the relations of their
+  boundary lines, lights and shadows, or colours, or all three of these
+  appearances together_.
+
+
+    Poetry as an imitative art.
+
+  The next and last of the imitative arts is the speaking art of poetry.
+  The transition from sculpture and painting to poetry is, from the
+  point of view not of our present but of our first division among the
+  fine arts, abrupt and absolute. It is a transition from space into
+  time, from the sphere of material forms to the sphere of immaterial
+  images. Following Aristotle's method, we may define the objects of
+  poetry's imitation or evocation, as everything of which the idea or
+  image can be called up by words, that is, every force and phenomenon
+  of nature, every operation and result of art, every fact of life and
+  history, or every imagination of such a fact, every thought and
+  feeling of the human spirit, for which mankind in the course of its
+  long evolution has been able to create in speech an explicit and
+  appropriate sign. The means or instruments of poetry's imitation are
+  these verbal signs or words, arranged in lines, strophes or stanzas,
+  so that their sounds have some of the regulated qualities and direct
+  emotional effect of music.
+
+
+    The chief forms or modes of poetry.
+
+  The three chief modes or forms of the imitation may still be defined
+  as they were defined by Aristotle himself. First comes the _epic_ or
+  narrative form, in which the poet speaks alternately for himself and
+  his characters, now describing their situations and feelings in his
+  own words, and anon making each of them speak in the first person for
+  himself. Second comes the _lyric_ form, in which the poet speaks in
+  his own name exclusively, and gives expression to sentiments which are
+  purely personal. Third comes the _dramatic_ form, in which the poet
+  does not speak for himself at all, but only puts into the mouths of
+  each of his personages successively such discourse as he thinks
+  appropriate to the part. The last of these three forms of poetry, the
+  dramatic, calls, if it is merely read, on the imagination of the
+  reader to fill up those circumstances of situation, action and the
+  rest, which in the first or epic form are supplied by the narrative
+  between the speeches, and for which in the lyric or personal form
+  there is no occasion. To avoid making this call upon the imagination,
+  to bring home its effects with full vividness, dramatic poetry has to
+  call in the aid of several subordinate arts, the shaping or space art
+  of the scene-painter, the mixed time and space arts of the actor and
+  the dancer. Occasionally also, or in the case of opera throughout,
+  dramatic poetry heightens the emotional effect of its words with
+  music. A play or drama is thus, as performed upon the theatre, not a
+  poem merely, but a poem accompanied, interpreted, completed and
+  brought several degrees nearer to reality by a combination of
+  auxiliary effects of the other arts. Besides the narrative, the lyric
+  and dramatic forms of poetry, the _didactic_, that is the teaching or
+  expository form, has usually been recognized as a fourth. Aristotle
+  refused so to recognize it, regarding a didactic poem in the light not
+  so much of a poem as of a useful treatise. But from the _Works and
+  Days_ down to the _Loves of the Plants_ there has been too much
+  literature produced in this form for us to follow Aristotle here. We
+  shall do better to regard didactic poetry as a variety corresponding,
+  among the speaking arts, to architecture and the other manual arts of
+  which the first purpose is use, but which are capable of accompanying
+  and adorning use by a pleasurable appeal to the emotions.
+
+
+    Definition of poetry.
+
+  We shall hardly make our definition of poetry, considered as an
+  imitative art, too extended if we say that it is _a speaking or time
+  art, of which the business is to express and arouse emotion by
+  imitating or evoking all or any of the phenomena of life and nature by
+  means of words arranged with musical regularity_.
+
+
+    Relation of poetry as an Imitative art to painting and sculpture.
+
+  Neither the varieties of poetical form, however, nor the modes in
+  which the several forms have been mixed up and interchanged--as such
+  mixture and interchange are implied, for instance, by the very title
+  of a group of Robert Browning's poems, the _Dramatic Lyrics_,--the
+  observation of neither of these things concerns us here so much as the
+  observation of the relations of poetry in general, as an art of
+  representation or imitation, to the other arts of imitation, painting
+  and sculpture. Verbal signs have been invented for innumerable things
+  which cannot be imitated or represented at all either in solid form or
+  upon a coloured surface. You cannot carve or paint a sigh, or the
+  feeling which finds utterance in a sigh; you can only suggest the idea
+  of the feeling, and that in a somewhat imperfect and uncertain way, by
+  representing the physical aspect of a person in the act of breathing
+  the sigh. Similarly you cannot carve or paint any movement, but only
+  figures or groups in which the movement is represented as arrested in
+  some particular point of time; nor any abstract idea, but only figures
+  or groups in which the abstract idea, as for example release,
+  captivity, mercy, is symbolized in the concrete shape of allegorical
+  or illustrative figures. The whole field of thought, of propositions,
+  arguments, injunctions and exhortations is open to poetry but closed
+  to sculpture and painting. Poetry, by its command over the regions of
+  the understanding, of abstraction, of the movement and succession of
+  things in time, by its power of instantaneously associating one image
+  with another from the remotest regions of the mind, by its names for
+  every shade of feeling and experience, exercises a sovereignty a
+  hundred times more extended than that of either of the two arts of
+  manual imitation. But, on the other hand, words do not as a rule bear
+  any sensible resemblance to the things of which they are the signs.
+  There are few things that words do not stand for or cannot call up;
+  but they stand for things symbolically and at second hand, and call
+  them up only in idea, and not in actual presentment to the senses. In
+  strictness, the business of poetry should not be called imitation at
+  all, but rather evocation. The strength of painting and sculpture lies
+  in this, that though there are countless phenomena which they cannot
+  represent at all, and countless more which they can only represent by
+  symbolism and suggestion more or less ambiguous, yet there are a few
+  which each can represent more fully and directly than poetry can
+  represent any thing at all. These are, for sculpture, the forms or
+  configurations of things, which that art represents directly to the
+  senses both of sight and touch; and for painting the forms and colours
+  of things and their relations to each other in space, air and light,
+  which the art represents to the sense of sight, directly so far as
+  regards surface appearance, and indirectly so far as regards solidity.
+  For many delicate qualities and differences in these visible relations
+  of things there are no words at all--the vocabulary of colours, for
+  instance, is in all languages surprisingly scanty and primitive. And
+  those visible qualities, for which words exist, the words still call
+  up indistinctly and at second hand. Poetry is almost as powerless to
+  bring before the mind's eye with precision a particular shade of red
+  or blue, a particular linear arrangement or harmony of colour-tones,
+  as sculpture is to relate a continuous experience, or painting to
+  enforce an exhortation or embellish an abstract proposition. The wise
+  poet, as has been justly remarked, when he wants to produce a vivid
+  impression of a visible thing, does not attempt to catalogue or
+  describe its stationary beauties. Shakespeare, when he wants to make
+  us realize the perfections of Perdita, puts into the mouth of
+  Florizel, not, as a bad poet would have done, a description of her
+  lilies and carnations, and the other charms which a painter could
+  make us realize better, but the praises of her ways and movements; and
+  with the final touch,
+
+            "When you do dance, I wish you
+    A wave o' the sea, that you might ever do
+    Nothing but that,"
+
+  he evokes a twofold image of beauty in motion, of which one half might
+  be the despair of those painters who designed the dancing maidens of
+  the walls of Herculaneum, and the other half the despair of all
+  artists who in modern times have tried to fix upon their canvas the
+  buoyancy and grace of dancing waves. In representing the perfections
+  of form in a bride's slender foot, the speaking art, poetry, would
+  find itself distanced by either of the shaping arts, painting or
+  sculpture. Suckling calls up the charm of such a foot by describing it
+  not at rest but in motion, and in the feet which
+
+            "Beneath the petticoat,
+    Like little mice, went in and out,"
+
+  leaves us an image which baffles the power of the other arts. Keats,
+  when he tells of Madeline unclasping her jewels on St Agnes's Eve,
+  does not attempt to conjure up their lustre to the eye, as a painter
+  would have done, and a less poetical poet might have tried to do, but
+  in the words "her warmed jewels" evoked instead a quality, breathing
+  of the very life of the wearer, which painting could not even have
+  remotely suggested.
+
+
+    General law of the relative means and capacities of the several
+      imitative arts: sculpture.
+
+  The differences between the means and capacities of representation
+  proper to the shaping arts of sculpture and painting and those proper
+  to the speaking art of poetry were for a long while overlooked or
+  misunderstood. The maxim of Simonides, that poetry is a kind of
+  articulate painting, and painting a kind of mute poetry, was vaguely
+  accepted until the days of Lessing, and first overthrown by the famous
+  treatise of that writer on the Laocoön. Following in the main the
+  lines laid down by Lessing, other writers have worked out the
+  conditions of representation or imitation proper not only to sculpture
+  and painting as distinguished from poetry, but to sculpture as
+  distinguished from painting. The chief points established may really
+  all be condensed under one simple law, _that the more direct and
+  complete the imitation effected by any art, the less is the range and
+  number of phenomena which that art can imitate_. Thus sculpture in the
+  round imitates its objects much more completely and directly than any
+  other single art, reproducing one whole set of their relations which
+  no other art attempts to reproduce at all, namely, their solid
+  relations in space. Precisely for this reason, such sculpture is
+  limited to a narrow class of objects. As we have seen, it must
+  represent human or animal figures; nothing else has enough either of
+  universal interest or of organic beauty and perfection. Sculpture in
+  the round must represent such figures standing free in full clearness
+  and detachment, in combinations and with accessories comparatively
+  simple, on pain of teasing the eye with a complexity and entanglement
+  of masses and lights and shadows; and in attitudes comparatively
+  quiet, on pain of violating, or appearing to violate, the conditions
+  of mechanical stability. Being a stationary or space-art, it can only
+  represent a single action, which it fixes and perpetuates for ever;
+  and it must therefore choose for that action one as significant and
+  full of interest as is consistent with due observation of the above
+  laws of simplicity and stability. Such actions, and the facial
+  expressions accompanying them, should not be those of sharp crisis or
+  transition, because sudden movement or flitting expression, thus
+  arrested and perpetuated in full and solid imitation by bronze or
+  marble, would be displeasing and not pleasing to the spectator. They
+  must be actions and expressions in some degree settled, collected and
+  capable of continuance, and in their collectedness must at the same
+  time suggest to the spectator as much as possible of the circumstances
+  which have led up to them and those which will next ensue. These
+  conditions evidently bring within a very narrow range the phenomena
+  with which this art can deal, and explain why, as a matter of fact,
+  the greater number of statues represent simply a single figure in
+  repose, with the addition of one or two symbolic or customary
+  attributes. Paint a statue (as the greater part both of Greek and
+  Gothic statuary was in fact painted), and you bring it to a still
+  further point of imitative completeness to the eye; but you do not
+  thereby lighten the restrictions laid upon the art by its material, so
+  long as it undertakes to reproduce in full the third or solid
+  dimension of bodies. You only begin to lighten its restrictions when
+  you begin to relieve it of that duty. We have traced how sculpture in
+  relief, which is satisfied with only a partial reproduction of the
+  third dimension, is free to introduce a larger range of objects,
+  bringing forward secondary figures and accessories, indicating distant
+  planes, indulging even in considerable violence and complexity of
+  motion, since limbs attached to a background do not alarm the
+  spectator by any idea of danger of fragility. But sculpture in the
+  round has not this licence. It is true that the art has at various
+  periods made efforts to escape from its natural limitations. Several
+  of the later schools of antiquity, especially that of Pergamus in the
+  3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., strove hard both for violence of
+  expression and complexity of design, not only in relief-sculptures,
+  like the great altar-friezes now at Berlin, but in detached groups,
+  such as (_pace_ Lessing) the Laocoön itself. Many modern _virtuosi_ of
+  sculpture since Bernini have misspent their skill in trying to fix in
+  marble both the restlessness of momentary actions and the flimsiness
+  of fluttering tissues. In latter days Auguste Rodin, an innovating
+  master with a real genius for his art, has attacked many problems of
+  complicated grouping, more or less in the nature of the Greek
+  _symplegmata_, but keeps these interlocked or contorted actions
+  circumscribed within strict limiting lines, so that they do not by
+  jutting or straggling suggest a kind of acrobatic challenge to the
+  laws of gravity. The same artist and others inspired by him have
+  further sought to emancipate sculpture from the necessity of rendering
+  form in clear and complete definition, and to enrich it with a new
+  power of mysterious suggestion, by leaving his figures wrought in part
+  to the highest finish and vitality of surface, while other parts
+  (according to a precedent set in some unfinished works of
+  Michelangelo) remain scarcely emergent from the rough-hewn or unhewn
+  block. But it may be doubted whether such experiments and expedients
+  can permanently do much to enlarge the scope of the art.
+
+
+    Means and capacities of painting.
+
+  Next we arrive at painting, in which the third dimension is dismissed
+  altogether, and nothing is actually reproduced, in full or partially,
+  except the effect made by the appearance of natural objects upon the
+  retina of the eye. The consequence is that this art can range over
+  distance and multitude, can represent complicated relations between
+  its various figures and groups of figures, extensive backgrounds, and
+  all those infinite subtleties of appearance in natural things which
+  depend upon local colours and their modification in the play of light
+  and shade and enveloping atmosphere. These last phenomena of natural
+  things are in our experience subject to change in a sense in which the
+  substantial or solid properties of things are not so subject. Colours,
+  shadows and atmospheric effects are naturally associated with ideas of
+  transition, mystery and evanescence. Hence painting is able to extend
+  its range to another kind of facts over which sculpture has no power.
+  It can suggest and perpetuate in its imitation, without breach of its
+  true laws, many classes of facts which are themselves fugitive and
+  transitory, as a smile, the glance of an eye, a gesture of horror or
+  of passion, the waving of hair in the wind, the rush of horses, the
+  strife of mobs, the whole drama of the clouds, the toss and gathering
+  of ocean waves, even the flashing of lightning across the sky. Still,
+  any long or continuous series of changes, actions or movements is
+  quite beyond the means of this art to represent. Painting remains, in
+  spite of its comparative width of range, tied down to the inevitable
+  conditions of a space-art: that is to say, it has to delight the mind
+  by a harmonious variety in its effects, but by a variety apprehended
+  not through various points of time successively, but from various
+  points in space at the same moment. The old convention which allowed
+  painters to indicate sequence in time by means of distribution in
+  space, dispersing the successive episodes of a story about the
+  different parts of a single picture, has been abandoned since the
+  early Renaissance; and Wordsworth sums up our modern view of the
+  matter when he says that it is the business of painting
+
+                          "to give
+    To one blest moment snatched from fleeting time
+    The appropriate calm of blest eternity."
+
+
+    Means and capacities of poetry.
+
+  Lastly, a really unfettered range is only attained by the art which
+  does not give a full and complete reproduction of any natural fact at
+  all, but evokes or brings natural facts before the mind merely by the
+  images which words convey. The whole world of movement, of continuity,
+  of cause and effect, of the successions, alternations and interaction
+  of events, characters and passions of everything that takes time to
+  happen and time to declare, is open to poetry as it is open to no
+  other art. As an imitative or, more properly speaking, an evocative
+  art, then, poetry is subject to no limitations except those which
+  spring from the poverty of human language, and from the fact that its
+  means of imitation are indirect. Poetry's account of the visible
+  properties of things is from these causes much less full, accurate and
+  efficient than the reproduction or delineation of the same properties
+  by sculpture and painting. And this is the sum of the conditions
+  concerning the respective functions of the three arts of imitation
+  which had been overlooked, in theory at least, until the time of
+  Lessing.
+
+
+    The acted drama no real exception to the general law.
+
+  To the above law, in the form in which we have expressed it, it may
+  perhaps be objected that the acted drama is at once the most full and
+  complete reproduction of nature which we owe to the fine arts, and
+  that at the same time the number of facts over which its imitation
+  ranges is the greatest. The answer is that our law applies to the
+  several arts only in that which we may call their pure or unmixed
+  state. Dramatic poetry is in that state only when it is read or spoken
+  like any other kind of verse. When it is witnessed on the stage, it is
+  in a mixed or impure state; the art of the actor has been called in to
+  give actual reproduction to the gestures and utterances of the
+  personages, that of the costumier to their appearances and attire,
+  that of the stage-decorator to their furniture and surroundings, that
+  of the scene-painter to imitate to the eye the dwelling-places and
+  landscapes among which they move; and only by the combination of all
+  these subordinate arts does the drama gain its character of imitative
+  completeness or reality.
+
+
+    Things unknown shadowed forth by imitation of things known.
+
+  Throughout the above account of the imitative and non-imitative groups
+  of fine arts, we have so far followed Aristotle as to allow the name
+  of imitation to all recognizable representation or evocation of
+  realities,--using the word "realities" in no metaphysical sense, but
+  to signify the myriad phenomena of life and experience, whether as
+  they actually and literally exist to-day, or as they may have existed
+  in the past, or may be conceived to exist in some other world not too
+  unlike our own for us to conceive and realize in thought. When we find
+  among the ruins of a Greek temple the statue of a beautiful young man
+  at rest, or above the altar of a Christian church the painting of one
+  transfixed with arrows, we know that the statue is intended to bring
+  to our minds no mortal youth, but the god Hermes or Apollo, the
+  transfixed victim no simple captive, but Sebastian the holy saint. At
+  the same time we none the less know that the figures in either case
+  have been studied by the artist from living models before his eyes. In
+  like manner, in all the representations alike of sculpture, painting
+  and poetry the things and persons represented may bear symbolic
+  meanings and imaginary names and characters; they may be set in a land
+  of dreams, and grouped in relations and circumstances upon which the
+  sun of this world never shone; in point of fact, through many ages of
+  history they have been chiefly used to embody human ideas of
+  supernatural powers; but it is from real things and persons that their
+  lineaments and characters have been taken in the first instance, in
+  order to be attributed by the imagination to another and more exalted
+  order of existences.
+
+
+    Imitation by art necessarily an idealized imitation.
+
+  The law which we have last laid down is a law defining the relations
+  of sculpture, painting and poetry, considered simply as arts having
+  their foundations at any rate in reality, and drawing from the
+  imitation of reality their indispensable elements and materials. It is
+  a law defining the range and character of those elements or materials
+  in nature which each art is best fitted, by its special means and
+  resources, to imitate. But we must remember that, even in this
+  fundamental part of its operations, none of these arts proceeds by
+  imitation or evocation pure and simple. None of them contents itself
+  with seeking to represent realities, however literally taken, exactly
+  as those realities are. A portrait in sculpture or painting, a
+  landscape in painting, a passage of local description in poetry, may
+  be representations of known things taken literally or for their own
+  sakes, and not for the sake of carrying out thoughts to the unknown;
+  but none of them ought to be, or indeed can possibly be, a
+  representation of all the observed parts and details of such a reality
+  on equal terms and without omissions. Such a representation, were it
+  possible, would be a mechanical inventory and not a work of fine art.
+
+
+    Completeness not the test of value in a pictorial imitation.
+
+  Hence the value of a pictorial imitation is by no means necessarily in
+  proportion to the number of facts which it records. Many accomplished
+  pictures, in which all the resources of line, colour and
+  light-and-shade have been used to the utmost of the artist's power for
+  the imitation of all that he could see in nature, are dead and
+  worthless in comparison with a few faintly touched outlines or lightly
+  laid shadows or tints of another artist who could see nature more
+  vitally and better. Unless the painter knows how to choose and combine
+  the elements of his finished work so that it shall contain in every
+  part suggestions and delights over and above the mere imitation, it
+  will fall short, in that which is the essential charm of fine art, not
+  only of any scrap of a great master's handiwork, such as an outline
+  sketch of a child by Raphael or a colour sketch of a boat or a
+  mackerel by Turner, but even of any scrap of the merest journeyman's
+  handiwork produced by an artistic race, such as the first Japanese
+  drawing in which a water-flag and kingfisher, or a spray of peach or
+  almond blossom across the sky, is dashed in with a mere hint of
+  colour, but a hint that tells a whole tale to the imagination. That
+  only, we know, is fine art which affords keen and permanent delight to
+  contemplation. Such delight the artist can never communicate by the
+  display of a callous and pedantic impartiality in presence of the
+  facts of life and nature. His representation of realities will only
+  strike or impress others in so far as it concentrates their attention
+  on things by which he has been struck and impressed himself. To arouse
+  emotion, he must have felt emotion; and emotion is impossible without
+  partiality. The artist is one who instinctively tends to modify and
+  work upon every reality before him in conformity with some poignant
+  and sensitive principle of preference or selection in his mind. He
+  instinctively adds something to nature in one direction and takes away
+  something in another, overlooking this kind of fact and insisting on
+  that, suppressing many particulars which he holds irrelevant in order
+  to insist on and bring into prominence others by which he is attracted
+  and arrested.
+
+
+    Nature of the idealizing process.
+
+  The instinct by which an artist thus prefers, selects and brings into
+  light one order of facts or aspects in the thing before him rather
+  than the rest, is part of what is called the _idealizing_ or _ideal_
+  faculty. Interminable discussion has been spent on the
+  questions,--What is the ideal, and how do we idealize? The answer has
+  been given in one form by those thinkers (e.g. Vischer and Lotze) who
+  have pointed out that the process of aesthetic idealization carried on
+  by the artist is only the higher development of a process carried on
+  in an elementary fashion by all men, from the very nature of their
+  constitution. The physical organs of sense themselves do not retain or
+  put on record all the impressions made upon them. When the nerves of
+  the eye receive a multitude of different stimulations at once from
+  different points in space, the sense of eyesight, instead of being
+  aware of all these stimulations singly, only abstracts and retains a
+  total impression of them together. In like manner we are not made
+  aware by the sense of hearing of all the several waves of sound that
+  strike in a momentary succession upon the nerves of the ear; that
+  sense only abstracts and retains a total impression from the combined
+  effect of a number of such waves. And the office which each sense thus
+  performs singly for its own impressions, the mind performs in a higher
+  degree for the impressions of all the senses equally, and for all the
+  other parts of our experience. We are always dismissing or neglecting
+  a great part of our impressions, and abstracting and combining among
+  those which we retain. The ordinary human consciousness works like an
+  artist up to this point; and when we speak of the ordinary or
+  inartistic man as being impartial in the retention or registry of his
+  daily impressions, we mean, of course, in the retention or registry of
+  his impressions as already thus far abstracted and assorted in
+  consciousness. The artistic man, whose impressions affect him much
+  more strongly, has the faculty of carrying much farther these same
+  processes of abstraction, combination and selection among his
+  impressions.
+
+
+    Subjective and objective ideals.
+
+  The possession of this faculty is the artist's most essential gift. To
+  attempt to carry farther the psychological analysis of the gift is
+  outside our present object; but it is worth while to consider somewhat
+  closely its modes of practical operation. One mode is this: the artist
+  grows up with certain innate or acquired predilections which become a
+  part of his constitution whether he will or no,--predilections, say,
+  if he is a dramatic poet, for certain types of plot, character and
+  situation; if he is a sculptor, for certain proportions and a certain
+  habitual carriage and disposition of the limbs; if he is a figure
+  painter, for certain schemes of composition and moulds of figure and
+  airs and expressions of countenance; if a landscape painter, for a
+  certain class of local character, sentiment and pictorial effect in
+  natural scenery. To such predilections he cannot choose but make his
+  representations of reality in large measure conform. This is one part
+  of the transmuting process which the data of life and experience have
+  to undergo at the hands of artists, and may be called the subjective
+  or purely personal mode of idealization. But there is another part of
+  that work which springs from an impulse in the artistic constitution
+  not less imperious than the last named, and in a certain sense
+  contrary to it. As an imitator or evoker of the facts of life and
+  nature, the artist must recognize and accept the character of those
+  facts with which he has in any given case to deal. All facts cannot be
+  of the cast he prefers, and in so far as he undertakes to deal with
+  those of an opposite cast he must submit to them; he must study them
+  as they actually are, must apprehend, enforce and bring into
+  prominence their own dominant tendencies. If he cannot find in them
+  what is most pleasing to himself, he will still be led by the
+  abstracting and discriminating powers of his observation to discern
+  what is most expressive and significant in _them_, he will emphasize
+  and put on record this, idealizing the facts before him not in his
+  direction but in their own. This is the second or objective half of
+  the artist's task of idealization. It is this half upon which Taine
+  dwelt almost exclusively, and on the whole with a just insight into
+  the principles of the operation, in his well-known treatise _On the
+  Ideal in Art_. Both these modes of idealization are legitimate; that
+  which springs from inborn and overmastering personal preference in the
+  artist for particular aspects of life and nature, and that which
+  springs from his insight into the dominant and significant character
+  of the phenomena actually before him, and his desire to emphasize and
+  disengage them. But there is a third mode of idealizing which is less
+  vital and genuine than either of these, and therefore less legitimate,
+  though unfortunately far more common. This mode consists in making
+  things conform to a borrowed and conventional standard of beauty and
+  taste, which corresponds neither to any strong inward predilection of
+  the artist nor to any vital characteristic in the objects of his
+  representation. Since the rediscovery of Greek and Roman sculpture in
+  the Renaissance, a great part of the efforts of artists have been
+  spent in falsifying their natural instincts and misrepresenting the
+  facts of nature in pursuit of a conventional ideal of abstract and
+  generalized beauty framed on a false conception and a shallow
+  knowledge of the antique. School after school from the 16th century
+  downwards has been confirmed in this practice by academic criticism
+  and theory, with resulting insipidities and insincerities of
+  performance which have commonly been acclaimed in their day, but from
+  which later generations have sooner or later turned away with a
+  wholesome reaction of distaste.
+
+
+    Examples of the two modes and of their reconciliation.
+
+  The two genuine modes of idealization, the subjective and the
+  objective, are not always easy to be reconciled. The greatest artist
+  is no doubt he who can combine the strongest personal instincts of
+  preference with the keenest power of observing characteristics as they
+  are, yet in fact we find few in whom both these elements of the ideal
+  faculty have been equally developed. To take an example among
+  Florentine painters, Sandro Botticelli is usually thought of as one
+  who could never escape from the dictation of his own personal ideals,
+  in obedience to which he is supposed to have invested all the
+  creations of his art with nearly the same conformation of brows, lips,
+  cheeks and chin, nearly the same looks of wistful yearning and
+  dejection. There is some truth in this impression, though it is
+  largely based on the works not of the master himself, but of pupils
+  who exaggerated his mannerisms. Leonardo da Vinci was strong in both
+  directions; haunted in much of his work by a particular human ideal of
+  intellectual sweetness and alluring mystery, he has yet left us a vast
+  number of exercises which show him as an indefatigable student of
+  objective characteristics and psychological expressions of an order
+  the most opposed to this. And in this case again followers have
+  over-emphasized the master's predilections, Luini, Sodoma and the rest
+  borrowing and repeating the mysterious smile of Leonardo till it
+  becomes in their work an affectation cloying however lovely. Among
+  latter-day painters, Burne-Jones will occur to every reader as the
+  type of an artist always haunted and dominated by ideals of an
+  intensely personal cast partly engendered in his imagination by
+  sympathy with the early Florentines. If we seek for examples of the
+  opposite principle, of that idealism which idealizes above all things
+  objectively, and seeks to disengage the very inmost and individual
+  characters of the thing or person before it, we think naturally of
+  certain great masters of the northern schools, as Dürer, Holbein and
+  Rembrandt. Dürer's endeavour to express such characters by the most
+  searching intensity of linear definition was, however, hampered and
+  conditioned by his inherited national and Gothic predilection for the
+  strained in gesture and the knotted and the gnarled in structure,
+  against which his deliberate scholarly ambition to establish a canon
+  of ideal proportion contended for the most part in vain. And
+  Rembrandt's profound spiritual insight into human character and
+  personality did not prevent him from plunging his subjects, ever
+  deeper and deeper as his life advanced, into a mysterious shadow-world
+  of his own imagination, where all local colours were broken up and
+  crumbled, and where amid the struggle of gloom and gleam he could make
+  his intensely individualized men and women breathe more livingly than
+  in plain human daylight.
+
+
+    Caricature and the grotesque as modes of the ideal.
+
+  It is by the second mode of operation chiefly, that is by
+  imaginatively discerning, disengaging and forcing into prominence
+  their inherent significance, that the idealizing faculty brings into
+  the sphere of fine art deformities and degeneracies to which the name
+  beautiful or sublime can by no stretch of usage be applied. Hence
+  arise creations like the Stryge of Notre-Dame and a thousand other
+  grotesques of Gothic architectural carving. Hence, although on a lower
+  plane and interpreted with a less transmuting intensity of insight and
+  emphasis, the snarling or jovial grossness of the peasants of Adrian
+  Brauwer and the best of his Dutch compeers. Hence Shakespeare's
+  Caliban and figures like those of Quilp and Quasimodo in the romances
+  of Dickens and Hugo; hence the cynic grimness of Goya's Caprices and
+  the profound and bitter impressiveness of Daumier's caricatures of
+  Parisian bourgeois life; or again, in an angrier and more insulting
+  and therefore less understanding temper, the brutal energy of the
+  political drawings of Gilray.
+
+
+    Unidealized imitation not fine art.
+
+  Sculpture, painting and poetry, then, are among the greater fine arts
+  those which express and arouse emotion by imitating or evoking real
+  and known things, either for their own sakes literally, or for the
+  sake of shadowing forth things not known but imagined. In either case
+  they represent their originals, not indiscriminately as they are, but
+  sifted, simplified, enforced and enhanced to our apprehensions partly
+  by the artist's power of making things conform to his own instincts
+  and preferences, partly by his other power of interpreting and
+  emphasizing the significant characters of the facts before him. Any
+  imitation that does not do one or other or both of these things in
+  full measure fails in the quality of emotional expression and
+  emotional appeal, and in so failing falls short, taken merely as
+  imitation, of the standard of fine art.
+
+
+    The appeal of the imitative arts depends partly on non-imitative
+      elements.
+
+  But we must remember that idealized imitation, as such, is not the
+  whole task of these arts nor their only means of appeal. There is
+  another part of their task, logically though not practically
+  independent of the relations borne by their imitations to the original
+  phenomena of nature, and dependent on the appeal made through the eye
+  and ear to our primal organic sensibilities by the properties of
+  rhythm, pattern and regulated design in the arrangement of sounds,
+  lines, masses, colours and light-and-shade. That appeal we noted as
+  lying at the root of the art impulse in its most elementary stage. In
+  its most developed stage every fine art is bound still to play upon
+  the same sensibilities. In a work of sculpture the contours and
+  interchanges of light and shadow are bound to be such as would please
+  the eye, whether the statue or relief represented the figure of
+  anything real in the world or not. The flow and balance of line, and
+  the distribution of colours and light-and-shade, in a picture are
+  bound to be such as would make an agreeable pattern although they bore
+  no resemblance to natural fact (as, indeed, many subordinate
+  applications of this art, in decorative painting and geometrical and
+  other ornaments, do, we know, give pleasure though they represent
+  nothing). The sound of a line or verse in poetry is bound to be such
+  as would thrill the physical ear in hearing, or the mental ear in
+  reading, with a delightful excitement even though the meaning went for
+  nothing. If the imitative arts are to touch and elevate the emotions,
+  if they are to afford permanent delight of the due pitch and volume,
+  it is not a more essential law that their imitation, merely as such,
+  should be of the order which we have defined as ideal, than that they
+  should at the same time exhibit these independent effects which they
+  share with the non-imitative group.
+
+
+    Necessity of due balance between conception and technique: the
+      non-imitative arts and their technique.
+
+  So far we have assumed, without asserting, the necessity that the
+  artist in whatever kind should possess a power of execution, or
+  technique as it is called in modern phrase, adequate to the task of
+  embodying and giving shape to his ideals. In thought it is possible to
+  separate the conception of a work of art from its execution; in
+  practice it is not possible, and half the errors in criticism and
+  speculation about the fine arts spring from failing to realize that an
+  artistic conception can only be brought home to us through and by its
+  appropriate embodiment. Whatever the artist's cast of imagination or
+  degree of sensibility may be in presence of the materials of life, it
+  is essential that he should be able to express himself appropriately
+  in the material of his particular art. To quote the writer (R.A.M.
+  Stevenson) who has enforced this point most clearly and vividly,
+  perhaps with some pardonable measure of over-statement: "It is a
+  sensitiveness to the special qualities of some visible or audible
+  medium of art which distinguishes the species artist from the genus
+  man." And again: "There are as many separate faculties of imagination
+  as there are separate mediums in which to conceive an image--clay,
+  words, paint, notes of music." ... "Technique differs as the material
+  of each art differs--differs as marble, pigments, musical notes and
+  words differ." The artist who does not enjoy and has not with
+  delighted labour mastered the effects of his own chosen medium will
+  never be a master; the hearer, reader or spectator who cannot
+  appreciate the qualities of skill, vitality and charm in the handling
+  of the given material, or who fails to feel their absence when they
+  are lacking, or who looks in one material primarily for the qualities
+  appropriate to another, will never make a critic. The technique of the
+  space-arts differs radically from that of the time-arts. So again do
+  those of the imitative and the non-imitative arts differ among
+  themselves. The non-imitative arts of music and architecture are in a
+  certain degree alike in this, that the artist is in neither case his
+  own executant (this at least is true of music so far as concerns its
+  modern concerted and orchestral developments); the musical composer
+  and the architect each imagines and composes a design in the medium of
+  his own art which it is left for others to carry out under his
+  direction. The technique in each case consists not in mastery of an
+  instrument (though the musical composer may be, and often is, a master
+  of some one of the instruments whose effects he in his mind's ear
+  co-ordinates and combines); it lies in the power of knowing and
+  conjuring up all the emotional resources and effects of the various
+  materials at his command, and of conceiving and designing to their
+  last detail vast and ordered structures, to be raised by subordinate
+  executants from those materials, which shall adequately express his
+  temperament and embody his ideals.
+
+
+    The imitative arts and their technique: painting and sculpture.
+
+  In the imitative arts, on the other hand, the sculptor, unless he is a
+  fraud, must be wholly his own executant in the original task of
+  modelling his design in the soft material of clay or wax, though he
+  must accept the aid of assistants whether in the casting of his work
+  in bronze or in first roughing it out from the block in marble. Too
+  many sculptors have been inclined further to trust to trained
+  mechanical help in finishing their work with the chisel; with the
+  result that the surface loses the touch which is the expression of
+  personal temperament and personal feeling for the relations of his
+  material to nature. The artist in love with the vital qualities of
+  form, or those of his own handiwork in expressing such qualities in
+  modelling-clay, will never stop until he learns how to translate them
+  for himself in marble. Proceeding to that imitative art which leaves
+  out the third dimension of nature, and by so doing enormously
+  increases the range of objects and effects which come within its
+  power--proceeding to the art of painting, the painter is in theory
+  exclusively his own executant, and in practice mainly so, though in
+  certain schools and periods the great artists have been accustomed to
+  surround themselves with pupils to whom they have imparted their
+  methods and who have helped them in the subordinate and preparatory
+  parts of their work. But the painter fit to teach and lead can by no
+  means escape the necessity of being himself a master of his material,
+  and his handling of it must needs bear the immediate impress of his
+  temperament. His emotional preferences among the visible facts of
+  nature, his feeling for the relative importance and charm of line,
+  colour, light and shade, used whether for the interpretation and
+  heightening of natural fact or for producing a pattern in itself
+  harmonious and suggestive to the eye, his sense of the special modes
+  of handling most effective for communicating the impression he
+  desires, all these together inevitably appear in, and constitute, his
+  style and technique. If he is careless or inexpert or conventional, or
+  cold or without delight, in technique, though he may be animated by
+  the noblest purposes and the loftiest ideas, he is a failure as a
+  painter. At certain periods in the history of painting, as in the 13th
+  and 14th centuries in Italy, the technique seems indeed to modern eyes
+  wholly immature; but that was because there were many aspects of
+  visible things which the art had not yet attempted or desired to
+  portray, not because it did not put forth with delight its best
+  traditional or newly acquired skill in portraying the special aspects
+  with which it had so far attempted to grapple. At certain other
+  periods, as in the later 16th and 17th centuries in the same country,
+  the elements of inherited technical facility and academic pride of
+  skill outweigh the sincerity and freshness of interest taken in the
+  aspects of things to be portrayed, and the true balance is lost. At
+  other times, as in much of the work of the 19th century, especially in
+  England, painters have been diverted from their true task, and lost
+  hold of intelligent and living technique altogether, in trying to
+  please a public blind to the special qualities of their art, and prone
+  to seek in it the effects, frivolous or serious, which are appropriate
+  not to paint and canvas but to literature.
+
+
+    Technique in poetry: the magic of words.
+
+  Lastly, the poet and literary artist must obviously be the exclusive
+  master of his own technique. No one can help him: all depends on the
+  keenness of his double sensibility to the thrill of life and to that
+  of words, and to his power of maintaining a just balance between the
+  two. If he is truly and organically sensitive to words alone, and has
+  learnt life only through their medium and not through the energies of
+  his own imagination, nor through personal sensibility to the impact of
+  things and thoughts and passions and experience, then his work may be
+  a miracle of accomplished verbal music, and may entrance the ear for
+  the moment, but will never live to illuminate and sustain and console.
+  If, on the other hand, he has imagination and sensibility in full
+  measure, and lacks the inborn love of and gift for words and their
+  magic, he will be but a dumb or stammering poet all his days. There is
+  no better witness on this point than Wordsworth. His own prolonged
+  lapses from verbal felicity, and continual habit of solemn meditation
+  on themes not always inspiring, might make us hesitate to choose him
+  as an example of that particular love and gift. But Wordsworth could
+  never have risen to his best and greatest self had he not truly
+  possessed the sensibilities which he attributes to himself in the
+  Prelude:
+
+                          "Twice five years
+    Or less I might have seen, when first my mind
+    With conscious pleasure opened to the charm
+    Of words in tuneful order, found them sweet
+    For their own sakes, a passion, and a power;
+    And phrases pleased me chosen for delight,
+    For pomp, or love."
+
+  And again, expressing better than any one else the relation which
+  words in true poetry hold to things, he writes:
+
+                                "Visionary power
+    Attends the motions of the viewless winds,
+    Embodied in the mystery of words;
+    There darkness makes abode, and all the host
+    Of shadowy things work endless changes,--there,
+    As in a mansion like their proper home,
+    Even forms and substances are circumfused
+    By that transparent veil with light divine,
+    And, through the turnings intricate of verse,
+    Present themselves as objects recognized,
+    In flashes, and with glory not their own."
+
+
+    Third classification: the serviceable and the non-serviceable arts.
+
+  3. _The Serviceable and the Non-Serviceable Arts._--It has been
+  established from the outset that, though the essential distinction of
+  fine art as such is to minister not to material necessity or practical
+  use, but to delight, yet there are some among the arts of men which do
+  both these things at once and are arts of direct use and of beauty or
+  emotional appeal together. Under this classification a survey of the
+  field of art at different periods of history would yield different
+  results. In ruder times, we have seen, the utilitarian aim was still
+  the predominant aim of art, and most of what we now call fine arts
+  served in the beginning to fulfil the practical needs of individual
+  and social life; and this not only among primitive or savage races. In
+  ancient Egypt and Assyria the primary purpose of the relief-sculptures
+  on palace and temple walls was the practical one of historical record
+  and commemoration. Even as late as the middle ages and early
+  Renaissance the primary business of the painter was to give
+  instruction to the unlearned in Bible history and in the lives of the
+  saints, and to rouse him to moods of religious and ethical exaltation.
+  The pleasures of fine art proper among the manual-imitative group--the
+  pleasures, namely, of producing and contemplating certain arrangements
+  rather than others of design, proportion, pattern, colour and light
+  and shade, and of putting forth and appreciating certain qualities of
+  skill, truth and significance in idealized imitation,--these were,
+  historically speaking, by-products that arose gradually in the course
+  of practice and development. As time went on, the conscious aim of
+  ministering to such pleasures displaced and threw into the background
+  the utilitarian ends for which the arts had originally been practised,
+  and the pleasures became ends in themselves.
+
+
+    Among the greater arts, architecture alone exist primarily for
+      service.
+
+  But even in advanced societies the double qualities of use and beauty
+  still remain inseparable, among the five greater arts, in
+  architecture. We build in the first instance for the sake of necessary
+  shelter and accommodation, or for the commemoration, propitiation or
+  worship of spiritual powers on whom we believe our welfare to depend.
+  By and by we find out that the aspect of our constructions is
+  pleasurable or the reverse. Architecture is the art of building at
+  once as we need and as we like, and a practical treatise on
+  architecture must treat the beauty and the utility of buildings as
+  bound up together. But for our present purpose it has been proper to
+  take into account one half only of the vocation of architecture, the
+  half by which it impresses, gives delight and belongs to that which is
+  the subject of our study, to fine art; and to neglect the other half
+  of its vocation, by which it belongs to what is not the subject of our
+  study, to useful or mechanical art. It is plain, however, that the
+  presence or absence of this foreign element, the element of practical
+  utility, constitutes a fair ground for a new and separate
+  classification of the fine arts. If we took the five greater arts as
+  they exist in modern times by themselves, architecture would on this
+  ground stand alone in one division, as the directly useful or
+  serviceable fine art; with sculpture, painting, music and poetry
+  together in the other division, as fine arts unassociated with such
+  use or service. Not that the divisions would, even thus, be quite
+  sharply and absolutely separated. Didactic poetry, we have already
+  acknowledged, is a branch of the poetic art which aims at practice and
+  utility. Again, the hortatory and patriotic kinds of lyric poetry,
+  from the strains of Tyrtaeus to those of Arndt or Rouget de Lisle or
+  Wordsworth's sonnets written in war-time, may fairly be said to belong
+  to a phase of fine art which aims directly at one of the highest
+  utilities, the stimulation of patriotic feeling and self-devotion. So
+  may the strains of music which accompany such poetry. The same
+  practical character, as stimulating and attuning the mind to definite
+  ends and actions, might indeed have been claimed for the greater part
+  of the whole art of music as that art was practised in antiquity, when
+  each of several prescribed and highly elaborated moods, or modes, of
+  melody was supposed to have a known effect upon the courage and moral
+  temper of the hearer. Compare Milton, when he tells of the Dorian mood
+  of flutes and soft recorders which assuaged the sufferings and renewed
+  the courage of Satan and his legions as they marched through hell. In
+  modern music, of which the elements, much more complex in themselves
+  than those of ancient music, have the effect of stirring our fibres to
+  moods of rapturous contemplation rather than of action, military
+  strains in march time are in truth the only purely instrumental
+  variety of the art which may still be said to retain this character.
+
+
+    Other and minor arts of service subordinate to architecture.
+
+  To reinforce, however, the serviceable or useful division of fine arts
+  in our present classification, it is not among the greater arts that
+  we must look. We must look among the lesser or auxiliary arts of the
+  manual or shaping group. The weaver, the joiner, the potter, the
+  smith, the goldsmith, the glass-maker, these and a hundred artificers
+  who produce wares primarily for use, produce them in a form or with
+  embellishments that have the secondary virtue of giving pleasure both
+  to the producer and the user. Much ingenuity has been spent to little
+  purpose in attempting to group and classify these lesser shaping arts
+  under one or other of the greater shaping arts, according to the
+  nature of the means employed in each. Thus the potter's art has been
+  classed under sculpture, because he moulds in solid form the shapes of
+  his cups, plates and ewers; the art of the joiner under that of the
+  architect, because his tables, seats and cupboards are fitted and
+  framed together, like the houses they furnish, out of solid materials
+  previously prepared and cut; and the weaver and embroiderer, from the
+  point of view of the effects produced by their art, among painters.
+  But the truth is, that each one of these auxiliary handicrafts has its
+  own materials and technical procedure, which cannot, without forcing
+  and confusion, be described by the name proper to the materials and
+  technical procedure of any of the greater arts. The only satisfactory
+  classification of these handicrafts is that now before us, according
+  to which we think of them all together in the same group with
+  architecture, not because any one or more of them may be technically
+  allied to that art, but because, like it, they all yield products
+  capable of being practically useful and beautiful at the same time.
+  Architecture is the art which fits and frames together, of stone,
+  brick, mortar, timber or iron, the abiding and assembling places of
+  man, all his houses, palaces, temples, monuments, museums, workshops,
+  roofed places of meeting and exchange, theatres for spectacle,
+  fortresses of defence, bridges, aqueducts, and ships for seafaring.
+  The wise architect having fashioned any one of these great
+  constructions at once for service and beauty in the highest degree,
+  the lesser or auxiliary manual arts (commonly called "industrial" or
+  "applied" arts) come in to fill, furnish and adorn it with things of
+  service and beauty in a lower degree, each according to its own
+  technical laws and capabilities; some, like pottery, delighting the
+  user at once by beauty of form, delicacy of substance, and
+  pleasantness of imitative or non-imitative ornament; some, like
+  embroidery, by richness of tissue, and by the same twofold
+  pleasantness of ornament; some, like goldsmith's work, by
+  exquisiteness of fancy and workmanship proportionate to the
+  exquisiteness of the material. To this vast group of workmen, whose
+  work is at the same time useful and fine in its degree, the ancient
+  Greek gave the place which is most just and convenient for thought,
+  when he classed them all together under the name of [Greek: téktones],
+  or artificers, and called the builder by the name of [Greek:
+  architéktôn], arch-artificer or artificer-in-chief. Modern usage has
+  adopted the phrase "arts and crafts" as a convenient general name for
+  their pursuits.
+
+
+III. _Of the History of the Fine Arts._
+
+  Current generalizations on the history of fine art: Hegel.
+
+Students of human culture have concentrated a great deal of attentive
+thought upon the history of fine art, and have put forth various
+comprehensive generalizations intended at once to sum up and to account
+for the phases and vicissitudes of that history. The most famous
+formulae are those of Hegel, who regarded particular arts as being
+characteristic of and appropriate to particular forms of civilization
+and particular ages of history. For him, architecture was the symbolic
+art appropriate to ages of obscure and struggling ideas, and
+characteristic of the Egyptian and the Asiatic races of old and of the
+medieval age in Europe. Sculpture was the classical art appropriate to
+ages of lucid and self-possessed ideas, and characteristic of the Greek
+and Roman period. Painting, music and poetry were the romantic arts,
+appropriate to the ages of complicated and overmastering ideas, and
+characteristic of modern humanity in general. In the working out of
+these generalizations Hegel brought together a mass of judicious and
+striking observations; and that they contain on the whole a
+preponderance of truth may be admitted. It has been objected against
+them, from the philosophical point of view, that they too much mix up
+the definition of what the several arts theoretically are with
+considerations of what in various historical circumstances they have
+practically been. From the historical point of view there can be taken
+what seems a more valid objection, that these formulae of Hegel tend too
+much to fix the attention of the student upon the one dominant art
+chosen as characteristic of any period, and to give him false ideas of
+the proportions and relations of the several arts at the same period--of
+the proportions and relations which poetry, say, really bore to
+sculpture among the Greeks and Romans, or sculpture to architecture
+among the Christian nations of the middle age. The truth is, that the
+historic survey gained over any field of human activity from the height
+of generalizations so vast in scope as these are must needs, in the
+complexity of earthly affairs, be a survey too distant to give much
+guidance until its omissions are filled up by a great deal of nearer
+study; and such nearer study is apt to compel the student in the long
+run to qualify the theories with which he has started until they are in
+danger of disappearing altogether.
+
+
+  Herbert Spencer and the evolution theory.
+
+Another systematic exponent of the universe, whose system is very
+different from that of Hegel, Herbert Spencer, brought the doctrine of
+evolution to bear, not without interesting results, upon the history of
+the fine arts and their development. Herbert Spencer set forth how the
+manual group of fine arts, architecture, sculpture and painting, were in
+their first rudiments bound up together, and how each of them in the
+course of history has liberated itself from the rest by a gradual
+process of separation. These arts did not at first exist in the distinct
+and developed forms in which we have above described them. There were no
+statues in the round, and no painted panels or canvases hung upon the
+wall. Only the rudiments of sculpture and painting existed, and that
+only as ornaments applied to architecture, in the shape of tiers of
+tinted reliefs, representing in a kind of picture-writing the exploits
+of kings upon the walls of their temple-palaces. Gradually sculpture
+took greater salience and roundness, and tended to disengage itself from
+the wall, while painting found out how to represent solidity by means of
+its own, and dispensed with the raised surface upon which it was first
+applied. But the old mixture and union of the three arts, with an
+undeveloped art of painting and an undeveloped art of sculpture still
+engaged in or applied to the works of architecture, continued on the
+whole to prevail through the long cycles of Egyptian and Assyrian
+history. In the Egyptian palace-temple we find a monument at once
+political and religious, upon the production of which were concentrated
+all the energies and faculties of all the artificers of the race. With
+its incised and pictured walls, its half-detached colossi, its open and
+its colonnaded chambers, the forms of the columns and their capitals
+recalling the stems and blossoms of the lotus and papyrus, with its
+architecture everywhere taking on the characters and covering itself
+with the adornments of immature sculpture and painting--this structure
+exhibits within its single fabric the origins of the whole subsequent
+group of shaping arts. From hence it is a long way to the innumerable
+artistic surroundings of later Greek and Roman life, the many temples
+with their detached and their engaged statues, the theatres, the
+porticoes, the baths, the training-schools, the stadiums, with free and
+separate statues both of gods and men adorning every building and public
+place, the frescoes upon the walls, the panel pictures hung in temples
+and public and private galleries. In the terms of the Spencerian theory
+of evolution, the advance from the early Egyptian to the later Greek
+stage is an advance from the one to the manifold, from the simple to the
+complex, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, and affords a
+striking instance of that vast and ceaseless process of differentiation
+and integration which it is the law of all things to undergo. In the
+Christian monuments of the early middle age, again, the arts, owing to
+the political and social cataclysm in which Roman civilization went
+down, have gone back to the rudimentary stage, and are once more
+attached to and combined with each other. The single monument, the one
+great birth of art, in that age, is the Gothic church. In this we find
+the art of applied sculpture exercised in fashions infinitely rich and
+various, but entirely in the service and for the adornment of the
+architecture; we find painting exercised in fashions more rudimentary
+still, principally in the forms of translucent imagery in the chancel
+windows and tinted decorations on the walls and vaultings. From this
+stage again the process of the differentiation of the arts is repeated.
+It is by a new evolution or unfolding, and by one carried to much
+further and more complicated stages than the last had reached, that the
+arts since the middle age have come to the point where we find them
+to-day; when architecture is applied to a hundred secular and civil uses
+with not less magnificence, or at least not less desire of magnificence,
+than that with which it fulfilled its two only uses in the middle age,
+the uses of worship and of defence; when detached sculptures adorn, or
+are intended to adorn, all our streets and commemorate all our
+likenesses; when the subjects of painting have been extended from
+religion to all life and nature, until this one art has been divided
+into the dozen branches of history, landscape, still life, genre,
+anecdote and the rest. Such being in brief the successive stages, and
+such the reiterated processes, of evolution among the shaping or space
+arts, the action of the same law can be traced, it is urged, in the
+growth of the speaking or time arts also. Originally poetry and music,
+the two great speaking arts, were not separated from each other and from
+the art of bodily motion, dancing. The father of song, music and
+dancing, all three, was that primitive man of whom so much has already
+been said, he who first clapped hands and leapt and shouted in time at
+some festival of his tribe. From the clapping, or rudimentary rhythmical
+noise, has been evolved the whole art of instrumental music, down to the
+entrancing complexity of the modern symphony. From the shout, or
+rudimentary emotional utterance, has proceeded by a kindred evolution
+the whole art of vocal music down to the modern opera or oratorio. From
+the leap, or rudimentary expression of emotion by rhythmical movements
+of the body, has descended every variety of dancing, from the stately
+figures of the tragic chorus of the Greeks to the _kordax_ of their
+comedy or the complexities of the modern ballet.
+
+
+  Weak and strong points of Spencer's generalization.
+
+That the theory of evolution serves usefully to group and to interpret
+many facts in the history of art we shall not deny, though it would be
+easy to show that Herbert Spencer's instances and applications are not
+sufficient to sustain all the conclusions that he seems to draw from
+them. Thus, it is perfectly true that the Egyptian or Assyrian palace
+wall is an instance of rudimentary painting and rudimentary sculpture in
+subservience to architecture. But it is not less true that races who had
+no architecture at all, but lived in caverns of the earth, exhibit, as
+we have already had occasion to notice, excellent rudiments of the other
+two shaping arts in a different form, in the carved or incised handles
+of their weapons. And it is almost certain that, among the nations of
+oriental antiquity themselves, the art of decorating solid walls so as
+to please the eye with patterns and presentations of natural objects was
+borrowed from the precedent of an older art which works in easier
+materials, namely, the art of the weaver. It would be in the perished
+textile fabrics of the earliest dwellers in the valleys of the Euphrates
+and the Nile that we should find, if anywhere, the origins of the
+systems of surface design, whether conventional or imitative, which
+those races afterwards applied to the decoration of their solid
+constructions. Not, therefore, in any one exclusive type of primitive
+artistic activity, but in a score of such types equally, varying
+according to race, region and circumstances, shall we find so many germs
+or nuclei from which whole families of fine arts have in the course of
+the world's history differentiated and unfolded themselves. And more
+than once during that history, a cataclysm of political and social
+forces has not only checked the process of the evolution of the fine
+arts, but from an advanced stage of development has thrown them back
+again to a primitive stage. Recent research has shown how the Minoan and
+Mycenaean civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, with their developed
+fine arts, must have perished and been effaced before the second growth
+of art from new rudiments took place in Greece. The great instance of
+the downfall of the Roman civilization need not be requoted. By
+Spencer's application of the theory of evolution, not less than by
+Hegel's theory of the historic periods, attention is called to the fact
+that Christian Europe, during several centuries of the middle age,
+presents to our study a civilization analogous to the civilization of
+the old oriental empires in this respect, that its ruling and
+characteristic manual art is architecture, to which sculpture and
+painting are, as in the oriental empires, once more subjugated and
+attached. It does not of course follow that such periods of fusion or
+mutual dependence among the arts are periods of bad art. On the
+contrary, each stage of the evolution of any art has its own
+characteristic excellence. The arts can be employed in combination, and
+yet be all severally excellent. When music, dancing, acting and singing
+were combined in the performance of the Greek chorus, the combination no
+doubt presented a relative perfection of each of the four elements
+analogous to the combined perfection, in the contemporary Doric temple,
+of pure architectural form, sculptured enrichment of spaces specially
+contrived for sculpture in the pediments and frieze, and coloured
+decoration over all. The extreme differentiation of any art from every
+other art, and of the several branches of one art among themselves, does
+not by any means tend to the perfection of that art. The process of
+evolution among the fine arts may go, and indeed in the course of
+history has gone, much too far for the health of the arts severally.
+Thus an artist of our own day is usually either a painter only or a
+sculptor only; but yet it is acknowledged that the painter who can model
+a statue, or the sculptor who can paint a picture, is likely to be the
+more efficient master of both arts; and in the best days of Florentine
+art the greatest men were generally painters, sculptors, architects and
+goldsmiths all at once. In like manner a landscape painter who paints
+landscape only is apt not to paint it so well as one who paints the
+figure too; and in recent times the craft of engraving had almost ceased
+to be an art from the habit of allotting one part of the work, as skies,
+to one hand, another part, as figures, to a second, and another part, as
+landscape, to a third. This kind of continually progressing subdivision
+of labour, which seems to be the necessary law of industrial processes,
+is fatal to any skill which demands, as skill in the fine arts, we have
+seen, demands, the free exercise and direction of a highly complex
+cluster both of faculties and sensibilities.
+
+
+  Reaction against over-evolution amongst the fine arts.
+
+In the second half of the 19th century a reaction set in against such
+over-differentiation of the several manual arts and crafts. This
+reaction is chiefly identified in England with the name of William
+Morris, who insisted by precept and example that one form of artistic
+activity was as worthy as another, and himself both practised and
+trained others in the practice of glass-painting, weaving, embroidery,
+furniture and wall-paper designing, and book decoration alike. His
+example has been to some extent followed in most European countries, and
+efforts have been made to reunite the functions of artist and craftsman,
+and to set a limit to the process of differentiation among the various
+manual arts. In the vocal or time arts also, a reformer of high genius
+and force of character, Richard Wagner, rose to contend that in music
+the process of evolution and differentiation had gone much too far.
+Music, he urged, as separated from words and actions, independent
+orchestral and instrumental music, had reached its utmost development,
+and its further advance could only be an advance into the inane; while
+operatic music had broken itself up into a number of set and separate
+forms, as aria, scena, recitative, which corresponded to no real
+varieties of instinctive emotional utterance, and in the aimless
+production of which the art was in danger of paralysing and stultifying
+itself. This process, he declared, must be checked; music and words must
+be brought back again into close connexion and mutual dependence; the
+artificial opera forms must be abolished, and a new and homogeneous
+music-drama be created, of which the author must combine in himself the
+functions of poet, composer, inventor, and director of scenery and stage
+appliances, so that the entire creation should bear the impress of a
+single mind; to the creation of such a music-drama he accordingly
+devoted all the energies of his being.
+
+
+  Taine's philosophy or natural history of the fine arts.
+
+It is thus evident that the evolution theory, though it furnishes us
+with some instructive points of view for the history of the fine arts as
+for other things, is far from being the whole key to that history.
+Another key, employed with results perhaps less really luminous than
+they are certainly showy and attractive, is that supplied by Taine.
+Taine's philosophy, which might perhaps be better called a natural
+history, of fine art consists in regarding the fine arts as the
+necessary result of the general conditions under which they are at any
+time produced--conditions of race and climate, of religion, civilization
+and manners. Acquaint yourself with these conditions as they existed in
+any given people at any given period, and you will be able to account
+for the characters assumed by the arts of that people at that period,
+and to reason from one to the other, as a botanist can account for the
+flora of any given locality, and can reason from its soil, exposure and
+temperature, to the orders of vegetation which it will produce. This
+method of treating the history of the fine arts, again, is one which can
+be pursued with profit in so far as it makes the student realize the
+connexion of fine arts with human culture in general, and teaches him
+how the arts of any age and country are not an independent or arbitrary
+phenomenon, but are essentially an outcome, or efflorescence, to use a
+phrase of Ruskin's, of deep-seated elements in the civilization which
+produces them. But it is a method which, rashly used, is very apt to
+lead to a hasty and one-sided handling both of history and of art. It is
+easy to fasten on certain obvious relations of fine art to general
+civilization when you know a few of the facts of both, and to say, the
+cloudy skies and mongrel industrial population of Protestant Amsterdam
+at such and such a date had their inevitable reflection in the art of
+Rembrandt; the wealth and pomp of the full-fleshed burghers and
+burgesses of Catholic Antwerp had theirs in the art of Rubens. But to do
+this in the precise and conclusive manner of Taine's treatises on the
+philosophy of art always means to ignore a large range of conditions or
+causes for which no corresponding effect is on the surface apparent, and
+generally also a large number of effects for which appropriate causes
+cannot easily be discovered at all.
+
+
+  Criticisms and counter-criticisms on Taine's methods.
+
+These considerations have resulted in a reaction against Taine's
+theories which goes probably too far. It is no complete confutation of
+his philosophy of art-history to contend, as has been done somewhat
+contemptuously by Professor Ernst Grosse and others, that the great
+artist, so far from representing the general tendencies of his time and
+environment, is commonly a solitary innovator and revolutionist, and has
+to educate and create his own public, often through years of obloquy or
+neglect. This is sometimes true when the traditions and ideals of art
+are undergoing revolution or swift experimental change, but hardly ever
+true in times of stable tradition and accepted ideals; and when true it
+only shows that the tendencies the innovating genius represents are
+tendencies which have till his time been working underground, and which
+he is born to bring into light and evidence. A new and revolutionary
+impulse in art, as in thought or politics, is like a yeast or ferment
+working at first secretly, affecting for a while only a few spirits, as
+a new epidemic may for a while only affect a few constitutions, and then
+gradually ripening and strengthening till it communicates itself to
+thousands. In its inception such a ferment is not, indeed, one of the
+obvious phenomena of the society in which it takes root, but it is none
+the less one of the most vital and significant phenomena. The truth is,
+that this particular efflorescence of human culture depends for its
+character at any given time upon combinations of causes which are by no
+means simple, but generally highly complex, obscure and nicely balanced.
+For instance, the student who should try to reason back from the holy
+and beatified character which prevails in much of the devotional
+painting of the Italian schools down to the Renaissance would be much
+mistaken were he to conclude, "like art, like life, thoughts and
+manners." He would not understand the relation of the art to the general
+civilization of those days unless he were to remember that one of the
+chief functions of the imagination is to make up for the shortcomings of
+reality, and to supply to contemplation images of that which is most
+lacking in actual life; so that the visions at once peaceful and ardent
+embodied by the religious schools of art in the Italian cities are to be
+explained, not by the peace, but rather in great part by the dispeace,
+of contemporary existence, and by the longing of the human spirit to
+escape into happier and more calm conditions.
+
+
+  Difficulty of combining the study of the manual with that of the vocal
+    group of fine arts.
+
+Any one of the three modes of generalization to which we have referred
+might no doubt yield, however, supposing in the student the due gifts of
+patience and of caution, a working clue to guide him through that
+immense region of research, the history of the fine arts. But it is
+hardly possible to pursue to any purpose the history of the two great
+groups, the shaping group and the speaking group, together. At some
+stages of the world's history the manual and the monumental arts have
+flourished, as in Egypt and Assyria, when there was no fine art of words
+at all, and the only literature was that of records cut in hieroglyph or
+cuneiform on palace walls and temples, and on tablets, seals and
+cylinders. At other times and in other communities there has existed a
+great tradition and inheritance of poetry and song when the manual arts
+were only beginning to emerge again from the wreck of an old
+civilization, as in the Homeric age of Greece, or where they had never
+flourished at all except by imitation and importation, as in Palestine.
+In historic Greece all three divisions of the art of poetry, the epic,
+lyric and the dramatic, had been perfected, and two of them had again
+declined, before sculpture had reached maturity or painting had passed
+beyond the stage of its early severity. The European poetry of the
+middle ages, abundant and rich as it was alike in France and Provence,
+in Germany and Scandinavia, can yet not take rank, among the creations
+of human genius, beside the great masterpieces of Romanesque and Gothic
+architecture; it was in Italy only that Dante, before the end of that
+age, carried poetry to a place of equality if not of primacy among the
+arts. Taking the England of the Elizabethan age, we find the great
+outburst of our national genius in poetry contemporary with nothing more
+interesting in the manual arts than the gradual and only
+half-intelligent transformation of late Gothic architecture by the
+adoption of Italian Renaissance forms imported principally by way of
+Flanders or France, together with a fine native skill shown in the art
+of miniature portrait-painting, and none at all worth mentioning in
+other branches of painting or in sculpture. If the course of poetry and
+that of the manual arts have thus run independently throughout almost
+the whole field of history, those of music and the manual arts have been
+more widely separated still. In ancient Greece music and poetry were, we
+know, most intimately connected, but of the true nature of Greek music
+we know but little, of that of the earlier middle ages less still, and
+throughout the later middle ages and the earlier Renaissance the art
+remained undeveloped, whether in the service of the church or in secular
+and popular use, and in both cases in strict subservience to words. The
+growth of independent music is entirely the work of the modern world,
+and will probably rank in the esteem of posterity as its highest
+spiritual achievement and claim to gratitude, when the mechanical
+inventions and applications of applied science, which now occupy so
+disproportionate a part of the attention of humanity, have become a
+normal and unregarded part of its existence.
+
+Moments in history there have no doubt been when literature and the
+manual arts, and even music, have been swept simultaneously along a
+single stream of ideas and feelings. Such a moment was experienced in
+France in 1830 and the following years, when (to choose only a few of
+the greatest names) Hugo in poetry, Delacroix in painting, and Berlioz
+in music were roused to a high pitch of consentaneous inspiration by the
+new ideas and feelings of romanticism. But such moments are rare and
+exceptional. On the other hand, it is very possible to take the whole of
+the shaping or manual group of fine arts together and to pursue their
+history connectedly throughout the course of civilization. By the
+history of art what is usually meant is indeed the history of these
+three arts with that of some of their subordinate and connected crafts.
+Leaving aside the arts of the races of the farther East, which,
+profoundly interesting as they are, have but gradually and late become
+known to us, and the relations of which with the arts of the nearer East
+and the Mediterranean are still quite obscure--leaving these aside, the
+history of the manual arts of architecture, painting and sculpture falls
+naturally into several great periods or divisions to some extent
+overlapping each other but in the main consecutive.
+
+
+  Main divisions of the history of art.
+
+These periods are roughly as follows:--
+
+1. The period of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile,
+beginning approximately about 5000 B.C. and ending, roughly speaking
+(but some of them much earlier), with the spread of Greek power and
+Greek ideas under Alexander. On the main characteristics of the art of
+these empires we have already had occasion to touch.
+
+2. The Minoan and Mycenaean period, partly contemporary with the above
+and dating probably from about 2500 to about 1000 B.C.; our knowledge of
+this is due entirely to quite recent researches, confined at present to
+certain points in Greece and Asia Minor, in Crete and other islands in
+the Mediterranean basin; enough has already been revealed to prove the
+existence of an original and highly developed palace-architecture and of
+forms of relief-painting and of all the minor and decorative arts more
+free and animated than anything known to Egypt or Assyria. (See CRETE
+and AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.)
+
+3. The Greek and Roman period, from about 700 B.C. to the final triumph
+of Christianity, say A.D. 400. During the first two or three centuries
+of this period the Hellenic race, beginning again after the cataclysm
+which had swallowed up the earlier Mediterranean civilizations, carried
+to perfection its most characteristic art, that of sculpture, in the
+endeavour to embody worthily its ideas of the supernatural powers
+governing the world. Putting aside the monstrous gods of Egypt and the
+East, it found its ideals in varieties of the human form as presented by
+the most harmoniously developed specimens of the race under conditions
+of the greatest health, activity and grace. In the figures of Greek
+sculpture, both decorative and independent, and no doubt in Greek
+painting also (but of that we can only judge from such specimens of the
+minor handicrafts, chiefly vase-paintings, as have come down to us)--in
+these were set for the whole Western world the types and standards of
+human beauty, and in their grouping and arrangement the types and
+standards of rhythmical composition and design. Gradually human
+portraiture and themes of everyday life took their place beside
+representations of the gods and heroes. New schools struck out new
+tendencies within certain limits. But in the general standards of form
+and design there was in the imitative arts relatively little change,
+though towards the end there was much failure of skill, throughout the
+whole period. The one great change was in architecture. Greece had been
+content with the constructive system of columns and horizontal
+entablature, and under that system had invented and perfected her three
+successive modes or orders of architecture--the Doric, Ionic and
+Corinthian. The genius of Rome invented the round arch, and by help of
+that system erected throughout her subject world a thousand vast
+constructions--temple, palace, bath, amphitheatre, forum, aqueduct,
+triumphal gate and the rest--on a scale of monumental grandeur such as
+Greece had never known.
+
+4. The Christian period, from about 400 to about 1400. The decay or
+petrifaction of the imitative arts which had set in during the latter
+days of Rome continued during all the earlier centuries of the Christian
+period, while the Western world was in process of remaking. Free
+painting and free sculpture practically ceased to exist. Roman
+architecture underwent modifications under the influence of the church
+and of the new conditions of life; the Byzantine form, touched at
+certain times and places with oriental influences, developed itself
+wherever the Eastern Empire still stood erect in decay; the Romanesque
+form, as it is called, in the barbarian-conquered regions of the west
+and north. Sculpture existed for centuries only in rudimentary and
+subordinate forms as applied to architecture; painting only in forms of
+rigid though sometimes impressive hieratic imagery, whether as mosaic in
+the apses and vaults of churches, as rude illumination in MSS. and
+service-books, or as still ruder altar-painting carried on according to
+a frozen mechanical tradition. As time went on and medieval institutions
+developed themselves, a gradual vitality dawned in all these arts. In
+architecture the introduction of the pointed or Gothic arch at the
+beginning of the 13th century led to almost as great a revolution as
+that brought about by the use of the round or vaulted arch among the
+Romans. The same vital impulse that informed the new Gothic architecture
+breathed into the still quite subordinate arts of sculpture and painting
+(the latter now including the craft of glass-painting for church
+windows) a new spirit whether of devotional intensity or sweetness, or
+of human pathos or rugged humour, with a new technical skill for its
+embodiment. We have not set down, as is usually done, a specifically
+Gothic period in art, for this reason. The characteristic of the whole
+Christian period is that its dominant art is architecture, chiefly
+employed in the service of the church, with painting and sculpture only
+subordinately introduced for its enrichment. It makes no essential
+difference that from the 5th to the 12th century the forms of this art
+were derived with various modifications from the round-arched
+architecture of the Empire, and that by the 13th century new forms both
+of construction and decoration, in which the round arch was replaced by
+the pointed, had been invented in France, and from thence spread abroad
+to Germany and Scandinavia, Great Britain, Spain, and last and most
+superficially to Italy. The essential difference only begins when the
+imitative arts, sculpture and painting, begin to emancipate and detach
+themselves, to exist and strive after perfection on their own account.
+This happened first and very partially in Italy with the artificers of
+the 13th and 14th centuries--with the sculptors Nicola, Giovanni, and
+Andrea Pisano; the Sienese group of painters, Duccio, Simone Martini,
+and the Lorenzetti; and the Florentine group, Cimabue (if Cimabue is not
+a myth), Giotto and the Giotteschi. The development of the rapid and
+flowing craft of fresco in place of the laborious and piecemeal craft of
+mosaic (henceforth for several centuries almost lost) was a great aid to
+this movement. After a period of something like stagnation, the movement
+received a vigorous fresh impulse soon after 1400, at about which date
+in Italy (not till near a century later in northern Europe) the
+beginning of the Renaissance is usually fixed.
+
+5. The Renaissance period, from about 1400 to about 1600. The passion
+for classic literature, stimulated by the influence of Greek scholars
+into Italy after the fall of Constantinople; the enthusiastic revival of
+classic forms of architecture by architects like Brunelleschi and
+Alberti; the achievements in sculpture and painting of masters like
+Donatello and Masaccio, based on a new and impassioned study of nature
+and the antique together; these are the outstanding and universally
+known symptoms of the Italian Renaissance in the second and third
+quarters of the 15th century. Promptly and contemptuously in Italy, much
+more gradually and incompletely in the north, Gothic principles of
+construction and decoration were cast aside for classical principles, as
+reformulated by eager spirits from a combined study of Roman remains and
+of the text of Vitruvius. To the ideal types of devout and prayer-worn,
+ascetic and spiritualized humanity (tempered in certain subjects with
+elements of the homely and the grotesque), which the spirit of the
+middle ages had dictated to the sculptor and the painter, succeeded
+ideals of physical power, beauty and grace rivalling the Hellenic. The
+personages of the Christian faith and story were brought into visible
+kindred with those of ancient paganism. In the hands of certain artists
+a fortunate blending of the two ideals yielded results of a poignant and
+unique charm, which for us, who are the heirs both of antiquity and the
+middle ages, is far from being yet exhausted. At the same time, the love
+alike of republics, great princes, churchmen, nobles and merchants for
+works of art gave employment to sculptors and painters on themes other
+than ecclesiastical. The taste for civic or personal commemoration, for
+portraiture, for illustrations of allegory, romance and classic fable,
+covered with pictures the walls of council halls, of public and private
+palaces, and of villas. The invention of the oil medium by the painters
+of Flanders, and its gradual adoption by the Venetians and other schools
+of Italy for all purposes except the external decorations of buildings,
+added enormously to the resources of the art in rivalry with nature, and
+to the splendour of its results as objects of pride and luxury. The
+glories of matured Italian art reacted, not always favourably, on the
+north. The great days of Flemish painting had been from about 1430 to
+1500, before any appreciable influence of the Renaissance had touched
+the schools of Brussels, of Bruges or of Antwerp. By about 1520 the
+artists of those schools had begun, except in portraiture, to lose their
+native vigour and originality by contact with the alien south. Among the
+great artists of Germany in the first half of the 16th century the work
+of one or two, like Burgkmair and Holbein, shows Italian influence
+reconciled not unsuccessfully with native instinct; but Dürer, the
+greatest of them, remained in all essentials Gothic and German to the
+end. During the last half of the century, the Netherlands and Germany
+alike yielded little but work of mongrel Teutonized Italian or
+Italianized Teutonic type, until towards its close Rubens accomplished,
+in the fire of his prodigious temperament, a true fusion of Flemish and
+Venetian qualities, at the same time closing gloriously the Renaissance
+period properly so called, and handing on an example which irresistibly
+affected a great part of modern painting.
+
+6. Modern period, from about 1600 to the present time. During this
+period architecture remained in all European countries, until the 19th
+century, more or less completely under the influence of the Italian
+Renaissance. The principles of the classical revival had during a
+century or more of transition been gradually absorbed, first by France,
+then by Germany, the Low Countries, and Spain, and last by England, each
+country modifying the style according to its degree of knowledge or
+ignorance, its needs, instincts and traditions. Sculpture, which in the
+hands of the great masters of the earlier and later Renaissance in
+Italy had almost equalled its ancient glories, nay, in those of
+Michelangelo had actually surpassed them in the qualities at least of
+superhuman energy and intellectual expression--sculpture lost the sense
+of its true limitations, and entered, with the work of Bernini and even
+earlier, into an extravagant or "baroque" period of relaxed and bulging
+line, of exaggerated and ostentatious virtuosity. In this it followed
+the lead given by Italian architecture, by Jesuit church architecture
+especially, at and after the height of the Catholic reaction. From the
+monumental and memorial purposes which sculpture principally serves, it
+remained still, except in purely iconic uses, attached to or dependent
+on architecture. Not so painting, which asserted its independence more
+and more. In Protestant countries the old ecclesiastical patronage of
+the art had quite died out; in those that remained Catholic it
+continued, and even received a new stimulus from the anti-Protestant
+reaction. The demand for religious art was supplied with abundance of
+traditional facility, of technical accomplishment and devotional
+display, but with a loss of the old sincerity and inspiration. Almost
+all painting, even for the most extensive and monumental phases of
+decoration in church or palace or civic hall, was on canvas stretched
+over or fitted into its allotted space in the architecture, and the art
+of fresco, even in Venice, its last stronghold, was for a time neglected
+or forgotten. Portable paintings for princely or private galleries and
+cabinets became the chief and most characteristic products of the art.
+The subjects of painting multiplied themselves. All manner of new
+aspects of life and nature were brought within the technical compass of
+the painter. Besides devotional and classical subjects and portraiture,
+daily life in all its phases, down to the homeliest and grossest, the
+life of the parlour and the tavern, of field and shore and sea, with
+landscape in all its varieties, took their place as material for the
+painter. The truths of indoor and outdoor atmosphere were translated on
+canvas for the first time. The Dutchmen from about 1620 to 1670 were the
+most active innovators and path-breakers of modern art along all these
+lines. The greatest of them, Rembrandt, dealt, as has been said, like a
+master and a magician with the problems of human individuality as
+revealed in a mysterious colour and shadow world of his own invention.
+At the same time a painter of no less power in Spain, Velazquez, viewing
+the world in the natural light of every day, showed for the first time
+how vitally and subtly paint could render the relief and mutual values
+of figures and objects in space, the essential truth of their visible
+relations and reactions in the enveloping atmosphere. The achievement of
+these two victorious innovators has only come to be fully understood in
+our own day. The simultaneous conquest of Claude le Lorrain, on the
+other hand, over the atmospheric glow of summer and sunset on the Roman
+Campagna and the adjacent hills and coasts, found acceptance instantly,
+less perhaps for its own sake than because of the classical associations
+of the scenery which he depicted. The vast widening of the field of the
+painter's art and multiplication of its subjects, which thus took place
+at the dawn of the modern period, were gains attended by one drawback,
+the loss, namely, of the sense of high seriousness and universal appeal
+which belonged to the art while its themes had been those of religion
+and classic story almost exclusively.
+
+
+  Classical and romantic revivals.
+
+During the three hundred or so years of the modern period, academical
+schools attempting, more or less unsuccessfully, to carry on the great
+Italian and classical traditions of the Renaissance have not ceased to
+exist side by side with those which have striven to express new ways of
+seeing and feeling. Sometimes, as in France first under Louis XIV., and
+again for forty years from the beginning of the Revolution to the dawn
+of romanticism, such schools have succeeded in crushing out and
+discrediting all efforts in other directions. Between these two epochs,
+say from 1710 to 1780, French 18th-century ideals of social elegance and
+brilliant frivolity expressed themselves in forms of great
+accomplishment and vivacity both in poetry and sculpture, from the days
+of Watteau to those of Fragonard and Clodion. At the same time England
+produced one of the finest and at the same time most national and
+downright masters of the brush in Hogarth; two of the greatest
+aristocratic portrait-painters of the world in Reynolds and
+Gainsborough, each of whom modified according to his own instincts the
+tradition imported in the previous century by Van Dyck, the greatest
+pupil of Rubens (Reynolds fusing with this influence those of Rembrandt
+and the Venetians in almost equal shares). Pastoral landscape in the
+hands of Gainsborough, classical, following Claude, in those of
+Wilson--these together with the humble but wholesome discipline of
+topographical illustration led on to the ambitious, wide-ranging and
+often inspired experiments of Turner, and to the narrower but more
+secure achievements of Constable in the same field, and made this
+country the acknowledged pioneer of modern landscape art. In the
+meantime the wave of classical enthusiasm which passed over Europe in
+the later years of the 18th century had produced in architecture
+generally a return to severer principles and purer lines, in reaction
+from the baroque and the rococo Renaissance styles of the preceding
+century and a half. In Italian sculpture, the same movement inspired
+during the Napoleonic period the over-honeyed accomplishment of Canova
+and his school; in northern sculpture, the more truly antique but almost
+wholly imitative work of Thorwaldsen, and the pure and rhythmic grace of
+the English Flaxman, a true master of design though scarcely of
+sculpture strictly so called. The same movement again was partly
+responsible in English painting and illustration from about 1770 to 1820
+for much pastoral and idyllic work of agreeable but shallow elegance. In
+French painting the classic movement struck deeper. Along with much
+would-be Roman attitudinizing there was much real, if rigid, power in
+the work of David, much accomplished purity and sweetness in that of
+Prud'hon. The last and truest classic of France, and at the same time in
+portraiture the greatest realist, Ingres, held high the standard of his
+cause even through and past the great romantic revival which began with
+Géricault and culminated in Delacroix and the school of landscape
+painters who had received their inspiration from Constable. The main
+instincts embodied in the Romantic movement were the awakening of the
+human spirit to an eager retrospective love of the past, and especially
+of the medieval past, and simultaneously to a new passion for the
+beauties of nature, and especially of wild nature. Germany and England
+preceded France in this double awakening; in both countries the movement
+inspired a fine literature, but in neither did it express itself so
+fully and self-consciously through literature and the other arts
+together as it did in France when the hour struck. The revival of
+medieval sentiment in Germany had inspired comparatively early in the
+century the learned but somewhat aridly ascetic and essentially
+unpainterlike work of the group of artists who styled themselves
+_Nazarener_. In England the same revival expressed itself during a great
+part of the Victorian age in an enthusiastic return to the early Gothic
+ecclesiastical styles of architecture, a return unsuccessful upon the
+whole, because in pursuit of archaeological and grammatical detail the
+root qualities of right proportion and organic design were too often
+neglected.
+
+
+  The pre-Raphaelites.
+
+Allied with this Gothic revival, and stimulated like it by the
+persuasive conviction and brilliant resource of Ruskin in criticism was
+the pre-Raphaelite movement in painting. Among the artists identified
+with this movement there was little really in common except in
+impatience of the prevailing modes of empty academic convention or
+anecdotic frivolity. The name covered for a while the essentially
+divergent aims of a vigorous unintellectual craftsman like Millais,
+fired for a few years in youth by contact with more imaginative
+temperaments, of a strenuous imitator of unharmonized local colours and
+unsubordinated natural facts like Holman Hunt, and of born poets and
+impassioned medievalists like Rossetti and after him Burne-Jones.
+Meantime in France, putting aside the work of the great Delacroix, the
+impulse of 1830 expressed itself best and most lastingly in the
+monumental work of Daumier both in caricature and romance, the
+impressive and significant treatment of peasant life and labour by J.F.
+Millet, the vitally truthful pastoral and landscape work of Troyon,
+Corot, Daubigny and the rest.
+
+
+  Contemporary tendencies.
+
+Since the exhaustion of the Romantic movement, the other movements that
+have been taking place in European art have been too numerous and too
+rapid to be touched on here to any purpose. Both in sculpture and
+painting France has taken and held the lead. Mention has already been
+made of the special tendency in recent sculpture identified with the
+name and influence of Rodin. In painting there has been the fertilizing
+and transforming influence of Japan on the decorative ideals of the
+West; there have been successively the Realist movement, the movements
+of the Impressionists, the Luminists, the Neo-impressionists, the
+Independents, movements initiated almost always in Paris, and in other
+countries eagerly adopted and absorbed, or angrily controverted and
+denounced, or simply neglected and ignored according to the predilection
+of this or that group of artists and critics; there has been a vast
+amount of heterogeneous, hurried, confident and clamant innovating
+activity in this direction and in that, much of it perhaps doomed to
+futility in the eyes of posterity, but at any rate there has not been
+stagnation.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--To attempt in this place anything like a full
+  bibliography covering so vast a field would be idle. Many of the books
+  necessary to a first-hand study of the subject are cited in the
+  article AESTHETICS. The following are some of the most important
+  writings actually referred to in the text, English translations being
+  mentioned where they exist: Aristotle, _Poetics_, edited with critical
+  notes and a translation by S.H. Butcher (1898); S.H. Butcher,
+  _Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art_, with a critical text and
+  a translation of the _Poetics_ (1902); Plato, _Republic_, bk. x. 596
+  ff., 600 ff. (Grote, iii. 117 ff.; Jowett, iii. 489 ff.); B.
+  Bosanquet, _Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art_
+  (_Ästhetik_), translation with notes and prefatory essay (1896); _The
+  Philosophy of Art, an Introduction to the Science of Aesthetics_, by
+  Hegel and C.L. Michelet, trans. Hastie (1886); Schiller, _Briefe über
+  die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen_ (trans, by G.J. Weiss, with
+  preface by J. Chapman, 1845; also in Bohn's Standard Library, 1846);
+  Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, ch. xxii.; Gottfried Semper, _Der
+  Stil_ (1860-1863); Hippolyte Taine, _De l'idéal dans l'art_ (1867),
+  _Philosophie de l'art en Grèce_ (1869), _Philosophie de l'art en
+  Italie_, _Philosophic de l'art dans les Pays-Bas_ (translations in 5
+  vols. by J. Durand, New York, 1889); Karl Groos, _Die Spiele der
+  Menschen_ (1899; trans, by E.L. Baldwin, 1901), and _Die Spiele der
+  Tiere_ (2nd ed., 1907; trans, by E.L. Baldwin, 1898); Ernst Grosse,
+  _Die Anfänge der Kunst_ (1894; trans, in the Anthropological Series,
+  1894); Yrjö Hirn, _The Origins of Art_ (1900); G. Baldwin Brown, _The
+  Fine Arts_ (2nd ed., 1902); Felix Clay, _The Origins of the Sense of
+  Beauty_ (1908). For a general history of the manual or shaping group
+  of arts, C.J.F. Schnasse, _Geschichte der bildenden Künste_ (2nd ed.,
+  1866-1879), though in parts obsolete, is still unsuperseded. A very
+  summary general view is given in Salomon Reinach, _The Story of Art
+  through the Ages_ (trans. by Florence Simmonds, 1904); a general
+  history of the same group was undertaken by Giulio Carotti (English
+  translation by Alice Todd, 1909).     (S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FINGER, one of the five members with which the hand is terminated, a
+digit; sometimes the word is restricted to the four digits other than
+the thumb. The word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _vinger_
+and Ger. _Finger_; probably the ultimate origin is to be found in the
+root of the words appearing in Greek [Greek: pente], Lat. quinque,
+_five_. (See SKELETON: _Appendicular_.)
+
+
+
+
+FINGER-AND-TOE, CLUB ROOT or ANBURY, a destructive plant-disease known
+botanically as _Plasmodiophora Brassicae_, which attacks cabbages,
+turnips, radishes and other cultivated and wild members of the order
+Cruciferae. It is one of the so-called Slime-fungi or Myxogastres. The
+presence of the disease is indicated by nodules or warty outgrowths on
+the root, which sometimes becomes much swollen and ultimately rots,
+emitting an unpleasant smell. The disease is contracted from spores
+present in the soil, which enter the root. The parasite develops within
+the living cells of the plant, forming a glairy mass of protoplasm known
+as the plasmodium, the form of which alters from time to time. The cells
+which have been attacked increase enormously in size and the disease
+spreads from cell to cell. Ultimately the _plasmodium_ becomes resolved
+into numerous minute round spores which, on the decay of the root, are
+set free in the soil. A preventive is quicklime, the application of
+which destroys the spores in the soil. It is important that diseased
+plants should be burned, also that cruciferous weeds, such as shepherd's
+purse, charlock, &c., should not be allowed to grow in places where
+plants of the same order are in cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: Finger-and-Toe (_Plasmodiophora Brassicae_).
+
+  1, Turnip attacked by the disease, reduced.
+  2, A cell of the tissue containing the plasmodium; the smaller cells
+    at the sides are unaffected.
+  3, Infected cell, showing spore formation. 2, 3, highly magnified.]
+
+
+
+
+FINGER-PRINTS. The use of finger-prints as a system of identification
+(q.v.) is of very ancient origin, and was known from the earliest days
+in the East when the impression of his thumb was the monarch's
+sign-manual. A relic of this practice is still preserved in the formal
+confirmation of a legal document by "delivering" it as one's "act and
+deed." The permanent character of the finger-print was first put forward
+scientifically in 1823 by J.E. Purkinje, an eminent professor of
+physiology, who read a paper before the university of Breslau, adducing
+nine standard types of impressions and advocating a system of
+classification which attracted no great attention. Bewick, the English
+draughtsman, struck with the delicate qualities of the lineation, made
+engravings of the impression of two of his finger-tips and used them as
+signatures for his work. Sir Francis Galton, who laboured to introduce
+finger-prints, points out that they were proposed for the identification
+of Chinese immigrants when registering their arrival in the United
+States. In India, Sir William Herschel desired to use finger-prints in
+the courts of the Hugli district to prevent false personation and fix
+the identity upon the executants of documents. The Bengal police under
+the wise administration of Sir E.R. Henry, afterwards chief commissioner
+of the London metropolitan police, usefully adopted finger-prints for
+the detection of crime, an example followed in many public departments
+in India. A transfer of property is attested by the thumb-mark, so are
+documents when registered, and advances made to opium-growers or to
+labourers on account of wages, or to contracts signed under the
+emigration law, or medical certificates to vouch for the persons
+examined, all tending to check the frauds and impostures constantly
+attempted.
+
+The prints depend upon a peculiarity seen in the human hand and to some
+extent in the human foot. The skin is traversed in all directions by
+creases and ridges, which are ineradicable and show no change from
+childhood to extreme old age. The persistence of the markings of the
+finger-tips has been proved beyond all question, and this universally
+accepted quality has been the basis of the present system of
+identification. The impressions, when examined, show that the ridges
+appear in certain fixed patterns, from which an alphabet of signs or a
+system of notation has been arrived at for convenience of record. As
+the result of much experiment a fourfold scheme of classification has
+been evolved, and the various types employed are styled "arches,"
+"loops," "whorls" and "composites." There are seven subclasses, and all
+are perfectly distinguishable by an expert, who can describe each by its
+particular symbol in the code arranged, so that the whole "print" can be
+read as a distinct and separate expression. Very few, and the simplest,
+appliances are required for taking the print--a sheet of white paper, a
+tin slab, and some printer's ink. Scars or malformations do not
+interfere with the result.
+
+The unchanging character of the finger-prints has repeatedly helped in
+the detection of crime. We may quote the case of the thief who broke
+into a residence and among other things helped himself to a glass of
+wine, leaving two finger-prints upon the tumbler which were subsequently
+found to be identical with those of a notorious criminal who was
+arrested, pleaded guilty and was convicted. Another burglar effected
+entrance by removing a pane of glass from a basement window, but,
+unhappily for him, left his imprints, which were referred to the
+registry and found to agree exactly with those of a convict at large;
+his address was known, and when visited some of the stolen property was
+found in his possession. In India a murderer was identified by the brown
+mark of a blood-stained thumb he had left when rummaging amongst the
+papers of the deceased. This man was convicted of theft but not of the
+murder.
+
+The keystone to the whole system is the central office where the
+register or index of all criminals is kept for ready reference. The
+operators need no special gifts or lengthy training; method and accuracy
+suffice, and abundant checks exist to obviate incorrect classification
+and reduce the liability to error.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. Galton, _Finger Prints_ (1892), _Fingerprint
+  Directories_ (1895); E.R. Henry, _Classification and Uses of Finger
+  Prints_; A. Yvert, _L'Identification par les empreintes digitales
+  palmaires_ (1905); K. Windt, R.S. Kodicek, _Daktyloskopie. Verwertung
+  von Fingerabdrücken zu Identifizierungszwecken_ (Vienna, 1904); E.
+  Loeard, _La Dactyloscopie. Identification des récidivistes par les
+  empreintes digitales_ (1904); H. Faulds, _Guide to Finger-Print
+  Identification_ (1905); H. Gross, _Criminal Investigation_ (trans. J.
+  and J.C. Adam, 1907).     (A. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FINGO, or FENGU (_Ama-Fengu_, "wanderers"), a Bantu-Negro people, allied
+to the Zulu family, who have given their name to the district of
+Fingoland, the S.W. portion of the Transkei division of the Cape
+province. The Fingo tribes were formed from the nations broken up by
+Chaka and his Zulu; after some years of oppression by the Xosa they
+appealed to the Cape government in 1835, and were permitted by Sir
+Benjamin D'Urban to settle on the banks of the Great Fish river. They
+have been always loyal to the British, and have steadily advanced in
+social respects. They have largely adapted themselves to western
+culture, wearing European clothes, supporting their schools by voluntary
+contributions, editing newspapers, translating English poetry, and
+setting their national songs to correct music. The majority call
+themselves Christians and many of them have intermarried with Europeans.
+(See KAFFIRS.)
+
+
+
+
+FINIAL (a variant of "final"; Lat. _finis_, end), an architectural term
+for the termination of a pinnacle, gable end, buttress, or canopy,
+consisting of a bunch of foliage, which bears a close affinity to the
+crockets (q.v.) running up the gables, turrets or spires, and in some
+cases may be formed by uniting four or more crockets together. Sometimes
+the term is incorrectly applied to a small pinnacle of which it is only
+the termination (see EPI).
+
+
+
+
+FINIGUERRA, MASO [i.e. TOMMASO] (1426-1464), Florentine goldsmith,
+draughtsman, and engraver, whose name is distinguished in the history of
+art and craftsmanship for reasons which are partly mythical. Vasari
+represents him as having been the first inventor of the art of engraving
+(using that word in its popular sense of taking impressions on paper
+from designs engraved on metal plates), and Vasari's account was
+universally accepted and repeated until recent research proved it
+erroneous. What we actually know from contemporary documents of
+Finiguerra, his origin, his life, and his work, is as follows. He was
+the son of Antonio, and grandson of Tommaso Finiguerra or Finiguerri,
+both goldsmiths of Florence, and was born in Sta Lucia d'Ognissanti in
+1426. He was brought up to the hereditary profession of goldsmith and
+was early distinguished for his work in niello. In his twenty-third year
+(1449) we find note of a sulphur cast from a niello of his workmanship
+being handed over by the painter Alessio Baldovinetti to a customer in
+payment or exchange for a dagger received. In 1452 Maso delivered and
+was paid for a niellated silver pax commissioned for the baptistery of
+St John by the consuls of the gild of merchants or Calimara. By this
+time he seems to have left his father's workshop: and we know that he
+was in partnership with Piero di Bartolommeo di Sali and the great
+Antonio Pollaiuolo in 1457, when the firm had an order for a pair of
+fine silver candlesticks for the church of San Jacopo at Pistoia. In
+1459 we find Finiguerra noted in the house-book of Giovanni Rucellai as
+one of several distinguished artists with whose works the Casa Rucellai
+was adorned. In 1462 he is recorded as having supplied another wealthy
+Florentine, Cino di Filippo Rinuccini, with waist-buckles, and in the
+years next following with forks and spoons for christening presents. In
+1463 he drew cartoons, the heads of which were coloured by Alessio
+Baldovinetti, for five or more figures for the sacristy of the duomo,
+which was being decorated in wood inlay by a group of artists with
+Giuliano da Maiano at their head. On the 14th of December 1464 Maso
+Finiguerra made his will, and died shortly afterwards.
+
+These documentary facts are supplemented by several writers of the next
+generation with statements more or less authoritative. Thus Baccio
+Bandinelli says that Maso was among the young artists who worked under
+Ghiberti on the famous gates of the baptistery; Benvenuto Cellini that
+he was the finest master of his day in the art of niello engraving, and
+that his masterpiece was a pax of the Crucifixion in the baptistery of
+St John; that being no great draughtsman, he in most cases, including
+that of the above-mentioned pax, worked from drawings by Antonio
+Pollaiuolo. Vasari, on the other hand, allowing that Maso was a much
+inferior draughtsman to Pollaiuolo, mentions nevertheless a number of
+original drawings by him as existing in his own collection, "with
+figures both draped and nude, and histories drawn in water-colour."
+Vasari's account was confirmed and amplified in the next century by
+Baldinucci, who says that he has seen many drawings by Finiguerra much
+in the manner of Masaccio; adding that Maso was beaten by Pollaiuolo in
+competition for the reliefs of the great silver altar-table commission
+by the merchants' gild for the baptistery of St John (this famous work
+is now preserved in the Opera del Duomo). But the paragraph of Vasari
+which has chiefly held the attention of posterity is that in which he
+gives this craftsman the credit of having been the first to print off
+impressions from niello plates on sulphur casts and afterwards on sheets
+of paper, and of having followed up this invention by engraving
+copper-plates for the express purpose of printing impressions from them,
+and thus became the inventor and father of the art of engraving in
+general. Finiguerra, adds Vasari, was succeeded in the practice of
+engraving at Florence by a goldsmith called Baccio Baldini, who, not
+having much invention of his own, borrowed his designs from other
+artists and especially from Botticelli. In the last years of the 18th
+century Vasari's account of Finiguerra's invention was held to have
+received a decisive and startling confirmation under the following
+circumstances. There was in the baptistery at Florence (now in the
+Bargello) a beautiful 15th-century niello pax of the Coronation of the
+Virgin. The Abate Gori, a savant and connoisseur of the mid-century, had
+claimed this conjecturally for the work of Finiguerra; a later and still
+more enthusiastic virtuoso, the Abate Zani, discovered first, in the
+collection of Count Seratti at Leghorn, a sulphur cast from the very
+same niello (this cast is now in the British Museum), and then, in the
+National library at Paris, a paper impression corresponding to both.
+Here, then, he proclaimed, was the actual material first-fruit of
+Finiguerra's invention and proof positive of Vasari's accuracy.
+
+Zani's famous discovery, though still accepted in popular art histories
+and museum guides, is now discredited among serious students. For one
+thing, it has been proved that the art of printing from engraved
+copper-plates had been known in Germany, and probably in Italy also, for
+years before the date of Finiguerra's alleged invention. For another,
+Maso's pax for the baptistery, if Cellini is to be trusted, represented
+not a Coronation of the Virgin but a Crucifixion. In the next place, its
+recorded weight does not at all agree with that of the pax claimed by
+Gori and Zani to be his. Again, and perhaps this is the strongest
+argument of any, all authentic records agree in representing Finiguerra
+as a close associate in art and business of Antonio Pollaiuolo. Now
+nothing is more marked than the special style of Pollaiuolo and his
+group; and nothing is more unlike it than the style of the Coronation
+pax, the designer of which must obviously have been trained in quite a
+different school, namely that of Filippo Lippi. So this seductive
+identification has to be abandoned, and we have to look elsewhere for
+traces of the real work of Finiguerra. The only fully authenticated
+specimens which exist are the above-mentioned tarsia figures, over half
+life-size, executed from his cartoons for the sacristy of the duomo. But
+his hand has lately been conjecturally recognized in a number of other
+things: first in a set of drawings of the school of Pollaiuolo at the
+Uffizi, some of which are actually inscribed "Maso Finiguerra" in a
+17th-century writing, probably that of Baldinucci himself; and secondly
+in a very curious and important book of nearly a hundred drawings by the
+same hand, acquired in 1888 for the British Museum. The Florence series
+depicts for the most part figures of the studio and the street, to all
+appearance members of the artist's own family and workshop, drawn direct
+from life. The museum volume, on the other hand, is a picture-chronicle,
+drawn from imagination, and representing parallel figures of sacred and
+profane history, in a chronological series from the Creation to Julius
+Caesar, dressed and accoutred with inordinate richness according to the
+quaint pictures which Tuscan popular fancy in the mid-15th century
+conjured up to itself of the ancient world. Except for the differences
+naturally resulting from the difference of subject, and that the one
+series are done from life and the other from imagination, the technical
+style and handling of the two are identical and betray unmistakably a
+common origin. Both can be dated with certainty, from their style,
+costumes, &c., within a few years of 1460. Both agree strictly with the
+accounts of Finiguerra's drawings left us by Vasari and Baldinucci, and
+disagree in no respect with the character of the inlaid figures of the
+sacristy. That the draughtsman was a goldsmith is proved on every page of
+the picture-chronicle by his skill and extravagant delight in the
+ornamental parts of design--chased and jewelled cups, helmets, shields,
+breastplates, scabbards and the like,--as well as by the symmetrical
+metallic forms into which he instinctively conventionalizes plants and
+flowers. That he was probably also an engraver in niello appears from the
+fact that figures from the Uffizi series of drawings are repeated among
+the rare anonymous Florentine niello prints of the time (the chief
+collection of which, formerly belonging to the marquis of Salamanca, is
+now in the cabinet of M. Edmond de Rothschild in Paris). That he was
+furthermore an engraver on copper seems certain from the fact that the
+general style and many particular figures and features of the British
+Museum chronicle drawings are exactly repeated in some of those primitive
+15th-century Florentine prints which used to be catalogued loosely under
+the names of Baldini or Botticelli, but have of late years been classed
+more cautiously as anonymous prints in the "fine manner" (in
+contradistinction to another contemporary group of prints in the "broad
+manner"). The fine-manner group of primitive Florentine engravings itself
+falls into two divisions, one more archaic, more vigorous and original
+than the other, and consisting for the most part of larger and more
+important prints. It is this division which the drawings of the Chronicle
+series most closely resemble; so closely as almost to compel the
+conclusion that drawings and engravings are by the same hand. The later
+division of fine-manner prints represent a certain degree of technical
+advance from the earlier, and are softer in style, with elements of more
+classic grace and playfulness; their motives moreover are seldom
+original, but are borrowed from various sources, some from German
+engravings, some from Botticelli or a designer closely akin to him, some
+from the pages of the British Museum Chronicle-book itself, with a
+certain softening and attenuating of their rugged spirit; as though the
+book, after the death of the original draughtsman-engraver, had remained
+in his workshop and continued to be used by his successors. We thus find
+ourselves in presence of a draughtsman of the school of Pollaiuolo, some
+of whose drawings bear an ancient attribution to Finiguerra, while all
+agree with what is otherwise known of him, and one or two are exactly
+repeated in extant works of niello, the craft which was peculiarly his
+own; others being intimately related to the earliest or all but the
+earliest works of Florentine engraving, the kindred craft which tradition
+avers him to have practised, and which Vasari erroneously believed him to
+have invented. Surely, it has been confidently argued, this draughtsman
+must be no other than the true Finiguerra himself. The argument has not
+yet been universally accepted, but neither has any competent criticism
+appeared to shake it; so that it may be regarded for the present as
+holding the field.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Bandinelli in Bottari, _Raccolta di lettere_
+  (1754), i. p. 75; Vasari (ed. Milanesi), i. p. 209, iii. p. 206;
+  Benvenuto Cellini, _I Trattati dell' orificeria_, &c. (ed. Lemonnier),
+  pp. 7, 12, 13, 14; Baldinucci, _Notizie dei professori di disegno_
+  (1845), i. pp. 518, 519, 533; Zani, _Materiali per servire_, &c.
+  (1802); Duchesne, _Essai sur les nielles_ (1824); Dutuit, _Manuel de
+  l'amateur d'estampes_, vol. i. pref. and vol. ii.; and for a full
+  discussion of the whole question, with quotations from earlier
+  authorities and reproductions of the works discussed, Sidney Colvin,
+  _A Florentine Picture Chronicle_ (1898).     (S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FINISHING. The term _finishing_, as specially applied in the textile
+industries, embraces the process or processes to which bleached, dyed or
+printed fabrics of any description are subjected, with the object of
+imparting a characteristic appearance to the surface of the fabric, or
+of influencing its handle or feel. Strictly speaking, certain operations
+might be classed under this heading which are conducted previous to
+bleaching, dyeing, &c; e.g. mercerizing (q.v.), stretching and crabbing,
+singeing (see BLEACHING); but as these are not undertaken by the
+finisher, only those will be dealt with here which are not mentioned
+under other headings. By the various treatments to which the fabric is
+subjected in finishing, it is often so altered in appearance that it is
+impossible to recognize in it the same material that came from the loom
+or from the bleacher or dyer. On the other hand, one and the same
+fabric, subjected to different processes of finishing, may be made to
+represent totally different classes of material. In other cases,
+however, the appearance of the finished article differs but slightly
+from that of the piece on leaving the loom.
+
+All processes of finishing are purely mechanical in character, and the
+most important of them depend upon the fact that in their ordinary
+condition (i.e. containing their normal amount of moisture), or better
+still in a damp state, the textile fibres are plastic, and consequently
+yield to pressure or tension, ultimately assuming the shape imparted to
+them. The old-fashioned box press, formerly largely used for household
+linen, owed its efficacy to this principle. At elevated temperatures the
+damp fibres become very much more plastic than at the ordinary
+temperature, the simplest form of finishing appliance based on this fact
+being the ordinary flat iron. Indeed it may safely be stated that most
+of the modern finishing processes have been evolved from the household
+operations of washing (milling), brushing, starching, mangling, ironing
+and pressing.
+
+_Cotton Pieces._--In the ordinary process of bleaching, cotton goods are
+subjected during the various operations to more or less continual
+longitudinal tension, and while becoming elongated, shrink more or less
+considerably in width. In order to bring them back to their original
+width, they are stretched or "stentered" by means of specially
+constructed machines. The most effective of these is the so-called
+stentering frame, which consists essentially of two slightly diverging
+endless chains carrying clips or pins which hold the piece in position
+as it traverses the machine. The length of a frame may vary from 20 to
+30 yds. On the upper part of the frame the chains run in slots, and by
+means of set screws the distance between the two chains can be set
+within the required limits. The pieces are fed on to one end of the
+machine in the damp state by hand and are then naturally slack. But
+before they have travelled many yards they become taut, the stretching
+increasing as they travel along. Simultaneously with the stretching, the
+pieces are dried by a current of hot air which is blown through from
+below, so that on arriving at the end of the machine they are not only
+stretched to the required degree but are also dry. The machine used for
+stentering is more fully described under MERCERIZING (q.v.). In case the
+goods come straight from the loom to be finished, stentering is not
+necessary.
+
+Pieces intended to receive a "pure" finish pass on without further
+treatment to the ordinary finishing processes such as calendering, hot
+pressing, raising, &c. But in the majority of cases they are previously
+impregnated, according to the finish desired, with stiffening or
+softening agents, weighting materials, &c. Usually, starch constitutes
+the main stiffening agent, with additions of china clay, barium
+compounds, &c., for weighting purposes, and Turkey red oil, with or
+without the addition of some vegetable oil or fat, as the softening
+agent. Magnesium sulphate is also largely used in order to give "body"
+to the cloth, which it does by virtue of its property of crystallizing
+in fine felted needle-shaped crystals throughout the mass of the fabric.
+When starch is used in filling, it is advisable to add some anti-septic,
+such as zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, phenol or salicylic acid,
+in order to prevent or retard subsequent development of mildew. The
+impregnation of the pieces with the filling is effected in two ways,
+viz. either throughout the thickness of the cloth or on one surface only
+(back starching). When the whole piece is to be impregnated the
+operation is conducted in a starching mangle, which is similar in
+construction to an ordinary household mangle, though naturally larger
+and more elaborate in construction. The pieces run at full width through
+a trough situated immediately below the bowls and containing the filling
+(starch paste, &c.), then between the bowls, the pressure ("nip") of
+which regulates the amount of filling taken up, and thence over a range
+of steam-heated drying cylinders (see BLEACHING). In case one side only
+of the goods is to be stiffened--and this is usually necessary in the
+case of printed goods,--a so-called back-starching mangle is employed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Principle of Back-Starching Machine.]
+
+  The construction of the machine varies, but the simplest form consists
+  essentially of a wooden bowl a (Fig. 1) which runs in the starch paste
+  contained in trough t. The pieces pass from the batch-roller B,
+  through scrimp rails S and over the bowl under tension, touching the
+  surface from which they gather the starch paste. By means of the fixed
+  "doctor" blade d, which extends across the piece, the paste is
+  levelled on the surface of the fabric and excess scraped off, falling
+  back into the trough. The goods are then dried with the face side to
+  the cylinders.
+
+Some goods come into the market with no further treatment after
+starching other than running through a mangle with a little softening
+and then drying, but in the great majority of cases they are subjected
+to further operations.
+
+_Damping._--When deprived of their natural moisture by drying on the
+cylinder drying machine, cotton goods are not in a fit condition to
+undergo the subsequent operations of calendering, beetling, &c., since
+the fibres in the dry state have lost their plasticity. The pieces are
+consequently damped to the desired degree, and this is usually effected
+in a damping machine in passing through which they meet with a fine
+spray of water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Principle of Damping Machine.]
+
+  A simple and effective device for this purpose is shown in section in
+  Fig. 2. It consists essentially of a brass roller r running in water
+  contained in a trough or box t. Touching the brass roller is a brush
+  roller b which revolves at a high speed, thus spraying the water,
+  which it takes up continuously from the wet revolving brass roller in
+  all directions, and consequently also against the piece which passes
+  in a stretched condition over the top of the box, being drawn from the
+  batch roller B, over scrimp rails S, and batched again on the other
+  side on roller R. The level of the water in the trough is kept
+  constant.
+
+_Calendering._--The calender may be regarded as an elaboration of the
+ordinary mangle, from which, however, it differs essentially inasmuch as
+one or more of the rollers or bowls are made of steel or iron and can be
+treated either by gas or steam; the other bowls are made of compressed
+cotton or paper. Three distinct forms of calender are in use, viz. the
+ordinary calender, the friction calender and the embossing calender.
+
+The number of bowls in an ordinary calender varies between two and six
+according to the character of the finish for which it is intended. In a
+modern five-bowl calender the bottom bowl is made of cast iron, the
+second of compressed cotton or paper, the third of iron being hollow and
+fitted with steam heating apparatus. The fourth bowl is made of
+compressed cotton, and the fifth of cast iron. The pieces are simply
+passed through for "swissing," i.e. for the production of an ordinary
+plain finish. The same calender may also be used for "chasing," in which
+two pieces are passed through, face to face, in order to produce an
+imitation linen finish. Moiré or "watered" effects are produced in a
+similar way, but these effects are frequently imitated in the embossing
+calender.
+
+The friction calender, the object of which is to produce a high gloss on
+the fabric, differs from the ordinary calender inasmuch as one of the
+bowls is caused to revolve at a greater speed than the others. In an
+ordinary three-bowl friction calender the bottom bowl is made of cast
+iron, the middle one of compressed cotton or paper, and the top one (the
+friction bowl) of highly polished chilled iron. The last-named bowl,
+which has a greater peripheral speed than the others, is hollow and can
+be heated either by steam or gas.
+
+The embossing calender is usually constructed of two bowls, one of which
+is of steel and the other of compressed cotton or paper. The steel
+roller, which is hollow and can be heated either by steam or gas, is
+engraved with the pattern which it is desired to impart to the piece. If
+the pattern is deep, as is the case in the production of book cloths, it
+is necessary to run the machine empty under pressure until the pattern
+of the steel bowl has impressed itself into the cotton or paper bowls,
+but if the effect desired only consists of very fine lines, this is not
+necessary; for instance, in the production of the Schreiner finish,
+which is intended to give the pieces (especially after mercerizing) the
+appearance of silk, the steel roller is engraved with fine diagonal
+lines which are so close together (about 250 to the in.) as to be
+undistinguishable by the naked eye.
+
+_Beetling_ is a process by which a peculiar linen-like appearance and a
+leathery feel or handle are imparted to cotton fabrics, the process
+being also employed for improving the appearance of linen goods. For the
+best class of beetle finish, the pieces are first impregnated with sago
+starch and the other necessary ingredients (softening, &c.) and are
+dried on cylinders. They are then damped on a water mangle, and beamed
+on to the heavy iron bowl of the beetling machine.
+
+  A beetling machine of the kind, with four sets of "fallers," is shown
+  in Fig. 3. The fallers are made of beech wood, are about 8 ft. long,
+  5½ in. deep and 4 in. wide, and are kept in their vertical position by
+  two pairs of guide rails. Each faller is provided with a tappet or
+  wooden peg driven in at one side, which engages with the teeth or
+  "wipers" of the revolving shaft in the front of the machine. The
+  effect of this mechanism is to lift the faller a distance of about 13
+  in. and then let it drop on to the cloth wound on the beam. This
+  lifting and dropping of the fallers on to the beam takes place in
+  rhythmical and rapid succession. To ensure even treatment the beam
+  turns slowly round and also has a to-and-fro movement imparted to it.
+  The treatment may last, according to the finish which it is desired to
+  obtain, from one to sixty hours.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Beetling Machine (Edmeston & Sons).]
+
+Beetling was originally used for linen goods, but to-day is almost
+entirely applied to cotton for the production of so-called _linenettes_.
+
+_Hot-pressing_ is used to a limited extent in order to obtain a soft
+finish on cotton goods, but as this operation is more used for wool, it
+will be described below.
+
+_Raising._--This operation, which was formerly only used for woollen
+goods (teasing), has come largely into use for cotton pieces, partly in
+consequence of the introduction of the direct cotton colours by which
+the cotton is dyed evenly throughout (see DYEING), and partly in
+consequence of new and improved machinery having been devised for the
+purpose. Starting with a plain bleached, dyed or printed fabric, the
+process consists in principle in raising or drawing out the ends of
+individual fibres from the body of the cloth, so as to produce a nap or
+soft woolly surface on the face.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Raising.]
+
+  This is effected by passing the fabric slowly round a large drum D,
+  which is surrounded, as shown in the diagram, (Fig. 4), by a number of
+  small cylinders or rollers, r, covered with steel wire brushes or
+  "carding," such as is used in carding engines (see COTTON-SPINNING
+  MACHINERY).
+
+  The rollers r, which are all driven by one and the same belt (not
+  shown in the figure), revolve at a high rate of speed, and can be made
+  to do so either in the same direction as that followed by the piece as
+  it travels through the machine or in the opposite one. In addition to
+  their revolving round their own axes, the raising rollers may be
+  either kept stationary or may be moved round the drum D in either
+  direction.
+
+  In the more modern machines there are two sets of raising rollers, of
+  which each alternate one is caused to revolve in the direction
+  followed by the piece, while the other is made to revolve in the
+  opposite direction. By passing through an arrangement of this kind
+  several times, or through several such machines in succession, the
+  ends of the fibres are gradually drawn out to the desired extent.
+
+After raising, the pieces are sheared (for better class work) in order
+to produce greater regularity in the length of the nap. The raised style
+of finishing is used chiefly for the production of uniformly white or
+coloured flannelettes but is also used for such as are dyed in the yarn,
+and to a limited extent for printed fabrics.
+
+_Woollen and Worsted Pieces._--Although both of these classes of
+material are made from wool, their treatment in finishing differs so
+materially that it is necessary to deal with them separately. _Unions_
+or fabrics consisting of a cotton warp with a worsted weft are in
+general treated like worsteds.
+
+In the finishing of woollen pieces the most important operation is that
+of _milling_, which consists in subjecting the pieces to mechanical
+friction, usually in an alkaline medium (soap or soap and soda) but
+sometimes in an acid (sulphuric acid) medium, in order to bring about
+felting and consequent "fulling" of the fabric. This felting of the wool
+is due to the peculiar structure of the fibre, the scales of which all
+protrude in one direction, so that the individual fibres can slip past
+each other in one direction more readily than in the opposite one and
+thus become more and more interlocked as the milling proceeds. If the
+pieces contain _burrs_ these are usually removed by a process known as
+"carbonizing," which generally, but not necessarily, precedes the
+milling. Their removal depends upon the fact that the burrs, which
+consist in the main of cellulose, are disintegrated at elevated
+temperatures by dilute mineral acids. The pieces are run through
+sulphuric acid of from 4° to 6° Tw., squeezed or hydro-extracted, and
+dried over cylinders and then in stoves. The acid is thus concentrated
+and attacks the burrs, which fall to dust, while leaving the wool
+intact. For the removal of the acid the fabric is first washed in water
+and then in weak soda. Carbonizing is also sometimes used for worsteds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Milling Stocks.]
+
+Milling was formerly all done in milling or fulling stocks (see Fig. 5),
+in which the cloth saturated with a strong solution of soap (with or
+without other additions such as stale urine, potash, fuller's earth,
+&c.) is subjected to the action of heavy wooden hammers, which are
+raised by the cams attached to the wheel (E) on the revolving shaft, and
+fall with their own weight on to the bundles of cloth. The shape of the
+hammer-head causes the cloth to turn slowly in the cavity in which the
+milling takes place. Occasionally, the cloth is taken out, straightened,
+washed if necessary, and then returned to the stocks to undergo further
+treatment, the process being continued until the material is uniformly
+shrunk or milled to the desired degree.
+
+In the more modern forms of milling machines the principle adopted is to
+draw the pieces in rope form, saturated with soap solution and sewn
+together end to end so as to form an endless band, between two or more
+rollers, on leaving which they are forced down a closed trough ending in
+an aperture the size of which can be varied, but which in any case is
+sufficiently small to cause a certain amount of force to be necessary to
+push the pieces through. A machine of this kind is shown in Fig. 6. It
+is evident that for coloured goods which have to be milled only such
+colouring matters must be chosen for dyeing that are absolutely fast to
+soap.
+
+[Illustration: From Ganswindt, _Technologie der Appretur_.
+
+FIG. 6.--Roller Milling Machine.]
+
+After the pieces have been milled down to the desired degree, they
+present an uneven and, undesirable appearance on the surface, the ends
+of many of the fibres which previously projected having been turned and
+thus become embedded in the body of the cloth. In order to bring these
+hairs to the surface again, the fabric is subjected to _teasing_ or
+_raising_, an operation identical in principle with one which has
+already been noticed under the finishing of cotton. In place of the
+steel wire brushes it is the usual practice to employ teasels for the
+treatment of woollen goods.
+
+  The teasel (see Fig. 7) is the dried head (fruit) of a kind of thistle
+  (_Dipsacus fullorum_), the horny sharp spikes of which turn downwards
+  at their extremity, and, while possessing the necessary sharpness and
+  strength for raising the fibres, are not sufficiently rigid to cause
+  any material damage to the cloth. For raising, the teasels are fixed
+  in rows on a large revolving drum, and the piece to be treated is
+  drawn lengthways underneath the drum, being guided by rollers or rods
+  so as to just touch the teasels as they sweep past. In the raising of
+  woollen goods it is necessary that the pieces should be damp or moist
+  while undergoing this treatment.
+
+After teasing, the pieces are stretched and dried. At this stage they
+still have an irregular appearance, for although the raising has brought
+all the loose ends of the fibres to the surface, these vary considerably
+in length and thus give rise to an uneven nap.
+
+[Illustration: From Ganswindt, _Technologie der Appretur_.
+
+FIG. 7.--Teasel used for Raising.]
+
+By the next operation of _shearing_ or _cropping_, the long hairs are
+cut off arid a uniform surface is thus obtained. Shearing was in former
+times done by hand, by means of shears, but is to-day universally
+effected by means of a cutting device which works on the same principle
+as an ordinary lawn-mower, in which a number of spiral blades set on the
+surface of a rapidly revolving roller pass continuously over a straight
+fixed blade underneath, the roller being set so that the spiral blades
+just touch the fixed blade. Before the piece comes to the shearing
+device the nap is raised by means of a rotary brush. Shearing may be
+effected either transversely, in which case the fixed blade is parallel
+to the warp, or longitudinally with the fixed blade parallel to the
+weft. In the first case, the piece being stretched on a table, over
+which the cutter, carried on rails, travels from selvedge to selvedge.
+The length of the piece that can be shorn in one operation will
+naturally depend upon the length of the blade, but in any case the
+process is necessarily intermittent, many operations being required
+before the whole piece is shorn. In the longitudinal shearing machines
+the process is continuous, the pieces passing from the beam in the
+stretched condition over the rotary brush, under the fixed blade, and
+then being again brushed before being beamed on the other side of the
+machine. Shearing once is generally insufficient, and for this reason
+many of the modern machines are constructed with duplicate arrangements
+so as to effect the shearing twice in the same operation. In the
+finishing of certain woollen goods the pieces, after having been milled,
+raised and sheared, go through these operations again in the same
+sequence.
+
+After these operations the goods are pressed either in the hydraulic
+press or in the continuous press, and according to the character of the
+material and the finish desired may or may not be steamed under
+pressure, all of which operations are described below.
+
+New cloth, as it comes into the hands of the tailor, frequently shows an
+undesirable gloss or sheen, which is removed before making up by a
+process known as shrinking, in which the material is simply damped or
+steamed.
+
+_Worsteds and Unions._--The pieces are first singed by gas or hot plate
+(see BLEACHING), and are then usually subjected to a process known as
+"crabbing," the object of which is to "set" the wool fibres. If this
+operation is omitted, especially in the case of unions, the fabric will
+"cockle," or assume an uneven surface on being wetted. In crabbing the
+pieces are drawn at full breadth and under as much tension as they will
+stand through boiling water, and are wound or beamed on to a roller
+under the pressure of a superposed heavy iron roller, the operation
+being conducted two or three times as required. From the crabbing
+machine the pieces are wound on to a perforated shell or steel cylinder
+which is closed at one end. The open end is then attached to a steam
+pipe, and steam, at a pressure of 30 to 45 lb., is allowed to enter
+until it makes its way through all the layers of cloth to the outside,
+when the steam is turned off and the whole allowed to cool. Since those
+layers of the cloth which are nearest the shell are acted upon for a
+longer period than those at the outside, it is necessary to re-wind and
+repeat the operation, the outside portions coming this time nearest to
+the shell. The principle of the process depends upon the fact that at
+elevated temperatures moist wool becomes plastic, and then easily
+assumes the shape imparted to it by the great tension under which the
+pieces are wound. On cooling the shape is retained, and since the
+temperature at which the pieces were steamed under tension exceeds any
+to which they are submitted in the subsequent processes, the "setting"
+of the fibres is permanent. After crabbing, the pieces are washed or
+"scoured" in soap either on the winch or at full width. In some cases
+the crabbing precedes the scouring. The goods are then dyed and
+finished.
+
+The nature of the finishing process will vary considerably according to
+the special character of the goods under treatment. Thus, for certain
+classes of goods cold pressing is sufficient, while in other cases the
+pieces are steamed under pressure in a manner analogous to the treatment
+after crabbing ("decatizing"). The treatment in most common use for
+worsteds and unions is hot pressing, which may be effected either in the
+hydraulic press or in the continuous press, but in most cases in the
+former.
+
+In pressing in the hydraulic press the pieces are folded down by hand on
+a table, a piece of press paper (thin hand-made cardboard with a glossed
+and extremely hard surface) being inserted between each lap. After a
+certain number of laps, a steel or iron press plate is inserted, and the
+folding proceeds in this way until the pile is sufficiently high, when
+it is placed in the press. The press being filled, the hydraulic ram is
+set in motion until the reading on the gauge shows that the desired
+amount of pressure has been obtained. The heating of the press plates
+was formerly done in ovens, previous to their insertion in the piece,
+but although this practice is still in vogue in rare instances, the
+heating is now effected either by means of steam which is caused to
+circulate through the hollow steel plates, or in the more modern forms
+of presses by means of an electric current. After the pieces have thus
+been subjected to the combined effects of heat and pressure for the
+desired length of time, they are allowed to cool in the press. It is
+evident that portions of the pieces, viz. the folds, thus escape the
+finishing process, and for this reason it is necessary to repeat the
+process, the folds now being made to lie in the middle of the press
+papers.
+
+[Illustration: From Ganswindt,' _Technologie der Appretur_.
+
+FIG. 8.--Continuous Press.]
+
+  The continuous press, which is used for certain classes of worsteds,
+  but more especially for woollen goods, consists in principle of a
+  polished steam-heated steel cylinder against which either one or two
+  steam-heated chilled iron cheeks are set by means of levers and
+  adjusting screws. The pieces to be pressed are drawn slowly between
+  the cheeks and the bowl. A machine of the kind is shown in section in
+  Fig. 8. In working, the cheeks C, C_1 are pressed against the bowl B.
+  The course followed by the cloth to be finished is shown by the dotted
+  line, the finished material being mechanically folded down on the
+  left-hand side of the machine. The pieces thus acquire a certain
+  amount of finish which is, however, not comparable with that produced
+  in the hydraulic press.
+
+_Pile Fabrics_, such as velvets, velveteens, corduroys, plushes,
+sealskins, &c., require a special treatment in finishing, and great care
+must be taken in all operations to prevent the pile being crushed or
+otherwise damaged. Velveteens and corduroys are singed before boiling or
+bleaching. Velveteens dyed in black or in dark shades are brushed with
+an oil colour (e.g. Prussian blue for blacks), and dried over-night in a
+hot stove in order to give them a characteristic bloom. Regularity in
+the pile and gloss are obtained by shearing and brushing. Corduroys are
+stiffened at the back by the application of "bone-size" (practically an
+impure form of glue) in a machine similar to that used for
+back-starching. The face of the fabric is waxed with beeswax by passing
+the piece under a revolving drum, on the surface of which bars of this
+material are fixed parallel to the axis. The bars just touch the surface
+of the fabric as it passes through the machine. The gloss is then
+obtained by brushing with circular brushes which run partly in the
+direction of the piece and partly diagonally. In the finishing of
+velvets, shearing and brushing are the most important operations. The
+same applies to sealskins and other long pile fabrics, but with these an
+additional operation, viz. that of "batting," is employed after dyeing
+and before shearing and brushing, which consists in beating the back of
+the stretched fabric with sticks in order to shake out the pile and
+cause it to stand erect.
+
+For the finishing of silk pieces the operations and machinery employed
+are similar in character to some of those used for cotton and worsteds.
+Most high-class silks require no further treatment other than simple
+damping and pressing after they leave the loom. Inferior qualities are
+frequently filled or back-filled with glue, sugar, gum tragacanth,
+dextrin, &c., after which they are dried, damped and given a light
+calender finish. Moiré or watered effects are produced by running two
+pieces face to face through a calender or by means of an embossing
+calender. In the latter case the pattern repeats itself. For the
+production of silk crape the dyed (generally black) piece is impregnated
+with a solution of shellac in methylated spirit and dried. It is then
+"goffered," an operation which is practically identical with embossing
+(see above), and may either be done on an embossing calender or by means
+of heated brass plates in which the design is engraved to the desired
+depth and pattern.
+
+The measuring, wrapping, doubling, folding, &c., of piece goods previous
+to making up are done in the works by specially constructed machinery.
+
+_Finishing of Yarn._--The finishing of yarn is not nearly so important
+as the finishing of textiles in the piece, and it will suffice to draw
+attention to the main operations. Cotton yarns are frequently "gassed,"
+i.e. drawn through a gas flame, in order to burn or singe off the
+projecting fibres and thus to produce a clean thread which is required
+for the manufacture of certain classes of fabrics. The most important
+finishing process for cotton yarn is "mercerizing" (q.v.), by means of
+which a permanent silk-like gloss is obtained. The "polishing" of cotton
+yarn, by means of which a highly glazed product, similar in appearance
+to horsehair, is obtained, is effected by impregnating the yarn with a
+paste consisting essentially of starch, beeswax or paraffin wax and
+soap, and then subjecting the damp material to the action of revolving
+brushes until dry. Woollen yarn is not subjected to any treatment, but
+worsted yarns (especially twofold) have to be "set" before scouring and
+dyeing in order to prevent curling. This is effected by stretching the
+yarn tight on a frame, which is immersed in boiling water and then
+allowing it to cool in this condition.
+
+A peculiar silk-like gloss and feel is sometimes imparted to yarns made
+from lustre wool by a treatment with a weak solution of chlorine
+(bleaching powder and hydrochloric acid) followed by a treatment with
+soap.
+
+Worsted and mohair yarns intended for the manufacture of braids are
+singed by gas, a process technically known as "Genapping."
+
+Silk yarn is subjected to various mechanical processes before weaving.
+The most important of these are stretching, shaking, lustreing and
+glossing. Stretching and shaking are simple operations the nature of
+which is sufficiently indicated by their names, and by these means the
+hanks are stretched to their original length and straightened out by
+hand or on a specially devised machine. In _lustreing_, the yarn is
+stretched slightly beyond its original length between two polished
+revolving cylinders (one of which is steam heated) contained in a box or
+chest into which steam is admitted. In _glossing_, the yarn is twisted
+tight, first in one direction and then in the other, on a machine, this
+alternating action being continued until the maximum gloss is obtained.
+
+The so-called "scrooping" process, which gives to silk a peculiar feel
+and causes it to crackle or crunch when compressed by the hand, is a
+very simple operation, and consists in treating the yarn after dyeing in
+a bath of dilute acid (acetic, tartaric or sulphuric) and then drying
+without washing. Heavily weighted black silks are passed after dyeing
+through an emulsion of olive oil in soap and dried without washing, in
+order to give additional lustre to the material or rather to restore
+some of the lustre which has been lost in weighting.     (E. K.)
+
+
+
+
+FINISTÈRE, or FINISTERRE, the most western department of France, formed
+from part of the old province of Brittany. Pop. (1906) 795,103. Area,
+2713 sq. m. It is bounded W. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean, E. by the
+departments of Côtes-du-Nord and Morbihan, and N. by the English
+Channel. Two converging chains of hills run from the west towards the
+east of the department and divide it into three zones conveying the
+waters in three different directions. North of the Arrée, or more
+northern of the two chains, the waters of the Douron, Penzé and Flèche
+flow northward to the sea. The Elorn, however, after a short northerly
+course, turns westward and empties into the Brest roads. South of the
+Montagnes Noires, the Odet, Aven, Isole and Ellé flow southward; while
+the waters of the Aulne, flowing through a region enclosed by the two
+chains with a westward declination, discharge into the Brest roads. The
+rivers are all small, and none of the hills attain a height of 1300 ft.
+The coast is generally steep and rocky and at some points dangerous,
+notably off Cape Raz and the Île de Sein; it is indented with numerous
+bays and inlets, the chief of which--the roadstead of Brest and the Bays
+of Douarnenez and Audierne--are on the west. The principal harbours are
+those of Brest, Concarneau, Morlaix, Landerneau, Quimper and Douarnenez.
+Off the coast lie a number of islands and rocks, the principal of which
+are Ushant (q.v.) N.W. of Cape St Mathieu, and Batz off Roscoff. The
+climate is temperate and equable, but humid; the prevailing winds are
+the W., S.W. and N.W. Though more than a third of the department is
+covered by heath, waste land and forest, it produces oats, wheat,
+buckwheat, rye and barley in quantities more than sufficient for its
+population. In the extreme north the neighbourhood of Roscoff, and
+farther south the borders of the Brest roadstead, are extremely fertile
+and yield large quantities of asparagus, artichokes and onions, besides
+melons and other fruits. The cider apple is abundant and furnishes the
+chief drink of the inhabitants. Hemp and flax are also grown. The farm
+and dairy produce is plentiful, and great attention is paid to the
+breeding and feeding of cattle and horses. The production of honey and
+wax is considerable. The fisheries of the coast, particularly the
+pilchard fishery, employ a great many hands and render this department
+an excellent nursery of seamen for the French navy. Coal, though found
+in Finistère, is not mined; there are quarries of granite, slate,
+potter's clay, &c. The lead mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoat, which for
+several centuries yielded a considerable quantity of silver, are no
+longer worked. The preparation of sardines is carried on on a large
+scale at several of the coast-towns. The manufactures include linens,
+woollens, sail-cloth, ropes, agricultural implements, paper, leather,
+earthenware, soda, soap, candles, and fertilizers and chemicals derived
+from seaweed. Brest has important foundries and engineering works; and
+shipbuilding is carried on there and at other seaports. Brest and
+Morlaix are the most important commercial ports. Trade is in fish,
+vegetables and fruit. Coal is the chief import. The department is served
+by the Orleans and Western railways. The canal from Nantes to Brest has
+51 m. of its length in the department. The Aulne is navigable for 17 m.,
+and many of the smaller rivers for short distances.
+
+Finistère is divided into the arrondissements of Quimperlé, Brest,
+Châteaulin, Morlaix and Quimper (43 cantons, 294 communes), the town of
+Quimper being the capital of the department and the seat of a bishopric.
+The department belongs to the region of the XI. army corps and to the
+archiepiscopal province and académie (educational division) of Rennes,
+where its court of appeal is also situated.
+
+The more important places are Quimper, Brest, Morlaix, Quimperlé, St
+Pol-de-Léon, Douarnenez, Concarneau, Roscoff, Penmarc'h and Pont-l'Abbé.
+Finistère abounds in menhirs and other megalithic monuments, of which
+those of Penmarc'h, Plouarzal and Crozon are noted. The two religious
+structures characteristic of Brittany--calvaries and charnel-houses--are
+frequently met with. The calvaries of Plougastel-Daoulas, Pleyben, St
+Thégonnec, Lampaul-Guimiliau, which date from the 17th century, and that
+of Guimiliau (16th century), and the charnel-houses of Sizun and St
+Thégonnec (16th century) and of Guimiliau (17th century) may be
+instanced as the most remarkable. Daoulas has the remains of a fine
+church and cloister in the Romanesque style. The chapel of St Herbot
+(16th century) near Loqueffret, the churches of St Jean-du-Doigt and
+Locronan, which belong to the 15th and 16th centuries, those of Ploaré,
+Roscoff, Penmarc'h and Pleyben of the 16th century, that of Le Folgoët
+(14th and 16th centuries), and the huge château of Kerjean (16th
+century) are of architectural interest. Religious festivals, and
+processions known as "pardons," are held in many places, notably at
+Locronan, St Jean-du-Doigt, St Herbot and Le Faou.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 3 ***
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3
+       "Fenton, Edward" to "Finistere"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 12, 2011 [EBook #35561]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME X SLICE III<br /><br />
+Fenton, Edward to Finistere</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FENTON, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FEUDALISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FENTON, ELIJAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FEUERBACH, ANSELM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FENTON, LAVINIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FENTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FENUGREEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FEUILLET, OCTAVE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FENWICK, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FEUILLETON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FEOFFMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FEUQUIÈRES, ISAAC MANASSÈS DE PAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FÉVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FERDINAND I.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FEVER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FERDINAND II.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIMÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FERDINAND III.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FEZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FERDINAND I.</a> (emperor of Austria)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FEZZAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FERDINAND I.</a> (king of Naples)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FIACRE, SAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FERDINAND II.</a> (king of Naples)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FIARS PRICES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FERDINAND IV.</a> (king of Naples)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FIBRES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FERDINAND I.</a> (king of Portugal)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FIBRIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FERDINAND I.</a> (king of Castile)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FERDINAND II.</a> (king of Leon)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FERDINAND III.</a> (king of Castile)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FICHTELGEBIRGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FERDINAND IV.</a> (king of Castile)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FICINO, MARSILIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FERDINAND I.</a> (king of Aragon)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FICKSBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FERDINAND V.</a> (of Castile and Leon)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FICTIONS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FERDINAND VI.</a> (king of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FIDDES, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FERDINAND VII.</a> (king of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FIDDLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FERDINAND II.</a> (king of Sicily)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FIDENAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FERDINAND III.</a> (duke of Tuscany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FIDUCIARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FIEF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FERDINAND</a> (duke of Brunswick)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FIELD, CYRUS WEST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FERDINAND</a> (archbishop of Cologne)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FERENTINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FIELD, EUGENE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FERENTUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FIELD, FREDERICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FERETORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FIELD, HENRY MARTYN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FERGHANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FIELD, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FERGUS FALLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FIELD, MARSHALL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FERGUSON, ADAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FIELD, NATHAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FERGUSON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FERGUSON, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FIELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FERGUSSON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FIELDFARE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FERGUSSON, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FIELDING, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FERINGHI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FIELD-MOUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FERMANAGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FERMAT, PIERRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FERMENTATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">FIENNES, NATHANIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FERMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">FIERI FACIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FERMOY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FERN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">FIESCO, GIOVANNI LUIGI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FERNANDEZ, ALVARO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">FIESOLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FERNANDEZ, DIEGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">FIFE</a> (county of Scotland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FERNANDEZ, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">FIFE</a> (flute)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FERNANDEZ, JUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">FIFTH MONARCHY MEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FERNANDEZ, LUCAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">FIG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FERNANDINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">FIGARO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FERNANDO DE NORONHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">FIGEAC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FERNANDO PO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">FIGUEIRA DA FOZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FERNEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">FIGUERAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FERNIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">FIGURATE NUMBERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FEROZEPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">FIJI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FEROZESHAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">FILANDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS CLAUDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">FILANGIERI, CARLO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FERRAR, NICHOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">FILANGIERI, GAETANO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FERRAR, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">FILARIASIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FERRARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">FILDES, SIR LUKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FERRARA-FLORENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">FILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FERRARI, GAUDENZIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">FILE-FISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FERRARI, GIUSEPPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">FILELFO, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FERRARI, PAOLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">FILEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FERREIRA, ANTONIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">FILIBUSTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FERREL'S LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FERRERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">FILIGREE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">FILLAN, SAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FERRET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">FILLET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FERRI, CIRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">FILLMORE, MILLARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FERRI, LUIGI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">FILMER, SIR RORERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FERRIER, ARNAUD DU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">FILMY FERNS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">FERRIER, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">FILOSA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">FILTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FERROL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FERRUCCIO, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">FIMBRIATE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FERRULE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">FINALE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FERRY, JULES FRANÇOIS CAMILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">FINANCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">FINCH, FINCH-HATTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FERSEN, HANS AXEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">FINCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">FINCHLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FESCENNIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FESCENNINE VERSES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">FINCK, HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FESCH, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">FINCK, HERMANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FESSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">FINDEN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">FINDLATER, ANDREW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FESTA, CONSTANZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FESTINIOG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">FINDLAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FESTOON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">FINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FESTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">FINE ARTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">FINGER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FÉTIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">FINGER-AND-TOE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FETISHISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">FINGER-PRINTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FETTERCAIRN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">FINGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">FINIAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FEU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">FINIGUERRA, MASO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FEUCHÈRES, SOPHIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">FINISHING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">FINISTÈRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FEUD</a></td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">FENTON, EDWARD<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (d. 1603), English navigator, son of
+Henry Fenton and brother of Sir Geoffrey Fenton (<i>q.v.</i>), was a
+native of Nottinghamshire. In 1577 he sailed, in command of
+the &ldquo;Gabriel,&rdquo; with Sir Martin Frobisher&rsquo;s second expedition
+for the discovery of the north-west passage, and in the following
+year he took part as second in command in Frobisher&rsquo;s third
+expedition, his ship being the &ldquo;Judith.&rdquo; He was then employed
+in Ireland for a time, but in 1582 he was put in charge of an
+expedition which was to sail round the Cape of Good Hope to the
+Moluccas and China, his instructions being to obtain any knowledge
+of the north-west passage that was possible without
+hindrance to his trade. On this unsuccessful voyage he got
+no farther than Brazil, and throughout he was engaged in
+quarrelling with his officers, and especially with his lieutenant,
+William Hawkins, the nephew of Sir John Hawkins, whom he had
+in irons when he arrived back in the Thames. In 1588 he had
+command of the &ldquo;Mary Rose,&rdquo; one of the ships of the fleet that
+was formed to oppose the Armada. He died fifteen years afterwards.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FENTON, ELIJAH<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1683-1730), English poet, was born at
+Shelton near Newcastle-under-Lyme, of an old Staffordshire
+family, on the 25th of May 1683. He graduated from Jesus
+College, Cambridge, in 1704, but was prevented by religious
+scruples from taking orders. He accompanied the earl of Orrery
+to Flanders as private secretary, and on returning to England
+became assistant in a school at Headley, Surrey, being soon
+afterwards appointed master of the free grammar school at
+Sevenoaks in Kent. In 1710 he resigned his appointment in the
+expectation of a place from Lord Bolingbroke, but was disappointed.
+He then became tutor to Lord Broghill, son of his
+patron Orrery. Fenton is remembered as the coadjutor of
+Alexander Pope in his translation of the <i>Odyssey</i>. He was responsible
+for the first, fourth, nineteenth and twentieth books, for
+which he received £300. He died at East Hampstead, Berkshire,
+on the 16th of July 1730. He was buried in the parish church,
+and his epitaph was written by Pope.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fenton also published <i>Oxford and Cambridge Miscellany Poems</i>
+(1707); <i>Miscellaneous Poems</i> (1717); <i>Mariamne</i>, a tragedy (1723);
+an edition (1725) of Milton&rsquo;s poems, and one of Waller (1729) with
+elaborate notes. See W.W. Lloyd, <i>Elijah Fenton, his Poetry and
+Friends</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1539-1608), English writer and
+politician, was the son of Henry Fenton, of Nottinghamshire.
+He was brother of Edward Fenton the navigator. He is said
+to have visited Spain and Italy in his youth; possibly he went
+to Paris in Sir Thomas Hoby&rsquo;s train in 1566, for he was living
+there in 1567, when he wrote <i>Certaine tragicall discourses written
+oute of Frenche and Latin</i>. This book is a free translation of
+François de Belleforest&rsquo;s French rendering of Matteo Bandello&rsquo;s
+<i>Novelle</i>. Till 1579 Fenton continued his literary labours,
+publishing <i>Monophylo</i> in 1572, <i>Golden epistles gathered out of
+Guevarae&rsquo;s workes as other authors</i> ... 1575, and various religious
+tracts of strong protestant tendencies. In 1579 appeared
+the <i>Historie of Guicciardini, translated out of French by G. F.</i>
+and dedicated to Elizabeth. Through Lord Burghley he obtained,
+in 1580, the post of secretary to the new lord deputy of
+Ireland, Lord Grey de Wilton, and thus became a fellow worker
+with the poet, Edmund Spenser. From this time Fenton
+abandoned literature and became a faithful if somewhat unscrupulous
+servant of the crown. He was a bigoted protestant,
+longing to use the rack against &ldquo;the diabolicall secte of Rome,&rdquo;
+and even advocating the assassination of the queen&rsquo;s most
+dangerous subjects. He won Elizabeth&rsquo;s confidence, and the
+hatred of all his fellow-workers, by keeping her informed of
+every one&rsquo;s doings in Ireland. In 1587 Sir John Perrot arrested
+Fenton, but the queen instantly ordered his release. Fenton
+was knighted in 1589, and in 1590-1591 he was in London as
+commissioner on the impeachment of Perrot. Full of dislike
+of the Scots and of James VI. (which he did not scruple to utter),
+on the latter&rsquo;s accession Fenton&rsquo;s post of secretary was in danger,
+but Burghley exerted himself in his favour, and in 1604 it was
+confirmed to him for life, though he had to share it with Sir
+Richard Coke. Fenton died in Dublin on the 19th of October
+1608, and was buried in St Patrick&rsquo;s cathedral. He married in
+June 1585, Alice, daughter of Dr Robert Weston, formerly
+lord chancellor of Ireland, and widow of Dr Hugh Brady, bishop
+of Meath, by whom he had two children, a son, Sir William Fenton,
+and a daughter, Catherine, who in 1603 married Richard Boyle,
+1st earl of Cork.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Harl. Soc. publications, vol. iv., Visitation of
+Nottinghamshire, 1871; Roy. Hist. MSS. Comm. (particularly
+Hatfield collection); Calendar of State papers, Ireland (very full),
+domestic, Carew papers; Lismore papers, ed. A.B. Grosart (1886-1888);
+<i>Certaine tragicall Discourses</i>, ed. R.L. Douglas (2 vols.,
+1898), Tudor Translation series, vols. xix., xx. (introd.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FENTON, LAVINIA<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1708-1760), English actress, was probably
+the daughter of a naval lieutenant named Beswick, but
+she bore the name of her mother&rsquo;s husband. Her first appearance
+was as Monimia in Otway&rsquo;s <i>Orphans</i>, in 1726 at the Haymarket.
+She then joined the company of players at the theatre
+in Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields, where her success and beauty made her
+the toast of the beaux. It was in Gay&rsquo;s <i>Beggar&rsquo;s Opera</i>, as Polly
+Peachum, that Miss Fenton made her greatest success. Her
+pictures were in great demand, verses were written to her and
+books published about her, and she was the most talked-of person
+in London. Hogarth&rsquo;s picture shows her in one of the scenes,
+with the duke of Bolton in a box. After appearing in several
+comedies, and then in numerous repetitions of the <i>Beggar&rsquo;s Opera</i>,
+she ran away with her lover Charles Paulet, 3rd duke of Bolton,
+a man much older than herself, who, after the death of his wife
+in 1751, married her. Their three children all died young. The
+duchess survived her husband and died on the 24th of January
+1760.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FENTON,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a town of Staffordshire, England, on the North
+Staffordshire railway, adjoining the east side of Stoke-on-Trent,
+in which parliamentary and municipal borough it is included.
+Pop. (1891) 16,998; (1901) 22,742. The manufacture of earthenware
+common to the district (the Potteries) employs the bulk
+of the large industrial population.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FENUGREEK,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> in botany, <i>Trigonella Foenum-graecum</i> (so
+called from the name given to it by the ancients, who used it as
+fodder for cattle), a member of a genus of leguminous herbs very
+similar in habit and in most of their characters to the species of
+the genus <i>Medicago</i>. The leaves are formed of three obovate
+leaflets, the middle one of which is stalked; the flowers are
+solitary, or in clusters of two or three, and have a campanulate,
+5-cleft calyx; and the pods are many-seeded, cylindrical or
+flattened, and straight or only slightly curved. The genus is
+widely diffused over the south of Europe, West and Central
+Asia, and the north of Africa, and is represented by several
+species in Australia. Fenugreek is indigenous to south-eastern
+Europe and western Asia, and is cultivated in the Mediterranean
+region, parts of central Europe, and in Morocco, and largely
+in Egypt and in India. It bears a sickle-shaped pod, containing
+from 10 to 20 seeds, from which 6% of a fetid, fatty and bitter
+oil can be extracted by ether. In India the fresh plant is employed
+as an esculent. The seed is an ingredient in curry
+powders, and is used for flavouring cattle foods. It was formerly
+much esteemed as a medicine, and is still in repute in veterinary
+practice.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FENWICK, SIR JOHN<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1645-1697), English conspirator,
+was the eldest son of Sir William Fenwick, or Fenwicke, a
+member of an old Northumberland family. He entered the army,
+becoming major-general in 1688, but before this date he had been
+returned in succession to his father as one of the members of
+parliament for Northumberland, which county he represented
+from 1677 to 1687. He was a strong partisan of King James II.,
+and in 1685 was one of the principal supporters of the act of
+attainder against the duke of Monmouth; but he remained in
+England when William III. ascended the throne three years
+later. He began at once to plot against the new king, for which
+he underwent a short imprisonment in 1689. Renewing his
+plots on his release, he publicly insulted Queen Mary in 1691,
+and it is practically certain that he was implicated in the schemes
+for assassinating William which came to light in 1695 and 1696.
+After the seizure of his fellow-conspirators, Robert Charnock
+and others, he remained in hiding until the imprudent conduct
+of his friends in attempting to induce one of the witnesses against
+him to leave the country led to his arrest in June in 1696. To
+save himself he offered to reveal all he knew about the Jacobite
+conspiracies; but his confession was a farce, being confined to
+charges against some of the leading Whig noblemen, which were
+damaging, but not conclusive. By this time his friends had
+succeeded in removing one of the two witnesses, and in these
+circumstances it was thought that the charge of treason must
+fail. The government, however, overcame this difficulty by
+introducing a bill of attainder, which after a long and acrimonious
+discussion passed through both Houses of Parliament. His wife
+persevered in her attempts to save his life, but her efforts were
+fruitless, and Fenwick was beheaded in London on the 28th of
+January 1697, with the same formalities as were usually observed
+at the execution of a peer. By his wife, Mary (d. 1708), daughter
+of Charles Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, he had three sons and one
+daughter. Macaulay says that &ldquo;of all the Jacobites, the most
+desperate characters not excepted, he (Fenwick) was the only
+one for whom William felt an intense personal aversion&rdquo;; and
+it is interesting to note that Fenwick&rsquo;s hatred of the king is said
+to date from the time when he was serving in Holland, and was
+reprimanded by William, then prince of Orange.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEOFFMENT,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> in English law, during the feudal period, the
+usual method of granting or conveying a freehold or fee. For the
+derivation of the word see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fief</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fee</a></span>. The essential elements
+were <i>livery of seisin</i> (delivery of possession), which consisted in
+formally giving to the feoffee on the land a clod or turf, or a
+growing twig, as a symbol of the transfer of the land, and words by
+the feoffor declaratory of his intent to deliver possession to the
+feoffee with a &ldquo;limitation&rdquo; of the estate intended to be transferred.
+This was called livery <i>in deed</i>. Livery <i>in law</i> was made
+not on but in sight of this land, the feoffor saying to the feoffee,
+&ldquo;I give you that land; enter and take possession.&rdquo; Livery in
+law, in order to pass the estate, had to be perfected by entry by
+the feoffee during the joint lives of himself and the feoffor. It
+was usual to evidence the feoffment by writing in a charter or
+deed of feoffment; but writing was not essential until the
+Statute of Frauds; now, by the Real Property Act 1845, a
+conveyance of real property is void unless evidenced by deed, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span>
+thus feoffments have been rendered unnecessary and superfluous.
+All corporeal hereditaments were by that act declared to be <i>in
+grant</i> as well as <i>livery</i>, <i>i.e.</i> they could be granted by deed without
+livery. A feoffment might be a tortious conveyance, <i>i.e.</i> if a
+person attempted to give to the feoffee a greater estate than he
+himself had in the land, he forfeited the estate of which he was
+seised. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyancing</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Real Property</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Span. <i>Fernando</i> or <i>Hernando</i>; Ital. <i>Ferdinando</i>
+or <i>Ferrante</i>; in O.H. Ger. <i>Herinand</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;brave in the
+host,&rdquo; from O.H.G. Heri, &ldquo;army,&rdquo; A.S. <i>here</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>Heer</i>, and
+the Goth, <i>nanþjan</i>, &ldquo;to dare&rdquo;), a name borne at various times by
+many European sovereigns and princes, the more important of
+whom are noticed below in the following order: emperors, kings
+of Naples, Portugal, Spain (Castile, Leon and Aragon) and the
+two Sicilies; then the grand duke of Tuscany, the prince of
+Bulgaria, the duke of Brunswick and the elector of Cologne.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1503-1564), Roman emperor, was born at
+Alcalá de Henares on the 10th of March 1503, his father being
+Philip the Handsome, son of the emperor Maximilian I., and his
+mother Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and
+queen of Castile and Aragon. Philip died in 1506 and Ferdinand,
+educated in Spain, was regarded with especial favour by his
+maternal grandfather who wished to form a Spanish-Italian
+kingdom for his namesake. This plan came to nothing, and the
+same fate attended a suggestion made after the death of Maximilian
+in 1519 that Ferdinand, and not his elder brother Charles,
+afterwards the emperor Charles V., should succeed to the imperial
+throne. Charles, however, secured the Empire and the whole of
+the lands of Maximilian and Ferdinand, while the younger
+brother was perforce content with a subordinate position. Yet
+some provision must be made for Ferdinand. In April 1521 the
+emperor granted to him the archduchies and duchies of upper
+and lower Austria, Carinthia, Styria and Carniola, adding soon
+afterwards the county of Tirol and the hereditary possessions of
+the Habsburgs in south-western Germany. About the same time
+the archduke was appointed to govern the duchy of Württemberg,
+which had come into the possession of Charles V.; and in May
+1521 he was married at Linz to Anna (d. 1547), a daughter of
+Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, a union which had been
+arranged some years before by the emperor Maximilian. In 1521
+also he was made president of the council of regency (<i>Reichsregiment</i>),
+appointed to govern Germany during the emperor&rsquo;s
+absence, and the next five years were occupied with imperial
+business, in which he acted as his brother&rsquo;s representative, and in
+the government of the Austrian lands.</p>
+
+<p>In Austria and the neighbouring duchies Ferdinand sought at
+first to suppress the reformers and their teaching, and this was
+possibly one reason why he had some difficulty in quelling
+risings in the districts under his rule after the Peasants&rsquo; War
+broke out in 1524. But a new field was soon opened for his
+ambition. In August 1526 his childless brother-in-law, Louis II.,
+king of Hungary and Bohemia, was killed at the battle of
+Mohacs, and the archduke at once claimed both kingdoms, both
+by treaty and by right of his wife. Taking advantage of the
+divisions among his opponents, he was chosen king of Bohemia in
+October 1526, and crowned at Prague in the following February,
+but in Hungary he was less successful. John Zapolya, supported
+by the national party and soon afterwards by the Turks, offered
+a sturdy resistance, and although Ferdinand was chosen king at
+Pressburg in December 1526, and after defeating Zapolya at
+Tokay was crowned at Stuhlweissenburg in November 1527, he
+was unable to take possession of the kingdom. The Bavarian
+Wittelsbachs, incensed at not securing the Bohemian throne, were
+secretly intriguing with his foes; the French, after assisting
+spasmodically, made a formal alliance with Turkey in 1535; and
+Zapolya was a very useful centre round which the enemies of the
+Habsburgs were not slow to gather. A truce made in 1533 was
+soon broken, and the war dragged on until 1538, when by the
+treaty of Grosswardein, Hungary was divided between the
+claimants. The kingly title was given to Zapolya, but Ferdinand
+was to follow him on the throne. Before this, in January 1531, he
+had been chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Cologne,
+and his coronation took place a few days later at Aix-la-Chapelle.
+He had thoroughly earned this honour by his loyalty to his
+brother, whom he had represented at several diets. In religious
+matters the king was now inclined, probably owing to the Turkish
+danger, to steer a middle course between the contending parties,
+and in 1532 he agreed to the religious peace of Nuremberg,
+receiving in return from the Protestants some assistance for the
+war against the Turks. In 1534, however, his prestige suffered a
+severe rebuff. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his associates had
+succeeded in conquering Württemberg on behalf of its exiled
+duke, Ulrich (<i>q.v.</i>), and, otherwise engaged, neither Charles nor
+Ferdinand could send much help to their lieutenants. They
+were consequently obliged to consent to the treaty of Cadan,
+made in June 1534, by which the German king recognized
+Ulrich as duke of Württemberg, on condition that he held his
+duchy under Austrian suzerainty.</p>
+
+<p>In Hungary the peace of 1538 was not permanent. When
+Zapolya died in July 1540 a powerful faction refused to admit
+the right of Ferdinand to succeed him, and put forward his young
+son John Sigismund as a candidate for the throne. The cause of
+John Sigismund was espoused by the Turks and by Ferdinand&rsquo;s
+other enemies, and, unable to get any serious assistance from the
+imperial diet, the king repeatedly sought to make peace with the
+sultan, but his envoys were haughtily repulsed. In 1544,
+however, a short truce was made. This was followed by others,
+and in 1547 one was concluded for five years, but only on condition
+that Ferdinand paid tribute for the small part of Hungary
+which remained in his hands. The struggle was renewed in 1551
+and was continued in the same desultory fashion until 1562, when
+a truce was made which lasted during the remainder of Ferdinand&rsquo;s
+lifetime. During the war of the league of Schmalkalden in 1546
+and 1547 the king had taken the field primarily to protect
+Bohemia, and after the conclusion of the war he put down a
+rising in this country with some rigour. He appears during
+these years to have governed his lands with vigour and success,
+but in imperial politics he was merely the representative and
+spokesman of the emperor. About 1546, however, he began to
+take up a more independent position. Although Charles had
+crushed the league of Schmalkalden he had refused to restore
+Württemberg to Ferdinand; and he gave further offence by
+seeking to secure the succession of his son Philip, afterwards king
+of Spain, to the imperial throne. Ferdinand naturally objected,
+but in 1551 his reluctant consent was obtained to the plan that, on
+the proposed abdication of Charles, Philip should be chosen king
+of the Romans, and should succeed Ferdinand himself as emperor.
+Subsequent events caused the scheme to be dropped, but it had a
+somewhat unfortunate sequel for Charles, as during the short war
+between the emperor and Maurice, elector of Saxony, in 1552
+Ferdinand&rsquo;s attitude was rather that of a spectator and mediator
+than of a partisan. There seems, however, to be no truth in the
+suggestion that he acted treacherously towards his brother, and
+was in alliance with his foes. On behalf of Charles he negotiated
+the treaty of Passau with Maurice in 1552, and in 1555 after the
+conduct of imperial business had virtually been made over to him,
+and harmony had been restored between the brothers, he was
+responsible for the religious peace of Augsburg. Early in 1558
+Charles carried out his intention to abdicate the imperial throne,
+and on the 24th of March Ferdinand was crowned as his successor
+at Frankfort. Pope Paul IV. would not recognize the new
+emperor, but his successor Pius IV. did so in 1559 through the
+mediation of Philip of Spain. The emperor&rsquo;s short reign was
+mainly spent in seeking to settle the religious differences of
+Germany, and in efforts to prosecute the Turkish war more
+vigorously. His hopes at one time centred round the council of
+Trent which resumed its sittings in 1562, but he was unable to
+induce the Protestants to be represented. Although he held
+firmly to the Roman Catholic Church he sought to obtain
+tangible concessions to her opponents; but he refused to
+conciliate the Protestants by abrogating the clause concerning
+ecclesiastical reservation in the peace of Augsburg, and all his
+efforts to bring about reunion were futile. He did indeed secure
+the privilege of communion in both kinds from Pius IV. for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span>
+laity in Bohemia and in various parts of Germany, but the hearty
+support which he gave the Jesuits shows that he had no sympathy
+with Protestantism, and was only anxious to restore union in the
+Church. In November 1562 he obtained the election of his son
+Maximilian as king of the Romans, and having arranged a
+partition of his lands among his three surviving sons, died in
+Vienna on the 25th of July 1564. His family had consisted of
+six sons and nine daughters.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of constant and harassing engagements Ferdinand was
+fairly successful both as king and emperor. He sought to
+consolidate his Austrian lands, reformed the monetary system in
+Germany, and reorganized the Aulic council (<i>Reichshofrat</i>).
+Less masterful but more popular than his brother, whose
+character overshadows his own, he was just and tolerant, a good
+Catholic and a conscientious ruler.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles V.</a></span> and the bibliography appended
+thereto. Also, A. Ulloa, <i>Vita del potentissimo e christianissimo
+imperatore Ferdinando primo</i> (Venice, 1565); S. Schard, <i>Epitome
+rerum in variis orbis partibus a confirmatione Ferdinandi I</i>. (Basel,
+1574); F.B. von Bucholtz, <i>Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands
+des Ersten</i> (Vienna, 1831-1838); K. Oberleitner, <i>Österreichs Finanzen
+und Kriegswesen unter Ferdinand I</i>. (Vienna, 1859); A. Rezek,
+<i>Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands I. in Böhmen</i> (Prague, 1878);
+E. Rosenthal, <i>Die Behördenorganisation Kaiser Ferdinands I</i>.
+(Vienna, 1887); and W. Bauer, <i>Die Anfänge Ferdinands I</i>. (Vienna,
+1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND II.<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1578-1637), Roman emperor, was the eldest
+son of Charles, archduke of Styria (d. 1590), and his wife Maria,
+daughter of Albert IV., duke of Bavaria and a grandson of the
+emperor Ferdinand I. Born at Gratz on the 9th of July 1578, he
+was trained by the Jesuits, finishing his education at the university
+of Ingolstadt, and became the pattern prince of the counter-reformation.
+In 1596 he undertook the government of Styria,
+Carinthia and Carniola, and after a visit to Italy began an
+organized attack on Protestantism which under his father&rsquo;s rule
+had made great progress in these archduchies; and although
+hampered by the inroads of the Turks, he showed his indifference
+to the material welfare of his dominions by compelling many of
+his Protestant subjects to choose between exile and conversion,
+and by entirely suppressing Protestant worship. He was not,
+however, unmindful of the larger interest of his family, or of the
+Empire which the Habsburgs regarded as belonging to them by
+hereditary right. In 1606 he joined his kinsmen in recognizing
+his cousin Matthias as the head of the family in place of the
+lethargic Rudolph II.; but he shrank from any proceedings
+which might lead to the deposition of the emperor, whom he
+represented at the diet of Regensburg in 1608; and his conduct
+was somewhat ambiguous during the subsequent quarrel between
+Rudolph and Matthias.</p>
+
+<p>In the first decade of the 17th century the house of Habsburg
+seemed overtaken by senile decay, and the great inheritance of
+Charles V. and Ferdinand I. to be threatened with disintegration
+and collapse. The reigning emperor, Rudolph II., was inert and
+childless; his surviving brothers, the archduke Matthias (afterwards
+emperor), Maximilian (1558-1618) and Albert (1559-1621),
+all men of mature age, were also without direct heirs; the racial
+differences among its subjects were increased by their religious
+animosities; and it appeared probable that the numerous
+enemies of the Habsburgs had only to wait a few years and then to
+divide the spoil. In spite of the recent murder of Henry IV. of
+France, this issue seemed still more likely when Matthias succeeded
+Rudolph as emperor in 1612. The Habsburgs, however,
+were not indifferent to the danger, and about 1615 it was agreed
+that Ferdinand, who already had two sons by his marriage with
+his cousin Maria Anna (d. 1616), daughter of William V., duke of
+Bavaria, should be the next emperor, and should succeed Matthias
+in the elective kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia. The obstacles
+which impeded the progress of the scheme were gradually overcome
+by the energy of the archduke Maximilian. The elder
+archdukes renounced their rights in the succession; the claims of
+Philip III. and the Spanish Habsburgs were bought off by a
+promise of Alsace; and the emperor consented to his supercession
+in Hungary and Bohemia. In 1617 Ferdinand, who was
+just concluding a war with Venice, was chosen king of Bohemia,
+and in 1618 king of Hungary; but his election as German king,
+or king of the Romans, delayed owing to the anxiety of Melchior
+Klesl (<i>q.v.</i>) to conciliate the protestant princes, had not been
+accomplished when Matthias died in March 1619. Before this
+event, however, an important movement had begun in Bohemia.
+Having been surprised into choosing a devoted Roman Catholic as
+their king, the Bohemian Protestants suddenly realized that their
+religious, and possibly their civil liberties, were seriously menaced,
+and deeds of aggression on the part of Ferdinand&rsquo;s representatives
+showed that this was no idle fear. Gaining the upper hand they
+declared Ferdinand deposed, and elected the elector palatine of
+the Rhine, Frederick V., in his stead; and the struggle between
+the rivals was the beginning of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. At the
+same time other difficulties confronted Ferdinand, who had not
+yet secured the imperial throne. Bethlen Gabor, prince of
+Transylvania, invaded Hungary, while the Austrians rose and
+joined the Bohemians; but having seen his foes retreat from
+Vienna, Ferdinand hurried to Frankfort, where he was chosen
+emperor on the 28th of August 1619.</p>
+
+<p>To deal with the elector palatine and his allies the new emperor
+allied himself with Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and the
+Catholic League, who drove Frederick from Bohemia in 1620,
+while Ferdinand&rsquo;s Spanish allies devastated the Palatinate.
+Peace having been made with Bethlen Gabor in December 1621,
+the first period of the war ended in a satisfactory fashion for the
+emperor, and he could turn his attention to completing the work
+of crushing the Protestants, which had already begun in his
+archduchies and in Bohemia. In 1623 the Protestant clergy
+were expelled from Bohemia; in 1624 all worship save that of
+the Roman Catholic church was forbidden; and in 1627 an order
+of banishment against all Protestants was issued. A new constitution
+made the kingdom hereditary in the house of Habsburg,
+gave larger powers to the sovereign, and aimed at destroying the
+nationality of the Bohemians. Similar measures in Austria
+led to a fresh rising which was put down by the aid of the
+Bavarians in 1627, and Ferdinand could fairly claim that in
+his hereditary lands at least he had rendered Protestantism
+innocuous.</p>
+
+<p>The renewal of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War in 1625 was caused
+mainly by the emperor&rsquo;s vigorous championship of the cause
+of the counter-reformation in northern and north-eastern
+Germany. Again the imperial forces were victorious, chiefly
+owing to the genius of Wallenstein, who raised and led an army
+in this service, although the great scheme of securing the
+southern coast of the Baltic for the Habsburgs was foiled partly
+by the resistance of Stralsund. In March 1629 Ferdinand and
+his advisers felt themselves strong enough to take the important
+step towards which their policy in the Empire had been steadily
+tending. Issuing the famous edict of restitution, the emperor
+ordered that all lands which had been secularized since 1552, the
+date of the peace of Passau, should be restored to the church,
+and prompt measures were taken to enforce this decree. Many
+and powerful interests were vitally affected by this proceeding,
+and the result was the outbreak of the third period of the war,
+which was less favourable to the imperial arms than the preceding
+ones. This comparative failure was due, in the initial
+stages of the campaign, to Ferdinand&rsquo;s weakness in assenting
+in 1630 to the demand of Maximilian of Bavaria that Wallenstein
+should be deprived of his command, and also to the genius
+of Gustavus Adolphus; and in its later stages to his insistence
+on the second removal of Wallenstein, and to his complicity in
+the assassination of the general. This deed was followed by the
+peace of Prague, concluded in 1635, primarily with John
+George I., elector of Saxony, but soon assented to by other
+princes; and this treaty, which made extensive concessions to
+the Protestants, marks the definite failure of Ferdinand to crush
+Protestantism in the Empire, as he had already done in Austria
+and Bohemia. It is noteworthy, however, that the emperor
+refused to allow the inhabitants of his hereditary dominions to
+share in the benefits of the peace. During these years Ferdinand
+had also been menaced by the secret or open hostility of France.
+A dispute over the duchies of Mantua and Monferrato was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span>
+ended by the treaty of Cherasco in 1631, but the influence of
+France was employed at the imperial diets and elsewhere in
+thwarting the plans of Ferdinand and in weakening the power
+of the Habsburgs. The last important act of the emperor was
+to secure the election of his son Ferdinand as king of the Romans.
+An attempt in 1630 to attain this end had failed, but in December
+1636 the princes, meeting at Regensburg, bestowed the coveted
+dignity upon the younger Ferdinand. A few weeks afterwards,
+on the 15th of February 1637, the emperor died at Vienna,
+leaving, in addition to the king of the Romans, a son Leopold
+William (1614-1662), bishop of Passau and Strassburg. Ferdinand&rsquo;s
+reign was so occupied with the Thirty Years&rsquo; War and
+the struggle with the Protestants that he had little time or
+inclination for other business. It is interesting to note, however,
+that this orthodox and Catholic emperor was constantly at
+variance with Pope Urban VIII. The quarrel was due principally,
+but not entirely, to events in Italy, where the pope sided
+with France in the dispute over the succession to Mantua and
+Monferrato. The succession question was settled, but the
+enmity remained; Urban showing his hostility by preventing
+the election of the younger Ferdinand as king of the Romans
+in 1630, and by turning a deaf ear to the emperor&rsquo;s repeated
+requests for assistance to prosecute the war against the heretics.
+Ferdinand&rsquo;s character has neither individuality nor interest,
+but he ruled the Empire during a critical and important period.
+Kind and generous to his dependents, his private life was simple
+and blameless, but he was to a great extent under the influence
+of his confessors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The chief authorities for Ferdinand&rsquo;s life and
+reign are F.C. Khevenhiller, <i>Annales Ferdinandei</i> (Regensburg,
+1640-1646); F. van Hurter, <i>Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II</i>.
+(Schaffhausen, 1850-1855); <i>Korrespondenz Kaiser Ferdinands II.
+mit P. Becanus und P.W. Lamormaini</i>, edited by B. Dudik (Vienna,
+1848 fol.); and F. Stieve, in the <i>Allegmeine deutsche Biographie</i>,
+Band vi. (Leipzig, 1877). See also the elaborate bibliography in the
+<i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. iv. (Cambridge, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND III.<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1608-1657), Roman emperor, was the
+elder son of the emperor Ferdinand II., and was born at Gratz
+on the 13th of July 1608. Educated by the Jesuits, he was
+crowned king of Hungary in December 1625, and king of Bohemia
+two years later, and soon began to take part in imperial business.
+Wallenstein, however, refused to allow him to hold a command
+in the imperial army; and henceforward reckoned among his
+enemies, the young king was appointed the successor of the
+famous general when he was deposed in 1634; and as commander-in-chief
+of the imperial troops he was nominally responsible for
+the capture of Regensburg and Donauwörth, and the defeat of
+the Swedes at Nördlingen. Having been elected king of the
+Romans, or German king, at Regensburg in December 1636,
+Ferdinand became emperor on his father&rsquo;s death in the following
+February, and showed himself anxious to put an end to the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War. He persuaded one or two princes to assent
+to the terms of the treaty of Prague; but a general peace was
+delayed by his reluctance to grant religious liberty to the
+Protestants, and by his anxiety to act in unison with Spain.
+In 1640 he had refused to entertain the idea of a general amnesty
+suggested by the diet at Regensburg; but negotiations for
+peace were soon begun, and in 1648 the emperor assented to the
+treaty of Westphalia. This event belongs rather to the general
+history of Europe, but it is interesting to note that owing
+to Ferdinand&rsquo;s insistence the Protestants in his hereditary
+dominions did not obtain religious liberty at this settlement.
+After 1648 the emperor was engaged in carrying out the terms
+of the treaty and ridding Germany of the foreign soldiery. In
+1656 he sent an army into Italy to assist Spain in her struggle
+with France, and he had just concluded an alliance with Poland
+to check the aggressions of Charles X, of Sweden when he died
+on the 2nd of April 1657. Ferdinand was a scholarly and cultured
+man, an excellent linguist and a composer of music.
+Industrious and popular in public life, his private life was
+blameless; and although a strong Roman Catholic he was less
+fanatical than his father. His first wife was Maria Anna (d.
+1646), daughter of Philip III. of Spain, by whom he had three
+sons: Ferdinand, who was chosen king of the Romans in 1653,
+and who died in the following year; Leopold, who succeeded
+his father on the imperial throne; and Charles Joseph (d. 1664),
+bishop of Passau and Breslau, and grand-master of the Teutonic
+order. The emperor&rsquo;s second wife was his cousin Maria (d. 1649),
+daughter of the archduke Leopold; and his third wife was
+Eleanora of Mantua (d. 1686). His musical works, together with
+those of the emperors Leopold I. and Joseph I., have been
+published by G. Adler (Vienna, 1892-1893).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Koch, <i>Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter der Regierung
+Ferdinands III</i>. (Vienna, 1865-1866).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1793-1875), emperor of Austria, eldest son
+of Francis I. and of Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at Vienna
+on the 19th of April 1793. In his boyhood he suffered from
+epileptic fits, and could therefore not receive a regular education.
+As his health improved with his growth and with travel, he was
+not set aside from the succession. In 1830 his father caused him
+to be crowned king of Hungary, a pure formality, which gave
+him no power, and was designed to avoid possible trouble in the
+future. In 1831 he was married to Anna, daughter of Victor
+Emmanuel I. of Sardinia. The marriage was barren. When
+Francis I. died on the 2nd of March 1835, Ferdinand was recognized
+as his successor. But his incapacity was so notorious that
+the conduct of affairs was entrusted to a council of state, consisting
+of Prince Metternich (<i>q.v.</i>) with other ministers, and two
+archdukes, Louis and Francis Charles. They composed the
+<i>Staatsconferenz</i>, the ill-constructed and informal regency which
+led the Austrian dominions to the revolutionary outbreaks of
+1846-1849. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span>.) The emperor, who was
+subject to fits of actual insanity, and in his lucid intervals was
+weak and confused in mind, was a political nullity. His personal
+amiability earned him the affectionate pity of his subjects, and
+he became the hero of popular stories which did not tend to maintain
+the dignity of the crown. It was commonly said that having
+taken refuge on a rainy day in a farmhouse he was so tempted
+by the smell of the dumplings which the farmer and his family
+were eating for dinner, that he insisted on having one. His
+doctor, who knew them to be indigestible, objected, and thereupon
+Ferdinand, in an imperial rage, made the answer:&mdash;&ldquo;Kaiser
+bin i&rsquo;, und Knüdel müss i&rsquo; haben&rdquo; (I am emperor, and
+will have the dumpling)&mdash;which has become a Viennese proverb.
+His popular name of <i>Der Gütige</i> (the good sort of man) expressed
+as much derision as affection. Ferdinand had good taste for
+art and music. Some modification of the tight-handed rule of
+his father was made by the <i>Staatsconferenz</i> during his reign. In
+the presence of the revolutionary troubles, which began with
+agrarian riots in Galicia in 1846, and then spread over the whole
+empire, he was personally helpless. He was compelled to escape
+from the disorders of Vienna to Innsbruck on the 17th of May
+1848. He came back on the invitation of the diet on the 12th
+of August, but soon had to escape once more from the mob of
+students and workmen who were in possession of the city. On
+the 2nd of December he abdicated at Olmütz in favour of his
+nephew, Francis Joseph. He lived under supervision by doctors
+and guardians at Prague till his death on the 29th of June
+1855.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Krones von Marchland, <i>Grundriss der österreichischen
+Geschichte</i> (Vienna, 1882), which gives an ample bibliography;
+Count F. Hartig, <i>Genesis der Revolution in Österreich</i> (Leipzig,
+1850),&mdash;an enlarged English translation will be found in the 4th
+volume of W. Coxe&rsquo;s <i>House of Austria</i> (London, 1862).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1423-1494), also called Don Ferrante, king
+of Naples, the natural son of Alphonso V. of Aragon and I. of
+Sicily and Naples, was horn in 1423. In accordance with his
+father&rsquo;s will, he succeeded him on the throne of Naples in 1458,
+but Pope Calixtus III. declared the line of Aragon extinct and
+the kingdom a fief of the church. But although he died before
+he could make good his claim (August 1458), and the new Pope
+Pius II. recognized Ferdinand, John of Anjou, profiting by the
+discontent of the Neapolitan barons, decided to try to regain
+the throne conquered by his ancestors, and invaded Naples.
+Ferdinand was severely defeated by the Angevins and the rebels
+at Sarno in July 1460, but with the help of Alessandro Sforza
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span>
+and of the Albanian chief, Skanderbeg, who chivalrously came
+to the aid of the prince whose father had aided him, he triumphed
+over his enemies, and by 1464 had re-established his authority
+in the kingdom. In 1478 he allied himself with Pope Sixtus IV.
+against Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici, but the latter journeyed alone to
+Naples when he succeeded in negotiating an honourable peace
+with Ferdinand. In 1480 the Turks captured Otranto, and
+massacred the majority of the inhabitants, but in the following
+year it was retaken by his son Alphonso, duke of Calabria. His
+oppressive government led in 1485 to an attempt at revolt on
+the part of the nobles, led by Francesca Coppola and Antonello
+Sanseverino and supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; the rising
+having been crushed, many of the nobles, notwithstanding
+Ferdinand&rsquo;s promise of a general amnesty, were afterwards
+treacherously murdered at his express command. In 1493
+Charles VIII. of France was preparing to invade Italy for the
+conquest of Naples, and Ferdinand realized that this was a greater
+danger than any he had yet faced. With almost prophetic
+instinct he warned the Italian princes of the calamities in store
+for them, but his negotiations with Pope Alexander VI. and
+Ludovico il Moro, lord of Milan, having failed, he died in
+January 1494, worn out with anxiety. Ferdinand was gifted
+with great courage and real political ability, but his method of
+government was vicious and disastrous. His financial administration
+was based on oppressive and dishonest monopolies, and
+he was mercilessly severe and utterly treacherous towards his
+enemies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Codice Aragonese</i>, edited by F. Trinchera (Naples,
+1866-1874); P. Giannone, <i>Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli</i>; J.
+Alvini, <i>De gestis regum Neapol. ab Aragonia</i> (Naples, 1588); S. de
+Sismondi, <i>Histoire des républiques italiennes</i>, vols. v. and vi. (Brussels,
+1838); P. Villari, <i>Machiavelli</i>, pp. 60-64 (Engl. transl., London, 1892);
+for the revolt of the nobles in 1485 see Camillo Porzio, <i>La Congiura
+dei Baroni</i> (first published Rome, 1565; many subsequent editions),
+written in the Royalist interest.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND II.<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1469-1496), king of Naples, was the grandson
+of the preceding, and son of Alphonso II. Alphonso finding
+his tenure of the throne uncertain on account of the approaching
+invasion of Charles VIII. of France and the general dissatisfaction
+of his subjects, abdicated in his son&rsquo;s favour in 1495, but
+notwithstanding this the treason of a party in Naples rendered
+it impossible to defend the city against the approach of
+Charles VIII. Ferdinand fled to Ischia; but when the French
+king left Naples with most of his army, in consequence of the
+formation of an Italian league against him, he returned, defeated
+the French garrisons, and the Neapolitans, irritated by the
+conduct of their conquerors during the occupation of the city,
+received him back with enthusiasm; with the aid of the great
+Spanish general Gonzalo de Cordova he was able completely to
+rid his state of its invaders shortly before his death, which
+occurred on the 7th of September 1496.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For authorities see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand I.</a></span> of Naples; for the
+exploits of Gonzalo de Cordova see H.P. del Pulgar, <i>Crónica del
+gran capitano don Gonzalo de Cordoba</i> (new ed., Madrid, 1834).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND IV.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1751-1825), king of Naples (III. of Sicily,
+and I. of the Two Sicilies), third son of Don Carlos of Bourbon,
+king of Naples and Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain),
+was born in Naples on the 12th of January 1751. When his
+father ascended the Spanish throne in 1759 Ferdinand, in accordance
+with the treaties forbidding the union of the two crowns,
+succeeded him as king of Naples, under a regency presided over
+by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci. The latter, an able, ambitious
+man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his
+own hands, purposely neglected the young king&rsquo;s education,
+and encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his
+excessive devotion to outdoor sports. Ferdinand grew up
+athletic, but ignorant, ill-bred, addicted to the lowest amusements;
+he delighted in the company of the <i>lazzaroni</i> (the most
+degraded class of the Neapolitan people), whose dialect and
+habits he affected, and he even sold fish in the market, haggling
+over the price.</p>
+
+<p>His minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion
+of the Jesuits. The following year he married Maria Carolina,
+daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage contract
+the queen was to have a voice in the council of state after
+the birth of her first son, and she was not slow to avail herself
+of this means of political influence. Beautiful, clever and
+proud, like her mother, but cruel and treacherous, her ambition
+was to raise the kingdom of Naples to the position of a great
+power; she soon came to exercise complete sway over her stupid
+and idle husband, and was the real ruler of the kingdom. Tanucci,
+who attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777, and the
+Englishman Sir John Acton (1736), who in 1779 was appointed
+director of marine, succeeded in so completely winning the
+favour of Maria Carolina, by supporting her in her scheme to
+free Naples from Spanish influence and securing a <i>rapprochement</i>
+with Austria and England, that he became practically and afterwards
+actually prime minister. Although not a mere grasping
+adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the internal
+administration of the country to an abominable system of
+espionage, corruption and cruelty. On the outbreak of the
+French Revolution the Neapolitan court was not hostile to the
+movement, and the queen even sympathized with the revolutionary
+ideas of the day. But when the French monarchy was
+abolished and the royal pair beheaded, Ferdinand and Carolina
+were seized with a feeling of fear and horror and joined the first
+coalition against France in 1793. Although peace was made
+with France in 1796, the demands of the French Directory,
+whose troops occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and
+at his wife&rsquo;s instigation he took advantage of Napoleon&rsquo;s absence
+in Egypt and of Nelson&rsquo;s victories to go to war. He marched
+with his army against the French and entered Rome (29th of
+November), but on the defeat of some of his columns he hurried
+back to Naples, and on the approach of the French, fled on board
+Nelson&rsquo;s ship the &ldquo;Vanguard&rdquo; to Sicily, leaving his capital in
+a state of anarchy. The French entered the city in spite of the
+fierce resistance of the <i>lazzaroni</i>, who were devoted to the king,
+and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeois established the
+Parthenopaean Republic (January 1799). When a few weeks
+later the French troops were recalled to the north of Italy,
+Ferdinand sent an expedition composed of Calabrians, brigands
+and gaol-birds, under Cardinal Ruffo, a man of real ability,
+great devotion to the king, and by no means so bad as he has
+been painted, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo was
+completely successful, and reached Naples in May. His army
+and the <i>lazzaroni</i> committed nameless atrocities, which he
+honestly tried to prevent, and the Parthenopaean Republic
+collapsed.</p>
+
+<p>The savage punishment of the Neapolitan Republicans is
+dealt with in more detail under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naples</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nelson</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caracciolo</a></span>,
+but it is necessary to say here that the king, and above all the
+queen, were particularly anxious that no mercy should be shown
+to the rebels, and Maria Carolina made use of Lady Hamilton,
+Nelson&rsquo;s mistress, to induce him to execute her own spiteful
+vengeance. Her only excuse is that as a sister of Marie Antoinette
+the very name of Republican or Jacobin filled her with
+loathing. The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and
+ordered wholesale arrests and executions of supposed Liberals,
+which continued until the French successes forced him to agree
+to a treaty in which amnesty for members of the French party
+was included. When war broke out between France and Austria
+in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty of neutrality with the former,
+but a few days later he allied himself with Austria and allowed
+an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples. The French victory
+at Austerlitz enabled Napoleon to despatch an army to southern
+Italy. Ferdinand with his usual precipitation fled to Palermo
+(23rd of January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son,
+and on the 14th of February the French again entered Naples.
+Napoleon declared that the Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the
+crown, and proclaimed his brother Joseph king of Naples and
+Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over the latter kingdom
+under British protection. Parliamentary institutions of a
+feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William
+Bentinck (<i>q.v.</i>), the British minister, insisted on a reform of the
+constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed
+practically abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span>
+regent, and the queen, at Bentinck&rsquo;s instance, was exiled to
+Austria, where she died in 1814.</p>
+
+<p>After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded
+Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned, and
+Ferdinand returned to Naples. By a secret treaty he had bound
+himself not to advance further in a constitutional direction than
+Austria should at any time approve; but, though on the whole
+he acted in accordance with Metternich&rsquo;s policy of preserving
+the <i>status quo</i>, and maintained with but slight change Murat&rsquo;s
+laws and administrative system, he took advantage of the
+situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in violation of his
+oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into the kingdom
+of the Two Sicilies (December 12th, 1816). He was now
+completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent,
+being even made commander-in-chief of the army; and for four
+years he reigned as a despot, every tentative effort at the expression
+of liberal opinion being ruthlessly suppressed. The
+result was an alarming spread of the influence and activity of
+the secret society of the Carbonari (<i>q.v.</i>), which in time affected
+a large part of the army. In July 1820 a military revolt broke
+out under General Pepe, and Ferdinand was terrorized into
+subscribing a constitution on the model of the impracticable
+Spanish constitution of 1812. On the other hand, a revolt in
+Sicily, in favour of the recovery of its independence, was suppressed
+by Neapolitan troops.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously
+alarmed the powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it
+might spread to other Italian states and so lead to that general
+European conflagration which it was their main preoccupation
+to avoid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>). After long diplomatic negotiations,
+it was decided to hold a congress <i>ad hoc</i> at Troppau
+(October 1820). The main results of this congress were the issue
+of the famous Troppau Protocol, signed by Austria, Prussia
+and Russia only, and an invitation to King Ferdinand to attend
+the adjourned congress at Laibach (1821), an invitation of
+which Great Britain approved &ldquo;as implying negotiation&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Troppau</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Laibach</a></span>, <i>Congresses of</i>). At Laibach Ferdinand
+played so sorry a part as to provoke the contempt of those whose
+policy it was to re-establish him in absolute power. He had
+twice sworn, with gratuitous solemnity, to maintain the new
+constitution; but he was hardly out of Naples before he repudiated
+his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns
+of Europe, declared his acts to have been null and void. An
+attitude so indecent threatened to defeat the very objects of the
+reactionary powers, and Gentz congratulated the congress that
+these sorry protests would be buried in the archives, offering
+at the same time to write for the king a dignified letter in which
+he should express his reluctance at having to violate his oaths
+in the face of irresistible force! But, under these circumstances,
+Metternich had no difficulty in persuading the king to allow an
+Austrian army to march into Naples &ldquo;to restore order.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The campaign that followed did little credit either to the
+Austrians or the Neapolitans. The latter, commanded by
+General Pepe (<i>q.v.</i>), who made no attempt to defend the difficult
+defiles of the Abruzzi, were defeated, after a half-hearted struggle
+at Rieti (March 7th, 1821), and the Austrians entered Naples.
+The parliament was now dismissed, and Ferdinand inaugurated
+an era of savage persecution, supported by spies and informers,
+against the Liberals and Carbonari, the Austrian commandant
+in vain protesting against the savagery which his presence alone
+rendered possible.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand died on the 4th of January 1825. Few sovereigns
+have left behind so odious a memory. His whole career is one
+long record of perjury, vengeance and meanness, unredeemed by
+a single generous act, and his wife was a worthy helpmeet and
+actively co-operated in his tyranny.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The standard authority on Ferdinand&rsquo;s reign is
+Pietro Colletta&rsquo;s <i>Storia del Reame di Napoli</i> (2nd ed., Florence, 1848),
+which, although heavily written and not free from party passion,
+is reliable and accurate; L. Conforti, <i>Napoli nel 1799</i> (Naples, 1886);
+G. Pepe, <i>Memorie</i> (Paris, 1847), a most valuable book; C. Auriol,
+<i>La France, l&rsquo;Angleterre, et Naples</i> (Paris, 1906); for the Sicilian
+period and the British occupation, G. Bianco, <i>La Sicilia durante
+l&rsquo;occupazione Inglese</i> (Palermo, 1902), which contains many new
+documents of importance; Freiherr A. von Helfert has attempted
+the impossible task of whitewashing Queen Carolina in his <i>Königin
+Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien</i> (Vienna, 1878), and <i>Maria Karolina
+von Oesterreich</i> (Vienna, 1884); he has also written a useful life of
+<i>Fabrizio Ruffo</i> (Italian edit., Florence, 1885); for the Sicilian
+revolution of 1820 see G. Bianco&rsquo;s <i>La Rivoluzione in Sicilia del 1820</i>
+(Florence, 1905), and M. Amari&rsquo;s <i>Carteggio</i> (Turin, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> king of Portugal (1345-1383), sometimes
+referred to as <i>el Gentil</i> (the Gentleman), son of Pedro I. of
+Portugal (who is not to be confounded with his Spanish contemporary
+Pedro the Cruel), succeeded his father in 1367. On
+the death of Pedro of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as great-grandson
+of Sancho IV. by the female line, laid claim to the
+vacant throne, for which the kings of Aragon and Navarre, and
+afterwards the duke of Lancaster (married in 1370 to Constance,
+the eldest daughter of Pedro), also became competitors. Meanwhile
+Henry of Trastamara, the brother (illegitimate) and conqueror
+of Pedro, had assumed the crown and taken the field.
+After one or two indecisive campaigns, all parties were ready to
+accept the mediation of Pope Gregory XI. The conditions of the
+treaty, ratified in 1371, included a marriage between Ferdinand
+and Leonora of Castile. But before the union could take place
+the former had become passionately attached to Leonora Tellez,
+the wife of one of his own courtiers, and having procured a
+dissolution of her previous marriage, he lost no time in making
+her his queen. This strange conduct, although it raised a serious
+insurrection in Portugal, did not at once result in a war with
+Henry; but the outward concord was soon disturbed by the
+intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, who prevailed on Ferdinand
+to enter into a secret treaty for the expulsion of Henry from his
+throne. The war which followed was unsuccessful; and peace
+was again made in 1373. On the death of Henry in 1379, the
+duke of Lancaster once more put forward his claims, and again
+found an ally in Portugal; but, according to the Continental
+annalists, the English proved as offensive to their companions
+in arms as to their enemies in the field; and Ferdinand made
+a peace for himself at Badajoz in 1382, it being stipulated that
+Beatrix, the heiress of Ferdinand, should marry King John
+of Castile, and thus secure the ultimate union of the crowns.
+Ferdinand left no male issue when he died on the 22nd of October
+1383, and the direct Burgundian line, which had been in possession
+of the throne since the days of Count Henry (about 1112), became
+extinct. The stipulations of the treaty of Badajoz were set
+aside, and John, grand-master of the order of Aviz, Ferdinand&rsquo;s
+illegitimate brother, was proclaimed. This led to a war which
+lasted for several years.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <i>El Magno</i> or &ldquo;the Great,&rdquo; king of Castile
+(<i>d.</i> 1065), son of Sancho of Navarre, was put in possession of
+Castile in 1028, on the murder of the last count, as the heir of his
+mother Elvira, daughter of a previous count of Castile. He
+reigned with the title of king. He married Sancha, sister and
+heiress of Bermudo, king of Leon. In 1038 Bermudo was killed
+in battle with Ferdinand at Tamaron, and Ferdinand then took
+possession of Leon by right of his wife, and was recognized in
+Spain as emperor. The use of the title was resented by the
+emperor Henry IV. and by Pope Victor II. in 1055, as implying
+a claim to the headship of Christendom, and as a usurpation
+on the Holy Roman Empire. It did not, however, mean more
+than that Spain was independent of the Empire, and that the
+sovereign of Leon was the chief of the princes of the peninsula.
+Although Ferdinand had grown in power by a fratricidal strife
+with Bermudo of Leon, and though at a later date he defeated
+and killed his brother Garcia of Navarre, he ranks high among
+the kings of Spain who have been counted religious. To a large
+extent he may have owed his reputation to the victories over
+the Mahommedans, with which he began the period of the great
+reconquest. But there can be no doubt that Ferdinand was
+profoundly pious. Towards the close of his reign he sent a special
+embassy to Seville to bring back the body of Santa Justa. The
+then king of Seville, Motadhid, one of the small princes who
+had divided the caliphate of Cordova, was himself a sceptic and
+poisoner, but he stood in wholesome awe of the power of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span>
+Christian king. He favoured the embassy in every way, and
+when the body of Santa Justa could not be found, helped the
+envoys who were also aided by a vision seen by one of them in
+a dream, to discover the body of Saint Isidore, which was
+reverently carried away to Leon. Ferdinand died on the feast
+of Saint John the Evangelist, the 24th of June 1065, in Leon,
+with many manifestations of ardent piety&mdash;having laid aside
+his crown and royal mantle, dressed in the frock of a monk and
+lying on a bier, covered with ashes, which was placed before the
+altar of the church of Saint Isidore.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND II.,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> king of Leon only (<i>d.</i> 1188), was the son
+of Alphonso VII. and of Berenguela, of the house of the counts
+of Barcelona. On the division of the kingdoms which had
+obeyed his father, he received Leon. His reign of thirty years
+was one of strife marked by no signal success or reverse. He
+had to contend with his unruly nobles, several of whom he put
+to death. During the minority of his nephew Alphonso VIII. of
+Castile he endeavoured to impose himself on the kingdom as
+regent. On the west he was in more or less constant strife with
+Portugal, which was in process of becoming an independent
+kingdom. His relations to the Portuguese house must have
+suffered by his repudiation of his wife Urraca, daughter of
+Alphonso I. of Portugal. Though he took the king of Portugal
+prisoner in 1180, he made no political use of his success. He
+extended his dominions southward in Estremadura at the expense
+of the Moors. Ferdinand, who died in 1188, left the
+reputation of a good knight and hard fighter, but did not display
+political or organizing faculty.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND III.,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> <i>El Santo</i> or &ldquo;the Saint,&rdquo; king of Castile
+(1199-1252), son of Alphonso IX. of Leon, and of Berengaria,
+daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, ranks among the greatest
+of the Spanish kings. The marriage of his parents, who were
+second cousins, was dissolved as unlawful by the pope, but the
+legitimacy of the children was recognized. Till 1217 he lived
+with his father in Leon. In that year the young king of Castile,
+Henry, was killed by accident. Berengaria sent for her son
+with such speed that her messenger reached Leon before the news
+of the death of the king of Castile, and when he came to her she
+renounced the crown in his favour. Alphonso of Leon considered
+himself tricked, and the young king had to begin his reign by a
+war against his father and a faction of the Castilian nobles.
+His own ability and the remarkable capacity of his mother
+proved too much for the king of Leon and his Castilian allies.
+Ferdinand, who showed himself docile to the influence of Berengaria,
+so long as she lived, married the wife she found for him,
+Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Philip (of Hohenstaufen), and
+followed her advice both in prosecuting the war against the Moors
+and in the steps which she took to secure his peaceful succession
+to Leon on the death of his father in 1231. After the union of
+Castile and Leon in that year he began the series of campaigns
+which ended by reducing the Mahommedan dominions in Spain
+to Granada. Cordova fell in 1236, and Seville in 1248. The
+king of Granada did homage to Ferdinand, and undertook to
+attend the cortes when summoned. The king was a severe
+persecutor of the Albigenses, and his formal canonization was
+due as much to his orthodoxy as to his crusading by Pope
+Clement X. in 1671. He revived the university first founded
+by his grandfather Alphonso VIII., and placed it at Salamanca.
+By his second marriage with Joan (d. 1279), daughter of Simon,
+of Dammartin, count of Ponthieu, by right of his wife Marie,
+Ferdinand was the father of Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. of
+England.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND IV.,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> <i>El Emplazado</i> or &ldquo;the Summoned,&rdquo; king
+of Castile (<i>d</i>. 1312), son of Sancho El Bravo, and his wife
+Maria de Molina, is a figure of small note in Spanish history.
+His strange title is given him in the chronicles on the strength
+of a story that he put two brothers of the name of Carvajal to
+death tyrannically, and was given a time, a <i>plazo</i>, by them in
+which to answer for his crime in the next world. But the tale
+is not contemporary, and is an obvious copy of the story told
+of Jacques de Molay, grand-master of the Temple, and Philippe
+Le Bel. Ferdinand IV. succeeded to the throne when a boy of
+six. His minority was a time of anarchy. He owed his escape
+from the violence of competitors and nobles, partly to the tact
+and undaunted bravery of his mother Maria de Molina, and
+partly to the loyalty of the citizens of Avila, who gave him
+refuge within their walls. As a king he proved ungrateful to his
+mother, and weak as a ruler. He died suddenly in his tent at
+Jaen when preparing for a raid into the Moorish territory of
+Granada, on the 7th of September 1312.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> king of Aragon (1373-1416), called &ldquo;of
+Antequera,&rdquo; was the son of John I. of Castile by his wife Eleanor,
+daughter of the third marriage of Peter IV. of Aragon. His
+surname &ldquo;of Antequera&rdquo; was given him because he was besieging
+that town, then in the hands of the Moors, when he was told
+that the cortes of Aragon had elected him king in succession to his
+uncle Martin, the last male of the old line of Wilfred the Hairy.
+As infante of Castile Ferdinand had played an honourable part.
+When his brother Henry III. died at Toledo, in 1406, the cortes
+was sitting, and the nobles offered to make him king in preference
+to his nephew John. Ferdinand refused to despoil his brother&rsquo;s
+infant son, and even if he did not act on the moral ground he
+alleged, his sagacity must have shown him that he would be at
+the mercy of the men who had chosen him in such circumstances.
+As co-regent of the kingdom with Catherine, widow of Henry III.
+and daughter of John of Gaunt by his marriage with Constance,
+daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de Padilla, Ferdinand
+proved a good ruler. He restrained the follies of his sister-in-law,
+and kept the realm quiet, by firm government, and by prosecuting
+the war with the Moors. As king of Aragon his short reign of
+two years left him little time to make his mark. Having been
+bred in Castile, where the royal authority was, at least in theory,
+absolute, he showed himself impatient under the checks imposed
+on him by the <i>fueros</i>, the chartered rights of Aragon and Catalonia.
+He particularly resented the obstinacy of the Barcelonese,
+who compelled the members of his household to pay municipal
+taxes. His most signal act as king was to aid in closing the
+Great Schism in the Church by agreeing to the deposition of the
+antipope Benedict XIV., an Aragonese. He died at Ygualada
+in Catalonia on the 2nd of April 1416.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND V.<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> of Castile and Leon, and II. of Aragon
+(1452-1516), was the son of John I. of Aragon by his second
+marriage with Joanna Henriquez, of the family of the hereditary
+grand admirals of Castile, and was born at Sos in Aragon on the
+16th of March 1452. Under the name of &ldquo;the Catholic&rdquo; and
+as the husband of Isabella, queen of Castile, he played a great
+part in Europe. His share in establishing the royal authority
+in all parts of Spain, in expelling the Moors from Granada, in the
+conquest of Navarre, in forwarding the voyages of Columbus,
+and in contending with France for the supremacy in Italy, is
+dealt with elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In personal character
+he had none of the attractive qualities of his wife. It may
+fairly be said of him that he was purely a politician. His marriage
+in 1469 to his cousin Isabella of Castile was dictated by the
+desire to unite his own claims to the crown, as the head of the
+younger branch of the same family, with hers, in case Henry IV.
+should die childless. When the king died in 1474 he made an
+ungenerous attempt to procure his own proclamation as king
+without recognition of the rights of his wife. Isabella asserted
+her claims firmly, and at all times insisted on a voice in the
+government of Castile. But though Ferdinand had sought a
+selfish political advantage at his wife&rsquo;s expense, he was well aware
+of her ability and high character. Their married life was dignified
+and harmonious; for Ferdinand had no common vices, and
+their views in government were identical. The king cared for
+nothing but dominion and political power. His character
+explains the most ungracious acts of his life, such as his breach
+of his promises to Columbus, his distrust of Ximenez and of the
+Great Captain. He had given wide privileges to Columbus on
+the supposition that the discoverer would reach powerful kingdoms.
+When islands inhabited by feeble savages were discovered,
+Ferdinand appreciated the risk that they might become
+the seat of a power too strong to be controlled, and took
+measures to avert the danger. He feared that <span class="correction" title="amended from Ximinez">Jiménez</span> and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span>
+Great Captain would become too independent, and watched
+them in the interest of the royal authority. Whether he ever
+boasted, as he is said to have boasted, that he had deceived
+Louis XII. of France twelve times, is very doubtful; but it is
+certain that when Ferdinand made a treaty, or came to an
+understanding with any one, the contract was generally found
+to contain implied meanings favourable to himself which the
+other contracting party had not expected. The worst of his
+character was prominently shown after the death of Isabella
+in 1504. He endeavoured to lay hands on the regency of Castile
+in the name of his insane daughter Joanna, and without regard
+to the claims of her husband Philip of Habsburg. The hostility
+of the Castilian nobles, by whom he was disliked, baffled him
+for a time, but on Philip&rsquo;s early death he reasserted his authority.
+His second marriage with Germaine of Foix in 1505 was apparently
+contracted in the hope that by securing an heir male he
+might punish his Habsburg son-in-law. Aragon did not recognize
+the right of women to reign, and would have been detached
+together with Catalonia, Valencia and the Italian states if he
+had had a son. This was the only occasion on which Ferdinand
+allowed passion to obscure his political sense, and lead him into
+acts which tended to undo his work of national unification. As
+king of Aragon he abstained from inroads on the liberties of his
+subjects which might have provoked rebellion. A few acts of
+illegal violence are recorded of him&mdash;as when he invited a notorious
+demagogue of Saragossa to visit him in the palace, and caused
+the man to be executed without form of trial. Once when presiding
+over the Aragonese cortes he found himself sitting in a
+thorough draught and ordered the window to be shut, adding
+in a lower voice, &ldquo;If it is not against the <i>fueros</i>.&rdquo; But his ill-will
+did not go beyond such sneers. He was too intent on building
+up a great state to complicate his difficulties by internal troubles.
+His arrangement of the convention of Guadalupe, which ended
+the fierce Agrarian conflicts of Catalonia, was wise and profitable
+to the country, though it was probably dictated mainly by a wish
+to weaken the landowners by taking away their feudal rights.
+Ferdinand died at Madrigalejo in Estremadura on the 23rd of
+February 1516.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The lives of the kings of this name before Ferdinand V. are contained
+in the chronicles, and in the <i>Anales de Aragon</i> of Zurita, and
+the History of Spain by Mariana. Both deal at length with the
+life of Ferdinand V. Prescott&rsquo;s <i>History of the Reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella</i>, in any of its numerous editions, gives a full life of him
+with copious references to authorities.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND VI.,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> king of Spain (1713-1759), second son of
+Philip V., founder of the Bourbon dynasty, by his first marriage
+with Maria Louisa of Savoy, was born at Madrid on the 23rd
+of September 1713. His youth was depressed. His father&rsquo;s
+second wife, Elizabeth Farnese, was a managing woman, who
+had no affection except for her own children, and who looked
+upon her stepson as an obstacle to their fortunes. The hypochondria
+of his father left Elizabeth mistress of the palace.
+Ferdinand was married in 1729 to Maria Magdalena Barbara,
+daughter of John V. of Portugal. The very homely looks of his
+wife were thought by observers to cause the prince a visible
+shock when he was first presented to her. Yet he became deeply
+attached to his wife, and proved in fact nearly as uxorious as his
+father. Ferdinand was by temperament melancholy, shy and
+distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented on his
+shooting, he replied, &ldquo;It would be hard if there were not something
+I could do.&rdquo; As king he followed a steady policy of neutrality
+between France and England, and refused to be tempted
+by the offers of either into declaring war on the other. In his
+life he was orderly and retiring, averse from taking decisions,
+though not incapable of acting firmly, as when he cut short the
+dangerous intrigues of his able minister Ensenada by dismissing
+and imprisoning him. Shooting and music were his only
+pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous singer
+Farinelli (<i>q.v.</i>), whose voice soothed his melancholy. The death
+of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully
+abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between
+the date of her death in 1758 and his own on the 10th of August
+1759 he fell into a state of prostration in which he would not
+even dress, but wandered unshaven, unwashed and in a night-gown
+about his park. The memoirs of the count of Fernan
+Nuñez give a shocking picture of his death-bed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A good account of the reign and character of Ferdinand VI. will
+be found in vol. iv. of Coxe&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the
+House of Bourbon</i> (London, 1815). See also <i>Vida de Carlos III.</i>, by
+the count of Fernan Nuñez, ed. M. Morel Fatio and Don A. Paz y
+Melia (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND VII.,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> king of Spain (1784-1833), the eldest son
+of Charles IV., king of Spain, and of his wife Maria Louisa of
+Parma, was born at the palace of San Ildefonso near Balsain in
+the Somosierra hills, on the 14th of October 1784. The events
+with which he was connected were many, tragic and of the widest
+European interest. In his youth he occupied the painful position
+of an heir apparent who was carefully excluded from all share in
+government by the jealousy of his parents, and the prevalence
+of a royal favourite. National discontent with a feeble government
+produced a revolution in 1808 by which he passed to the
+throne by the forced abdication of his father. Then he spent
+years as the prisoner of Napoleon, and returned in 1814 to find
+that while Spain was fighting for independence in his name a new
+world had been born of foreign invasion and domestic revolution.
+He came back to assert the ancient doctrine that the sovereign
+authority resided in his person only. Acting on this principle he
+ruled frivolously, and with a wanton indulgence of whims. In
+1820 his misrule provoked a revolt, and he remained in the hands
+of insurgents till he was released by foreign intervention in 1823.
+When free, he revenged himself with a ferocity which disgusted
+his allies. In his last years he prepared a change in the order of
+succession established by his dynasty in Spain, which angered
+a large part of the nation, and made a civil war inevitable.
+We have to distinguish the part of Ferdinand VII. in all these
+transactions, in which other and better men were concerned.
+It can confidently be said to have been uniformly base. He had
+perhaps no right to complain that he was kept aloof from all
+share in government while only heir apparent, for this was the
+traditional practice of his family. But as heir to the throne
+he had a right to resent the degradation of the crown he was to
+inherit, and the power of a favourite who was his mother&rsquo;s lover.
+If he had put himself at the head of a popular rising he would
+have been followed, and would have had a good excuse. His
+course was to enter on dim intrigues at the instigation of his first
+wife, Maria Antonietta of Naples. After her death in 1806 he
+was drawn into other intrigues by flatterers, and, in October
+1807, was arrested for the conspiracy of the Escorial. The
+conspiracy aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon.
+When detected, Ferdinand betrayed his associates, and grovelled
+to his parents. When his father&rsquo;s abdication was extorted by a
+popular riot at Aranjuez in March 1808, he ascended the throne&mdash;not
+to lead his people manfully, but to throw himself into the
+hands of Napoleon, in the fatuous hope that the emperor would
+support him. He was in his turn forced to make an abdication
+and imprisoned in France, while Spain, with the help of England,
+fought for its life. At Valançay, where he was sent as a prisoner
+of state, he sank contentedly into vulgar vice, and did not scruple
+to applaud the French victories over the people who were suffering
+unutterable misery in his cause. When restored in March
+1814, on the fall of Napoleon, he had just cause to repudiate the
+impracticable constitution made by the cortes without his
+consent. He did so, and then governed like an evil-disposed
+boy&mdash;indulging the merest animal passions, listening to a small
+<i>camarilla</i> of low-born favourites, changing his ministers every
+three months, and acting on the impulse of whims which were
+sometimes mere buffoonery, but were at times lubricous, or
+ferocious. The autocratic powers of the Grand Alliance, though
+forced to support him as the representative of legitimacy in Spain,
+watched his proceedings with disgust and alarm. &ldquo;The king,&rdquo;
+wrote Gentz to the hospodar Caradja on the 1st of December
+1814, &ldquo;himself enters the houses of his first ministers, arrests
+them, and hands them over to their cruel enemies&rdquo;; and again,
+on the 14th of January 1815, &ldquo;The king has so debased himself
+that he has become no more than the leading police agent and
+gaoler of his country.&rdquo; When at last the inevitable revolt came
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span>
+in 1820 he grovelled to the insurgents as he had done to his parents,
+descending to the meanest submissions while fear was on him,
+then intriguing and, when detected, grovelling again. When at
+the beginning of 1823, as a result of the congress of Verona, the
+French invaded Spain,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> &ldquo;invoking the God of St Louis, for the
+sake of preserving the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry
+IV., and of reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe,&rdquo; and in
+May the revolutionary party carried Ferdinand to Cadiz, he
+continued to make promises of amendment till he was free.
+Then, in violation of his oath to grant an amnesty, he revenged
+himself for three years of coercion by killing on a scale which
+revolted his &ldquo;rescuers,&rdquo; and against which the duke of
+Angoulême, powerless to interfere, protested by refusing the
+Spanish decorations offered him for his services. During his
+last years Ferdinand&rsquo;s energy was abated. He no longer changed
+ministers every few months as a sport, and he allowed some of
+them to conduct the current business of government. His habits
+of life were telling on him. He became torpid, bloated and
+horrible to look at. After his fourth marriage in 1829 with Maria
+Christina of Naples, he was persuaded by his wife to set aside
+the law of succession of Philip V., which gave a preference to all
+the males of the family in Spain over the females. His marriage
+had brought him only two daughters. When well, he consented
+to the change under the influence of his wife. When ill, he was
+terrified by priestly advisers, who were partisans of his brother
+Don Carlos. What his final decision was is perhaps doubtful.
+His wife was mistress by his death-bed, and she could put the
+words she chose into the mouth of a dead man&mdash;and could move
+the dead hand at her will. Ferdinand died on the 29th of September
+1833. It had been a frequent saying with the more zealous
+royalists of Spain that a king must be wiser than his ministers,
+for he was placed on the throne and directed by God. Since
+the reign of Ferdinand VII. no one has maintained this unqualified
+version of the great doctrine of divine right.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>King Ferdinand VII. kept a diary during the troubled years
+1820-1823, which has been published by the count de Casa Valencia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Louis XVIII.&rsquo;s speech from the throne, Jan. 28, 1823.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND II.<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1810-1859), king of the Two Sicilies, son of
+Francis I, was born at Palermo on the 12th of January 1810.
+In his early years he was credited with Liberal ideas and he was
+fairly popular, his free and easy manners having endeared him
+to the <i>lazzaroni</i>. On succeeding his father in 1830, he published
+an edict in which he promised to &ldquo;give his most anxious attention
+to the impartial administration of justice,&rdquo; to reform the
+finances, and to &ldquo;use every effort to heal the wounds which had
+afflicted the kingdom for so many years&rdquo;; but these promises
+seem to have been meant only to lull discontent to sleep, for
+although he did something for the economic development of
+the kingdom, the existing burden of taxation was only slightly
+lightened, corruption continued to flourish in all departments
+of the administration, and an absolutism was finally established
+harsher than that of all his predecessors, and supported by even
+more extensive and arbitrary arrests. Ferdinand was naturally
+shrewd, but badly educated, grossly superstitious and possessed
+of inordinate self-esteem. Though he kept the machinery of
+his kingdom fairly efficient, and was a patriot to the extent of
+brooking no foreign interference, he made little account of the
+wishes or welfare of his subjects. In 1832 he married Cristina,
+daughter of Victor Emmanuel I., king of Sardinia, and shortly
+after her death in 1836 he took for a second wife Maria Theresa,
+daughter of archduke Charles of Austria. After his Austrian
+alliance the bonds of despotism were more closely tightened, and
+the increasing discontent of his subjects was manifested by
+various abortive attempts at insurrection; in 1837 there was a
+rising in Sicily in consequence of the outbreak of cholera, and in
+1843 the Young Italy Society tried to organize a general rising,
+which, however, only manifested itself in a series of isolated outbreaks.
+The expedition of the Bandiera brothers (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1844,
+although it had no practical result, aroused great ill-feeling owing
+to the cruel sentences passed on the rebels. In January 1848
+a rising in Sicily was the signal for revolutions all over Italy and
+Europe; it was followed by a movement in Naples, and the king
+granted a constitution which he swore to observe. A dispute,
+however, arose as to the nature of the oath which should be taken
+by the members of the chamber of deputies, and as neither the
+king nor the deputies would yield, serious disturbances broke
+out in the streets of Naples on the 15th of May; so the king,
+making these an excuse for withdrawing his promise, dissolved
+the national parliament on the 13th of March 1849. He retired
+to Gaeta to confer with various deposed despots, and when the
+news of the Austrian victory at Novara (March 1849) reached
+him, he determined to return to a reactionary policy. Sicily,
+whence the Royalists had been expelled, was subjugated by
+General Filangieri (<i>q.v.</i>), and the chief cities were bombarded,
+an expedient which won for Ferdinand the epithet of &ldquo;King
+Bomba.&rdquo; During the last years of his reign espionage and
+arbitrary arrests prevented all serious manifestations of discontent
+among his subjects. In 1851 the political prisoners of
+Naples were calculated by Mr Gladstone in his letters to Lord
+Aberdeen (1851) to number 15,000 (probably the real figure was
+nearer 40,000), and so great was the scandal created by the prevailing
+reign of terror, and the abominable treatment to which
+the prisoners were subjected, that in 1856 France and England
+made diplomatic representations to induce the king to mitigate
+his rigour and proclaim a general amnesty, but without success.
+An attempt was made by a soldier to assassinate Ferdinand in
+1856. He died on the 22nd of May 1856, just after the declaration
+of war by France and Piedmont against Austria, which was
+to result in the collapse of his kingdom and his dynasty. He
+was bigoted, cruel, mean, treacherous, though not without a
+certain bonhomie; the only excuse that can be made for him
+is that with his heredity and education a different result could
+scarcely be expected.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Naples and Sicily,
+1848-1849, presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of
+Her Majesty</i>, 4th May 1849; <i>Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen</i>, by
+the Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone, 1st ed., 1851 (an edition published
+in 1852 and the subsequent editions contain an <i>Examination of the
+Official Reply of the Neapolitan Government</i>); N. Nisco, <i>Ferdinando II.
+il suo regno</i> (Naples, 1884); H. Remsen Whitehouse, <i>The Collapse of
+the Kingdom of Naples</i> (New York, 1899); R. de Cesare, <i>La Caduta
+d&rsquo; un Regno</i>, vol. i. (Città di Castello, 1900), which contains a great
+deal of fresh information, but is badly arranged and not always
+reliable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND III.<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1769-1824), grand duke of Tuscany, and
+archduke of Austria, second son of the emperor Leopold II.,
+was born on the 6th of May 1769. On his father becoming
+emperor in 1790, he succeeded him as grand duke of Tuscany.
+Ferdinand was one of the first sovereigns to enter into diplomatic
+relations with the French republic (1793); and although, a few
+months later, he was compelled by England and Russia to join
+the coalition against France, he concluded peace with that
+power in 1795, and by observing a strict neutrality saved his
+dominions from invasion by the French, except for a temporary
+occupation of Livorno, till 1799, when he was compelled to vacate
+his throne, and a provisional Republican government was established
+at Florence. Shortly afterwards the French arms suffered
+severe reverses in Italy, and Ferdinand was restored to his
+territories; but in 1801, by the peace of Lunéville, Tuscany
+was converted into the kingdom of Etruria, and he was again
+compelled to return to Vienna. In lieu of the sovereignty of
+Tuscany, he obtained in 1802 the electorship of Salzburg, which
+he exchanged by the peace of Pressburg in 1805 for that of Würzburg.
+In 1806 he was admitted as grand duke of Würzburg to the
+confederation of the Rhine. He was restored to the throne of
+Tuscany after the abdication of Napoleon in 1814 and was received
+with enthusiasm by the people, but had again to vacate
+his capital for a short time in 1815, when Murat proclaimed war
+against Austria. The final overthrow of the French supremacy
+at the battle of Waterloo secured him, however, in the undisturbed
+possession of his grand duchy during the remainder
+of his life. The restoration in Tuscany was not accompanied by
+the reactionary excesses which characterized it elsewhere, and
+a large part of the French legislation was retained. His
+prime minister was Count V. Fossombroni (<i>q.v.</i>). The mild
+rule of Ferdinand, his solicitude for the welfare of his subjects,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span>
+his enlightened patronage of art and science, his encouragement
+of commerce, and his toleration render him an honourable exception
+to the generality of Italian princes. At the same time
+his paternal despotism tended to emasculate the Tuscan character.
+He died in June 1824, and was succeeded by his son
+Leopold II. (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte Toscanas</i> (Gotha,
+1877); and &ldquo;Federico Manfredini e la politica Toscana nei primi
+anni di Ferdinando III.&rdquo; (in the <i>Archivio Storico Italiano</i>, 1877);
+Emmer, <i>Erzherzog Ferdinand III.</i>, <i>Grossherzog von Toskana</i> (Salzburg,
+1871); C. Tivaroni, <i>L&rsquo; Italia durante il dominio francese</i>, ii. 1-44
+(Turin, 1889), and <i>L&rsquo; Italia durante il dominio austriaco</i>, ii. 1-18
+(Turin, 1893). See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fossombroni</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vittorio</a></span>; and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capponi, Gino</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>
+king of Bulgaria (1861-&emsp;&emsp;), fifth and youngest son of Prince
+Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born on the 26th of
+February 1861. Great care was exercised in his education, and
+every encouragement given to the taste for natural history which
+he exhibited at an early age. In 1879 he travelled with his
+brother Augustus to Brazil, and the results of their botanical
+observations were published at Vienna, 1883-1888, under the
+title of <i>Itinera Principum S. Coburgi</i>. Having been appointed
+to a lieutenancy in the 2nd regiment of Austrian hussars, he
+was holding this rank when, by unanimous vote of the National
+Assembly, he was elected prince of Bulgaria, on the 7th of July
+1887, in succession to Prince Alexander, who had abdicated on
+the 7th of September preceding. He assumed the government
+on the 14th of August 1887, for Russia for a long time refused
+to acknowledge the election, and he was accordingly exposed to
+frequent military conspiracies, due to the influence or attitude
+of that power. The firmness and vigour with which he met all
+attempts at revolution were at length rewarded, and his election
+was confirmed in March 1896 by the Porte and the great powers.
+On the 20th of April 1893 he married Marie Louise de Bourbon
+(d. 1899), eldest daughter of Duke Robert of Parma, and in May
+following the Grand Sobranye confirmed the title of Royal Highness
+to the prince and his heir. The prince adhered to the
+Roman Catholic faith, but his son and heir, the young Prince
+Boris, was received into the Orthodox Greek Church on the
+14th of February 1896. Prince Boris, to whom the tsar
+Nicholas III. became godfather, accompanied his father to
+Russia in 1898, when Prince Ferdinand visited St Petersburg
+and Moscow, and still further strengthened the bond already
+existing between Russia and Bulgaria. In 1908 Ferdinand
+married Eleanor (b. 1860), a princess of the house of Reuss.
+Later in the year, in connexion with the Austrian annexation
+of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the crisis with Turkey, he proclaimed
+the independence of Bulgaria, and took the title of king or tsar.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bulgaria</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> duke of Brunswick (1721-1792), Prussian
+general field marshal, was the fourth son of Ferdinand Albert,
+duke of Brunswick, and was born at Wolfenbüttel on the 12th
+of January 1721. He was carefully educated with a view to a
+military career, and in his twentieth year he was made chief of a
+newly-raised Brunswick regiment in the Prussian service. He
+was present in the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusitz. In succession
+to Margrave Wilhelm of Brandenburg, killed at Prague
+(1744), Ferdinand received the command of Frederick the
+Great&rsquo;s <i>Leibgarde</i> battalion, and at Sohr (1745) he distinguished
+himself so greatly at the head of his brigade that Frederick
+wrote of him, &ldquo;le Prince Ferdinand s&rsquo;est surpassé.&rdquo; The height
+which he captured was defended by his brother Ludwig as an
+officer of the Austrian service, and another brother of Duke
+Ferdinand was killed by his side in the charge. During the ten
+years&rsquo; peace he was in the closest touch with the military work
+of Frederick the Great, who supervised the instruction of the
+guard battalion, and sought to make it a model of the whole
+Prussian army. Ferdinand was, moreover, one of the most
+intimate friends of the king, and thus he was peculiarly fitted
+for the tasks which afterwards fell to his lot. In this time he
+became successively major-general and lieutenant-general. In
+the first campaign of the Seven Years&rsquo; War Ferdinand commanded
+one of the Prussian columns which converged upon
+Dresden, and in the operations which led up to the surrender of
+the Saxon army at Pirna (1756), and at the battle of Lobositz,
+he led the right wing of the Prussian infantry. In 1757 he was
+present, and distinguished himself, at Prague, and he served also
+in the campaign of Rossbach. Shortly after this he was appointed
+to command the allied forces which were being organized
+for the war in western Germany. He found this army dejected
+by a reverse and a capitulation, yet within a week of his taking
+up the command he assumed the offensive, and thus began the
+career of victory which made his European reputation as a
+soldier. His conduct of the five campaigns which followed (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years&rsquo; War</a></span>) was naturally influenced by the teachings
+of Frederick, whose pupil the duke had been for so many years.
+Ferdinand, indeed, approximated more closely to Frederick in
+his method of making war than any other general of the time.
+Yet his task was in many respects far more difficult than that of
+the king. Frederick was the absolute master of his own homogeneous
+army, Ferdinand merely the commander of a group of
+contingents, and answerable to several princes for the troops
+placed under his control. The French were by no means despicable
+opponents in the field, and their leaders, if not of the first
+grade, were cool and experienced veterans. In 1758 he fought
+and won the battle of Crefeld, several marches beyond the
+Rhine, but so advanced a position he could not well maintain,
+and he fell back to the Lippe. He resumed a bold offensive in
+1759, only to be repulsed at Bergen (near Frankfort-on-Main).
+On the 1st of August of this year Ferdinand won the brilliant
+victory of Minden (<i>q.v.</i>). Vellinghausen, Wilhelmsthal, Warburg
+and other victories attested the increasing power of Ferdinand
+in the following campaigns, and Frederick, hard pressed in
+the eastern theatre of war, owed much of his success in an almost
+hopeless task to the continued pressure exerted by Ferdinand in
+the west. In promoting him to be a field marshal (November
+1758) Frederick acknowledged his debt in the words, &ldquo;Je n&rsquo;ai
+fait que ce que je dois, mon cher Ferdinand.&rdquo; After Minden,
+King George II. gave the duke the order of the Garter, and the
+thanks of the British parliament were voted on the same occasion
+to the &ldquo;Victor of Minden.&rdquo; After the war he was honoured by
+other sovereigns, and he received the rank of field marshal and
+a regiment from the Austrians. During the War of American
+Independence there was a suggestion, which came to nothing, of
+offering him the command of the British forces. He exerted
+himself to compensate those who had suffered by the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War, devoting to this purpose most of the small income he
+received from his various offices and the rewards given to him
+by the allied princes. The estrangement of Frederick and
+Ferdinand in 1766 led to the duke&rsquo;s retirement from Prussian
+service, but there was no open breach between the old friends,
+and Ferdinand visited the king in 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782.
+After 1766 he passed the remainder of his life at his castle of
+Veschelde, where he occupied himself in building and other improvements,
+and became a patron of learning and art, and a
+great benefactor of the poor. He died on the 3rd of July 1792.
+The merits, civil and military, of the prince were recognized by
+memorials not only in Prussia and Hanover, but also in Denmark,
+the states of western Germany and England. The Prussian
+memorials include an equestrian statue at Berlin (1863).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. v. L. Knesebeck, <i>Ferdinand, Herzog von Braunschweig und
+Lüneburg, während des Siebenjährigen Kriegs</i> (2 vols., Hanover,
+1857-1858); Von Westphalen, <i>Geschichte der Feldzüge des Herzogs
+Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Lüneburg</i> (5 vols., Berlin, 1859-1872);
+v. d. Osten, <i>Tagebuch des Herzogl. Gen. Adjutanten v. Reden</i> (Hamburg,
+1805); v. Schafer, <i>Vie militaire du maréchal Prince Ferdinand</i>
+(Magdeburg, 1796; Nuremberg, 1798); also the <i>&OElig;uvres</i> of Frederick
+the Great, <i>passim</i>, and authorities for the <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years&rsquo; War</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1577-1650), elector and archbishop of Cologne,
+son of William V., duke of Bavaria, was born on the 7th of
+October 1577. Intended for the church, he was educated by the
+Jesuits at the university of Ingolstadt, and in 1595 became
+coadjutor archbishop of Cologne. He became elector and archbishop
+in 1612 on the death of his uncle Ernest, whom he also
+succeeded as bishop of Liége, Munster and Hildesheim. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span>
+endeavoured resolutely to root out heresy in the lands under his
+rule, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in every possible
+way. He supported the league founded by his brother Maximilian
+I., duke of Bavaria, and wished to involve the leaguers
+in a general attack on the Protestants of north Germany. The
+cool political sagacity of the duke formed a sharp contrast to
+the impetuosity of the archbishop, and he refused to accede to
+his brother&rsquo;s wish; but, in spite of these temporary differences,
+Ferdinand sent troops and money to the assistance of the league
+when the Thirty Years&rsquo; War broke out in 1619. The elector&rsquo;s
+alliance with the Spaniards secured his territories to a great
+extent from the depredations of the war until the arrival of
+the Swedes in Germany in 1630, when the extension of the area
+of the struggle to the neighbourhood of Cologne induced him
+to enter into negotiations for peace. Nothing came of these
+attempts until 1647, when he joined his brother Maximilian in
+concluding an armistice with France and Sweden at Ulm. The
+elector&rsquo;s later years were marked by a conflict with the citizens
+of Liége; and when the peace of Westphalia freed him from his
+enemies, he was able to crush the citizens and deprive them of
+many privileges. Ferdinand, who had held the bishopric of
+Paderborn since 1618, died at Arnsberg on the 13th of September
+1650, and was buried in the cathedral at Cologne.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Ennen, <i>Frankreich und der Niederrhein oder Geschichte von
+Stadt und Kurstadt Köln seit dem 30 jährigen Kriege</i>, Band i. (Cologne,
+1855-1856).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERENTINO<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (anc. <i>Ferentinum</i>, to be distinguished from
+Ferentum or Ferentinum in Etruria), a town and episcopal see
+of Italy, in the province of Rome, from which it is 48 m.
+E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7957 (town), 12,279 (commune). It
+is picturesquely situated on a hill 1290 ft. above sea-level, and
+still possesses considerable remains of ancient fortifications.
+The lower portion of the outer walls, which probably did not
+stand free, is built of roughly hewn blocks of a limestone which
+naturally splits into horizontal layers; above this in places is
+walling of rectangular blocks of tufa. Two gates, the Porta
+Sanguinaria (with an arch with tufa voussoirs), and the Porta
+S. Maria, a double gate constructed entirely of rectangular blocks
+of tufa, are preserved. Outside this gate is the tomb of A.
+Quinctilius Priscus, a citizen of Ferentinum, with a long inscription
+cut in the rock. See Th. Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> x.
+(Berlin, 1883), No. 5853.</p>
+
+<p>The highest part of the town, the acropolis, is fortified also;
+it has massive retaining walls similar to those of the lower town.
+At the eastern corner, under the present episcopal palace, the
+construction is somewhat more careful. A projecting rectangular
+terrace has been erected, supported by walls of quadrilateral
+blocks of limestone arranged almost horizontally; while
+upon the level thus formed a building of rectangular blocks of
+local travertine was raised. The projecting cornice of this
+building bears two inscriptions of the period of Sulla, recording
+its construction by two censors (local officials); and in the interior,
+which contains several chambers, there is an inscription
+of the same censors over one of the doors, and another over a
+smaller external side door. The windows lighting these chambers
+come immediately above the cornice, and the wall continues
+above them again. The whole of this construction probably
+belongs to one period (Mommsen, <i>op. cit.</i> No. 5837 seq.). The
+cathedral occupies a part of the level top of the ancient acropolis;
+it was reconstructed on the site of an older church in 1099-1118;
+the interior was modernized in 1693, but was restored to its
+original form in 1902. It contains a fine canopy in the &ldquo;Cosmatesque&rdquo;
+style (see <i>Relazione dei lavori eseguiti dall&rsquo; ufficio tecnico
+per la conservazione dei monumenti di Rome a provincia</i>, Rome,
+1903, 175 seq.). The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore, in the
+lower town (13th-14th century), has a very fine exterior; the
+interior, the plan of which is a perfect rectangle, has been spoilt
+by restoration. There are several other Gothic churches in the
+town.</p>
+
+<p>Ferentinum was the chief town of the Hernici; it was captured
+from them by the Romans in 364 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and took no part in the
+rising of 306 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The inhabitants became Roman citizens after
+195 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the place later became a <i>municipium</i>. It lay just
+above the Via Latina and, being a strong place, served for the
+detention of hostages. Horace praises its quietness, and it does
+not appear much in later history.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further Ashby, <i>Röm. Mittell.</i> xxiv. (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERENTUM,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ferentinum</span>, an ancient town of Etruria,
+about 6 m. N. of Viterbo (the ancient name of which is unknown)
+and 3½ m. E. of the Via Cassia. It was the birthplace (32 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) of
+the emperor Otho, was destroyed in the 11th century, and is now
+entirely deserted, though it retains its ancient name. It occupied
+a ridge running from east to west, with deep ravines on three
+sides. There are some remains of the city walls, and of various
+Roman structures, but the most important ruin is that of the
+theatre. The stage front is still standing; it is pierced by seven
+openings with flat arches, and shows traces of reconstruction.
+The acropolis was on the hill called Talone on the north-east.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Dennis, <i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i> (London, 1883),
+i. 156; <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1900, 401; 1902, 84; 1905, 31.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERETORY<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>feretrum</i>, a bier, from <i>ferre</i>, to bear),
+in architecture, the enclosure or chapel within which the
+&ldquo;fereter&rdquo; shrine, or tomb (as in Henry VII.&rsquo;s chapel), was
+placed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGHANA,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fergana</span>, a province of Russian Turkestan,
+formed in 1876 out of the former khanate of Khokand. It is
+bounded by the provinces of Syr-darya on the N. and N.W.,
+Samarkand on the W., and Semiryechensk on the N.E., by
+Chinese Turkestan (Kashgaria) on the E., and by Bokhara and
+Afghanistan on the S. Its southern limits, on the Pamirs, were
+fixed by an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from Zor-kul
+(Victoria Lake) to the Chinese frontier; and Shignan, Roshan
+and Wakhan were assigned to Bokhara in exchange for part of
+Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj), which was given to
+Afghanistan. The area amounts to some 53,000 sq. m., of which
+17,600 sq. m. are on the Pamirs. The most important part of
+the province is a rich and fertile valley (1200-1500 ft.), opening
+towards the S.W. Thence the province stretches northwards
+across the mountains of the Tian-shan system and southwards
+across the Alai and Trans-Alai Mts., which reach their highest
+point in Peak Kaufmann (23,000 ft.), in the latter range. The
+valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the Naryn and the Karadarya,
+which unite within its confines, near Namangan, to form
+the Syr-darya or Jaxartes. These streams, and their numerous
+mountain affluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but
+also bring down vast quantities of sand, which is deposited
+alongside their courses, more especially alongside the Syr-darya
+where it cuts its way through the Khojent-Ajar ridge, forming
+there the Karakchikum. This expanse of moving sands, covering
+an area of 750 sq. m., under the influence of south-west winds,
+encroaches upon the agricultural districts. The climate of this
+valley is dry and warm. In March the temperature reaches
+68° F., and then rapidly rises to 95° in June, July and August.
+During the five months following April no rain falls, but it begins
+again in October. Snow and frost (down to &minus;4° F.) occur in
+December and January.</p>
+
+<p>Out of some 3,000,000 acres of cultivated land, about two-thirds
+are under constant irrigation and the remaining third
+under partial irrigation. The soil is admirably cultivated, the
+principal crops being wheat, rice, barley, maize, millet, lucerne,
+tobacco, vegetables and fruit. Gardening is conducted with a
+high degree of skill and success. Large numbers of horses,
+cattle and sheep are kept, and a good many camels are bred.
+Over 17,000 acres are planted with vines, and some 350,000
+acres are under cotton. Nearly 1,000,000 acres are covered with
+forests. The government maintains a forestry farm at Marghelan,
+from which 120,000 to 200,000 young trees are distributed free
+every year amongst the inhabitants of the province.</p>
+
+<p>Silkworm breeding, formerly a prosperous industry, has
+decayed, despite the encouragement of a state farm at New
+Marghelan. Coal, iron, sulphur, gypsum, rock-salt, lacustrine
+salt and naphtha are all known to exist, but only the last two
+are extracted. Some seventy or eighty factories are engaged
+in cotton cleaning; while leather, saddlery, paper and cutlery
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span>
+are the principal products of the domestic industries. A considerable
+trade is carried on with Russia; raw cotton, raw silk,
+tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit and cotton and leather goods are
+exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar are
+imported and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara.
+The total trade of Ferghana reaches an annual value of nearly
+£3,500,000. A new impulse was given to trade by the extension
+(1899) of the Transcaspian railway into Ferghana and by the
+opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent railway (1906). The routes
+to Kashgaria and the Pamirs are mere bridle-paths over the
+mountains, crossing them by lofty passes. For instance, the
+passes of Kara-kazyk (14,400 ft.) and Tenghiz-bai (11,200 ft.),
+both passable all the year round, lead from Marghelan to Kara-teghin
+and the Pamirs, while Kashgar is reached via Osh and
+Gulcha, and then over the passes of Terek-davan (12,205 ft.;
+open all the year round), Taldyk (11,500 ft.), Archat (11,600 ft.),
+and Shart-davan (14,000 ft.). Other passes leading out of the
+valley are the Jiptyk (12,460 ft.), S. of Khokand; the Isfairam
+(12,000 ft.), leading to the glen of the Surkhab, and the Kavuk
+(13,000 ft.), across the Alai Mts.</p>
+
+<p>The population numbered 1,571,243 in 1897, and of that number
+707,132 were women and 286,369 were urban. In 1906 it was
+estimated at 1,796,500. Two-thirds of the total are Sarts and
+Uzbegs (of Turkic origin). They live mostly in the valley;
+while the mountain slopes above it are occupied by Kirghiz,
+partly nomad and pastoral, partly agricultural and settled.
+The other races are Tajiks, Kashgarians, Kipchaks, Jews and
+Gypsies. The governing classes are of course Russians, who
+constitute also the merchant and artizan classes. But the
+merchants of West Turkestan are called all over central Asia
+Andijanis, from the town of Andijan in Ferghana. The great
+mass of the population are Mussulmans (1,039,115 in 1897).
+The province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of
+which are New Marghelan, capital of the province (8977 inhabitants
+in 1897), Andijan (49,682 in 1900), Khokand (86,704
+in 1900), Namangan (61,906 in 1897), and Osh (37,397 in
+1900); but Old Marghelan (42,855 in 1900) and Chust (13,686
+in 1897) are also towns of importance. For the history, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Khokand</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGUS FALLS,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Otter Tail
+county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red river, 170 m. N.W. of
+Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 3772; (1900) 6072, of whom 2131
+were foreign-born; (1905) 6692; (1910) 6887. A large part
+of the population is of Scandinavian birth or descent. Fergus
+Falls is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific
+railways. Situated in the celebrated &ldquo;park region&rdquo; of the state,
+the city possesses great natural beauty, which has been enhanced
+by a system of boulevards and well-kept private lawns. Lake
+Alice, in the residential district, adds to the city&rsquo;s attractions.
+The city has a public library, a county court house, St Luke&rsquo;s
+hospital, the G.B. Wright memorial hospital, and a city hall.
+It is the seat of a state hospital for the insane (1887) with about
+1600 patients, of a business college, of the Park Region Luther
+College (Norwegian Lutheran, 1892), and of the North-western
+College (Swedish Lutheran; opened in 1901). It has one of
+the finest water-powers in the state. Flour is the principal
+product; among others are woollen goods, foundry and machine-shop
+products, wooden ware, sash, doors and blinds, caskets,
+shirts, wagons and packed meats. The city owns and operates
+its water-works and its electric-lighting plant. Fergus Falls was
+settled about 1859 and was incorporated in 1863.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGUSON, ADAM<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1723-1816), Scottish philosopher and
+historian, was born on the 20th of June 1723, at Logierait,
+Perthshire. He was educated at Perth grammar school and the
+university of St Andrews. In 1745, owing to his knowledge of
+Gaelic, he was appointed deputy chaplain of the 43rd (afterwards
+the 42nd) regiment (the Black Watch), the licence to preach
+being granted him by special dispensation, although he had not
+completed the required six years of theological study. At the
+battle of Fontenoy (1745) Ferguson fought in the ranks throughout
+the day, and refused to leave the field, though ordered to
+do so by his colonel. He continued attached to the regiment till
+1754, when, disappointed at not obtaining a living, he abandoned
+the clerical profession and resolved to devote himself to literary
+pursuits. In January 1757 he succeeded David Hume as
+librarian to the faculty of advocates, but soon relinquished this
+office on becoming tutor in the family of Lord Bute.</p>
+
+<p>In 1759 Ferguson was appointed professor of natural philosophy
+in the university of Edinburgh, and in 1764 was transferred
+to the chair of &ldquo;pneumatics&rdquo; (mental philosophy) &ldquo;and
+moral philosophy.&rdquo; In 1767, against Hume&rsquo;s advice, he published
+his <i>Essay on the History of Civil Society</i>, which was well received
+and translated into several European languages. In 1776
+appeared his (anonymous) pamphlet on the American revolution
+in opposition to Dr Price&rsquo;s <i>Observations on the Nature of Civil
+Liberty</i>, in which he sympathized with the views of the British
+legislature. In 1778 Ferguson was appointed secretary to the
+commission which endeavoured, but without success, to
+negotiate an arrangement with the revolted colonies. In 1783
+appeared his <i>History of the Progress and Termination of the
+Roman Republic</i>; it was very popular, and went through several
+editions. Ferguson was led to undertake this work from a conviction
+that the history of the Romans during the period of their
+greatness was a practical illustration of those ethical and political
+doctrines which were the object of his special study. The history
+is written in an agreeable style and a spirit of impartiality, and
+gives evidence of a conscientious use of authorities. The influence
+of the author&rsquo;s military experience shows itself in certain
+portions of the narrative. Finding himself unequal to the labour
+of teaching, he resigned his professorship in 1785, and devoted
+himself to the revision of his lectures, which he published (1792)
+under the title of <i>Principles of Moral and Political Science</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When in his seventieth year, Ferguson, intending to prepare
+a new edition of the history, visited Italy and some of the principal
+cities of Europe, where he was received with honour by
+learned societies. From 1795 he resided successively at the old
+castle of Neidpath near Peebles, at Hallyards on Manor Water
+and at St Andrews, where he died on the 22nd of February 1816.</p>
+
+<p>In his ethical system Ferguson treats man throughout as a
+social being, and illustrates his doctrines by political examples.
+As a believer in the progression of the human race, he placed the
+principle of moral approbation in the attainment of perfection.
+His speculations were carefully criticized by Cousin (see his
+<i>Cours d&rsquo;histoire de la philosophie morale au dix-huitième siècle</i>,
+pt. ii., 1839-1840):&mdash;&ldquo;We find in his method the wisdom and
+circumspection of the Scottish school, with something more
+masculine and decisive in the results. The principle of <i>perfection</i>
+is a new one, at once more rational and comprehensive than
+benevolence and sympathy, which in our view places Ferguson
+as a moralist above all his predecessors.&rdquo; By this principle
+Ferguson endeavours to reconcile all moral systems. With
+Hobbes and Hume he admits the power of self-interest or utility,
+and makes it enter into morals as the law of self-preservation.
+Hutcheson&rsquo;s theory of universal benevolence and Smith&rsquo;s idea
+of sympathy he combines under the law of society. But, as these
+laws are the means rather than the end of human destiny, they
+are subordinate to a supreme end, and this supreme end is perfection.
+In the political part of his system Ferguson follows
+Montesquieu, and pleads the cause of well-regulated liberty and
+free government. His contemporaries, with the exception of
+Hume, regarded his writings as of great importance; in point of
+fact they are superficial. The facility of their style and the
+frequent occurrence of would-be weighty epigrams blinded his
+critics to the fact that, in spite of his recognition of the importance
+of observation, he made no real contribution to political
+theory (see Sir Leslie Stephen, <i>English Thought in the Eighteenth
+Century</i>, x. 89-90).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authority for Ferguson&rsquo;s life is the <i>Biographical Sketch</i>
+by John Small (1864); see also <i>Public Characters</i> (1799-1800);
+<i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, i. (1816 supp.); W.R. Chambers&rsquo;s <i>Biographical
+Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen</i>; memoir by Principal Lee in early
+editions of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>; J. McCosh, <i>The Scottish
+Philosophy</i> (1875); articles in <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> and
+<i>Edinburgh Review</i> (January 1867); Lord Henry Cockburn, <i>Memorials
+of his Time</i> (1856).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGUSON, JAMES<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1710-1776), Scottish mechanician and
+astronomer, was born near Rothiemay in Banffshire on the 25th
+of April 1710, of parents in very humble circumstances. He
+first learned to read by overhearing his father teach his elder
+brother, and with the help of an old woman was &ldquo;able,&rdquo; he says
+in his autobiography, &ldquo;to read tolerably well before his father
+thought of teaching him.&rdquo; After receiving further instruction
+in reading from his father, who also taught him to write, he was
+sent at the age of seven for three months to the grammar school
+at Keith. His taste for mechanics was about this time accidentally
+awakened on seeing his father making use of a lever to
+raise a part of the roof of his house&mdash;an exhibition of seeming
+strength which at first &ldquo;excited his terror as well as wonder.&rdquo;
+In 1720 he was sent to a neighbouring farm to keep sheep, where
+in the daytime he amused himself by making models of mills
+and other machines, and at night in studying the stars. Afterwards,
+as a servant with a miller, and then with a doctor, he met
+with hardships which rendered his constitution feeble through
+life. Being compelled by his weak health to return home, he
+there amused himself with making a clock having wooden wheels
+and a whalebone spring. When slightly recovered he showed
+this and some other inventions to a neighbouring gentleman,
+who engaged him to clean his clocks, and also desired him to
+make his house his home. He there began to draw patterns for
+needlework, and his success in this art led him to think of
+becoming a painter. In 1734 he went to Edinburgh, where he
+began to take portraits in miniature, by which means, while
+engaged in his scientific studies, he supported himself and his
+family for many years. Subsequently he settled at Inverness,
+where he drew up his <i>Astronomical Rotula</i> for showing the
+motions of the planets, places of the sun and moon, &amp;c., and in
+1743 went to London, which was his home for the rest of his life.
+He wrote various papers for the Royal Society, of which he
+became a fellow in 1763, devised astronomical and mechanical
+models, and in 1748 began to give public lectures on experimental
+philosophy. These he repeated in most of the principal towns
+in England. His deep interest in his subject, his clear explanations,
+his ingeniously constructed diagrams, and his mechanical
+apparatus rendered him one of the most successful of popular
+lecturers on scientific subjects. It is, however, as the inventor
+and improver of astronomical and other scientific apparatus,
+and as a striking instance of self-education, that he claims a
+place among the most remarkable men of science of his country.
+During the latter years of his life he was in receipt of a pension
+of £50 from the privy purse. He died in London on the 17th of
+November 1776.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ferguson&rsquo;s principal publications are <i>Astronomical Tables</i> (1763);
+<i>Lectures on Select Subjects</i> (1st ed., 1761, edited by Sir David Brewster
+in 1805); <i>Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Newton&rsquo;s Principles</i>
+(1756, edited by Sir David Brewster in 1811); and <i>Select Mechanical
+Exercises, with a Short Account of the Life of the Author, written
+by himself</i> (1773). This autobiography is included in a <i>Life</i> by E.
+Henderson, LL.D. (1st ed., 1867; 2nd, 1870), which also contains a full
+description of Ferguson&rsquo;s principal inventions, accompanied with
+illustrations. See also <i>The Story of the Peasant-Boy Philosopher</i>, by
+Henry Mayhew (1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGUSON, ROBERT<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1637-1714), British conspirator
+and pamphleteer, called the &ldquo;Plotter,&rdquo; was a son of William
+Ferguson (d. 1699) of Badifurrow, Aberdeenshire, and after
+receiving a good education, probably at the university of Aberdeen,
+became a Presbyterian minister. According to Bishop
+Burnet he was cast out by the Presbyterians; but whether this
+be so or not, he soon made his way to England and became vicar
+of Godmersham, Kent, from which living he was expelled by
+the Act of Uniformity in 1662. Some years later, having gained
+meanwhile a reputation as a theological controversialist and
+become a person of importance among the Nonconformists, he
+attracted the notice of the earl of Shaftesbury and the party
+which favoured the exclusion of the duke of York (afterwards
+King James II.) from the throne, and he began to write political
+pamphlets just at the time when the feeling against the Roman
+Catholics was at its height. In 1680 he wrote &ldquo;A Letter to a
+Person of Honour concerning the &lsquo;Black Box,&rsquo;&rdquo; in which he
+supported the claim of the duke of Monmouth to the crown
+against that of the duke of York; returning to the subject after
+Charles II. had solemnly denied the existence of a marriage
+between himself and Lucy Waters. He took an active part in
+the controversy over the Exclusion Bill, and claimed to be the
+author of the whole of the pamphlet &ldquo;No Protestant Plot&rdquo;
+(1681), parts of which are usually ascribed to Shaftesbury.
+Ferguson was deeply implicated in the Rye House Plot, although
+he asserted that he had frustrated both this and a subsequent
+attempt to assassinate the king, and he fled to Holland with
+Shaftesbury in 1682, returning to England early in 1683. For
+his share in another plot against Charles II. he was declared an
+outlaw, after which he entered into communication with Argyll,
+Monmouth and other malcontents. Ferguson then took a leading
+part in organizing the rising of 1685. Having overcome Monmouth&rsquo;s
+reluctance to take part in this movement, he accompanied
+the duke to the west of England and drew up the manifesto
+against James II., escaping to Holland after the battle of Sedgemoor.
+He landed in England with William of Orange in 1688,
+and aided William&rsquo;s cause with his pen; but William and his
+advisers did not regard him as a person of importance, although
+his services were rewarded with a sinecure appointment in the
+Excise. Chagrined at this treatment, Ferguson was soon in
+correspondence with the exiled Jacobites. He shared in all the
+plots against the life of William, and after his removal from
+the Excise in 1692 wrote violent pamphlets against the government.
+Although he was several times arrested on suspicion, he
+was never brought to trial. He died in great poverty in 1714,
+leaving behind him a great and deserved reputation for treachery.
+It has been thought by Macaulay and others that Ferguson led
+the English government to believe that he was a spy in their
+interests, and that his frequent escapes from justice were due
+to official connivance. In a proclamation issued for his arrest
+in 1683 he is described as &ldquo;a tall lean man, dark brown hair,
+a great Roman nose, thin-jawed, heat in his face, speaks in the
+Scotch tone, a sharp piercing eye, stoops a little in the shoulders.&rdquo;
+Besides numerous pamphlets Ferguson wrote: <i>History of the
+Revolution</i> (1706); <i>Qualifications requisite in a Minister of State</i>
+(1710); and part of the <i>History of all the Mobs, Tumults and
+Insurrections in Great Britain</i> (London, 1715).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See James Ferguson, <i>Robert Ferguson, the Plotter</i> (Edinburgh, 1887),
+which gives a favourable account of Ferguson.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1810-1886), Irish poet and antiquary,
+was born at Belfast, on the 10th of March 1810. He
+was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was called to the Irish
+bar in 1838, and was made Q.C. in 1859, but in 1867 retired
+from practice upon his appointment as deputy-keeper of the
+Irish records, then in a much neglected condition. He was
+an excellent civil servant, and was knighted in 1878 for his
+services to the department. His spare time was given to general
+literature, and in particular to poetry. He had long been a
+leading contributor to the <i>Dublin University Magazine</i> and to
+<i>Blackwood</i>, where he had published his two literary masterpieces,
+&ldquo;The Forging of the Anchor,&rdquo; one of the finest of modern
+ballads, and the humorous prose extravaganza of &ldquo;Father Tom
+and the Pope.&rdquo; He published <i>Lays of the Western Gael</i> in 1865,
+<i>Poems</i> in 1880, and in 1872 <i>Congal</i>, a metrical narrative of the
+heroic age of Ireland, and, though far from ideal perfection,
+perhaps the most successful attempt yet made by a modern Irish
+poet to revivify the spirit of the past in a poem of epic proportions.
+Lyrics have succeeded better in other hands; many of
+Ferguson&rsquo;s pieces on modern themes, notably his &ldquo;Lament for
+Thomas Davis&rdquo; (1845), are, nevertheless, excellent. He was an
+extensive contributor on antiquarian subjects to the <i>Transactions
+of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, and was elected its president in
+1882. His manners were delightful, and his hospitality was
+boundless. He died at Howth on the 9th of August 1886. His
+most important antiquarian work, <i>Ogham Inscriptions in Ireland,
+Wales, Scotland</i>, was published in the year after his death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Sir Samuel Ferguson in the Ireland of his Day</i> (1896), by his
+wife, Mary C. Ferguson; also an article by A.P. Graves in <i>A Treasury
+of Irish Poetry in the English Tongue</i> (1900), edited by Stopford
+Brooke and T.W. Rolleston.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGUSSON, JAMES<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1808-1886), Scottish writer on architecture,
+was born at Ayr on the 22nd of January 1808. His
+father was an army surgeon. After being educated first at the
+Edinburgh high school, and afterwards at a private school at
+Hounslow, James went to Calcutta as partner in a mercantile
+house. Here he was attracted by the remains of the ancient
+architecture of India, little known or understood at that time.
+The successful conduct of an indigo factory, as he states in his
+own account, enabled him in about ten years to retire from
+business and settle in London. The observations made on
+Indian architecture were first embodied in his book on <i>The
+Rock-cut Temples of India</i>, published in 1845. The task of analysing
+the historic and aesthetic relations of this type of ancient
+buildings led him further to undertake a historical and critical
+comparative survey of the whole subject of architecture in <i>The
+Handbook of Architecture</i>, a work which first appeared in 1855.
+This did not satisfy him, and the work was reissued ten years
+later in a much more extended form under the title of <i>The History
+of Architecture</i>. The chapters on Indian architecture, which had
+been considered at rather disproportionate length in the <i>Handbook</i>,
+were removed from the general <i>History</i>, and the whole of
+this subject treated more fully in a separate volume, <i>The History
+of Indian and Eastern Architecture</i>, which appeared in 1876, and,
+although complete in itself, formed a kind of appendix to <i>The
+History of Architecture</i>. Previously to this, in 1862, he issued
+his <i>History of Modern Architecture</i>, in which the subject was
+continued from the Renaissance to the present day, the period
+of &ldquo;modern architecture&rdquo; being distinguished as that of revivals
+and imitations of ancient styles, which began with the
+Renaissance. The essential difference between this and the
+spontaneously evolved architecture of preceding ages Fergusson
+was the first clearly to point out and characterize. His treatise
+on <i>The True Principles of Beauty in Art</i>, an early publication,
+is a most thoughtful metaphysical study. Some of his essays
+on special points in archaeology, such as the treatise on <i>The
+Mode in which Light was introduced into Greek Temples</i>, included
+theories which have not received general acceptance. His real
+monument is his <i>History of Architecture</i> (later edition revised by
+R. Phenè Spiers), which, for grasp of the whole subject, comprehensiveness
+of plan, and thoughtful critical analysis, stands
+quite alone in architectural literature. He received the gold
+medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1871.
+Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are: <i>A
+Proposed New System of Fortification</i> (1849), <i>Palaces of Nineveh
+and Persepolis restored</i> (1851), <i>Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
+restored</i> (1862), <i>Tree and Serpent Worship</i> (1868), <i>Rude Stone
+Monuments in all Countries</i> (1872), and <i>The Temples of the Jews
+and the other Buildings in the Haram Area at Jerusalem</i> (1878).
+The sessional papers of the Institute of British Architects include
+papers by him on <i>The History of the Pointed Arch</i>,
+<i>Architecture of Southern India</i>, <i>Architectural Splendour of the
+City of Beejapore</i>, <i>On the Erechtheum</i> and on the <i>Temple of
+Diana at Ephesus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Although Fergusson never practised architecture he took a
+keen interest in all the professional work of his time. He was
+adviser with Austen Layard in the scheme of decoration for the
+Assyrian court at the Crystal Palace, and indeed assumed in
+1856 the duties of general manager to the Palace Company, a
+post which he held for two years. In 1847 Fergusson had published
+an &ldquo;Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem,&rdquo; in
+which he had contended that the &ldquo;Mosque of Omar&rdquo; was the
+identical church built by Constantine the Great over the tomb
+of our Lord at Jerusalem, and that it, and not the present church
+of the Holy Sepulchre, was the genuine burial-place of Jesus.
+The burden of this contention was further explained by the
+publication in 1860 of his <i>Notes on the Site of the Holy Sepulchre
+at Jerusalem</i>; and <i>The Temples of the Jews and the other Buildings
+in the Haram Area at Jerusalem</i>, published in 1878, was a still
+completer elaboration of these theories, which are said to have
+been the origin of the establishment of the Palestine Exploration
+fund. His manifold activities continued till his death, which
+took place in London on the 9th of January 1886.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGUSSON, ROBERT<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1750-1774), Scottish poet, son of Sir
+William Fergusson, a clerk in the British Linen Company, was
+born at Edinburgh on the 5th of September 1750. Robert was
+educated at the grammar school of Dundee, and at the university
+of St Andrews, where he matriculated in 1765. His father died
+while he was still at college; but a bursary enabled him to complete
+his four years of study. He refused to study for the church,
+and was too nervous to study medicine as his friends wished.
+He quarrelled with his uncle, John Forbes of Round Lichnot,
+Aberdeenshire, and went to Edinburgh, where he obtained
+employment as copying clerk in a lawyer&rsquo;s office. In this humble
+occupation he passed the remainder of his life. While at college
+he had written a clever elegy on Dr David Gregory, and in 1771
+he began to contribute verses regularly to Ruddiman&rsquo;s <i>Weekly
+Magazine</i>. He was a member of the Cape Club, celebrated by him
+in his poem of &ldquo;Auld Reekie.&rdquo; &ldquo;The Knights of the Cape&rdquo;
+assembled at a tavern in Craig&rsquo;s Close, in the vicinity of the
+Cross; each member had a name and character assigned to him,
+which he was required to maintain at all gatherings of the order.
+David Herd (1732-1810), the collector of the classic edition of
+<i>Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs</i> (1776), was sovereign of the
+Cape (in which he was known as &ldquo;Sir Scrape&rdquo;) when Fergusson
+was dubbed a knight of the order, with the title of &ldquo;Sir Precentor,&rdquo;
+in allusion to his fine voice. Alexander Runciman, the
+historical painter, his pupil Jacob More, and Sir Henry Raeburn
+were all members. The old minute books of the club abound
+with pencilled sketches by them, one of the most interesting of
+which, ascribed to Runciman&rsquo;s pencil, is a sketch of Fergusson
+in his character of &ldquo;Sir Precentor.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fergusson&rsquo;s gaiety and wit made him an entertaining companion,
+and he indulged too freely in the convivial habits of the
+time. After a meeting with John Brown of Haddington he
+became, however, very serious, and would read nothing but his
+Bible. A fall by which his head was severely injured aggravated
+symptoms of mental aberration which had begun to show
+themselves; and after about two months&rsquo; confinement in the
+old Darien House&mdash;then the only public asylum in Edinburgh&mdash;the
+poet died on the 16th of October 1774.</p>
+
+<p><span class="correction" title="amended from Fergussons'">Fergusson&rsquo;s</span> poems were collected in the year before his death.
+The influence of his writings on Robert Burns is undoubted.
+His &ldquo;Leith Races&rdquo; unquestionably supplied the model for the
+&ldquo;Holy Fair.&rdquo; Not only is the stanza the same, but the Mirth
+who plays the part of conductor to Fergusson, and the Fun who
+renders a like service to Burns, are manifestly conceived on the
+same model. &ldquo;The Mutual Complaint of Plainstanes and
+Causey&rdquo; probably suggested &ldquo;The Brigs of Ayr&rdquo;; &ldquo;On seeing
+a Butterfly in the Street&rdquo; has reflections in it which strikingly
+correspond with &ldquo;To a Mouse&rdquo;; nor will a comparison of &ldquo;The
+Farmer&rsquo;s Ingle&rdquo; of the elder poet with &ldquo;The Cottar&rsquo;s Saturday
+Night&rdquo; admit of a doubt as to the influence of the city-bred
+poet&rsquo;s muse on that exquisite picturing of homely peasant life.
+Burns was himself the first to render a generous tribute to the
+merits of Fergusson; on his visit to Edinburgh in 1787 he sought
+out the poet&rsquo;s grave, and petitioned the authorities of the
+Canongate burying-ground for permission to erect the memorial
+stone which is preserved in the existing monument. The date
+there assigned for his birth differs from the one given above,
+which rests on the authority of his younger sister Margaret.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first edition of Fergusson&rsquo;s poems was published by Ruddiman
+at Edinburgh in 1773, and a supplement containing additional poems,
+in 1779. A second edition appeared in 1785. There are later editions,
+by Robert Chambers (1850) and Dr A.B. Grosart (1851). A life of
+Fergusson is included in Dr David Irving&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Scottish Poets</i>,
+and in Robert Chambers&rsquo;s Lives of <i>Illustrious and Distinguished
+Scotsmen</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> Bart. (1808-1877), British
+surgeon, the son of James Fergusson of Lochmaben, Dumfriesshire,
+was born at Prestonpans, East Lothian, on the 20th of
+March 1808. After receiving his early education at Lochmaben
+and the high school of Edinburgh, he entered the university
+of Edinburgh with the view of studying law, but soon afterwards
+abandoned his intention and became a pupil of the
+anatomist Robert Knox (1791-1862) whose demonstrator he was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span>
+appointed at the age of twenty. In 1836 he succeeded Robert
+Liston as surgeon to the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and coming
+to London in 1840 as professor of surgery in King&rsquo;s College,
+and surgeon to King&rsquo;s College Hospital, he acquired a commanding
+position among the surgeons of the metropolis. He revived
+the operation for cleft-palate, which for many years had fallen
+into disrepute, and invented a special mouth-gag for the same.
+He also devised many other surgical instruments, chief among
+which, and still in use to-day, are his bone forceps, lion forceps
+and vaginal speculum. In 1866 he was created a baronet.
+He died in London on the 10th of February 1877. As a surgeon
+Fergusson&rsquo;s greatest merit is that of having introduced the
+practice of &ldquo;conservative surgery,&rdquo; by which he meant the
+excision of a joint rather than the amputation of a limb. He
+made his diagnosis with almost intuitive certainty; as an
+operator he was characterized by self-possession in the most
+critical circumstances, by minute attention to details and by
+great refinement of touch, and he relied more on his mechanical
+dexterity than on complicated instruments. He was the author
+of <i>The Progress of Anatomy and Surgery in the Nineteenth Century</i>
+(1867), and of a <i>System of Practical Surgery</i> (1842), which went
+through several editions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERINGHI,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Feringhee</span>, a Frank (Persian, <i>Farangi</i>). This
+term for a European is very old in Asia, and was originally used
+in a purely geographical sense, but now generally carries a hostile
+or contemptuous significance. The combatants on either side
+during the Indian Mutiny called each other Feringhies and
+Pandies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1570-<i>c</i>. 1611), Persian
+historian, was born at Astrabad, on the shores of the Caspian
+Sea. While he was still a child his father was summoned away
+from his native country into Hindostan, where he held high office
+in the Deccan; and by his influence the young Ferishta received
+court promotion. In 1589 Ferishta removed to Bijapur, where
+he spent the remainder of his life under the immediate protection
+of the shah Ibrahim Adil II., who engaged him to write a history
+of India. At the court of this monarch he died about 1611. In
+the introduction to his work a <i>résumé</i> is given of the history of
+Hindostan prior to the times of the Mahommedan conquest, and
+also of the victorious progress of the Arabs through the East.
+The first ten books are each occupied with a history of the kings
+of one of the provinces; the eleventh book gives an account of
+the Mussulmans of Malabar; the twelfth a history of the Mussulman
+saints of India; and the conclusion treats of the geography
+and climate of India. Ferishta is reputed one of the most trustworthy
+of the Oriental historians, and his work still maintains
+a high place as an authority. Several portions of it have been
+translated into English; but the best as well as the most complete
+translation is that published by General J. Briggs under
+the title of <i>The History of the Rise of the Mahometan Power in
+India</i> (London, 1829, 4 vols. 8vo). Several additions were
+made by Briggs to the original work of Ferishta, but he omitted
+the whole of the twelfth book, and various other passages which
+had been omitted in the copy from which he translated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERMANAGH,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster,
+bounded N.W. by Donegal, N.E. by Tyrone, E. by Monaghan
+and S.W. by Cavan and Leitrim. The area is 457,369 acres or
+about 715 sq. m. The county is situated mostly in the basin
+of the Erne, which divides the county into two nearly equal
+sections. Its surface is hilly, and its appearance (in many parts)
+somewhat sterile, though in the main, and especially in the
+neighbourhood of Lough Erne, it is picturesque and attractive.
+The climate, though moist, is healthy, and the people are generally
+tall and robust. The chief mountains are Cuilcagh (2188 ft.),
+partly in Leitrim and Cavan, Belmore (1312), Glenkeel (1223),
+North Shean (1135), Tappahan (1110), Carnmore (1034).
+Tossett or Toppid and Turaw mountains command extensive
+prospects, and form striking features in the scenery of the county.
+But the most distinguishing features of Fermanagh are the
+Upper and Lower Loughs Erne, which occupy a great extent of
+its surface, stretching for about 45 m. from S.E. to N.W. These
+lakes are expansions of the river Erne, which enters the county
+from Cavan at Wattle Bridge. It passes Belturbet, the Loughs
+Erne, Enniskillen and Belleek, on its way to the Atlantic, into
+which it descends at Ballyshannon. At Belleek it forms a considerable
+waterfall and is here well known to sportsmen for its
+good salmon fishing. Trout are taken in most of the loughs,
+and pike of great size in the Loughs Erne. There are several
+mineral springs in the county, some of them chalybeate, others
+sulphurous. At Belcoo, near Enniskillen, there is a famous well
+called Daragh Phadric, held in repute by the peasantry for its
+cure of paralytic and other diseases; and 4 m. N.W. of the same
+town, at a place called &ldquo;the Daughton,&rdquo; are natural caves of
+considerable size.</p>
+
+<p>This county includes in the north an area of the gneiss that is
+discussed under county Donegal, and, west of Omagh, a metamorphic
+region that stretches in from the central axis of Tyrone.
+A fault divides the latter from the mass of red-brown Old Red
+Sandstone that spreads south nearly to Enniskillen. Lower
+Carboniferous sandstone and limestone occur on the north of
+Lower Lough Erne. The limestone forms fine scarps on the
+southern side of the lake, capped by beds regarded as the
+Yoredale series. The scenery about the two Loughs Macnean
+is carved out in similarly scarped hills, rising to 2188 ft. in Cuilcagh
+on the south. The &ldquo;Marble Arch&rdquo; cave near Florence-court,
+with its emerging river, is a characteristic example of
+the subterranean waterways in the limestone. Upper Lough
+Erne is a typical meandering lake of the limestone lowland, with
+outliers of higher Carboniferous strata forming highlands north-east
+and south-west of it.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the pottery works at Belleek, where
+iridescent ware of good quality is produced, Fermanagh has no
+distinguishing manufactures. It is chiefly an agricultural
+county. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as 1 to
+2½. Cattle and poultry are the principal classes of live stock.
+Oats and potatoes are the crops most extensively cultivated.
+The north-western division of the Great Northern railway passes
+through the most populous portion of the county, one branch
+connecting Enniskillen with Clones, another connecting Enniskillen
+with Londonderry via Omagh, and a third connecting
+Bundoran Junction with Bundoran, in county Donegal. The
+Sligo, Leitrim &amp; Northern Counties railway connects with the
+Great Northern at Enniskillen, and the Clogher Valley light
+railway connects southern county Tyrone with the Great
+Northern at Maguiresbridge.</p>
+
+<p>The population (74,170 in 1891; 65,430 in 1901; almost
+wholly rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the
+county populations of Ireland. It includes 55% of Roman
+Catholics and about 35% of Protestant Episcopalians. Enniskillen
+(the county town, pop. 5412) is the only town of importance,
+the rest being little more than villages. The principal are
+Lisnaskea, Irvinestown (formerly Lowtherstown), Maguiresbridge,
+Tempo, Newtownbutler, Belleek, Derrygonnelly and Kesh, at
+which fairs are held. Garrison, a fishing station on the wild
+Lough Melvin, and Pettigo, near to the lower Lough Erne, are
+market villages. Fermanagh returns two members to parliament,
+one each for the north and south divisions. It comprises
+eight baronies and nineteen civil parishes. The assizes are held
+at Enniskillen, quarter sessions at Enniskillen and Newtownbutler.
+The headquarters of the constabulary are at Enniskillen.
+Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant and Roman
+Catholic dioceses of Clogher and Kilmore.</p>
+
+<p>By the ancient Irish the district was called <i>Feor-magh-Eanagh</i>,
+or the &ldquo;country of the lakes&rdquo; (lit. &ldquo;the mountain-valley marsh
+district&rdquo;); and also Magh-uire, or &ldquo;the country of the waters.&rdquo;
+A large portion was occupied by the <i>Guarii</i>, the ancestors of the
+MacGuires or Maguires, a name still common in the district.
+This family was so influential that for centuries the county was
+called after it Maguire&rsquo;s Country, and one of the towns still
+existing bears its name, Maguiresbridge. Fermanagh was
+formed into a county on the shiring of Ulster in 1585 by Sir
+John Perrot, and was included in the well-known scheme of
+colonization of James I., the Plantation of Ulster. In 1689
+battles were fought between William III.&rsquo;s army and the Irish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span>
+under Macarthy (for James II.), Lisnaskea (26th July) and
+Newtownbutler (30th July). The chief place of interest to the
+antiquary is Devenish Island in Lough Erne, about 2½ m. N.W.
+from Enniskillen (<i>q.v.</i>), with its ruined abbey, round tower and
+cross. In various places throughout the county may be seen the
+ruins of several ancient castles, Danish raths or encampments,
+and tumuli, in the last of which urns and stone coffins have
+sometimes been found. The round tower on Devenish Island
+is one of the finest examples in the country.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERMAT, PIERRE DE<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1601-1665), French mathematician,
+was born on the 17th of August 1601, at Beaumont-de-Lomagne
+near Montauban. While still young, he, along with Blaise
+Pascal, made some discoveries in regard to the properties of
+numbers, on which he afterwards built his method of calculating
+probabilities. He discovered a simpler method of quadrating
+parabolas than that of Archimedes, and a method of finding the
+greatest and the smallest ordinates of curved lines analogous
+to that of the then unknown differential calculus. His great
+work <i>De maximis et minimis</i> brought him into conflict with René
+Descartes, but the dispute was chiefly due to a want of explicitness
+in the statement of Fermat (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infinitesimal Calculus</a></span>).
+His brilliant researches in the theory of numbers entitle
+him to rank as the founder of the modern theory. They originally
+took the form of marginal notes in a copy of Bachet&rsquo;s
+<i>Diophantus</i>, and were published in 1670 by his son Samuel, who
+incorporated them in a new edition of this Greek writer. Other
+theorems were published in his <i>Opera Varia</i>, and in John Wallis&rsquo;s
+<i>Commercium epistolicum</i> (1658). He died in the belief that he had
+found a relation which every prime number must satisfy, namely
+2<span class="sp">2n</span> + 1 = a prime. This was afterwards disproved by Leonhard
+Euler for the case when n = 5. <i>Fermat&rsquo;s Theorem</i>, if p is prime
+and a is prime to p then a<span class="sp">p&minus;1</span> &minus; 1 is divisible by p, was first given
+in a letter of 1640. <i>Fermat&rsquo;s Problem</i> is that x<span class="sp">n</span> + y<span class="sp">n</span> = z<span class="sp">n</span> is impossible
+for integral values of x, y and z when n is greater than 2.</p>
+
+<p>Fermat was for some time councillor for the parliament of
+Toulouse, and in the discharge of the duties of that office he was
+distinguished both for legal knowledge and for strict integrity
+of conduct. Though the sciences were the principal objects of
+his private studies, he was also an accomplished general scholar
+and an excellent linguist. He died at Toulouse on the 12th of
+January 1665. He left a son, Samuel de Fermat (1630-1690)
+who published translations of several Greek authors and wrote
+certain books on law in addition to editing his father&rsquo;s works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Opera mathematica</i> of Fermat were published at Toulouse, in
+2 vols. folio, 1670 and 1679. The first contains the &ldquo;Arithmetic
+of Diophantus,&rdquo; with notes and additions. The second includes a
+&ldquo;Method for the Quadrature of Parabolas,&rdquo; and a treatise &ldquo;on
+Maxima and Minima, on Tangents, and on Centres of Gravity,&rdquo;
+containing the same solutions of a variety of problems as were afterwards
+incorporated into the more extensive method of fluxions by
+Newton and Leibnitz. In the same volume are treatises on &ldquo;Geometric
+Loci, or Spherical Tangencies,&rdquo; and on the &ldquo;Rectification of
+Curves,&rdquo; besides a restoration of &ldquo;Apollonius&rsquo;s Plane Loci,&rdquo; together
+with the author&rsquo;s correspondence addressed to Descartes, Pascal,
+Roberval, Huygens and others. The <i>&OElig;uvres</i> of Fermat have been
+re-edited by P. Tannery and C. Henry (Paris, 1891-1894).</p>
+
+<p>See Paul Tannery, &ldquo;Sur la date des principales découvertes de
+Fermat,&rdquo; in the <i>Bulletin Darboux</i> (1883); and &ldquo;Les Manuscrits de
+Fermat,&rdquo; in the <i>Annales de la faculté des lettres de Bordeaux</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERMENTATION.<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> The process of fermentation in the preparation
+of wine, vinegar, beer and bread was known and
+practised in prehistoric times. The alchemists used the terms
+fermentation, digestion and putrefaction indiscriminately; any
+reaction in which chemical energy was displayed in some form
+or other&mdash;such, for instance, as the effervescence occasioned by
+the addition of an acid to an alkaline solution&mdash;was described
+as a fermentation (Lat. <i>fervere</i>, to boil); and the idea of the
+&ldquo;Philosopher&rsquo;s Stone&rdquo; setting up a fermentation in the common
+metals and developing the essence or germ, which should transmute
+them into silver or gold, further complicated the conception
+of fermentation. As an outcome of this alchemical doctrine
+the process of fermentation was supposed to have a purifying and
+elevating effect on the bodies which had been submitted to its
+influence. Basil Valentine wrote that when yeast was added to
+wort &ldquo;an internal inflammation is communicated to the liquid,
+so that it raises in itself, and thus the segregation and separation
+of the feculent from the clear takes place.&rdquo; Johann Becher,
+in 1669, first found that alcohol was formed during the fermentation
+of solutions of sugar; he distinguished also between
+fermentation and putrefaction. In 1697 Georg Stahl admitted
+that fermentation and putrefaction were analogous processes,
+but that the former was a particular case of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of definite knowledge on the phenomenon of
+fermentation may be dated from the time of Antony Leeuwenhoek,
+who in 1680 designed a microscope sufficiently powerful
+to render yeast cells and bacteria visible; and a description of
+these organisms, accompanied by diagrams, was sent to the
+Royal Society of London. This investigator just missed a great
+discovery, for he did not consider the spherical forms to be living
+organisms but compared them with starch granules. It was not
+until 1803 that L.J. Thénard stated that yeast was the cause of
+fermentation, and held it to be of an animal nature, since it contained
+nitrogen and yielded ammonia on distillation, nor was
+it conclusively proved that the yeast cell was the originator of
+fermentation until the researches of C. Cagniard de la Tour,
+T. Schwann and F. Kützing from 1836 to 1839 settled the point.
+These investigators regarded yeast as a plant, and Meyer gave
+to the germs the systematic name of &ldquo;Saccharomyces&rdquo; (sugar
+fungus). In 1839-1840 J. von Liebig attacked the doctrine that
+fermentation was caused by micro-organisms, and enunciated
+his theory of mechanical decomposition. He held that every
+fermentation consisted of molecular motion which is transmitted
+from a substance in a state of chemical motion&mdash;that is, of decomposition&mdash;to
+other substances, the elements of which are
+loosely held together. It is clear from Liebig&rsquo;s publications
+that he first regarded yeast as a lifeless, albuminoid mass; but,
+although later he considered they were living cells, he would
+never admit that fermentation was a physiological process, the
+chemical aspect being paramount in the mind of this distinguished
+investigator.</p>
+
+<p>In 1857 Pasteur decisively proved that fermentation was a physiological
+process, for he showed that the yeast which produced
+fermentation was no dead mass, as assumed by Liebig, but
+consisted of living organisms capable of growth and multiplication.
+His own words are: &ldquo;The chemical action of fermentation
+is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a vital act,
+beginning and ending with it. I think that there is never any
+alcoholic fermentation without there being at the same time
+organization, development and multiplication of globules, or
+the continued consecutive life of globules already formed.&rdquo;
+Fermentation, according to Pasteur, was caused by the growth
+and multiplication of unicellular organisms out of contact with
+free oxygen, under which circumstance they acquire the power
+of taking oxygen from chemical compounds in the medium in
+which they are growing. In other words &ldquo;fermentation is life
+without air, or life without oxygen.&rdquo; This theory of fermentation
+was materially modified in 1892 and 1894 by A.J. Brown,
+who described experiments which were in disagreement with
+Pasteur&rsquo;s dictum. A.J. Brown writes: &ldquo;If for the theory
+&rsquo;life without air&rsquo; is substituted the consideration that yeast cells
+can use oxygen in the manner of ordinary aërobic fungi, and
+probably do require it for the full completion of their life-history,
+but that the exhibition of their fermentative functions
+is independent of their environment with regard to free
+oxygen, it will be found that there is nothing contradictory
+in Pasteur&rsquo;s experiments to such a hypothesis.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Liebig and Pasteur were in agreement on the point that fermentation
+is intimately connected with the presence of yeast
+in the fermenting liquid, but their explanations concerning the
+mechanism of fermentation were quite opposed. According to
+M. Traube (1858), the active cause of fermentation is due to the
+action of different enzymes contained in yeast and not to the
+yeast cell itself. As will be seen later this theory was confirmed
+by subsequent researches of E. Fischer and E. Buchner.</p>
+
+<p>In 1879 C. Nägeli formulated his well-known molecular-physical
+theory, which supported Liebig&rsquo;s chemical theory on
+the one hand and Pasteur&rsquo;s physiological hypothesis on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span>
+other: &ldquo;Fermentation is the transference of the condition of
+motion of the molecules, atomic groups and atoms of the various
+compounds constituting the living plasma, to the fermenting
+material, in consequence of which equilibrium in the molecules
+of the latter is destroyed, the result being their disintegration.&rdquo;
+He agreed with Pasteur that the presence of living cells is essential
+to the transformation of sugar into alcohol, but dissented
+from the view that the process occurs within the cell. This
+investigator held that the decomposition of the sugar molecules
+takes place outside the cell wall. In 1894 and 1895, Fischer, in a
+remarkable series of papers on the influence of molecular structure
+upon the action of the enzyme, showed that various species of
+yeast behave very differently towards solutions of sugars. For
+example, some species hydrolyse <span class="correction" title="amended from came">cane</span> sugar and maltose, and
+then carry on fermentation at the expense of the simple sugars
+(hexoses) so formed. <i>Saccharomyces Marxianus</i> will not hydrolyse
+maltose, but it does attack cane sugar and ferment the products
+of hydrolysis. Fischer next suggested that enzymes can
+only hydrolyse those sugars which possess a molecular structure
+in harmony with their own, or to use his ingenious analogy,
+&ldquo;the one may be said to fit into the other as a key fits into a
+lock.&rdquo; The preference exhibited by yeast cells for sugar molecules
+is shared by mould fungi and soluble enzymes in their
+fermentative actions. Thus, Pasteur showed that <i>Penicillium
+glaucum</i>, when grown in an aqueous solution of ammonium
+racemate, decomposed the dextro-tartrate, leaving the laevo-tartrate,
+and the solution which was originally inactive to
+polarized light became dextro-rotatory. Fischer found that
+the enzyme &ldquo;invertase,&rdquo; which is present in yeast, attacks
+methyl-<i>d</i>-glucoside but not methyl-<i>l</i>-glucoside.</p>
+
+<p>In 1897 Buchner submitted yeast to great pressure, and
+isolated a nitrogenous substance, enzymic in character, which
+he termed &ldquo;zymase.&rdquo; This body is being continually formed
+in the yeast cell, and decomposes the sugar which has diffused
+into the cell. The freshly-expressed yeast juice causes concentrated
+solutions of cane sugar, glucose, laevulose and maltose to
+ferment with the production of alcohol and carbon dioxide, but
+not milk-sugar and mannose. In this respect the plasma
+behaves in a similar manner towards the sugars as does the
+living yeast cell. Pasteur found that, when cane sugar was
+fermented by yeast, 49.4% of carbonic acid and 51.1% of
+alcohol were produced; with expressed yeast juice cane sugar
+yields 47% of carbonic acid and 47.7% of alcohol. According
+to Buchner the fermentative activity of yeast-cell juice is not
+due to the presence of living yeast cells, or to the action of living
+yeast protoplasm, but it is caused by a soluble enzyme. A.
+Macfadyen, G.H. Morris and S. Rowland, in repeating Buchner&rsquo;s
+experiments, found that zymase possessed properties differing
+from all other enzymes, thus: dilution with twice its volume
+of water practically destroys the fermentative power of the yeast
+juice. These investigators considered that differences of this
+nature cannot be explained by the theory that it is a soluble
+enzyme, which brings about the alcoholic fermentation of sugar.
+The remarkable discoveries of Fischer and Buchner to a great
+extent confirm Traube&rsquo;s views, and reconcile Liebig&rsquo;s and
+Pasteur&rsquo;s theories. Although the action of zymase may be
+regarded as mechanical, the enzyme cannot be produced by
+any other than living protoplasm.</p>
+
+<p>Pasteur&rsquo;s important researches mark an epoch in the technical
+aspect of fermentation. His investigations on vinegar-making
+revolutionized that industry, and he showed how, instead of
+waiting two or three months for the elaboration of the process,
+the vinegar could be made in eight or ten days by exposing the
+vats containing the mixture of wine and vinegar to a temperature
+of 20° to 25° C., and sowing with a small quantity of the
+acetic organism. To the study of the life-history of the butyric
+and acetic organisms we owe the terms &ldquo;anaërobic&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;aërobic.&rdquo; His researches from 1860 and onwards on the
+then vexed question of spontaneous generation proved that,
+in all cases where spontaneous generation appeared to have
+taken place, some defect or other was in the experiment. Although
+the direct object of Pasteur was to prove a negative,
+yet it was on these experiments that sterilization as known to
+us was developed. It is only necessary to bear in mind the great
+part played by sterilization in the laboratory, and pasteurization
+on the fermentation industries and in the preservation
+of food materials. Pasteur first formulated the idea that bacteria
+are responsible for the diseases of fermented liquids; the corollary
+of this was a demand for pure yeast. He recommended that
+yeast should be purified by cultivating it in a solution of sugar
+containing tartaric acid, or, in wort containing a small quantity
+of phenol. It was not recognized that many of the diseases of
+fermented liquids are occasioned by foreign yeasts; moreover,
+this process, as was shown later by Hansen, favours the development
+of foreign yeasts at the expense of the good yeast.</p>
+
+<p>About this time Hansen, who had long been engaged in researches
+on the biology of the fungi of fermentation, demonstrated
+that yeast free from bacteria could nevertheless occasion
+diseases in beer. This discovery was of great importance to the
+zymo-technical industries, for it showed that bacteria are not
+the only undesirable organisms which may occur in yeast.
+Hansen set himself the task of studying the properties of the
+varieties of yeast, and to do this he had to cultivate each variety
+in a pure state. Having found that some of the commonest
+diseases of beer, such as yeast turbidity and the objectionable
+changes in flavour, were caused not by bacteria but by certain
+species of yeast, and, further, that different species of good
+brewery yeast would produce beers of different character, Hansen
+argued that the pitching yeast should consist only of a single
+species&mdash;namely, that best suited to the brewery in question.
+These views met with considerable opposition, but in 1890
+Professor E. Duclaux stated that the yeast question as regards
+low fermentation has been solved by Hansen&rsquo;s investigations.
+He emphasized the opinion that yeast derived from one cell was
+of no good for top fermentation, and advocated Pasteur&rsquo;s
+method of purification. But in the course of time, notwithstanding
+many criticisms and objections, the reform spread from
+bottom fermentation to top fermentation breweries on the
+continent and in America. In the United Kingdom the employment
+of brewery yeasts selected from a single cell has not come
+into general use; it may probably be accounted for in a great
+measure by conservatism and the wrong application of Hansen&rsquo;s
+theories.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pure Cultivation of Yeasts.</i>&mdash;The methods which were first
+adopted by Hansen for obtaining pure cultures of yeast were
+similar in principle to one devised by J. Lister for isolating a
+pure culture of lactic acid bacterium. Lister determined the
+number of bacteria present in a drop of the liquid under examination
+by counting, and then diluted this with a sufficient quantity
+of sterilized water so that each drop of the mixture should contain,
+on an average, less than one bacterium. A number of flasks
+containing a nutrient medium were each inoculated with one
+drop of this mixture; it was found that some remained sterile,
+and Lister assumed that the remaining flasks each contained
+a pure culture. This method did not give very certain results,
+for it could not be guaranteed that the growth in the inoculated
+flask was necessarily derived from a single bacterium. Hansen
+counted the number of yeast cells suspended in a drop of liquid
+diluted with sterilized water. A volume of the diluted yeast
+was introduced into flasks containing sterilized wort, the degree
+of dilution being such that only a small proportion of the flasks
+became infected. The flasks were then well shaken, and the yeast
+cell or cells settled to the bottom, and gave rise to a separate
+yeast speck. Only those cultures which contained a single yeast
+speck were assumed to be pure cultivations. By this method
+several races of <i>Saccharomycetes</i> and brewery yeasts were
+isolated and described.</p>
+
+<p>The next important advance was the substitution of solid for
+liquid media; due originally to Schroter. R. Koch subsequently
+improved the method. He introduced bacteria into liquid
+sterile nutrient gelatin. After being well shaken, the liquid
+was poured into a sterile glass Petrie dish and covered with a
+moist and sterile bell-jar. It was assumed that each separate
+speck contained a pure culture. Hansen pointed out that this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span>
+was by no means the case, for it is more difficult to separate the
+cells from each other in the gelatin than in the liquid. To obtain
+an absolutely pure culture with certainty it is necessary, even
+when the gelatin method is employed, to start from a single cell.
+To effect this some of the nutrient gelatin containing yeast cells
+is placed on the under-surface of the cover-glass of the moist
+chamber. Those cells are accurately marked, the position of
+which is such that the colonies, to which they give rise, can grow
+to their full size without coming into contact with other colonies.
+The growth of the marked cells is kept under observation for
+three or four days, by which time the colonies will be large
+enough to be taken out of the chamber and placed in flasks.
+The contents of the flasks can then be introduced into larger
+flasks, and finally into an apparatus suitable for making enough
+yeast for technical purposes. Such, in brief, are the methods
+devised by that brilliant investigator Hansen; and these
+methods have not only been the basis on which our modern
+knowledge of the <i>Saccharomycetes</i> is founded, but are the only
+means of attack which the present-day observer has at his
+disposal.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing it will be seen that the term fermentation
+has now a much wider significance than when it was applied
+to such changes as the decomposition of must or wort with the
+production of carbon dioxide and alcohol. Fermentation now
+includes all changes in organic compounds brought about by
+ferments elaborated in the living animal or vegetable cell. There
+are two distinct types of fermentation: (1) those brought about
+by living organisms (organized ferments), and (2) those brought
+about by non-living or unorganized ferments (enzymes). The
+first class include such changes as the alcoholic fermentation
+of sugar solutions, the acetic acid fermentation of alcohol, the
+lactic acid fermentation of milk sugar, and the putrefaction of
+animal and vegetable nitrogenous matter. The second class
+include all changes brought about by the agency of enzymes,
+such as the action of diastase on starch, invertase on cane sugar,
+glucase on maltose, &amp;c. The actions are essentially hydrolytic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Biological Aspect of Yeast.</i>&mdash;The Saccharomycetes belong to
+that division of the Thallophyta called the Hyphomycetes or
+Fungi (<i>q.v.</i>). Two great divisions are recognized in the Fungi:
+(i.) the <i>Phycomycetes</i> or Algal Fungi, which retain a definitely
+sexual method of reproduction as well as asexual (vegetative)
+methods, and (ii.) the <i>Mycomycetes</i>, characterized by extremely
+reduced or very doubtful sexual reproduction. The Mycomycetes
+may be divided as follows: (A) forms bearing both
+sporangia and conidia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fungi</a></span>), (B) forms bearing conidia
+only, <i>e.g.</i> the common mushroom. Division A comprises (<i>a</i>)
+the true <i>Ascomycetes</i>, of which the moulds Eurotium and Penicillium
+are examples, and (<i>b</i>) the <i>Hemiasci</i>, which includes the
+yeasts. The gradual disappearance of the sexual method of
+reproduction, as we pass upwards in the fungi from the points
+of their departure from the Algae, is an important fact, the last
+traces of sexuality apparently disappearing in the ascomycetes.</p>
+
+<p>With certain rare exceptions the Saccharomycetes have three
+methods of asexual reproduction:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The most common.&mdash;The formation of <i>buds</i> which separate
+to form new cells. A portion of the nucleus of the parent cell
+makes its way through the extremely narrow neck into the
+daughter cell. This method obtains when yeast is vigorously
+fermenting a saccharine solution.</p>
+
+<p>2. A division by <i>fission</i> followed by Endogenous spore
+formation, characteristic of the Schizosaccharomycetes. Some
+species show fermentative power.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Endospore</i> formation, the conditions for which are as
+follows: (1) suitable temperature, (2) presence of air, (3)
+presence of moisture, (4) young and vigorous cells, (5) a food
+supply in the case of one species at least is necessary, and is in
+no case prejudicial. In some cases a sexual act would appear
+to precede spore formation. In most cases four spores are formed
+within the cell by free formation. These may readily be
+seen after appropriate staining.</p>
+
+<p>In some of the true Ascomycetes, such as <i>Penicillium glaucum</i>,
+the conidia if grown in saccharine solutions, which they have
+the power of fermenting, develop single cell yeast-like forms,
+and do not&mdash;at any rate for a time&mdash;produce again the characteristic
+branching mycelium. This is known as the <i>Torula</i>
+condition. It is supposed by some that Saccharomyces is a very
+degraded Ascomycete, in which the Torula condition has become
+fixed.</p>
+
+<p>The yeast plant and its allies are saprophytes and form no
+chlorophyll. Their extreme reduction in form and loss of
+sexuality may be correlated with the saprophytic habit, the
+proteids and other organic material required for the growth and
+reproduction being appropriated ready synthesized, the plant
+having entirely lost the power of forming them for itself, as
+evidenced by the absence of chlorophyll. The beer yeast
+<i>S. cerevisiae</i>, is never found wild, but the wine yeasts occur
+abundantly in the soil of vineyards, and so are always present on
+the fruit, ready to ferment the expressed juice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chemical Aspect of Alcoholic Fermentation.</i>&mdash;Lavoisier was
+the first investigator to study fermentation from a quantitative
+standpoint. He determined the percentages of carbon, hydrogen
+and oxygen in the sugar and in the products of fermentation, and
+concluded that sugar in fermenting breaks up into alcohol,
+carbonic acid and acetic acid. The elementary composition of
+sugar and alcohol was fixed in 1815 by analyses made by Gay-Lussac,
+Thénard and de Saussure. The first-mentioned chemist
+proposed the following formula to represent the change which
+takes place when sugar is fermented:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span></td> <td class="tcc"> &emsp; = &emsp; 2CO<span class="su">2</span> &emsp;  + &emsp; </td> <td class="tcc">2C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Sugar.</td> <td class="tcc">Carbon dioxide.</td> <td class="tcc">Alcohol.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">This formula substantially holds good to the present day,
+although a number of definite bodies other than carbon dioxide
+and alcohol occur in small and varying quantities, according
+to the conditions of the fermentation and the medium fermented.
+Prominent among these are glycerin and succinic acid. In this
+connexion Pasteur showed that 100 parts of cane sugar on inversion
+gave 105.4 parts of invert sugar, which, when fermented,
+yielded 51.1 parts alcohol, 49.4 carbonic acid, 0.7 succinic acid,
+3.2 glycerin and 1.0 unestimated. A. Béchamp and E. Duclaux
+found that acetic acid is formed in small quantities during
+fermentation; aldehyde has also been detected. The higher
+alcohols such as propyl, isobutyl, amyl, capryl, oenanthyl and
+caproyl, have been identified; and the amount of these vary
+according to the different conditions of the fermentation. A
+number of esters are also produced. The characteristic flavour
+and odour of wines and spirits is dependent on the proportion of
+higher alcohols, aldehydes and esters which may be produced.</p>
+
+<p>Certain yeasts exercise a reducing action, forming sulphuretted
+hydrogen, when sulphur is present. The &ldquo;stinking fermentations&rdquo;
+occasionally experienced in breweries probably
+arise from this, the free sulphur being derived from the hops.
+Other yeasts are stated to form sulphurous acid in must and
+wort. Another fact of considerable technical importance is,
+that the various races of yeast show considerable differences in
+the amount and proportion of fermentation products other than
+ethyl alcohol and carbonic acid which they produce. From
+these remarks it will be clear that to employ the most suitable
+kind of yeast for a given alcoholic fermentation is of fundamental
+importance in certain industries. It is beyond the scope
+of the present article to attempt to describe the different forms
+of budding fungi (Saccharomyces), mould fungi and bacteria
+which are capable of fermenting sugar solutions. Thus, six
+species isolated by Hansen, <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, <i>S. Pasteurianus</i>
+I.,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> II., III., and <i>S. ellipsoideus</i>, contained invertase
+and maltase, and can invert and subsequently ferment cane sugar
+and maltose. <i>S. exiguus</i> and <i>S. Ludwigii</i> contain only invertase
+and not maltase, and therefore ferment cane sugar but not
+maltose. <i>S. apiculatus</i> (a common wine yeast) contains neither
+of these enzymes, and only ferments solutions of glucose or
+laevulose.</p>
+
+<p>Previously to Hansen&rsquo;s work the only way of differentiating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span>
+yeasts was by studying morphological differences with the aid
+of the microscope. Max Reess distinguished the species according
+to the appearance of the cells thus, the ellipsoidal cells were
+designated <i>Saccharomyces ellipsoideus</i>, the sausage-shaped
+<i>Saccharomyces Pasteurianus</i>, and so on. It was found by
+Hansen that the same species of yeast can assume different
+shapes; and it therefore became necessary to determine how
+the different varieties of yeast could be distinguished with
+certainty. The formation of spores in yeast (first discovered
+by T. Schwann in 1839) was studied by Hansen, who found that
+each species only developed spores between certain definite
+temperatures. The time taken for spore formation varies greatly;
+thus, at 52° F., <i>S. cerevisiae</i> takes 10, <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> I. and II.
+about 4, <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> III. about 7, and <i>S. ellipsoideus</i> about
+4½ days. The formation of spores is used as an analytical
+method for determining whether a yeast is contaminated with
+another species,&mdash;for example: a sample of yeast is placed on a
+gypsum or porcelain block saturated with water; if in ten days
+at a temperature of 52° F. no spores make their appearance, the
+yeast in question may be regarded as <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, and not
+associated with <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> or <i>S. ellipsoideus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of films on fermented liquids is a well-known
+phenomenon and common to all micro-organisms. A free still
+surface with a direct access of air are the necessary conditions.
+Hansen showed that the microscopic appearance of film cells
+of the same species of Saccharomycetes varies according to the
+temperature of growth; the limiting temperatures of film formation,
+as well as the time of its appearance for the different
+species, also vary.</p>
+
+<p>In the zymo-technical industries the various species of yeast
+exhibit different actions during fermentations. A well-known
+instance of this is the &ldquo;top&rdquo; and &ldquo;bottom&rdquo; brewery fermentations
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>). In a top fermentation&mdash;typical of
+English breweries&mdash;the yeast rises, in a bottom fermentation,
+as the phrase implies, it settles in the vessel. Sometimes a
+bottom yeast may for a time exhibit signs of a top fermentation.
+It has not, however, been possible to transform a typical top yeast
+into a permanent typical bottom yeast. There appear to be
+no true distinctive characteristics for these two types. Their
+selection for a particular purpose depends upon some special
+quality which they possess; thus for brewing certain essentials
+are demanded as regards stability, clarification, taste and smell;
+whereas, in distilleries, the production of alcohol and a high
+multiplying power in the yeast are required. Culture yeasts
+have also been successfully employed in the manufacture of wine
+and cider. By the judicious selection of a type of yeast it is
+possible to improve the bouquet, and from an inferior must
+obtain a better wine or cider than would otherwise be produced.</p>
+
+<p>Certain acid fermentations are of common occurrence. The
+<i>Bacterium acidi lacti</i> described by Pasteur decomposes milk
+sugar into lactic acid. <i>Bacillus amylobacter</i> usually accompanies
+the lactic acid organism, and decomposes lactic and other
+higher acids with formation of butyric acid. Moulds have been
+isolated which occasion the formation of citric acid from glucose.
+The production of acetic acid from alcohol has received much
+attention at the hands of investigators, and it has an important
+technical aspect in the manufacture of vinegar. The phenomenon
+of nitrification (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bacteriology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manure</a></span>), <i>i.e.</i> the formation of nitrites and nitrates from ammonia
+and its compounds in the soil, was formerly held to be a
+purely chemical process, until Schloesing and Müntz suggested
+in 1877 that it was biological. It is now known that the action
+takes place in two stages; the ammonium salt is first oxidized
+to the nitrite stage and subsequently to the nitrate.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. L. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hansen found there were three species of spore-bearing Saccharomycetes
+and that these could be subdivided into varieties. Thus,
+<i>S. cerevisiae</i> I., <i>S. cerevisiae</i> II., <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> I., &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERMO<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (anc. <i>Firmum Picenum</i>), a town and archiepiscopal
+see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Ascoli Piceno, on a
+hill with a fine view, 1046 ft. above sea-level, on a branch from
+Porto S. Giorgio on the Adriatic coast railway. Pop. (1901)
+town, 16,577, commune 20,542. The summit of the hill was
+occupied by the citadel until 1446. It is crowned by the
+cathedral, reconstructed in 1227 by Giorgio da Como; the fine
+façade and campanile of this period still remain, and the side
+portal is good; the beautiful rose-window over the main door
+dates from 1348. In the porch are several good tombs, including
+one of 1366 by Tura da Imola, and also the modern monument
+of Giuseppe Colucci, a famous writer on the antiquities of
+Picenum. The interior has been modernized. The building is
+now surrounded by a garden, with a splendid view. Against the
+side of the hill was built the Roman theatre; scanty traces of
+an amphitheatre also exist. Remains of the city wall, of rectangular
+blocks of hard limestone, may be seen just outside the
+Porta S. Francesco; whether the walling under the Casa Porti
+belongs to them is doubtful. The medieval battlemented walls
+superposed on it are picturesque. The church of S. Francesco
+has a good tower and choir in brickwork of 1240, the rest having
+been restored in the 17th century. Under the Dominican
+monastery is a very large Roman reservoir in two storeys, belonging
+to the imperial period, divided into many chambers, at least
+24 on each level, each 30 by 20 ft., for filtration (see G. de Minicis
+in <i>Annali dell&rsquo; Istituto</i>, 1846, p. 46; 1858, p. 125). The piazza contains
+the Palazzo Comunale, restored in 1446, with a statue of
+Pope Sixtus V. in front of it. The Biblioteca Comunale contains
+a collection of inscriptions and antiquities. Porto S. Giorgio
+has a fine castle of 1269, blocking the valley which leads to
+Fermo.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Firmum Picenum was founded as a Latin colony
+in 264 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after the conquest of the Picentes, as the local headquarters
+of the Roman power, to which it remained faithful.
+It was originally governed by five quaestors. It was made a
+colony with full rights after the battle of Philippi, the 4th legion
+being settled there. It lay at the junction of roads to Pausulae,
+Urbs Salvia and Asculum, being connected with the coast road by
+a short branch road from Castellum Firmanum (Porto S. Giorgio).
+In the 10th century it became the capital of the <i>Marchia Firmana</i>.
+In 1199 it became a free city, and remained independent until
+1550, when it became subject to the papacy.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERMOY,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a market town in the east riding of Co. Cork,
+Ireland, in the north-east parliamentary division, 21 m. by
+road N.E. of Cork, and 14 m. E. of Mallow by a branch of the
+Great Southern &amp; Western railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 6126. It is situated on the river Blackwater, which
+divides the town into two parts, the larger of which is on the
+southern bank, and there the trade of the town, which is chiefly
+in flour and agricultural produce, is mainly carried on. The
+town has several good streets and some noteworthy buildings.
+Of the latter, the most prominent are the military barracks on
+the north bank of the river, the Protestant church, the Roman
+Catholic cathedral and St Colman&rsquo;s Roman Catholic college.
+Fermoy rose to importance only at the beginning of the 19th
+century, owing entirely to the devotion of John Anderson, a
+citizen, on becoming landlord. The town is a centre for salmon
+and trout fishing on the Blackwater and its tributary the
+Funshion. The neighbouring scenery is attractive, especially
+in the Glen of Araglin, once famed for its ironworks.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERN<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>fearn</i>, a word common to Teutonic
+languages, cf. Dutch <i>varen</i>, and Ger. <i>Farn</i>; the Indo-European
+root, seen in the Sanskrit <i>parna</i>, a feather, shows the primary
+meaning; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="pteron">&#960;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#957;</span>, feather, <span class="grk" title="pteris">&#960;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#962;</span>, fern), a name often
+used to denote the whole botanical class of Pteridophytes,
+including both the true ferns, Filicales, by far the largest group
+of this class in the existing flora, and the fern-like plants,
+Equisetales, Sphenophyllales, Lycopodiales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteridophyta</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, ALVARO,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> one of the leading Portuguese explorers
+of the earlier 15th century, the age of Henry the Navigator.
+He was brought up (as a page or esquire) in the household
+of Prince Henry, and while still &ldquo;young and audacious&rdquo; took
+an important part in the discovery of &ldquo;Guinea.&rdquo; He was a
+nephew of João Gonçalvez Zarco, who had rediscovered the
+Madeira group in Henry&rsquo;s service (1418-1420), and had become
+part-governor of Madeira and commander of Funchal; when
+the great expedition of 1445 sailed for West Africa he was
+entrusted by his uncle with a specially fine caravel, under particular
+injunctions to devote himself to discovery, the most
+cherished object of his princely master, so constantly thwarted.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span>
+Fernandez, as a pioneer, outstripped all other servants of the prince
+at this time. After visiting the mouth of the Senegal, rounding
+Cape Verde, and landing in Goree (?), he pushed on to the &ldquo;Cape
+of Masts&rdquo; (Cabo dos Matos, or Mastos, so called from its tall
+spindle-palms), probably between Cape Verde and the Gambia,
+the most southerly point till then attained. Next year (1446) he
+returned, and coasted on much farther, to a bay one hundred
+and ten leagues &ldquo;south&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> S.S.E.) of Cape Verde, perhaps
+in the neighbourhood of Konakry and the Los Islands, and but
+little short of Sierra Leone. This record was not broken till
+1461, when Sierra Leone was sighted and named. A wound,
+received from a poisoned arrow in an encounter with natives,
+now compelled Fernandez to return to Portugal, where he was
+received with distinguished honour and reward by Prince Henry
+and the regent of the kingdom, Henry&rsquo;s brother Pedro.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gomes Eannes de Azurara, <i>Chronica de ... Guiné</i>, chs.
+lxxv., lxxxvii.; João de Barros, <i>Asia</i>, Decade I., bk. i. chs. xiii., xiv.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, DIEGO,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a Spanish adventurer and historian
+of the 16th century. Born at Palencia, he was educated for the
+church, but about 1545 he embarked for Peru, where he served
+in the royal army under Alonzo de Alvarado. Andres Hurtado
+de Mendoza, marquess of Cañeté, who became viceroy of Peru in
+1655, bestowed on Fernandez the office of chronicler of Peru;
+and in this capacity he wrote a narrative of the insurrection of
+Francisco Hernandez Giron, of the rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro,
+and of the administration of Pedro de la Gasca. The whole work,
+under the title <i>Primera y segunda parte de la Historia del Piru</i>,
+was published at Seville in 1571 and was dedicated to King
+Philip II. It is written in a clear and intelligible style, and with
+more art than is usual in the compositions of the time. It gives
+copious details, and, as he had access to the correspondence
+and official documents of the Spanish leaders, it is, although
+necessarily possessing bias, the fullest and most authentic record
+existing of the events it relates.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A notice of the work will be found in W.H. Prescott&rsquo;s <i>History of
+the Conquest of Peru</i> (new ed., London, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, JOHN<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (<i>João</i>, <i>Joam</i>), Portuguese traveller of the
+15th century. He was perhaps the earliest of modern explorers
+in the upland of West Africa, and a pioneer of the European
+slave- and gold-trade of Guinea. We first hear of him (before
+1445) as a captive of the Barbary Moors in the western Mediterranean;
+while among these he acquired a knowledge of
+Arabic, and probably conceived the design of exploration in the
+interior of the continent whose coasts the Portuguese were now
+unveiling. In 1445 he volunteered to stay in Guinea and gather
+what information he could for Prince Henry the Navigator;
+with this object he accompanied Antam Gonçalvez to the
+&ldquo;River of Gold&rdquo; (Rio d&rsquo;Ouro, Rio de Oro) in 23° 40&prime; N., where
+he landed and went inland with some native shepherds. He
+stayed seven months in the country, which lay just within
+Moslem Africa, slightly north of Pagan Negroland (W. Sudan);
+he was taken off again by Antam Gonçalvez at a point farther
+down the coast, near the &ldquo;Cape of Ransom&rdquo; (Cape Mirik), in
+19° 22&prime; 14&Prime;; and his account of his experiences proved of great
+interest and value, not only as to the natural features, climate,
+fauna and flora of the south-western Sahara, but also as to the
+racial affinities, language, script, religion, nomad habits, and
+trade of its inhabitants. These people&mdash;though Mahommedans,
+maintaining a certain trade in slaves, gold, &amp;c., with the Barbary
+coast (especially with Tunis), and classed as &ldquo;Arabs,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Berbers,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Tawny Moors&rdquo;&mdash;did not then write or speak
+Arabic. In 1446 and 1447 John Fernandez accompanied other
+expeditions to the Rio d&rsquo;Ouro and other parts of West Africa
+in the service of Prince Henry. He was personally known to
+Gomes Eannes de Azurara, the historian of this early period of
+Portuguese expansion; and from Azurara&rsquo;s language it is clear
+that Fernandez&rsquo; revelation of unknown lands and races was fully
+appreciated at home.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Azurara, <i>Chronica de ... Guiné</i>, chs. xxix., xxxii., xxxiv.,
+xxxv., lxxvii., lxxviii., xc., xci., xciii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, JUAN<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (fl. <i>c</i>. 1570), Spanish navigator and discoverer.
+While navigating the coasts of South America it
+occurred to him that the south winds constantly prevailing
+near the shore, and retarding voyages between Peru and Chile,
+might not exist farther out at sea. His idea proved correct, and
+by the help of the trade winds and some currents at a distance
+from the coast he sailed with such rapidity (thirty days) from
+Callao to Chile that he was apprehended on a charge of sorcery.
+His inquisitors, however, accepted his natural explanation of
+the marvel. During one of his voyages in 1563 (from Lima to
+Valdivia) Fernandez discovered the islands which now bear his
+name. He was so enchanted with their beauty and fertility that
+he solicited the concession of them from the Spanish government.
+It was granted in 1572, but a colony which he endeavoured to
+establish at the largest of them (Isla Mas-a-Tierra) soon broke
+up, leaving behind the goats, whose progeny were hunted by
+Alexander Selkirk. In 1574 Fernandez discovered St Felix and
+St Ambrose islands (in 27° S., 82° 7&prime; W.); and in 1576, while
+voyaging in the southern ocean, he is said to have sighted not
+only Easter Island, but also a continent, which was probably
+Australia or New Zealand if the story (rejected by most critics,
+but with reservations as to Easter Island) is to be accepted.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.L. Arias, <i>Memoir recommending to the king the conversion
+of the new discovered islands</i> (in Spanish, 1609; Eng. trans., 1773);
+Ulloa, <i>Relacion del Viaje</i>, bk. ii. ch. iv.; Alexander Dalrymple, <i>An
+Historical Collection of the several Voyages and Discoveries in the
+South Pacific Ocean</i> (London, 1769-1771); Fréville, <i>Voyages de la
+Mer du Sud par les Espagnols</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, LUCAS,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> Spanish dramatist, was born at Salamanca
+about the middle of the 15th century. Nothing is known
+of his life, and he is represented by a single volume of plays,
+<i>Farsas y églogas al modo y estilo pastoril</i> (1514). In his secular
+pieces&mdash;a <i>comedia</i> and two <i>farsas</i>&mdash;he introduces few personages,
+employs the simplest possible action, and burlesques the language
+of the uneducated class; the secular and devout elements
+are skilfully intermingled in his two <i>Farsas del nascimiento de
+Nuestro Señor Jesucristo</i>. But the best of his dramatic essays
+is the <i>Auto de la Pasión</i>, a devout play intended to be given on
+Maundy Thursday. It is written in the manner of Encina, with
+less spontaneity, but with a sombre force to which Encina
+scarcely attained.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fernandez&rsquo; plays were reprinted by the Spanish Academy in 1867.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNANDINA,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of
+Nassau county, Florida, U.S.A., a winter and summer resort,
+in the N.E. part of the state, 36 m. N.E. of Jacksonville, on
+Amelia Island (about 22 m. long and from ½ m. to 1½ m. wide),
+which is separated from the mainland by an arm of the sea, known
+as Amelia river and bay. Pop. (1900) 3245; (1905, state census),
+4959 (2957 negroes); (1910) 3482. Fernandina is served by the
+Seaboard Air Line railway, and by steamship lines connecting
+with domestic and foreign ports; its harbour, which has the
+deepest water on the E. coast of Florida, opens on the N. to
+Cumberland Sound, which was improved by the Federal government,
+beginning in 1879, reducing freight rates at Fernandina
+by 25 to 40%. Under an act of 1907 the channel of Fernandina
+harbour, 1300 ft. wide at the entrance and about 2 m. long, was
+dredged to a depth of 20 to 24 ft. at mean low water with a
+width of 400 to 600 ft. The &ldquo;inside&rdquo; water-route between
+Savannah, Georgia and Fernandina is improved by the Federal
+government (1892 sqq.) and has a 7-ft. channel. The principal
+places of interest are &ldquo;Amelia Beach,&rdquo; more than 20 m. long
+and 200 ft. wide, connected with the city by a compact shell road
+nearly 2 m. long and by electric line; the Amelia Island lighthouse,
+in the N. end of the island, established in 1836 and rebuilt
+in 1880; Fort Clinch, at the entrance to the harbour;
+Cumberland Island, in Georgia, N. of Amelia Island, where land
+was granted to General Nathanael Greene after the War of
+American Independence by the state of Georgia; and Dungeness,
+the estate of the Carnegie family. Ocean City, on Amelia
+Beach, is a popular pleasure resort. The principal industries
+are the manufacture of lumber, cotton, palmetto fibres, and
+cigars, the canning of oysters, and the building and repair of
+railway cars. The foreign exports, chiefly lumber, railway ties,
+cotton, phosphate rock, and naval stores, were valued at
+$9,346,704 in 1907; and the imports in 1907 at $116,514.</p>
+
+<p>The harbour of Fernandina was known to the early explorers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span>
+of Florida, and it was here that Dominic de Gourgues landed
+when he made his expedition against the Spanish at San Mateo
+in 1568. An Indian mission was established by Spanish priests
+later in the same century, but it was not successful. When
+Georgia was founded, General James Oglethorpe placed a military
+guard on Amelia Island to prevent sudden attack upon his
+colony by the Spanish, and the first blood shed in the petty
+warfare between Georgia and Florida was the murder of two
+unarmed members of the guard by a troop of Spanish soldiers
+and Indians in 1739. The first permanent settlement was made
+by the Spanish in 1808, at what is now the village of Old Fernandina,
+about 1 m. from the city. The island was a centre for
+smuggling during the period of the embargo and non-importation
+acts preceding the war of 1812. This was the pretext for General
+George Matthews (1738-1812) to gather a band of adventurers
+at St Mary&rsquo;s, Georgia, invade the island, and capture Fernandina
+in 1812. In the following year the American forces were withdrawn.
+In 1817 Gregor MacGregor, a filibuster who had aided
+the Spanish provinces of South America in their revolt against
+Spain, fitted out an expedition in Baltimore and seized Fernandina,
+but departed soon after. Later in the same year
+Louis Aury, another adventurer, appeared with a small force
+from Texas, and took possession of the place in the name of the
+Republic of Mexico. In the following year Aury was expelled
+by United States troops, who held Fernandina in trust for
+Spain until Florida was finally ceded to the United States in
+1821. Fernandina was first incorporated in 1859. In 1861
+Fort Clinch was seized by the Confederates, and Fernandina
+harbour was a centre of blockade running in the first two years
+of the Civil War. In 1862 the place was captured by a Federal
+naval force from Port Royal, South Carolina, commanded by
+Commodore S.F. Du Pont.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNANDO DE NORONHA<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> [<i>Fernão de N.</i>], an island in the
+South Atlantic, 125 m. from the coast of Brazil, to which country
+it belongs, in 3° 50&prime; S., 32° 25&prime; W. It is about 7 m. long and 1½
+wide, and some other islets lie adjacent to it. Its surface is
+rugged, and it contains a number of rocky hills from 500 to
+700 ft. high, and one peak towering to the height of 1089 ft. It
+is formed of basalt, trachyte and phonolite, and the soil is very
+fertile. The climate is healthy. It is defended by forts, and
+serves as a place of banishment for criminals from Brazil. The
+next largest island of the group is about a mile in circumference,
+and the others are small barren rocks. The population is about
+2000, all males, including some 1400 criminals, and a garrison
+of 150. Communication is maintained by steamer with Pernambuco.
+The island takes name from its Portuguese discoverer
+(1503), the count of Noronha.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNANDO PO,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fernando Póo</span>, a Spanish island on the
+west coast of Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, about 20 m. from
+the mainland, in 3° 12&prime; N. and 8° 48&prime; E. It is of volcanic origin,
+related to the Cameroon system of the adjacent mainland, is the
+largest island in the Gulf of Guinea, is 44 m. long from N.N.E.
+to S.S.W., about 20 m. broad, and has an area of about 780 sq. m.
+Fernando Po is noted for its beautiful aspect, seeming from a
+short distance to be a single mountain rising from the sea, its
+sides covered with luxuriant vegetation. The shores are steep
+and rocky and the coast plain narrow. This plain is succeeded
+by the slopes of the mountains which occupy the rest of the
+island and culminate in the magnificent cone of Clarence Peak
+or Pico de Santa Isabel (native name Owassa). Clarence Peak,
+about 10,000 ft. high,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is in the north-central part of the island.
+In the south Musolo Mt. attains a height of 7400 ft. There are
+numerous other peaks between 4000 and 6000 ft. high. The
+mountains contain craters and crater lakes, and are covered, most
+of them to their summits, with forests. Down the narrow intervening
+valleys rush torrential streams which have cut deep beds
+through the coast plains. The trees most characteristic of the
+forest are oil palms and tree ferns, but there are many varieties,
+including ebony, mahogany and the African oak. The undergrowth
+is very dense; it includes the sugar-cane and cotton
+and indigo plants. The fauna includes antelopes, monkeys,
+lemurs, the civet cat, porcupine, pythons and green tree-snakes,
+crocodiles and turtles. The climate is very unhealthy in the
+lower districts, where malarial fever is common. The mean
+temperature on the coast is 78° Fahr. and varies little, but in
+the higher altitudes there is considerable daily variation. The
+rainfall is very heavy except during November-January, which
+is considered the dry season.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants number about 25,000. In addition to about
+500 Europeans, mostly Spaniards and Cubans, they are of two
+classes, the Bubis or Bube (formerly also called Ediya), who
+occupy the interior, and the coast dwellers, a mixed Negro race,
+largely descended from slave ancestors with an admixture of
+Portuguese and Spanish blood, and known to the Bubis as
+&ldquo;Portos&rdquo;&mdash;a corruption of Portuguese. The Bubis are of
+Bantu stock and early immigrants from the mainland. Physically
+they are a finely developed race, extremely jealous of their
+independence and unwilling to take service of any kind with
+Europeans. They go unclothed, smearing their bodies with a
+kind of pomatum. They stick pieces of wood in the lobes of their
+ears, wear numerous armlets made of ivory, beads or grass, and
+always wear hats, generally made of palm leaves. Their weapons
+are mainly of wood; stone axes and knives were in use as late
+as 1858. They have no knowledge of working iron. Their
+villages are built in the densest parts of the forest, and care is
+taken to conceal the approach to them. The Bubis are sportsmen
+and fishermen rather than agriculturists. The staple foods
+of the islanders generally are millet, rice, yams and bananas.
+Alcohol is distilled from the sugar-cane. The natives possess
+numbers of sheep, goats and fowls.</p>
+
+<p>The principal settlement is Port Clarence (pop. 1500), called
+by the Spaniards Santa Isabel, a safe and commodious harbour
+on the north coast. In its graveyard are buried Richard Lander
+and several other explorers of West Africa. Port Clarence is
+unhealthy, and the seat of government has been removed to
+Basile, a small town 5 m. from Port Clarence and over 1000 ft.
+above the sea. On the west coast are the bay and port of San
+Carlos, on the east coast Concepcion Bay and town. The chief
+industry until the close of the 19th century was the collection of
+palm-oil, but the Spaniards have since developed plantations
+of cocoa, coffee, sugar, tobacco, vanilla and other tropical plants.
+The kola nut is also cultivated. The cocoa plantations are of
+most importance. The amount of cocoa exported in 1905 was
+1800 tons, being 370 tons above the average export for the preceding
+five years. The total value of the trade of the island
+(1900-1905) was about £250,000 a year.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The island was discovered towards the close of the
+15th century by a Portuguese navigator called Fernão do Po, who,
+struck by its beauty, named it Formosa, but it soon came to be
+called by the name of its discoverer.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A Portuguese colony was
+established in the island, which together with Annobon was
+ceded to Spain in 1778. The first attempts of Spain to develop
+the island ended disastrously, and in 1827, with the consent of
+Spain, the administration of the island was taken over by Great
+Britain, the British &ldquo;superintendent&rdquo; having a Spanish commission
+as governor. By the British Fernando Po was used as
+a naval station for the ships engaged in the suppression of the
+slave trade. The British headquarters were named Port Clarence
+and the adjacent promontory Cape William, in honour of the
+duke of Clarence (William IV.). In 1844 the Spaniards reclaimed
+the island, refusing to sell their rights to Great Britain. They
+did no more at that time, however, than hoist the Spanish flag,
+appointing a British resident, John Beecroft, governor. Beecroft,
+who was made British consul in 1849, died in 1854. During the
+British occupation a considerable number of Sierra Leonians,
+West Indians and freed slaves settled in the island, and English
+became and remains the common speech of the coast peoples.
+In 1858 a Spanish governor was sent out, and the Baptist
+missionaries who had laboured in the island since 1843 were
+compelled to withdraw. They settled in Ambas Bay on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span>
+neighbouring mainland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cameroon</a></span>). The Jesuits who succeeded
+the Baptists were also expelled, but mission and educational
+work is now carried on by other Roman Catholic agencies,
+and (since 1870) by the Primitive Methodists. In 1879 the
+Spanish government recalled its officials, but a few years later,
+when the partition of Africa was being effected, they were replaced
+and a number of Cuban political prisoners were deported
+thither. Very little was done to develop the resources of the
+island until after the loss of the Spanish colonies in the West
+Indies and the Pacific, when Spain turned her attention to her
+African possessions. Stimulated by the success of the Portuguese
+cocoa plantations in the neighbouring island of St Thomas,
+the Spaniards started similar plantations, with some measure of
+success. The strategical importance and commercial possibilities
+of the island caused Germany and other powers to approach
+Spain with a view to its acquisition, and in 1900 the
+Spaniards gave France, in return for territorial concessions on
+the mainland, the right of pre-emption over the island and her
+other West African possessions.</p>
+
+<p>The administration of the island is in the hands of a governor-general,
+assisted by a council, and responsible to the ministry
+of foreign affairs at Madrid. The governor-general has under his
+authority the sub-governors of the other Spanish possessions
+in the Gulf of Guinea, namely, the Muni River Settlement,
+Corisco and Annobon (see those articles). None of these
+possessions is self-supporting.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. d&rsquo;Almonte, &ldquo;Someras Notas ... de la isla de Fernando
+Póo y de la Guinea continental española,&rdquo; in <i>Bol. Real. Soc. Geog.</i> of
+Madrid (1902); and a further article in the <i>Riv. Geog. Col.</i> of Madrid
+(1908); E.L. Vilches, &ldquo;Fernando Póo y la Guinea española,&rdquo; in
+the <i>Bol. Real. Soc. Geog.</i> (1901); San Javier, <i>Tres Años en Fernando
+Póo</i> (Madrid, 1875); O. Baumann, <i>Eine africanische Tropeninsel:
+Fernando Póo und die Bube</i> (Vienna, 1888); Sir H.H. Johnston,
+<i>George Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on Fernando Pô</i>
+(London, 1908); Mary H. Kingsley, <i>Travels in West Africa</i>, ch. iii.
+(London, 1897); T.J. Hutchinson, sometime British Consul at
+Fernando Po, <i>Impressions of Western Africa</i>, chs. xii. and xiii.
+(London, 1858), and <i>Ten Years&rsquo; Wanderings among the Ethiopians</i>,
+chs. xvii. and xviii. (London, 1861). For the Bubi language see
+J. Clarke, <i>The Adeeyah Vocabulary</i> (1841), and <i>Introduction to the
+Fernandian Tongue</i> (1848). Consult also <i>Wanderings in West Africa</i>
+(1863) and other books written by Sir Richard Burton as the result
+of his consulship at Fernando Po, 1861-1865, and the works cited
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Muni River Settlements</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The heights given by explorers vary from 9200 to 10,800 ft.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Some authorities maintain that another Portuguese seaman,
+Lopes Gonsalves, was the discoverer of the island. The years 1469,
+1471 and 1486 are variously given as those of the date of the discovery.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1497-1558), French physician,
+was born at Clermont in 1497, and after receiving his early
+education at his native town, entered the college of Sainte-Barbe,
+Paris. At first he devoted himself to mathematical and astronomical
+studies; his <i>Cosmotheoria</i> (1528) records a determination
+of a degree of the meridian, which he made by counting the revolutions
+of his carriage wheels on a journey between Paris and
+Amiens. But from 1534 he gave himself up entirely to medicine,
+in which he graduated in 1530. His extraordinary general
+erudition, and the skill and success with which he sought to
+revive the study of the old Greek physicians, gained him a great
+reputation, and ultimately the office of physician to the court.
+He practised with great success, and at his death in 1558 left
+behind him an immense fortune. He also wrote <i>Monalosphaerium,
+sive astrolabii genus, generalis horarii structura et
+usus</i> (1526); <i>De proportionibus</i> (1528); <i>De evacuandi ratione</i>
+(1545); <i>De abditis rerum causis</i> (1548); and <i>Medicina ad
+Henricum II.</i> (1554).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNIE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> an important city in the east Kootenay district of
+British Columbia. Pop. about 4000. It is situated on the Crow&rsquo;s
+Nest branch of the Canadian Pacific railway, at the junction of
+Coal Creek with the Elk river, and owes its importance to the
+extensive coal mines in its vicinity. There are about 500 coke
+ovens in operation at Fernie, which supply most of the smelting
+plants in southern British Columbia with fuel.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1763-1808), German art-critic
+and archaeologist, was born in Pomerania on the 19th of
+November 1763. His father was a servant in the household of
+the lord of Blumenhagen. At the age of twelve he became
+clerk to a notary, and was afterwards apprenticed to a druggist.
+While serving his time he had the misfortune accidentally to
+shoot a young man who came to visit him; and although through
+the intercession of his master he escaped prosecution, the untoward
+event weighed heavily on his mind, and led him at the
+close of his apprenticeship to quit his native place. He obtained
+a situation at Lübeck, where he had leisure to cultivate his
+natural taste for drawing and poetry. Having formed an
+acquaintance with the painter Carstens, whose influence was an
+important stimulus and help to him, he renounced his trade of
+druggist, and set up as a portrait-painter and drawing-master.
+At Ludwigslust he fell in love with a young girl, and followed
+her to Weimar; but failing in his suit, he went next to Jena.
+There he was introduced to Professor Reinhold, and in his house
+met the Danish poet Baggesen. The latter invited him to accompany
+him to Switzerland and Italy, a proposal which he eagerly
+accepted (1794) for the sake of the opportunity of furthering his
+studies in the fine arts. On Baggesen&rsquo;s return to Denmark,
+Fernow, assisted by some of his friends, visited Rome and made
+some stay there. He now renewed his intercourse with Carstens,
+who had settled at Rome, and applied himself to the study of
+the history and theory of the fine arts and of the Italian language
+and literature. Making rapid progress, he was soon qualified to
+give a course of lectures on archaeology, which was attended
+by the principal artists then at Rome. Having married a Roman
+lady, he returned in 1802 to Germany, and was appointed in the
+following year professor extraordinary of Italian literature at
+Jena. In 1804 he accepted the post of librarian to Amelia,
+duchess-dowager of Weimar, which gave him the leisure he
+desired for the purpose of turning to account the literary and
+archaeological researches in which he had engaged at Rome.
+His most valuable work, the <i>Römische Studien</i>, appeared in 3
+vols. (1806-1808). Among his other works are&mdash;<i>Das Leben
+des Künstlers Carstens</i> (1806), <i>Ariosto&rsquo;s Lebenslauf</i> (1809), and
+<i>Francesco Petrarca</i> (1818). Fernow died at Weimar, December 4,
+1808.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A memoir of his life by Johanna Schopenhauer, mother of the
+philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, appeared in 1810, and a complete
+edition of his works in 1829.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEROZEPUR,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Firozpur</span>, a town and district of British
+India, in the Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is a
+railway junction connecting the North-Western and Rajputana
+railways, and is situated about 4 m. from the present south
+bank of the Sutlej. Pop. (1901) 49,341. The arsenal is the
+largest in India, and Ferozepur is the headquarters of a brigade
+in the 3rd division of the northern army corps. British rule was
+first established at Ferozepur in 1835, when, on the failure of
+heirs to the Sikh family who possessed it, a small territory 86 m.
+in extent became an escheat to the British government, and the
+present district has been gradually formed around this nucleus.
+The strategic importance of Ferozepur was at this time very
+great; and when, in 1839, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry)
+Lawrence took charge of the station as political officer, it was the
+outpost of British India in the direction of the Sikh power.
+Ferozepur accordingly became the scene of operations during the
+first Sikh War. The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej in December 1845,
+and were defeated successively at Mudki, Ferozepur, Aliwal and
+Sobraon; after which they withdrew into their own territory,
+and peace was concluded at Lahore. At the time of the mutiny
+Ferozepur cantonments contained two regiments of native
+infantry and a regiment of native cavalry, together with the 61st
+Foot and two companies of European artillery. One of the
+native regiments, the 57th, was disarmed; but the other, the
+45th, broke into mutiny, and, after an unsuccessful attempt
+to seize the magazine, which was held by the Europeans, proceeded
+to join the rebel forces in Delhi. Throughout the mutiny
+Ferozepur remained in the hands of the English.</p>
+
+<p>Ferozepur has rapidly advanced in material prosperity of late
+years, and is now a very important seat of commerce, trade being
+mainly in grain. The main streets of the city are wide and well
+paved, and the whole is enclosed by a low brick wall. Great improvements
+have been made in the surroundings of the city.
+The cantonment lies 2 m. to the south of the city, and is connected
+with it by a good metalled road.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Ferozepur</span> comprises an area of 4302 sq. m.
+The surface is level, with the exception of a few sand-hills in the
+south and south-east. The country consists of two distinct tracts,
+that liable to annual fertilizing inundations from the Sutlej,
+known as the <i>bhet</i>, and the <i>rohi</i> or upland tract. The only river
+is the Sutlej, which runs along the north-western boundary.
+The principal crops are wheat, barley, millet, gram, pulses, oil-seeds,
+cotton, tobacco, &amp;c. The manufactures are of the
+humblest kind, consisting chiefly of cotton and wool-weaving,
+and are confined entirely to the supply of local wants. The
+Lahore and Ludhi&#257;na road runs for 51 m. through the district,
+and forms an important trade route. The North-Western, the
+Southern Punjab, and a branch of the Rajputana-Malwa railways
+serve the district. The other important towns and seats
+of commerce are Fazilka (pop. 8505), Dharmkot (6731), Moga
+(6725), and Muktsar (6389). Owing principally to the dryness
+of its climate, Ferozepur has the reputation of being an exceptionally
+healthy district. In September and October, however,
+after the annual rains, the people suffer a good deal from remittent
+fever. In 1901 the population was 958,072. Distributaries
+of the Sirhind canal water the whole district.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEROZESHAH,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a village in the Punjab, India, notable as the
+scene of one of the chief battles in the first Sikh War. The battle
+immediately succeeded that of Mudki, and was fought on the
+21st and 22nd of December 1845. During its course Sir Hugh
+Gough, the British commander, was overruled by the governor-general,
+Lord Hardinge, who was acting as his second in command
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sikh Wars</a></span>). At the end of the first day&rsquo;s fighting
+the British had occupied the Sikh position, but had not gained
+an undisputed victory. On the following morning the battle
+was resumed, and the Sikhs were reinforced by a second army
+under Tej Singh; but through cowardice or treachery Tej Singh
+withdrew at the critical moment, leaving the field to the British.
+In the course of the fight the British lost 694 killed and 1721
+wounded, the vast majority being British troops, while the Sikhs
+lost 100 guns and about 5000 killed and wounded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS CLAUDE,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte</span> (1751-1825),
+French statesman and political writer, was born in Paris
+on the 4th of July 1751, and became a member of the parlement
+of Paris at eighteen. He left France with the first party of
+emigrants, and attached himself to the prince of Condé; later
+he was a member of the council of regency formed by the comte
+de Provence after the death of Louis XVI. He lived at Regensburg
+until 1801, when he returned to France, though he still
+sought to serve the royalist cause. In 1814 Ferrand was made
+minister of state and postmaster-general. He countersigned
+the act of sequestration of Napoleon&rsquo;s property, and introduced
+a bill for the restoration of the property of the emigrants,
+establishing a distinction, since become famous, between royalists
+of <i>la ligne droite</i> and those of <i>la ligne courbe</i>. At the second
+restoration Ferrand was again for a short time postmaster-general.
+He was also made a peer of France, member of the
+privy council, grand-officer and secretary of the orders of Saint
+Michel and the Saint Esprit, and in 1816 member of the Academy,
+He continued his active support of ultra-royalist views until his
+death, which took place in Paris on the 17th of January 1825.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides a large number of political pamphlets, Ferrand is the
+author of <i>L&rsquo;Esprit de l&rsquo;histoire, ou Lettres d&rsquo;un père à son fils sur la
+manière d&rsquo;étudier l&rsquo;histoire</i> (4 vols., 1802), which reached seven
+editions, the last number in 1826 having prefixed to it a biographical
+sketch of the author by his nephew Héricart de Thury; <i>Éloge
+historique de Madame Élisabeth de France</i> (1814); <i>&OElig;uvres dramatiques
+</i>(1817); <i>Théorie des révolutions rapprochée des événements qui
+en ont été l&rsquo;origine, le développement, ou la suite</i> (4 vols., 1817); and
+<i>Histoire des trois démembrements de la Pologne, pour faire suite à
+l&rsquo;Histoire de l&rsquo;anarchie de Pologne par Rulhière</i> (3 vols., 1820).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRAR, NICHOLAS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1592-1637), English theologian, was
+born in London in 1592 and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge,
+graduating in 1610. He was obliged for some years to travel for
+his health, but on returning to England in 1618 became actively
+connected with the Virginia Company. When this company
+was deprived of its patent in 1623 Ferrar turned his attention
+to politics, and was elected to parliament. But he soon decided
+to devote himself to a religious life; he purchased the manor
+of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where he organized a
+small religious community. Here, in 1626, he was ordained a
+deacon by Laud, and declining preferment, he lived an austere,
+almost monastic life of study and good works. He died on the
+4th of December 1637, and the house was despoiled and the
+community broken up ten years later. There are extant a
+number of &ldquo;harmonies&rdquo; of the Gospel, printed and bound by
+the community, two of them by Ferrar himself. One of the
+latter was made for Charles I. on his request, after a visit in
+1633 to see the &ldquo;Arminian Nunnery at Little Gidding,&rdquo; which
+had been the subject of some scandalous&mdash;and undeserved&mdash;criticism.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRAR, ROBERT<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (d. 1555), bishop of St David&rsquo;s and
+martyr, born about the end of the 15th century of a Yorkshire
+family, is said to have been educated at Cambridge, whence he
+proceeded to Oxford and became a canon regular of St Augustine.
+He came under the influence of Thomas Gerrard and Lutheran
+theology, and was compelled to bear a faggot with Anthony
+Dalaber and others in 1528. He graduated B.D. in 1533, accompanied
+Bishop Barlow on his embassy to Scotland in 1535, and
+was made prior of St Oswald&rsquo;s at Nostell near Pontefract. At
+the dissolution he surrendered his priory without compunction
+to the crown, and received a liberal pension. For the rest of
+Henry&rsquo;s reign his career is obscure; perhaps he fled abroad on
+the enactment of the Six Articles. He certainly married, and
+is said to have been made Cranmer&rsquo;s chaplain, and bishop of
+Sodor and Man; but he was never consecrated to that see.</p>
+
+<p>After the accession of Edward VI., Ferrar was, probably
+through the influence of Bishop Barlow, appointed chaplain to
+Protector Somerset, a royal visitor, and bishop of St David&rsquo;s
+on Barlow&rsquo;s translation to Bath and Wells in 1548. He was
+the first bishop appointed by letters patent under the act passed
+in 1547 without the form of capitular election; and the service
+performed at his consecration was also novel, being in English;
+he also preached at St Paul&rsquo;s on the 11th of November clad
+only as a priest and not as a bishop, and inveighed against vestments
+and altars. At St David&rsquo;s he had trouble at once with his
+singularly turbulent chapter, who, finding that he was out of
+favour at court since Somerset&rsquo;s fall in 1549, brought a long list of
+fantastic charges against him. He had taught his child to whistle,
+dined with his servants, talked of &ldquo;worldly things such as baking,
+brewing, enclosing, ploughing and mining,&rdquo; preferred walking
+to riding, and denounced the debasement of the coinage. He
+seems to have been a kindly, homely, somewhat feckless person
+like many an excellent parish priest, who did not conceal his
+indignation at some of Northumberland&rsquo;s deeds. He had voted
+against the act of November 1549 for a reform of the canon law,
+and on a later occasion his nonconformity brought him into
+conflict with the Council; he was also the only bishop who
+satisfied Hooper&rsquo;s test of sacramental orthodoxy. The Council
+accordingly listened to the accusations of Ferrar&rsquo;s chapter, and
+in 1552 he was summoned to London and imprisoned on a charge
+of <i>praemunire</i> incurred by omitting the king&rsquo;s authority in a
+commission which he issued for the visitation of his diocese.</p>
+
+<p>Imprisonment on such a charge under Northumberland might
+have been expected to lead to liberation under Mary. But Ferrar
+had been a monk and was married. Even so, it is difficult to see
+on what legal ground he was kept in the queen&rsquo;s bench prison
+after July 1553; for Mary herself was repudiating the royal
+authority in religion. Ferrar&rsquo;s marriage accounts for the loss
+of his bishopric in March 1554, and his opinions for his further
+punishment. As soon as the heresy laws and ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction had been re-established, Ferrar was examined by
+Gardiner, and then with signal indecency sent down to be tried
+by Morgan, his successor in the bishopric of St David&rsquo;s. He
+appealed from Morgan&rsquo;s sentence to Pole as papal legate, but in
+vain, and was burnt at Caermarthen on the 30th of March 1555.
+It was perhaps the most wanton of all Mary&rsquo;s acts of persecution;
+Ferrar had been no such protagonist of the Reformation as
+Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper and Latimer; he had had nothing
+to do with Northumberland&rsquo;s or Wyatt&rsquo;s conspiracy. He had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span>
+taken no part in politics, and, so far as is known, had not said a
+word or raised a hand against Mary. He was burnt simply
+because he could not change his religion with the law and would
+not pretend that he could; and his execution is a complete
+refutation of the idea that Mary only persecuted heretics because
+and when they were traitors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, xviii. 380-382, and authorities
+there cited. Also Acts of the Privy Council (1550-1554); H.A.L.
+Fisher, <i>Political History of England</i>, vol. vi.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRARA,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy,
+capital of the province of Ferrara, 30 m. N.N.E. of Bologna,
+situated 30 ft. above sea-level on the Po di Vomano, a branch
+channel of the main stream of the Po, which is 3½ m. N. Pop.
+(1901) 32,968 (town), 86,392 (commune). The town has broad
+streets and numerous palaces, which date from the 16th century,
+when it was the seat of the court of the house of Este, and had,
+it is said, 100,000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent building is the square castle of the house
+of Este, in the centre of the town, a brick building surrounded
+by a moat, with four towers. It was built after 1385 and partly
+restored in 1554; the pavilions on the top of the towers date
+from the latter year. Near it is the hospital of S. Anna, where
+Tasso was confined during his attack of insanity (1579-1586).
+The Palazzo del Municipio, rebuilt in the 18th century, was the
+earlier residence of the Este family. Close by is the cathedral
+of S. Giorgio, consecrated in 1135, when the Romanesque lower
+part of the main façade and the side façades were completed.
+It was built by Guglielmo degli Adelardi (d. 1146), who is buried
+in it. The upper part of the main façade, with arcades of pointed
+arches, dates from the 13th century, and the portal has recumbent
+lions and elaborate sculptures above. The interior was
+restored in the baroque style in 1712. The campanile, in the
+Renaissance style, dates from 1451-1493, but the last storey was
+added at the end of the 16th century. Opposite the cathedral
+is the Gothic Palazzo della Ragione, in brick (1315-1326), now
+the law-courts. A little way off is the university, which has
+faculties of law, medicine and natural science (hardly 100
+students in all); the library has valuable MSS., including part
+of that of the <i>Orlando Furioso</i> and letters by Tasso. The other
+churches are of less interest than the cathedral, though S.
+Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Maria in Vado and S. Cristoforo are
+all good early Renaissance buildings. The numerous early Renaissance
+palaces, often with good terra-cotta decorations, form
+quite a feature of Ferrara; few towns of Italy have so many
+of them proportionately, though they are mostly comparatively
+small in size. Among them may be noted those in the N.
+quarter (especially the four at the intersection of its two main
+streets), which was added by Ercole (Hercules) I. in 1492-1505,
+from the plans of Biagio Rossetti, and hence called the &ldquo;Addizione
+Erculea.&rdquo; The finest of these is the Palazzo de&rsquo; Diamanti, so
+called from the diamond points into which the blocks of stone
+with which it is faced are cut. It contains the municipal picture
+gallery, with a large number of pictures of artists of the school
+of Ferrara. This did not require prominence until the latter
+half of the 15th century, when its best masters were Cosimo
+Tura (1432-1495), Francesco Cossa (d. 1480) and Ercole dei
+Roberti (d. 1496). To this period are due famous frescoes in the
+Palazzo Schifanoia, which was built by the Este family; those of
+the lower row depict the life of Borso of Este, in the central
+row are the signs of the zodiac, and in the upper are allegorical
+representations of the months. The vestibule was decorated
+with stucco mouldings by Domenico di Paris of Padua. The
+building also contains fine choir-books with miniatures, and a
+collection of coins and Renaissance medals. The simple house
+of Ariosto, erected by himself after 1526, in which he died in
+1532, lies farther west. The best Ferrarese masters of the 16th
+century of the Ferrara school were Lorenzo Costa (1460-1535),
+and Dosso Dossi (1479-1542), the most eminent of all, while
+Benvenuto Tisi (Garofalo, 1481-1559) is somewhat monotonous
+and insipid.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of Ferrara is uncertain, and probabilities are against
+the supposition that it occupies the site of the ancient Forum
+Alieni. It was probably a settlement formed by the inhabitants
+of the lagoons at the mouth of the Po. It appears first in a
+document of Aistulf of 753 or 754 as a city forming part of the
+exarchate of Ravenna. After 984 we find it a fief of Tedaldo,
+count of Modena and Canossa, nephew of the emperor Otho I.
+It afterwards made itself independent, and in 1101 was taken
+by siege by the countess Matilda. At this time it was mainly
+dominated by several great families, among them the Adelardi.</p>
+
+<p>In 1146 Guglielmo, the last of the Adelardi, died, and his
+property passed, as the dowry of his niece Marchesella, to
+Azzolino d&rsquo; Este. There was considerable hostility between the
+newly entered family and the Salinguerra, but after considerable
+struggles Azzo Novello was nominated perpetual podestà in
+1242; in 1259 he took Ezzelino of Verona prisoner in battle.
+His grandson, Obizzo II. (1264-1293), succeeded him, and the
+pope nominated him captain-general and defender of the states
+of the Church; and the house of Este was from henceforth
+settled in Ferrara. Niccolò III. (1393-1441) received several
+popes with great magnificence, especially Eugene IV., who held
+a council here in 1438. His son Borso received the fiefs of
+Modena and Reggio from the emperor Frederick III. as first
+duke in 1452 (in which year Girolamo Savonarola was born here),
+and in 1470 was made duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II. Ercole I.
+(1471-1505) carried on a war with Venice and increased the
+magnificence of the city. His son Alphonso I. married Lucrezia
+Borgia, and continued the war with Venice with success. In
+1509 he was excommunicated by Julius II., and attacked the
+pontifical army in 1512 outside Ravenna, which he took. Gaston
+de Foix fell in the battle, in which he was supporting Alphonso.
+With the succeeding popes he was able to make peace. He was
+the patron of Ariosto from 1518 onwards. His son Ercole II.
+married Renata, daughter of Louis XII. of France; he too
+embellished Ferrara during his reign (1534-1559). His son
+Alphonso II. married Barbara, sister of the emperor Maximilian
+II. He raised the glory of Ferrara to its highest point,
+and was the patron of Tasso and Guarini, favouring, as the
+princes of his house had always done, the arts and sciences. He
+had no legitimate male heir, and in 1597 Ferrara was claimed as
+a vacant fief by Pope Clement VIII., as was also Comacchio.
+A fortress was constructed by him on the site of the castle of
+Tedaldo, at the W. angle of the town. The town remained a
+part of the states of the Church, the fortress being occupied by
+an Austrian garrison from 1832 until 1859, when it became part
+of the kingdom of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable area within the walls of Ferrara is unoccupied
+by buildings, especially on the north, where, the handsome
+Renaissance church of S. Cristoforo, with the cemetery,
+stands; but modern times have brought a renewal of industrial
+activity. Ferrara is on the main line from Bologna to Padua
+and Venice, and has branches to Ravenna and Poggio Rusco
+(for Suzzara).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Agnelli, <i>Ferrara e Pomposa</i> (Bergamo, 1902); E.G. Gardner,
+<i>Dukes and Poets of Ferrara</i> (London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRARA-FLORENCE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> COUNCIL OF (1438 ff.). The council
+of Ferrara and Florence was the culmination of a series of futile
+medieval attempts to reunite the Greek and Roman churches.
+The emperor, John VI. Palaeologus, had been advised by his
+experienced father to avoid all serious negotiations, as they had
+invariably resulted in increased bitterness; but John, in view
+of the rapid dismemberment of his empire by the Turks, felt
+constrained to seek a union. The situation was, however, complicated
+by the strife which broke out between the pope (Eugenius
+IV.) and the oecumenical council of Basel. Both sides sent
+embassies to the emperor at Constantinople, as both saw the
+importance of gaining the recognition and support of the East,
+for on this practically depended the victory in the struggle
+between papacy and council for the supreme jurisdiction over
+the church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Councils</a></span>). The Greeks, fearing the domination
+of the papacy, were at first more favourably inclined toward
+the conciliar party; but the astute diplomacy of the Roman
+representatives, who have been charged by certain Greek writers
+with the skilful use of money and of lies, won over the emperor.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span>
+With a retinue of about 700 persons, entertained in Italy at the
+pope&rsquo;s expense, he reached Ferrara early in March 1438. Here
+a council had been formally opened in January by the papal
+party, a bull of the previous year having promptly taken advantage
+of the death of the Emperor Sigismund by ordering the
+removal of the council of Basel to Ferrara; and one of the first
+acts of the assemblage at Ferrara had been to excommunicate
+the remnant at Basel. A month after the coming of the Greeks,
+the Union Synod was solemnly inaugurated on the 9th of April
+1438. After six months of negotiation, the first formal session
+was held on the 8th of October, and on the 14th the real
+issues were reached. The time-honoured question of the <i>filioque</i>
+was still in the foreground when it seemed for several reasons
+advisable to transfer the council to Florence: Ferrara was
+threatened by condottieri, the pest was raging; Florence
+promised a welcome subvention, and a situation further inland
+would make it more difficult for uneasy Greek bishops to flee
+the synod.</p>
+
+<p>The first session at Florence and the seventeenth of the union
+council took place on the 26th of February 1439; there ensued
+long debates and negotiations on the <i>filioque</i>, in which Markos
+Eugenikos, archbishop of Ephesus, spoke for the irreconcilables;
+but the Greeks under the leadership of Bessarion, archbishop
+of Nicaea, and Isidor, metropolitan of Kiev, at length made a
+declaration on the <i>filioque</i> (4th of June), to which all save Markos
+Eugenikos subscribed. On the next topic of importance, the
+primacy of the pope, the project of union nearly suffered shipwreck;
+but here a vague formula was finally constructed which,
+while acknowledging the pope&rsquo;s right to govern the church,
+attempted to safeguard as well the rights of the patriarchs.
+On the basis of the above-mentioned agreements, as well as of
+minor discussions as to purgatory and the Eucharist, the decree
+of union was drawn up in Latin and in Greek, and signed on the
+5th of July by the pope and the Greek emperor, and all the
+members of the synod save Eugenikos and one Greek bishop
+who had fled; and on the following day it was solemnly published
+in the cathedral of Florence. The decree explains the
+<i>filioque</i> in a manner acceptable to the Greeks, but does not
+require them to insert the term in their symbol; it demands
+that celebrants follow the custom of their own church as to the
+employment of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist.
+It states essentially the Roman doctrine of purgatory, and asserts
+the world-wide primacy of the pope as the &ldquo;true vicar of Christ
+and the head of the whole Church, the Father and teacher of all
+Christians&rdquo;; but, to satisfy the Greeks, inconsistently adds that
+all the rights and privileges of the Oriental patriarchs are to be
+maintained unimpaired. After the consummation of the union
+the Greeks remained in Florence for several weeks, discussing
+matters such as the liturgy, the administration of the sacraments,
+and divorce; and they sailed from Venice to Constantinople
+in October.</p>
+
+<p>The council, however, desirous of negotiating unions with the
+minor churches of the East, remained in session for several years,
+and seems never to have reached a formal adjournment. The
+decree for the Armenians was published on the 22nd of November
+1439; they accepted the <i>filioque</i> and the Athanasian creed,
+rejected Monophysitism and Monothelitism, agreed to the developed
+scholastic doctrine concerning the seven sacraments,
+and conformed their calendar to the Western in certain points.
+On the 26th of April 1441 the pope announced that the synod
+would be transferred to the Lateran; but before leaving Florence
+a union was negotiated with the Oriental Christians known as
+Jacobites, through a monk named Andreas, who, at least as
+regards Abyssinia, acted in excess of his powers. The <i>Decretum
+pro Jacobitis</i>, published on the 4th of February 1442, is, like
+that for the Armenians, of high dogmatic interest, as it summarizes
+the doctrine of the great medieval scholastics on the points
+in controversy. The decree for the Syrians, published at the
+Lateran on the 30th of September 1444, and those for the
+Chaldeans (Nestorians) and the Maronites (Monothelites), published
+at the last known session of the council on the 7th of
+August 1445, added nothing of doctrinal importance. Though
+the direct results of these unions were the restoration of prestige
+to the absolutist papacy and the bringing of Byzantine men of
+letters, like Bessarion, to the West, the outcome was on the
+whole disappointing. Of the complicated history of the
+&ldquo;United&rdquo; churches of the East it suffices to say that Rome
+succeeded in securing but fragments, though important fragments,
+of the greater organizations. As for the Greeks, the union
+met with much opposition, particularly from the monks, and was
+rejected by three Oriental patriarchs at a synod of Jerusalem in
+1443; and after various ineffective attempts to enforce it, the
+fall of Constantinople in 1453 put an end to the endeavour. As
+Turkish interests demanded the isolation of the Oriental
+Christians from their western brethren, and as the orthodox
+Greek nationalists feared Latinization more than Mahommedan
+rule, a patriarch hostile to the union was chosen, and a synod
+of Constantinople in 1472 formally rejected the decisions of
+Florence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Hardouin, vol. 9; Mansi, vols. 31 A, 31 B, 35;
+Sylvester Sguropulus (properly Syropulus), <i>Vera historia Unionis</i>,
+transl. R. Creyghton (Hague, 1660); Cecconi, <i>Studi storici sul
+concilio di Firenze</i> (Florence, 1869), (appendix); J. Zhishman, <i>Die
+Unionsverhandlungen ... bis zum Concil von Ferrara</i> (Vienna,
+1858); Gorski, of Moscow, 1847, <i>The History of the Council of
+Florence</i>, trans. from the Russian by Basil Popoff, ed. by J.M.
+Neale (London, 1861); C.J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. 7
+(Freiburg i. B., 1874), 659-761, 793 ff., 814 ff.; H. Vast, <i>Le Cardinal
+Bessarion</i> (Paris, 1878), 53-113; A. Warschauer, <i>Über die Quellen
+zur Geschichte des Florentiner Concils</i> (Breslau, 1881), (Dissertation);
+M. Creighton, <i>A History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation</i>,
+vol. 2 (London, 1882), 173-194 (vivid); Knöpfler, in Wetzer
+and Welte&rsquo;s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, vol. 4 (2nd ed., Freiburg i. B., 1885),
+1363-1380 (instructive); L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. 1
+(London, 1891), 315 ff.; F. Kattenbusch, <i>Lehrbuch der vergleichenden
+Confessionskunde</i>, vol. 1 (Freiburg i. B., 1892), 128 ff.; N. Kalogeras,
+archbishop of Patras, &ldquo;Die Verhandlungen zwischen der orthodox-katholischen
+Kirche und dem Konzil von Basel über die Wiedervereinigung
+der Kirchen&rdquo; (<i>Internationale Theologische Zeitschrift</i>),
+vol. 1 (Bern, 1893, 39-57); P. Tschackert, in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>,
+vol. 6 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1899), 45-48 (good bibliography);
+Walter Norden, <i>Das Papsttum und Byzanz</i>: <i>Die Trennung
+der beiden Mächte und das Problem ihrer Wiedervereinigung bis 1453</i>
+(Berlin, 1903), 712 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRARI, GAUDENZIO<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1484-1549), Italian painter and
+sculptor, of the Milanese, or more strictly the Piedmontese,
+school, was born at Valduggia, Piedmont, and is said (very
+dubiously) to have learned the elements of painting at Vercelli
+from Girolamo Giovenone. He next studied in Milan, in the
+school of Scotto, and some say of Luini; towards 1504 he
+proceeded to Florence, and afterwards (it used to be alleged) to
+Rome. His pictorial style may be considered as derived mainly
+from the old Milanese school, with a considerable tinge of the
+influence of Da Vinci, and later on of Raphael; in his personal
+manner there was something of the demonstrative and fantastic.
+The gentler qualities diminished, and the stronger intensified,
+as he progressed. By 1524 he was at Varallo in Piedmont, and
+here, in the chapel of the Sacro Monte, the sanctuary of the
+Piedmontese pilgrims, he executed his most memorable work.
+This is a fresco of the Crucifixion, with a multitude of figures,
+no less than twenty-six of them being modelled in actual relief,
+and coloured; on the vaulted ceiling are eighteen lamenting
+angels, powerful in expression. Other leading examples are the
+following. In the Royal Gallery, Turin, a &ldquo;Pietà,&rdquo; an able early
+work. In the Brera Gallery, Milan, &ldquo;St Katharine miraculously
+preserved from the Torture of the Wheel,&rdquo; a very characteristic
+example, hard and forcible in colour, thronged in composition,
+turbulent in emotion; also several frescoes, chiefly from the
+church of Santa Maria della Pace, three of them being from the
+history of Joachim and Anna. In the cathedral of Vercelli, the
+choir, the &ldquo;Virgin with Angels and Saints under an Orange
+Tree.&rdquo; In the refectory of San Paolo, the &ldquo;Last Supper.&rdquo; In
+the church of San Cristoforo, the transept (in 1532-1535), a
+series of paintings in which Ferrari&rsquo;s scholar Lanini assisted him;
+by Ferrari himself are the &ldquo;Birth of the Virgin,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Annunciation,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;Visitation,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Adoration of the Shepherds
+and Kings,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Crucifixion,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Assumption of the Virgin,&rdquo;
+all full of life and decided character, though somewhat mannered.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span>
+In the Louvre, &ldquo;St Paul Meditating.&rdquo; In Varallo, convent of the
+Minorites (1507), a &ldquo;Presentation in the Temple,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Christ
+among the Doctors,&rdquo; and (after 1510) the &ldquo;History of Christ,&rdquo;
+in twenty-one subjects; also an ancona in six compartments,
+named the &ldquo;Ancona di San Gaudenzio.&rdquo; In Santa Maria di
+Loreto, near Varallo (after 1527), an &ldquo;Adoration.&rdquo; In the
+church of Saronno, near Milan, the cupola (1535), a &ldquo;Glory of
+Angels,&rdquo; in which the beauty of the school of Da Vinci alternates
+with bravura of foreshortenings in the mode of Correggio. In
+Milan, Santa Maria delle Grazie (1542), the &ldquo;Scourging of Christ,&rdquo;
+an &ldquo;Ecce Homo&rdquo; and a &ldquo;Crucifixion.&rdquo; The &ldquo;Scourging,&rdquo; or
+else a &ldquo;Last Supper,&rdquo; in the Passione of Milan (unfinished), is
+regarded as Ferrari&rsquo;s latest work. He was a very prolific painter,
+distinguished by strong expression, animation and fulness of
+composition, and abundant invention; he was skilful in painting
+horses, and his decisive rather hard colour is marked by a
+partiality for shot tints in drapery. In general character, his
+work appertains more to the 15th than the 16th century. His
+subjects were always of the sacred order. Ferrari&rsquo;s death took
+place in Milan. Besides Lanini, already mentioned, Andrea
+Solario, Giambattista della Cerva and Fermo Stella were three
+of his principal scholars. He is represented to us as a good man,
+attached to his country and his art, jovial and sometimes
+facetious, but an enemy of scandal. The reputation which he
+enjoyed soon after his death was very great, but it has not fully
+stood the test of time. Lomazzo went so far as to place him
+seventh among the seven prime painters of Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Bordiga, two works concerning <i>Gaudenzio Ferrari</i> (1821 and
+1835); G. Colombo, <i>Vita ed opere di Gaudenzio Ferrari</i> (1881);
+Ethel Halsey, <i>Gaudenzio Ferrari</i> (in the series <i>Great Masters</i>, 1904).</p>
+
+<p>There was another painter nearly contemporary with Gaudenzio,
+Difendente Ferrari, also of the Lombard school. His celebrity is by
+no means equal to that of Gaudenzio; but <i>Kugler</i> (1887, as edited
+by Layard) pronounced him to be &ldquo;a good and original colourist,
+and the best artist that Piedmont has produced.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRARI, GIUSEPPE<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1812-1876), Italian philosopher,
+historian and politician, was born at Milan on the 7th of March
+1812, and died in Rome on the 2nd of July 1876. He studied law
+at Pavia, and took the degree of doctor in 1831. A follower of
+Romagnosi (d. 1835) and Giovan Battista Vico (<i>q.v.</i>), his first
+works were an article in the <i>Biblioteca Italiana</i> entitled &ldquo;Mente
+di Gian Domenico Romagnosi&rdquo; (1835), and a complete edition
+of the works of Vico, prefaced by an appreciation (1835). Finding
+Italy uncongenial to his ideas, he went to France and, in
+1839, produced in Paris his <i>Vico et l&rsquo;Italie</i>, followed by <i>La
+Nouvelle Religion de Campanella</i> and <i>La Théorie de l&rsquo;erreur</i>.
+On account of these works he was made Docteur-ès-lettres of the
+Sorbonne and professor of philosophy at Rochefort (1840). His
+views, however, provoked antagonism, and in 1842 he was
+appointed to the chair of philosophy at Strassburg. After fresh
+trouble with the clergy, he returned to Paris and published a
+defence of his theories in a work entitled <i>Idées sur la politique
+de Platon et d&rsquo;Aristote</i>. After a short connexion with the college
+at Bourges, he devoted himself from 1849 to 1858 exclusively to
+writing. The works of this period are <i>Les Philosophes Salariés,
+Machiavel juge des révolutions de notre temps</i> (1849), <i>La Federazione
+repubblicana</i> (1851), <i>La Filosofia della rivoluzione</i> (1851),
+<i>L&rsquo; Italia dopo il colpo di Stato</i> (1852), <i>Histoire des révolutions, ou
+Guelfes et Gibelins</i> (1858; Italian trans., 1871-1873). In 1859
+he returned to Italy, where he opposed Cavour, and upheld
+federalism against the policy of a single Italian monarchy. In
+spite of this opposition, he held chairs of philosophy at Turin,
+Milan and Rome in succession, and during several administrations
+represented the college of Gavirate in the chamber. He was a
+member of the council of education and was made senator on the
+15th of May 1876. Amongst other works may be mentioned
+<i>Histoire de la raison d&rsquo;état, La China et l&rsquo; Europa, Corso d&rsquo; istoria
+degli scrittori politici italiani</i>. A sceptic in philosophy and a
+revolutionist in politics, rejoicing in controversy of all kinds, he
+was admired as a man, as an orator, and as a writer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Marro Macchi, <i>Annuario istorico italiano</i> (Milan, 1877);
+Mazzoleni, <i>Giuseppe Ferrari</i>; Werner, <i>Die ital. Philosophie des 19.
+Jahrh.</i> vol. 3 (Vienna, 1885); Überweg, <i>History of Philosophy</i> (Eng.
+trans. ii. 461 foll.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRARI, PAOLO<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1822-1889), Italian dramatist, was born
+at Modena. After producing some minor pieces, in 1852 he
+made his reputation as a playwright with <i>Goldoni e le sue sedici
+commedie</i>. Among numerous later plays his comedy <i>Parini e
+la satira</i> (1857) had considerable success. Ferrari may be
+regarded as a follower of Goldoni, modelling himself on the
+French theatrical methods. His collected plays were published
+in 1877-1880.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERREIRA, ANTONIO<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1528-1569), Portuguese poet, was a
+native of Lisbon; his father held the post of <i>escrivão de fazenda</i>
+in the house of the duke of Coimbra at Setubal, so that he must
+there have met the great adventurer Mendes Pinto. In 1547-1548
+he went to the university of Coimbra, and on the 16th of
+July 1551 took his bachelor&rsquo;s degree. The Sonnets forming the
+First Book in his collected works date from 1552 and contain the
+history of his early love for an unknown lady. They seem to
+have been written in Coimbra or during vacations in Lisbon;
+and if some are dry and stilted, others, like the admirable
+No. 45, are full of feeling and tears. The Sonnets in the Second
+Book were inspired by D. Maria Pimentel, whom he afterwards
+married, and they are marked by that chastity of sentiment,
+seriousness and ardent patriotism which characterized the man
+and the writer. Ferreira&rsquo;s ideal, as a poet, was to win &ldquo;the
+applause of the good,&rdquo; and, in the preface to his poems, he says,
+&ldquo;I am content with this glory, that I have loved my land and
+my people.&rdquo; He was intimate with princes, nobles and the most
+distinguished literary men of the time, such as the scholarly
+Diogo de Teive and the poets Bernardes, Caminha and Corte-Real,
+as well as with the aged Sá de Miranda, the founder of the
+classical school of which Ferreira became the foremost representative.</p>
+
+<p>The death in 1554 of Prince John, the heir to the throne, drew
+from him, as from Camoens, Bernardes and Caminha, a poetical
+lament, which consisted of an elegy and two eclogues, imitative
+of Virgil and Horace, and devoid of interest. On the 14th of
+July 1555 he took his doctor&rsquo;s degree, an event which was celebrated,
+according to custom, by a sort of Roman triumph, and
+he stayed on as a professor, finding Coimbra with its picturesque
+environs congenial to his poetical tastes and love of a country
+life. The year 1557 produced his sixth elegy, addressed to the
+son of the great Albuquerque, a poem of noble patriotism
+expressed in eloquent and sonorous verse, and in the next year
+he married. After a short and happy married life, his wife died,
+and the ninth sonnet of Book 2 describes her end in moving
+words. This loss lent Ferreira&rsquo;s verse an added austerity, and
+the independence of his muse is remarkable when he addresses
+King Sebastian and reminds him of his duties as well as his
+rights. On the 14th of October 1567 he became <i>Disembargador
+da Casa do Civel</i>, and had to leave the quiet of Coimbra for Lisbon.
+His verses tell how he disliked the change, and how the bustle of
+the capital, then a great commercial emporium, made him sad
+and almost tongue-tied for poetry. The intrigues and moral
+twists of the courtiers and traders, among whom he was forced
+to live, hurt his fine sense of honour, and he felt his mental
+isolation the more, because his friends were few and scattered
+in that great city which the discoveries and conquests of the
+Portuguese had made the centre of a world empire. In 1569 a
+terrible epidemic of carbunculous fever broke out and carried
+off 50,000 inhabitants of Lisbon, and, on the 29th of November,
+Ferreira, who had stayed there doing his duty when others fled,
+fell a victim.</p>
+
+<p>Horace was his favourite poet, erudition his muse, and his
+admiration of the classics made him disdain the popular poetry
+of the Old School (<i>Escola Velha</i>) represented by Gil Vicente.
+His national feeling would not allow him to write in Latin or
+Spanish, like most of his contemporaries, but his Portuguese is
+as Latinized as he could make it, and he even calls his poetical
+works <i>Poemas Lusitanos</i>. Sá de Miranda had philosophized in
+the familiar <i>redondilha</i>, introduced the epistle and founded the
+comedy of learning. It was the beginning of a revolution, which
+Ferreira completed by abandoning the hendecasyllable for the
+Italian decasyllable, and by composing the noble and austere
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span>
+Roman poetry of his letters, odes and elegies. It was all done
+of set purpose, for he was a reformer conscious of his mission
+and resolved to carry it out. The gross realism of the popular
+poetry, its lack of culture and its carelessness of form, offended
+his educated taste, and its picturesqueness and ingenuity made
+no appeal to him. It is not surprising, however, that though
+he earned the applause of men of letters he failed to touch the
+hearts of his countrymen. Ferreira wrote the Terentian prose
+comedy <i>Bristo</i>, at the age of twenty-five (1553), and dedicated
+it to Prince John in the name of the university. It is neither
+a comedy of character nor manners, but its <i>vis comica</i> lies in its
+plot and situations. The <i>Cioso</i>, a later product, may almost
+be called a comedy of character. <i>Castro</i> is Ferreira&rsquo;s most considerable
+work, and, in date, is the first tragedy in Portuguese,
+and the second in modern European literature. Though
+fashioned on the great models of the ancients, it has little plot or
+action, and the characters, except that of the prince, are ill-designed.
+It is really a splendid poem, with a chorus which
+sings the sad fate of Ignez in musical odes, rich in feeling and
+grandeur of expression. Her love is the chaste, timid affection
+of a wife and a vassal rather than the strong passion of a mistress,
+but Pedro is really the man history describes, the love-fettered
+prince whom the tragedy of Ignez&rsquo;s death converted into the cruel
+tyrant. King Alfonso is little more than a shadow, and only
+meets Ignez once, his son never; while, stranger still, Pedro and
+Ignez never come on the stage together, and their love is merely
+narrated. Nevertheless, Ferreira merits all praise for choosing
+one of the most dramatic episodes in Portuguese history for his
+subject, and though it has since been handled by poets of renown
+in many <span class="correction" title="amended from differenc">different</span> languages, none has been able to surpass the
+old master.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Castro</i> was first printed in Lisbon in 1587, and it is included in
+Ferreira&rsquo;s <i>Poemas</i>, published in 1598 by his son. It has been translated
+by Musgrave (London, 1825), and the chorus of Act I. appeared
+again in English in the <i>Savoy</i> for July 1896. It has also been done
+into French and German. The <i>Bristo</i> and <i>Cioso</i> first appeared
+with the comedies of Sá de Miranda in Lisbon in 1622. There is
+a good modern edition of the Complete Works of Ferreira (2
+vols., Paris, 1865). See Castilho&rsquo;s <i>Antonio Ferreira</i> (3 vols., Rio,
+1865), which contains a full biographical and critical study with
+extracts.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERREL&rsquo;S LAW,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> in physical geography. &ldquo;If a body moves
+in any direction on the earth&rsquo;s surface, there is a deflecting force
+arising from the earth&rsquo;s rotation, which deflects it to the right
+in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.&rdquo;
+This law applies to every body that is set in motion
+upon the surface of the rotating earth, but usually the duration
+of the motion of any body due to a single impulse is so brief,
+and there are so many frictional disturbances, that it is not easy
+to observe the results of this deflecting force. The movements
+of the atmosphere, however, are upon a scale large enough to
+make this observation easy, and the simplest evidence is obtained
+from a study of the direction of the air movements in the great
+wind systems of the globe. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteorology</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRERS,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> the name of a great Norman-English feudal house,
+derived from Ferrières-St-Hilaire, to the south of Bernay, in
+Normandy. Its ancestor Walkelin was slain in a feud during
+the Conqueror&rsquo;s minority, leaving a son Henry, who took part
+in the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday survey his fief
+extended into fourteen counties, but the great bulk of it was in
+Derbyshire and Leicestershire, especially the former. He himself
+occurs in Worcestershire as one of the royal commissioners
+for the survey. He established his chief seat at Tutbury Castle,
+Staffordshire, on the Derbyshire border, and founded there a
+Cluniac priory. As was the usual practice with the great Norman
+houses, his eldest son succeeded to Ferrières, and, according to
+Stapleton, he was ancestor of the Oakham house of Ferrers,
+whose memory is preserved by the horseshoes hanging in the hall
+of their castle. Robert, a younger son of Henry, inherited his
+vast English fief, and, for his services at the battle of the Standard
+(1138), was created earl of Derby by Stephen. He appears to
+have died a year after.</p>
+
+<p>Both the title and the arms of the earls have been the subject
+of much discussion, and they seem to have been styled indifferently
+earls of Derby or Nottingham (both counties then forming
+one shrievalty) or of Tutbury, or simply (de) Ferrers. Robert,
+the 2nd earl, who founded Merevale Abbey, was father of William,
+the 3rd earl, who began the opposition of his house to the crown
+by joining in the great revolt of 1173, when he fortified his castles
+of Tutbury and Duffield and plundered Nottingham, which was
+held for the king. On his subsequent submission his castles
+were razed. Dying at the siege of Acre, 1190, he was succeeded
+by his son William, who attacked Nottingham on Richard&rsquo;s
+behalf in 1194, but whom King John favoured and confirmed
+in the earldom of Derby, 1199. A claim that he was heir to the
+honour of Peveral of Nottingham, which has puzzled genealogists,
+was compromised with the king, whom the earl thenceforth
+stoutly supported, being with him at his death and witnessing
+his will, with his brother-in-law the earl of Chester, and with
+William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, whose daughter married
+his son. With them also he acted in securing the succession
+of the young Henry, joining in the siege of Mountsorrel and the
+battle of Lincoln. But he was one of those great nobles who
+looked with jealousy on the rising power of the king&rsquo;s favourites.
+In 1227 he was one of the earls who rose against him on behalf
+of his brother Richard and made him restore the forest charters,
+and in 1237 he was one of the three counsellors forced on the king
+by the barons. His influence had by this time been further
+increased by the death, in 1232, of the earl of Chester, whose
+sister, his wife, inherited a vast estate between the Ribble and
+the Mersey. On his death in 1247, his son William succeeded
+as 5th earl, and inherited through his wife her share of the great
+possessions of the Marshals, earls of Pembroke. By his second
+wife, a daughter of the earl of Winchester, he was father of
+Robert, 6th and last earl. Succeeding as a minor in 1254,
+Robert had been secured by the king, as early as 1249, as a
+husband for his wife&rsquo;s niece, Marie, daughter of Hugh, count of
+Angoulême, but, in spite of this, he joined the opposition in
+1263 and distinguished himself by his violence. He was one
+of the five earls summoned to Simon de Montfort&rsquo;s parliament,
+though, on taking the earl of Gloucester&rsquo;s part, he was arrested
+by Simon. In spite of this he was compelled on the king&rsquo;s
+triumph to forfeit his castles and seven years&rsquo; revenues. In
+1266 he broke out again in revolt on his own estates in Derbyshire,
+but was utterly defeated at Chesterfield by Henry &ldquo;of
+Almain,&rdquo; deprived of his earldom and lands and imprisoned.
+Eventually, in 1269, he agreed to pay £50,000 for restoration,
+and to pledge all his lands save Chartley and Holbrook for its
+payment. As he was not able to find the money, the lands passed
+to the king&rsquo;s son, Edmund, to whom they had been granted on
+his forfeiture.</p>
+
+<p>The earl&rsquo;s son John succeeded to Chartley, a Staffordshire
+estate long famous for the wild cattle in its chase, and was summoned
+as a baron in 1299, though he had joined the baronial
+opposition in 1297. On the death, in 1450, of the last Ferrers
+lord of Chartley, the barony passed with his daughter to the
+Devereux family and then to the Shirleys, one of whom was
+created Earl Ferrers in 1711. The barony has been in abeyance
+since 1855.</p>
+
+<p>The line of Ferrers of Groby was founded by William, younger
+brother of the last earl, who inherited from his mother Margaret
+de Quinci her estate of Groby in Leicestershire, and some Ferrers
+manors from his father. His son was summoned as a baron in
+1300, but on the death of his descendant, William, Lord Ferrers
+of Groby, in 1445, the barony passed with his granddaughter
+to the Grey family and was forfeited with the dukedom of Suffolk
+in 1554. A younger son of William, the last lord, married the
+heiress of Tamworth Castle, and his line was seated at Tamworth
+till 1680, when an heiress carried it to a son of the first Earl
+Ferrers. From Sir Henry, a younger son of the first Ferrers of
+Tamworth, descended Ferrers of Baddesley Clinton, seated there
+in the male line till towards the end of the 19th century. The
+line of Ferrers of Wemme was founded by a younger son of
+Lord Ferrers of Chartley, who married the heiress of Wemme,
+Co. Salop, and was summoned as a baron in her right; but it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span>
+ended with their son. There are doubtless male descendants
+of this great Norman house still in existence.</p>
+
+<p>Higham Ferrers, Northants, and Woodham Ferrers, Essex,
+take their names from this family. It has been alleged that they
+bore horseshoes for their arms in allusion to Ferrières (<i>i.e.</i> ironworks);
+but when and why they were added to their coat is a
+moot point.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dugdale&rsquo;s <i>Baronage</i>; J.R. Planché&rsquo;s <i>The Conqueror and his
+Companions</i>; G.E. C(okayne)&rsquo;s <i>Complete Peerage</i>; <i>Chronicles
+and Memorials</i> (Rolls Series); T. Stapleton&rsquo;s <i>Rotuli Scaccarii Normannie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">4th Earl</span> (1720-1760),
+the last nobleman in England to suffer a felon&rsquo;s death, was born
+on the 18th of August 1720. There was insanity in his family,
+and from an early age his behaviour seems to have been eccentric,
+and his temper violent, though he was quite capable of managing
+his business affairs. In 1758 his wife obtained a separation
+from him for cruelty. The Ferrers estates were then vested
+in trustees, the Earl Ferrers secured the appointment of an old
+family steward, Johnson, as receiver of rents. This man faithfully
+performed his duty as a servant to the trustees, and did
+not prove amenable to Ferrer&rsquo;s personal wishes. On the 18th
+of January 1760, Johnson called at the earl&rsquo;s mansion at Staunton
+Harold, Leicestershire, by appointment, and was directed to his
+lordship&rsquo;s study. Here, after some business conversation, Lord
+Ferrers shot him. In the following April Ferrers was tried for
+murder by his peers in Westminster Hall. His defence, which
+he conducted in person with great ability, was a plea of insanity,
+and it was supported by considerable evidence, but he was found
+guilty. He subsequently said that he had only pleaded insanity
+to oblige his family, and that he had himself always been ashamed
+of such a defence. On the 5th of May 1760, dressed in a light-coloured
+suit, embroidered with silver, he was taken in his own
+carriage from the Tower of London to Tyburn and there hanged.
+It has been said that as a concession to his order the rope used
+was of silk.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Peter Burke, <i>Celebrated Trials connected with the Aristocracy
+in the Relations of Private Life</i> (London, 1849); Edward Walford,
+<i>Tales of our Great Families</i> (London, 1877); <i>Howell&rsquo;s State Trials</i>
+(1816), xix. 885-980.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRET,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a domesticated, and frequently albino breed of
+quadruped, derived from the wild polecat (<i>Putorius foetidus</i>,
+or <i>P. putorius</i>), which it closely resembles in size, form, and
+habits, and with which it interbreeds. It differs in the colour of
+its fur, which is usually yellowish-white, and of its eyes, which
+are pinky-red. The &ldquo;polecat-ferret&rdquo; is a brown breed, apparently
+the product of the above-mentioned cross. The ferret
+attains a length of about 14 in., exclusive of the tail, which
+measures 5 in. Although exhibiting considerable tameness, it
+seems incapable of attachment, and when not properly fed, or
+when irritated, is apt to give painful evidence of its ferocity.
+It is chiefly employed in destroying rats and other vermin, and
+in driving rabbits from their burrows. The ferret is remarkably
+prolific, the female bringing forth two broods annually, each
+numbering from six to nine young. It is said to occasionally
+devour its young immediately after birth, and in this case
+produces another brood soon after. The ferret was well known
+to the Romans, Strabo stating that it was brought from Africa
+into Spain, and Pliny that it was employed in his time in rabbit-hunting,
+under the name <i>Viverra</i>; the English name is not
+derived from this, but from Fr. <i>furet</i>, Late Lat. <i>furo</i>, robber.
+The date of its introduction into Great Britain is uncertain,
+but it has been known in England for at least 600 years.</p>
+
+<p>The ferret should be kept in dry, clean, well-ventilated hutches,
+and fed twice daily on bread, milk, and meat, such as rabbits&rsquo;
+and fowls&rsquo; livers. When used to hunt rabbits it is provided with
+a muzzle, or, better and more usual, a cope, made by looping
+and knotting twine about the head and snout, in order to prevent
+it killing its quarry, in which case it would gorge itself and go
+to sleep in the hole. As the ferret enters the hole the rabbits
+flee before it, and are shot or caught by dogs as they break
+ground. A ferret&rsquo;s hold on its quarry is as obstinate as that of
+a bulldog, but can easily be broken by a strong pressure of
+the thumb just above the eyes. Only full-grown ferrets are
+&ldquo;worked to&rdquo; rats. Several are generally used at a time and
+without copes, as rats are fierce fighters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Ferrets</i>, by Nicholas Everitt (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRI, CIRO<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1634-1689), Roman painter, the chief disciple
+and successor of Pietro da Cortona. He was born in the Roman
+territory, studied under Pietro, to whom he became warmly
+attached, and, at an age a little past thirty, completed the painting
+of the ceilings and other internal decorations begun by his
+instructor in the Pitti palace, Florence. He also co-operated
+in or finished several other works by Pietro, both in Florence
+and in Rome, approaching near to his style and his particular
+merits, but with less grace of design and native vigour, and in
+especial falling short of him in colour. Of his own independent
+productions, the chief is an extensive series of scriptural frescoes
+in the church of S. Maria Maggiore in Bergamo; also a painting
+(rated as Ferri&rsquo;s best work) of St Ambrose healing a sick person,
+the principal altarpiece in the church of S. Ambrogio della Massima
+in Rome. The paintings of the cupola of S. Agnese in the same
+capital might rank even higher than these; but this labour
+remained uncompleted at the death of Ferri, and was marred by
+the performances of his successor Corbellini. He executed also
+a large amount of miscellaneous designs, such as etchings and
+frontispieces for books; and he was an architect besides. Ferri
+was appointed to direct the Florentine students in Rome, and
+Gabbiani was one of his leading pupils. As regards style, Ferri
+ranks as chief of the so-called Machinists, as opposed to the
+school founded by Sacchi, and continued by Carlo Maratta.
+He died in Rome&mdash;his end being hastened, as it is said, by
+mortification at his recognized inferiority to Bacciccia in colour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRI, LUIGI<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1826-1895), Italian philosopher, was born at
+Bologna on the 15th of June 1826. His education was obtained
+mainly at the École Normale in Paris, where his father, a painter
+and architect, was engaged in the construction of the Théâtre
+Italien. From his twenty-fifth year he began to lecture in the
+colleges of Evreux, Dieppe, Blois and Toulouse. Later, he was
+lecturer at Annecy and Casal-Montferrat, and became head of
+the education department under Mamiani in 1860. Three years
+later he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Istituto
+di Perfezionamento at Florence, and, in 1871, was made professor
+of philosophy in the university of Rome. On the death of
+Mamiani in 1885 he became editor of the <i>Filosofia delle scuole
+italiane</i>, the title of which he changed to <i>Rivista italiana di
+filosofia</i>. He wrote both on psychology and on metaphysics, but
+is known especially as a historian of philosophy. His original
+work is eclectic, combining the psychology of his teachers, Jules
+Simon, Saisset and Mamiani, with the idealism of Rosmini and
+Gioberti. Among his works may be mentioned <i>Studii sulla
+coscienza</i>; <i>Il Fenomeno nelle sue relazioni con la sensazione</i>;
+<i>Della idea del vero</i>; <i>Della filosofia del diritto presso Aristotile</i>
+(1885); <i>Il Genio di Aristotile</i>; <i>La Psicologia di Pietro Pomponazzi</i>
+(1877), and, most important, <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;histoire de la philosophie
+en Italie au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1869), and <i>La Psychologie de
+l&rsquo;association depuis Hobbes jusqu&rsquo;à nos jours</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRIER, ARNAUD DU<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1508-1585), French jurisconsult
+and diplomatist, was born at Toulouse about 1508, and practised
+as a lawyer first at Bourges, afterwards at Toulouse. Councillor
+to the <i>parlement</i> of the latter town, and then to that of Rennes,
+he later became president of the <i>parlement</i> of Paris. He represented
+Charles IX., king of France, at the council of Trent in
+1562, but had to retire in consequence of the attitude he had
+adopted, and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he
+remained till 1567, returning again in 1570. On his return to
+France he came into touch with the Calvinists whose tenets
+he probably embraced, and consequently lost his place in the
+privy council and part of his fortune. As compensation, Henry,
+king of Navarre, appointed him his chancellor. He died in the
+end of October 1585.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also E. Frémy, <i>Un Ambassadeur libéral sous Charles IX et
+Henri III, Arnaud du Ferrier</i> (Paris, 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1808-1864), Scottish
+metaphysical writer, was born in Edinburgh on the 16th of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span>
+June 1808, the son of John Ferrier, writer to the signet. His
+mother was a sister of John Wilson (Christopher North). He was
+educated at the university of Edinburgh and Magdalen College,
+Oxford, and subsequently, his metaphysical tastes having
+been fostered by his intimate friend, Sir William Hamilton,
+spent some time at Heidelberg studying German philosophy.
+In 1842 he was appointed professor of civil history in Edinburgh
+University, and in 1845 professor of moral philosophy and political
+economy at St Andrews. He was twice an unsuccessful candidate
+for chairs in Edinburgh, for that of moral philosophy on Wilson&rsquo;s
+resignation in 1852, and for that of logic and metaphysics in
+1856, after Hamilton&rsquo;s death. He remained at St Andrews till
+his death on the 11th of June 1864. He married his cousin,
+Margaret Anne, daughter of John Wilson. He had five children,
+one of whom became the wife of Sir Alexander Grant.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrier&rsquo;s first contribution to metaphysics was a series of
+articles in <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (1838-1839), entitled <i>An
+Introduction to the Philosophy of Consciousness</i>. In these he
+condemns previous philosophers for ignoring in their psychological
+investigations the fact of consciousness, which is the
+distinctive feature of man, and confining their observation
+to the so-called &ldquo;states of the mind.&rdquo; Consciousness comes
+into manifestation only when the man has used the word &ldquo;I&rdquo;
+with full knowledge of what it means. This notion he must
+originate within himself. Consciousness cannot spring from
+the states which are its object, for it is in antagonism to them.
+It originates in the will, which in the act of consciousness puts
+the &ldquo;I&rdquo; in the place of our sensations. Morality, conscience,
+and responsibility are necessary results of consciousness. These
+articles were succeeded by a number of others, of which the
+most important were <i>The Crisis of Modern Speculation</i> (1841),
+<i>Berkeley and Idealism</i> (1842), and an important examination
+of Hamilton&rsquo;s edition of Reid (1847), which contains a vigorous
+attack on the philosophy of common sense. The perception of
+matter is pronounced to be the <i>ne plus ultra</i> of thought, and
+Reid, for presuming to analyse it, is declared to be a representationist
+in fact, although he professed to be an intuitionist. A
+distinction is made between the &ldquo;perception of matter&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;our apprehension of the perception of matter.&rdquo; Psychology
+vainly tries to analyse the former. Metaphysic shows the
+latter alone to be analysable, and separates the subjective
+element, &ldquo;our apprehension,&rdquo; from the objective element,
+&ldquo;the perception of matter,&rdquo;&mdash;not matter <i>per se</i>, but the perception
+of matter is the existence independent of the individual&rsquo;s
+thought. It cannot, however, be independent of thought. It
+must belong to some mind, and is therefore the property of the
+Divine Mind. There, he thinks, is an indestructible foundation
+for the <i>a priori</i> argument for the existence of God.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrier&rsquo;s matured philosophical doctrines find expression in
+the <i>Institutes of Metaphysics</i> (1854), in which he claims to have
+met the twofold obligation resting on every system of philosophy,
+that it should be reasoned and true. His method is that of
+Spinoza, strict demonstration, or at least an attempt at it.
+All the errors of natural thinking and psychology must fall under
+one or other of three topics:&mdash;Knowing and the Known, Ignorance,
+and Being. These are all-comprehensive, and are therefore
+the departments into which philosophy is divided, for the sole
+end of philosophy is to correct the inadvertencies of ordinary
+thinking.</p>
+
+<p>The problems of knowing and the known are treated in the
+&ldquo;Epistemology or Theory of Knowing.&rdquo; The truth that &ldquo;along
+with whatever any intelligence knows it must, as the ground
+or condition of its knowledge, have some cognizance of itself,&rdquo;
+is the basis of the whole philosophical system. Object + subject,
+thing + me, is the only possible knowable. This leads to the
+conclusion that the only independent universe which any mind
+can think of is the universe in synthesis with some <i>other</i> mind
+or <i>ego</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The leading contradiction which is corrected in the &ldquo;Agnoiology
+or Theory of Ignorance&rdquo; is this: that there can be an
+ignorance of that of which there can be no knowledge. Ignorance
+is a defect. But there is no defect in not knowing what cannot
+be known by any intelligence (<i>e.g.</i> that two and two make five),
+and therefore there can be an ignorance only of that of which
+there can be a knowledge, <i>i.e.</i> of some-object-<i>plus</i>-some-subject.
+The knowable alone is the ignorable. Ferrier lays special claim
+to originality for this division of the <i>Institutes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Ontology or Theory of Being&rdquo; forms the third and
+final division. It contains a discussion of the origin of knowledge,
+in which Ferrier traces all the perplexities and errors of philosophers
+to the assumption of the absolute existence of matter.
+The conclusion arrived at is that the only true real and independent
+existences are minds-together-with-that-which-they-apprehend,
+and that the one strictly necessary absolute existence
+is a supreme and infinite and everlasting mind in synthesis with
+all things.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ferrier&rsquo;s works are remarkable for an unusual charm and simplicity
+of style. These qualities are especially noticeable in the
+<i>Lectures on Greek Philosophy</i>, one of the best introductions on the
+subject in the English language. A complete edition of his philosophical
+writings was published in 1875, with a memoir by E.L.
+Lushington; see also monograph by E.S. Haldane in the Famous
+Scots Series.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRIER, PAUL<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1843-&emsp;&emsp;), French dramatist, was born
+at Montpellier on the 29th of March 1843. He had already
+produced several comedies when in 1873 he secured real success
+with two short pieces, <i>Chez l&rsquo;avocat</i> and <i>Les Incendies de Massoulard</i>.
+Others of his numerous plays are <i>Les Compensations</i> (1876);
+<i>L&rsquo;Art de tromper les femmes</i> (1890), with M. Najac. One of
+Ferrier&rsquo;s greatest triumphs was the production with Fabrice
+Carré of <i>Joséphine vendue par ses s&oelig;urs</i> (1886), an <i>opéra bouffe</i>
+with music by Victor Roger. His opera libretti include <i>La
+Marocaine</i> (1879), music of J. Offenbach; <i>Le Chevalier d&rsquo;Harmental</i>
+(1896) after the play of Dumas père, for the music of
+A. Messager; <i>La Fille de Tabarin</i> (1901), with Victorien Sardou,
+music of Gabriel Pierné.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1782-1854), Scottish
+novelist, born in Edinburgh on the 7th of September 1782, was
+the daughter of James Ferrier, for some years factor to the duke
+of Argyll, and at one time one of the clerks of the court of session
+with Sir Walter Scott. Her mother was a Miss Coutts, the
+beautiful daughter of a Forfarshire farmer. James Frederick
+Ferrier, noticed above, was Susan Ferrier&rsquo;s nephew.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Ferrier&rsquo;s first novel, <i>Marriage</i>, was begun in concert with
+a friend, Miss Clavering, a niece of the duke of Argyll; but this
+lady only wrote a few pages, and <i>Marriage</i>, completed by Miss
+Ferrier as early as 1810, appeared in 1818. It was followed in
+1824 by <i>The Inheritance</i>, a better constructed and more mature
+work; and the last and perhaps best of her novels, <i>Destiny</i>,
+dedicated to Sir Walter Scott (who himself undertook to strike
+the bargain with the publisher Cadell), appeared in 1831. All
+these novels were published anonymously; but, with their
+clever portraiture of contemporary Scottish life and manners,
+and even recognizable caricatures of some social celebrities of
+the day, they could not fail to become popular north of the Tweed.
+&ldquo;Lady MacLaughlan&rdquo; represents Mrs Seymour Damer in dress
+and Lady Frederick Campbell, whose husband, Lord Ferrier,
+was executed in 1760, in manners. Mary, Lady Clark, well
+known in Edinburgh, figured as &ldquo;Mrs Fox&rdquo; and the three maiden
+aunts were the Misses Edmonstone. Many were the conjectures
+as to the authorship of the novels. In the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>
+(November 1826), James Hogg is made to mention <i>The Inheritance</i>,
+and adds, &ldquo;which I aye thought was written by
+Sir Walter, as weel&rsquo;s <i>Marriage</i>, till it spunked out that it was
+written by a leddy.&rdquo; Scott himself gave Miss Ferrier a very
+high place indeed among the novelists of the day. In his diary
+(March 27, 1826), criticizing a new work which he had been
+reading, he says, &ldquo;The women do this better. Edgeworth,
+Ferrier, Austen, have all given portraits of real society far
+superior to anything man, vain man, has produced of the like
+nature.&rdquo; Another friendly recognition of Miss Ferrier is to be
+found at the conclusion of his <i>Tales of my Landlord</i>, where Scott
+calls her his &ldquo;sister shadow,&rdquo; the still anonymous author of
+&ldquo;the very lively work entitled <i>Marriage</i>.&rdquo; Lively, indeed, all
+Miss Ferrier&rsquo;s works are,&mdash;written in clear, brisk English, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span>
+with an inexhaustible fund of humour. It is true her books
+portray the eccentricities, the follies, and foibles of the society in
+which she lived, caricaturing with terrible exactness its hypocrisy,
+boastfulness, greed, affectation, and undue subservience to public
+opinion. Yet Miss Ferrier wrote less to reform than to amuse.
+In this she is less like Miss Edgeworth than Miss Austen. Miss
+Edgeworth was more of a moralist; her wit is not so involuntary,
+her caricatures not always so good-natured. But Miss Austen
+and Miss Ferrier were genuine humorists, and with Miss Ferrier
+especially a keen sense of the ludicrous was always dominant.
+Her humorous characters are always her best. It was no doubt
+because she felt this that in the last year of her life she regretted
+not having devoted her talents more exclusively to the service of
+religion. But if she was not a moralist, neither was she a cynic;
+and her wit, even where it is most caustic, is never uncharitable.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Ferrier&rsquo;s mother died in 1797, and from that date she
+kept house for her father until his death in 1829. She lived
+quietly at Morningside House and in Edinburgh for more than
+twenty years after the publication of her last work. The
+pleasantest picture that we have of her is in Lockhart&rsquo;s description
+of her visit to Scott in May 1831. She was asked there
+to help to amuse the dying master of Abbotsford, who, when
+he was not writing <i>Count Robert of Paris</i>, would talk as brilliantly
+as ever. Only sometimes, before he had reached the point in a
+narrative, &ldquo;it would seem as if some internal spring had given
+way.&rdquo; He would pause, and gaze blankly and anxiously round
+him. &ldquo;I noticed,&rdquo; says Lockhart, &ldquo;the delicacy of Miss Ferrier
+on such occasions. Her sight was bad, and she took care not to
+use her glasses when he was speaking; and she affected to be also
+troubled with deafness, and would say, &lsquo;Well, I am getting as
+dull as a post; I have not heard a word since you said
+so-and-so,&rsquo;&mdash;being
+sure to mention a circumstance behind that at which
+he had really halted. He then took up the thread with his
+habitual smile of courtesy&mdash;as if forgetting his case entirely in
+the consideration of the lady&rsquo;s infirmity.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Miss Ferrier died on the 5th of November 1854, at her brother&rsquo;s
+house in Edinburgh. She left among her papers a short unpublished
+article, entitled &ldquo;Recollections of Visits to Ashestiel
+and Abbotsford.&rdquo; This is her own very interesting account of
+her long friendship with Sir Walter Scott, from the date of her
+first visit to him and Lady Scott at Ashestiel, where she went
+with her father in the autumn of 1811, to her last sad visit
+to Abbotsford in 1831. It contains some impromptu verses
+written by Scott in her album at Ashestiel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Miss Ferrier&rsquo;s letters to her sister, which contained much interesting
+biographical matter, were destroyed at her particular request, but a
+volume of her correspondence with a memoir by her grand-nephew,
+John Ferrier, was published in 1898.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERROL<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> [<i>El Ferrol</i>], a seaport of north-western Spain, in
+the province of Corunna; situated 12 m. N.E. of the city of
+Corunna, and on the Bay of Ferrol, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean.
+Pop. (1900) 25,281. Together with San Fernando, near Cadiz,
+and Cartagena, Ferrol is governed by an admiral, with the
+special title of captain-general; and it ranks beside these two
+ports as one of the principal naval stations of Spain. The town
+is beautifully situated on a headland overlooking the bay, and
+is surrounded by rocky hills which render it invisible from the
+sea. Its harbour, naturally one of the best in Europe, and the
+largest in Spain except those of Vigo and Corunna, is deep,
+capacious and secure; but the entrance is a narrow strait about
+2 m. long, which admits only one vessel at a time, and is commanded
+by modern and powerfully armed forts, while the neighbouring
+heights are also crowned by defensive works. Ferrol is
+provided with extensive dockyards, quays, warehouses and
+an arsenal; most of these, with the palace of the captain-general,
+the bull-ring, theatres, and other principal buildings, were built
+or modernized between 1875 and 1905. The local industries are
+mainly connected with the shipping trade, or the refitting of
+warships. Owing to the lack of railway communication, and
+the competition of Corunna at so short a distance, Ferrol is not
+a first-class commercial port; and in the early years of the 20th
+century its trade, already injured by the loss to Spain of Cuba
+and Porto Rico in 1898, showed little prospect of improvement.
+The exports are insignificant, and consist chiefly of wooden
+staves and beams for use as pit-props; the chief imports are
+coal, cement, timber, iron and machinery. In 1904, 282 vessels
+of 155,881 tons entered the harbour. In the same year the construction
+of a railway to the neighbouring town of Betanzos
+was undertaken, and in 1909 important shipbuilding operations
+were begun.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrol was a mere fishing village until 1752, when Ferdinand VI.
+began to fit it for becoming an arsenal. In 1799 the British
+made a fruitless attempt to capture it, but on the 4th of
+November 1805 they defeated the French fleet in front of the
+town, which they compelled to surrender. On the 27th of
+January 1809 it was through treachery delivered over to the
+French, but it was vacated by them on the 22nd of July. On
+the 15th of July 1823 another blockade was begun by the French,
+and Ferrol surrendered to them on the 27th of August.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRUCCIO,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ferrucci</span>, <b>FRANCESCO</b> (1489-1530),
+Florentine captain. After spending a few years as a merchant&rsquo;s
+clerk he took to soldiering at an early age, and served in the
+<i>Bande Nere</i> in various parts of Italy, earning a reputation as a
+daring fighter and somewhat of a swashbuckler. When Pope
+Clement VII. and the emperor Charles V. decided to reinstate
+the Medici in Florence, they made war on the Florentine republic,
+and Ferruccio was appointed Florentine military commissioner
+at Empoli, where he showed great daring and resource by his
+rapid marches and sudden attacks on the Imperialists. Early
+in 1530 Volterra had thrown off Florentine allegiance and
+had been occupied by an Imperialist garrison, but Ferruccio
+surprised and recaptured the city. During his absence, however,
+the Imperialists captured Empoli by treachery, thus cutting
+off one of the chief avenues of approach to Florence. Ferruccio
+proposed to the government of the republic that he should
+march on Rome and terrorize the pope by the threat of a sack
+into making peace with Florence on favourable terms, but
+although the war committee appointed him commissioner-general
+for the operations outside the city, they rejected his
+scheme as too audacious. Ferruccio then decided to attempt
+a diversion by attacking the Imperialists in the rear and started
+from Volterra for the Apennines. But at Pisa he was laid up
+for a month with a fever&mdash;a misfortune which enabled the enemy
+to get wind of his plan and to prepare for his attack. At the end
+of July Ferruccio left Pisa at the head of about 4000 men, and
+although the besieged in Florence, knowing that a large part
+of the Imperialists under the prince of Orange had gone to meet
+Ferruccio, wished to co-operate with the latter by means of a
+sortie, they were prevented from doing so by their own traitorous
+commander-in-chief, Malatesta Baglioni. Ferruccio encountered
+a much larger force of the enemy on the 3rd of August at Gavinana;
+a desperate battle ensued, and at first the Imperialists
+were driven back by Ferruccio&rsquo;s fierce onslaught and the prince
+of Orange himself was killed, but reinforcements under Fabrizio
+Maramaldo having arrived, the Florentines were almost annihilated
+and Ferruccio was wounded and captured. Maramaldo
+out of personal spite despatched the wounded man with his own
+hand. This defeat sealed the fate of the republic, and nine days
+later Florence surrendered. Ferruccio was one of the great
+soldiers of the age, and his enterprise is the finest episode of the
+last days of the Florentine republic. See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Florence</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medici</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;F. Sassetti, <i>Vita di Francesco Ferrucci</i>, written
+in the 16th century and published in the <i>Archivio storico</i>, vol. iv.
+pt. ii. (Florence, 1853), with an introduction by C. Monzani; E.
+Aloisi, <i>La Battaglia di Gavinana</i> (Bologna, 1881); cf. P. Villari&rsquo;s
+criticism of the latter work, &ldquo;Ferruccio e Maramaldo,&rdquo; in his <i>Arte,
+storia, e filosofia</i> (Florence, 1884); Gino Capponi, <i>Storia della repubblica
+di Firenze</i>, vol. ii. (Florence, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRULE,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a small metal cap or ring used for holding parts
+of a rod, &amp;c., together, and for giving strength to weakened
+materials, or especially, when attached to the end of a stick,
+umbrella, &amp;c., for preventing wearing or splitting. The word
+is properly <i>verrel</i> or <i>verril</i>, in which form it was used till the
+18th century, and is derived through the O. Fr. <i>virelle</i>, modern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span>
+<i>virole</i>, from a diminutive Latin <i>viriola</i> of <i>viriae</i>, bracelets. The
+form in which the word is now known is due to the influence
+of Latin <i>ferrum</i>, iron. &ldquo;Ferrule&rdquo; must be distinguished from
+&ldquo;ferule&rdquo; or &ldquo;ferula,&rdquo; properly the Latin name of the &ldquo;giant
+fennel.&rdquo; From the use of the stalk of this plant as a cane or
+rod for punishment, comes the application of the word to many
+instruments used in chastisement, more particularly a short
+flat piece of wood or leather shaped somewhat like the sole of a
+boot, and applied to the palms of the hand. It is the common
+form of disciplinary instrument in Roman Catholic schools;
+the pain inflicted is exceedingly sharp and immediate, but the
+effects are momentary and leave no chance for any dangerous
+results. The word is sometimes applied to the ordinary cane as
+used by schoolmasters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRY, JULES FRANÇOIS CAMILLE<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1832-1893), French
+statesman, was born at Saint Dié (Vosges) on the 5th of April
+1832. He studied law, and was called to the bar at Paris, but
+soon went into politics, contributing to various newspapers,
+particularly to the <i>Temps</i>. He attacked the Empire with great
+violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron
+Haussmann, prefect of the Seine. Elected republican deputy
+for Paris in 1869, he protested against the declaration of war
+with Germany, and on the 6th of September 1870 was appointed
+prefect of the Seine by the government of national defence.
+In this position he had the difficult task of administering Paris
+during the siege, and after the Commune was obliged to resign
+(5th of June 1871). From 1872-1873 he was sent by Thiers
+as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy
+for the Vosges, and became one of the leaders of the republican
+party. When the first republican ministry was formed under
+W.H. Waddington on the 4th of February 1879, he was one of
+its members, and continued in the ministry until the 30th of
+March 1885, except for two short interruptions (from the 10th of
+November 1881 to the 30th of January 1882, and from the 29th
+of July 1882 to the 21st of February 1883), first as minister
+of education and then as minister of foreign affairs. He was
+twice premier (1880-1881 and 1883-1885). Two important
+works are associated with his administration, the non-clerical
+organization of public education, and the beginning of the
+colonial expansion of France. Following the republican
+programme he proposed to destroy the influence of the clergy
+in the university. He reorganized the committee of public
+education (law of the 27th of February 1880), and proposed
+a regulation for the conferring of university degrees, which,
+though rejected, aroused violent polemics because the 7th
+article took away from the unauthorized religious orders the right
+to teach. He finally succeeded in passing the great law of the
+28th of March 1882, which made primary education in France
+free, non-clerical and obligatory. In higher education the
+number of professors doubled under his ministry. After the
+military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, he formed the
+idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, not to colonize it, but
+for the sake of economic exploitation. He directed the negotiations
+which led to the establishment of a French protectorate
+in Tunis (1881), prepared the treaty of the 17th of December
+1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration
+of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above all he organized
+the conquest of Indo-China. The excitement caused at Paris
+by an unimportant reverse of the French troops at Lang-son
+caused his downfall (30th of March 1885), but the treaty of
+peace with China (9th of June 1885) was his work. He still
+remained an influential member of the moderate republican
+party, and directed the opposition to General Boulanger. After
+the resignation of President Grévy (2nd of December 1887),
+he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the
+radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favour of
+Sadi Carnot. The violent polemics aroused against him at this
+time caused a madman to attack him with a revolver, and he
+died from the wound, on the 17th of March 1893. The chamber
+of deputies voted him a state funeral.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Edg. Zevort, <i>Histoire de la troisième République</i>; A. Rambaud,
+<i>Jules Ferry</i> (Paris, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERRY<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (from the same root as that of the verb &ldquo;to fare,&rdquo;
+to journey or travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger.
+<i>fahren</i>; it is connected with the root of Gr. <span class="grk" title="poros">&#960;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, way, and
+Lat. <i>portare</i>, to carry), a place where boats ply regularly across
+a river or arm of the sea for the conveyance of goods and persons.
+The word is also applied to the boats employed (ferry boats).
+In a car-ferry or train-ferry railway cars or complete trains are
+conveyed across a piece of water in vessels which have railway
+lines laid on their decks, so that the vehicles run on and off them
+on their own wheels. In law the right of ferrying persons or
+goods across a particular river or strait, and of exacting a reasonable
+toll for the service, belongs, like the right of fair and market,
+to the class of rights known as franchises. Its origin must be
+by statute, royal grant, or prescription. It is wholly unconnected
+with the ownership or occupation of land, so that the owner
+of the ferry need not be proprietor of the soil on either side of
+the water over which the right is exercised. He is bound to
+maintain safe and suitable boats ready for the use of the public,
+and to employ fit persons as ferrymen. As a correlative of
+this duty he has a right of action, not only against those who
+evade or refuse payment of toll when it is due, but also against
+those who disturb his franchise by setting up a new ferry, so
+as to diminish his custom, unless a change of circumstances, such
+as an increase of population near the ferry, justify other means
+of passage, whether of the same kind or not. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Water
+Rights</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1719-1794),
+Swedish politician, was a son of Lieutenant-General Hans
+Reinhold Fersen and entered the Swedish Life Guards in 1740,
+and from 1743 to 1748 was in the French service (<i>Royal-Suédois</i>),
+where he rose to the rank of brigadier. In the Seven Years&rsquo; War
+Fersen distinguished himself during the operations round Usedom
+and Wollin (1759), when he inflicted serious loss on the
+Prussians. But it is as a politician that he is best known. At
+the diet of 1755-1756 he was elected <i>landtmarskalk</i>, or marshal
+of the diet, and from henceforth, till the revolution of 1772,
+led the Hat party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In 1756 he defeated
+the projects of the court for increasing the royal power; but,
+after the disasters of the Seven Years&rsquo; War, gravitated towards
+the court again and contributed, by his energy and eloquence, to
+uphold the tottering Hats for several years. On the accession of
+the Caps to power in 1766, Fersen assisted the court in its
+struggle with them by refusing to employ the Guards to keep
+order in the capital when King Adolphus Frederick, driven to
+desperation by the demands of the Caps, publicly abdicated, and
+a seven days&rsquo; interregnum ensued. At the ensuing diet of 1769,
+when the Hats returned to power, Fersen was again elected
+marshal of the diet; but he made no attempt to redeem his
+pledges to the crown prince Gustavus, as to a very necessary
+reform of the constitution, which he had made before the elections,
+and thus involuntarily contributed to the subsequent
+establishment of absolutism. When Gustavus III. ascended
+the throne in 1772, and attempted to reconcile the two factions
+by a composition which aimed at dividing all political power
+between them, Fersen said he despaired of bringing back, in a
+moment, to the path of virtue and patriotism a people who
+had been running riot for more than half a century in the wilderness
+of political licence and corruption. Nevertheless he consented
+to open negotiations with the Caps, and was the principal
+Hat representative on the abortive composition committee.
+During the revolution of August 1772, Fersen remained a passive
+spectator of the overthrow of the constitution, and was one of
+the first whom Gustavus summoned to his side after his triumph.
+Yet his relations with the king were never cordial. The old
+party-leader could never forget that he had once been a power
+in the state, and it is evident, from his <i>Historiska Skrifter</i>, how
+jealous he was of Gustavus&rsquo;s personal qualities. There was a
+slight collision between them as early as the diet of 1778; but
+at the diet of 1786 Fersen boldly led the opposition against the
+king&rsquo;s financial measures (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gustavus III.</a></span>) which were consequently
+rejected; while in private interviews, if his own account
+of them is to be trusted, he addressed his sovereign with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span>
+outrageous insolence. At the diet of 1789 Fersen marshalled the
+nobility around him for a combat <i>à outrance</i> against the throne
+and that, too, at a time when Sweden was involved in two
+dangerous foreign wars, and national unity was absolutely
+indispensable. This tactical blunder cost him his popularity
+and materially assisted the secret operations of the king. Obstruction
+was Fersen&rsquo;s chief weapon, and he continued to postpone
+the granting of subsidies by the house of nobles for some
+weeks. But after frequent stormy scenes in the diet, which were
+only prevented from becoming mêlées by Fersen&rsquo;s moderation,
+or hesitation, at the critical moment, he and twenty of his friends
+of the nobility were arrested (17th February 1789) and the
+opposition collapsed. Fersen was speedily released, but henceforth
+kept aloof from politics, surviving the king two years.
+He was a man of great natural talent, with an imposing presence,
+and he always bore himself like the aristocrat he was. But his
+haughtiness and love of power are undeniable, and he was perhaps
+too great a party-leader to be a great statesman. Yet for seventeen
+years, with very brief intervals, he controlled the destinies
+of Sweden, and his influence in France was for some time pretty
+considerable. His <i>Historiska Skrifter</i>, which are a record of
+Swedish history, mainly autobiographical, during the greater
+part of the 18th century, is excellent as literature, but somewhat
+unreliable as an historical document, especially in the later
+parts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.G. Malmström, <i>Sveriges politiska Historia</i> (Stockholm,
+1855-1865); R.N. Bain, <i>Gustavus III.</i> (London, 1895); C.T.
+Odhner, <i>Sveriges politiska Historia under Gustaf III.&rsquo;s Regering</i>
+(Stockholm, 1885, &amp;c.); F.A. Fersen, <i>Historiska Skrifter</i> (Stockholm,
+1867-1872).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FERSEN, HANS AXEL,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1755-1810), Swedish
+statesman, was carefully educated at home, at the Carolinum
+at Brunswick and at Turin. In 1779 he entered the French
+military service (<i>Royal-Bavière</i>), accompanied General Rochambeau
+to America as his adjutant, distinguished himself during
+the war with England, notably at the siege of Yorktown, 1781,
+and in 1785 was promoted to be <i>colonel propriétaire</i> of the
+regiment <i>Royal-Suédois</i>. The young nobleman was, from the
+first, a prime favourite at the French court, owing, partly to
+the recollection of his father&rsquo;s devotion to France, but principally
+because of his own amiable and brilliant qualities. The
+queen, Marie Antoinette, was especially attracted by the grace
+and wit of <i>le beau Fersen</i>, who had inherited his full share
+of the striking handsomeness which was hereditary in the
+family.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that Fersen would have spent most of his life at
+Versailles, but for a hint from his own sovereign, then at Pisa,
+that he desired him to join his suite. He accompanied Gustavus
+III. in his Italian tour and returned home with him in 1784.
+When the war with Russia broke out, in 1788, Fersen accompanied
+his regiment to Finland, but in the autumn of the same
+year was sent to France, where the political horizon was already
+darkening. It was necessary for Gustavus to have an agent
+thoroughly in the confidence of the French royal family, and, at
+the same time, sufficiently able and audacious to help them in
+their desperate straits, especially as he had lost all confidence
+in his accredited minister, the baron de Stael. With his usual
+acumen, he fixed upon Fersen, who was at his post early in 1790.
+Before the end of the year he was forced to admit that the cause
+of the French monarchy was hopeless so long as the king and
+queen of France were nothing but captives in their own capital,
+at the mercy of an irresponsible mob. He took a leading part
+in the flight to Varennes. He found most of the requisite funds
+at the last moment. He ordered the construction of the famous
+carriage for six, in the name of the baroness von Korff, and kept
+it in his hotel grounds, rue Matignon, that all Paris might get
+accustomed to the sight of it. He was the coachman of the <i>fiacre</i>
+which drove the royal family from the Carrousel to the Porte
+Saint-Martin. He accompanied them to Bondy, the first stage
+of their journey.</p>
+
+<p>In August 1791, Fersen was sent to Vienna to induce the emperor
+Leopold to accede to a new coalition against revolutionary
+France, but he soon came to the conclusion that the Austrian
+court meant to do nothing at all. At his own request, therefore,
+he was transferred to Brussels, where he could be of more service
+to the queen of France. In February 1792, at his own
+mortal peril, he once more succeeded in reaching Paris with
+counterfeit credentials as minister plenipotentiary to Portugal.
+On the 13th he arrived, and the same evening contrived to steal
+an interview with the queen unobserved. On the following day
+he was with the royal family from six o&rsquo;clock in the evening till
+six o&rsquo;clock the next morning, and convinced himself that a second
+flight was physically impossible. On the afternoon of the 21st
+he succeeded in paying a third visit to the Tuileries, stayed
+there till midnight and succeeded, with great difficulty, in
+regaining Brussels on the 27th. This perilous expedition, a
+monumental instance of courage and loyalty, had no substantial
+result. In 1797 Fersen was sent to the congress of Rastatt as
+the Swedish delegate, but in consequence of a protest from the
+French government, was not permitted to take part in it.</p>
+
+<p>During the regency of the duke of Sudermania (1792-1796)
+Fersen, like all the other Gustavians, was in disgrace; but, on
+Gustavus IV. attaining his majority in 1796, he was welcomed
+back to court with open arms, and reinstated in all his offices
+and dignities. In 1801 he was appointed <i>Riksmarskalk</i> (= earl-marshal).
+On the outbreak of the war with Napoleon, Fersen
+accompanied Gustavus IV. to Germany to assist him in gaining
+fresh allies. He prevented Gustavus from invading Prussia in
+revenge for the refusal of the king of Prussia to declare war
+against France, and during the rest of the reign was in
+semi-disgrace,
+though generally a member of the government when
+the king was abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Fersen stood quite aloof from the revolution of 1809. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) His sympathies were entirely with Prince
+Gustavus, son of the unfortunate Gustavus IV., and he was
+generally credited with the desire to see him king. When the
+newly elected successor to the throne, the highly popular prince
+Christian Augustus of Augustenburg, died suddenly in Skåne
+in May 1810, the report spread that he had been poisoned, and
+that Fersen and his sister, the countess Piper, were accessories.
+The source of this equally absurd and infamous libel has never
+been discovered. But it was eagerly taken up by the anti-Gustavian
+press, and popular suspicion was especially aroused
+by a fable called &ldquo;The Foxes&rdquo; directed against the Fersens,
+which appeared in <i>Nya Posten</i>. When, then, on the 20th of
+June 1810, the prince&rsquo;s body was conveyed to Stockholm, and
+Fersen, in his official capacity as <i>Riksmarskalk</i>, received it at the
+barrier and led the funeral cortège into the city, his fine carriage
+and his splendid robes seemed to the people an open derision
+of the general grief. The crowd began to murmur and presently
+to fling stones and cry &ldquo;murderer!&rdquo; He sought refuge in a
+house in the Riddarhus Square, but the mob rushed after him,
+brutally maltreated him and tore his robes to pieces. To quiet
+the people and save the unhappy victim, two officers volunteered
+to conduct him to the senate house and there place him in arrest.
+But he had no sooner mounted the steps leading to the entrance
+than the crowd, which had followed him all the way beating him
+with sticks and umbrellas, made a rush at him, knocked him down,
+and kicked and trampled him to death. This horrible outrage,
+which lasted more than an hour, happened, too, in the presence
+of numerous troops, drawn up in the Riddarhus Square, who
+made not the slightest effort to rescue the Riksmarskalk from
+his tormentors. In the circumstances, one must needs adopt
+the opinion of Fersen&rsquo;s contemporary, Baron Gustavus Armfelt,
+&ldquo;One is almost tempted to say that the government wanted to
+give the people a victim to play with, just as when one throws
+something to an irritated wild beast to distract its attention.
+The more I consider it all, the more I am certain that the mob
+had the least to do with it.... But in God&rsquo;s name what were
+the troops about? How could such a thing happen in broad
+daylight during a procession, when troops and a military escort
+were actually present?&rdquo; The responsibility certainly rests
+with the government of Charles XIII., which apparently intended
+to intimidate the Gustavians by the removal of one of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span>
+their principal leaders. Armfelt escaped in time, so Fersen fell
+the victim.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R.M. Klinckowström, <i>Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France</i>
+(Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., London, 1902); <i>Historia om Axel von
+Fersens mord</i> (Stockholm, 1844); R.N. Bain, <i>Gustavus III.</i>, vol. ii.
+(London, 1895); P. Gaulot, <i>Un Ami de la reine</i> (Paris, 1892); F.F.
+Flach, <i>Grefve Hans Axel von Fersen</i> (Stockholm, 1896); E. Tegner,
+<i>Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt</i>, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1883-1887).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1789-1826), German violinist
+and composer of instrumental music, was born on the 15th of
+February 1789 at Magdeburg, where he received his early musical
+education. He completed his studies at Leipzig under Eberhard
+Müller, and at the early age of fifteen appeared before the public
+with several concerti for the violin, which were received with
+general applause, and resulted in his being appointed leading
+violinist of the Leipzig orchestra. This position he occupied till
+1806, when he became concert-master to the duke of Oldenburg.
+In 1808 he was appointed solo-violinist by King Jerome of Westphalia
+at Cassel, and there he remained till the end of the French
+occupation (1814), when he went to Vienna, and soon afterwards
+to Carlsruhe, having been appointed concert-master to the grand-duke
+of Baden. His failing health prevented him from enjoying
+the numerous and well-deserved triumphs he owed to his art,
+and in 1826 he died of consumption at the early age of thirty-seven.
+As a virtuoso Fesca ranks amongst the best masters
+of the German school of violinists, the school subsequently of
+Spohr and of Joachim. Especially as leader of a quartet he is
+said to have been unrivalled with regard to classic dignity and
+simplicity of style. Amongst his compositions, his quartets for
+stringed instruments and other pieces of chamber music are the
+most remarkable. His two operas, <i>Cantemira</i> and <i>Omar and Leila</i>,
+were less successful, lacking dramatic power and originality.
+He also wrote some sacred compositions, and numerous songs
+and vocal quartets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESCENNIA,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> an ancient city of Etruria, which is probably
+to be placed immediately to the N. of the modern Corchiano,
+6 m. N.W. of Civita Castellana (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Falerii</a></span>). The Via Amerina
+traverses it. G. Dennis (<i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>, London,
+1883, i. 115) proposed to place it at the Riserva S. Silvestro,
+3 m. E. of Corchiano, nearer the Tiber, where remains of Etruscan
+walls exist. At Corchiano itself, however, similar walls may be
+traced, and the site is a strong and characteristic one&mdash;a triangle
+between two deep ravines, with the third (west) side cut off by
+a ditch. Here, too, remains of two bridges may be seen, and
+several rich tombs have been excavated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Buglione, &ldquo;Conte di Monale,&rdquo; in <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>
+(1887), p. 21 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESCENNINE VERSES<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (<i>Fescennina carmina</i>), one of the
+earliest kinds of Italian poetry, subsequently developed into
+the Satura and the Roman comic drama. Originally sung at
+village harvest-home rejoicings, they made their way into the
+towns, and became the fashion at religious festivals and private
+gatherings&mdash;especially weddings, to which in later times they
+were practically restricted. They were usually in the Saturnian
+metre and took the form of a dialogue, consisting of an interchange
+of extemporaneous raillery. Those who took part in them
+wore masks made of the bark of trees. At first harmless and
+good-humoured, if somewhat coarse, these songs gradually outstripped
+the bounds of decency; malicious attacks were made
+upon both gods and men, and the matter became so serious that
+the law intervened and scurrilous personalities were forbidden
+by the Twelve Tables (Cicero, <i>De re publica</i>, iv. 10). Specimens
+of the Fescennines used at weddings are the Epithalamium of
+Manlius (Catullus, lxi. 122) and the four poems of Claudian in
+honour of the marriage of Honorius and Maria; the first, however,
+is distinguished by a licentiousness which is absent in the
+latter. Ausonius in his <i>Cento nuptialis</i> mentions the Fescennines
+of Annianus Faliscus, who lived in the time of Hadrian. Various
+derivations have been proposed for <i>Fescennine</i>. According to
+Festus, they were introduced from Fescennia in Etruria, but
+there is no reason to assume that any particular town was
+specially devoted to the use of such songs. As an alternative
+Festus suggests a connexion with <i>fascinum</i>, either because the
+Fescennina were regarded as a protection against evil influences
+(see Munro, <i>Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus</i>, p. 76) or
+because <i>fascinum</i> (= <i>phallus</i>), as the symbol of fertility, would
+from early times have been naturally associated with harvest
+festivals. H. Nettleship, in an article on &ldquo;The Earliest Italian
+Literature&rdquo; (<i>Journal of Philology</i>, xi. 1882), in support of
+Munro&rsquo;s view, translates the expression &ldquo;verses used by
+charmers,&rdquo; assuming a noun <i>fescennus</i>, connected with <i>fas fari</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>locus classicus</i> in ancient literature is Horace, <i>Epistles</i>, ii.
+1. 139; see also Virgil, <i>Georgics</i>, ii. 385; Tibullus ii. 1. 55; E.
+Hoffmann, &ldquo;Die Fescenninen,&rdquo; in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, li. p. 320
+(1896); art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Latin Literature</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESCH, JOSEPH<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1763-1839), cardinal, was born at Ajaccio
+on the 3rd of January 1763. His father, a Swiss officer in the
+service of the Genoese Republic, had married the mother of
+Laetitia Bonaparte, after the decease of her first husband.
+Fesch therefore stood almost in the relation of an uncle to the
+young Bonapartes, and after the death of Lucien Bonaparte,
+archdeacon of Ajaccio, he became for a time the protector and
+patron of the family. In the year 1789, when the French
+Revolution broke out, he was archdeacon of Ajaccio, and, like
+the majority of the Corsicans, he felt repugnance for many of
+the acts of the French government during that period; in particular
+he protested against the application to Corsica of the act
+known as the &ldquo;Civil Constitution of the Clergy&rdquo; (July 1790).
+As provost of the &ldquo;chapter&rdquo; in that city he directly felt the
+pressure of events; for on the suppression of religious orders
+and corporations, he was constrained to retire into private life.</p>
+
+<p>Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Bonaparte family
+in the intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually
+by that family into espousing the French cause against Paoli
+and the Anglophiles, he was forced to leave Corsica and to
+proceed with Laetitia and her son to Toulon, in the early part
+of the autumn of 1793. Failing to find clerical duties at that
+time (the period of the Terror), he entered civil life, and served
+in various capacities, until on the appointment of Napoleon
+Bonaparte to the command of the French &ldquo;Army of Italy&rdquo;
+he became a commissary attached to that army. This part of
+his career is obscure and without importance. His fortunes
+rose rapidly on the attainment of the dignity of First Consul
+by his former charge, Napoleon, after the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of Brumaire
+(November 1799). Thereafter, when the restoration of the
+Roman Catholic religion was in the mind of the First Consul,
+Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and took an active part
+in the complex negotiations which led to the signing of the
+Concordat with the Holy See on the 15th of July 1801. His
+reward came in the prize of the archbishopric of Lyons, on the
+duties of which he entered in August 1802. Six months later
+he received a still more signal reward for his past services, being
+raised to the dignity of cardinal.</p>
+
+<p>In 1804 on the retirement of Cacault from the position of
+French ambassador at Rome, Fesch received that important
+appointment. He was assisted by Châteaubriand, but soon
+sharply differed with him on many questions. Towards the
+close of the year 1804 Napoleon entrusted to Fesch the difficult
+task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII. at the forthcoming
+coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (Dec.
+2nd, 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope
+to be present at the coronation (it was only eight months after
+the execution of the duc d&rsquo;Enghien) received further recognition.
+He received the grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, became
+grand-almoner of the empire and had a seat in the French
+senate. He was to receive further honours. In 1806 one of the
+most influential of the German clerics, Karl von Dalberg, then
+prince bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor
+and designated him as his successor.</p>
+
+<p>Events, however, now occurred which overclouded his prospects.
+In the course of the years 1806-1807 Napoleon came
+into sharp collision with the pope on various matters both
+political and religious. Fesch sought in vain to reconcile the
+two potentates. Napoleon was inexorable in his demands,
+and Pius VII. refused to give way where the discipline and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span>
+vital interests of the church seemed to be threatened. The
+emperor on several occasions sharply rebuked Fesch for what
+he thought to be weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however,
+that the cardinal went as far as possible in counselling the
+submission of the spiritual to the civil power. For a time he
+was not on speaking terms with the pope; and Napoleon recalled
+him from Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Affairs came to a crisis in the year 1809, when Napoleon
+issued at Vienna the decree of the 17th of May, ordering the
+annexation of the papal states to the French empire. In that
+year Napoleon conferred on Fesch the archbishopric of Paris,
+but he refused the honour. He, however, consented to take
+part in an ecclesiastical commission formed by the emperor
+from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in 1810
+the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect
+to Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year
+1810 whereby Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1811 the emperor convoked a national council
+of Gallican clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and
+Fesch was appointed to preside over their deliberations. Here
+again, however, he failed to satisfy the inflexible emperor and
+was dismissed to his diocese. The friction between uncle and
+nephew became more acute in the following year. In June
+1812, Pius VII. was brought from his first place of detention,
+Savona, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under surveillance
+in the hope that he would give way in certain matters relating
+to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured
+to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands
+of the emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he
+stopped the sum of 150,000 florins which had been accorded
+to him. The disasters of the years 1812-1813 brought Napoleon
+to treat Pius VII. with more lenity and the position of Fesch
+thus became for a time less difficult. On the first abdication
+of Napoleon (April 11th, 1814) and the restoration of the Bourbons,
+he, however, retired to Rome where he received a welcome.
+The events of the Hundred Days (March-June, 1815) brought
+him back to France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at
+Lyons and was further named a member of the senate. On
+the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815) Fesch
+retired to Rome, where he spent the rest of his days in dignified
+ease, surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many of
+which he bequeathed to the city of Lyons. He died at Rome
+on the 13th of May 1839.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.B. Monseigneur Lyonnet, <i>Le Cardinal Fesch</i> (2 vols., Lyons,
+1841); Ricard, <i>Le Cardinal Fesch</i> (Paris, 1893); H. Welschinger,
+<i>Le Pape et l&rsquo;empereur</i> (Paris, 1905); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa
+famille</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESSA,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars.
+The town is situated in a fertile plain in 29° N. and 90 m. from
+Shiraz, and has a population of about 5000. The district has
+forty villages and extends about 40 m. north-south from Runiz
+to Nass&#299;rabad and 16 m. east-west from V&#257;silabad to Deh
+Dasteh (Dastajah); it produces much grain, dates, tobacco,
+opium and good fruit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1806-1869), American statesman
+and financier, was born in Boscawen, New Hampshire,
+on the 16th of October 1806. After graduating at Bowdoin
+College in 1823, he studied law, and in 1827 was admitted to
+the bar, eventually settling in Portland, Maine, where for two
+years he was associated in practice with his father, Samuel
+Fessenden (1784-1869), a prominent lawyer and anti-slavery
+leader. In 1832 and in 1840 Fessenden was a representative in
+the Maine legislature, and in 1841-1843 was a Whig member of
+the national House of Representatives. When his term in this
+capacity was over, he devoted himself unremittingly and with
+great success to the law. He became well known, also, as an
+eloquent advocate of slavery restriction. In 1845-1846 and
+1853-1854 he again served in the state House of Representatives,
+and in 1854 was chosen by the combined votes of Whigs
+and Anti-Slavery Democrats to the United States Senate.
+Within a fortnight after taking his seat he delivered a speech
+in opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which at once
+made him a force in the congressional anti-slavery contest.
+From then on he was one of the most eloquent and frequent
+debaters among his colleagues, and in 1859, almost without
+opposition, he was re-elected to the Senate as a member of the
+Republican party, in the organization of which he had taken
+an influential part. He was a delegate in 1861 to the Peace
+Congress, but after the actual outbreak of hostilities he insisted
+that the war should be prosecuted vigorously. As chairman
+of the Senate Committee on Finance, his services were second
+in value only to those of President Lincoln and Secretary Salmon
+P. Chase in efforts to provide funds for the defence of the Union;
+and in July 1864 Fessenden succeeded Chase as secretary of
+the treasury. The finances of the country in the early summer
+of 1864 were in a critical condition; a few days before leaving
+office Secretary Chase had been compelled to withdraw from
+the market $32,000,000 of 6% bonds, on account of the lack
+of acceptable bids; gold had reached 285 and was fluctuating
+between 225 and 250, while the value of the paper dollar had
+sunk as low as 34 cents. It was Secretary Fessenden&rsquo;s policy
+to avoid a further increase of the circulating medium, and to
+redeem or consolidate the temporary obligations outstanding.
+In spite of powerful pressure the paper currency was not increased
+a dollar during his tenure of the office. As the sales of bonds and
+treasury notes were not sufficient for the needs of the Treasury,
+interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness were issued to
+cover the deficits; but when these began to depreciate the
+secretary, following the example of his predecessors, engaged
+the services of the Philadelphia banker Jay Cooke (<i>q.v.</i>) and
+secured the consent of Congress to raise the balance of the
+$400,000,000 loan authorized on the 30th of June 1864 by the
+sale of the so-called &ldquo;seven-thirty&rdquo; treasury notes (<i>i.e.</i> notes
+bearing interest at 7.3% payable in currency in three years or
+convertible at the option of the holder into 6% 5-20 year gold
+bonds). Through Cooke&rsquo;s activities the sales became enormous;
+the notes, issued in denominations as low as $50, appealed to
+the patriotic impulses of the people who could not subscribe
+for bonds of a higher denomination. In the spring of 1865
+Congress authorized an additional loan of $600,000,000 to be
+raised in the same manner, and for the first time in four years
+the Treasury was able to meet all its obligations. After thus
+securing ample funds for the enormous expenditures of the
+war, Fessenden resigned the treasury portfolio in March 1865,
+and again took his seat in the Senate, serving till his death.
+In the Senate he again became chairman of the finance committee,
+and also of the joint committee on reconstruction.
+He was the author of the report of this last committee (1866),
+in which the Congressional plan of reconstruction was set forth
+and which has been considered a state paper of remarkable
+power and cogency. He was not, however, entirely in accord
+with the more radical members of his own party, and this
+difference was exemplified in his opposition to the impeachment
+of President Johnson and subsequently in his voting for Johnson&rsquo;s
+acquittal. He bore with calmness the storm of reproach from
+his party associates which followed, and lived to regain the
+esteem of those who had attacked him. He died at Portland,
+Maine, on the 6th of September 1869.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Francis Fessenden, <i>Life and Public Services of William Pitt
+Fessenden</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1756-1839), Hungarian
+ecclesiastic, historian and freemason, was born on the 18th of
+May 1756 at the village of Zurány in the county of Moson.
+In 1773 he joined the order of Capuchins, and in 1779 was
+ordained priest. He had meanwhile continued his classical
+and philological studies, and his liberal views brought him into
+frequent conflict with his superiors. In 1784, while at the
+monastery of Mödling, near Vienna, he wrote to the emperor
+Joseph II., making suggestions for the better education of the
+clergy and drawing his attention to the irregularities of the
+monasteries. The searching investigation which followed
+raised up against him many implacable enemies. In 1784 he
+was appointed professor of Oriental languages and hermeneutics
+in the university of Lemberg, when he took the degree of doctor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span>
+of divinity; and shortly afterwards he was released from his
+monastic vows on the intervention of the emperor. In 1788 he
+brought out his tragedy of <i>Sidney</i>, an <i>exposé</i> of the tyranny of
+James II. and of the fanaticism of the papists in England. This
+was attacked so violently as profane and revolutionary that he
+was compelled to resign his office and seek refuge in Silesia.
+In Breslau he met with a cordial reception from G.W. Korn
+the publisher, and was, moreover, subsequently employed by
+the prince of Carolath-Schönaich as tutor to his sons. In 1791
+Fessler was converted to Lutheranism and next year contracted
+an unhappy marriage, which was dissolved in 1802, when he
+married again. In 1796 he went to Berlin, where he founded
+a humanitarian society, and was commissioned by the freemasons
+of that city to assist Fichte in reforming the statutes
+and ritual of their lodge. He soon after this obtained a government
+appointment in connexion with the newly-acquired
+Polish provinces, but in consequence of the battle of Jena (1806)
+he lost this office, and remained in very needy circumstances
+until 1809, when he was summoned to St Petersburg by Alexander
+I., to fill the post of court councillor, and the professorship of
+oriental languages and philosophy at the Alexander-Nevski
+Academy. This office, however, he was soon obliged to resign,
+owing to his alleged atheistic tendencies, but he was subsequently
+nominated a member of the legislative commission. In 1815
+he went with his family to Sarepta, where he joined the Moravian
+community and again became strongly orthodox. This cost
+him the loss of his salary, but it was restored to him in 1817.
+In November 1820 he was appointed consistorial president of
+the evangelical communities at Saratov and subsequently
+became chief superintendent of the Lutheran communities in
+St Petersburg. Fessler&rsquo;s numerous works are all written in
+German. In recognition of his important services to Hungary
+as a historian, he was in 1831 elected a corresponding member
+of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He died at St Petersburg
+on the 15th of December 1839.</p>
+
+<p>Fessler was a voluminous writer, and during his life exercised
+great influence; but, with the possible exception of the history
+of Hungary, none of his books has any value now. He did not
+pretend to any critical treatment of his materials, and most
+of his historical works are practically historical novels. He did
+much, however, to make the study of history popular. His
+most important works are&mdash;<i>Die Geschichten der Ungarn und
+ihrer Landsassen</i> (10 vols. Leipzig, 1815-1825); <i>Marcus
+Aurelius</i> (3 vols., Breslau, 1790-1792; 3rd edition, 4 vols., 1799);
+<i>Aristides und Themistokles</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1792; 3rd edition,
+1818); <i>Attila, König der Hunnen</i> (Breslau, 1794); <i>Mathias
+Corvinus</i> (2 vols., Breslau, 1793-1794); and <i>Die drei grossen
+Könige der Hungarn aus dem Arpadischen Stamme</i> (Breslau,
+1808).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Fessler&rsquo;s <i>Rückblicke auf seine siebzigjährige Pilgerschaft</i>
+(Breslau, 1824; 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1851).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESTA, CONSTANZO<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1495-1545), Italian singer and
+musical composer, became a member of the Pontifical choir in
+Rome in 1517, and soon afterwards <i>maestro</i> at the Vatican.
+His motets and madrigals (the first book of which appeared in
+1537) excited Dr Burney&rsquo;s warm praise in his <i>History of Music</i>;
+and, among other church music, his <i>Te Deum</i> (published in
+1596) is still sung at important services in Rome. His madrigal,
+called in English &ldquo;Down in a flow&rsquo;ry vale,&rdquo; is well known.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESTINIOG<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Ffestiniog</span>), a town of Merionethshire,
+North Wales, at the head of the Festiniog valley, 600 ft. above
+the sea, in the midst of rugged scenery, near the stream Dwyryd,
+31 m. from Conway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,435.
+There are many large slate quarries in this parish, especially
+at Blaenau Festiniog, the junction of three railways, London &amp;
+North Western, Great Western and Festiniog, a narrow-gauge
+line between Portmadoc and Duffws. This light railway runs
+at a considerable elevation (some 700 ft.), commanding a view
+across the valley and lake of Tan y Bwlch. Lord Lyttelton&rsquo;s
+letter to Mr Bower is a well-known panegyric on Festiniog.
+Thousands of workmen are employed in the slate quarries.
+The Cynfael falls are famous. Near are <i>Beddau gwyr Ardudwy</i>
+(the graves of the men of Ardudwy), memorials of a fight to
+recover women of the Clwyd valley from the men of Ardudwy.
+Near, too, is a rock named &ldquo;Hugh Lloyd&rsquo;s pulpit&rdquo; (Lloyd lived
+in the time of Charles I., Cromwell and Charles II.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESTOON<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>feston</i>, Ital. <i>festone</i>, from a Late Lat. <i>festo</i>,
+originally a &ldquo;festal garland,&rdquo; Lat. <i>festum</i>, feast), a wreath or
+garland, and so in architecture a conventional arrangement of
+flowers, foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons,
+either from a decorated knot, or held in the mouths of lions,
+or suspended across the back of bulls&rsquo; heads as in the Temple
+of Vesta at Tivoli. The &ldquo;motif&rdquo; is sometimes known as a &ldquo;swag.&rdquo;
+It was largely employed both by the Greeks and Romans and
+formed the principal decoration of altars, friezes and panels.
+The ends of the ribbons are sometimes formed into bows or
+twisted curves; when in addition a group of foliage or flowers
+is suspended it is called a &ldquo;drop.&rdquo; Its origin is probably due
+to the representation in stone of the garlands of natural flowers,
+&amp;c., which were hung up over an entrance doorway on fête days,
+or suspended round the altar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESTUS<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (? <span class="sc">Rufus</span> or <span class="sc">Rufius</span>), one of the Roman writers of
+<i>breviaria</i> (epitomes of Roman history). The reference to the
+defeat of the Goths at Noviodunum (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 369) by the emperor
+Valens, and the fact that the author is unaware of the constitution
+of Valentia as a province (which took place in the same year)
+are sufficient indication to fix the date of composition. Mommsen
+identifies the author with Rufius Festus, proconsul of Achaea
+(366), and both with Rufius Festus Avienus (<i>q.v.</i>), the translator
+of Aratus. But the absence of the name Rufius in the best MSS.
+is against this. Others take him to be Festus of Tridentum,
+<i>magister memoriae</i> (secretary) to Valens and proconsul of Asia,
+where he was sent to punish those implicated in the conspiracy
+of Theodorus, a commission which he executed with such
+merciless severity that his name became a byword. The work
+itself (<i>Breviarium rerum gestarum populi Romani</i>) is divided
+into two parts&mdash;one geographical, the other historical. The
+chief authorities used are Livy, Eutropius and Florus. It is
+extremely meagre, but the fact that the last part is based on the
+writer&rsquo;s personal recollections makes it of some value for the
+history of the 4th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions by W. Förster (Vienna, 1873) and C. Wagener (Prague,
+1886); see also R. Jacobi, <i>De Festi breviarii fontibus</i> (Bonn, 1874),
+and H. Peter, <i>Die geschichtliche Litt. über die römische Kaiserzeit</i> ii.
+p. 133 (1897), where the epitomes of Festus, Aurelius Victor and
+Eutropius are compared.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> Roman grammarian, probably
+flourished in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He made an epitome of the
+celebrated work <i>De verborum significatu</i>, a valuable treatise
+alphabetically arranged, written by M. Verrius Flaccus, a
+freedman and celebrated grammarian who flourished in the
+reign of Augustus. Festus gives the etymology as well as the
+meaning of every word; and his work throws considerable light
+on the language, mythology and antiquities of ancient Rome.
+He made a few alterations, and inserted some critical remarks
+of his own. He also omitted such ancient Latin words as had
+long been obsolete; these he discussed in a separate work now lost,
+entitled <i>Priscorum verborum cum exemplis</i>. Of Flaccus&rsquo;s work
+only a few fragments remain, and of Festus&rsquo;s epitome only one
+original copy is in existence. This MS., the Codex Festi Farnesianus
+at Naples, only contains the second half of the work
+(M-V) and that not in a perfect condition. It has been published
+in facsimile by Thewrewk de Ponor (1890). At the close of
+the 8th century Paulus Diaconus abridged the abridgment.
+From his work and the solitary copy of the original attempts
+have been made with the aid of conjecture to reconstruct the
+treatise of Festus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the early editions the best are those of J. Scaliger (1565) and
+Fulvius Ursinus (1581); in modern times, those of C.O. Müller
+(1839, reprinted 1880) and de Ponor (1889); see J.E. Sandys,
+<i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, vol. i. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FÉTIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1784-1871), Belgian composer
+and writer on music, was born at Mons in Belgium on the 25th
+of March 1784, and was trained as a musician by his father, who
+followed the same calling. His talent for composition manifested
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span>
+itself at the age of seven, and at nine years old he was an organist
+at Sainte-Waudru. In 1800 he went to Paris and completed his
+studies at the conservatoire under such masters as Boieldieu,
+Rey and Pradher. In 1806 he undertook the revision of the
+Roman liturgical chants in the hope of discovering and establishing
+their original form. In this year he married the granddaughter
+of the Chevalier de Kéralio, and also began his
+<i>Biographie universelle des musiciens</i>, the most important of his
+works, which did not appear until 1834. In 1821 he was
+appointed professor at the conservatoire. In 1827 he founded
+the <i>Revue musicale</i>, the first serious paper in France devoted
+exclusively to musical matters. Fétis remained in the French
+capital till in 1833, at the request of Leopold I., he became
+director of the conservatoire of Brussels and the king&rsquo;s chapel-master.
+He also was the founder, and, till his death, the conductor
+of the celebrated concerts attached to the conservatoire
+of Brussels, and he inaugurated a free series of lectures on
+musical history and philosophy. He produced a large quantity
+of original compositions, from the opera and the oratorio down
+to the simple <i>chanson</i>. But all these are doomed to oblivion.
+Although not without traces of scholarship and technical ability,
+they show total absence of genius. More important are his
+writings on music. They are partly historical, such as the
+<i>Curiosités historiques de la musique</i> (Paris, 1850), and the <i>Histoire
+universelle de musique</i> (Paris, 1869-1876); partly theoretical,
+such as the <i>Méthode des méthodes de piano</i> (Paris, 1837), written
+in conjunction with Moscheles. Fétis died at Brussels on the
+26th of March 1871. His valuable library was purchased by
+the Belgian government and presented to the Brussels conservatoire.
+His work as a musical historian was prodigious
+in quantity, and, in spite of many inaccuracies and some prejudice
+revealed in it, there can be no question as to its value for
+the student.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FETISHISM,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> an ill-defined term, used in many different
+senses: (<i>a</i>) the worship of inanimate objects, often regarded
+as peculiarly African; (<i>b</i>) negro religion in general; (<i>c</i>) the
+worship of inanimate objects conceived as the residence of spirits
+not inseparably bound up with, nor originally connected with,
+such objects; (<i>d</i>) the doctrine of spirits embodied in, or attached
+to, or conveying influence through, certain material objects
+(Tylor); (<i>e</i>) the use of charms, which are not worshipped, but
+derive their magical power from a god or spirit; (<i>f</i>) the use as
+charms of objects regarded as magically potent in themselves.
+A further extension is given by some writers, who use the term
+as synonymous with the religions of primitive peoples, including
+under it not only the worship of inanimate objects, such as the
+sun, moon or stars, but even such phases of primitive philosophy
+as totemism. Comte applied the term to denominate the view
+of nature more commonly termed animism.</p>
+
+<p><i>Derivation.</i>&mdash;The word fetish (or fetich) was first used in
+connexion with Africa by the Portuguese discoverers of the last
+half of the 15th century; relics of saints, rosaries and images
+were then abundant all over Europe and were regarded as
+possessing magical virtue; they were termed by the Portuguese
+<i>feiticos</i> (<i>i.e.</i> charms). Early voyagers to West Africa applied
+this term to the wooden figures, stones, &amp;c., regarded as the
+temporary residence of gods or spirits, and to charms. There
+is no reason to suppose that the word <i>feitico</i> was applied either to
+an animal or to the local spirit of a river, hill or forest. <i>Feitico</i>
+is sometimes interpreted to mean artificial, made by man, but
+the original sense is more probably &ldquo;magically active or artful.&rdquo;
+The word was probably brought into general use by C. de Brosses,
+author of <i>Du culte des dieux fétiches</i> (1760), but it is frequently
+used by W. Bosman in his <i>Description of Guinea</i> (1705), in the
+sense of &ldquo;the false god, Bossum&rdquo; or &ldquo;Bohsum,&rdquo; properly a
+tutelary deity of an individual.</p>
+
+<p><i>Definition.</i>&mdash;The term fetish is commonly understood to mean
+the worship of or respect for material, inanimate objects, conceived
+as magically active from a virtue inherent in them,
+temporarily or permanently, which does not arise from the fact
+that a god or spirit is believed to reside in them or communicate
+virtue to them. Taken in this sense fetishism is probably a
+mark of decadence. There is no evidence of any such belief in
+Africa or elsewhere among primitive peoples. It is only after
+a certain grade of culture has been attained that the belief in
+luck appears; the fetish is essentially a mascot or object carried
+for luck.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ordinary Usage.</i>&mdash;In the sense in which Dr Tylor uses the
+term the fetish is (1) a &ldquo;god-house&rdquo; or (2) a charm derived from
+a tutelary deity or spirit, and magically active in virtue of its
+association with such deity or spirit. In the first of these senses
+the word is applied to objects ranging from the unworked stone
+to the pot or the wooden figure, and is thus hardly distinguishable
+from idolatry. (<i>a</i>) The <i>bohsum</i> or tutelary deity of a particular
+section of the community is derived from the local gods through
+the priests by the performance of a certain series of rites. The
+priest indicates into what object the <i>bohsum</i> will enter and
+proceeds to the abode of the local god to procure the object in
+question. After making an offering the object is carried to an
+appropriate spot and a &ldquo;fetish&rdquo; tree set up as a shade for it,
+which is sacred so long as the <i>bohsum</i> remains beneath it. The
+fall of the tree is believed to mark the departure of the spirit.
+A <i>bohsum</i> may also be procured through a dream; but in this
+case, too, it is necessary to apply to the priest to decide whether
+the dream was veridical. (<i>b</i>) The <i>suhman</i> or tutelary deity of
+an individual is not an object selected at random to be the
+residence of the spirit. It is only procurable at the residence
+of a Sasabonsum, a malicious non-human being. Various
+ceremonies are performed, and a spirit connected with the
+Sasabonsum is finally asked to enter an object. This is then
+kept for three days; if no good fortune results it is concluded
+either that the spirit did not enter the object selected, or that
+it is disinclined to extend its protection. In either case the
+ceremonies must be commenced afresh. Otherwise offerings and
+even human sacrifices in exceptional cases are made to the <i>suhman</i>.
+It is commonly believed that the negro claims the power of
+coercing his tutelary deity. This is denied by Colonel Ellis.
+It is certain that coercion of deities is not unknown, but further
+evidence is required that the negro uses it when his deity is
+refractory.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>suhman</i> can, it is believed, communicate a part of his
+powers to various objects in which he does not dwell; these are
+also termed <i>suhman</i> by the natives and may have given rise to
+the belief that the practices commonly termed fetishism are not
+animistic. These charms are many in number; offerings of
+food and drink are made, <i>i.e.</i> to the portion of the power of the
+<i>suhman</i> which resides in them. These charms can only be made
+by the possessor of the <i>suhman</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On the Guinea Coast the spirit implanted in the object is
+usually, if not invariably, non-human. Farther south on the
+Congo the &ldquo;fetish&rdquo; is inhabited by human souls also. The
+priest goes into the forest and cuts an image; when a party
+enters a wood for this purpose they may not mention the name
+of any living being unless they wish him to die and his soul to
+enter the fetish. The right person having been selected, his name
+is mentioned; and he is believed to die within ten days, his
+soul passing into the <i>nkissi</i>. It is into these figures that the nails
+are driven, in order to procure the vengeance of the indwelling
+spirit on some enemy.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases the fetish spirit is believed to leave the &ldquo;god-house&rdquo;
+and pass for the time being into the body of the priest,
+who manifests the phenomena of possession (<i>q.v.</i>). It is a
+common error to suppose that the whole of African religion is
+embraced in the practices connected with these tutelary deities;
+so far from this being the case, belief in higher gods, not necessarily
+accompanied with worship or propitiation, is common
+in many parts of Africa, and there is no reason to suppose that
+it had been derived in every case, perhaps not in any case, from
+Christian or Mahommedan missionaries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.B. Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, chs. vii., viii. and xii.;
+Waitz, <i>Anthropologie der Naturvölker</i>, ii. 174; R.E. Dennett in
+<i>Folklore</i>, vol. xvi.; R.H. Nassau, <i>Fetichism in West Africa</i> (1904);
+also Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, ii. 143, and M.H. Kingsley, <i>West
+African Studies</i> (2nd ed., 1901), where the term is used in a more
+extended sense.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FETTERCAIRN,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a burgh of barony of Kincardineshire,
+Scotland, 4½ m. N.W. of Laurencekirk. Pop. of parish (1901)
+1390. The chief structures include a public hall, library and
+reading-room, and the arch built to commemorate the visit
+of Queen Victoria in 1861. The most interesting relic, however,
+is the market cross, which originally belonged to the extinct
+town of Kincardine. To the S.W. is Balbegno Castle, dating
+from 1509, and planned on a scale that threatened to ruin its
+projector. It contains a lofty hall of fine proportions. Two
+miles N. is Fasque, the estate of the Gladstones, which was
+acquired in 1831 by Sir John Gladstone (1764-1851), the father
+of W.E. Gladstone. The castle, which stands in beautiful
+grounds, was built in 1809. Sir John Gladstone&rsquo;s tomb is in the
+Episcopal church of St Andrew, which he erected and endowed.
+In the immediate vicinity are the ruins of the royal castle of
+Kincardine, where, according to tradition, Kenneth III. was
+assassinated in 1005, although he is more generally said to have
+been slain in battle at Monzievaird, near Crieff in Perthshire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> instruments for securing the
+feet and hands of prisoners under arrest, or as a means of punishment.
+The old names were manacles, shackbolts or shackles,
+gyves and swivels. Until within recent times handcuffs were of
+two kinds, the figure-8 ones which confined the hands close
+together either in front or behind the prisoner, or the rings from
+the wrists were connected by a short chain much on the model
+of the handcuffs in use by the police forces of to-day. Much
+improvement has been made in handcuffs of late. They are much
+lighter and they are adjustable, fitting any wrist, and thus the
+one pair will serve a police officer for any prisoner. For the
+removal of gangs of convicts an arrangement of handcuffs connected
+by a light chain is used, the chain running through a ring
+on each fetter and made fast at both ends by what are known
+as <i>end-locks</i>. Several recently invented appliances are used as
+handcuffs, <i>e.g.</i> snaps, nippers, twisters. They differ from
+handcuffs in being intended for one wrist only, the other portion
+being held by the captor. In the snap the smaller circlet is
+snapped to on the prisoner&rsquo;s wrist. The nippers can be instantly
+fastened on the wrist. The twister, not now used in England as
+being liable to injure prisoners seriously, is a chain attached to
+two handles; the chain is put round the wrist and the two
+handles twisted till the chain is tight enough.</p>
+
+<p>Leg-irons are anklets of steel connected by light chains long
+enough to permit of the wearer walking with short steps. An
+obsolete form was an anklet and chain to the end of which was
+attached a heavy weight, usually a round shot. The Spanish
+used to secure prisoners in bilboes, shackles round the ankles
+secured by a long bar of iron. This form of leg-iron was adopted
+in England, and was much employed in the services during the
+17th and 18th centuries. An ancient example is preserved in
+the Tower of London. The French marine still use a kind of
+leg-iron of the bilbo type.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEU,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> in Scotland, the commonest mode of land tenure. The
+word is the Scots variant of &ldquo;fee&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). The relics of the
+feudal system still dominate Scots conveyancing. That system
+has recognized as many as seven forms of tenure&mdash;ward, socage,
+mortification, feu, blench, burgage, booking. Ward, the original
+military holding, was abolished in 1747 (20 G. II. c. 20), as an
+effect of the rising of 1745. Socage and mortification have long
+since disappeared. Booking is a conveyance peculiar to the
+borough of Paisley, but does not differ essentially from feu.
+Burgage is the system by which land is held in royal boroughs.
+Blench holding is by a nominal payment, as of a penny Scots, or
+a red rose, often only to be rendered upon demand. In feu
+holding there is a substantial annual payment in money or in
+kind in return for the enjoyment of the land. The crown is the
+first overlord or superior, and land is held of it by crown vassals,
+but they in their turn may &ldquo;feu&rdquo; their land, as it is called, to
+others who become <i>their</i> vassals, whilst they themselves are
+mediate overlords or superiors; and this process of sub-infeudation
+may be repeated to an indefinite extent. The Conveyancing
+Act of 1874 renders any clause in a disposition against sub-infeudation
+null and void. In England on the other hand, since
+1290, when the statute <i>Quia Emptores</i> was passed, sub-infeudation
+is impossible, as the new holder simply effaces the grantor,
+holding by the same title as the grantor himself. Casualties,
+which are a feature of land held in feu, are certain payments
+made to the superior, contingent on the happening of certain
+events. The most important was the payment of an amount
+equal to one year&rsquo;s feu-duty by a new holder, whether heir or
+purchaser of the feu. The Conveyancing Act of 1874 abolished
+casualties in all feus after that date, and power was given to
+redeem this burden on feus already existing. If the vassal does
+not pay the feu-duty for two years, the superior, among other
+remedies, may obtain by legal process a decree of irritancy,
+whereupon <i>tinsel</i> or forfeiture of the feu follows. Previously to
+1832 only the vassals of the crown had votes in parliamentary
+elections for the Scots counties, and this made in favour of sub-infeudation
+as against sale outright. In Orkney and Shetland
+land is still largely possessed as udal property, a holding derived
+or handed down from the time when these islands belonged
+to Norway. Such lands may be converted into feus at the will
+of the proprietor and held from the crown or Lord Dundas. At
+one time the system of conveyancing by which the transfer
+of feus was effected was curious and complicated, requiring the
+presence of parties on the land itself and the symbolical handing
+over of the property, together with the registration of various
+documents. But legislation since the middle of the 19th century
+has changed all that. The system of feuing in Scotland, as
+contrasted with that of long leaseholds in England, has tended
+to secure greater solidity and firmness in the average buildings
+of the northern country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Erskine&rsquo;s <i>Principles</i>; Bell&rsquo;s <i>Principles</i>; Rankine, <i>Law of
+Landownership in Scotland</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUCHÈRES, SOPHIE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baronne de</span> (1795-1840), Anglo-French
+adventuress, was born at St Helens, Isle of Wight, in
+1795, the daughter of a drunken fisherman named Dawes.
+She grew up in the workhouse, went up to London as a servant,
+and became the mistress of the duc de Bourbon, afterwards
+prince de Condé. She was ambitious, and he had her well
+educated not only in modern languages but, as her exercise
+books&mdash;still extant&mdash;show, in Greek and Latin. He took her
+to Paris and, to prevent scandal and to qualify her to be received
+at court, had her married in 1818 to Adrien Victor de Feuchères,
+a major in the Royal Guards. The prince provided her dowry,
+made her husband his aide-de-camp and a baron. The baroness,
+pretty and clever, became a person of consequence at the court
+of Louis XVIII. De Feuchères, however, finally discovered
+the relations between his wife and Condé, whom he had been
+assured was her father, left her&mdash;he obtained a legal separation
+in 1827&mdash;and told the king, who thereupon forbade her appearance
+at court. Thanks to her influence, however, Condé was
+induced in 1829 to sign a will bequeathing about ten million
+francs to her, and the rest of his estate&mdash;more than sixty-six
+millions&mdash;to the duc d&rsquo;Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe.
+Again she was in high favour. Charles X. received her at court,
+Talleyrand visited her, her niece married a marquis and her
+nephew was made a baron. Condé, wearied by his mistress&rsquo;s
+importunities, and but half pleased by the advances made him
+by the government of July, had made up his mind to leave
+France secretly. When on the 27th of August 1830 he was
+found hanging dead from his window, the baroness was suspected
+and an inquiry was held, but the evidence of death being the
+result of any crime appearing insufficient, she was not prosecuted.
+Hated as she was alike by legitimatists and republicans, life
+in Paris was no longer agreeable for her, and she returned to
+London, where she died in December 1840.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1806-1849),
+Austrian physician, poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna
+on the 29th of April 1806; of an old Saxon noble family. He
+attended the &ldquo;Theresian Academy&rdquo; in his native city, and in
+1825 entered its university as a student of medicine. In 1833
+he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine, settled in Vienna as
+a practising surgeon, and in 1834 married. The young doctor
+kept up his connexion with the university, where he lectured, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span>
+in 1844 was appointed dean of the faculty of medicine. He
+cultivated the acquaintance of Franz Grillparzer, Heinrich
+Laube, and other intellectual lights of the Viennese world,
+interested himself greatly in educational matters, and in 1848,
+while refusing the presidency of the ministry of education,
+accepted the appointment of under secretary of state in that
+department. His health, however, gave way, and he died at
+Vienna on the 3rd of September 1849. He was not only a
+clever physician, but a poet of fine aesthetical taste and a
+philosopher. Among his medical works may be mentioned: <i>Über
+das Hippokratische erste Buch von der Diät</i> (Vienna, 1835),
+<i>Ärzte und Publicum</i> (Vienna, 1848) and <i>Lehrbuch der ärztlichen
+Seelenkunde</i> (1845). His poetical works include <i>Gedichte</i> (Stutt.
+1836), among which is the well-known beautiful hymn, which
+Mendelssohn set to music. &ldquo;<i>Es ist bestimmt in Gottes Rat.</i>&rdquo;
+As a philosopher he is best known by his <i>Zur Diätetik der Seele</i>
+[Dietetics of the soul] (Vienna, 1838), which attained great
+popularity, and the tendency of which, in contrast to Hufeland&rsquo;s
+<i>Makrobiotik</i> (On the Art of Prolonging Life), is to show the true
+way of rendering life harmonious and lovely. This work had
+by 1906 gone into fifty editions. Noteworthy also is his <i>Beiträge
+zur Litteratur-, Kunst- und Lebenstheorie</i> (Vienna, 1837-1841), and
+an anthology, <i>Geist der deutschen</i> Klassiker (Vienna, 1851;
+3rd ed. 1865-1866).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collected works (with the exception of the purely medical ones)
+were published in 7 vols. by Fr. Hebbel (Vienna, 1851-1853). See
+M. Necker, &ldquo;Ernst von Feuchtersleben, der Freund Grillparzers,&rdquo;
+in the <i>Jahrbuch der Grillparzer Gesellschaft</i>, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUD,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> animosity, hatred, especially a permanent condition of
+hostilities between persons, and hence applied to a state of private
+warfare between tribes, clans or families, a &ldquo;vendetta.&rdquo; The word
+appears in Mid. Eng. as <i>fede</i>, which came through the O. Fr.
+from the O. High Ger. <i>fehida</i>, modern <i>Fehde</i>. The O. Teutonic
+<i>faiho</i>, an adjective, the source of <i>fehida</i>, gives the O. Eng. fáh,
+foe. &ldquo;Fiend,&rdquo; originally an enemy (cf. Ger. <i>Feind</i>), hence the
+enemy of mankind, the devil, and so any evil spirit, is probably
+connected with the same source. The word <i>fede</i> was of Scottish
+usage, but in the 16th century took the form <i>foode</i>, <i>fewd</i> in English.
+The <i>New English Dictionary</i> points out that &ldquo;feud, fee (Lat.
+<i>feudum</i>) could not have influenced the change, for it appears
+fifty years later than the first instances of <i>foode</i>, &amp;c., and was
+only used by writers on feudalism.&rdquo; For the etymology of
+&ldquo;feud&rdquo; (<i>feudum</i>) see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fee</a></span>, and for its history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUDALISM<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (from Late Lat. <i>feodum</i> or <i>feudum</i>, a fee or
+fiel; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fee</a></span>). In every case of institutional growth in history
+two things are to be clearly distinguished from the beginning
+for a correct understanding of the process and its results. One
+of these is the change of conditions in the political or social
+environment which made growth necessary. The other is the
+already existing institutions which began to be transformed to
+meet the new needs. In studying the origin and growth of
+political feudalism, the distinction is easy to make. The all-prevailing
+need of the later Roman and early medieval society
+was protection&mdash;protection against the sudden attacks of
+invading tribes or revolted peasants, against oppressive neighbours,
+against the unwarranted demands of government officers,
+or even against the legal but too heavy exactions of the government
+itself. In the days of the decaying empire and of the
+chaotic German settlement, the weak freeman, the small landowner,
+was exposed to attack in almost every relation of life
+and on every side. The protection which normally it is the
+business of government to furnish he could no longer obtain.
+He must seek protection elsewhere wherever he could get it,
+and pay the price demanded for it. This is the great social fact&mdash;the
+failure of government to perform one of its most primary
+duties, the necessity of finding some substitute in private life&mdash;extending
+in greater or less degree through the whole formative
+period of feudalism, which explains the transformation of
+institutions that brought it into existence. Similar conditions
+have produced an organization which may be called feudal, in
+various countries, and in widely separated periods of history.
+While these different feudal systems have shown a general
+similarity of organization, there has been also great variation
+in their details, because they have started from different institutions
+and developed in different ways. The feudal system
+with which history most concerns itself is that of medieval
+western Europe, and it is that which will be here described.</p>
+
+<p>The institutions which the need of protection seized upon
+when it first began to turn away from the state were twofold.
+They had both long existed in the private, not public,
+relations of the Romans, and they had up to this time
+<span class="sidenote">Roman origins.</span>
+shown no tendency to grow. One of them related to
+the person, to the man himself, without reference to property,
+the other related to land. There are thus distinguished at the
+beginning those two great sides of feudalism which remained to
+the end of its history more or less distinct, the personal relation
+and the land relation. The personal institution needs little
+description. It was the Roman patron and client relationship
+which had remained in existence into the days of the empire,
+in later times less important perhaps legally than socially, and
+which had been reinforced in Gaul by very similar practices in
+use among the Celts before their conquest. The description of
+this institution which has come down to us from Roman sources
+of the days when feudalism was beginning is not so detailed
+as we could wish, but we can see plainly enough that it met a
+frequent need, that it was called by a new name, the <i>patrocinium</i>,
+and that it was firmly enough entrenched in usage to survive
+the German conquest, and to be taken up and continued by
+the conquerors. In its new use, alike in the later Roman and the
+early German state, the landless freeman who could not support
+himself went to some powerful man, stated his need, and offered
+his services, those proper to a freeman, in return for shelter and
+support. This transaction, which was called commendation, gave
+rise in the German state to a written contract which related the
+facts and provided a penalty for its violation. It created a
+relationship of protection and support on one side, and of free
+service on the other.</p>
+
+<p>The other institution, relating to land, was that known to the
+Roman law as the <i>precarium</i>, a name derived from one of its
+essential features through all its history, the prayer of the
+suppliant by which the relationship was begun. The <i>precarium</i>
+was a form of renting land not intended primarily for income,
+but for use when the lease was made from friendship for example,
+or as a reward, or to secure a debt. Legally its characteristic
+feature was that the lessee had no right of any kind against
+the grantor. The owner could call in his land and terminate
+the relation at any time, for any reason, or for none at all.
+Even a definite understanding at the outset that the lease might
+be enjoyed to a specified date was no protection.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It followed
+of course that the heir had no right in the land which his father
+held in this way, nor was the heir of the donor bound by his father&rsquo;s
+act. The legal character of this transaction is summed up in a
+well-known passage in the <i>Digest:&mdash;Interdictum de precariis
+merito introductum est, quia nulla eo nomine juris civilis actio
+esset, magis enim ad donationes et beneficii causam, quam ad
+negotii contracti spectat precarii conditio.</i><a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This may be paraphrased
+as follows:&mdash;The <i>precarium</i> tenant may employ the
+interdict against a third party, because he cannot use the
+ordinary civil action, his holding being not a matter of business
+but rather of favour and kindness. It should be noted that from
+its very beginning the land relationship of feudalism was not
+created primarily for the grantor&rsquo;s income, but that it emphasized
+in the most striking way his continued ownership.</p>
+
+<p>As used for protection in later Roman days the <i>precarium</i>
+gave rise to what was called the commendation of lands, <i>patrocinium
+fundorum</i>. The poor landowner, likely to lose all that
+he had from one kind of oppression or another, went to the great
+landowner, his neighbour, whose position gave him immunity
+from attack or the power to prevent official abuses, and begged
+to be protected. The rich man answered, I can only protect my
+own. Of necessity the poor man must surrender to his powerful
+neighbour the ownership of his lands, which he then received
+back as a <i>precarium</i>&mdash;gaining protection during his lifetime
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span>
+at the cost of his children, who were left without legal claim and
+compelled to make the best terms they could.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Applied to this
+use the <i>precarium</i> found extensive employment in the last age
+of the empire. The government looked on the practice with
+great disfavour, because it transferred large areas from the easy
+access of the state to an ownership beyond its reach. The laws
+repeatedly forbade it under increasing penalties, but clearly
+it could not be stopped. The motive was too strong on both
+sides&mdash;the need of protection on one side, the natural desire to
+increase large possessions and means of self-defence on the other.</p>
+
+<p>These practices the Frankish conquerors of Gaul found in
+full possession of society when they entered into that province.
+They seem to have understood them at once, and, like
+much else Roman, to have made them their own without
+<span class="sidenote">Frankish development.</span>
+material change. The <i>patrocinium</i> they were made
+ready to understand by the existence of a somewhat
+similar institution among themselves, the <i>comitatus</i>, described
+by Tacitus. In this institution the chief of the tribe, or of some
+plainly marked division of the tribe, gathered about himself a
+band of chosen warriors, who formed a kind of private military
+force and body-guard. The special features of the institution
+were the strong tie of faith and service which bound the man,
+the support and rewards given by the lord, and the pride of
+both in the relationship. The <i>patrocinium</i> might well seem to
+the German only a form of the <i>comitatus</i>, but it was a form which
+presented certain advantages in his actual situation. The chief
+of these was perhaps the fact that it was not confined to king or
+tribal chief, but that every noble was able in the Roman practice
+to surround himself with his organized private army. Probably
+this fact, together with the more general fact of the absorption
+in most things of the German in the Roman, accounts for the
+substitution of the <i>patrocinium</i> for the <i>comitatus</i> which took
+place under the Merovingians.</p>
+
+<p>This change did not occur, however, without some modification
+of the Roman customs. The <i>comitatus</i> made contributions of
+its own to future feudalism, to some extent to its institutional
+side, largely to the ideas and spirit which ruled in it. Probably
+the ceremony which grew into feudal homage, and the oath of
+fealty, certainly the honourable position of the vassal and his
+pride in the relationship, the strong tie which bound lord and
+man together, and the idea that faith and service were due on
+both sides in equal measure, we may trace to German sources.
+But we must not forget that the origin of the vassal relationship,
+as an institution, is to be found on Roman and not on German
+soil. The <i>comitatus</i> developed and modified, it did not originate.
+Nor was the feudal system established in any sense by the settlement
+of the <i>comitatus</i> group on the conquered land. The uniting
+of the personal and the land sides of feudalism came long after
+the conquest, and in a different way.</p>
+
+<p>To the <i>precarium</i> German institutions offered no close parallel.
+The advantages, however, which it afforded were obvious, and
+this side of feudalism developed as rapidly after the conquest
+as the personal. The new German noble was as eager to extend
+the size of his lands and to increase the numbers of his dependants
+as the Roman had been. The new German government furnished
+no better protection from local violence, nor was it able any more
+effectively to check the practices which were creating feudalism;
+indeed for a long time it made no attempt to do so. <i>Precarium</i>
+and <i>patrocinium</i> easily passed from the Roman empire to the
+Frankish kingdom, and became as firmly rooted in the new
+society as they had ever been in the old. Up to this point we
+have seen only the small landowner and the landless man entering
+into these relations. Feudalism could not be established,
+however, until the great of the land had adopted them for
+themselves, and had begun to enter the clientage of others and
+to hold lands by the <i>precarium</i> tenure. The first step towards
+this result was easily and quickly taken. The same class continued
+to furnish the king&rsquo;s men, and to form his household and
+body-guard whether the relation was that of the <i>patrocinium</i> or
+the <i>comitatus</i>, and to be made noble by entering into it. It was
+later that they became clients of one another, and in part at
+least as a result of their adoption of the <i>precarium</i> tenure. In
+this latter step the influence of the Church rather than of the king
+seems to have been effective. The large estates which pious
+intentions had bestowed on the Church it was not allowed to
+alienate. It could most easily make them useful to gain the
+influence and support which it needed, and to provide for the
+public functions which fell to its share, by employing the <i>precarium</i>
+tenure. On the other side, the great men coveted the
+wide estates of bishop and abbot, and were ready without
+persuasion to annex portions of them to their own on the easy
+terms of this tenure, not always indeed observed by the holder,
+or able to be enforced by the Church. The employment of the
+<i>precarium</i> by the Church seems to have been one of the surest
+means by which this form of landholding was carried over
+from the Romans to the Frankish period and developed into
+new forms. It came to be made by degrees the subject of
+written contract, by which the rights of the holder were more
+definitely defined and protected than had been the case in
+Roman law. The length of time for which the holding should
+last came to be specified, at first for a term of years and then for
+life, and some payment to the grantor was provided for, not
+pretending to represent the economic value of the land, but only
+to serve as a mark of his continued ownership.</p>
+
+<p>These changes characterize the Merovingian age of Frankish
+history. That period had practically ended, however, before
+these two institutions showed any tendency to join together
+as they were joined in later feudalism. Nor had the king up
+to that time exerted any apparent influence on the processes
+that were going forward. Grants of land of the Merovingian
+kings had carried with them ownership and not a limited right,
+and the king&rsquo;s <i>patrocinium</i> had not widened in extent in the
+direction of the later vassal relation. It was the advent of the
+Carolingian princes and the difficulties which they had to overcome
+that carried these institutions a stage further forward.
+Making their way up from a position among the nobility to
+be the rulers of the land, and finally to supplant the kings, the
+Carolingians had especial need of resources from which to
+purchase and reward faithful support. This need was greatly increased
+when the Arab attack on southern Gaul forced them to
+transform a large part of the old Frankish foot army into cavalry.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+The fundamental principle of the Frankish military system, that
+the man served at his own expense, was still unchanged. It
+had indeed begun to break down under the strain of frequent
+and distant campaigns, but it was long before it was changed as
+the recognized rule of medieval service. If now, in addition
+to his own expenses, the soldier must provide a horse and its
+keeping, the system was likely to break down altogether. It
+was this problem which led to the next step. To solve it the
+early Carolingian princes, especially Charles Martel, who found
+the royal domains exhausted and their own inadequate, grasped
+at the land of the Church. Here was enough to endow an army,
+if some means could be devised to permit its use. This means
+was found in the <i>precarium</i> tenure. Keeping alive, as it did, the
+fact of the grantor&rsquo;s ownership, it did not in form deprive the
+Church of the land. Recognizing that ownership by a small
+payment only, not corresponding to the value of the land, it
+left the larger part of the income to meet the need which had
+arisen. At the same time undoubtedly the new holder of the
+land, if not already the vassal of the prince, was obliged to
+become so and to assume an obligation of service with a mounted
+force when called upon.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> This expedient seems to have solved
+the problem. It gave rise to the numerous <i>precariae verbo regis</i>,
+of the Church records, and to the condemnation of Charles
+Martel in the visions of the clergy to worse difficulties in the
+future life than he had overcome in this. The most important
+consequences of the expedient, however, were not intended or
+perceived at the time. It brought together the two sides of
+feudalism, vassalage and benefice, as they were now commonly
+called, and from this age their union into what is really a single
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span>
+institution was rapid;<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> it emphasized military service as an
+essential obligation of the vassal; and it spread the vassal
+relation between individual proprietors and the sovereign widely
+over the state.</p>
+
+<p>In the period that followed, the reign of Charlemagne and the
+later Carolingian age, continued necessities, military and civil,
+forced the kings to recognize these new institutions more fully,
+even when standing in a position between the government
+and the subject, intercepting the public duties of the latter.
+The incipient feudal baron had not been slow to take advantage
+of the break-down of the old German military system. As in
+the last days of the Roman empire the poor landowner had found
+his only refuge from the exactions of the government in the
+protection of the senator, who could in some way obtain exemptions,
+so the poor Frank could escape the ruinous demands of
+military service only by submitting himself and his lands to the
+count, who did not hesitate on his side to force such submission.
+Charlemagne legislated with vigour against this tendency, trying
+to make it easier for the poor freeman to fulfil his military duties
+directly to the state, and to forbid the misuse of power by the
+rich, but he was not more successful than the Roman government
+had been in a like attempt. Finally the king found himself
+compelled to recognize existing facts, to lay upon the lord the
+duty of producing his men in the field and to allow him to
+appear as their commander. This solved the difficulty of military
+service apparently, but with decisive consequences. It completed
+the transformation of the army into a vassal army; it completed
+the recognition of feudalism by the state, as a legitimate
+relation between different ranks of the people; and it recognized
+the transformation in a great number of cases of a public duty
+into a private obligation.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime another institution had grown up in this
+Franco-Roman society, which probably began and certainly
+assisted in another transformation of the same kind. This
+is the immunity. Suggested probably by Roman practices,
+possibly developed directly from them, it received a great
+extension in the Merovingian period, at first and especially in
+the interest of the Church, but soon of lay land-holders. By the
+grant of an immunity to a proprietor the royal officers, the count
+and his representatives, were forbidden to enter his lands to
+exercise any public function there. The duties which the count
+should perform passed to the proprietor, who now represented
+the government for all his tenants free and unfree. Apparently
+no modification of the royal rights was intended by this
+arrangement, but the beginning of a great change had really
+been made. The king might still receive the same revenues
+and the same services from the district held by the lord as
+formerly, but for their payment a private person in his capacity
+as overlord was now responsible. In the course of a long
+period characterized by a weak central government, it was
+not difficult to enlarge the rights which the lord thus
+obtained, to exclude even the king&rsquo;s personal authority from the
+immunity, and to translate the duties and payments which the
+tenant had once owed to the state into obligations which he
+owed to his lord, even finally into incidents of his tenure. The
+most important public function whose transformation into a
+private possession was assisted by the growth of the immunity
+was the judicial. This process had probably already begun in a
+small way in the growth of institutions which belong to the
+economic side of feudalism, the organization of agriculture
+on the great estates. Even in Roman days the proprietor had
+exercised a jurisdiction over the disputes of his unfree tenants.
+Whether this could by its own growth have been extended over
+his free tenants and carried so far as to absorb a local court,
+like that of the hundred, into private possession, is not certain.
+It seems probable that it could. But in any case, the immunity
+easily carried the development of private jurisdiction through
+these stages. The lord&rsquo;s court took the place of the public
+court in civil, and even by degrees in criminal cases. The
+plaintiff, even if he were under another lord, was obliged to sue
+in the court of the defendant&rsquo;s lord, and the portion of the fine
+for a breach of the peace which should have gone to the state
+went in the end to the lord.</p>
+
+<p>The transfer of the judicial process, and of the financial and
+administrative sides of the government as well, into private
+possession, was not, however, accomplished entirely by the road
+of the immunity. As government weakened after the strong
+days of Charlemagne, and disorder, invasion, and the difficulty
+of intercommunication tended to throw the locality more and
+more upon its own resources, the officer who had once been the
+means of centralization, the count, found success in the effort
+for independence which even Charlemagne had scarcely overcome.
+He was able to throw off responsibility to any central authority,
+and to exercise the powers which had been committed to him as
+an agent of the king, as if they were his own private possession.
+Nor was the king&rsquo;s aid lacking to this method of dividing up the
+royal authority, any more than to the immunity, for it became
+a frequent practice to make the administrative office into a
+fief, and to grant it to be held in that form of property by the
+count. In this way the feudal county, or duchy, formed itself,
+corresponding in most cases only roughly to the old administrative
+divisions of the state, for within the bounds of the county
+there had often formed private feudal possessions too powerful
+to be forced into dependence upon the count, sometimes the
+vice-comes had followed the count&rsquo;s example, and often, on the
+other hand, the count had attached to his county like private
+possessions of his own lying outside its boundaries. In time
+the private lord, who had never been an officer of the state,
+assumed the old administrative titles and called himself count
+or viscount, and perhaps with some sort of right, for his position
+in his territories, through the development of the immunity,
+did not differ from that now held by the man who had been
+originally a count.</p>
+
+<p>In these two ways then the feudal system was formed, and
+took possession of the state territorially, and of its functions in
+government. Its earliest stage of growth was that of the private
+possession only. Under a government too weak to preserve
+order, the great landowner formed his estate into a little territory
+which could defend itself. His smaller neighbours who needed
+protection came to him for it. He forced them to become his
+dependants in return under a great variety of forms, but especially
+developing thereby the <i>precarium</i> land tenure and the <i>patrocinium</i>
+personal service, and organizing a private jurisdiction over his
+tenants, and a private army for defence. Finally he secured
+from the king an immunity which excluded the royal officers
+from his lands and made him a quasi-representative of the state.
+In the meantime his neighbour the count had been following
+a similar process, and in addition he had enjoyed considerable
+advantages of his own. His right to exact military, financial
+and judicial duties for the state he had used to force men to
+become his dependants, and then he had stood between them
+and the state, freeing them from burdens which he threw with
+increased weight upon those who still stood outside his personal
+protection. In ignorance of their danger, and later in despair
+of getting public services adequately performed in any other
+way, the kings first adopted for themselves some of the forms
+and practices which had thus grown up, and by degrees recognized
+them as legally proper for all classes. It proved to be
+easier to hold the lord responsible for the public duties of all
+his dependants because he was the king&rsquo;s vassal and by attaching
+them as conditions to the benefices which he held, than to
+enforce them directly upon every subject.</p>
+
+<p>When this stage was reached the formative age of feudalism
+may be considered at an end. When the government of the
+state had entered into feudalism, and the king was as much
+senior as king; when the vassal relationship was recognized
+as a proper and legal foundation of public duties; when the two
+separate sides of early feudalism were united as the almost
+universal rule, so that a man received a fief because he owed a
+vassal&rsquo;s duties, or looked at in the other and finally prevailing
+way, that he owed a vassal&rsquo;s duties because he had received a
+fief; and finally, when the old idea of the temporary character
+of the <i>precarium</i> tenure was lost sight of, and the right of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span>
+vassal&rsquo;s heir to receive his father&rsquo;s holding was recognized as the
+general rule&mdash;then the feudal system may be called full grown.
+Not that the age of growth was really over. Feudal history
+was always a becoming, always a gradual passing from one stage
+to another, so long as feudalism continued to form the main
+organization of society. But we may say that the formative
+age was over when these features of the system had combined
+to be its characteristic marks. What follows is rather a perfection
+of details in the direction of logical completeness. To assign
+any specific date to the end of this formative age is of course
+impossible, but meaning by the end what has just been stated,
+we shall not be far wrong if we place it somewhere near the
+beginning of the 10th century.</p>
+
+<p>Before we leave the history of feudal origins another word is
+necessary. We have traced a definite line of descent for feudal
+institutions from Roman days through the Merovingian and
+Carolingian ages to the 10th century. That line of descent can
+be made out with convincing clearness and with no particular
+difficulty from epoch to epoch, from the <i>precarium</i> and the
+<i>patrocinium</i>, through the benefice and commendation, to the
+fief and vassalage. But the definiteness of this line should not
+cause us to overlook the fact that there was during these centuries
+much confusion of custom and practice. All round and about
+this line of descent there was a crowd of varying forms branching
+off more or less widely from the main stem, different kinds of
+commendation, different forms of <i>precarium</i>, some of which
+varied greatly from that through which the fief descends, and
+some of which survived in much the old character and under the
+old name for a long time after later feudalism was definitely
+established.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The variety and seeming confusion which reign
+in feudal society, under uniform controlling principles, rule also
+in the ages of beginning. It is easy to lose one&rsquo;s bearings by
+over-emphasizing the importance of variation and exception.
+It is indeed true that what was the exception, the temporary
+offshoot, might have become the main line. It would then have
+produced a system which would have been feudal, in the wide
+sense of the term, but it would have been marked by different
+characteristics, it would have operated in a somewhat different
+way. The crowd of varying forms should not prevent us from
+seeing that we can trace through their confusion the line along
+which the characteristic traits and institutions of European
+feudalism, as it actually was, were growing constantly more
+distinct.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> That is the line of the origin of the feudal system.
+(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>Law and Institutions.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>The growth which we have traced took place within the
+Frankish empire. When we turn to Anglo-Saxon England we
+find a different situation and a different result. There
+<i>precarium</i> and <i>patrocinium</i> were lacking. Certain
+<span class="sidenote">Results in England.</span>
+forms of personal commendation did develop, certain
+forms of dependent land tenure came into use. These do not
+show, however, the characteristic marks of the actual line of
+feudal descent. They belong rather in the varying forms around
+that line. Scholars are not yet agreed as to what would have
+been their result if their natural development had not been cut
+off by the violent introduction of Frankish feudalism with the
+Norman conquest, whether the historical feudal system, or a
+feudal system in the general sense. To the writer it seems clear
+that the latter is the most that can be asserted. They were forms
+which may rightly be called feudal, but only in the wider meaning
+in which we speak of the feudalism of Japan, or of Central Africa,
+not in the sense of 12th-century European feudalism; Saxon
+commendation may rightly be called vassalage, but only as
+looking back to the early Frankish use of the term for many
+varying forms of practice, not as looking forward to the later
+and more definite usage of completed feudalism; and such use
+of the terms feudal and vassalage is sure to be misleading. It
+is better to say that European feudalism is not to be found in
+England before the Conquest, not even in its beginnings. If
+these had really been in existence it would require no argument
+to show the fact. There is no trace of the distinctive marks of
+Frankish feudalism in Saxon England, not where military
+service may be thought to rest upon the land, nor even in the
+rare cases where the tenant seems to some to be made responsible
+for it, for between these cases as they are described in the original
+accounts, legally interpreted, and the feudal conception of the
+vassal&rsquo;s military service, there is a great gulf.</p>
+
+<p>In turning from the origin of feudalism to a description of the
+completed system one is inevitably reminded of the words with
+which de Quincey opens the second part of his essay
+on style. He says: &ldquo;It is a natural resource that
+<span class="sidenote">The completed system.</span>
+whatsoever we find it difficult to investigate as a
+result, we endeavour to follow as a growth. Failing
+analytically to probe its nature, historically we seek relief to our
+perplexities by tracing its origin.... Thus for instance when
+any feudal institution (be it Gothic, Norman, or Anglo-Saxon)
+eludes our deciphering faculty from the imperfect records of its
+use and operation, then we endeavour conjecturally to amend
+our knowledge by watching the circumstances in which that
+institution arose.&rdquo; The temptation to use the larger part of any
+space allotted to the history of feudalism for a discussion of
+origins does not arise alone from greater interest in that phase of
+the subject. It is almost impossible even with the most discriminating
+care to give a brief account of completed feudalism
+and convey no wrong impression. We use the term &ldquo;feudal
+system&rdquo; for convenience sake, but with a degree of impropriety
+if it conveys the meaning &ldquo;systematic.&rdquo; Feudalism in its most
+flourishing age was anything but systematic. It was confusion
+roughly organized. Great diversity prevailed everywhere,
+and we should not be surprised to find some different fact or
+custom in every lordship. Anglo-Norman feudalism attained a
+logical completeness and a uniformity of practice which, in the
+feudal age proper, can hardly be found elsewhere through so
+large a territory; but in Anglo-Norman feudalism the exception
+holds perhaps as large a place as the regular, and the uniformity
+itself was due to the most serious of exceptions from the feudal
+point of view&mdash;centralization under a powerful monarchy.</p>
+
+<p>But too great emphasis upon variation conveys also a wrong
+impression. Underlying all the apparent confusion of fact and
+practice were certain fundamental principles and relationships,
+which were alike everywhere, and which really gave shape to
+everything that was feudal, no matter what its form might be.
+The chief of these are the following: the relation of vassal and
+lord; the principle that every holder of land is a tenant and not
+an owner, until the highest rank is reached, sometimes even the
+conception rules in that rank; that the tenure by which a thing
+of value is held is one of honourable service, not intended to be
+economic, but moral and political in character; the principle
+of mutual obligations of loyalty, protection and service binding
+together all the ranks of this society from the highest to the
+lowest; and the principle of contract between lord and tenant,
+as determining all rights, controlling their modification, and
+forming the foundation of all law. There was actually in fact
+and practice a larger uniformity than this short list implies,
+because these principles tended to express themselves in similar
+forms, and because historical derivation from a common source
+in Frankish feudalism tended to preserve some degree of uniformity
+in the more important usages.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of the feudal relationship proper was the fief,
+which was usually land, but might be any desirable thing, as an
+office, a revenue in money or kind, the right to collect a toll,
+or operate a mill. In return for the fief, the man became the
+vassal of his lord; he knelt before him, and, with his hands
+between his lord&rsquo;s hands, promised him fealty and service; he
+rose to his feet and took the oath of fealty which bound him to
+the obligations he had assumed in homage; he received from
+his lord ceremonial investiture with the fief. The faithful
+performance of all the duties he had assumed in homage constituted
+the vassal&rsquo;s right and title to his fief. So long as they
+were fulfilled, he, and his heir after him, held the fief as his
+property, practically and in relation to all under tenants as if
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span>
+he were the owner. In the ceremony of homage and investiture,
+which is the creative contract of feudalism, the obligations
+assumed by the two parties were, as a rule, not specified in
+exact terms. They were determined by local custom. What
+they were, however, was as well known, as capable of proof,
+and as adequate a check on innovation by either party, as if
+committed to writing. In many points of detail the vassal&rsquo;s
+services differed widely in different parts of the feudal world.
+We may say, however, that they fall into two classes, general
+and specific. The general included all that might come under
+the idea of loyalty, seeking the lord&rsquo;s interests, keeping his
+secrets, betraying the plans of his enemies, protecting his family,
+&amp;c. The specific services are capable of more definite statement,
+and they usually received exact definition in custom and sometimes
+in written documents. The most characteristic of these
+was the military service, which included appearance in the
+field on summons with a certain force, often armed in a specified
+way, and remaining a specified length of time. It often included
+also the duty of guarding the lord&rsquo;s castle, and of holding one&rsquo;s
+own castle subject to the plans of the lord for the defence of his
+fief. Hardly less characteristic was court service, which included
+the duty of helping to form the court on summons, of taking
+one&rsquo;s own cases to that court instead of to some other, and of
+submitting to its judgments. The duty of giving the lord advice
+was often demanded and fulfilled in sessions of the court, and
+in these feudal courts the obligations of lord and vassal were
+enforced, with an ultimate appeal to war. Under this head
+may be enumerated also the financial duties of the vassal,
+though these were not regarded by the feudal law as of the nature
+of the tenure, <i>i.e.</i> failure to pay them did not lead to confiscation,
+but they were collected by suit and distraint like any debt.
+They did not have their origin in economic considerations, but
+were either intended to mark the vassal&rsquo;s tenant relation, like
+the relief, or to be a part of his service, like the aid, that is, he
+was held to come to the aid of his lord in a case of financial as
+of military necessity. The relief was a sum paid by the heir
+for the lord&rsquo;s recognition of his succession. The aids were paid
+on a few occasions, determined by custom, where the lord was
+put to unusual expense, as for his ransom when captured by the
+enemy, or for the knighting of his eldest son. There was great
+variety regarding the occasion and amount of these payments,
+and in some parts of the feudal world they did not exist at all.
+The most lucrative of the lord&rsquo;s rights were wardship and
+marriage, but the feudal theory of these also was non-economic.
+The fief fell into the hands of the lord, and he enjoyed its revenues
+during the minority of the heir, because the minor could not
+perform the duties by which it was held. The heiress must
+marry as the lord wished, because he had a right to know that
+the holder of the fief could meet the obligations resting upon
+it. Both wardship and marriage were, however, valuable rights
+which the lord could exercise himself or sell to others. These
+were by no means the only rights and duties which could be
+described as existing in feudalism, but they are the most characteristic,
+and on them, or some of them, as a foundation, the
+whole structure of feudal obligation was built, however detailed.</p>
+
+<p>Ideally regarded, feudalism covered Europe with a network
+of these fiefs, rising in graded ranks one above the other from
+the smallest, the knight&rsquo;s fee, at the bottom, to the king at the
+top, who was the supreme landowner, or who held the kingdom
+from God. Actually not even in the most regular of feudal
+countries, like England or Germany, was there any fixed gradation
+of rank, titles or size. A knight might hold directly of the
+king, a count of a viscount, a bishop of an abbot, or the king
+himself of one of his own vassals, or even of a vassal&rsquo;s vassal,
+and in return his vassal&rsquo;s vassal might hold another fief directly
+of him. The case of the count of Champagne, one of the peers
+of France, is a famous example. His great territory was held
+only in small part of the king of France. He held a portion of
+a foreign sovereign, the emperor, and other portions of the duke
+of Burgundy, of two archbishops, of four bishops, and of the abbot
+of St Denis. Frequently did great lay lords, as in this case,
+hold lands by feudal tenure of ecclesiastics.</p>
+
+<p>It is now possible perhaps to get some idea of the way in which
+the government of a feudal country was operated. The early
+German governments whose chief functions, military, judicial,
+financial, legislative, were carried on by the freemen of the nation
+because they were members of the body politic, and were performed
+as duties owed to the community for its defence and
+sustenance, no longer existed. New forms of organization had
+arisen in which indeed these conceptions had not entirely
+disappeared, but in which the vast majority of cases a wholly
+different idea of the ground of service and obligation prevailed.
+Superficially, for example, the feudal court differed but little
+from its Teutonic predecessor. It was still an assembly court.
+Its procedure was almost the same as the earlier. It often
+included the same classes of men. Saxon Witenagemot and
+Norman <i>Curia regis</i> seem very much alike. But the members
+of the feudal court met, not to fulfil a duty owed to the community,
+but a private obligation which they had assumed in
+return for the fiefs they held, and in the history of institutions
+it is differences of this sort which are the determining principles.
+The feudal state was one in which, as it has been said, private
+law had usurped the place of public law. Public duty had become
+private obligation. To understand the feudal state it is essential
+to make clear to one&rsquo;s mind that all sorts of services, which men
+ordinarily owe to the public or to one another, were translated
+into a form of rent paid for the use of land, and defined and
+enforced by a private contract. In every feudal country, however,
+something of the earlier conception survived. A general military
+levy was occasionally made. Something like taxation occasionally
+occurred, though the government was usually sustained by the
+scanty feudal payments, by the proceeds of justice and by the
+income of domain manors. About the office of king more of
+this earlier conception gathered than elsewhere in the state,
+and gradually grew, aided not merely by traditional ideas, but
+by the active influence of the Bible, and soon of the Roman law.
+The kingship formed the nucleus of new governments as the
+feudal system passed away.</p>
+
+<p>Actual government in the feudal age was primitive and undifferentiated.
+Its chief and almost only organ, for kingdom
+and barony alike, was the <i>curia</i>&mdash;a court formed of the vassals.
+This acted at once and without any consciousness of difference
+of function, as judiciary, as legislature, in so far as there was
+any in the feudal period, and as council, and it exercised final
+supervision and control over revenue and administration.
+Almost all the institutions of modern states go back to the
+<i>curia regis</i>, branching off from it at different dates as the growing
+complexity of business forced differentiation of function and
+personnel. In action it was an assembly court, deciding all
+questions by discussion and the weight of opinion, though its
+decisions obtained their legal validity by the formal pronunciation
+of the presiding member, <i>i.e.</i> of the lord whose court it was.
+It can readily be seen that in a government of this kind the
+essential operative element was the baron. So long as the
+government remained dependent on the baron, it remained
+feudal in its character. When conditions so changed that government
+could free itself from its dependence on the baron, feudalism
+disappeared as the organization of society; when a professional
+class arose to form the judiciary, when the increased circulation
+of money made regular taxation possible and enabled the government
+to buy military and other services, and when better means
+of intercommunication and the growth of common ideas made
+a wide centralization possible and likely to be permanent.
+Feudalism had performed a great service, during an age of
+disintegration, by maintaining a general framework of government,
+while allowing the locality to protect and care for itself.
+When the function of protection and local supervision could be
+resumed by the general government the feudal age ended. In
+nearly all the states of Europe this end was reached during, or
+by the close of, the 13th century.</p>
+
+<p>At the moment, however, when feudalism was disappearing
+as the organization of society, it gave rise to results which in a
+sense continued it into after ages and even to our own day.
+One of these results was the system of law which it created.
+<span class="sidenote">Decline and survivals.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span>
+As feudalism passed from its age of supremacy into its age
+of decline, its customs tended to crystallize into fixed forms.
+At the same time a class of men arose interested in
+these forms for their own sake, professional lawyers
+or judges, who wrote down for their own and others&rsquo;
+use the feudal usages with which they were familiar.
+The great age of these codes was the 13th century, and especially
+the second half of it. The codes in their turn tended still further
+to harden these usages into fixed forms, and we may date from
+the end of the 13th century an age of feudal law regulating
+especially the holding and transfer of land, and much more
+uniform in character than the law of the feudal age proper.
+This was particularly the case in parts of France and Germany
+where feudalism continued to regulate the property relations
+of lords and vassals longer than elsewhere, and where the underlying
+economic feudalism remained in large part unchanged.
+In this later pseudo-feudalism, however, the political had given
+way to the economic, and customs which had once had no
+economic significance came to have that only.</p>
+
+<p>Feudalism formed the starting-point also of the later social
+nobilities of Europe. They drew from it their titles and ranks
+and many of their regulative ideas, though these were formed
+into more definite and regular systems than ever existed in
+feudalism proper. It was often the policy of kings to increase
+the social privileges and legal exemptions of the nobility while
+taking away all political power, so that it is necessary in the
+history of institutions to distinguish sharply between these
+nobilities and the feudal baronage proper. It is only in certain
+backward parts of Europe that the terms feudal and baronage
+in any technical sense can be used of the nobility of the 15th
+century.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. B. A.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;For more detailed information the reader is
+referred to the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Law</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>French Law
+and Institutions</i>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Villenage</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manor</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scutage</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Knight
+Service</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hide</a></span>. For a general sketch of Feudalism the chapters in
+tome ii. of the <i>Histoire générale</i> of Lavisse and Rambaud should be
+consulted. Other general works are J.T. Abdy, <i>Feudalism</i> (1890);
+Paul Roth, <i>Feudalität und Unterthanverband</i> (Weimar, 1863); and
+<i>Geschichte des Beneficialwesens</i> (1850); M.M. Kovalevsky, <i>Ökonomische
+Entwickelung Europas</i> (1902); E. de Laveleye, <i>De la propriété
+et de ses formes primitives</i> (1891); and <i>The Origin of Property
+in Land</i>, a translation by M. Ashley from the works of N.D. Fustel de
+Coulanges, with an introductory chapter by Professor W.J. Ashley.
+Two other works of value are Sir H.S. Maine, <i>Village Communities in
+the East and West</i> (1876); and Léon Gautier, <i>La Chevalerie</i> (Paris,
+1884; Eng. trans. by Henry Frith, <i>Chivalry</i>, London, 1891).</p>
+
+<p>For feudalism in England see the various constitutional histories,
+especially W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. i. (ed.
+1897). Very valuable also are the writings of Mr J.H. Round, of
+Professor F.W. Maitland and of Professor P. Vinogradoff. Among
+Round&rsquo;s works may be mentioned <i>Feudal England</i> (1895); <i>Geoffrey
+de Mandeville</i> (1892); and <i>Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer</i>
+(1898). Maitland&rsquo;s <i>Domesday Book and Beyond</i> (Cambridge, 1897)
+is indispensable; and the same remark applies to his <i>History of
+English Law before the time of Edward I.</i> (Cambridge, 1895), written
+in conjunction with Sir Frederick Pollock. Vinogradoff has illuminated
+the subject in his <i>Villainage in England</i> (1892) and his <i>English
+Society in the 11th century</i> (1908). See also J.F. Baldwin, <i>The
+Scutage and Knight Service in England</i> (Chicago, 1897); Rudolf
+Gneist, <i>Adel und Ritterschaft in England</i> (1853); and F. Seebohm,
+<i>The English Village Community</i> (1883).</p>
+
+<p>For feudalism in France see N.D. Fustel de Coulanges, <i>Histoire des
+institutions politiques de l&rsquo;ancienne France</i> (<i>Les Origines du système
+féodal</i>, 1890; <i>Les Transformations de la royauté pendant l&rsquo;époque
+carolingienne</i>, 1892); A. Luchaire, <i>Histoire des institutions monarchiques
+de la France sous les premiers Capétiens, 987-1180</i> (2nd ed.,
+1890); and <i>Manuel des institutions françaises: période des Capétiens
+directs</i> (1892); J. Flach, <i>Les Origines de l&rsquo;ancienne France</i> (1886-1893);
+Paul Viollet, <i>Droit public: Histoires des institutions politiques
+et administratives de la France</i> (1890-1898); and Henri Sée, <i>Les
+classes rurales et le régime domanial</i> (1901).</p>
+
+<p>For Germany see G. Waitz, <i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte</i> (Kiel
+and Berlin, 1844 foll.); H. Brunner, <i>Grundzüge der deutschen
+Rechtsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1901); V. Menzel, <i>Die Entstehung des
+Lebenswesens</i> (Berlin, 1890); and G.L. von Maurer&rsquo;s works on the
+early institutions of the Germans.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Digest</i>, xliii. 26. 12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> xliii. 26. 14, and cf. 17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Salvian, <i>De gub. Dei</i>, v. 8, ed. Halm, p. 62.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> H. Brunner, <i>Zeitschr. der sav. Stift. für Rechtsgeschichte</i>, Germ.
+Abth. viii. 1-38 (1887). Also in his Forschungen, 39-74 (1894).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See F. Dahn, <i>Könige der Germanen</i>, viii. 2, 90 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> F. Dahn, <i>Könige der Germanen</i>, viii. 2, 197.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> G. Waitz, <i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte</i>, vi. 112 ff. (1896).
+Most fully described in G. Seeliger, <i>Die soziale u. politische Bedeutung
+d. Grundherrschaft im früheren Mittelalter</i> (1903).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> F. Dahn, <i>Könige</i>, viii. 2, 89-90; 95.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUERBACH, ANSELM<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1829-1880), German painter, born
+at Spires, the son of a well-known archaeologist, was the leading
+classicist painter of the German 19th-century school. He was
+the first to realize the danger arising from contempt of technique,
+that mastery of craftsmanship was needed to express even the
+loftiest ideas, and that an ill-drawn coloured cartoon can never
+be the supreme achievement in art. After having passed through
+the art schools of Düsseldorf and Munich, he went to Antwerp
+and subsequently to Paris, where he benefited by the teaching
+of Couture, and produced his first masterpiece, &ldquo;Hafiz at the
+Fountain&rdquo; in 1852. He subsequently worked at Karlsruhe,
+Venice (where he fell under the spell of the greatest school of
+colourists), Rome and Vienna. He was steeped in classic
+knowledge, and his figure compositions have the statuesque
+dignity and simplicity of Greek art. Disappointed with the
+reception given in Vienna to his design of &ldquo;The Fall of the
+Titans&rdquo; for the ceiling of the Museum of Modelling, he went to
+live in Venice, where he died in 1880. His works are to be found
+at the leading public galleries of Germany; Stuttgart has his
+&ldquo;Iphigenia&rdquo;; Karlsruhe, the &ldquo;Dante at Ravenna&rdquo;; Munich,
+the &ldquo;Medea&rdquo;; and Berlin, &ldquo;The Concert,&rdquo; his last important
+picture. Among his chief works are also &ldquo;The Battle of the
+Amazons,&rdquo; &ldquo;Pietà,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Symposium of Plato,&rdquo; &ldquo;Orpheus
+and Eurydice&rdquo; and &ldquo;Ariosto in the Park of Ferrara.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1804-1872), German
+philosopher, fourth son of the eminent jurist (see below), was born
+at Landshut in Bavaria on the 28th of July 1804. He matriculated
+at Heidelberg with the intention of pursuing an ecclesiastical
+career. Through the influence of Prof. Daub he was led to
+an interest in the then predominant philosophy of Hegel and,
+in spite of his father&rsquo;s opposition, went to Berlin to study under
+the master himself. After two years&rsquo; discipleship the Hegelian
+influence began to slacken. &ldquo;Theology,&rdquo; he wrote to a friend,
+&ldquo;I can bring myself to study no more. I long to take nature
+to my heart, that nature before whose depth the faint-hearted
+theologian shrinks back; and with nature man, man in his
+entire quality.&rdquo; These words are a key to Feuerbach&rsquo;s development.
+He completed his education at Erlangen with the study
+of natural science. His first book, published anonymously,
+<i>Gedanken über Tod und Unsterblichkeit</i> (1830, 3rd ed. 1876),
+contains an attack upon personal immortality and an advocacy
+of the Spinozistic immortality of reabsorption in nature. These
+principles, combined with his embarrassed manner of public
+speaking, debarred him from academic advancement. After
+some years of struggling, during which he published his <i>Geschichte
+der neueren Philosophie</i> (2 vols., 1833-1837, 2nd ed. 1844), and
+<i>Abälard und Heloise</i> (1834, 3rd ed. 1877), he married in 1837
+and lived a rural existence at Bruckberg near Nuremberg,
+supported by his wife&rsquo;s share in a small porcelain factory. In
+two works of this period, <i>Pierre Bayle</i> (1838) and <i>Philosophie
+und Christentum</i> (1839), which deal largely with theology, he
+held that he had proved &ldquo;that Christianity has in fact long
+vanished not only from the reason but from the life of mankind,
+that it is nothing more than a fixed idea&rdquo; in flagrant contradiction
+to the distinctive features of contemporary civilization.
+This attack is followed up in his most important work, <i>Das
+Wesen des Christentums</i> (1841), which was translated into
+English (<i>The Essence of Religion</i>, by George Eliot, 1853, 2nd ed.
+1881), French and Russian. Its aim may be described shortly
+as an effort to humanize theology. He lays it down that man,
+so far as he is rational, is to himself his own object of thought.
+Religion is consciousness of the infinite. Religion therefore
+is &ldquo;nothing else than the consciousness of the infinity of the
+consciousness; or, in the consciousness of the infinite, the
+conscious subject has for his object the infinity of his own
+nature.&rdquo; Thus God is nothing else than man: he is, so to speak,
+the outward projection of man&rsquo;s inward nature. In part 1 of
+his book he develops what he calls the &ldquo;true or anthropological
+essence of religion.&rdquo; Treating of God in his various aspects
+&ldquo;as a being of the understanding,&rdquo; &ldquo;as a moral being or law,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;as love&rdquo; and so on, Feuerbach shows that in every aspect God
+corresponds to some feature or need of human nature. &ldquo;If
+man is to find contentment in God, he must find himself in God.&rdquo;
+In part 2 he discusses the &ldquo;false or theological essence of religion,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> the view which regards God as having a separate existence
+over against man. Hence arise various mistaken beliefs, such
+as the belief in revelation which not only injures the moral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span>
+sence, but also &ldquo;poisons, nay destroys, the divinest feeling in
+man, the sense of truth,&rdquo; and the belief in sacraments such as
+the Lord&rsquo;s Supper, a piece of religious materialism of which &ldquo;the
+necessary consequences are superstition and immorality.&rdquo;
+In spite of many admirable qualities both of style and matter
+the <i>Essence of Christianity</i> has never made much impression
+upon British thought. To treat the actual forms of religion
+as expressions of our various human needs is a fruitful idea
+which deserves fuller development than it has yet received;
+but Feuerbach&rsquo;s treatment of it is fatally vitiated by his subjectivism.
+Feuerbach denied that he was rightly called an
+atheist, but the denial is merely verbal: what he calls &ldquo;theism&rdquo;
+is atheism in the ordinary sense. Feuerbach labours under the
+same difficulty as Fichte; both thinkers strive in vain to reconcile
+the religious consciousness with subjectivism.</p>
+
+<p>During the troubles of 1848-1849 Feuerbach&rsquo;s attack upon
+orthodoxy made him something of a hero with the revolutionary
+party; but he never threw himself into the political movement,
+and indeed had not the qualities of a popular leader. During the
+period of the diet of Frankfort he had given public lectures on
+religion at Heidelberg. When the diet closed he withdrew to
+Bruckberg and occupied himself partly with scientific study,
+partly with the composition of his <i>Theogonie</i> (1857). In 1860 he
+was compelled by the failure of the porcelain factory to leave
+Bruckberg, and he would have suffered the extremity of want
+but for the assistance of friends supplemented by a public
+subscription. His last book, <i>Gottheit, Freiheit und Unsterblichkeit</i>,
+appeared in 1866 (2nd ed., 1890). After a long period of decay he
+died on the 13th of September 1872.</p>
+
+<p>Feuerbach&rsquo;s influence has been greatest upon the anti-Christian
+theologians such as D.F. Strauss, the author of the
+<i>Leben Jesu</i>, and Bruno Bauer, who like Feuerbach himself had
+passed over from Hegelianism to a form of naturalism. But
+many of his ideas were taken up by those who, like Arnold Ruge,
+had entered into the struggle between church and state in
+Germany, and those who, like F. Engels and Karl Marx, were
+leaders in the revolt of labour against the power of capital. His
+work was too deliberately unsystematic (&ldquo;keine Philosophie ist
+meine Philosophie&rdquo;) ever to make him a power in philosophy.
+He expressed in an eager, disjointed, but condensed and laboured
+fashion, certain deep-lying convictions&mdash;that philosophy must
+come back from unsubstantial metaphysics to the solid facts of
+human nature and natural science, that the human body was no
+less important than the human spirit (&ldquo;Der Mensch ist was er
+isst&rdquo;) and that Christianity was utterly out of harmony with the
+age. His convictions gained weight from the simplicity, uprightness
+and diligence of his character; but they need a more
+effective justification than he was able to give them.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works appeared in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1846-1866); his correspondence
+has been edited with an indifferent biography by Karl
+Grün (1874). See A. Lévy, <i>La Philosophie de Feuerbach</i> (1904);
+M. Meyer, <i>L. Feuerbach&rsquo;s Moralphilosophie</i> (Berlin, 1899); E. v.
+Hartmann, <i>Geschichte d. Metaphysik</i> (Leipzig, 1899-1900), ii. 437-444:
+F. Engels, <i>L. Feuerbach und d. Ausgang d. class, deutsch. Philos.</i>
+(2nd ed., 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. St.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> <span class="sc">Ritter von</span> (1775-1833),
+German jurist and writer on criminal law, was born at
+Hainichen near Jena on the 14th of November 1775. He received
+his early education at Frankfort on Main, whither his family had
+removed soon after his birth. At the age of sixteen, however,
+he ran away from home, and, going to Jena, was helped by
+relations there to study at the university. In spite of poor health
+and the most desperate poverty, he made rapid progress. He
+attended the lectures of Karl Leonhard Reinhold and Gottlieb
+Hufeland, and soon published some literary essays of more than
+ordinary merit. In 1795 he took the degree of doctor in philosophy,
+and in the same year, though he only possessed 150
+thalers (£22 : 10s.), he married. It was this step which led him
+to success and fame, by forcing him to turn from his favourite
+studies of philosophy and history to that of law, which was
+repugnant to him, but which offered a prospect of more rapid
+advancement. His success in this new and uncongenial sphere
+was soon assured. In 1796 he published <i>Kritik des natürlichen
+Rechts als Propädeutik zu einer Wissenschaft der natürlichen
+Rechte</i>, which was followed, in 1798, by <i>Anti-Hobbes, oder über die
+Grenzen der bürgerlichen Gewalt</i>, a dissertation on the limits of the
+civil power and the right of resistance on the part of subjects
+against their rulers, and by <i>Philosophische, juristische Untersuchungen
+über das Verbrechen des Hochverraths</i>. In 1799 he
+obtained the degree of doctor of laws. Feuerbach, as the founder
+of a new theory of penal law, the so-called &ldquo;psychological-coercive
+or intimidation theory,&rdquo; occupied a prominent place in
+the history of criminal science. His views, which he first made
+known in his <i>Revision der Grundsätze und Grundbegriffe des
+positiven peinlichen Rechts</i> (1799), were further elucidated and
+expounded in the <i>Bibliothek für die peinliche Rechtswissenschaft</i>
+(1800-1801), an encyclopaedic work produced in conjunction with
+Karl L.W.G. Grolmann and Ludwig Harscher von Almendingen,
+and in his famous <i>Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland geltenden
+peinlichen Rechts</i> (1801). These works were a powerful protest
+against vindictive punishment, and did much towards the
+reformation of the German criminal law. The <i>Carolina</i> (the
+penal code of the emperor Charles V.) had long since ceased to be
+respected. What in 1532 was an inestimable blessing, as a check
+upon the arbitrariness and violence of the effete German procedure,
+had in the course of time outlived its usefulness and
+become a source of evils similar to those it was enacted to
+combat. It availed nothing that, at the commencement of the
+18th century, a freer and more scientific spirit had been breathed
+into Roman law; it failed to reach the criminal law. The
+administration of justice was, before Feuerbach&rsquo;s time, especially
+distinguished by two characteristics: the superiority of the
+judge to all law, and the blending of the judicial and executive
+offices, with the result that the individual was practically at the
+mercy of his prosecutors. This state of things Feuerbach set
+himself to reform, and using as his chief weapon the <i>Revision der
+Grundbegriffe</i> above referred to, was successful in his task. His
+achievement in the struggle may be summed up as: <i>nullum
+crimen, nulla poena sine lege</i> (no wrong and no punishment
+without a remedy). In 1801 Feuerbach was appointed extraordinary
+professor of law without salary, at the university of
+Jena, and in the following year accepted a chair at Kiel, where he
+remained two years. In 1804 he removed to the university of
+Landshut; but on being commanded by King Maximilian
+Joseph to draft a penal code for Bavaria (<i>Strafgesetzbuch für
+das Königreich Bayern</i>), he removed in 1805 to Munich, where he
+was given a high appointment in the ministry of justice and was
+ennobled in 1808. Meanwhile the practical reform of penal
+legislation in Bavaria was begun under his influence in 1806 by
+the abolition of torture. In 1808 appeared the first volume of his
+<i>Merkwürdige Criminalfälle</i>, completed in 1811&mdash;a work of deep
+interest for its application of psychological considerations to cases
+Of crime, and intended to illustrate the inevitable imperfection of
+human laws in their application to individuals. In his <i>Betrachtungen
+über das Geschworenengericht</i> (1811) Feuerbach declared
+against trial by jury, maintaining that the verdict of a jury was
+not adequate legal proof of a crime. Much controversy was
+aroused on the subject, and the author&rsquo;s view was subsequently
+to some extent modified. The result of his labours was promulgated
+in 1813 as the Bavarian penal code. The influence of this
+code, the embodiment of Feuerbach&rsquo;s enlightened views, was
+immense. It was at once made the basis for new codes in
+Württemberg and Saxe-Weimar; it was adopted in its entirety
+in the grand-duchy of Oldenburg; and it was translated into
+Swedish by order of the king. Several of the Swiss cantons
+reformed their codes in conformity with it. Feuerbach had also
+undertaken to prepare a civil code for Bavaria, to be founded on
+the Code Napoléon. This was afterwards set aside, and the
+Codex Maximilianus adopted as a basis. But the project did not
+become law. During the war of liberation (1813-1814) Feuerbach
+showed himself an ardent patriot, and published several political
+brochures which, from the writer&rsquo;s position, had almost the
+weight of state manifestoes. One of these is entitled <i>Über
+deutsche Freiheit und Vertretung deutsche Volker durch Landstände</i>
+(1514). In 1814 Feuerbach was appointed second president
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>
+of the court of appeal at Bamberg, and three years later he
+became first president of the court of appeal at Anspach. In
+1821 he was deputed by the government to visit France,
+Belgium, and the Rhine provinces for the purpose of investigating
+their juridical institutions. As the fruit of this visit, he
+published his treatises <i>Betrachtungen über Öffentlichkeit und
+Mündigkeit der Gerechtigkeitspflege</i> (1821) and <i>Über die Gerichtsverfassung
+und das gerichtliche Verfahren Frankreichs</i> (1825). In
+these he pleaded unconditionally for publicity in all legal proceedings.
+In his later years he took a deep interest in the fate of
+the strange foundling Kaspar Hauser (<i>q.v.</i>), which had excited so
+much attention in Europe; and he was the first to publish a
+critical summary of the ascertained facts, under the title of
+<i>Kaspar Hauser, ein Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben</i>
+(1832). Shortly before his death appeared a collection of his
+<i>Kleine Schriften</i> (1833). Feuerbach, still in the full enjoyment of
+his intellectual powers, died suddenly at Frankfort, while on his
+way to the baths of Schwalbach, on the 29th of May 1833. In
+1853 was published the <i>Leben und Wirken Ans. von Feuerbachs</i>,
+2 vols., consisting of a selection of his letters and journals, with
+occasional notes by his fourth son Ludwig, the distinguished
+philosopher.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also, for an estimate of Feuerbach&rsquo;s life and work, Marquardtsen,
+in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, vol. vi.; and an &ldquo;in
+memoriam&rdquo; notice in <i>Die allgemeine Zeitung</i> (Augsburg), 15th Nov.
+1875, by Professor Dr Karl Binding of Leipzig University.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a political association which
+played a prominent part during the French Revolution. It
+was founded on the 16th of July 1791 by several members of
+the Jacobin Club, who refused to sign a petition presented by
+this body, demanding the deposition of Louis XVI. Among the
+dissident members were B. Barère; and E.J. Sieyès, who were
+later joined by other politicians, among them being Dupont de
+Nemours. The name of Feuillants was popularly given to this
+group of men, because they met in the fine buildings which had
+been occupied by the religious order bearing this name, in the rue
+Saint-Honoré, near the Place Vendôme, in Paris. The members
+of the club preserved the title of <i>Amis de la Constitution</i>, as being a
+sufficient indication of the line they intended to pursue. This consisted
+in opposing everything not contained in the Constitution;
+in their opinion, the latter was in need of no modification, and
+they hated alike all those who were opposed to it, whether <i>émigrés</i>
+or Jacobins; they affected to avoid all political discussion, and
+called themselves merely a &ldquo;conservative assembly.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This attitude they maintained after the Constituent Assembly
+had been succeeded by the Legislative, but not many of the new
+deputies became members of the club. With the rapid growth of
+extreme democratic ideas the Feuillants soon began to be looked
+upon as reactionaries, and to be classed with &ldquo;aristocrats.&rdquo;
+They did, indeed, represent the aristocracy of wealth, for they
+had to pay a subscription of four louis, a large sum at that time,
+besides six livres for attendance. Moreover, the luxury with
+which they surrounded themselves, and the restaurant which
+they had annexed to their club, seemed to mock the misery of the
+half-starved proletariat, and added to the suspicion with which
+they were viewed, especially after the popular triumphs of the
+20th of June and the 10th of August 1792 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French
+Revolution</a></span>). A few days after the insurrection of the 10th of
+August, the papers of the Feuillants were seized, and a list was
+published containing the names of 841 members proclaimed as
+suspects. This was the death-blow of the club. It had made an
+attempt, though a weak one, to oppose the forward march of the
+Revolution, but, unlike the Jacobins, had never sent out branches
+into the provinces. The name of Feuillants, as a party designation,
+survived the club. It was applied to those who advocated
+a policy of &ldquo;cowardly moderation,&rdquo; and <i>feuillantisme</i> was
+associated with <i>aristocratie</i> in the mouths of the sansculottes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The act of separation of the Feuillants from the Jacobins was
+published in a pamphlet dated the 16th of July 1791, beginning with
+the words, <i>Les Membres de l&rsquo;assemblée nationale</i> ... (Paris, 1791).
+The statutes of the club were also published in Paris. See also
+A. Aulard, <i>Histoire politique de la Révolution française</i> (Paris,
+1903), 2nd ed., p. 153.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUILLET, OCTAVE<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1821-1890), French novelist and
+dramatist, was born at Saint-Lô, Manche, on the 11th of August
+1821. He was the son of a Norman gentleman of learning and
+distinction, who would have played a great part in politics &ldquo;sans
+ses diables de nerfs,&rdquo; as Guizot said. This nervous excitability
+was inherited, though not to the same excess, by Octave, whose
+mother died in his infancy and left him to the care of the hyper-sensitive
+invalid. The boy was sent to the lycée Louis-le Grand,
+in Paris, where he achieved high distinction, and was destined for
+the diplomatic service. In 1840 he appeared before his father
+at Saint-Lô, and announced that he had determined to adopt
+the profession of literature. There was a stormy scene, and the
+elder Feuillet cut off his son, who returned to Paris and lived as
+best he could by a scanty journalism. In company with Paul
+Bocage he began to write for the stage, and not without success;
+at all events, he continued to exist until, three years after the
+quarrel, his father consented to forgive him. Enjoying a liberal
+allowance, he now lived in Paris in comfort and independence,
+and he published his early novels, none of which is quite of
+sufficient value to retain the modern reader. The health and
+spirits of the elder M. Feuillet, however, having still further
+declined, he summoned his son to leave Paris and bury himself
+as his constant attendant in the melancholy château at Saint-Lô.
+This was to demand a great sacrifice, but Octave Feuillet cheerfully
+obeyed the summons. In 1851 he married his cousin,
+Mlle Valérie Feuillet, who helped him to endure the mournful
+captivity to which his filial duty bound him. Strangely enough,
+in this exile&mdash;rendered still more irksome by his father&rsquo;s mania
+for solitude and by his tyrannical temper&mdash;the genius of Octave
+Feuillet developed. His first definite success was gained in the
+year 1852, when he published the novel <i>Bellah</i> and produced the
+comedy <i>La Crise</i>. Both were reprinted from the <i>Revue des deux
+mondes</i>, where many of his later novels also appeared. He
+wrote books which have long held their place, <i>La Petite Comtesse</i>
+(1857), <i>Dalila</i> (1857), and in particular that universal favourite,
+<i>Le Roman d&rsquo;un jeune homme pauvre</i> (1858). He himself fell
+into a nervous state in his &ldquo;prison,&rdquo; but he was sustained by
+the devotion and intelligence of his wife and her mother. In
+1857, having been persuaded to make a play of the novel of
+<i>Dalila</i>, he brought out this piece at the Vaudeville, and enjoyed
+a brilliant success; on this occasion he positively broke through
+the <i>consigne</i> and went up to Paris to see his play rehearsed.
+His father bore the shock of his temporary absence, and the
+following year Octave ventured to make the same experiment
+on occasion of the performance of <i>Un Jeune Homme pauvre</i>.
+To his infinite chagrin, during this brief absence his father died.
+Octave was now, however, free, and the family immediately
+moved to Paris, where they took part in the splendid social
+existence of the Second Empire. The elegant and distinguished
+young novelist became a favourite at court; his pieces were
+performed at Compiègne before they were given to the public,
+and on one occasion the empress Eugénie deigned to play the
+part of Mme de Pons in <i>Les Portraits de la Marquise</i>. Feuillet
+did not abandon the novel, and in 1862 he achieved a great
+success with <i>Sibylle</i>. His health, however, had by this time
+begun to decline, affected by the sad death of his eldest son.
+He determined to quit Paris, where the life was far too exciting
+for his nerves, and to regain the quietude of Normandy. The
+old château of the family had been sold, but he bought a house
+called &ldquo;Les Paillers&rdquo; in the suburbs of Saint-Lô, and there he
+lived, buried in his roses, for fifteen years. He was elected to
+the French Academy in 1862, and in 1868 he was made librarian
+of Fontainebleau palace, where he had to reside for a month
+or two in each year. In 1867 he produced his masterpiece of
+<i>Monsieur de Camors</i>, and in 1872 he wrote <i>Julia de Tré&oelig;ur</i>,
+which is hardly less admirable. His last years, after the sale
+of &ldquo;Les Paillers,&rdquo; were passed in a ceaseless wandering, the
+result of the agitation of his nerves. He was broken by sorrow
+and by ill-health, and when he passed away in Paris on the 29th
+of December 1890, his death was a release. His last book was
+<i>Honneur d&rsquo;artiste</i> (1890). Among the too-numerous writings
+of Feuillet, the novels have lasted longer than the dramas;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span>
+of the former three or four seem destined to retain their charm
+as classics. He holds a place midway between the romanticists
+and the realists, with a distinguished and lucid portraiture of
+life which is entirely his own. He drew the women of the world
+whom he saw around him with dignity, with indulgence, with
+extraordinary penetration and clairvoyance. There is little
+description in his novels, which sometimes seem to move on an
+almost bare and colourless stage, but, on the other hand, the
+analysis of motives, of emotions, and of &ldquo;the fine shades&rdquo; has
+rarely been carried further. Few have written French with
+greater purity than Feuillet, and his style, reserved in form and
+never excessive in ornament, but full of wit and delicate animation,
+is in admirable uniformity with his subjects and his treatment.
+It is probably in <i>Sibylle</i> and in <i>Julia de Tréc&oelig;ur</i> that he
+can now be studied to most advantage, though <i>Monsieur de
+Camors</i> gives a greater sense of power, and though <i>Le Roman
+d&rsquo;un jeune homme pauvre</i> still preserves its popularity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i>, vol. v.; F. Brunetière,
+<i>Nouveaux Essais sur la littérature contemporaine</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUILLETON<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (a diminutive of the Fr. <i>feuillet</i>, the leaf of a
+book), originally a kind of supplement attached to the political
+portion of French newspapers. Its inventor was Bertin the
+elder, editor of the <i>Débats</i>. It was not usually printed on a
+separate sheet, but merely separated from the political part of the
+newspaper by a line, and printed in smaller type. In French
+newspapers it consists chiefly of non-political news and gossip,
+literature and art criticism, a chronicle of the fashions, and
+epigrams, charades and other literary trifles; and its general
+characteristics are lightness, grace and sparkle. The <i>feuilleton</i> in
+its French sense has never been adopted by English newspapers,
+though in various modern journals (in the United States especially)
+the sort of matter represented by it is now included. But
+the term itself has come into English use to indicate the instalment
+of a serial story printed in one part of a newspaper.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEUQUIÈRES, ISAAC MANASSÈS DE PAS,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span>
+(1590-1640), French soldier, came of a distinguished family of
+which many members held high command in the civil wars of
+the 16th century. He entered the Royal army at the age of
+thirty, and soon achieved distinction. In 1626 he served in the
+Valtelline, and in 1628-1629 at the celebrated siege of La Rochelle,
+where he was taken prisoner. In 1629 he was made <i>Maréchal
+de Camp</i>, and served in the fighting on the southern frontiers
+of France. After occupying various military positions in
+Lorraine, he was sent as an ambassador into Germany, where
+he rendered important services in negotiations with Wallenstein.
+In 1636 he commanded the French corps operating with the
+duke of Weimar&rsquo;s forces (afterwards Turenne&rsquo;s &ldquo;Army of
+Weimar&rdquo;). With these troops he served in the campaigns of
+1637 (in which he became lieutenant-general), 1638 and 1639.
+At the siege of Thionville (Diedenhofen) he received a mortal
+wound. His <i>lettres inédites</i> appeared (ed. Gallois) in Paris in
+1845.</p>
+
+<p>His son <span class="sc">Antoine Manassès de Pas</span>, Marquis de Feuquières
+(1648-1711), was born at Paris in 1648, and entered the army
+at the age of eighteen. His conduct at the siege of Lille in 1667,
+where he was wounded, won him promotion to the rank of
+captain. In the campaigns of 1672 and 1673 he served on the
+staff of Marshal Luxemburg, and at the siege of Oudenarde
+in the following year the king gave him command of the Royal
+Marine regiment, which he held until he obtained a regiment
+of his own in 1676. In 1688 he served as a brigadier at the siege
+of Philipsburg, and afterwards led a ravaging expedition into
+south Germany, where he acquired much booty. Promoted
+<i>Maréchal de Camp</i>, he served under Catinat against the
+Waldenses, and in the course of the war won the nickname of
+the &ldquo;Wizard.&rdquo; In 1692 he made a brilliant defence of Speierbach
+against greatly superior forces, and was rewarded with the rank
+of lieutenant-general. He bore a distinguished part in Luxemburg&rsquo;s
+great victory of Neerwinden or Landen in 1693. Marshal
+Villeroi impressed him less favourably than his old commander
+Luxemburg, and the resumption of war in 1701 found him in
+disfavour in consequence. The rest of his life, embittered by
+the refusal of the marshal&rsquo;s baton, he spent in compiling his
+celebrated memoirs, which, coloured as they were by the personal
+animosities of the writer, were yet considered by Frederick the
+Great and the soldiers of the 18th century as the standard work
+on the art of war as a whole. He died in 1711. The <i>Mémoires
+sur la guerre</i> appeared in the same year and new editions were
+frequently published (Paris 1711, 1725, 1735, &amp;c., London 1736,
+Amsterdam subsequently). An English version appeared in
+London 1737, under the title <i>Memoirs of the Marquis de Feuquières</i>,
+and a German translation (<i>Feuquières geheime Nachrichten</i>)
+at Leipzig 1732, 1738, and Berlin 1786. They deal in
+detail with every branch of the art of war and of military service.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FÉVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1817-1887), French
+novelist and dramatist, was born on the 27th of September 1817,
+at Rennes in Brittany, and much of his best work deals with the
+history of his native province. He was educated for the bar,
+but after his first brief he went to Paris, where he gained a footing
+by the publication of his &ldquo;Club des phoques&rdquo; (1841) in the
+<i>Revue de Paris</i>. The <i>Mystères de Londres</i> (1844), in which an
+Irishman tries to avenge the wrongs of his countrymen by
+seeking the annihilation of England, was published under the
+ingenious pseudonym &ldquo;Sir Francis Trolopp.&rdquo; Others of his
+novels are: <i>Le Fils du diable</i> (1846); <i>Les Compagnons du silence</i>
+(1857); <i>Le Bossu</i> (1858); <i>Le Poisson d&rsquo;or</i> (1863); <i>Les Habits
+noirs</i> (1863); <i>Jean le diable</i> (1868), and <i>Les Compagnons du
+trésor</i> (1872). Some of his novels were dramatized, <i>Le Bossu</i>
+(1863), in which he had M. Victorien Sardou for a collaborator,
+being especially successful in dramatic form. His chronicles
+of crime exercised an evil influence, eventually recognized by
+the author himself. In his later years he became an ardent
+Catholic, and occupied himself in revising his earlier works from
+his new standpoint and in writing religious pamphlets. Reverses
+of fortune and consequent overwork undermined his mental
+and bodily health, and he died of paralysis in the monastery of
+the Brothers of Saint John in Paris on the 8th of March 1887.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Paul Féval</span> (1860-&emsp;&emsp;), became well known as a
+novelist and dramatist. Among his works are <i>Nouvelles</i> (1890),
+<i>Maria Laura</i> (1891), and <i>Chantepie</i> (1896).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEVER<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (Lat. <i>febris</i>, connected with <i>fervere</i>, to burn), a term
+generally used to include all conditions in which the normal
+temperature of the animal body is markedly exceeded for any
+length of time. When the temperature reaches as high a point
+as 106° F. the term hyperpyrexia (excessive fever) is applied,
+and is regarded as indicating a condition of danger; while, if
+it exceeds 107° or 108° for any length of time, death almost
+always results. The diseases which are called specific fevers,
+because of its being a predominant factor in them, are discussed
+separately under their ordinary names. Occasionally in certain
+specific fevers and febrile diseases the temperature may attain
+the elevation of 110°-112° prior to the fatal issue. For the
+treatment of fever in general, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Therapeutics</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pathology.</i>&mdash;Every rise of temperature is due to a disturbance
+in the heat-regulating mechanism, the chief variable in which
+is the action of the skin in eliminating heat (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Animal Heat</a></span>).
+Although for all practical purposes this mechanism works satisfactorily,
+it is not by any means perfect, and many physiological
+conditions cause a transient rise of temperature; <i>e.g.</i> severe
+muscular exercise, in which the cutaneous eliminating mechanism
+is unable at once to dispose of the increased amount of heat
+produced in the muscles. Pathologically, the heat-regulating
+mechanism may be disturbed in three different ways: 1st, by
+mechanical interference with the nervous system; 2nd, by
+interference with heat elimination; 3rd, by the action of various
+poisons.</p>
+
+<p>1. In the human subject, fever the result of <i>mechanical interference</i>
+with the nervous system rarely occurs, but it can readily
+be produced in the lower animals by stimulating certain parts of
+the great brain, <i>e.g.</i> the anterior portion of the corpus striatum.
+This leads to a rise of temperature with increased heat production.
+The high temperature seems to cause <span class="correction" title="amended from distintegration">disintegration</span> of cell
+protoplasm and increased excretion of nitrogen and of carbonic
+acid. Possibly some of the cases of high temperature recorded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span>
+after injuries to the nervous system may be caused in this way;
+but some may also be due to stimulation of vaso-constrictor
+fibres to the cutaneous vessels diminishing heat elimination.
+So far the pathology of this condition has not been studied with
+the same care that has been devoted to the investigation of the
+third type of fever.</p>
+
+<p>2. Fever may readily be produced by <i>interference with heat
+elimination</i>. This has been done by submitting dogs to a
+temperature slightly below that of the rectum, and it is seen in
+man in <i>Sunstroke</i>. The typical nervous symptoms of fever
+are thus produced, and the rate of chemical change in the tissues
+is accelerated, as is shown by the increased excretion of carbonic
+acid. The protoplasm is also injured and the proteids are broken
+down, and thus an increased excretion of nitrogen is produced
+and the cells undergo degenerative changes.</p>
+
+<p>3. The products of various micro-organisms have a toxic
+action on the protoplasm of a large number of animals, and
+among the symptoms of this toxic action one of the most frequent
+is a rise in temperature. While this is by no means a necessary
+accompaniment, its occurrence is so general that the term <i>Fever</i>
+has been applied to the general reaction of the organism to the
+microbial poison. Toxins which cause a marked rise of temperature
+in men may cause a fall in other animals. It is not the
+alteration of temperature which is the great index of the severity
+of the struggle between the host and the parasite, but the death
+and removal to a greater or lesser extent of the protoplasm of
+the host. In this respect fever resembles poisoning with phosphorus
+and arsenic and other similar substances. The true
+measure of the intensity of a fever is the extent of disintegration
+of protoplasm, and this may be estimated by the amount of
+nitrogen excreted in the urine. The increased disintegration
+of protoplasm is also indicated by the rise in the excretion of
+sulphur and phosphorus and by the appearance in the urine of
+acetone, aceto-acetic and &beta;-oxybutyric acids (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nutrition</a></span>).
+Since the temperature is generally proportionate to the intensity
+of the toxic action, its height is usually proportionate to the
+excretion of nitrogen. But sometimes the rise of temperature
+is not marked, while the excretion of nitrogen is very decidedly
+increased. When the temperature is sufficiently elevated, the
+heat has of itself an injurious action on the protoplasm, and
+tends to increase disintegration just as when heat elimination
+is experimentally retarded. But the increase due to rise of
+temperature is small compared to that produced by the destructive
+action of the microbial products. In the beginning
+of a fever the activity of the metabolism is not increased to any
+marked extent, and any increase is necessarily largely due to
+the greater activity of the muscles of the heart and respiratory
+mechanism, and to the muscular contractions which produce
+the initial rigors. Thus the excretion of carbon dioxide&mdash;the
+great measure of the <i>activity of metabolism</i>&mdash;is not usually
+increased, and there is no evidence of an increased combustion.
+In the later stages the increased temperature may bring about
+an acceleration in the rate of chemical change; but this is
+comparatively slight, less in fact than the increase observed on
+taking muscular exercise after rest. The <i>rise of temperature</i>
+is primarily due to diminished heat elimination. This
+diminished giving off of heat was demonstrated by means of
+the calorimeter by I. Rosenthal, while E. Maragliano showed
+that the cutaneous vessels are contracted. Even in the later
+stages, until defervescence occurs, heat elimination is inadequate
+to get rid of the heat produced.</p>
+
+<p>The toxic action is manifested not only by the increased
+disintegration of protoplasm, but also by disturbances in the
+functions of the various organs. The activity of the <i>digestive
+glands</i> is diminished and appetite is lost. Food is therefore not
+taken, although when taken it appears to be absorbed in undiminished
+quantities. As a result of this the patient suffers
+from inanition, and lives largely on his own fats and proteids,
+and for this reason rapidly emaciates. The functions of the
+<i>liver</i> are also diminished in activity. Glycogen is not stored
+in the cells, and the bile secretion is modified, the essential
+constituents disappearing almost entirely in some cases. The
+production of urea is also interfered with, and the proportion
+of nitrogen in the urine not in the urea increases. This is in part
+due to the increased disintegration of proteids setting free
+sulphur and phosphorus, which, oxidized into sulphuric and
+phosphoric acids, combine with the ammonia which would otherwise
+have been changed to urea. Thus the proportion of ammonia
+in the urine is increased. Concurrently with these alterations
+in the functions of the liver-cells, a condition of granular degeneration
+and probably a state of fatty degeneration makes its appearance.
+That the functional activity of the <i>kidneys</i> is modified,
+is shown by the frequent appearance of proteoses or of albumen
+and globulin in the urine. Frequently the toxin acts very
+markedly on the protoplasm of the kidney epithelium, and
+causes a shedding of the cells and sometimes inflammatory
+reaction. The <i>muscles</i> are weakened, but so far no satisfactory
+study has been made of the influence of microbial poisons on
+muscular contraction. A granular and fatty degeneration supervenes,
+and the fibres waste. The <i>nervous structures</i>, especially
+the nerve-cells, are acted upon, and not only is their functional
+activity modified, but they also undergo structural changes of a
+chromatolytic nature. The <i>blood</i> shows two important changes&mdash;first,
+a fall in the alkalinity due to the products of disintegration
+of protoplasm; and, secondly, an increase in the number of
+leucocytes, and chiefly in the polymorpho-nuclear variety. This
+is best marked in pneumonia, where the normal number is often
+increased twofold and sometimes more than tenfold, while it is
+altogether absent in enteric fever.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting general modification in the metabolism is the
+enormous fall in the excretion of chlorine, a fall far in excess
+of what could be accounted for by inanition, and out of all
+proportion to the fall in the sodium and potassium with which
+the chlorine is usually combined in the urine. The fevered
+animal in fact stores chlorine in its tissues, though in what
+manner and for what reason is not at present known.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Von Noorden, <i>Lehrbuch der Pathologie des Stoffwechsels</i>
+(Berlin, 1893); <i>Metabolism and Practical Medicine</i>, vol. ii.,
+article &ldquo;Fever&rdquo; by F. Kraus (1907); Dr A. Rabe, <i>Die modernen
+Fiebertheorien</i> (Berlin, 1894); Dr G.B. Ughetti, <i>Das Fieber</i>, trans.
+by Dr R. Teuscher (Jena, 1895); Dr M. Lövit, &ldquo;Die Lehre von
+Fieber,&rdquo; <i>Vorlesungen über allgemeine Pathologie</i>, erstes Heft (Jena,
+1897); Louis Guinon, &ldquo;De la fièvre,&rdquo; in Bouchard&rsquo;s <i>Traité de
+pathologie générale</i>, t. iii. 2nd partie (Paris, 1899); Sir J.B. Sanderson,
+&ldquo;The Doctrine of Fever,&rdquo; in Allbutt&rsquo;s <i>System of Medicine</i>, vol. i.
+p. 139 (London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. N. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIMÉ<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1821-1873), French author, was
+born in Paris, on the 16th of March 1821. He began his literary
+career in 1844, by the publication of a volume of poetry, <i>Les
+Nationales</i>. Either the partial failure of this literary effort, or
+his marriage soon afterwards to a daughter of the economist
+Blanqui, caused him to devote himself to finance and to
+archaeology. He gained a great success with his novel <i>Fanny</i>
+(1858), a success due chiefly to the cleverness with which it
+depicted and excused the corrupt manners of a certain portion
+of French society. This was followed in rapid succession by a
+series of fictions, similar in character, but wanting the attraction
+of novelty; none of them enjoyed the same vogue as <i>Fanny</i>.
+Besides his novels Feydeau wrote several plays, and he is also
+the author of <i>Histoire générale des usages funèbres et des sépultures
+des peuples anciens</i> (3 vols., 1857-1861); <i>Le Secret du bonheur</i>
+(sketches of Algerian life) (2 vols., 1864); and <i>L&rsquo;Allemagne en
+1871</i> (1872), a clever caricature of German life and manners. He
+died in Paris on the 27th of October 1873.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. xiv., and Barbey
+d&rsquo;Aurevilly, <i>Les &OElig;uvres et les hommes au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEZ<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (<i>F&#257;s</i>), the chief city of Morocco, into which empire it
+was incorporated in 1548. It lies in 34° 6&prime; 3&Prime; N., 4° 38&prime; 15&Prime; W.,
+about 230 m. N.E. of Marr&#257;kesh, 100 m. E. from the Atlantic
+and 85 m. S. of the Mediterranean. It is beautifully situated
+in a deep valley on the Wad F&#257;s, an affluent of the Wad Sebu,
+which divides the town into two parts&mdash;the ancient town, F&#257;s
+el Bali, on the right bank, and the new, F&#257;s el Jad&#299;d, on the left.</p>
+
+<p>Like many other Oriental cities, Fez from a distance appears
+a very attractive place. It stretches out between low hills,
+crowned by the ruins of ancient fortresses, and though there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span>
+is nothing imposing, there is something particularly impressive
+in the sight of that white-roofed conglomeration of habitations,
+broken only by occasional mosque towers or, on the outskirts,
+by luxuriant foliage. Except on the south side the city is surrounded
+by hills, interspersed with groves of orange, pomegranate
+and other fruit trees, and large olive gardens.</p>
+
+<p>From its peculiar situation Fez has a drainage superior to that
+of most Moorish towns. When the town becomes very dirty, the
+water is allowed to run down the streets by opening lids for the
+purpose in the conduits and closing the ordinary exits, so that
+it overflows and cleanses the pavements. The Fasis as a rule
+prefer to drink the muddy river water rather than that of the
+pure springs which abound in certain quarters of the town. But
+the assertion that the supply and drainage system are one is a
+libel, since the drainage system lies below the level of the fresh
+river water, and was organized by a French renegade, under
+Mohammed XVI., about the close of the 18th century. The
+general dampness of the town renders it unhealthy, however,
+as the pallid faces of the inhabitants betoken, but this is considered
+a mark of distinction and is jealously guarded.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the streets are exceedingly narrow, and as the houses
+are high and built in many cases over the thoroughfares these
+are often very dark and gloomy, though, since wooden beams,
+rough stones and mortar are used in building, there is less of
+that ruined, half-decayed appearance so common in other
+Moorish towns where mud concrete is the material employed.</p>
+
+<p>As a commercial town Fez is a great depot for the trade of
+Barbary and wares brought from the east and south by caravans.
+The manufactures still carried on are those of yellow slippers
+of the famous Morocco leather, fine white woollen and silk haiks,
+of which it is justly proud, women&rsquo;s embroidered sashes, various
+coarse woollen cloths and blankets, cotton and silk handkerchiefs,
+silk cords and braids, swords and guns, saddlery, brass trays,
+Moorish musical instruments, rude painted pottery and coloured
+tiles. Until recent times the city had a monopoly of the manufacture
+of Fez caps, for it was supposed that the dye which
+imparts the dull crimson hue of these caps could not be procured
+elsewhere; they are now, however, made both in France and
+Turkey. The dye is obtained from the juice of a berry which
+grows in large quantities near the town, and is also used in the
+dyeing of leather. Some gold ornaments are made, the gold
+being brought from the interior by caravans which trade regularly
+with Timbuktu.</p>
+
+<p>As in other capitals each trade has a district or street devoted
+chiefly to its activities. Old Fez is the business portion of the
+town, new Fez being occupied principally by government
+quarters and the Jews&rsquo; mellah. The tradesman usually sits
+cross-legged in a corner of his shop with his goods so arranged
+that he can reach most of them without moving.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days of Mahommedan rule in Morocco, Fez was
+the seat of learning and the empire&rsquo;s pride. Its schools of
+religion, philosophy and astronomy enjoyed a great reputation
+in Africa and also in southern Europe, and were even attended
+by Christians. On the expulsion of the Moors from Spain,
+refugees of all kinds flocked to Fez, and brought with them
+some knowledge of arts, sciences and manufactures, and thither
+flocked students to make use of its extensive libraries. But
+its glories were brief, and though still &ldquo;the university town&rdquo;
+of Morocco, it retains but a shadow of its greatness. Its library,
+estimated by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861 to contain 5000 volumes,
+is open on Fridays, and any Moor of known respectability may
+borrow volumes on getting an order and signing a receipt for
+them. There are about 1500 students who read at the Karueein.
+They pay no rents, but buy the keys of the rooms from the
+last occupants, selling them again on leaving.</p>
+
+<p>The Karueein is celebrated as the largest mosque in Africa,
+but it is by no means the most magnificent. On account of
+the vast area covered, the roof, supported by three hundred
+and sixty-six pillars of stone, appears very low. The side chapel
+for services for the dead contains twenty-four pillars. All
+these columns support horse-shoe arches, on which the roof
+is built, long vistas of arches being seen from each of the eighteen
+doors of the mosque. The large lamp is stated to weigh 1763 &#8468;
+and to have 509 lights, but it is very seldom lit. The total
+number of lights in the Karueein is given as seventeen
+hundred, and they are said to require 3½ cwt. of oil for one
+filling. The mosque of Mulai Idris, built by the founder of Fez
+about the year 810, is considered so sacred that the streets
+which approach its entrance are forbidden to Jews, Christians
+or four-footed beasts. The sanctity of the shrine in particular
+is esteemed very great, and this accounts for the crowds which
+daily flock to it. The Tumiat door leading to it was once very
+fine, but is now much faded. Opposite to it is a refuge for friendless
+sharifas&mdash;the female descendants of Mahomet&mdash;built by
+Mohammed XVII.</p>
+
+<p>It is believed that the foundation stone of Fez was laid in
+808 by Idris II. Since then its history has been chequered,
+as it was successfully besieged no fewer than eight times in the
+first five hundred years of its existence, yet only once knew
+foreign masters, when in 1554 the Turks took possession of it
+without a siege and held it for a short time. Fez became the
+chief residence of the Filali dynasty, who obtained possession
+of the town in 1649 (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Morocco</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The population has been very varyingly estimated; probably
+the inhabitants number under one hundred thousand, even when
+the court is in residence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Gaillard, <i>Une Ville de l&rsquo;Islam. Fès</i> (Paris, 1905); C. René-Leclerc,
+&ldquo;Le commerce et l&rsquo;industrie à Fez&rdquo; in <i>Renseignements col.
+comité afrique française</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FEZZAN<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (the ancient <i>Phazania</i>, or country of the Garamantes),
+a region of the Sahara, forming a &ldquo;kaimakamlik&rdquo;
+of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripoli (<i>q.v.</i>). Its frontiers, ill-defined,
+run from Bonjem, within 50 m. of the Mediterranean on the
+north, south-westward to the Akakus range of hills, which
+separates Fezzan from Ghat, thence eastward for over 400 m.,
+and then turn north and west to Bonjem again, embracing an
+area of about 156,000 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Features.</i>&mdash;The general form of the country is
+determined by the ranges of hills, including the Jebel-es-Suda
+(highest peak about 4000 ft.), the Haruj-el-Aswad and the
+Haruj-el-Abiad, which between 14° and 19° E. and 27° and 29° N.
+form the northern edge of a broad desert plateau, and shut off
+the northern region draining to the Mediterranean from the
+depressions in which lie the oases of Fezzan proper in the south.
+The central depression of Hofra (&ldquo;ditch&rdquo;), as it is called, lies
+in about 26° N. It does not form a continuous fertile tract,
+but consists of a monotonous sandy expanse somewhat more
+thickly studded with oases than the surrounding wastes. The
+Hofra at its lowest part is not more than 600 ft. above the sea-level,
+and in this hollow is situated the capital Murzuk. It has
+a general east to west direction. North-west of the Hofra is
+a long narrow valley, the Wadi-el-Gharbi, which trends north-east
+and is the most fertile district of Fezzan. It contains several
+perennial springs and lake-like basins. One of these basins, the
+saline Bahr-el-Dud (&ldquo;Sea of Worms&rdquo;), has an extent of 600
+sq. m., and is in places 26 ft. deep. Southwards the Hofra rises
+to a height of 2000 ft., and in this direction lies the oasis of
+Gatron, followed by Tejerri on the verge of the desert, which
+marks the southern limit of the date and the northern of the dum
+palm. Beyond Tejerri the Saharan plateau rises continuously
+to the Tibesti highlands. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tripoli</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The average temperature of Murzuk was found
+by Rohlfs to be 70° F. Frost is not uncommon in the winter
+months. The climate is a very regular one, and is in general
+healthy, the dryness of the air in summer making the heat more
+bearable than on the sea coast. An almost perpetual blue
+sky overhangs the desert, and the people of Fezzan are so
+unaccustomed to and so ill-prepared for wet weather that,
+as in Tuat and Tidikelt, they pray to be spared from rain.
+Water is found almost everywhere at small depths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>&mdash;The date-palm is the characteristic tree
+of Fezzan, and constitutes the chief wealth of the land. Many
+different kinds of date-palms are found in the oases: in that
+of Murzuk alone more than 30 varieties are counted, the most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span>
+esteemed being named the Tillis, Tuati and Auregh. In all
+Fezzan the date is the staple food, not only for men, but for
+camels, horses and dogs. Even the stones of the fruit are
+softened and given to the cattle. The huts of the poorer classes
+are entirely made of date-palm leaves, and the more substantial
+habitations consist chiefly of the same material. The produce
+of the tree is small, 100 full-grown trees yielding only about
+40 cwt. of dates. Besides the date there are numerous olive,
+fig and almond trees. Various grains are cultivated. Wheat
+and barley are sown in winter, and in spring, summer and autumn
+several kinds of durra, especially ksob and gafoli. Cotton
+flourishes, is perennial for six or seven years, and gives large pods
+of moderate length of staple.</p>
+
+<p>There are no large carnivora in Fezzan. In the uninhabited
+oases gazelles and antelopes are occasionally found. The most
+important animal is the camel, of which there are two varieties,
+the Tebu or Sudan camel and the Arabian, differing very much
+in size, form and capabilities. Horses and cattle are not
+numerous. Among birds are ostriches, falcons, vultures,
+swallows and ravens; in summer wild pigeons and ducks are
+numerous, but in winter they seek a warmer climate. There are
+no remarkable insects or snakes. A species of <i>Artemia</i> or brine
+shrimp, about a quarter of an inch in length, of a colour
+resembling the bright hue of the gold fish, is fished for with
+cotton nets in the &ldquo;Sea of Worms,&rdquo; and mixed with dates and
+kneaded into a paste, which has the taste and smell of salt
+herring, is considered a luxury by the people of Fezzan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>&mdash;The total population is estimated at between
+50,000 and 80,000. The inhabitants are a mixed people, derived
+from the surrounding Teda and Bornu on the south, Tuareg of
+the plateaus on the west, Berbers and Arabs from the north.
+The primitive inhabitants, called by their Arab conquerors
+Ber&#257;una, are believed to have been of Negro origin. They no
+longer persist as a distinct people. In colour the present
+inhabitants vary from black to white, but the prevailing hue of
+skin is a Malay-like yellow, the features and woolly hair being
+Negro. The chief languages are the Kanuri or Bornu language
+and Arabic. Many understand Targish, the Teda and the Hausa
+tongues. If among such a mixed people there can be said to be
+any national language, it is that of Bornu, which is most widely
+understood and spoken. The people of Sokna, north of the Jebel-es-Suda,
+have a peculiar Berber dialect which Rohlfs found to
+be very closely allied to that of Ghadames. The men wear a haik
+or barakan like those of Tripoli, and a fez; short hose, and a
+large loose shirt called mansar&#299;a, with red or yellow slippers,
+complete their toilet. Yet one often sees the large blue or white
+<i>tobe</i> of Bornu, and the <i>litham</i> or shawl-muffler of the Tuareg,
+wound round the mouth to keep out the blown sand of the
+desert. The women, who so long as they are young have very
+plump forms, and who are generally small, are more simply
+dressed, as a rule, in the barakan, wound round their bodies;
+they seldom wear shoes, but generally have sandals made of
+palm leaf. Like the Arab women they load arms and legs with
+heavy metal rings, which are of silver among the more wealthy.
+The hair, thickly greased with butter, soon catching the dust
+which forms a crust over it, is done up in numberless little plaits
+round the head, in the same fashion as in Bornu and the Hausa
+countries. Children run about naked until they attain the age
+of puberty, which comes very early, for mothers of ten or twelve
+years of age are not uncommon. The Fezzani are of a gay
+disposition, much given to music and dancing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Towns and Trade.</i>&mdash;Murzuk, the present capital, which is
+in telegraphic communication with the town of Tripoli, lies in
+the western corner of the Hofra depression, in 25° 55&prime; N. and 14°
+10&prime; E. It was founded about 1310, about which time the <i>kasbah</i>
+or citadel was built. The Turks repaired it, as well as the town-wall,
+which has, however, again fallen into a ruinous condition.
+Murzuk, which had in 1906 some 3000 inhabitants, is cut in two
+by a wide street, the <i>dendal</i>. The citadel and most of the houses
+are built of salt-saturated dried mud. Sokna, about midway
+between Tripoli and Murzuk, situated on a great gravel plain
+north of the Suda range, has a population of about 2500.</p>
+
+<p>Garama (Jerma-el-Kedima), the capital under the Garamantes
+and the Romans, was in the Wadi-el-Gharbi. It was a flourishing
+town at the time of the Arab conquest but is now deserted.
+Among the ruins is a well-preserved stone monument marking
+the southern limit of the Roman dominions in this part of Africa.
+The modern Jerma is a small place a little north of the site of
+Garama. Zuila, the capital under the Arabs, lies in a depression
+called the Sherguia east of Murzuk on the most direct caravan
+route to Barca and Egypt. Of Traghen, the capital under the
+Nesur dynasty, which was on the same caravan route and
+between Zuila and Murzuk, little besides the ruined kasbah
+remains.</p>
+
+<p>Placed roughly midway between the countries of the central
+Sudan and Tripoli, Fezzan serves as a depot for caravans crossing
+the Sahara; its commerce is unimportant. Its most important
+export is that of dates. Slave dealing, formerly the most lucrative
+occupation of the people, is moribund owing to the stoppage of
+slave raiding by the European governments in their Sudan
+territories.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The country formed part of the territory of the
+Garamantes, described by Herodotus as a very powerful people.
+Attempts have been made to identify the Garamantes with the
+Ber&#257;una of the Arabs of the 7th century, and to the period of
+the Garamantes Duveyrier assigns the remains of remarkable
+hydraulic works, and certain tombs and rock sculptures&mdash;indications,
+it is held, of a Negro civilization of ancient date
+which existed in the northern Sahara. The Garamantes, whether
+of Libyan or Negro origin, had certainly a considerable degree
+of civilization when in the year 19 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they were conquered by
+the proconsul L. Cornelius Balbus Minor and their country added
+to the Roman empire. By the Romans it was called Phazania,
+whence the present name Fezzan. After the Vandal invasion
+Phazania appears to have regained independence and to have
+been ruled by a Ber&#257;una dynasty. At this time the people were
+Christians, but in 666 the Arabs conquered the country and all
+traces of Christianity seem speedily to have disappeared. Subject
+at first to the caliphs, an independent Arab dynasty, that of the
+Beni Khattab, obtained power early in the 10th century. In
+the 13th century the country came under the rule of the king of
+Kanem (Bornu), but soon afterwards the Nesur, said to have
+been a native or Ber&#257;una dynasty, were in power. More probably
+the Nesur were hereditary governors originally appointed by
+the rulers of Kanem. In the 14th century the Nesur were
+conquered and dethroned by an Arab tribe, that of Khorman,
+who reduced the people of Fezzan to a state of slavery, a position
+from which they were rescued about the middle of the 16th
+century by a sherif of Morocco, Montasir-b.-Mahommed, who
+founded the dynasty of Beni Mahommed. This dynasty, which
+came into frequent conflict with the Turks, who had about the
+same time that Montasir secured Fezzan established themselves
+in Tripoli, gradually extended its borders as far as Sokna in the
+north. It was the Beni Mahommed who chose Murzuk as their
+capital. They became intermittently tributary to the pasha
+of Tripoli, but within Fezzan the power of the sultans was
+absolute. They maintained a body-guard of mamelukes, mostly
+Europeans&mdash;Greeks, Genoese, or their immediate descendants.
+The annual tribute was paid to the pasha either in money or
+in gold, senna or slaves. The last of the Beni Mahommed sultans
+was killed in the vicinity of Traghen in 1811 by El-Mukkeni,
+one of the lieutenants of Yusef Pasha, the last sovereign but one
+of the independent Karamanli dynasty of Tripoli. El-Mukkeni
+now made himself sultan of Fezzan, and became notorious by
+his slaving expeditions into the central Sudan, in which he
+advanced as far as Bagirmi. In 1831, Abd-el-Jelil, a chief of the
+Walid-Sliman Arabs, usurped the sovereign authority. After a
+troublous reign of ten years he was slain in battle by a Turkish
+force under Bakir Bey, and Fezzan was added to the Turkish
+empire. Towards the end of the 19th century the Turks, alarmed
+at the increase of French influence in the neighbouring countries,
+reinforced their garrison in Fezzan. The kaimakamlik is said
+to yield an annual revenue of £6000 only to the Tripolitan
+treasury.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The most notable of the European travellers who
+have visited Fezzan, and to whose works reference should be made
+for more detailed information regarding it, are, taking them in the
+order of date, as follows: F. Hornemann, 1798; G.F. Lyon, 1819;
+D. Denham, H. Clapperton and W. Oudney, 1822; J. Richardson,
+1845; H. Barth, 1850-1855; E. Vogel, 1854; H. Duveyrier, 1859-1861;
+M. von Beurmann, 1862; G. Rohlfs, 1865; G. Nachtigal,
+1869; P.L. Monteil, 1892; H. Vischer, 1906. Nachtigal&rsquo;s <i>Sahara
+and Sudan</i>, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879), gathers up much of the information
+in earlier works, and a list of the Beni Mahommed sovereigns is
+given in A.M.H.J. Stokvis, <i>Manuel d&rsquo;histoire</i>, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888),
+p. 471. Miss Tinné (<i>q.v.</i>), who travelled with Nachtigal as far as
+Murzuk, was shortly afterwards murdered at the Sharaba wells
+on the road to Ghat.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIACRE, SAINT<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Celt. <i>Fiachra</i>), an anchorite of the 7th century,
+of noble Irish descent. We have no information concerning his
+life in his native country. His <i>Acta</i>, which have scarcely any
+historical value, relate that he left Ireland, and came to France
+with his companions. He approached St Faro, the bishop of
+Meaux, to whom he made known his desire to live a life of
+solitude in the forest. St Faro assigned him a spot called
+Prodilus (Brodolium), the modern Breuil, in the province of Brie.
+There St Fiacre built a monastery in honour of the Holy Virgin,
+and to it added a small house for guests, to which he himself
+withdrew. Here he received St Chillen (? Killian), who was
+returning from a pilgrimage to Rome, and here he remained until
+his death, having acquired a great reputation for miracles.
+His remains rested for a long time in the place which he had
+sanctified. In 1568, at the time of the religious troubles, they
+were transferred to the cathedral of Meaux, where his shrine
+may still be seen in the sacristy. Various relics of St Fiacre were
+given to princes and great personages. His festival is celebrated
+on the 30th of August. He is the patron of Brie, and gardeners
+invoke him as their protector. French hackney-coaches received
+the name of <i>fiacre</i> from the Hôtel St Fiacre, in the rue St Martin,
+Paris, where one Sauvage, who was the first to provide cabs for
+hire, kept his vehicles.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, Augusti vi. 598-620; J. O&rsquo;Hanlon, <i>Lives of
+the Irish Saints</i>, viii. 421-447 (Dublin, 1875-1904); J.C. O&rsquo;Meagher,
+&ldquo;Saint Fiacre de la Brie,&rdquo; in <i>Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy</i>,
+3rd series, ii. 173-176.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. De.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIARS PRICES,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> in the law of Scotland, the average prices of
+each of the different sorts of grain grown in each county, as
+fixed annually by the sheriff, usually after the verdict of a jury;
+they serve as a rule for ascertaining the value of the grain due to
+feudal superiors, to the clergy or to lay proprietors of teinds, to
+landlords as a part or the whole of their rents and in all cases
+where the price of grain has not been fixed by the parties. It is
+not known when or how the practice of &ldquo;striking the fiars,&rdquo; as it
+is called, originated. It probably was first used to determine the
+value of the grain rents and duties payable to the crown. In
+confirmation of this view it seems that at first the duty of the
+sheriffs was merely to make a return to the court of exchequer of
+the prices of grain within their counties, the court itself striking
+the fiars; and from an old case it appears that the fiars were
+struck above the true prices, being regarded rather as punishments
+to force the king&rsquo;s tenants to pay their rents than as the
+proper equivalent of the grain they had to pay. Co-existent,
+however, with these fiars, which were termed sheriffs&rsquo; fiars, there
+was at an early period another class called commissaries&rsquo; fiars, by
+which the values of teinds were regulated. They have been
+traced back to the Reformation, and were under the management
+of the commissary or consistorial courts, which then took the
+place of the bishops and their officials. They have now been long
+out of use, but they were perhaps of greater antiquity than the
+sheriffs&rsquo; fiars, and the model upon which these were instituted.
+In 1723 the court of session passed an Act of Sederunt for the
+purpose of regulating the procedure in fiars courts. Down to
+that date the practice of striking the fiars was by no means
+universal over Scotland; and even in those counties into which
+it had been introduced, there was, as the preamble of the act puts
+it, &ldquo;a general complaint that the said fiars are struck and given
+out by the sheriffs without due care and inquiry into the current
+and just prices.&rdquo; The act in consequence provided that all
+sheriffs should summon annually, between the 4th and the 20th
+of February, a competent number of persons, living in the shire, of
+experience in the prices of grain within its bounds, and that from
+these they should choose a jury of fifteen, of whom at least eight
+were to be heritors; that witnesses and other evidence as to the
+price of grain grown in the county, especially since the 1st of
+November preceding until the day of inquiry, were to be brought
+before the jury, who might also proceed on &ldquo;their own proper
+knowledge&rdquo;; that the verdict was to be returned and the
+sentence of the sheriff pronounced by the 1st of March; and
+further, where custom or expediency recommended it, the sheriff
+was empowered to fix fiars of different values according to the
+different qualities of the grain. It cannot be said that this act
+has remedied all the evils of which it complained. The propriety
+of some of its provisions has been questioned, and the competency
+of the court to pass it has been doubted, even by the court itself.
+Its authority has been entirely disregarded in one county&mdash;Haddingtonshire&mdash;where
+the fiars are struck by the sheriff alone,
+without a jury; and when this practice was called in question the
+court declined to interfere, observing that the fiars were better
+struck in Haddingtonshire than anywhere else. The other
+sheriffs have in the main followed the act, but with much variety
+of detail, and in many instances on principles the least calculated
+to reach the true average prices. Thus in some counties the
+averages are taken on the number of transactions, without regard
+to the quantities sold. In one case, in 1838, the evidence was so
+carelessly collected that the second or inferior barley fiars were
+2s. 4d. higher than the first. Formerly the price was struck by
+the boll, commonly the Linlithgowshire boll; now the imperial
+quarter is always used.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The origin of the plural word fiars (feors, feers, fiers) is uncertain.
+Jamieson, in his <i>Dictionary</i>, says that it comes from the Icelandic
+<i>fe</i>, wealth; Paterson derives it from an old French word <i>feur</i>, an
+average; others connect it with the Latin <i>forum</i> (<i>i.e.</i> market).
+The <i>New English Dictionary</i> accepts the two latter connexions. On
+the general subject of fiars prices see Paterson&rsquo;s <i>Historical Account
+of the Fiars in Scotland</i> (Edin., 1852); Connell, <i>On Tithes</i>; Hunter&rsquo;s
+<i>Landlord and Tenant</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIBRES<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Fibers</span>, in American spelling; from Lat. <i>fibra</i>,
+apparently connected either with <i>filum</i>, thread, or <i>findere</i>, to
+split), the general term for certain structural components of
+animal and vegetable tissue utilized in manufactures, and in
+respect of such uses, divided for the sake of classification into
+textile, papermaking, brush and miscellaneous fibres.</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Textile Fibres</i> are mostly products of the organic world,
+elaborated in their elongated form to subserve protective functions
+in animal life (as wool and epidermal hairs, &amp;c.) or as structural
+components of vegetable tissues (flax, hemp and wood cells).
+It may be noted that the inorganic world provides an exception to
+this general statement in the fibrous mineral asbestos (<i>q.v.</i>),
+which is spun or twisted into coarse textiles. Other silicates are
+also transformed by artificial processes into fibrous forms, such
+as &ldquo;glass,&rdquo; which is fused and drawn or spun to a continuous
+fibre, and various &ldquo;slags&rdquo; which, in the fused state, are transformed
+into &ldquo;slag wool.&rdquo; Lastly, we note that a number of
+metals are drawn down to the finest dimensions, in continuous
+lengths, and these are woven into cloth or gauze, such metallic
+cloths finding valuable applications in the arts. Certain metals
+in the form of fine wire are woven into textile fabrics used as
+dress materials. Such exceptional applications are of insignificant
+importance, and will not be further considered in this article.</p>
+
+<p>The common characteristics of the various forms of matter
+comprised in the widely diversified groups of textile fibres are
+those of the colloids. Colloidal matter is intrinsically devoid of
+structure, and in the mass may be regarded as homogeneous;
+whereas crystalline matter in its proximate forms assumes
+definite and specific shapes which express a complex of internal
+stresses. The properties of matter which condition its adaptation
+to structural functions, first as a constituent of a living individual,
+and afterwards as a textile fibre, are homogeneous continuity of
+substance, with a high degree of interior cohesion, and associated
+with an irreducible minimum of elasticity or extensibility. The
+colloids show an infinite diversity of variations in these essential
+properties: certain of them, and notably cellulose (<i>q.v.</i>), maintain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
+these characteristics throughout a cycle of transformations
+such as permit of their being brought into a soluble plastic form,
+in which condition they may be drawn into filaments in continuous
+length. The artificial silks or lustra-celluloses are
+produced in this way, and have already taken an established
+position as staple textiles. For a more detailed account of these
+products see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cellulose</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The animal fibres are composed of nitrogenous colloids of
+which the typical representatives are the albumens, fibrines and
+gelatines. They are of highly complex constitution and their
+characteristics have only been generally investigated. The
+vegetable fibre substances are celluloses and derivatives of
+celluloses, also typically colloidal bodies. The broad distinction
+between the two groups is chiefly evident in their relationship to
+alkalis. The former group are attacked, resolved and finally
+dissolved, under conditions of action by no means severe. The
+celluloses, on the other hand, and therefore the vegetable fibres,
+are extraordinarily resistant to the action of alkalis.</p>
+
+<p>The animal fibres are relatively few in number but of great
+industrial importance. They occur as detached units and are of
+varying dimensions; sheep&rsquo;s wool having lengths up to 36 in.,
+the fleeces being shorn for textile uses at lengths of 2 to 16 in.;
+horse hair is used in lengths of 4 to 24 in., whereas the silks
+may be considered as being produced in continuous length,
+&ldquo;reeled silks&rdquo; having lengths measured in hundreds of yards,
+but &ldquo;spun silks&rdquo; are composed of silk fibres purposely broken
+up into short lengths.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetable fibres are extremely numerous and of very
+diversified characteristics. They are individualized units only in
+the case of seed hairs, of which cotton is by far the most important;
+with this exception they are elaborated as more or less complex
+aggregates. The bast tissues of dicotyledonous annuals furnish
+such staple materials as flax, hemp, rhea or ramie and jute. The
+bast occurs in a peripheral zone, external to the wood and
+beneath the cortex, and is mechanically separated from the stem,
+usually after steeping, followed by drying.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial forms of these fibres are elongated filaments
+composed of the elementary bast cells (ultimate fibres) aggregated
+into bundles. The number of these as any part of the filament
+may vary from 3 to 20 (see figs.). In the processes of refinement
+preparatory to the spinning (hackling, scutching) and in the
+spinning process itself, the fibre-bundles are more or less subdivided,
+and the divisibility of the bundles is an element in the
+textile value of the raw material. But the value of the material
+is rather determined by the length of the ultimate fibres (for,
+although not the spinning unit, the tensile strength of the yarn is
+ultimately limited by the cohesion of these fibres), qualified by
+the important factor of uniformity.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, the ultimate fibre of flax has a length of 25 to 35 mm.; jute,
+on the other hand, 2 to 3 mm.; and this disparity is an essential
+condition of the difference of values of these fibres. Rhea or
+ramie, to cite another typical instance, has an ultimate fibre of
+extraordinary length, but of equally conspicuous variability,
+viz. from 50 to 200 mm. The variability is a serious impediment
+in the preparation of the material for spinning and this defect,
+together with low drawing or spinning quality, limits the applications
+of this fibre to the lower counts or grades of yarn.</p>
+
+<p>The monocotyledons yield still more complex fibre aggregates,
+which are the fibro-vascular bundles of leaves and stems. These
+complex structures as a class do not yield to the mechanical
+treatment by which the bast fibres are subdivided, nor is there
+any true spinning quality such as is conditioned by bringing the
+ultimate fibres into play under the drawing process, which
+immediately precedes the twisting into yarn. Such materials are
+therefore only used for the coarsest textiles, such as string or
+rope. An exception to be noted in passing is to be found in the
+pine apple (<i>Ananassa Sativa</i>) the fibres of which are worked into
+yarns and cloth of the finest quality. The more important fibres
+of this class are manila, sisal, phormium. A heterogeneous mass
+of still more complex fibre aggregates, in many cases the entire
+stem (cereal straws, esparto), in addition to being used in plaited
+form, <i>e.g.</i> in hats, chairs, mats, constitute the staple raw material
+for paper manufacturers, requiring a severe chemical treatment
+for the separation of the ultimate fibres.</p>
+
+<p>In this class we must include the woods which furnish wood
+pulps of various classes and grades. Chemical processes of two
+types, (<i>a</i>) acid and (<i>b</i>) alkaline, are also employed in resolving
+the wood, and the resolution not only effects a complete isolation
+of the wood cells, but, by attacking the hydrolysable constituents
+of the wood substance (lignocellulose), the cells are obtained
+in the form of cellulose. These cellulose pulps are known in
+commerce as &ldquo;sulphite pulps&rdquo; and &ldquo;soda pulps&rdquo; respectively.
+In addition to these raw materials or &ldquo;half stuffs&rdquo; the paper-maker
+employs the rejecta of the vegetable and textile industries,
+scutching, spinning and cloth wastes of all kinds, which are
+treated by chemical (boiling) and mechanical means (beating)
+to separate the ultimate fibres and reduce them to the suitable
+dimensions (0.5-2.0 mm.). These papermaking fibres have also
+to be reckoned with as textile raw materials, in view of a new
+and growing industry in &ldquo;pulp yarns&rdquo; (<i>Papierstoffgarn</i>), a
+coarse textile obtained by treating paper as delivered in narrow
+strips from the paper machine; the strips are reeled, dried to
+retain 30-40% moisture, and in this condition subjected to the
+twisting operation, which confers the cylindrical form and adds
+considerably to the strength of the fibrous strip. The following
+are the essential characteristics of the economically important
+fibres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Animal.</i>&mdash;A. Silk. (<i>a</i>) The true silks are produced by the
+<i>Bombyx Mori</i>, the worm feeding on the leaves of the mulberry.
+The fibre is extruded as a viscous liquid from the glands of the
+worm, and solidifies to a cylindrical thread. The cohesion of
+these threads in pairs gives to raw silk the form of a dual cylinder
+(Plate I. fig. 2). For textile purposes the thread is reeled from
+the cocoon, and several units, five and upwards, are brought
+together and suitably twisted. (<i>b</i>) The &ldquo;Wild&rdquo; silks are produced
+by a large variety of insects, of which the most important
+are the various species of Antherea, which yield the Tussore
+silks. These silks differ in form and composition from the true
+silks. While they consist of a &ldquo;dual&rdquo; thread, each unit of
+these is complex, being made up of a number of fibrillae. This
+unit thread is quadrangular in section, and of larger diameter
+than the true silk, the mean breadth being 0.052 mm., as compared
+with 0.018, the mean diameter of the true silks. The
+variations in structure as well as in dimensions are, however,
+very considerable.</p>
+
+<p>B. Epidermal hairs. Of these (<i>a</i>) wool, the epidermal
+protective covering of sheep, is the most important. The
+varying species of the animal produce wools of characteristic
+qualities, varying considerably in fineness, in length of staple, in
+composition and in spinning quality. Hence the classing of
+the fleeces or raw wool followed by the elaborate processes
+of selection, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;sorting&rdquo; and preparation, which precede the
+actual spinning or twisting of the yarn. These consist in entirely
+freeing the fibres and sorting them mechanically (combing, &amp;c.),
+thereafter forming them into continuous lengths of parallelized
+units. This is followed by the spinning process which consists
+in a simultaneous drawing and twisting, and a continuous production
+of the yarn with the structural characteristics of worsted
+yarns. The shorter staple&mdash;from 5 to 25% of average fleeces&mdash;is
+prepared by the &ldquo;carding&rdquo; process for the spinning operation,
+in which drawing and twisting are simultaneous, the
+length spun being then wound up, and the process being consequently
+intermittent. This section of the industry is known
+as &ldquo;woollen spinning&rdquo; in contrast to the former or &ldquo;<i>worsted</i>
+spinning.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) An important group of raw material closely allied to the
+wools are the epidermal hairs of the Angora goat (mohair),
+the llama, alpaca. Owing to their form and the nature of the
+substance of which they are composed, they possess more
+lustre than the wools. They present structural differences
+from sheep wools which influence the processes by which they
+are prepared or spun, and the character of the yarns; but the
+differences are only of subordinate moment.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:397px; height:400px" src="images/img310a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:396px; height:398px" src="images/img310b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;RAW SILK. <i>Bombyx mori</i>. Filament of bave,
+viewed in length. × 110.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;RAW SILK. <i>Bombyx mori</i>. Single fibres in transverse
+section showing each fibre or &ldquo;bave&rdquo; as dual cylinder. × 235.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:395px; height:393px" src="images/img310c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:395px" src="images/img310d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;ARTIFICIAL &ldquo;SILK.&rdquo; Lustra-cellulose viscose process,
+single fibres in transverse section × 235. Normal type&mdash;polygon
+of 5 sides&mdash;with concave sides due to contact of the
+component units of textile filament.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;WOOL FIBRES. Australian merino viewed in length,
+× 235. Surface imbrications&mdash;the structural cause of true
+felting properties.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:389px" src="images/img310e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:391px" src="images/img310f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;FLAX STEM. <i>Linum usitatissimum</i>. <span class="correction" title="amended from tranverse">Transverse</span> section
+of stem, × 235, showing bast fibres occupying central zone.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;RAMIE. Section of bast region, × 235. Showing bast
+fibres bundles but only slightly occurring as individuals.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:395px; height:393px" src="images/img310g.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:389px" src="images/img310h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;JUTE. Bast bundles. Section of bast region, × 235,
+showing agglomerated bundles of bast fibre, each bundle representing
+a spinning unit or filament.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;MAIZE STEM. <i>Zea mais</i>. Fibro-vascular bundle in
+section. × 110, typical of monocotyledonous structure.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:407px; height:411px" src="images/img310i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:398px" src="images/img310j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres in
+the length, × 110. Portions selected to show typical structural
+characteristics.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres&mdash;transverse
+section, × 110. Note similarity of ramie to cotton
+and jute to flax.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:391px" src="images/img310k.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:388px" src="images/img310l.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;ESPARTO. Cellulose. Ultimate fibres of paper making
+pulp. Typical fusiform bast fibres. × 65.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;SECTION OF HAND-MADE PAPER. × 110. Ultimate
+component fibres disposed in every plane.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Various animal hairs, such as those of the cow, camel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span>
+and rabbit, are also employed; the latter is largely worked
+into the class of fabrics known as felts. In these the hairs are
+compacted together by taking advantage of the peculiarity of
+structure which causes the imbrications of the surface.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Horse hair is employed in its natural form as an individual
+filament or monofil.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Fibres.</i>&mdash;The subjoined scheme of classification sets
+out the morphological structural characteristics of the vegetable
+fibres:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">Produced from</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><i>Dicotyledons.</i></td> <td class="tcc"><i>Monocotyledons.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">A. Seed hairs.</td> <td class="tcl">D. Fibro-vascular bundles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">B. Bast fibres.</td> <td class="tcl">E. Entire leaves and stems.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">C. Bast aggregates.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In the list of the more important fibrous raw materials subjoined,
+the capital letter immediately following the name refers the
+individual to its position in this classification. In reference to
+the important question of chemical composition and the actual
+nature of the fibre substance, it may be premised that the
+vegetable fibres are composed of cellulose, an important representative
+of the group of carbohydrates, of which the cotton
+fibre substance is the chemical prototype, mixed and combined
+with various derivatives belonging to the subgroups. (<i>a</i>)
+Carbohydrates. (<i>b</i>) Unsaturated compounds of benzenoid and
+furfuroid constitutions. (<i>c</i>) &ldquo;Fat and wax&rdquo; derivatives, <i>i.e.</i>
+groups belonging to the fatty series, and of higher molecular
+dimensions&mdash;of such compound celluloses the following are the
+prototypes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Cellulose combined and mixed with &ldquo;pectic&rdquo; bodies
+(<i>i.e.</i> pecto-celluloses), flax, rhea.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Cellulose combined with unsaturated groups or ligno-celluloses,
+jute and the woods.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Cellulose combined and mixed with higher fatty acids,
+alcohols, ethers, cuto-celluloses, protective epidermal
+covering of leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The letters <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> in the table below and following the capitals,
+which have reference to the structural basis of classification,
+indicate the main characteristics of the fibre substances. (See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cellulose</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Miscellaneous.</i>&mdash;Various species of the family Palmaceae
+yield fibrous products of value, of which mention must be made
+of the following. <i>Raffia</i>, epidermal strips of the leaves of
+<i>Raphia ruffia</i> (Madagascar), <i>R. taedigera</i> (Japan), largely employed
+as binder twine in horticulture, replacing the &ldquo;bast&rdquo;
+(linden) formerly employed. <i>Coir</i>, the fibrous envelope of the
+fruit of the <i>Cocos nucifera</i>, extensively used for matting and
+other coarse textiles. <i>Carludovica palmata</i> (Central America)
+yields the raw material for Panama hats, the <i>Corypha australis</i>
+(Australia) yields a similar product. The leaves of the date
+palm, <i>Phoenix dactylifera</i>, are employed locally in making baskets
+and mats, and the fibro-vascular bundles are isolated for working
+up into coarse twine and rope; similarly, the leaves of the
+<i>Elaeis guineensis</i>, the fruit of which yields the &ldquo;palm oil&rdquo; of
+commerce, yield a fibre which finds employment locally (Africa)
+for special purposes. <i>Chamaerops humilis</i>, the dwarf palm,
+yields the well-known &ldquo;Crin d&rsquo;Afrique.&rdquo; Locally (Algiers)
+it is twisted into ropes, but its more general use, in Europe,
+is in upholstery as a stuffing material. The cereal straws are
+used in the form of plait in the making of hats and mats. Esparto
+grass is also used in the making of coarse mats.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Botanical Identity.<br />Genus and Order.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Country of Origin.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Dimensions of Ultimate.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Textile Uses.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton, A.<i>a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Gossypium</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical and subtropical</td> <td class="tcl rb">12-40 mm. 0.019-0.025.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Universal. Also as a raw material</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Malvaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; countries</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 28 mm.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; in chemical industries, notably</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; explosives, celluloid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flax, B.<i>a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Linum</td> <td class="tcl rb">Temperate (and subtropical)</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.60 mm. 0.011-0.025.</td> <td class="tcl rb">General. Special effects in lustre</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Linaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; countries, chiefly European</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 28 mm.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; damasks. In India and America</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; plants grown for seed (linseed).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hemp, B.<i>a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Cannabis</td> <td class="tcl rb">Temperate countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">5-55 mm. 0.016-0.050.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarser textiles, sail-cloth,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cannabineae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; Europe</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 22. mm. Av. 0.022</td> <td class="tcl rb">rope and twine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ramie, B.<i>a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Boehmeria</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical countries (some</td> <td class="tcl rb">60-200 mm. 0.03-0.08.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse textiles. Cost of preparation</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Urticaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; temperate)</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 120 mm. Av. 0.050</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; for fine textiles prohibitive.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jute, B.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Corchorus</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5-5 mm. 0.020-0.025.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse textiles, chiefly &ldquo;Hessians&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tiliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; India</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 2.5 mm. Av. 0.022</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; and sacking. &ldquo;Line&rdquo; spun yarns</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; used in cretonne and furniture</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; textiles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp;&emsp; B.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Crotalaria</td> <td class="tcl rb">India</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.0-12.0. 0.025-0.050.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Twine and rope. Coarse textiles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Leguminosae</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 7.5. Av. 0.022</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hibiscus, B.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Hibiscus</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical, chiefly India</td> <td class="tcl rb">2-6 mm. 0.014-0.033.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse textiles. H. Elams has been</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 4 mm. Av. 0.021</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; extensively used in making mats.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sida, B.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Sida</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical and subtropical</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5-4 mm. 0.013-0.02.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse textiles. Appears capable of</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Malvaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.015</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; substituting jute.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime or Linden,</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tilia</td> <td class="tcl rb">European countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5 mm. 0.014-0.020.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Matting and binder twine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp; C.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Tiliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; Russia</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.016</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mulberry, C</td> <td class="tcl rb">Broussonetia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Far East</td> <td class="tcl rb">5-31 mm. 0.02-0.04.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Paper and paper cloths.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Moraceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 15 mm. Av. 0.03</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Monocotyledons&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp; Manila, D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Musa</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">3-12 mm. 0.016-0.032.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Twine and ropes. Produces papers</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Musaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">Philippine Islands</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 6 mm. Av. 0.024</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; of special quality.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp; Sisal, D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Agave</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5-4 mm. 0.020-0.032.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Twine and ropes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Amaryllideae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; Central America</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 2.5. Av. 0.024</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Yucca</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; do.</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.5-6 mm. 0.01-0.02.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; do.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Liliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sansevieria</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Indies, Ceylon, East</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5-6 mm. 0.015-0.026.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; do.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Liliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; Africa</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 3 mm. Av. 0.020</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp; Phormium, D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phormium tenax</td> <td class="tcl rb">New Zealand</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.0-15 mm. 0.010-0.020.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Twine and ropes. Distinguished by</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Liliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 9 mm. Av. 0.016</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; high yield of fibre from green</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; leaf.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &ensp; Pine-apple, D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ananassa</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical East and West</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.0-9.0 mm. 0.004-0.008.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Textiles of remarkable fineness.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bromeliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &emsp; Indies</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Av. 5. Av. 0.006</td> <td class="tcl rb"> &ensp; Exceptional fineness of ultimate</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp; fibre.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The processes by which the fibres are transformed into textile
+fabrics are in the main determined by their structural features.
+The following are the distinctive types of treatment.</p>
+
+<p>A. The fibre is in virtually continuous lengths. The textile
+yarn is produced by assembling together the unit threads, which
+are wound together <span class="correction" title="amended from aud">and</span> suitably twisted (silk; artificial silk).</p>
+
+<p>B. The fibres in the form of units of variable short dimensions
+are treated by more or less elaborate processes of scutching,
+hackling, combing, with the aim of producing a mass of free
+parallelized units of uniform dimensions; these are then laid
+together and drawn into continuous bands of sliver and roving,
+which are finally drawn and twisted into yarns. In this group
+are comprised the larger number of textile products, such as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span>
+cotton, wool, flax and jute, and it also includes at the other
+extreme the production of coarse textiles, such as twine and rope.</p>
+
+<p>C. The fibres of still shorter dimensions are treated in various
+ways for the production of a fabric in continuous length.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction of type of manufacturing processes in which
+the relatively short fibres are utilized, either as disintegrated
+units or comminuted long fibres, follows the lines of division
+into long and short fibres; the long fibres are worked into yarns
+by various processes, whereas the shorter fibres are agglomerated
+by both dry and wet processes to felted tissues or felts. It is
+obvious, however, that these distinctions do not constitute rigid
+dividing lines. Thus the principles involved in felting are also
+applied in the manipulation of long fibre fabrics. For instance,
+woollen goods are closed or shrunk by milling, the web being
+subjected to a beating or hammering treatment in an apparatus
+known as &ldquo;the Stocks,&rdquo; or is continuously run through squeezing
+rollers, in weak alkaline liquids. Flax goods are &ldquo;closed&rdquo; by
+the process of beetling, a long-continued process of hammering,
+under which the ultimate fibres are more or less subdivided, and
+at the same time welded or incorporated together. As already
+indicated, paper, which is a web composed of units of short
+dimensions produced by deposition from suspension in water
+and agglomerated by the interlacing of the component fibres in
+all planes within the mass, is a species of textile. Further,
+whereas the silks are mostly worked up in the extreme lengths
+of the cocoon, there are various systems of spinning silk wastes
+of variable short lengths, which are similar to those required for
+spinning the fibres which occur naturally in the shorter lengths.</p>
+
+<p>The fibres thus enumerated as commercially and industrially
+important have established themselves as the result of a struggle
+for survival, and each embodies typical features of <span class="correction" title="amended from ultility">utility</span>. There
+are innumerable vegetable fibres, many of which are utilized in
+the locality or region of their production, but are not available
+for the highly specialized applications of modern competitive
+industry to qualify for which a very complex range of requirements
+has to be met. These include primarily the factors of
+production and transport summed up in cost of production,
+together with the question of regularity of supply; structural
+characteristics, form and dimensions, including uniformity of
+ultimate unit and adaptability to standard methods of preparing
+and spinning, together with tenacity and elasticity, lustre.
+Lastly, composition, which determines the degree of resistance to
+chemical disintegrating influences as well as subsidiary questions
+of colour and relationship to colouring matters. The quest for
+new fibres, as well as modified methods of production of those
+already known, require critical investigation from the point of
+view of established practice. The present perspective outline
+of the group will be found to contain the elements of a grammar
+of the subject. But those who wish to pursue the matter will
+require to amplify this outlined picture by a study of the special
+treatises which deal with general principles, as well as the separate
+articles on the various fibres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Analysis and Identification.</i>&mdash;For the analysis of textile fabrics
+and the identification of component fibre, a special treatise must
+be consulted. The following general facts are to be noted as of
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>All animal fibres are effectively dissolved by 10% solution
+of caustic potash or soda. The fabric or material is boiled in
+this solution for 10 minutes and exhaustively washed. Any
+residue will be vegetable or cellulose fibre. It must not be forgotten
+that the chemical properties of the fibre substances are
+modified more or less by association in combination with colouring
+matters and mordants. These may, in many cases, be
+removed by treatments which do not seriously modify the fibre
+substances.</p>
+
+<p>Wool is distinguished from silk by its relative resistance to the
+action of sulphuric acid. The cold concentrated acid rapidly
+dissolves silk as well as the vegetable fibres. The attack on wool
+is slow, and the epidermal scales of wool make their appearance.
+The true silks are distinguished from the wild silks by the action
+of concentrated hydrochloric acid in the cold, which reagent
+dissolves the former, but has only a slight effect on Tussore
+silk. After preliminary resolution by these group reagents,
+the fabric is subjected to microscopical analysis for the final
+identification of its component fibres (see H. Schlichter, <i>Journal
+Soc. Chem. Ind</i>., 1890, p. 241).</p>
+
+<p>A scheme for the commercial analysis or assay of vegetable
+fibres, originally proposed by the author,<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and now generally
+adopted, includes the following operations:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Determination of moisture.</p>
+
+<p>2. Determination of ash left after complete ignition.</p>
+
+<p>3. Hydrolysis:</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) loss of weight after boiling the raw fibre with a 1%
+caustic soda solution for five minutes;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) loss after boiling for one hour.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. Determination of cellulose: the white residue after</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) boiling for five minutes with 1% caustic soda,</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) exposure to chlorine gas for one hour,</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) boiling with basic sodium sulphite solution.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. Mercerizing: the loss of weight after digestion with a
+20% solution of sodium hydrate for one hour in the cold.</p>
+
+<p>6. Nitration: the weight of the product obtained after
+digestion with a mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric
+and nitric acids for one hour in the cold.</p>
+
+<p>7. Acid purification: treatment of the raw fibre with 20%
+acetic acid for one minute, the product being washed
+with water and alcohol, and then dried.</p>
+
+<p>8. Determination of the total carbon by combustion.</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Papermaking.</i>&mdash;The papermaking industry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paper</a></span>)
+employs as raw materials a large proportion of the vegetable
+fibre products already enumerated, and, for the reasons incidentally
+mentioned, they may be, and are, employed in a large variety
+of forms: in fact any fibrous material containing over 30%
+&ldquo;cellulose&rdquo; and yielding ultimate fibres of a length exceeding
+1 mm. can be used in this industry. Most important staples are
+cotton and flax; these are known to the paper-maker as &ldquo;rag&rdquo;
+fibres, rags, <i>i.e.</i> cuttings of textile fabrics, new and old, being
+their main source of supply. These are used for writing and
+drawing papers. In the class of &ldquo;printings&rdquo; two of the most
+important staples are wood pulp, prepared by chemical treatment
+from both pine and foliage woods, and in England esparto cellulose,
+the cellulose obtained from esparto grass by alkali treatment;
+the cereal straws are also used and are resolved into
+cellulose by alkaline boiling followed by bleaching. In the class
+of &ldquo;wrappings&rdquo; and miscellaneous papers a large number of
+other materials find use, such as various residues of manufacturing
+and preparing processes, scutching wastes, ends of rovings
+and yarns, flax, hemp and manila rope waste, adansonia bast,
+and jute wastes, raw (cuttings) and manufactured (bagging).
+Other materials have been experimentally tried, and would no
+doubt come into use on their papermaking merits, but as a matter
+of fact the actually suitable raw materials are comprised in the
+list above enumerated, and are limited in number, through the
+influence of a number of factors of value or utility.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Brush Fibres, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;In addition to the textile industries
+there are manufactures which utilize fibres of both animal and
+vegetable character. The most important of these is brush-making.
+The familiar brushes of everyday use are extremely
+diversified in form and texture. The supplies of animal fibres
+are mainly drawn from the badger, hog, bear, sable, squirrel and
+horse. These fibres and bristles cover a large range of effects.
+Brushes required for cleansing purposes are composed of fibres
+of a more or less hard and resilient character, such as horse hairs,
+and other tail hairs and bristles. For painting work brushes
+of soft quality are employed, graduating for fine work into the
+extreme softness of the &ldquo;camel hair&rdquo; pencil. Of vegetable
+fibres the following are used in this industry. The <i>Caryota urens</i>
+furnishes the Kittul fibre, obtained from the base of the leaf
+stalks. Piassava is obtained from the <i>Attalea funifera</i>, also from
+the <i>Leopoldina piassaba</i> (Brazil). Palmyra fibre is obtained
+from the <i>Borassus flabellifer</i>. These are all members of the
+natural order of the Palmaceae. Mexican fibre, or Istle, is
+obtained from the agave. The fibre known as Whisk, largely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
+used for dusting brushes, is obtained from various species
+of the Gramineae; the &ldquo;Mexican Whisk&rdquo; from <i>Epicampeas
+macroura</i>; and &ldquo;Italian Whisk&rdquo; from <i>Andropogon</i>. The <i>coir</i>
+fibre mentioned above in connexion with coarse textiles is also
+extensively used in brush-making. Aloe and Agave fibres in their
+softer forms are also used for <span class="correction" title="amended from plasterers's">plasterers&rsquo;</span> brushes. Many of the
+whitewashes and cleansing solutions used in house decoration
+are alkaline in character, and for such uses advantage is taken
+of the specially resistant character of the cellulose group of
+materials.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stuffing and Upholstery.</i>&mdash;Another important use for fibrous
+materials is for filling or stuffing in connexion with the seats and
+cushions in upholstery. In the large range of effects required,
+a corresponding number and variety of products find employment.
+One of the most important is the floss or seed-hair of the
+<i>Eriodendron anfractuosum</i>, known as Kapok, the use of which
+in Europe was created by the Dutch merchants who drew their
+supplies from Java. The fibre is soft, silky and elastic, and
+maintains its elasticity in use. Many fibres when used in the
+mass show, on the other hand, a tendency to become matted
+and compressed in use, and to restore them to their original
+state the fibre requires to be removed and subjected to a teasing
+or carding process. This defect limits the use of other &ldquo;flosses&rdquo;
+or seed hairs in competition with Kapok. Horse hair is extensively
+used in this industry, as are also wool flocks and other
+short animal hairs and wastes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hats and Matting.</i>&mdash;For these manufactures a large range
+of the fibrous products above described are employed, chiefly
+in their natural or raw state.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The list of works appended comprises only a
+small fraction of the standard literature of the subject, but they are
+sufficiently representative to enable the specialist, by referring to
+them, to cover the subject-matter. F.H. Bowman, <i>The Structure
+of the Wood Fibre</i> (1885), <i>The Structure of Cotton Fibre</i> (1882); Cross,
+Bevan and King, <i>Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances</i> (London,
+1887); C.F. Cross, <i>Report on Miscellaneous Fibres</i>, Colonial Indian
+Exhibition, 1886 (London, 1887); Cross and Bevan, <i>Cellulose,
+Researches on Cellulose</i>, i. and ii. (London, 1895-1905); C.R. Dodge,
+<i>A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World</i> (Report
+No. 9, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1897); von Höhmel,
+<i>Die Mikroskopie der technisch verwendeten Faserstoffe</i> (Leipzig, 1905);
+J.J. Hummel, <i>The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics</i> (London, 1885); J.M.
+Matthews, <i>The Textile Fibres, their Physical, Microscopical and
+Chemical Properties</i> (New York, 1904); H. Müller, <i>Die Pflanzenfaser</i>
+(Braunschweig, 1877); H. Schlichter, &ldquo;The Examination of Textile
+Fibres and Fabrics&rdquo; (<i>Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.</i>, 1890, 241); M. Vetillart,
+<i>Études sur les fibres végétales textiles</i> (Paris, 1876); Sir T.H.
+Wardle, <i>Silk and Wild Silks</i>, original memoirs in connexion with
+Col. Ind. Ex., 1886, Jubilee Ex. Manchester, 1887; Sir G. Watt,
+<i>Dictionary of Economic Products of India</i> (London, 1891); Wiesner,
+<i>Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs</i> (Leipzig, 1873); O.N. Witt, <i>Chemische
+Technologie der Gespinnstfasern</i> (Braunschweig, 1888); <i>Kew
+Bulletin</i>; <i>The Journal of the Imperial Institute</i>; <i>The Journal of the
+Society of Arts</i>; W.I. Hannam, <i>The Textile Fibres of Commerce</i>
+(London, 1902); J. Jackson, <i>Commercial Botany</i>; J. Zipser, <i>Die
+Textilen Rohmaterialien</i> (Wien, 1895); F. Zetzsche, <i>Die wichtigsten
+Faserstoffe der europäischen Industrie</i> (Leipzig, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. F. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alpaca</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Felt</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mohair</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shoddy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wool</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Col. Ind. Exhibition, 1886, <i>Miscellaneous Reports</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIBRIN,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fibrine</span>, a protein formed by the action of the
+so-called fibrin-ferment on fibrinogen, a constituent of the blood-plasma
+of all vertebrates. This change takes place when blood
+leaves the arteries, and the fibrin thus formed occasions the
+clotting which ensues (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Blood</a></span>). To obtain pure coagulated
+fibrin it is best to heat blood-plasma (preferably that of the horse)
+to 56° C. The usual method of beating a blood-clot with twigs
+and removing the filamentous fibrin which attaches itself to
+them yields a very impure product containing haemoglobin and
+much globulin; moreover, it is very difficult to purify. Fibrin
+is a very voluminous, tough, strongly elastic, jelly-like substance;
+when denaturalized by heat, alcohol or salts, it behaves as any
+other coagulated albumin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Hartmann</span>)
+<b>VON</b> (1797-1879), German philosopher, son of J.G. Fichte,
+was born at Jena on the 18th of July 1797. Having held educational
+posts at Saarbrücken and Düsseldorf, in 1836 he became
+extraordinary professor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1840 full
+professor. In 1842 he received a call to Tübingen, retired in
+1867, and died at Stuttgart on the 8th of August 1879. The
+most important of his comprehensive writings are: <i>System der
+Ethik</i> (1850-1853), <i>Anthropologie</i> (1856, 3rd ed. 1876), <i>Psychologie</i>
+(1864-1873), <i>Die theistische Weltansicht</i> (1873). In 1837 he had
+founded the <i>Zeitschrift für Philosophie</i> as an organ of his views,
+more especially on the subject of the philosophy of religion,
+where he was in alliance with C.H. Weisse; but, whereas Weisse
+thought that the Hegelian structure was sound in the main, and
+that its imperfections might be mended, Fichte held it to be
+incurably defective, and spoke of it as a &ldquo;masterpiece of
+erroneous consistency or consistent error.&rdquo; Fichte&rsquo;s general
+views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he
+advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain
+inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is
+strengthened by his predominantly historical treatment of
+problems, his desire to include divergent systems within his own,
+and his conciliatory tone. His philosophy is an attempt to
+reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism (Herbart) by means
+of theism (Leibnitz). He attacks Hegelianism for its pantheism,
+its lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition of
+the demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be
+regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose
+nature it is that he should realize himself in finite persons.
+These persons are objects of God&rsquo;s love, and he arranges the
+world for their good. The direct connecting link between God
+and man is the &ldquo;genius,&rdquo; a higher spiritual individuality existing
+in man by the side of his lower, earthly individuality. Fichte,
+in short, advocates an ethical theism, and his arguments might
+easily be turned to account by the apologist of Christianity. In
+his conception of finite personality he recurs to something like
+the monadism of Leibnitz. His insistence on moral experience
+is connected with his insistence on personality. One of the tests
+by which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is
+the adequateness with which they interpret moral experience.
+The same reason that made him depreciate Hegel made him
+praise Krause (panentheism) and Schleiermacher, and speak
+respectfully of English philosophy. It is characteristic of Fichte&rsquo;s
+almost excessive receptiveness that in his latest published work,
+<i>Der neuere Spiritualismus</i> (1878), he supports his position by
+arguments of a somewhat occult or theosophical cast, not unlike
+those adopted by F.W.H. Myers. He also edited the complete
+works and literary correspondence of his father, including his
+life.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Eucken, &ldquo;Zur Erinnerung I. H. F.,&rdquo; in <i>Zeitschrift für
+Philosophie</i>, ex. (1897); C.C. Scherer, <i>Die Gotteslehre von I. H. F.</i>
+(1902); article by Karl Hartmann in <i>Allegemeine deutsche Biographie</i>
+xlviii. (1904). Some of his works were translated by J.D. Morell
+under the title of <i>Contributions to Mental Philosophy</i> (1860).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1762-1814), German philosopher,
+was born at Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the 19th
+of May 1762. His father, a ribbon-weaver, was a descendant of
+a Swedish soldier who (in the service of Gustavus Adolphus)
+was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there. The family
+was distinguished for piety, uprightness, and solidity of character.
+With these qualities Fichte himself combined a certain impetuosity
+and impatience probably derived from his mother,
+a woman of a somewhat querulous and jealous disposition.</p>
+
+<p>At a very early age the boy showed remarkable mental vigour
+and moral independence. A fortunate accident which brought
+him under the notice of a neighbouring nobleman, Freiherr von
+Miltitz, was the means of procuring him a more excellent education
+than his father&rsquo;s circumstances would have allowed. He
+was placed under the care of Pastor Krebel at Niederau. After
+a short stay at Meissen he was entered at the celebrated
+school at Pforta, near Naumburg. In 1780 he entered the
+university of Jena as a student of theology. He supported
+himself mainly by private teaching, and during the years 1784-1787
+acted as tutor in various families of Saxony. In 1787, after
+an unsuccessful application to the consistory for pecuniary assistance,
+he seems to have been driven to miscellaneous literary work.
+A tutorship at Zürich was, however, obtained in the spring of
+1788, and Fichte spent in Switzerland two of the happiest
+years of his life. He made several valuable acquaintances,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
+among others Lavater and his brother-in-law Hartmann Rahn,
+to whose daughter, Johanna Maria, he became engaged.</p>
+
+<p>Settling at Leipzig, still without any fixed means of livelihood,
+he was again reduced to literary drudgery. In the midst of
+this work occurred the most important event of his life, his
+introduction to the philosophy of Kant. At Schulpforta he had
+read with delight Lessing&rsquo;s <i>Anti-Goeze</i>, and during his Jena days
+had studied the relation between philosophy and religion. The
+outcome of his speculations, <i>Aphorismen über Religion und
+Deismus</i> (unpublished, date 1790; <i>Werke</i>, i. 1-8), was a species
+of Spinozistic determinism, regarded, however, as lying altogether
+outside the boundary of religion. It is remarkable that
+even for a time fatalism should have been predominant in his
+reasoning, for in character he was opposed to such a view, and,
+as he has said, &ldquo;according to the man, so is the system of
+philosophy he adopts.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fichte&rsquo;s <i>Letters</i> of this period attest the influence exercised
+on him by the study of Kant. It effected a revolution in his
+mode of thinking; so completely did the Kantian doctrine of
+the inherent moral worth of man harmonize with his own
+character, that his life becomes one effort to perfect a true
+philosophy, and to make its principles practical maxims. At
+first he seems to have thought that the best method for accomplishing
+his object would be to expound Kantianism in a popular,
+intelligible form. He rightly felt that the reception of Kant&rsquo;s
+doctrines was impeded by their phraseology. An abridgment
+of the <i>Kritik der Urtheilskraft</i> was begun, but was left unfinished.</p>
+
+<p>Fichte&rsquo;s circumstances had not improved. It had been
+arranged that he should return to Zürich and be married to
+Johanna Rahn, but the plan was overthrown by a commercial
+disaster which affected the fortunes of the Rahn family. Fichte
+accepted a post as private tutor in Warsaw, and proceeded on
+foot to that town. The situation proved unsuitable; the lady,
+as Kuno Fischer says, &ldquo;required greater submission and better
+French&rdquo; than Fichte could yield, and after a fortnight&rsquo;s stay
+Fichte set out for Königsberg to see Kant. His first interview
+was disappointing; the coldness and formality of the aged
+philosopher checked the enthusiasm of the young disciple,
+though it did not diminish his reverence. He resolved to bring
+himself before Kant&rsquo;s notice by submitting to him a work in which
+the principles of the Kantian philosophy should be applied.
+Such was the origin of the work, written in four weeks, the
+<i>Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung</i> (Essay towards a Critique
+of all Revelation). The problem which Fichte dealt with in
+this essay was one not yet handled by Kant himself, the relations
+of which to the critical philosophy furnished matter for surmise.
+Indirectly, indeed, Kant had indicated a very definite opinion
+on theology: from the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> it was clear that
+for him speculative theology must be purely negative, while the
+<i>Critique of Practical Reason</i> as clearly indicated the view that
+the moral law is the absolute content or substance of any religion.
+A <i>critical</i> investigation of the conditions under which religious
+belief was possible was still wanting. Fichte sent his essay to
+Kant, who approved it highly, extended to the author a warm
+reception, and exerted his influence to procure a publisher.
+After some delay, consequent on the scruples of the theological
+censor of Halle, who did not like to see miracles rejected, the
+book appeared (Easter, 1792). By an oversight Fichte&rsquo;s name
+did not appear on the title-page, nor was the preface given, in
+which the author spoke of himself as a beginner in philosophy.
+Outsiders, not unnaturally, ascribed the work to Kant. The
+<i>Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung</i> went so far as to say that no one
+who had read a line of Kant&rsquo;s writings could fail to recognize
+the eminent author of this new work. Kant himself corrected
+the mistake, at the same time highly commending the work.
+Fichte&rsquo;s reputation was thus secured at a stroke.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Critique of Revelation</i> marks the culminating point of
+Fichte&rsquo;s Kantian period. The exposition of the conditions under
+which revealed religion is possible turns upon the absolute
+requirements of the moral law in human nature. Religion itself
+is the belief in this moral law as divine, and such belief is a
+practical postulate, necessary in order to add force to the law.
+It follows that no revealed religion, so far as matter or substance
+is concerned, can contain anything beyond this law; nor can
+any fact in the world of experience be recognized by us as supernatural.
+The supernatural element in religion can only be the
+divine character of the moral law. Now, the revelation of this
+divine character of morality is possible only to a being in whom
+the lower impulses have been, or are, successful in overcoming
+reverence for the law. In such a case it is conceivable that a
+revelation might be given in order to add strength to the moral
+law. Religion ultimately then rests upon the practical reason,
+and expresses some demand or want of the pure ego. In this
+conclusion we can trace the prominence assigned by Fichte to
+the practical element, and the tendency to make the requirements
+of the ego the ground for all judgment on reality. It was not
+possible that having reached this point he should not press
+forward and leave the Kantian position.</p>
+
+<p>This success was coincident with an improvement in the
+fortunes of the Rahn family, and the marriage took place at
+Zürich in October 1793. The remainder of the year he spent
+at Zürich, slowly perfecting his thoughts on the fundamental
+problems left for solution in the Kantian philosophy. During
+this period he published anonymously two remarkable political
+works, <i>Zurückforderung der Denkfreiheit von den Fürsten Europas</i>
+and <i>Beiträge zur Berichtigung der Urtheile des Publicums über die
+französische Revolution</i>. Of these the latter is much the more
+important. The French Revolution seemed to many earnest
+thinkers the one great outcry of modern times for the liberty
+of thought and action which is the eternal heritage of every
+human being. Unfortunately the political condition of Germany
+was unfavourable to the formation of an unbiassed opinion on
+the great movement. The principles involved in it were lost
+sight of under the mass of spurious maxims on social order
+which had slowly grown up and stiffened into system. To
+direct attention to the true nature of revolution, to demonstrate
+how inextricably the right of liberty is interwoven with the very
+existence of man as an intelligent agent, to point out the inherent
+progressiveness of state arrangements, and the consequent
+necessity of reform or amendment, such are the main objects
+of the <i>Beiträge</i>; and although, as is often the case with Fichte,
+the arguments are too formal and the distinctions too wire-drawn,
+yet the general idea is nobly conceived and carried out.
+As in the <i>Critique of Revelation</i> so here the rational nature of
+man and the conditions necessary for its manifestation or realization
+become the standard for critical judgment.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of 1793 Fichte received an invitation to
+succeed K.L. Reinhold as extraordinary professor of philosophy
+at Jena. This chair, not in the ordinary faculty, had become,
+through Reinhold, the most important in the university, and
+great deliberation was exercised in selecting his successor. It
+was desired to secure an exponent of Kantianism, and none
+seemed so highly qualified as the author of the <i>Critique of Revelation</i>.
+Fichte, while accepting the call, desired to spend a year
+in preparation; but as this was deemed inexpedient he rapidly
+drew out for his students an introductory outline of his system,
+and began his lectures in May 1794. His success was instantaneous
+and complete. The fame of his predecessor was altogether
+eclipsed. Much of this success was due to Fichte&rsquo;s rare power
+as a lecturer. In oral exposition the vigour of thought and
+moral intensity of the man were most of all apparent, while
+his practical earnestness completely captivated his hearers.
+He lectured not only to his own class, but on general moral
+subjects to all students of the university. These general
+addresses, published under the title <i>Bestimmung des Gelehrten</i>
+(Vocation of the Scholar), were on a subject dear to Fichte&rsquo;s
+heart, the supreme importance of the highest intellectual culture
+and the duties incumbent on those who had received it. Their
+tone is stimulating and lofty.</p>
+
+<p>The years spent at Jena were unusually productive; indeed,
+the completed Fichtean philosophy is contained in the writings
+of this period. A general introduction to the system is given
+in the tractate <i>Über den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre</i> (On the
+Notion of the Theory of Science), 1794, and the theoretical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
+portion is worked out in the <i>Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre</i>
+(Foundation of the whole Theory of Science, 1794)
+and <i>Grundriss des Eigenthümlichen d. Wissenschaftslehre</i> (Outline
+of what is peculiar in the Theory of Science, 1794). To these
+were added in 1797 a <i>First</i> and a <i>Second Introduction to the
+Theory of Science</i>, and an <i>Essay towards a new Exposition of the
+Theory of Science</i>. The <i>Introductions</i> are masterly expositions.
+The practical philosophy was given in the <i>Grundlage des
+Naturrechts</i> (1796) and <i>System der Sittenlehre</i> (1798). The last
+is probably the most important of all Fichte&rsquo;s works; apart
+from it, his theoretical philosophy is unintelligible.</p>
+
+<p>During this period Fichte&rsquo;s academic career had been troubled
+by various storms, the last so violent as to put a close to his
+professorate at Jena. The first of them, a complaint against the
+delivery of his general addresses on Sundays, was easily settled.
+The second, arising from Fichte&rsquo;s strong desire to suppress the
+<i>Landsmannschaften</i> (students&rsquo; orders), which were productive
+of much harm, was more serious. Some misunderstanding
+caused an outburst of ignorant ill-feeling on the part of the
+students, who proceeded to such lengths that Fichte was compelled
+to reside out of Jena. The third storm, however, was
+the most violent. In 1798 Fichte, who, with F.I. Niethammer
+(1766-1848), had edited the <i>Philosophical Journal</i> since 1795,
+received from his friend F.K. Forberg (1770-1848) an essay
+on the &ldquo;Development of the Idea of Religion.&rdquo; With much
+of the essay he entirely agreed, but he thought the exposition
+in so many ways defective and calculated to create an erroneous
+impression, that he prefaced it with a short paper <i>On the Grounds
+of our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe</i>, in which
+God is defined as the moral order of the universe, the eternal
+law of right which is the foundation of all our being. The cry
+of atheism was raised, and the electoral government of Saxony,
+followed by all the German states except Prussia, suppressed
+the <i>Journal</i> and confiscated the copies found in their universities.
+Pressure was put by the German powers on Charles Augustus,
+grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, in whose dominions Jena university
+was situated, to reprove and dismiss the offenders. Fichte&rsquo;s
+defences (<i>Appellation an das Publicum gegen die Anklage des
+Atheismus</i>, and <i>Gerichtliche Verantwortung der Herausgeber der
+phil. Zeitschrift</i>, 1799), though masterly, did not make it easier
+for the liberal-minded grand-duke to pass the matter over, and
+an unfortunate letter, in which he threatened to resign in case
+of reprimand, turned the scale against him. The grand-duke
+accepted his threat as a request to resign, passed censure, and
+extended to him permission to withdraw from his chair at Jena;
+nor would he alter his decision, even though Fichte himself
+endeavoured to explain away the unfortunate letter.</p>
+
+<p>Berlin was the only town in Germany open to him. His
+residence there from 1799 to 1806 was unbroken save for a
+course of lectures during the summer of 1805 at Erlangen, where
+he had been named professor. Surrounded by friends, including
+Schlegel and Schleiermacher, he continued his literary work,
+perfecting the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>. The most remarkable of the
+works from this period are&mdash;(1) the <i>Bestimmung des Menschen</i>
+(Vocation of Man, 1800), a book which, for beauty of style,
+richness of content, and elevation of thought, may be ranked
+with the Meditations of Descartes; (2) <i>Der geschlossene Handelsstaat</i>,
+1800 (The Exclusive or Isolated Commercial State), a very
+remarkable treatise, intensely socialist in tone, and inculcating
+organized protection; (3) <i>Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grössere
+Publicum über die neueste Philosophie</i>, 1801. In 1801 was also
+written the <i>Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre</i>, which was not
+published till after his death. In 1804 a set of lectures on the
+<i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> was given at Berlin, the notes of which were
+published in the <i>Nachgelassene Werke</i>, vol. ii. In 1804 were
+also delivered the noble lectures entitled <i>Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen
+Zeitalters</i> (Characteristics of the Present Age, 1804),
+containing a most admirable analysis of the <i>Aufklärung</i>, tracing
+the position of such a movement of thought in the natural
+evolution of the general human consciousness, pointing out
+its inherent defects, and indicating as the ultimate goal of progress
+the life of reason in its highest aspect as a belief in the divine
+order of the universe. The philosophy of history sketched in
+this work has something of value with much that is fantastic.
+In 1805 and 1806 appeared the <i>Wesen des Gelehrten</i> (Nature of
+the Scholar) and the <i>Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder Religionslehre</i>
+(Way to a Blessed Life), the latter the most important
+work of this Berlin period. In it the union between the finite
+self-consciousness and the infinite ego or God is handled in an
+almost mystical manner. The knowledge and love of God is
+the end of life; by this means only can we attain blessedness
+(<i>Seligkeit</i>), for in God alone have we a permanent, enduring object
+of desire. The infinite God is the all; the world of independent
+objects is the result of reflection or self-consciousness, by which
+the infinite unity is broken up. God is thus over and above the
+distinction of subject and object; our knowledge is but a reflex
+or picture of the infinite essence. Being is not thought.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="correction" title="amended from diasters">disasters</span> of Prussia in 1806 drove Fichte from Berlin.
+He retired first to Stargard, then to Königsberg (where he
+lectured for a time), then to Copenhagen, whence he returned
+to the capital in August 1807. From this time his published
+writings are practical in character; not till after the appearance
+of the <i>Nachgelassene Werke</i> was it known in what shape his final
+speculations had been thrown out. We may here note the order
+of these posthumous writings as being of importance for tracing
+the development of Fichte&rsquo;s thought. From the year 1806 we
+have the remarkable <i>Bericht über die Wissenschaftslehre</i> (<i>Werke</i>,
+vol. viii.), with its sharp critique of Schelling; from 1810 we
+have the <i>Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns</i>, published in 1817, of
+which another treatment is given in lectures of 1813 (<i>Nachgel.
+Werke</i>, vol. i.). Of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> we have, in 1812-1813,
+four separate treatments contained in the <i>Nachgel Werke</i>. As
+these consist mainly of notes for lectures, couched in uncouth
+phraseology, they cannot be held to throw much light on Fichte&rsquo;s
+views. Perhaps the most interesting are the lectures of 1812
+on <i>Transcendental Logic</i> (<i>Nach. Werke</i>, i. 106-400).</p>
+
+<p>From 1812 we have notes of two courses on practical philosophy,
+<i>Rechtslehre</i> (<i>Nach. Werke</i>, vol. ii.) and <i>Sittenlehre</i> (<i>ib.</i> vol. iii.).
+A finished work in the same department is the <i>Staatslehre</i>,
+published in 1820. This gives the Fichtean utopia organized
+on principles of pure reason; in too many cases the proposals
+are identical with principles of pure despotism.</p>
+
+<p>During these years, however, Fichte was mainly occupied
+with public affairs. In 1807 he drew up an elaborate and
+minute plan for the proposed new university of Berlin. In
+1507-1808 he delivered at Berlin, amidst danger and discouragement,
+his noble addresses to the German people (<i>Reden an die
+deutsche Nation</i>). Even if we think that in these pure reason
+is sometimes overshadowed by patriotism, we cannot but recognize
+the immense practical value of what he recommended as
+the only true foundation for national prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>In 1810 he was elected rector of the new university founded
+in the previous year. This post he resigned in 1812, mainly on
+account of the difficulties he experienced in his endeavour to
+reform the student life of the university.</p>
+
+<p>In 1813 began the great effort of Germany for national independence.
+Debarred from taking an active part, Fichte
+made his contribution by way of lectures. The addresses on
+the idea of a true war (<i>Über den Begriff eines wahrhaften Kriegs</i>,
+forming part of the <i>Staatslehre</i>) contain a very subtle contrast
+between the positions of France and Germany in the war.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1813 the hospitals of Berlin were filled with
+sick and wounded from the campaign. Among the most devoted
+in her exertions was Fichte&rsquo;s wife, who, in January 1814, was
+attacked with a virulent hospital fever. On the day after she
+was pronounced out of danger Fichte was struck down. He
+lingered for some days in an almost unconscious state, and died
+on the 27th of January 1814.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The philosophy of Fichte, worked out in a series of writings,
+and falling chronologically into two distinct periods, that of Jena
+and that of Berlin, seemed in the course of its development to
+undergo a change so fundamental that many critics have sharply
+separated and opposed to one another an earlier and a later phase.
+The ground of the modification, further, has been sought and
+apparently found in quite external influences, principally that of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span>
+Schelling&rsquo;s <i>Naturphilosophie</i>, to some extent that of Schleiermacher.
+But as a rule most of those who have adopted this view have done
+so without the full and patient examination which the matter
+demands; they have been misled by the difference in tone and
+style between the earlier and later writings, and have concluded that
+underlying this was a fundamental difference of philosophic conception.
+One only, Erdmann, in his <i>Entwicklung d. deut. Spek.
+seit Kant</i>, § 29, seems to give full references to justify his opinion,
+and even he, in his later work, <i>Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos.</i>
+(ed. 3), § 311, admits that the difference is much less than he had
+at the first imagined. He certainly retains his former opinion,
+but mainly on the ground, in itself intelligible and legitimate, that, so
+far as Fichte&rsquo;s philosophical reputation and influence are concerned,
+attention may be limited to the earlier doctrines of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>.
+This may be so, but it can be admitted neither that
+Fichte&rsquo;s views underwent radical change, nor that the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>
+was ever regarded as in itself complete, nor that Fichte was
+unconscious of the apparent difference between his earlier and later
+utterances. It is demonstrable by various passages in the works
+and letters that he never looked upon the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> as containing
+the whole system; it is clear from the chronology of his
+writings that the modifications supposed to be due to other thinkers
+were from the first implicit in his theory; and if one fairly traces
+the course of thought in the early writings, one can see how he
+was inevitably led on to the statement of the later and, at first sight,
+divergent views. On only one point, the position assigned in the
+<i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> to the absolute ego, is there any obscurity; but
+the relative passages are far from decisive, and from the early work,
+<i>Neue Darstellung der Wissenchaftslehre</i>, unquestionably to be included
+in the Jena period, one can see that from the outset the
+doctrine of the absolute ego was held in a form differing only in
+statement from the later theory.</p>
+
+<p>Fichte&rsquo;s system cannot be compressed with intelligibility. We
+shall here note only three points:&mdash;(<i>a</i>) the origin in Kant; (<i>b</i>) the
+fundamental principle and method of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>; (<i>c</i>) the
+connexion with the later writings. The most important works for
+(<i>a</i>) are the &ldquo;Review of Aenesidemus,&rdquo; and the <i>Second Introduction
+to the Wissenschaftslehre</i>; for (<i>b</i>) the great treatises of the Jena
+period; for (<i>c</i>) the <i>Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns</i> of 1810.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The Kantian system had for the first time opened up a truly
+fruitful line of philosophic speculation, the transcendental consideration
+of knowledge, or the analysis of the conditions under
+which cognition is possible. To Kant the fundamental condition
+was given in the synthetical unity of consciousness. The primitive
+fact under which might be gathered the special conditions of that
+synthesis which we call cognition was this unity. But by Kant
+there was no attempt made to show that the said special conditions
+were necessary from the very nature of consciousness itself. Their
+necessity was discovered and proved in a manner which might be
+called empirical. Moreover, while Kant in a quite similar manner
+pointed out that intuition had special conditions, space and time,
+he did not show any link of connexion between these and the primitive
+conditions of pure cognition. Closely connected with this
+remarkable defect in the Kantian view&mdash;lying, indeed, at the foundation
+of it&mdash;was the doctrine that the matter of cognition is altogether
+<i>given</i>, or thrown into the <i>form</i> of cognition from without. So
+strongly was this doctrine emphasized by Kant, that he seemed to
+refer the <i>matter</i> of knowledge to the action upon us of a non-ego
+or <i>Ding-an-sich</i>, absolutely beyond consciousness. While these
+hints towards a completely intelligible account of cognition were
+given by Kant, they were not reduced to system, and from the way
+in which the elements of cognition were related, could not be so
+reduced. Only in the sphere of practical reason, where the intelligible
+nature prescribed to itself its own laws, was there the possibility of
+systematic deduction from a single principle.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar position in which Kant had left the theory of cognition
+was assailed from many different sides and by many writers,
+specially by Schultze (Aenesidemus) and Maimon. To the criticisms
+of the latter, in particular, Fichte owed much, but his own activity
+went far beyond what they supplied to him. To complete Kant&rsquo;s
+work, to demonstrate that all the necessary conditions of knowledge
+can be deduced from a single principle, and consequently to expound
+the complete system of reason, that is the business of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>.
+By it the theoretical and practical reason shall be
+shown to coincide; for while the categories of cognition and the
+whole system of pure thought can be expounded from one principle,
+the ground of this principle is scientifically, or to cognition, inexplicable,
+and is made conceivable only in the practical philosophy.
+The ultimate basis for the activity of cognition is given by the will.
+Even in the practical sphere, however, Fichte found that the contradiction,
+insoluble to cognition, was not completely suppressed,
+and he was thus driven to the higher view, which is explicitly stated
+in the later writings though not, it must be confessed, with the
+precision and scientific clearness of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) What, then, is this single principle, and how does it work
+itself out into system? To answer this one must bear in mind
+what Fichte intended by designating all philosophy <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>,
+or theory of science. Philosophy is to him the rethinking of
+actual cognition, the <i>theory</i> of knowledge, the complete, systematic
+exposition of the principles which lie at the basis of all reasoned
+cognition. It traces the necessary acts by which the cognitive
+consciousness comes to be what it is, both in form and in content.
+Not that it is a natural history, or even a <i>phenomenology</i> of consciousness;
+only in the later writings did Fichte adopt even the
+genetic method of exposition; it is the complete statement of the
+pure principles of the understanding in their rational or necessary
+order. But if complete, this <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> must be able to
+deduce the whole organism of cognition from certain fundamental
+axioms, themselves unproved and incapable of proof; only thus
+can we have a <i>system</i> of reason. From these primary axioms the
+whole body of necessary thoughts must be developed, and, as
+Socrates would say, the argument itself will indicate the path of
+the development.</p>
+
+<p>Of such primitive principles, the absolutely necessary conditions
+of possible cognition, only three are thinkable&mdash;one perfectly unconditioned
+both in form and matter; a second, unconditioned in
+form but not in matter; a third, unconditioned in matter but not
+in form. Of these, evidently the first must be the fundamental; to
+some extent it conditions the other two, though these cannot be
+deduced from it or proved by it. The statement of these principles
+forms the introduction to <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The method which Fichte first adopted for stating these axioms
+is not calculated to throw full light upon them, and tends to exaggerate
+the apparent airiness and unsubstantiality of his deduction.
+They may be explained thus. The primitive condition of all intelligence
+is that the ego shall posit, affirm or be aware of itself.
+The ego is the ego; such is the first pure act of conscious intelligence,
+that by which alone consciousness can come to be what it is. It
+is what Fichte called a Deed-act (<i>Thathandlung</i>); we cannot be
+aware of the process,&mdash;the ego <i>is</i> not until it has affirmed itself,&mdash;but
+we are aware of the result, and can see the necessity of the act
+by which it is brought about. The ego then posits itself, as real.
+What the ego posits is real. But in consciousness there is equally
+given a primitive act of op-positing, or contra-positing, formally
+distinct from the act of position, but materially determined, in so
+far as what is op-posited must be the negative of that which was
+posited. The non-ego&mdash;not, be it noticed, the world as we know
+it&mdash;is op-posed in consciousness to the ego. The ego is not the
+non-ego. How this act of op-positing is possible and necessary,
+only becomes clear in the practical philosophy, and even there the
+inherent difficulty leads to a higher view. But third, we have now
+an absolute antithesis to our original thesis. Only the ego is real,
+but the non-ego is posited in the ego. The contradiction is solved
+in a higher synthesis, which takes up into itself the two opposites.
+The ego and non-ego <i>limit</i> one another, or determine one another;
+and, as limitation is negation of part of a divisible quantum, in this
+third act, the divisible ego is op-posed to a divisible non-ego.</p>
+
+<p>From this point onwards the course proceeds by the method
+already made clear. We progress by making explicit the oppositions
+contained in the fundamental synthesis, by uniting these opposites,
+analysing the new synthesis, and so on, until we reach an ultimate
+pair. Now, in the synthesis of the third act two principles may be
+distinguished:&mdash;(1) the non-ego determines the ego; (2) the ego
+determines the non-ego. As determined the ego is theoretical, as
+determining it is practical; ultimately the opposed principles must
+be united by showing how the ego is both determining and determined.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to enter here on the steps by which the theoretical
+ego is shown to develop into the complete system of cognitive
+categories, or to trace the deduction of the processes (productive
+imagination, intuition, sensation, understanding, judgment, reason)
+by which the quite indefinite non-ego comes to assume the appearance
+of definite objects in the forms of time and space. All this
+evolution is the necessary consequence of the determination of
+the ego by the non-ego. But it is clear that the non-ego cannot
+really determine the ego. There is no reality beyond the ego itself.
+The contradiction can only be suppressed if the ego itself opposes
+to itself the non-ego, places it as an <i>Anstoss</i> or plane on which its
+own activity breaks and from which it is reflected. Now, this op-positing
+of the <i>Anstoss</i> is the necessary condition of the practical ego,
+of the will. If the ego be a striving power, then of necessity a
+limit must be set by which its striving is manifest. But how can
+the infinitely active ego posit a limit to its own activity? Here
+we come to the <i>crux</i> of Fichte&rsquo;s system, which is only partly cleared
+up in the <i>Rechtslehre</i> and <i>Sittenlehre</i>. If the ego be pure activity,
+free activity, it can only become aware of itself by positing some
+limit. We cannot possibly have any cognition of how such an act
+is possible. But as it is a free act, the ego cannot be determined
+to it by anything beyond itself; it cannot be aware of its own freedom
+otherwise than as determined by other free egos. Thus in the
+<i>Rechtslehre</i> and <i>Sittenlehre</i>, the multiplicity of egos is deduced, and
+with this deduction the first form of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> appeared
+to end.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) But in fact deeper questions remained. We have spoken of
+the ego as becoming aware of its own freedom, and have shown how
+the existence of other egos and of a world in which these egos may
+act are the necessary conditions of consciousness of freedom. But
+all this is the work of the ego. All that has been expounded follows
+if the ego comes to consciousness. We have therefore to consider that
+the absolute ego, from which spring all the individual egos, is not
+subject to these conditions, but freely determines itself to them.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span>
+How is this absolute ego to be conceived? As early as 1797 Fichte
+had begun to see that the ultimate basis of his system was the
+absolute ego, in which is no difference of subject and object; in 1800
+the <i>Bestimmung des Menschen</i> defined this absolute ego as the
+infinite moral will of the universe, God, in whom are all the individual
+egos, from whom they have sprung. It lay in the nature
+of the thing that more precise utterances should be given on this
+subject, and these we find in the <i>Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns</i> and in
+all the later lectures. God in them is the absolute Life, the absolute
+One, who becomes conscious of himself by self-diremption into the
+individual egos. The individual ego is only possible as opposed to a
+non-ego, to a world of the senses; thus God, the infinite will, manifests
+himself in the individual, and the individual has over against
+him the non-ego or thing. &ldquo;The individuals do not make part of
+the being of the one life, but are a pure form of its absolute freedom.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The individual is not conscious of himself, but the Life is conscious
+of itself in individual form and as an individual.&rdquo; In order that
+the Life may act, though it is not necessary that it <i>should act</i>, individualization
+is necessary. &ldquo;Thus,&rdquo; says Fichte, &ldquo;we reach a
+final conclusion. Knowledge is not mere knowledge of itself, but
+of being, and of the one being that truly is, viz. God.... This one
+possible object of knowledge is never known in its purity, but ever
+broken into the various forms of knowledge which are and can be
+shown to be necessary. The demonstration of the necessity of these
+forms is philosophy or <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>&rdquo; (<i>Thats. des Bewuss.
+Werke</i>, ii. 685). This ultimate view is expressed throughout the
+lectures (in the <i>Nachgel. Werke</i>) in uncouth and mystical language.</p>
+
+<p>It will escape no one (1) how the idea and method of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>
+prepare the way for the later Hegelian dialectic, and
+(2) how completely the whole philosophy of Schopenhauer is contained
+in the later writings of Fichte. It is not to the credit of
+historians that Schopenhauer&rsquo;s debt should have been allowed to
+pass with so little notice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Fichte&rsquo;s complete works were published by his
+son J.H. Fichte, <i>Sämmtliche Werke</i> (8 vols., Berlin, 1845-1846),
+with <i>Nachgelassene Werke</i> (3 vols., Bonn, 1834-1835); also <i>Leben
+und Briefwechsel</i> (2 vols., 1830, ed. 1862). Among translations are
+those of William Smith, <i>Popular Writings of Fichte, with Memoir</i>
+(2 vols., London, 1848-1849, 4th ed. 1889); A.E. Kroeger, portions
+of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> (<i>Science of Knowledge</i>, Philadelphia, 1868;
+ed. London, 1889), the <i>Naturrecht</i> (<i>Science of Rights</i>, 1870; ed.
+London, 1889); of the <i>Vorlesungen ü. d. Bestimmung d. Gelehrten</i>
+(<i>The Vocation of the Scholar</i>, by W. Smith, 1847); <i>Destination of Man</i>,
+by Mrs P. Sinnett; <i>Discours à la nation allemande</i>, French by Léon
+Philippe (1895), with preface by F. Picavet, and a biographical
+memoir.</p>
+
+<p>The number of critical works is very large. Besides the histories
+of post-Kantian philosophy by Erdmann, Fortlage (whose account
+is remarkably good), Michelet, Biedermann and others, see Wm.
+Busse, <i>Fichte und seine Beziehung zur Gegenwart des deutschen Volkes</i>
+(Halle, 1848-1849); J.H. Löwe, <i>Die Philosophic Fichtes</i> (Stuttgart,
+1862); Kuno Fischer, <i>Geschichte d. neueren Philosophie</i> (1869, 1884,
+1890); Ludwig Noack, <i>Fichte nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken</i>
+(Leipzig, 1862); R. Adamson, Fichte (1881, in Knight&rsquo;s &ldquo;Philosophical
+Classics&rdquo;); Oscar Benzow, <i>Zu Fichtes Lekre von Nicht-Ich</i>
+(Bern, 1898); E.O. Burmann, <i>Die Transcendentalphilosophie
+Fichtes und Schellings</i> (Upsala, 1890-1892); M. Carrière, <i>Fichtes
+Geistesentwickelung in die Reden über d. Bestimmung des Gelehrten</i>
+(1894); C.C. Everett, <i>Fichte&rsquo;s Science of Knowledge</i> (Chicago, 1884);
+O. Pfleiderer, J.G. <i>Fichtes Lebensbild eines deutschen Denkers und
+Patrioten</i> (Stuttgart, 1877); T. Wotschke, <i>Fichte und Erigena</i>
+(1896); W. Kabitz, <i>Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichtehen
+Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophie</i> (1902);
+E. Lask, <i>Fichtes Idealismus und die Geschichte</i> (1902); X. Léon,
+<i>La Philos. de Fichte</i> (1902); M. Wiener, J.G. <i>Fichtes Lehre vom
+Wesen und Inhalt der Geschichte</i> (1906).</p>
+
+<p>On Fichte&rsquo;s social philosophy see, <i>e.g.</i>, F. Schmidt-Warneck,
+<i>Die Sociologie Fichtes</i> (Berlin, 1884); W. Windelband, <i>Fichtes Idee
+des deutschen Staates</i> (1890); M. Weber, <i>Fichtes Sozialismus und sein
+Verhältnis zur Marx&rsquo;schen Doctrin</i> (1900); S.H. Gutman, J.G.
+<i>Fichtes Sozialpädogogik</i> (1907); H. Lindau, <i>Johann G. Fichte und der
+neuere Socialismus</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Ad.; X.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FICHTELGEBIRGE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a mountain group of Bavaria, forming
+the centre from which various mountain ranges proceed,&mdash;the
+Elstergebirge, linking it to the Erzgebirge, in a N.E., the Frankenwald
+in a N.W., and the Böhmerwald in a S.E. direction. The
+streams to which it gives rise flow towards the four cardinal
+points,&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the Eger eastward and the Saale northward, both
+to the Elbe; the Weisser Main westward to the Rhine, and the
+Naab southward to the Danube. The chief points of the mass
+are the Schneeberg and the Ochsenkopf, the former having a
+height of 3448, and the latter of 3356 ft. The whole district
+is pretty thickly populated, and there is great abundance of
+wood, as well as of iron, vitriol, sulphur, copper, lead and many
+kinds of marble. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the
+iron mines, at forges and blast furnaces, and in charcoal burning
+and the manufacture of blacking from firewood. Although
+surrounded by railways and crossed by the lines Nuremberg-Eger
+and Regensburg-Oberkotzau, the Fichtelgebirge, owing
+principally to its raw climate and bleakness, is not much visited
+by strangers, the only important points of interest being Alexandersbad
+(a delightfully situated watering-place) and the
+granite labyrinth of Luisenburg.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Schmidt, <i>Führer durch das Fichtelgebirge</i> (1899); Daniel,
+<i>Deutschland</i>; and Meyer, <i>Conversations-Lexikon</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FICINO, MARSILIO<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1433-1499), Italian philosopher and
+writer, was born at Figline, in the upper Arno valley, in the year
+1433. His father, a physician of some eminence, settled in
+Florence, and attached himself to the person of Cosimo de&rsquo;
+Medici. Here the young Marsilio received his elementary
+education in grammar and Latin literature at the high school
+or studio pubblico. While still a boy, he showed promise of
+rare literary gifts, and distinguished himself by his facility in
+the acquisition of knowledge. Not only literature, but the
+physical sciences, as then taught, had a charm for him; and he
+is said to have made considerable progress in medicine under
+the tuition of his father. He was of a tranquil temperament,
+sensitive to music and poetry, and debarred by weak health
+from joining in the more active pleasures of his fellow-students.
+When he had attained the age of eighteen or nineteen years,
+Cosimo received him into his household, and determined to make
+use of his rare disposition for scholarship in the development
+of a long-cherished project. During the session of the council
+for the union of the Greek and Latin churches at Florence in
+1439, Cosimo had made acquaintance with Gemistos Plethon,
+the Neo-Platonic sage of Mistra, whose discourses upon Plato
+and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society
+of Florence that they named him the second Plato. It had been
+the dream of this man&rsquo;s whole life to supersede both forms of
+Christianity by a semi-pagan theosophy deduced from the
+writings of the later Pythagoreans and Platonists. When,
+therefore, he perceived the impression he had made upon the
+first citizen of Florence, Gemistos suggested that the capital
+of modern culture would be a fit place for the resuscitation of the
+once so famous Academy of Athens. Cosimo took this hint.
+The second half of the 15th century was destined to be the age
+of academies in Italy, and the regnant passion for antiquity
+satisfied itself with any imitation, however grotesque, of Greek
+or Roman institutions. In order to found his new academy
+upon a firm basis Cosimo resolved not only to assemble men of
+letters for the purpose of Platonic disputation at certain regular
+intervals, but also to appoint a hierophant and official expositor
+of Platonic doctrine. He hoped by these means to give a certain
+stability to his projected institution, and to avoid the superficiality
+of mere enthusiasm. The plan was good; and with
+the rare instinct for character which distinguished him, he
+made choice of the right man for his purpose in the young
+Marsilio.</p>
+
+<p>Before he had begun to learn Greek, Marsilio entered upon the
+task of studying and elucidating Plato. It is known that at
+this early period of his life, while he was yet a novice, he wrote
+voluminous treatises on the great philosopher, which he afterwards,
+however, gave to the flames. In the year 1459 John
+Argyropoulos was lecturing on the Greek language and literature
+at Florence, and Marsilio became his pupil. He was then about
+twenty-three years of age. Seven years later he felt himself a
+sufficiently ripe Greek scholar to begin the translation of Plato,
+by which his name is famous in the history of scholarship, and
+which is still the best translation of that author Italy can boast.
+The MSS. on which he worked were supplied by this patron
+Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici and by Amerigo Benci. While the translation
+was still in progress Ficino from time to time submitted its
+pages to the scholars, Angelo Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino,
+Demetrios Chalchondylas and others; and since these men
+were all members of the Platonic Academy, there can be no
+doubt that the discussions raised upon the text and Latin
+version greatly served to promote the purpose of Cosimo&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span>
+foundation. At last the book appeared in 1482, the expenses of
+the press being defrayed by the noble Florentine, Filippo Valori.
+About the same time Marsilio completed and published his treatise
+on the Platonic doctrine of immortality (<i>Theologia Platonica
+de immortalitate animae</i>), the work by which his claims to take
+rank as a philosopher must be estimated. This was shortly
+followed by the translation of Plotinus into Latin, and by a
+voluminous commentary, the former finished in 1486, the latter
+in 1491, and both published at the cost of Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici
+just one month after his death. As a supplement to these
+labours in the field of Platonic and Alexandrian philosophy,
+Marsilio next devoted his energies to the translation of Dionysius
+the Areopagite, whose work on the celestial hierarchy, though
+recognized as spurious by the Neapolitan humanist, Lorenzo
+Valla, had supreme attraction for the mystic and uncritical
+intellect of Ficino.</p>
+
+<p>It is not easy to value the services of Marsilio Ficino at their
+proper worth. As a philosopher, he can advance no claim to
+originality, his laborious treatise on Platonic theology being
+little better than a mass of ill-digested erudition. As a scholar,
+he failed to recognize the distinctions between different periods
+of antiquity and various schools of thought. As an exponent
+of Plato he suffered from the fatal error of confounding Plato
+with the later Platonists. It is true that in this respect he did
+not differ widely from the mass of his contemporaries. Lorenzo
+Valla and Angelo Poliziano, almost alone among the scholars of
+that age, showed a true critical perception. For the rest, it was
+enough that an author should be ancient to secure their admiration.
+The whole of antiquity seemed precious in the eyes of its
+discoverers; and even a thinker so acute as Pico di Mirandola
+dreamed of the possibility of extracting the essence of philosophical
+truth by indiscriminate collation of the most divergent
+doctrines. Ficino was, moreover, a firm believer in planetary
+influences. He could not separate his philosophical from his
+astrological studies, and caught eagerly at any fragment of
+antiquity which seemed to support his cherished delusions.
+It may here be incidentally mentioned that this superstition
+brought him into trouble with the Roman Church. In 1489
+he was accused of magic before Pope Innocent VIII., and had to
+secure the good offices of Francesco Soderini, Ermolao Barbaro,
+and the archbishop Rinaldo Orsini, in order to purge himself of
+a most perilous imputation. What Ficino achieved of really solid,
+was his translation. The value of that work cannot be denied;
+the impulse which it gave to Platonic studies in Italy, and through
+them to the formation of the new philosophy in Europe, is
+indisputable. Ficino differed from the majority of his contemporaries
+in this that, while he felt the influence of antiquity no less
+strongly than they did, he never lost his faith in Christianity,
+or contaminated his morals by contact with paganism. For him,
+as for Petrarch, St Augustine was the model of a Christian student.
+The cardinal point of his doctrine was the identity of religion and
+philosophy. He held that philosophy consists in the study of
+truth and wisdom, and that God alone is truth and wisdom,&mdash;so
+that philosophy is but religion, and true religion is genuine
+philosophy. Religion, indeed, is common to all men, but its
+pure form is that revealed through Christ; and the teaching
+of Christ is sufficient to a man in all circumstances of life. Yet
+it cannot be expected that every man should accept the faith
+without reasoning; and here Ficino found a place for Platonism.
+He maintained that the Platonic doctrine was providentially
+made to harmonize with Christianity, in order that by its means
+speculative intellects might be led to Christ. The transition
+from this point of view to an almost superstitious adoration
+of Plato was natural; and Ficino, we know, joined in the hymns
+and celebrations with which the Florentine Academy honoured
+their great master on the day of his birth and death. Those
+famous festivals in which Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici delighted had
+indeed a pagan tone appropriate to the sentiment of the Renaissance;
+nor were all the worshippers of the Athenian sage so
+true to Christianity as his devoted student.</p>
+
+<p>Of Ficino&rsquo;s personal life there is but little to be said. In order
+that he might have leisure for uninterrupted study, Cosimo de&rsquo;
+Medici gave him a house near S. Maria Nuova in Florence, and
+a little farm at Montevecchio, not far from the villa of Careggi.
+Ficino, like nearly all the scholars of that age in Italy, delighted
+in country <span class="correction" title="amended from lfe">life</span>. At Montevecchio he lived contentedly among
+his books, in the neighbourhood of his two friends, Pico at
+Querceto, and Poliziano at Fiesole, cheering his solitude by
+playing on the lute, and corresponding with the most illustrious
+men of Italy. His letters, extending over the years 1474-1494,
+have been published, both separately and in his collected works.
+From these it may be gathered that nearly every living scholar
+of note was included in the list of his friends, and that the
+subjects which interested him were by no means confined to
+his Platonic <span class="correction" title="amended from sudies">studies</span>. As instances of his close intimacy with
+illustrious Florentine families, it may be mentioned that he
+held the young Francesco Guicciardini at the font, and that
+he helped to cast the horoscope of the Casa Strozzi in the Via
+Tornabuoni.</p>
+
+<p>At the age of forty Ficino took orders, and was honoured
+with a canonry of S. Lorenzo. He was henceforth assiduous
+in the performance of his duties, preaching in his cure of Novoli,
+and also in the cathedral and the church of the Angeli at Florence.
+He used to say that no man was better than a good priest, and
+none worse than a bad one. His life corresponded in all points
+to his principles. It was the life of a sincere Christian and a real
+sage,&mdash;of one who found the best fruits of philosophy in the
+practice of the Christian virtues. A more amiable and a more
+harmless man never lived; and this was much in that age of
+discordant passions and lawless licence. In spite of his weak
+health, he was indefatigably industrious. His tastes were of the
+simplest; and while scholars like Filelfo were intent on extracting
+money from their patrons by flattery and threats, he
+remained so poor that he owed the publication of all his many
+works to private munificence. For his old patrons of the house
+of Medici Ficino always cherished sentiments of the liveliest
+gratitude. Cosimo he called his second father, saying that Ficino
+had given him life, but Cosimo new birth,&mdash;the one had devoted
+him to Galen, the other to the divine Plato,&mdash;the one was physician
+of the body, the other of the soul. With Lorenzo he lived on
+terms of familiar, affectionate, almost parental intimacy. He had
+seen the young prince grow up in the palace of the Via Larga,
+and had helped in the development of his rare intellect. In later
+years he did not shrink from uttering a word of warning and
+advice, when he thought that the master of the Florentine
+republic was too much inclined to yield to pleasure. A characteristic
+proof of his attachment to the house of Medici was furnished
+by a yearly custom which he practised at his farm at Montevecchio.
+He used to invite the contadini who had served
+Cosimo to a banquet on the day of Saints Cosimo and Damiano
+(the patron saints of the Medici), and entertained them with
+music and singing. This affection was amply returned. Cosimo
+employed almost the last hours of his life in listening to Ficino&rsquo;s
+reading of a treatise on the highest good; while Lorenzo, in
+a poem on true happiness, described him as the mirror of the
+world, the nursling of sacred muses, the harmonizer of wisdom
+and beauty in complete accord. Ficino died at Florence in
+1499.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the works already noticed, Ficino composed a treatise
+on the Christian religion, which was first given to the world in
+1476, a translation into Italian of Dante&rsquo;s <i>De monarchia</i>, a life
+of Plato, and numerous essays on ethical and semi-philosophical
+subjects. Vigour of reasoning and originality of view were not
+his characteristics as a writer; nor will the student who has
+raked these dust-heaps of miscellaneous learning and old-fashioned
+mysticism discover more than a few sentences of
+genuine enthusiasm and simple-hearted aspiration to repay his
+trouble and reward his patience. Only in familiar letters,
+prolegomena, and prefaces do we find the man Ficino, and learn
+to know his thoughts and sentiments unclouded by a mist of
+citations; these minor compositions have therefore a certain
+permanent value, and will continually be studied for the light
+they throw upon the learned circle gathered round Lorenzo in
+the golden age of humanism.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The student may be referred for further information to the following
+works:&mdash;<i>Marsilii Ficini opera</i> (Basileae, 1576); <i>Marsilii Ficini
+vita</i>, auctore Corsio (ed. Bandini, Pisa, 1771); Roscoe&rsquo;s <i>Life of
+Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici</i>; Pasquale Villari, <i>La Storia di Girolamo Savonarola</i>
+(Firenze, Le Monnier, 1859); Von Reumont, <i>Lorenzo de&rsquo;
+Medici</i> (Leipzig, 1874).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FICKSBURG,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of Orange Free State 110 m. by rail
+E. by N. of Bloemfontein. Pop. (1904) 1954, of whom 1021 were
+whites. The town is situated near the north bank of the Caledon
+river and is the capital of one of the finest agricultural and stock-raising
+regions of the province. It has direct railway communication
+with Natal and an extensive trade. In the neighbourhood
+are petroleum wells and a diamond mine. In the fossilized ooze
+of the Wonderkop, a table mountain of the adjacent Wittebergen,
+are quantities of petrified fish.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FICTIONS,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> or legal fictions, in law, the term used for false
+averments, the truth of which is not permitted to be called in
+question. English law as well as Roman law abounds in fictions.
+Sometimes they are merely the condensed expression of a rule
+of law,&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>, the fiction of English law that husband and wife
+were one person, and the fiction of Roman law that the wife
+was the daughter of the husband. Sometimes they must be
+regarded as reasons invented in order to justify a rule of law
+according to an implied ethical standard. Of this sort seems to be
+the fiction or presumption that every one knows the law, which
+reconciles the rule that ignorance is no excuse for crime with
+the moral commonplace that it is unfair to punish a man for
+violating a law of whose existence he was unaware. Again,
+some fictions are deliberate falsehoods, adopted as true for the
+purpose of establishing a remedy not otherwise attainable. Of
+this sort are the numerous fictions of English law by which the
+different courts obtained jurisdiction in private business, removed
+inconvenient restrictions in the law relating to land, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>What to the scientific jurist is a stumbling-block is to the older
+writers on English law a beautiful device for reconciling the strict
+letter of the law with common sense and justice. Blackstone,
+in noticing the well-known fiction by which the court of king&rsquo;s
+bench established its jurisdiction in common pleas (viz. that the
+defendant was in custody of the marshal of the court), says,
+&ldquo;These fictions of law, though at first they may startle the
+student, he will find upon further consideration to be highly
+beneficial and useful; especially as this maxim is ever invariably
+observed, that no fiction shall extend to work an injury; its
+proper operation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an
+inconvenience that might result from the general rule of law.
+So true it is that <i>in fictione juris semper subsistit aequitas</i>.&rdquo;
+Austin, on the other hand, while correctly assigning as the
+cause of many fictions the desire to combine the necessary
+reform with some show of respect for the abrogated law, makes
+the following harsh criticism as to others:&mdash;&ldquo;Why the plain
+meanings which I have now stated should be obscured by the
+fictions to which I have just adverted I cannot conjecture.
+A wish on the part of the authors of the fictions to render the law
+as <i>uncognoscible</i> as may be is probably the cause which Mr
+Bentham would assign. I judge not, I confess, so uncharitably;
+I rather impute such fictions to the sheer imbecility (or, if you
+will, to the active and sportive fancies) of their grave and venerable
+authors, than to any deliberate design, good or evil.&rdquo;
+Bentham, of course, saw in fictions the instrument by which
+the great object of his abhorrence, <i>judiciary law</i>, was produced.
+It was the means by which judges usurped the functions of
+legislators. &ldquo;A fiction of law.&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;may be defined as
+a wilful falsehood, having for its object the stealing legislative
+powers by and for hands which could not or durst not openly
+claim it, and but for the delusion thus produced could not
+exercise it.&rdquo; A partnership, he says, was formed between the
+kings and the judges against the interests of the people.
+&ldquo;Monarchs found force, lawyers fraud; thus was the capital
+found&rdquo; (<i>Historical Preface to the second edition of the Fragment
+on Government</i>).<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Sir H. Maine (<i>Ancient Law</i>) supplies the historical element
+which is always lacking in the explanations of Austin and
+Bentham. Fictions form one of the agencies by which, in progressive
+societies, positive law is brought into harmony with
+public opinion. The others are equity and statutes. Fictions
+in this sense include, not merely the obvious falsities of the
+English and Roman systems, but any assumption which conceals
+a change of law by retaining the old formula after the change has
+been made. It thus includes both the case law of the English and
+the <i>Responsa Prudentum</i> of the Romans. &ldquo;At a particular stage
+of social progress they are invaluable expedients for overcoming
+the rigidity of law; and, indeed, without one of them, the
+fiction of adoption, which permits the family tie to be artificially
+created, it is difficult to understand how society would ever have
+escaped from its swaddling clothes, and taken its first steps
+towards civilization.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The bolder remedial fictions of English law have been to a
+large extent removed by legislation, and one great obstacle to
+any reconstruction of the legal system has thus been partially
+removed. Where the real remedy stood in glaring contrast to
+the nominal rule, it has been openly ratified by statute. In
+ejectment cases the mysterious sham litigants have disappeared.
+The bond of entail can be broken without having recourse to
+the collusive proceedings of fine and recovery. Fictions have
+been almost entirely banished from the procedure of the
+courts. The action for damages on account of seduction, which
+is still nominally an action by the father for loss of his
+daughter&rsquo;s services, is perhaps the only fictitious action now
+remaining.</p>
+
+<p>Fictions which appear in the form of principles are not so
+easily dealt with by legislation. To expel them formally from
+the system would require the re-enactment of vast portions of
+law. A change in legal modes of speech and thought would be
+more effective. The legal mind instinctively seizes upon concrete
+aids to abstract reasoning. Many hard and revolting fictions
+must have begun their career as metaphors. In some cases the
+history of the change may still almost be traced. The conception
+that a man-of-war is a floating island, or that an ambassador&rsquo;s
+house is beyond the territorial limits of the country in which he
+resides, was originally a figure of speech designed to set a rule
+of law in a striking light. It is then gravely accepted as true
+in fact, and other rules of law are deduced from it. Its beginning
+is to be compared with such phrases as &ldquo;an Englishman&rsquo;s house
+is his castle,&rdquo; which have had no legal offshoots and still remain
+mere figures of speech.</p>
+
+<p>Constitutional law is of course honeycombed with fictions.
+Here there is hardly ever anything like direct legislative change,
+and yet real change is incessant. The rules defining the sovereign
+power and fixing the authority of its various members are in most
+points the same as they were at the last revolution,&mdash;in many
+points they have been the same since the beginning of parliamentary
+government. But they have long ceased to be true in
+fact; and it would hardly be too much to say that the entire
+series of formal propositions called the constitution is merely a
+series of fictions. The legal attributes of the king, and even of
+the House of Lords, are fictions. If we could suppose that the
+effects of the Reform Acts had been brought about, not by legislation,
+but by the decisions of law courts and the practice of House
+of Commons committees&mdash;by such assumptions as that freeholder
+includes lease-holder and that ten means twenty&mdash;we should
+have in the legal constitution of the House of Commons the same
+kind of fictions that we find in the legal statement of the attributes
+of the crown and the House of Lords. Here, too, fictions have
+been largely resorted to for the purpose of supporting particular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span>
+theories,&mdash;popular or monarchical,&mdash;and such have flourished
+even more vigorously than purely legal fictions.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the same essay Bentham notices the comparative rarity of
+fictions in Scots law. As to fiction in particular, compared with the
+work done by it in English law, the use made of it by the Scottish
+lawyers is next to nothing. No need have they had of any such
+clumsy instrument. They have two others &ldquo;of their own making,
+by which things of the same sort have been done with much less
+trouble. <i>Nobile officium</i> gives them the creative power of legislation;
+this and the word desuetude together the annihilative.&rdquo; And he
+notices aptly enough that, while the English lawyers declared that
+James II. had abdicated the throne (which everybody knew to be
+false), the Scottish lawyers boldly said he had forfeited it.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIDDES, RICHARD<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1671-1725), English divine and historian,
+was born at Hunmanby and educated at Oxford. He took
+orders, and obtained the living of Halsham in Holderness in
+1696. Owing to ill-health he applied for leave to reside at
+Wickham, and in 1712 he removed to London on the plea of
+poverty, intending to pursue a literary career. In London he
+met Swift, who procured him a chaplaincy at Hull. He also
+became chaplain to the earl of Oxford. After losing the Hull
+chaplaincy through a change of ministry in 1714, he devoted
+himself to writing. His best book is a <i>Life of Cardinal Wolsey</i>
+(London, 1724), containing documents which are still valuable
+for reference; of his other writings the <i>Prefatory Epistle containing
+some remarks to be published on Homer&rsquo;s Iliad</i> (London, 1714),
+was occasioned by Pope&rsquo;s proposed translation of the <i>Iliad</i>,
+and his <i>Theologia speculativa</i> (London, 1718), earned him the
+degree of D.D. at Oxford. In his own day he had a considerable
+reputation as an author and man of learning.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIDDLE<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>fithele</i>, <i>fidel</i>, &amp;c., Fr. <i>vièle</i>, viole, <i>violon</i>;
+M. H. Ger. <i>videle</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Fiedel</i>), a popular term for the violin,
+derived from the names of certain of its ancestors. The word
+fiddle antedates the appearance of the violin by several centuries,
+and in England did not always represent an instrument of the same
+type. The word has first been traced in 1205 in Layamon&rsquo;s <i>Brut</i>
+(7002), &ldquo;of harpe, of salteriun, of fithele and of coriun.&rdquo; In
+Chaucer&rsquo;s time the fiddle was evidently a well-known instrument:</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem f90"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;For him was lever have at his beddes hed</p>
+<p class="i05">A twenty bokes, clothed in black or red.</p>
+<p class="i05">Of Aristotle and his Philosophie,</p>
+<p class="i05">Than robes riche or fidel or sautrie.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="i10">(<i>Prologue</i>, v. 298.)</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The origin of the fiddle is of the greatest interest; it will be
+found inseparable from that of the violin both as regards the
+instruments and the etymology of the words; the remote
+common ancestor is the <i>ketharah</i> of the Assyrians, the parent of
+the Greek cithara. The Romans are responsible for the word
+fiddle, having bestowed upon a kind of cithara&mdash;probably then
+in its first transition&mdash;the name of <i>fidiculae</i> (more rarely <i>fidicula</i>),
+a diminutive form of <i>fides</i>. In Alain de Lille&rsquo;s <i>De planctu
+naturae</i> against the word <i>lira</i> stands as equivalent <i>vioel</i>, with
+the definition &ldquo;Lira est quoddam genu&#275; citharae vel fitola
+alioquin de reot. Hoc instrumentum est multum vulgare.&rdquo;
+This is a marginal note in writing of the 13th century.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Some of the transitions from <i>fidicula</i> to fiddle are made evident
+in the accompanying table:</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Latin</td> <td class="tcl">fidiculae</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Medieval Latin</td> <td class="tcl">vitula, fitola.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">French</td> <td class="tcl">vièle, vielle, viole.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Provencal</td> <td class="tcl">viula.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Spanish</td> <td class="tcl">viguela, vihuela, vigolo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Old High German</td> <td class="tcl">fidula.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Middle High German</td> <td class="tcl">videle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">German</td> <td class="tcl">fiedel, violine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Italian</td> <td class="tcl">viola, violino.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dutch</td> <td class="tcl">vedel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Danish</td> <td class="tcl">fiddel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Anglo-Saxon</td> <td class="tcl">fithele.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Old English</td> <td class="tcl">fithele, fythal, fithel, fythylle,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; fidel,  fidylle, (south) vithele.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>For the descent of the guitar-fiddle, the first bowed ancestor
+of the violin, through many transitions from the cithara, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cithara</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guitar</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guitar-Fiddle</a></span>.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 245px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:194px; height:221px" src="images/img320.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1 f80">From Julius Rühlmann&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der
+Bogeninstrumente</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Minnesinger Fiddle. Germany,
+13th Century, from the Manesse
+MSS.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the minnesinger and troubadour fiddles, of which evidences
+abound during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, are to be
+observed the structural characteristics of the violin and its
+ancestors in the course of evolution. The principal of these are
+first of all the shallow sound-chest, composed of belly and back,
+almost flat, connected by ribs (also present in the cithara),
+with incurvations more or less pronounced, an arched bridge,
+a finger-board and strings (varying in number), vibrated by means
+of a bow. The central rose sound-holes of stringed instruments
+whose strings are plucked by fingers, or plectrum have given
+place to smaller lateral sound-holes
+placed on each side of
+the strings. It is in Germany,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+where contemporary drawings
+of fiddles of the 13th and 14th
+centuries furnish an authoritative
+clue, and in France, that
+the development may best be
+followed. The German minnesinger
+fiddle with sloping
+shoulders was the prototype of
+the viols, whereas the guitar-fiddle
+produced the violin
+through the intermediary of the
+Italian bowed <i>Lyra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The fiddle of the Carolingian
+epoch,&mdash;such, for instance, as
+that mentioned by Otfrid of Weissenburg<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> in his <i>Harmony of the
+Gospels</i> (<i>c.</i> 868),</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Sih thar ouch al ruarit</p>
+<p class="i05">This organo fuarit</p>
+<p class="i05">Lira joh fidula,&rdquo; &amp;c.,&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">was in all probability still an instrument whose strings were
+plucked by the fingers, a cithara in transition.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See C.E.H. de Coussemaker, Mémoire sur Hucbald (Paris, 1841).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the Manesse MSS. reproduced in part by F.H. von der
+Hagen, <i>Heldenbilder</i> (Leipzig and Berlin, 1855) and <i>Bildersaal</i>.
+The fiddles are reproduced in J. Rühlmann&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente</i>
+(Brunswick, 1882), plates.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Schiller&rsquo;s <i>Thesaurus antiq. Teut.</i> vol. i. p. 379.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIDENAE,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> an ancient town of Latium, situated about 5 m.
+N. of Rome on the Via Salaria, which ran between it and the
+Tiber. It was for some while the frontier of the Roman territory
+and was often in the hands of Veii. It appears to have fallen
+under the Roman sway after the capture of this town, and is
+spoken of by classical authors as a place almost deserted in their
+time. It seems, however, to have had some importance as a post
+station. The site of the <i>arx</i> of the ancient town is probably to be
+sought on the hill on which lies the Villa Spada, though no traces
+of early buildings or defences are to be seen: pre-Roman tombs
+are to be found in the cliffs to the north. The later village lay at
+the foot of the hill on the eastern edge of the high-road, and
+its <i>curia</i>, with a dedicatory inscription to M. Aurelius by the
+<i>Senatus Fidenatium</i>, was excavated in 1889. Remains of other
+buildings may also be seen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iii. 17.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIDUCIARY<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fiduciaries</i>, one in whom trust, fiducia, is
+reposed), of or belonging to a position of trust, especially of one
+who stands in a particular relationship of confidence to another.
+Such relationships are, in law, those of parent and child, guardian
+and ward, trustee and <i>cestui que trust</i>, legal adviser and client,
+spiritual adviser, doctor and patient, &amp;c. In many of these the
+law has attached special obligations in the case of gifts made to the
+&ldquo;fiduciary,&rdquo; on whom is laid the onus of proving that no &ldquo;undue
+influence&rdquo; has been exercised. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children,
+Law Relating to</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trust</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIEF,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a feudal estate in land, land held from a superior (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>). The word is the French form, which is represented
+in Medieval Latin as <i>feudum</i> or <i>feodum</i>, and in English as &ldquo;fee&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;feu&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fee</a></span>). The A. Fr. <i>feoffer</i>, to invest with a fief or fee,
+has given the English law terms &ldquo;feoffee&rdquo; and &ldquo;feoffment&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, CYRUS WEST<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1819-1892), American capitalist,
+projector of the first Atlantic cable, was born at Stockbridge,
+Massachusetts, on the 30th of November 1819. He was a brother
+of David Dudley Field. At fifteen he became a clerk in the store
+of A.T. Stewart &amp; Co., of New York, and stayed there three
+years; then worked for two years with his brother, Matthew
+Dickinson Field, in a paper-mill at Lee, Massachusetts; and in
+1840 went into the paper business for himself at Westfield,
+Massachusetts, but almost immediately became a partner in
+E. Root &amp; Co., wholesale paper dealers in New York City, who
+failed in the following year. Field soon afterwards formed with a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span>
+brother-in-law the firm of Cyrus W. Field &amp; Co., and in 1853 had
+accumulated $250,000, paid off the debts of the Root company
+and retired from active business, leaving his name and $100,000
+with the concern. In the same year he travelled with Frederick
+E. Church, the artist, through South America. In 1854 he
+became interested, through his brother Matthew, a civil engineer,
+in the project of Frederick Newton Gisborne (1824-1892) for a
+telegraph across Newfoundland; and he was attracted by the
+idea of a trans-Atlantic telegraphic cable, as to which he consulted
+S.F.B. Morse and Matthew F. Maury, head of the National
+Observatory at Washington. With Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor
+(1806-1882), Marshall Owen Roberts (1814-1880) and Chandler
+White, he formed the New York, Newfoundland &amp; London
+Telegraph Company, which procured a more favourable charter
+than Gisborne&rsquo;s, and had a capital of $1,500,000. Having
+secured all the practicable landing rights on the American side
+of the ocean, he and John W. Brett, who was now his principal
+colleague, approached Sir Charles Bright (<i>q.v.</i>) in London, and in
+December 1556 the Atlantic Telegraph Company was organized
+by them in Great Britain, a government grant being secured of
+£14,000 annually for government messages, to be reduced to
+£10,000 annually when the cable should pay a 6% yearly
+dividend; similar grants were made by the United States
+government. Unsuccessful attempts to lay the cable were made
+in August 1857 and in June 1858, but the complete cable was
+laid between the 7th of July and the 5th of August 1858; for a
+time messages were transmitted, but in October the cable became
+useless, owing to the failure of its electrical insulation. Field,
+however, did not abandon the enterprise, and finally in July
+1866, after a futile attempt in the previous year, a cable was
+laid and brought successfully into use. From the Congress of the
+United States he received a gold medal and a vote of thanks, and he
+received many other honours both at home and abroad. In 1877 he
+bought a controlling interest in the New York Elevated Railroad
+Company, controlling the Third and Ninth Avenue lines, of
+which he was president in 1877-1880. He worked with Jay
+Gould for the completion of the Wabash railway, and at the time of
+his greatest stock activity bought <i>The New York Evening Express</i>
+and <i>The Mail</i> and combined them as <i>The Mail and Express</i>,
+which he controlled for six years. In 1879 Field suffered
+financially by Samuel J. Tilden&rsquo;s heavy sales (during Field&rsquo;s
+absence in Europe) of &ldquo;Elevated&rdquo; stock, which forced the price
+down from 200 to 164; but Field lost much more in the great
+&ldquo;Manhattan squeeze&rdquo; of the 24th of June 1887, when Jay
+Gould and Russell Sage, who had been supposed to be his
+backers in an attempt to bring the Elevated stock to 200,
+forsook him, and the price fell from 156½ to 114 in half an hour.
+Field died in New York on the 12th of July 1892.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the biography by his daughter, Isabella (Field) Judson, <i>Cyrus
+W. Field, His Life and Work</i> (New York, 1896); H.M. Field, <i>History
+of the Atlantic Telegraph</i> (New York, 1866); and Charles Bright,
+<i>The Story of the Atlantic Cable</i> (New York, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1805-1894), American lawyer and
+law reformer, was born in Haddam, Connecticut, on the 13th
+of February 1805. He was the oldest of the four sons of the
+Rev. David Dudley Field (1781-1867), a well-known American
+clergyman and author. He graduated at Williams College in
+1825, and settled in New York City, where he studied law, was
+admitted to the bar in 1828, and rapidly won a high position in
+his profession. Becoming convinced that the common law in
+America, and particularly in New York state, needed radical
+changes in respect to the unification and simplification of its
+procedure, he visited Europe in 1836 and thoroughly investigated
+the courts, procedure and codes of England, France and other
+countries, and then applied himself to the task of bringing about
+in the United States a codification of the common law procedure.
+For more than forty years every moment that he could spare from
+his extensive practice was devoted to this end. He entered upon
+his great work by a systematic publication of pamphlets and
+articles in journals and magazines in behalf of his reform, but
+for some years he met with a discouraging lack of interest. He
+appeared personally before successive legislative committees, and
+in 1846 published a pamphlet, &ldquo;The Reorganization of the
+Judiciary,&rdquo; which had its influence in persuading the New York
+State Constitutional Convention of that year to report in favour of
+a codification of the laws. Finally in 1847 he was appointed as the
+head of a state commission to revise the practice and procedure.
+The first part of the commission&rsquo;s work, consisting of a code of
+civil procedure, was reported and enacted in 1848, and by the 1st
+of January 1850 the complete code of civil and criminal procedure
+was completed, and was subsequently enacted by the legislature.
+The basis of the new system, which was almost entirely Field&rsquo;s
+work, was the abolition of the existing distinction in forms of procedure
+between suits in law and equity requiring separate actions,
+and their unification and simplification in a single action. Eventually
+the civil code with some changes was adopted in twenty-four
+states, and the criminal code in eighteen, and the whole formed
+a basis of the reform in procedure in England and several of her
+colonies. In 1857 Field became chairman of a state commission
+for the reduction into a written and systematic code of the
+whole body of law of the state, excepting those portions already
+reported upon by the Commissioners of Practice and Pleadings.
+In this work he personally prepared almost the whole of the
+political and civil codes. The codification, which was completed
+in February 1865, was adopted only in small part by the state,
+but it has served as a model after which most of the law codes of
+the United States have been constructed. In 1866 he proposed
+to the British National Association for the Promotion of Social
+Science a revision and codification of the laws of all nations. For
+an international commission of lawyers he prepared <i>Draft Outlines
+of an International Code</i> (1872), the submission of which
+resulted in the organization of the international Association for
+the Reform and Codification of the Laws of Nations, of which he
+became president. In politics Field was originally an anti-slavery
+Democrat, and he supported Van Buren in the Free Soil campaign
+of 1848. He gave his support to the Republican party in 1856 and
+to the Lincoln administration throughout the Civil War. After
+1876, however, he returned to the Democratic party, and from
+January to March 1877 served out in Congress the unexpired term
+of Smith Ely, elected mayor of New York City. During his
+brief Congressional career he delivered six speeches, all of which
+attracted attention, introduced a bill in regard to the presidential
+succession, and appeared before the Electoral Commission in
+Tilden&rsquo;s interest. He died in New York City on the 13th of
+April 1894.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Part of his numerous pamphlets and addresses were collected in
+his <i>Speeches, Arguments and Miscellaneous Papers</i> (3 vols., 1884-1890).
+See also the <i>Life of David Dudley Field</i> (New York, 1898),
+by Rev. Henry Martyn Field.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, EUGENE<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1850-1895), American poet, was born at
+St Louis, Missouri, on the 2nd of September 1850. He spent
+his boyhood in Vermont and Massachusetts; studied for short
+periods at Williams and Knox Colleges and the University of
+Missouri, but without taking a degree; and worked as a journalist
+on various papers, finally becoming connected with the
+Chicago <i>News</i>. <i>A Little Book of Profitable Tales</i> appeared in
+Chicago in 1889 and in New York the next year; but Field&rsquo;s
+place in later American literature chiefly depends upon his poems
+of Christmas-time and childhood (of which &ldquo;Little Boy Blue&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;A Dutch Lullaby&rdquo; are most widely known), because of
+their union of obvious sentiment with fluent lyrical form. His
+principal collections of poems are: <i>A Little Book of Western
+Verse</i> (1889); <i>A Second Book of Verse</i> (1892); <i>With Trumpet
+and Drum</i> (1892); and <i>Love Songs of Childhood</i> (1894). Field
+died at Chicago on the 4th of November 1895.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works were collected in ten volumes (1896), at New York.
+His prose <i>Love-affairs of a Bibliomaniac</i> (1896) contains a Memoir
+by his brother Roswell Martin Field (b. 1851). See also Slason
+Thompson, <i>Eugene Field: a study in heredity and contradictions</i>
+(2 vols., New York, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, FREDERICK<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1801-1885), English divine and biblical
+scholar, was born in London and educated at Christ&rsquo;s hospital
+and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship
+in 1824. He took orders in 1828, and began a close study of
+patristic theology. Eventually he published an emended and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span>
+annotated text of Chrysostom&rsquo;s <i>Homiliae in Matthaeum</i> (Cambridge,
+1839), and some years later he contributed to Pusey&rsquo;s
+<i>Bibliotheca Patrum</i> (Oxford, 1838-1870), a similarly treated text
+of Chrysostom&rsquo;s homilies on Paul&rsquo;s epistles. The scholarship
+displayed in both of these critical editions is of a very high order.
+In 1839 he had accepted the living of Great Saxham, in Suffolk,
+and in 1842 he was presented by his college to the rectory of
+Reepham in Norfolk. He resigned in 1863, and settled at
+Norwich, in order to devote his whole time to study. Twelve
+years later he completed the <i>Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt</i>
+(Oxford, 1867-1875), now well known as <i>Field&rsquo;s Hexapla</i>, a text
+reconstructed from the extant fragments of Origen&rsquo;s work of
+that name, together with materials drawn from the <i>Syro-hexaplar</i>
+version and the <i>Septuagint</i> of Holmes and Parsons (Oxford,
+1798-1827). Field was appointed a member of the Old Testament
+revision company in 1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, HENRY MARTYN<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1822-1907), American author
+and clergyman, brother of Cyrus Field, was born at Stockbridge,
+Massachusetts, on the 3rd of April 1822; he graduated at
+Williams College in 1838, and was pastor of a Presbyterian
+church in St Louis, Missouri, from 1842 to 1847, and of a Congregational
+church in West Springfield, Massachusetts, from
+1850 to 1854. The interval between his two pastorates he spent
+in Europe. From 1854 to 1898 he was editor and for many years
+he was also sole proprietor of <i>The Evangelist</i>, a New York
+periodical devoted to the interests of the Presbyterian church.
+He spent the last years of his life in retirement at Stockbridge,
+Mass., where he died on the 26th of January 1907.
+He was the author of a series of books of travel, which achieved
+unusual popularity. His two volumes descriptive of a trip
+round the world in 1875-1876, entitled <i>From the Lakes of Killarney
+to the Golden Horn</i> (1876) and <i>From Egypt to Japan</i> (1877),
+are almost classic in their way, and have passed through more
+than twenty editions. Among his other publications are <i>The
+Irish Confederates and the Rebellion of 1798</i> (1850), <i>The
+History of the Atlantic Telegraph</i> (1866), <i>Faith or Agnosticism?
+the Field-Ingersoll Discussion</i> (1888), <i>Old Spain and New Spain</i>
+(1888), and <i>Life of David Dudley Field</i> (1898).</p>
+
+<p>He is not to be confused with another <span class="sc">Henry Martyn Field</span>,
+the gynaecologist, who was born in 1837 at Brighton, Mass., and
+graduated at Harvard in 1859 and at the College of Physicians
+and Surgeons in New York City in 1862; he was professor of
+Materia Medica and therapeutics at Dartmouth from 1871 to
+1887 and of therapeutics from 1887 to 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, JOHN<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1782-1837), English musical composer and
+pianist, was born at Dublin in 1782. He came of a musical
+family, his father being a violinist, and his grandfather the
+organist in one of the churches of Dublin. From the latter the
+boy received his first musical education. When a few years
+later the family settled in London, Field became the favourite
+pupil of the celebrated Clementi, whom he accompanied to
+Paris, and later, in 1802, on his great concert tour through France,
+Germany and Russia. Under the auspices of his master Field
+appeared in public in most of the great European capitals,
+especially in St Petersburg, and in that city he remained when
+Clementi returned to England. During his stay with the great
+pianist Field had to suffer many privations owing to Clementi&rsquo;s
+all but unexampled parsimony; but when the latter left Russia
+his splendid connexion amongst the highest circles of the capital
+became Field&rsquo;s inheritance. His marriage with a French lady
+of the name of Charpentier was anything but happy, and had
+soon to be dissolved. Field made frequent concert tours to the
+chief cities of Russia, and in 1820 settled permanently in Moscow.
+In 1831 he came to England for a short time, and for the next
+four years led a migratory life in France, Germany and Italy,
+exciting the admiration of amateurs wherever he appeared in
+public. In Naples he fell seriously ill, and lay several months in
+the hospital, till a Russian family discovered him and brought
+him back to Moscow. There he lingered for several years till
+his death on the 11th of January 1837. Field&rsquo;s training and the
+cast of his genius were not of a kind to enable him to excel in
+the larger forms of instrumental music, and his seven concerti
+for the pianoforte are now forgotten. Neither do his quartets
+for strings and pianoforte hold their own by the side of those
+of the great masters. But his &ldquo;nocturnes,&rdquo; a form of music
+highly developed if not actually created by him, remain all but
+unrivalled for their tenderness and dreaminess of conception,
+combined with a continuous flow of beautiful melody. They
+were indeed Chopin&rsquo;s models. Field&rsquo;s execution on the pianoforte
+was nearly allied to the nature of his compositions, beauty and
+poetical charm of touch being one of the chief characteristics
+of his style. Moscheles, who heard Field in 1831, speaks of his
+&ldquo;enchanting legato, his tenderness and elegance and his beautiful
+touch.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, MARSHALL<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1835-1906), American merchant, was
+born at Conway, Massachusetts, on the 18th of August 1835.
+Reared on a farm, he obtained a common school and academy
+education, and at the age of seventeen became a clerk in a dry
+goods store at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1856 he removed to Chicago,
+where he became a clerk in the large mercantile establishment
+of Cooley, Wadsworth &amp; Company. In 1860 the firm was reorganized
+as Cooley, Farwell &amp; Company, and he was admitted
+to a junior partnership. In 1865, with Potter Palmer (1826-1902)
+and Levi Z. Leiter (1834-1904), he organized the firm of
+Field, Palmer &amp; Leiter, which subsequently became Field,
+Leiter &amp; Company, and in 1881 on the retirement of Leiter
+became Marshall Field &amp; Company. Under Field&rsquo;s management
+the annual business of the firm increased from $12,000,000 in
+1871 to more than $40,000,000 in 1895, when it ranked as one of
+the two or three largest mercantile establishments in the world.
+He died in New York city on the 16th of January 1906. He had
+married, for the second time, in the previous year. Field&rsquo;s
+public benefactions were numerous; notable among them being
+his gift of land valued at $300,000 and of $100,000 in cash to the
+University of Chicago, an endowment fund of $1,000,000 to
+support the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, and a bequest
+of $8,000,000 to this museum.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, NATHAN<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1587-1633), English dramatist and actor,
+was baptized on the 17th of October 1587. His father, the
+rector of Cripplegate, was a Puritan divine, author of a <i>Godly
+Exhortation</i> directed against play-acting, and his brother
+Theophilus became bishop of Hereford. Nat. Field early
+became one of the children of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s chapel, and in
+that capacity he played leading parts in Ben Jonson&rsquo;s <i>Cynthia&rsquo;s
+Revels</i> (in 1600), in the <i>Poetaster</i> (in 1601), and in <i>Epicoene</i> (in
+1608), and the title rôle in Chapman&rsquo;s <i>Bussy d&rsquo;Ambois</i> (in 1606).
+Ben Jonson was his dramatic model, and may have helped his
+career. The two plays of which he was author were probably
+both written before 1611. They are boisterous, but well-constructed
+comedies of contemporary London life; the earlier
+one, <i>A Woman is a Weathercock</i> (printed 1612), dealing with the
+inconstancy of woman, while the second, <i>Amends for Ladies</i>
+(printed 1618), was written with the intention, as the title
+indicates, of retracting the charge. From Henslowe&rsquo;s papers
+it appears that Field collaborated with Robert Daborne and
+with Philip Massinger, one letter from all three authors being a
+joint appeal for money to free them from prison. In 1614
+Field received £10 for playing before the king in <i>Bartholomew
+Fair</i>, a play in which Jonson records his reputation as an actor
+in the words &ldquo;which is your Burbadge now?... Your best
+actor, your Field?&rdquo; He joined the King&rsquo;s Players some time
+before 1619, and his name comes seventeenth on the list prefixed
+to the Shakespeare folio of 1623 of the &ldquo;principal actors in all
+these plays.&rdquo; He retired from the stage before 1625, and died
+on the 20th of February 1633. Field was part author with
+Massinger in the <i>Fatal Dowry</i> (printed 1632), and he prefixed
+commendatory verses to Fletcher&rsquo;s <i>Faithful Shepherdess</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His two plays were reprinted in J.P. Collier&rsquo;s <i>Five Old Plays</i> (1833),
+in Hazlitt&rsquo;s edition of <i>Dodsley&rsquo;s Old Plays</i>, and in <i>Nero and other
+Plays</i> (Mermaid series, 1888), with an introduction by Mr A.W.
+Verity.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1816-1899), American jurist,
+was born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the 4th of November
+1816. He was the brother of David Dudley Field, Cyrus W.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span>
+Field and Henry M. Field. At the age of thirteen he accompanied
+his sister Emilia and her husband the Rev. Josiah Brewer
+(the parents of the distinguished judge of the Supreme Court,
+David J. Brewer) to Smyrna, Turkey, for the purpose of studying
+Oriental languages, but after three years he returned to the
+United States, and in 1837 graduated at Williams College at the
+head of his class. He then studied law in his elder brother&rsquo;s
+office, and in 1841 he was admitted to the New York bar. He
+was associated in practice there with his brother until 1848,
+and early in 1849 removed to California, settling soon afterward
+at Marysville, of which place, in 1850, he became the first alcalde
+or mayor. In the same year he was chosen a member of the first
+state legislature of California, in which he drew up and secured
+the enactment of two bodies of law known as the Civil and
+Criminal Practices Acts, based on the similar codes prepared
+by his brother David Dudley for New York. In the former
+act he embodied a provision regulating and giving authority
+to the peculiar customs, usages, and regulations voluntarily
+adopted by the miners in various districts of the state for the
+adjudication of disputed mining claims. This, as Judge Field
+truly says, &ldquo;was the foundation of the jurisprudence respecting
+mines in the country,&rdquo; having greatly influenced legislation upon
+this subject in other states and in the Congress of the United
+States. He was elected, in 1857, a justice of the California
+Supreme Court, of which he became chief justice in 1859, on the
+resignation of Judge David S. Terry to fight the duel with the
+United States senator David C. Broderick which ended fatally
+for the latter. Field held this position until 1863, when he was
+appointed by President Lincoln a justice of the United States
+Supreme Court. In this capacity he was conspicuous for fearless
+independence of thought and action in his opinion in the test
+oath case, and in his dissenting opinions in the legal tender,
+conscription and &ldquo;slaughter house&rdquo; cases, which displayed unusual
+legal learning, and gave powerful expression to his strict
+constructionist theory of the implied powers of the Federal
+constitution. Originally a Democrat, and always a believer
+in states&rsquo; rights, his strong Union sentiments caused him nevertheless
+to accept Lincoln&rsquo;s doctrine of coercion, and that, together
+with his anti-slavery sympathies, led him to act with the Republican
+party during the period of the Civil War. He was a
+member of the commission which revised the California code
+in 1873 and of the Electoral Commission in 1877, voting in favour
+of Tilden. In 1880 he received sixty-five votes on the first
+ballot for the presidential nomination at the Democratic National
+Convention at Cincinnati. In August 1889, as a result of a ruling
+in the course of the Sharon-Hill litigation, a notorious conspiracy
+case, he was assaulted in a California railway station by Judge
+David S. Terry, who in turn was shot and killed by a United
+States deputy marshall appointed to defend Justice Field against
+the carrying out of Terry&rsquo;s often-expressed threats. He retired
+from the Supreme Court on the 1st of December 1897 after a
+service of thirty-four years and six months, the longest in the
+court&rsquo;s history, and died in Washington on the 9th of April 1899.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Personal Reminiscences of Early Days in California</i>, originally
+privately printed in 1878, was republished in 1893 with George C.
+Gorham&rsquo;s <i>Story of the Attempted Assassination of Justice Field</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1813-1907),
+English judge, second son of Thomas Flint Field, of Fielden,
+Bedfordshire, was born on the 21st of August 1813. He was
+educated at King&rsquo;s school, Bruton, Somersetshire, and entered
+the legal profession as a solicitor. In 1843, however, he ceased
+to practise as such, and entered at the Inner Temple, being called
+to the bar in 1850, after having practised for some time as a
+special pleader. He joined the Western circuit, but soon exchanged
+it for the Midland. He obtained a large business as a
+junior, and became a queen&rsquo;s counsel and bencher of his inn in
+1864. As a Q.C. he had a very extensive common law practice,
+and had for some time been the leader of the Midland circuit,
+when in February 1875, on the retirement of Mr Justice Keating,
+he was raised to the bench as a justice of the queen&rsquo;s bench.
+Mr Justice Field was an excellent puisne judge of the type that
+attracts but little public attention. He was a first-rate lawyer,
+had a good knowledge of commercial matters, great shrewdness
+and a quick intellect, while he was also painstaking and scrupulously
+fair. When the rules of the Supreme Court 1883 came
+into force in the autumn of that year, Mr Justice Field was so
+well recognized an authority upon all questions of practice that
+the lord chancellor selected him to sit continuously at Judges&rsquo;
+Chambers, in order that a consistent practice under the new
+rules might as far as possible be established. This he did for
+nearly a year, and his name will always, to a large extent, be
+associated with the settling of the details of the new procedure,
+which finally did away with the former elaborate system of
+&ldquo;special pleading.&rdquo; In 1890 he retired from the bench and was
+raised to the peerage as Baron Field of Bakeham, becoming at
+the same time a member of the privy council. In the House of
+Lords he at first took part, not infrequently, in the hearing of
+appeals, and notably delivered a carefully-reasoned judgment
+in the case of the <i>Bank of England</i> v. <i>Vagliano Brothers</i> (5th of
+March 1891), in which, with Lord Bramwell, he differed from the
+majority of his brother peers. Before long, however, deafness
+and advancing years rendered his attendances less frequent.
+Lord Field died at Bognor on the 23rd of January 1907, and as
+he left no issue the peerage became extinct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (a word common to many West German languages, cf.
+Ger. <i>Feld</i>, Dutch <i>veld</i>, possibly cognate with O.E. <i>folde</i>, the earth,
+and ultimately with root of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="platos">&#960;&#955;&#945;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, broad), open country
+as opposed to woodland or to the town, and particularly land for
+cultivation divided up into separate portions by hedges, banks,
+stone walls, &amp;c.; also used in combination with words denoting
+the crop grown on such a portion of land, such as corn-field,
+turnip-field, &amp;c. The word is similarly applied to a region with
+particular reference to its products, as oil-field, gold-field, &amp;c.
+For the &ldquo;open&rdquo; or &ldquo;common field&rdquo; system of agriculture in
+village communities see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commons</a></span>. Generally with a reference to
+their &ldquo;wild&rdquo; as opposed to their &ldquo;domestic&rdquo; nature &ldquo;field&rdquo; is
+applied to many animals, such as the &ldquo;field-mouse.&rdquo; There are
+many applications of the word; thus from the use of the term for
+the place where a battle is fought, and widely of the whole
+theatre of war, come such phrases as to &ldquo;take the field&rdquo; for the
+opening of a campaign, &ldquo;in the field&rdquo; of troops that are engaged
+in the operations of a campaign. It is frequently used figuratively
+in this sense, of the subject matter of a controversy, and
+also appears in military usage, in field-fortification, field-day and
+the like. A &ldquo;field-officer&rdquo; is one who ranks above a captain and
+below a general (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Officers</a></span>); a field marshal is the highest
+rank of general officer in the British and many European armies
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marshal</a></span>). &ldquo;Field&rdquo; is used in many games, partly with the
+idea of an enclosed space, partly with the idea of the ground of
+military operations, for the ground in which such games as
+cricket, football, baseball and the like are played. Hence it is
+applied to those players in cricket and baseball who are not &ldquo;in,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;to field&rdquo; is to perform the functions of such a player&mdash;to
+stop or catch the ball played by the &ldquo;in&rdquo; side. &ldquo;The field&rdquo; is
+used in hunting, &amp;c., for those taking part in the sport, and in
+racing for all the horses entered for a race, and, in such expressions
+as &ldquo;to back the field,&rdquo; is confined to all the horses with
+the exception of the &ldquo;favourite.&rdquo; A common application of the
+word is to a surface, more or less wide, as of the sky or sea, or of
+such physical phenomena as ice or snow, and particularly of the
+ground, of a special &ldquo;tincture,&rdquo; on which armorial bearings are
+displayed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>); it is thus used also of the &ldquo;ground&rdquo;
+of a flag, thus the white ensign of the British navy has a red St
+George&rsquo;s cross on a white &ldquo;field.&rdquo; In scientific usage the word is
+also used of the sphere of observation or of operations, and has
+come to be almost equivalent to a department of knowledge. In
+physics, a particular application is that to the area which is
+influenced by some agent, as in the magnetic or electric field.
+The field of observation or view is the area within which objects
+can be seen through any optical instrument at any one position.
+A &ldquo;field-glass&rdquo; is the name given to a binocular glass used in the
+field (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Binocular Instrument</a></span>); the older form of field-glass
+was a small achromatic telescope with joints. This terms is also
+applied, in an astronomical telescope or compound microscope, to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span>
+that one of the two lenses of the &ldquo;eye-piece&rdquo; which is next to the
+object-glass; the other is called the &ldquo;eye-glass.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELDFARE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (O.E. <i>fealo-for</i> = fallow-farer), a large species of
+thrush, the <i>Turdus pilaris</i> of Linnaeus&mdash;well known as a regular
+and common autumnal visitor throughout the British Islands and
+a great part of Europe, besides western Asia, and even reaching
+northern Africa. It is the <i>Veldjakker</i> and <i>Veld-lyster</i> of the Dutch,
+the <i>Wachholderdrossel</i> and <i>Kramtsvogel</i> of Germans, the <i>Litorne</i> of
+the French, and the <i>Cesena</i> of Italians. This bird is of all
+thrushes the most gregarious in. habit, not only migrating in large
+bands and keeping in flocks during the winter, but even commonly
+breeding in society&mdash;200 nests or more having been seen within a
+very small space. The birch-forests of Norway, Sweden and
+Russia are its chief resorts in summer, but it is known also to
+breed sparingly in some districts of Germany. Though its nest
+has been many times reported to have been found in Scotland,
+there is perhaps no record of such an incident that is not open to
+doubt; and unquestionably the missel-thrush (<i>T. viscivorus</i>) has
+been often mistaken for the fieldfare by indifferent observers.
+The head, neck, upper part of the back and the rump are grey;
+the wings, wing-coverts and middle of the back are rich hazel-brown;
+the throat is ochraceous; and the breast reddish-brown&mdash;both
+being streaked or spotted with black, while the belly and
+lower wing-coverts are white, and the legs and toes very dark-brown.
+The nest and eggs resemble those of the blackbird
+(<i>T. merula</i>), but the former is usually built high up in a tree.
+The fieldfare&rsquo;s call-note is harsh and loud, sounding like <i>t&rsquo;chatt&rsquo;chat</i>:
+its song is low, twittering and poor. It usually arrives in
+Britain about the middle or end of October, but sometimes earlier,
+and often remains till the middle of May before departing for its
+northern breeding-places. In hard weather it throngs to the
+berry-bearing bushes which then afford it sustenance, but in open
+winters the flocks spread over the fields in search of animal food&mdash;worms,
+slugs and the larvae of insects. In very severe seasons it
+will altogether leave the country, and then return for a shorter
+or longer time as spring approaches. From <i>William of Palerne</i>
+(translated from the French c. 1350) to the writers of our own day
+the fieldfare has occasionally been noticed by British poets with
+varying propriety. Thus Chaucer&rsquo;s association Of its name with
+frost is as happy as true, while Scott was more than unlucky in his
+well-known reference to its &ldquo;lowly nest&rdquo; in the Highlands.</p>
+
+<p>Structurally very like the fieldfare, but differing greatly in
+many other respects, is the bird known in North America as the
+&ldquo;robin&rdquo;&mdash;its ruddy breast and familiar habits reminding the
+early British settlers in the New World of the household favourite
+of their former homes. This bird, the <i>Turdus migratorius</i> of
+Linnaeus, has a wide geographical range, extending from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Greenland to Guatemala, and,
+except at its extreme limits, is almost everywhere a very abundant
+species. As its scientific name imports, it is essentially a migrant,
+and gathers in flocks to pass the winter in the south, though a few
+remain in New England throughout the year. Yet its social
+instincts point rather in the direction of man than of its own kind,
+and it is not known to breed in companies, while it affects the
+homesteads, villages and even the parks and gardens of the large
+cities, where its fine song, its attractive plumage, and its great
+services as a destroyer of noxious insects, combine to make it
+justly popular.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1787-1855),
+commonly called Copley Fielding, English landscape painter (son
+of a portrait painter), became at an early age a pupil of John
+Varley. He took to water-colour painting, and to this he confined
+himself almost exclusively. In 1810 he became an associate
+exhibitor in the Water-colour Society, in 1813 a full member, and
+in 1831 president of that body. He also engaged largely in
+teaching the art, and made ample profits. His death took place at
+Worthing in March 1855. Copley Fielding was a painter of much
+elegance, taste and accomplishment, and has always been highly
+popular with purchasers, without reaching very high in originality
+of purpose or of style: he painted in vast number all sorts of
+views (occasionally in oil-colour) including marine subjects in
+large proportion. Specimens of his work are to be seen in the
+water-colour gallery of the Victoria and Albert Museum, of dates
+ranging from 1829 to 1850. Among the engraved specimens of
+his art is the <i>Annual of British Landscape Scenery</i>, published
+in 1839.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELDING, HENRY<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1707-1754), English novelist and playwright,
+was born at Sharpham Park, near Glastonbury, Somerset,
+on the 22nd of April 1707. His father was Lieutenant Edmund
+Fielding, third son of John Fielding, who was canon of Salisbury
+and fifth son of the earl of Desmond. The earl of Desmond
+belonged to the younger branch of the Denbigh family, who,
+until lately, were supposed to be connected with the Habsburgs.
+To this claim, now discredited by the researches of Mr J. Horace
+Round (<i>Studies in Peerage</i>, 1901, pp. 216-249), is to be attributed
+the famous passage in Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>Autobiography</i> which predicts for
+<i>Tom Jones</i>&mdash;&ldquo;that exquisite picture of human manners&rdquo;&mdash;a
+diuturnity exceeding that of the house of Austria. Henry
+Fielding&rsquo;s mother was Sarah Gould, daughter of Sir Henry
+Gould, a judge of the king&rsquo;s bench. It is probable that the
+marriage was not approved by her father, since, though she
+remained at Sharpham Park for some time after that event,
+his will provided that her husband should have nothing to do
+with a legacy of £3000 left her in 1710. About this date the
+Fieldings moved to East Stour in Dorset. Two girls, Catherine
+and Ursula, had apparently been born at Sharpham Park;
+and three more, together with a son, Edmund, followed at East
+Stour. Sarah, the third of the daughters, born November
+1710, and afterwards the author of <i>David Simple</i> and other
+works, survived her brother.</p>
+
+<p>Fielding&rsquo;s education up to his mother&rsquo;s death, which took
+place in April 1718 at East Stour, seems to have been entrusted
+to a neighbouring clergyman, Mr Oliver of Motcombe, in whom
+tradition traces the uncouth lineaments of &ldquo;Parson Trulliber&rdquo;
+in <i>Joseph Andrews</i>. But he must have contrived, nevertheless,
+to prepare his pupil for Eton, to which place Fielding went about
+this date, probably as an oppidan. Little is known of his schooldays.
+There is no record of his name in the college lists; but,
+if we may believe his first biographer, Arthur Murphy, by no
+means an unimpeachable authority, he left &ldquo;uncommonly
+versed in the Greek authors, and an early master of the Latin
+classics,&rdquo;&mdash;a statement which should perhaps be qualified by
+his own words to Sir Robert Walpole in 1730:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Tuscan and French are in my head;</p>
+<p class="i05">Latin I write, and Greek&mdash;I read.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">But he certainly made friends among his class-fellows&mdash;some of
+whom continued friends for life. Winnington and Hanbury-Williams
+were among these. The chief, however, and the most
+faithful, was George, afterwards Sir George, and later Baron
+Lyttelton of Frankley.</p>
+
+<p>When Fielding left Eton is unknown. But in November 1725
+we hear of him definitely in what seems like a characteristic
+escapade. He was staying at Lyme (in company with a trusty
+retainer, ready to &ldquo;beat, maim or kill&rdquo; in his young master&rsquo;s
+behalf), and apparently bent on carrying off, if necessary by force,
+a local heiress, Miss Sarah Andrew, whose fluttered guardians
+promptly hurried her away, and married her to some one else
+(<i>Athenaeum</i>, 2nd June 1883). Her baffled admirer consoled
+himself by translating part of Juvenal&rsquo;s sixth satire into verse
+as &ldquo;all the Revenge taken by an injured Lover.&rdquo; After this
+he must have lived the usual life of a young man about town,
+and probably at this date improved the acquaintance of his
+second cousin, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, to whom he inscribed
+his first comedy, <i>Love in Several Masques</i>, produced at
+Drury Lane in February 1728. The moment was not particularly
+favourable, since it succeeded Cibber&rsquo;s <i>Provok&rsquo;d Husband</i>, and
+was contemporary with Gay&rsquo;s popular <i>Beggar&rsquo;s Opera</i>. Almost
+immediately afterwards (March 16th) Fielding entered himself
+as &ldquo;Stud. Lit.&rdquo; at Leiden University. He was still there in
+February 1729. But he had apparently left before the annual
+registration of February 1730, when his name is absent from
+the books (<i>Macmillan&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, April 1907); and in January
+1730 he brought out a second comedy at the newly-opened
+theatre in Goodman&rsquo;s Fields. Like its predecessor, the <i>Temple</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span>
+<i>Beau</i> was an essay in the vein of Congreve and Wycherley,
+though, in a measure, an advance on <i>Love in Several Masques</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With the <i>Temple Beau</i> Fielding&rsquo;s dramatic career definitely
+begins. His father had married again; and his Leiden career
+had been interrupted for lack of funds. Nominally, he was
+entitled to an allowance of £200 a year; but this (he was
+accustomed to say) &ldquo;any body might pay that would.&rdquo; Young,
+handsome, ardent and fond of pleasure, he began that career as
+a hand-to-mouth playwright around which so much legend has
+gathered&mdash;and gathers. Having&mdash;in his own words&mdash;no choice
+but to be a hackney coachman or a hackney writer, he chose the
+pen; and his inclinations, as well as his opportunities, led him
+to the stage. From 1730 to 1736 he rapidly brought out a large
+number of pieces, most of which had merit enough to secure their
+being acted, but not sufficient to earn a lasting reputation for
+their author. His chief successes, from a critical point of view,
+the <i>Author&rsquo;s Farce</i> (1730) and <i>Tom Thumb</i> (1730, 1731), were
+burlesques; and he also was fortunate in two translations from
+Molière, the <i>Mock Doctor</i> (1732) and the <i>Miser</i> (1733). Of the
+rest (with one or two exceptions, to be mentioned presently)
+the names need only be recorded. They are <i>The Coffee-House
+Politician</i>, a comedy (1730); <i>The Letter Writers</i>, a farce (1731);
+<i>The Grub-Street Opera</i>, a burlesque (1731); <i>The Lottery</i>, a farce
+(1732); <i>The Modern Husband</i>, a comedy (1732); <i>The Covent
+Garden Tragedy</i>, a burlesque (1732); <i>The Old Debauchees</i>, a
+comedy (1732); <i>Deborah; or, a Wife for you all</i>, an after-piece
+(1733); <i>The Intriguing Chambermaid</i> (from Regnard), a two-act
+comedy (1734); and <i>Don Quixote in England</i>, a comedy, which
+had been partly sketched at Leiden.</p>
+
+<p><i>Don Quixote</i> was produced in 1734, and the list of plays may
+be here interrupted by an event of which the date has only
+recently been ascertained, namely, Fielding&rsquo;s first marriage.
+This took place on the 28th of November 1734 at St Mary,
+Charlcornbe, near Bath (<i>Macmillan&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, April 1907),
+the lady being a Salisbury beauty, Miss Charlotte Cradock, of
+whom he had been an admirer, if not a suitor, as far back as
+1730. This is a fact which should be taken into consideration
+in estimating the exact Bohemianism of his London life, for
+there is no doubt that he was devotedly attached to her. After
+a fresh farce entitled <i>An Old Man taught Wisdom</i>, and the comparative
+failure of a new comedy, <i>The Universal Gallant</i>, both
+produced early in 1735, he seems for a time to have retired with
+his bride, who came into £1500, to his old home at East Stour.
+Around this rural seclusion fiction has freely accreted. He is
+supposed to have lived for three years on the footing of a typical
+18th-century country gentleman; to have kept a pack of
+hounds; to have put his servants into impossible yellow liveries;
+and generally, by profuse hospitality and reckless expenditure,
+to have made rapid duck and drake of Mrs Fielding&rsquo;s modest
+legacy. Something of this is demonstrably false; much,
+grossly exaggerated. In any case, he was in London as late as
+February 1735 (the date of the &ldquo;Preface&rdquo; to <i>The Universal
+Gallant</i>); and early in March 1736 he was back again managing
+the Haymarket theatre with a so-called &ldquo;<i>Great Mogul&rsquo;s</i> Company
+of <i>English</i> Comedians.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Upon this new enterprise fortune, at the outset, seemed to
+smile. The first piece (produced on the 5th of March) was
+<i>Pasquin, a Dramatick Satire on the Times</i> (a piece akin in its
+plan to Buckingham&rsquo;s <i>Rehearsal</i>), which contained, in addition
+to much admirable burlesque, a good deal of very direct criticism
+of the shameless political corruption of the Walpole era. Its
+success was unmistakable; and when, after bringing out the
+remarkable <i>Fatal Curiosity</i> of George Lillo, its author followed
+up <i>Pasquin</i> by the <i>Historical Register for the Year 1736</i>, of which
+the effrontery was even more daring than that of its predecessor,
+the ministry began to bethink themselves that matters were
+going too far. How they actually effected their object is obscure:
+but grounds were speedily concocted for the Licensing Act of
+1737, which restricted the number of theatres, rendered the lord
+chamberlain&rsquo;s licence an indispensable preliminary to stage
+representation, and&mdash;in a word&mdash;effectually put an end to
+Fielding&rsquo;s career as a dramatist.</p>
+
+<p>Whether, had that career been prolonged to its maturity,
+the result would have enriched the theatrical repertoire with
+a new species of burlesque, or reinforced it with fresh variations
+on the &ldquo;wit-traps&rdquo; of Wycherley and Congreve, is one of those
+inquiries that are more academic than, profitable. What may
+be affirmed is, that Fielding&rsquo;s plays, as we have them, exhibit
+abundant invention and ingenuity; that they are full of humour
+and high spirits; that, though they may have been hastily
+written, they were by no means thoughtlessly constructed;
+and that, in composing them, their author attentively considered
+either managerial hints, or the conditions of the market. Against
+this, one must set the fact that they are often immodest; and
+that, whatever their intrinsic merit, they have failed to rival
+in permanent popularity the work of inferior men. Fielding&rsquo;s
+own conclusion was, &ldquo;that he left off writing for the stage, when
+he ought to have begun&rdquo;&mdash;which can only mean that he himself
+regarded his plays as the outcome of imitation rather than
+experience. They probably taught him how to construct <i>Tom
+Jones</i>; but whether he could ever have written a comedy at
+the level of that novel, can only be established by a comparison
+which it is impossible to make, namely, a comparison with
+<i>Tom Jones</i> of a comedy written at the same age, and in similar
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tumble-Down Dick; or, Phaeton in the Suds</i>, <i>Eurydice</i> and
+<i>Eurydice hissed</i> are the names of three occasional pieces which
+belong to the last months of Fielding&rsquo;s career as a Haymarket
+manager. By this date he was thirty, with a wife and daughter.
+As a means of support, he reverted to the profession of his
+maternal grandfather; and, in November 1737, he entered the
+Middle Temple, being described in the books of the society as
+&ldquo;of East Stour in Dorset.&rdquo; That he set himself strenuously to
+master his new profession, is admitted; though it is unlikely
+that he had entirely discarded the irregular habits which had
+grown upon him in his irresponsible bachelorhood. He also
+did a good deal of literary work, the best known of which is
+contained in the <i>Champion</i>, a &ldquo;News-Journal&rdquo; of the <i>Spectator</i>
+type undertaken with James Ralph, whose poem of &ldquo;Night&rdquo;
+is made notorious in the <i>Dunciad</i>. That the <i>Champion</i> was not
+without merit is undoubted; but the essay-type was for the
+moment out-worn, and neither Fielding nor his coadjutor could
+lend it fresh vitality. Fielding contributed papers from the
+15th of November 1739 to the 19th of June 1740. On the 20th
+of June he was called to the bar, and occupied chambers in
+Pump Court. It is further related that, in the diligent pursuit
+of his calling, he travelled the Western Circuit, and attended
+the Wiltshire sessions.</p>
+
+<p>Although, with the <i>Champion</i>, he professed, for the time,
+to have relinquished periodical literature, he still wrote at
+intervals, a fact which, taken in connexion with his past reputation
+as an effective satirist, probably led to his being &ldquo;unjustly
+censured&rdquo; for much that he never produced. But he certainly
+wrote a poem &ldquo;Of True Greatness&rdquo; (1741); a first book of a
+burlesque epic, the <i>Vernoniad</i>, prompted by Vernon&rsquo;s expedition
+of 1739; a vision called the <i>Opposition</i>, and, perhaps, a political
+sermon entitled the <i>Crisis</i> (1741). Another piece, now known
+to have been attributed to him by his contemporaries (<i>Hist.
+MSS. Comm., Rept.</i> 12, App. Pt. ix., p. 204), is the pamphlet
+entitled <i>An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews</i>, a clever
+but coarse attack upon the prurient side of Richardson&rsquo;s <i>Pamela</i>,
+which had been issued in 1740, and was at the height of its
+popularity. <i>Shamela</i> followed early in 1741. Richardson, who
+was well acquainted with Fielding&rsquo;s four sisters, at that date
+his neighbours at Hammersmith, confidently attributed it to
+Fielding (<i>Corr.</i> 1804, iv. 286, and unpublished letter at South
+Kensington); and there are suggestive points of internal evidence
+(such as the transformation of <i>Pamela&rsquo;s</i> &ldquo;MR B.&rdquo; into &ldquo;Mr
+Booby&rdquo;) which tend to connect it with the future <i>Joseph
+Andrews</i>. Fielding, however, never acknowledged it, or referred
+to it; and a great deal has been laid to his charge that he never
+deserved (&ldquo;Preface&rdquo; to <i>Miscellanies</i>, 1743).</p>
+
+<p>But whatever may be decided in regard to the authorship of
+<i>Shamela</i>, it is quite possible that it prompted the more memorable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span>
+<i>Joseph Andrews</i>, which made its appearance in February 1742,
+and concerning which there is no question. Professing, on his
+title-page, to imitate Cervantes, Fielding set out to cover <i>Pamela</i>
+with Homeric ridicule by transferring the heroine&rsquo;s embarrassments
+to a hero, supposed to be her brother. Allied to this
+purpose was a collateral attack upon the slipshod <i>Apology</i> of the
+playwright Colley Cibber, with whom, for obscure reasons,
+Fielding had long been at war. But the avowed object of the
+book fell speedily into the background as its author warmed
+to his theme. His secondary speedily became his primary
+characters, and Lady Booby and Joseph Andrews do not interest
+us now as much as Mrs Slipslop and Parson Adams&mdash;the latter
+an invention that ranges in literature with Sterne&rsquo;s &ldquo;Uncle
+Toby&rdquo; and Goldsmith&rsquo;s &ldquo;Vicar.&rdquo; Yet more than these and
+others equally admirable in their round veracity, is the writer&rsquo;s
+penetrating outlook upon the frailties and failures of human
+nature. By the time he had reached his second volume, he had
+convinced himself that he had inaugurated a new fashion of
+fiction; and in a &ldquo;Preface&rdquo; of exceptional ability, he announced
+his discovery. Postulating that the epic might be &ldquo;comic&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;tragic,&rdquo; prose or verse, he claimed to have achieved what
+he termed the &ldquo;Comic Epos in Prose,&rdquo; of which the action was
+&ldquo;ludicrous&rdquo; rather than &ldquo;sublime,&rdquo; and the personages
+selected from society at large, rather than the restricted ranks
+of conventional high life. His plan, it will be observed, was
+happily adapted to his gifts of humour, satire, and above all,
+irony. That it was matured when it began may perhaps be
+doubted, but it was certainly matured when it ended. Indeed,
+except for the plot, which, in his picaresque first idea, had not
+preceded the conception, <i>Joseph Andrews</i> has all the characteristics
+of <i>Tom Jones</i>, even (in part) to the initial chapters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Joseph Andrews</i> had considerable success, and the exact sum
+paid for it by Andrew Millar, the publisher, according to the
+assignment now at South Kensington, was £183:11s., one of
+the witnesses being the author&rsquo;s friend, William Young, popularly
+supposed to be the original of Parson Adams. It was with Young
+that Fielding undertook what, with exception of &ldquo;a very small
+share&rdquo; in the farce of <i>Miss Lucy in Town</i> (1742), constituted
+his next work, a translation of the <i>Plutus</i> of Aristophanes,
+which never seems to have justified any similar experiments.
+Another of his minor works was a <i>Vindication of the Dowager
+Duchess of Marlborough</i> (1742), then much before the public
+by reason of the <i>Account of her Life</i> which she had recently put
+forth. Later in the same year, Garrick applied to Fielding
+for a play; and a very early effort, <i>The Wedding Day</i>, was
+hastily patched together, and produced at Drury Lane in
+February 1743 with no great success. It was, however, included
+in Fielding&rsquo;s next important publication, the three volumes of
+<i>Miscellanies</i> issued by subscription in the succeeding April.
+These also comprised some early poems, some essays, a Lucianic
+fragment entitled a <i>Journey from this World to the Next</i>, and,
+last but not least, occupying the entire final volume, the remarkable
+performance entitled the <i>History of the Life of the late Mr
+Jonathan Wild the Great</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that, in its composition, <i>Jonathan Wild</i> preceded
+<i>Joseph Andrews</i>. At all events it seems unlikely that Fielding
+would have followed up a success in a new line by an effort so
+entirely different in character. Taking for his ostensible hero
+a well-known thief-taker, who had been hanged in 1725, he
+proceeds to illustrate, by a mock-heroic account of his progress
+to Tyburn, the general proposition that greatness without
+goodness is no better than badness. He will not go so far as to
+say that all &ldquo;Human Nature is Newgate with the Mask on&rdquo;;
+but he evidently regards the description as fairly applicable to
+a good many so-called great people. Irony (and especially Irony
+neat) is not a popular form of rhetoric; and the remorseless
+pertinacity with which Fielding pursues his demonstration is
+to many readers discomforting and even distasteful. Yet&mdash;in
+spite of Scott&mdash;<i>Jonathan Wild</i> has its softer pages; and as a
+purely intellectual conception it is not surpassed by any of the
+author&rsquo;s works.</p>
+
+<p>His actual biography, both before and after <i>Jonathan Wild</i>,
+is obscure. There are evidences that he laboured diligently
+at his profession; there are also evidences of sickness and
+embarrassment. He had become early a martyr to the malady
+of his century&mdash;gout, and the uncertainties of a precarious
+livelihood told grievously upon his beautiful wife, who eventually
+died of fever in his arms, leaving him for the time so stunned and
+bewildered by grief that his friends feared for his reason. For
+some years his published productions were unimportant. He
+wrote &ldquo;Prefaces&rdquo; to the <i>David Simple</i> of his sister Sarah in
+1744 and 1747; and, in 1745-1746 and 1747-1748, produced
+two newspapers in the ministerial interest, the <i>True Patriot</i>
+and the <i>Jacobite&rsquo;s Journal</i>, both of which are connected with,
+or derive from, the rebellion of 1745, and were doubtless, when
+they ceased, the pretext of a pension from the public service
+money (<i>Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon</i>, &ldquo;Introduction&rdquo;). In
+November 1747 he married his wife&rsquo;s maid, Mary Daniel, at St
+Bene&rsquo;t&rsquo;s, Paul&rsquo;s Wharf; and in December 1748, by the interest
+of his old school-fellow, Lyttelton, he was made a principal justice
+of peace for Middlesex and Westminster, an office which put him
+in possession of a house in Bow Street, and £300 per annum
+&ldquo;of the dirtiest money upon earth&rdquo; (<i>ibid.</i>), which might have
+been more had he condescended to become what was known as
+a &ldquo;trading&rdquo; magistrate.</p>
+
+<p>For some time previously, while at Bath, Salisbury, Twickenham
+and other temporary resting-places, he had intermittently
+occupied himself in composing his second great novel, <i>Tom Jones;
+or, the History of a Foundling</i>. For this, in June 1748, Millar had
+paid him £600, to which he added £100 more in 1749. In the
+February of the latter year it was published with a dedication
+to Lyttelton, to whose pecuniary assistance to the author during
+the composition it plainly bears witness. In <i>Tom Jones</i> Fielding
+systematically developed the &ldquo;new Province of Writing&rdquo; he
+had discovered incidentally in <i>Joseph Andrews</i>. He paid closer
+attention to the construction and evolution of the plot; he
+elaborated the initial essays to each book which he had partly
+employed before, and he compressed into his work the flower
+and fruit of his forty years&rsquo; experience of life. He has, indeed,
+no character quite up to the level of Parson Adams, but his
+Westerns and Partridges, his Allworthys and Blifils, have the
+inestimable gift of life. He makes no pretence to produce &ldquo;models
+of perfection,&rdquo; but pictures of ordinary humanity, rather perhaps
+in the rough than the polished, the natural than the artificial,
+and his desire is to do this with absolute truthfulness, neither
+extenuating nor disguising defects and shortcomings. One of the
+results of this unvarnished naturalism has been to attract more
+attention to certain of the episodes than their inventor ever
+intended. But that, in the manners of his time, he had chapter
+and verse for everything he drew is clear. His sincere purpose
+was, he declared, &ldquo;to recommend goodness and innocence,&rdquo;
+and his obvious aversions are vanity and hypocrisy. The
+methods of fiction have grown more sophisticated since his day,
+and other forms of literary egotism have taken the place of his
+once famous introductory essays, but the traces of <i>Tom Jones</i>
+are still discernible in most of our manlier modern fiction.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, its author was showing considerable activity
+in his magisterial duties. In May 1749, he was chosen chairman
+of quarter sessions for Westminster; and in June he delivered
+himself of a weighty charge to the grand jury. Besides other
+pamphlets, he produced a careful and still readable <i>Enquiry into
+the Causes of the late Increase of Robbers</i>, &amp;c. (1751), which, among
+its other merits, was not ineffectual in helping on the famous
+Gin Act of that year, a practical result to which the &ldquo;Gin Lane&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Beer Street&rdquo; of his friend Hogarth also materially contributed.
+These duties and preoccupations left their mark on
+his next fiction, <i>Amelia</i> (1752), which is rather more taken up
+with social problems and popular grievances than its forerunners.
+But the leading personage, in whom, as in the Sophia Western
+of <i>Tom Jones</i>, he reproduced the traits of his first wife, is certainly,
+as even Johnson admitted, &ldquo;the most pleasing heroine of all the
+romances.&rdquo; The minor characters, too, especially Dr Harrison
+and Colonel Bath, are equal to any in <i>Tom Jones</i>. The book
+nevertheless shows signs, not of failure but of fatigue, perhaps
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span>
+of haste&mdash;a circumstance heightened by the absence of those
+&ldquo;prolegomenous&rdquo; chapters over which the author had lingered
+so lovingly in <i>Tom Jones</i>. In 1749 he had been dangerously
+ill, and his health was visibly breaking. The £1000 which Millar
+is said to have given for <i>Amelia</i> must have been painfully
+earned.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1752 his still indomitable energy prompted him to
+start a third newspaper, the <i>Covent Garden Journal</i>, which ran
+from the 4th of January to the 25th of November. It is an interesting
+contemporary record, and throws a good deal of light
+on his Bow Street duties. But it has no great literary value,
+and it unhappily involved him in harassing and undignified
+hostilities with Smollett, Dr John Hill, Bonnell Thornton
+and other of his contemporaries. To the following year belong
+pamphlets on &ldquo;Provision for the Poor,&rdquo; and the case of the
+strange impostor, Elizabeth Canning (1734-1773).<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> By 1754
+his own case, as regards health, had grown desperate; and he
+made matters worse by a gallant and successful attempt to break
+up a &ldquo;gang of villains and cut-throats,&rdquo; who had become the
+terror of the metropolis. This accomplished, he resigned his
+office to his half-brother John (afterwards Sir John) Fielding.
+But it was now too late. After fruitless essay both of Dr Ward&rsquo;s
+specifics and the tar-water of Bishop Berkeley, it was felt that
+his sole chance of prolonging life lay in removal to a warmer
+climate. On the 26th of June 1754 he accordingly left his little
+country house at Fordhook, Ealing, for Lisbon, in the &ldquo;Queen
+of Portugal,&rdquo; Richard Veal master. The ship, as often, was
+tediously wind-bound, and the protracted discomforts of the sick
+man and his family are narrated at length in the touching
+posthumous tract entitled the <i>Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon</i>,
+which, with a fragment of a comment on Bolingbroke&rsquo;s then
+recently issued essays, was published in February 1755 &ldquo;for the
+Benefit of his [Fielding&rsquo;s] Wife and Children.&rdquo; Reaching Lisbon
+at last in August 1754, he died there two months later (8th
+October), and was buried in the English cemetery, where a
+monument was erected to him in 1830. <i>Luget Britannia gremio
+non dari fovere natum</i> is inscribed upon it.</p>
+
+<p>His estate, including the proceeds of a fair library, only
+covered his just debts (<i>Athenaeum</i>, 25th Nov. 1905); but his
+family, a daughter by his first, and two boys and a girl by his
+second wife, were faithfully cared for by his brother John, and
+by his friend Ralph Allen of Prior Park, Bath, the Squire
+Allworthy of <i>Tom Jones</i>. His will (undated) was printed in
+the <i>Athenaeum</i> for the 1st of February 1890. There is but one
+absolutely authentic portrait of him, a familiar outline by
+Hogarth, executed from memory for Andrew Millar&rsquo;s edition
+of his works in 1762. It is the likeness of a man broken by ill-health,
+and affords but faint indication of the handsome Harry
+Fielding who in his salad days &ldquo;warmed both hands before
+the fire of life.&rdquo; Far too much stress, it is now held, has been laid
+by his first biographers upon the unworshipful side of his early
+career. That he was always profuse, sanguine and more or less
+improvident, is as probable as that he was always manly, generous
+and sympathetic. But it is also plain that, in his later years,
+he did much, as father, friend and magistrate, to redeem the
+errors, real and imputed, of a too-youthful youth.</p>
+
+<p>As a playwright and essayist his rank is not elevated. But
+as a novelist his place is a definite one. If the <i>Spectator</i> is to be
+credited with foreshadowing the characters of the novel, Defoe
+with its earliest form, and Richardson with its first experiments
+in sentimental analysis, it is to Henry Fielding that we owe its
+first accurate delineation of contemporary manners. Neglecting,
+or practically neglecting, sentiment as unmanly, and relying
+chiefly on humour and ridicule, he set out to draw life precisely
+as he saw it around him, without blanks or dashes.
+He was, it may be, for a judicial moralist, too indulgent to some
+of its frailties, but he was merciless to its meaner vices. For
+reasons which have been already given, his high-water mark is
+<i>Tom Jones</i>, which has remained, and remains, a model in its way
+of the kind he inaugurated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An essay on Fielding&rsquo;s life and writings is prefixed to Arthur
+Murphy&rsquo;s edition of his works (1762), and short biographies have
+been written by Walter Scott and William Roscoe. There are also
+lives by Watson (1807), Lawrence (1855), Austin Dobson (&ldquo;Men of
+Letters,&rdquo; 1883, 1907) and G.M. Godden (1909). An annotated
+edition of the <i>Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon</i> is included in the
+&ldquo;World&rsquo;s Classics&rdquo; (1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. D.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For a full account of this celebrated case see Howell, <i>State Trials</i>
+(1813), vol. xix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), Canadian
+journalist and statesman, was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on
+the 24th of November 1848. From 1864 to 1884 he was one of
+the staff of the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, the chief Liberal paper of the
+province, and worked at all departments of newspaper life. In
+1882 he entered the local legislature as Liberal member for
+Halifax, and from 1884 to 1896 was premier and provincial
+secretary of the province, but in the latter year became finance
+minister in the Dominion administration of Sir Wilfrid Laurier,
+and was elected to the House of Commons for Shelburne and
+Queen&rsquo;s county. He opposed Confederation in 1864-1867, and as
+late as 1886 won a provincial election on the promise to advocate
+the repeal of the British North America Act. His administration
+as finance minister of Canada was important, since in 1897 he
+introduced a new tariff, granting to the manufactures of Great
+Britain a preference, subsequently increased; and later he
+imposed a special surtax on German imports owing to unfriendly
+tariff legislation by that country. In 1902 he represented Canada
+at the Colonial Conference in London.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD-MOUSE,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> the popular designation of such mouse-like
+British rodents as are not true or &ldquo;house&rdquo; mice. The term
+thus includes the long-tailed field mouse, <i>Mus</i> (<i>Micromys</i>)
+<i>sylvaticus</i>, easily recognized by its white belly, and sometimes
+called the wood-mouse; and the two species of short-tailed
+field-mice, <i>Microtus agrestis</i> and <i>Evotomys glareolus</i>, together with
+their representatives in Skomer island and the Orkneys (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mouse</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vole</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the French <i>Camp du drap
+d&rsquo;or</i>, the name given to the place between Guînes and Ardres
+where Henry VIII. of England met Francis I. of France in June
+1520. The most elaborate arrangements were made for the
+accommodation of the two monarchs and their large retinues;
+and on Henry&rsquo;s part especially no efforts were spared to make a
+great impression in Europe by this meeting. Before the castle of
+Guînes a temporary palace, covering an area of nearly 12,000
+sq. yds., was erected for the reception of the English king. It
+was decorated in the most sumptuous fashion, and like the
+chapel, served by thirty-five priests, was furnished with a
+profusion of golden ornaments. Some idea of the size of Henry&rsquo;s
+following may be gathered from the fact that in one month
+2200 sheep and other viands in a similar proportion were consumed.
+In the fields beyond the castle, tents to the number of
+2800 were erected for less distinguished visitors, and the whole
+scene was one of the greatest animation. Ladies gorgeously
+clad, and knights, showing by their dress and bearing their
+anxiety to revive the glories and the follies of the age of chivalry,
+jostled mountebanks, mendicants and vendors of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>Journeying from Calais Henry reached his headquarters at
+Guînes on the 4th of June 1520, and Francis took up his residence
+at Ardres. After Cardinal Wolsey, with a splendid train had
+visited the French king, the two monarchs met at the Val Doré, a
+spot midway between the two places, on the 7th. The following
+days were <span class="correction" title="amended from take">taken</span> up with tournaments, in which both kings took
+part, banquets and other entertainments, and after Wolsey had
+said mass the two sovereigns separated on the 24th. This
+meeting made a great impression on contemporaries, but its
+political results were very small.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Ordonnance</i> for the <i>Field</i> is printed by J.S. Brewer in the
+<i>Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII</i>. vol. iii. (1867). See also
+J.S. Brewer, <i>Reign of Henry VIII</i>. (1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1817-1881), American publisher
+and author, was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the
+31st of December 1817. At the age of seventeen he went to
+Boston as clerk in a bookseller&rsquo;s shop. Afterwards he wrote
+for the newspapers, and in 1835 he read an anniversary poem
+entitled &ldquo;Commerce&rdquo; before the Boston Mercantile Library
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span>
+Association. In 1839 he became junior partner in the publishing
+and bookselling firm known after 1846 as Ticknor &amp; Fields, and
+after 1868 as Fields, Osgood &amp; Company. He was the publisher
+of the foremost contemporary American writers, with whom he
+was on terms of close personal friendship, and he was the
+American publisher of some of the best-known British writers of
+his time, some of whom, also, he knew intimately. The first
+collected edition of De Quincey&rsquo;s works (20 vols., 1850-1855) was
+published by his firm. As a publisher he was characterized by a
+somewhat rare combination of keen business acumen and sound,
+discriminating literary taste, and as a man he was known for his
+geniality and charm of manner. In 1862-1870, as the successor
+of James Russell Lowell, he edited the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>. In 1871
+Fields retired from business and from his editorial duties, and
+devoted himself to lecturing and to writing. Of his books the
+chief were the collection of sketches and essays entitled <i>Underbrush</i>
+(1877) and the chapters of reminiscence composing <i>Yesterdays
+with Authors</i> (1871), in which he recorded his personal
+friendship with Wordsworth, Thackeray, Dickens, Hawthorne
+and others. He died in Boston on the 24th of April 1881.</p>
+
+<p>His second wife, <span class="sc">Annie Adams Fields</span> (b. 1834), whom
+he married in 1854, published <i>Under the Olive</i> (1880), a book
+of verses; <i>James T. Fields: Biographical Notes and Personal
+Sketches</i> (1882); <i>Authors and Friends</i> (1896); <i>The Life and
+Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe</i> (1897); and <i>Orpheus</i> (1900).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIENNES, NATHANIEL<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1608-1669) English politician,
+second son of William, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, by Elizabeth,
+daughter of John Temple, of Stow in Buckinghamshire, was born
+in 1607 or 1608, and educated at Winchester and at New College,
+Oxford, where as founder&rsquo;s kin he was admitted a perpetual
+fellow in 1624. After about five years&rsquo; residence he left without
+taking a degree, travelled abroad, and in Switzerland imbibed or
+strengthened those religious principles and that hostility to the
+Laudian church which were to be the chief motive in his future
+political career. He returned to Scotland in 1639, and established
+communications with the Covenanters and the Opposition in
+England, and as member for Banbury in both the Short and
+Long Parliaments he took a prominent part in the attacks upon
+the church. He spoke against the illegal canons on the 14th of
+December 1640, and again on the 9th of February 1641 on the
+occasion of the reception of the London petition, when he argued
+against episcopacy as constituting a political as well as a religious
+danger and made a great impression on the House, his name being
+added immediately to the committee appointed to deal with
+church affairs. He took a leading part in the examination into
+the army plot; was one of the commissioners appointed to attend
+the king to Scotland in August 1641; and was nominated one
+of the committee of safety in July 1642. On the outbreak of
+hostilities he took arms immediately, commanded a troop of
+horse in the army of Lord Essex, was present at the relief of
+Coventry in August, and at the fight at Worcester in September,
+where he distinguished himself, and subsequently at Edgehill.
+Of the last two engagements he wrote accounts, viz. <i>True and
+Exact Relation of both the Battles fought by ... Earl of Essex ...
+against the Bloudy Cavaliers</i> (1642). (See also <i>A Narrative of the
+Late Battle before Worcester taken by a Gentleman of the Inns of
+Court from the mouth of Master Fiennes</i>, 1642). In February
+1643 Fiennes was sent down to Bristol, arrested Colonel Essex
+the governor, executed the two leaders of a plot to deliver up the
+city, and received a commission himself as governor on the 1st
+of May 1643. On the arrival, however, of Prince Rupert on the
+22nd of July the place was in no condition to resist an attack,
+and Fiennes capitulated. He addressed to Essex a letter in his
+defence (Thomason Tracts E. 65, 26), drew up for the parliament
+a <i>Relation concerning the Surrender</i> ... (1643), answered by
+Prynne and Clement Walker accusing him of treachery and
+cowardice, to which he opposed <i>Col. Fiennes his Reply</i>.... He
+was tried at St Albans by the council of war in December, was
+pronounced guilty of having surrendered the place improperly,
+and sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned, and the
+facility with which Bristol subsequently capitulated to the
+parliamentary army induced Cromwell and the generals to
+exonerate him completely. His military career nevertheless now
+came to an end. He went abroad, and it was some time before he
+reappeared on the political scene. In September 1647 he was
+included in the army committee, and on the 3rd of January 1648
+he became a member of the committee of safety. He was,
+however, in favour of accepting the king&rsquo;s terms at Newport in
+December, and in consequence was excluded from the House by
+Pride&rsquo;s Purge. An opponent of church government in any form,
+he was no friend to the rigid and tyrannical Presbyterianism of
+the day, and inclined to Independency and Cromwell&rsquo;s party.
+He was a member of the council of state in 1654, and in June
+1655 he received the strange appointment of commissioner for
+the custody of the great seal, for which he was certainly in no way
+fitted. In the parliament of 1654 he was returned for Oxford
+county and in that of 1656 for the university, while in January
+1658 he was included in Cromwell&rsquo;s House of Lords. He was in
+favour of the Protector&rsquo;s assumption of the royal title and urged
+his acceptance of it on several occasions. His public career
+closes with addresses delivered in his capacity as chief commissioner
+of the great seal at the beginning of the sessions of
+January 20, 1658, and January 2, 1659, in which the religious
+basis of Cromwell&rsquo;s government is especially insisted upon, the
+feature to which Fiennes throughout his career had attached most
+value. On the reassembling of the Long Parliament he was
+superseded; he took no part in the Restoration, and died at
+Newton Tony in Wiltshire on the 16th of December 1669.
+Fiennes married (1), Elizabeth, daughter of the famous parliamentarian
+Sir John Eliot, by whom he had one son, afterwards
+3rd Viscount Saye and Sele; and (2), Frances, daughter of
+Richard Whitehead of Tuderley, Hants, by whom he had three
+daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the pamphlets already cited, a number of his speeches and
+other political tracts were published (see Gen. Catalogue, British
+Museum). Wood also attributed to him <i>Monarchy Asserted</i> (1666)
+(reprinted in Somers Tracts, vi. 346 [ed. Scott]), but there seems no
+reason to ascribe to him with Clement Walker the authorship of
+Sprigge&rsquo;s <i>Anglia Rediviva</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIERI FACIAS,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> usually abbreviated <i>fi. fa.</i> (Lat. &ldquo;that you
+cause to be made&rdquo;), in English law, a writ of execution after
+judgment obtained in action of debt or damages. It is addressed
+to the sheriff, and commands him to make good the amount
+out of the goods of the person against whom judgment has been
+obtained. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Execution</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1790-1836), the chief conspirator
+in the attempt on the life of Louis Philippe in July
+1835, was a native of Murato in Corsica. He served under
+Murat, then returned to Corsica, where he was condemned to
+ten years&rsquo; imprisonment and perpetual surveillance by the
+police for theft and forgery. After a period of vagabondage he
+eluded the police and obtained a small post in Paris by means
+of forged papers; but losing it on account of his suspicious
+manner of living, he resolved to revenge himself on society.
+He took lodgings on the Boulevard du Temple, and there, with
+two members of the Société des Droits de l&rsquo;Homme, Morey and
+Pépin by name, contrived an &ldquo;infernal machine,&rdquo; constructed
+with twenty gun barrels, to be fired simultaneously. On the
+28th of July 1835, as Louis Philippe was passing along the boulevard
+to the Bastille, accompanied by his three sons and a
+numerous staff, the machine was exploded. A ball grazed the
+king&rsquo;s forehead, and his horse, with those of the duke of Nemours
+and of the prince de Joinville, was shot; Marshal Mortier was
+killed, with seventeen other persons, and many were wounded;
+but the king and the princes escaped as if by miracle. Fieschi
+himself was severely wounded by the discharge of his machine,
+and vainly attempted to escape. The attentions of the most
+skilful physicians were lavished upon him, and his life was saved
+for the stroke of justice. On his trial he named his accomplices,
+displayed much bravado, and expected or pretended to expect
+ultimate pardon. He was condemned to death, and was guillotined
+on the 19th of February 1836. Morey and Pépin were
+also executed, another accomplice was sentenced to twenty
+years&rsquo; imprisonment and one was acquitted. No less than
+seven plots against the life of Louis Philippe had been discovered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span>
+by the police within the year, and apologists were not wanting
+in the revolutionary press for the crime of Fieschi.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Procès de Fieschi, precédé de sa vie privée, sa condamnation par
+la Cour des Pairs et celles de ses complices</i> (2 vols., 1836); also P.
+Thureau-Dangin, <i>Hist, de la monarchie de Juillet</i> (vol. iv. ch. xii.,
+1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIESCO<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (<span class="sc">de&rsquo; Fieschi</span>), <b>GIOVANNI LUIGI</b> (<i>c.</i> 1523-1547),
+count of Lavagna, was descended from one of the greatest
+families of Liguria, first mentioned in the 10th century. Among
+his ancestors were two popes (Innocent IV. and Adrian V.),
+many cardinals, a king of Sicily, three saints, and many generals
+and admirals of Genoa and other states. Sinibaldo Fiesco,
+his father, had been a close friend of Andrea Doria (<i>q.v.</i>), and
+had rendered many important services to the Genoese republic.
+On his death in 1532 Giovanni found himself at the age of
+nine the head of the family and possessor of immense estates.
+He grew up to be a handsome, intelligent youth, of attractive
+manners and very ambitious. He married Eleonora Cibò,
+marchioness of Massa, in 1540, a woman of great beauty and
+family influence. There were many reasons which inspired his
+hatred of the Doria family; the almost absolute power wielded
+by the aged admiral and the insolence of his nephew and heir
+Giannettino Doria, the commander of the galleys, were galling
+to him as to many other Genoese, and it is said that Giannettino
+was the lover of Fiesco&rsquo;s wife. Moreover, the Fiesco belonged
+to the French or popular party, while the Doria were aristocrats
+and Imperialists. When Fiesco determined to conspire against
+Doria he found friends in many quarters. Pope Paul III. was
+the first to encourage him, while both Pier Luigi Farnese, duke
+of Parma, and Francis I. of France gave him much assistance
+and promised him many advantages. Among his associates in
+Genoa were his brothers Girolamo and Ottobuono, Verrina
+and R. Sacco. A number of armed men from the Fiesco fiefs
+were secretly brought to Genoa, and it was agreed that on the
+2nd of January 1547, during the interregnum before the election
+of the new doge, the galleys in the port should be seized and the
+city gates held. The first part of the programme was easily
+carried out, and Giannettino Doria, aroused by the tumult,
+rushed down to the port and was killed, but Andrea escaped
+from the city in time. The conspirators attempted to gain
+possession of the government, but unfortunately for them
+Giovanni Luigi, while crossing a plank from the quay to one
+of the galleys, fell into the water and was drowned. The news
+spread consternation among the Fiesco faction, and Girolamo
+Fiesco found few adherents. They came to terms with the
+senate and were granted a general amnesty. Doria returned
+to Genoa on the 4th thirsting for revenge, and in spite of the
+amnesty he confiscated the Fiesco estates; Girolamo had shut
+himself up, with Verrina and Sacco and other conspirators, in
+his castle of Montobbia, which the Genoese at Doria&rsquo;s instigation
+besieged and captured. Girolamo Fiesco and Verrina were
+tried, tortured and executed; all their estates were seized, some
+of which, including Torriglia, Doria obtained for himself. Ottobuono
+Fiesco, who had escaped, was captured eight years afterwards
+and put to death by Doria&rsquo;s orders.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are many accounts of the conspiracy, of which perhaps the
+best is contained in E. Petit&rsquo;s <i>André Doria</i> (Paris, 1887), chs. xi.
+and xii., where all the chief authorities are quoted; see also Calligari,
+<i>La Congiura del Fiesco</i> (Venice 1892), and Gavazzo, <i>Nuovi documenti
+sulla congiura del conte Fiesco</i> (Genoa, 1886); E. Bernabò-Brea, in his
+<i>Sulla congiura di Giovanni Luigi Fieschi</i>, publishes many important
+documents, while L. Capelloni&rsquo;s <i>Congiura del Fiesco</i>, edited by
+Olivieri, and A. Mascardi&rsquo;s <i>Congiura del conte Giovanni Luigi de&rsquo;
+Fieschi</i> (Antwerp, 1629) may be commended among the earlier
+works. The Fiesco conspiracy has been the subject of many poems
+and dramas, of which the most famous is that by Schiller. See also
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Doria</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Andrea</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Farnese</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIESOLE<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (anc. <i>Faesulae</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), a town and episcopal see
+of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it
+is 3 m. N.E. by electric tramway. Pop. (1901) town 4951,
+commune 16,816. It is situated on a hill 970 ft. above sea-level,
+and commands a fine view. The cathedral of S. Romolo is an
+early and simple example of the Tuscan Romanesque style;
+it is a small basilica, begun in 1028 and restored in 1256. The
+picturesque battlemented campanile belongs to 1213. The
+tomb of the bishop Leonardo Salutati (d. 1466). with a beautiful
+portrait bust by the sculptor, Mino da Fiesole (1431-1484),
+is fine. The 13th-century Palazzo Pretorio contains a small
+museum of antiquities. The Franciscan monastery commands
+a fine view. The church of S. Maria Primerana has some works
+of art, and S. Alessandro, which is attributed to the 6th century,
+contains fifteen ancient columns of cipollino. The inhabitants
+of Fiesole are largely engaged in straw-plaiting.</p>
+
+<p>Below Fiesole, between it and Florence, lies San Domenico
+di Fiesole (485 ft.); in the Dominican monastery the painter,
+Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole (1387-1455), lived until he
+went to S. Marco at Florence. Here, too, is the Badia di Fiesole,
+founded in 1028 and re-erected about 1456-1466 by a follower
+of Brunelleschi. It is an irregular pile of buildings, in fine and
+simple early Renaissance style; a small part of the original
+façade of 1028 in black and white marble is preserved. The
+interior of the Church is decorated with sculptures by pupils of
+Desiderio da Settignano. The slopes of the hill on which Fiesole
+stands are covered with fine villas. To the S.E. of Fiesole lies
+Monte Ceceri (1453 ft.), with quarries of grey <i>pietra serena</i>,
+largely used in Florence for building. To the E. of this lies the
+14th-century castle of Vincigliata restored and fitted up in the
+medieval style.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIFE,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the
+Firth of Tay, E. by the North Sea, S. by the Firth of Forth,
+and W. by the shires of Perth, Kinross and Clackmannan. The
+Isle of May, Inchkeith, Inchcolm, Inchgarvie and the islet of
+Oxcar belong to the shire. It has an area of 322,844, acres or
+504 sq. m. Its coast-line measure 108 m. The Lomond Hills
+to the S. and S.W. of Falkland, of which West Lomond is 1713 ft.
+high and East Lomond 1471 ft., Saline Hill (1178 ft.) to the N.W.
+of Dunfermline, and Benarty (1131 ft.) on the confines of Kinross
+are the chief heights. Of the rivers the Eden is the longest;
+formed on the borders of Kinross-shire by the confluence of
+Beattie Burn and Carmore Burn, it pursues a wandering course
+for 25 m. N.E., partly through the Howe, or Hollow of Fife, and
+empties into the North Sea. There is good trout fishing in its
+upper waters, but weirs prevent salmon from ascending it.
+The Leven drains the loch of that name and enters the Forth
+at the town of Leven after flowing eastward for 15 m. There
+are numerous factories at various points on its banks. The
+Ore, rising not far from Roscobie Hills to the north of Dunfermline,
+follows a mainly north-easterly course for 15 m. till it joins
+the Leven at Windygates. The old loch of Ore which was an
+expansion of its water was long ago reclaimed. Motray Water
+finds its source in the parish of Kilmany, a few miles W. by N.
+of Cupar, makes a bold sweep towards the north-east, and then,
+taking a southerly turn, enters the head-waters of St Andrews
+Bay, after a course of 12 m. The principal lochs are Loch
+Fitty, Loch Gelly, Loch Glow and Loch Lindores; they are
+small but afford some sport for trout, perch and pike. &ldquo;Freshwater
+mussels&rdquo; occur in Loch Fitty. There are no glens, and the
+only large valley is the fertile Stratheden, which supplies part
+of the title of the combined baronies of Stratheden (created
+1836) and Campbell (created 1841).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Between Damhead and Tayport on the northern side of
+the low-lying Howe of Fife the higher ground is formed of Lower Old
+Red Sandstone volcanic rocks, consisting of red and purple porphyrites
+and andesites and some coarse agglomerates, which, in the
+neighbourhood of Auchtermuchty, are rounded and conglomeratic.
+These rocks have a gentle dip towards the S.S.E. They are overlaid
+unconformably by the soft red sandstones of the Upper Old Red
+series which underlie the Howe of Fife from Loch Leven to the
+coast. The quarries in these rocks in Dura Den are famous for
+fossil fishes. Following the Old Red rocks conformably are the
+Carboniferous formations which occupy the remainder of the county,
+and are well exposed on the coast and in the numerous quarries.
+The Carboniferous rocks include, at the base, the Calciferous Sandstone
+series of dark shales with thin limestones, sandstones and coals.
+They are best developed around Fife Ness, between St Andrews and
+Elie, and again around Burntisland between Kirkcaldy and Inverkeithing
+Bay. In the Carboniferous Limestone series, which comes
+next in upward succession, are the valuable gas-coals and ironstones
+worked in the coal-fields of Dunfermline, Saline, Oakley, Torryburn,
+Kirkcaldy and Markinch. The true Coal Measures lie in the district
+around Dysart and Leven, East Wemyss and Kinglassie, and they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span>
+are separated from the coal-bearing Carboniferous Limestone series
+by the sandstones and conglomerates of the Millstone Grit, Fourteen
+seams of coal are found in the Dysart Coal Measures, associated
+with sandstones, shales and clay ironstones. Fife is remarkably rich
+in evidences of former volcanic activity. Besides the Old Red
+Sandstone volcanic rocks previously mentioned, there are many beds
+of contemporaneous basaltic lavas and tuffs in the Carboniferous
+rocks; Saline Hill and Knock Hill were the sites of vents, which at
+that time threw out ashes; these interbedded rocks are well exposed
+on the shore between Burntisland and and Seafield Tower. There were
+also many intrusive sheets of dolerite and basalt forced into the
+lower Carboniferous rocks, and these now play an important part
+in the scenery of the county. They form the summits of the Lomond
+Hills and Benarty, and they may be followed from Cult Hill by the
+Cleish Hills to Blairadam; and again near Dunfermline, Burntisland,
+Torryburn, Auchtertool and St Andrews. Later, in Permian times,
+eastern Fife was the seat of further volcanic action, and great numbers
+of &ldquo;necks&rdquo; or vents pierce the Carboniferous rocks; Largo Law is a
+striking example. In one of these necks on the shore at Kincraig
+Point is a fine example of columnar basalt; the &ldquo;Rock and Spindle&rdquo;
+near St Andrews is another. Last of all in Tertiary times, east and
+west rifts in the Old Red Sandstone were filled by basalt dikes.
+Glacial deposits, ridges of gravel and sand, boulder clay, &amp;c., brought
+from the N. W., cover much of the older rocks, and traces of old
+raised beaches are found round the coast and in the Howe cf Fife.
+In the 25-ft. beach in the East Neuk of Fife is an island sea-cliff with
+small caves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Since the higher hills all lie in the
+west, most of the county is exposed to the full force of the east
+winds from the North Sea, which often, save in the more sheltered
+areas, check the progress of vegetation. At an elevation of 500 or
+600 ft. above the sea harvests are three or four weeks later than
+in the valleys and low-lying coast-land. The climate, on the
+whole, is mild, proximity to the sea qualifying the heat in summer
+and the cold in winter. The average annual rainfall is 31 in.,
+rather less in the East Neuk district and around St Andrews,
+somewhat more as the hills are approached, late summer and
+autumn being the wet season. The average temperature for
+January is 38° F., for July 59.5°, and for the year 47.6°. Four-fifths
+of the total area is under cultivation, and though the
+acreage under grain is smaller than it was, the yield of each crop
+is still extraordinarily good, oats, barley, wheat being the order
+of acreage. Of the green crops most attention is given to turnips.
+Potatoes also do well. The acreage under permanent pasture
+and wood is very considerable. Cattle are mainly kept for feeding
+purposes, and dairy farming, though attracting more notice,
+has never been followed more than to supply local markets.
+Sheep-farming, however, is on the increase, and the raising of
+horses, especially farm horses, is an important pursuit. They
+are strong, active and hardy, with a large admixture, or purely,
+of Clydesdale blood. The ponies, hunters and carriage horses so
+bred are highly esteemed. The strain of pigs has been improved
+by the introduction of Berkshires. North of the Eden the soil,
+though generally thin, is fertile, but the sandy waste of Tents
+Moor is beyond redemption. From St Andrews southwards all
+along the coast the land is very productive. That adjacent to
+the East Neuk consists chiefly of clay and rich loam. From
+Leven to Inverkeithing it varies from a light sand to a rich
+clayey loam. Excepting Stratheden and Strathleven, which are
+mostly rich, fertile loam, the interior is principally cold and stiff
+clay or thin loam with strong clayey subsoil. Part of the Howe of
+Fife is light and shingly and covered with heather. Some small
+peat mosses still exist, and near Lochgelly there is a tract of
+waste, partly moss and partly heath. The character of the farm
+management may be judged by its results. The best methods are
+pursued, and houses, steadings and cottages are all in good order,
+commodious and comfortable. Rabbits, hares, pheasants and
+partridges are common in certain districts; roe deer are occasionally
+seen; wild geese, ducks and teal haunt the lochs; pigeon-houses
+are fairly numerous; and grouse and blackcock are
+plentiful on the Lomond moors. The shire is well suited for
+fox-hunting, and there are packs in both the eastern and the
+western division of Fife.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mining.</i>&mdash;Next to Lanarkshire, Fife is the largest coal-producing
+county in Scotland. The coal-field may roughly be
+divided into the Dunfermline basin (including Halbeath, Lochgelly
+and Kelty), where the principal house coals are found, and
+the Wemyss or Dysart basin (including Methil and the hinterland),
+where gas-coal of the best quality is obtained. Coal is also
+extensively worked at Culross, Carnock, Falfield, Donibristle,
+Ladybank, Kilconquhar and elsewhere. Beds of ironstone,
+limestone, sandstone and shale lie in many places contiguous to
+the coal. Blackband ironstone is worked at Lochgelly and
+Oakley, where there are large smelting furnaces. Oil shale is
+worked at Burntisland and Airdrie near Crail. Among the
+principal limestone quarries are those at Charlestown, Burntisland
+and Cults. Freestone of superior quality is quarried at
+Strathmiglo, Burntisland and Dunfermline. Whinstone of
+unusual hardness and durability is obtained in nearly every
+district. Lead has been worked in the Lomond Hills and copper
+and zinc have been met with, though not in paying quantities.
+It is of interest to note that in the trap tufa at Elie there have
+been found pyropes (a variety of dark-red garnet), which are
+regarded as the most valuable of Scottish precious stones and
+are sold under the name of Elie rubies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;The staple manufacture is linen, ranging
+from the finest damasks to the coarsest ducks and sackings. Its
+chief seats are at Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline, but it is carried on at
+many of the inland towns and villages, especially those situated
+near the Eden and Leven, on the banks of which rivers, as well as
+at Kirkcaldy, Dunfermline and Ceres, are found the bleaching-greens.
+Kirkcaldy is famous for its oil-cloth and linoleum.
+Most of the leading towns possess breweries and tanneries, and
+the largest distilleries are at Cameron Bridge and Burntisland.
+Woollen cloth is made to a small extent in several towns, and
+fishing-net at Kirkcaldy, Largo and West Wemyss. Paper is
+manufactured at Guardbridge, Markinch and Leslie; earthenware
+at Kirkcaldy; tobacco at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy;
+engineering works and iron foundries are found at Kirkcaldy and
+Dunfermline; and shipbuilding is carried on at Kinghorn,
+Dysart, Burntisland, Inverkeithing and Tayport. From Inverkeithing
+all the way round the coast to Newburgh there are
+harbours at different points. They are mostly of moderate
+dimensions, the principal port being Kirkcaldy. The largest
+salmon fisheries are conducted at Newburgh and the chief seat of
+the herring fishery is Anstruther, but most of the coast towns
+take some part in the fishing either off the shore, or at stations
+farther north, or in the deep sea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The North British railway possesses a
+monopoly in the shire. From the Forth Bridge the main line
+follows the coast as far as Dysart and then turns northwards to
+Ladybank, where it diverges to the north-east for Cupar and the
+Tay Bridge. From Thornton Junction a branch runs to Dunfermline
+and another to Methil, and here begins also the coast
+line for Leven, Crail and St Andrews which touches the main line
+again at Leuchars Junction; at Markinch a branch runs to
+Leslie; at Ladybank there are branches to Mawcarse Junction,
+and to Newburgh and Perth; and at Leuchars Junction a loop
+line runs to Tayport and Newport, joining the main at Wormit.
+From the Forth Bridge the system also connects, via Dunfermline,
+with Alloa and Stirling in the W. and with Kinross and
+Perth in the N. From Dunfermline there is a branch to Charlestown,
+which on that account is sometimes called the port of
+Dunfermline.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Government.</i>&mdash;The population was 190,365
+in 1891, and 218,840 in 1901, when 844 persons spoke Gaelic
+and English and 3 Gaelic only. The chief towns are the
+Anstruthers (pop. in 1901, 4233), Buckhaven (8828), Burntisland
+(4846), Cowdenbeath (7908), Cupar (4511), Dunfermline (25,250),
+Dysart (3562), Kelty (3986), Kirkcaldy (34,079), Leslie (3587),
+Leven (5577), Lochgelly (5472), Lumphinnans (2071), Newport
+(2869), St Andrews (7621), Tayport (3325) and Wemyss (2522).
+For parliamentary purposes Fife is divided into an eastern
+and a western division, each returning one member. It also
+includes the Kirkcaldy district of parliamentary burghs (comprising
+Burntisland, Dysart, Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy), and the
+St Andrews district (the two Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny,
+Pittenweem and St Andrews); while Culross, Dunfermline
+and Inverkeithing are grouped with the Stirling district. As
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span>
+regards education the county is under school-board jurisdiction,
+and in respect of higher education its equipment is effective.
+St Andrews contains several excellent schools; at Cupar there is
+the Bell-Baxter school; at Dunfermline and <span class="correction" title="amended from Kirkclady">Kirkcaldy</span> there are
+high schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;In remote times the term Fife was applied to the
+peninsula lying between the estuaries of the Tay and Forth
+and separated from the rest of the mainland by the Ochil Hills.
+Its earliest inhabitants were Picts of the northern branch and
+their country was long known as Pictavia. Doubtless it was
+owing to the fact that the territory was long subject to the rule
+of an independent king that Fife itself came to be called distinctively
+The Kingdom, a name of which the natives are still proud.
+The Romans effected no settlement in the province, though it is
+probable that they temporarily occupied points here and there.
+In any case the Romans left no impression on the civilization of
+the natives. With the arrival of the missionaries&mdash;especially
+St Serf, St Kenneth, St Rule, St Adrian, St Moran and St Fillan&mdash;and
+conversion of the Picts went on apace. Interesting memorials
+of these devout missionaries exist in the numerous coast caves
+between Dysart and St Andrews and in the crosses and sculptured
+stones, some doubtless of pre-Christian origin, to be seen at various
+places. The word Fife, according to Skene, seems to be identical
+with the Jutland <i>Fibh</i> (pronounced <i>Fife</i>) meaning &ldquo;forest,&rdquo;
+and was probably first used by the Frisians to describe the country
+behind the coasts of the Forth and Tay, where Frisian tribes are
+supposed to have settled at the close of the 4th century. The
+next immigration was Danish, which left lasting traces in many
+place-names (such as the frequent use of <i>law</i> for hill). An
+ancient division of the Kingdom into Fife and Fothrif survived
+for a period for ecclesiastical purposes. The line of demarcation
+ran from Leven to the east of Cults, thence to the west of Collessie
+and thence to the east of Auchtermuchty. To the east of this
+line lay Fife proper. In 1426 the first shire of Kinross was
+formed, consisting of Kinross and Orwell, and was enlarged to
+its present dimensions by the transference from Fife of the
+parishes of Portmoak, Cleish and Tulliebole. Although the
+county has lain outside of the main stream of Scottish history,
+its records are far from dull or unimportant. During the reigns
+of the earlier Stuarts, Dunfermline, Falkland and St Andrews
+were often the scene of solemn pageantry and romantic episodes.
+Out of the seventy royal burghs in Scotland no fewer than
+eighteen are situated in the shire. However, notwithstanding
+the marked preference of the Stuarts, the Kingdom did not
+hesitate to play the leading part in the momentous dramas of
+the Reformation and the Covenant, and by the 18th century the
+people had ceased to regard the old royal line with any but
+sentimental interest, and the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745
+evoked only the most lukewarm support.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir Robert Sibbald, <i>History of the Sheriffdoms of Fife and
+Kinross</i>; Rev. J.W. Taylor, <i>Historical Antiquities of Fife</i> (1875);
+A.H. Millar, <i>Fife, Pictorial and Historical</i> (Cupar, 1895); Sheriff
+Aeneas Mackay, sketch of the <i>History of Fife</i> (Edinburgh, 1890);
+<i>History of Fife and Kinross</i> (Scottish County History series) (Edinburgh,
+1896); John Geddie, <i>The Fringe of Fife</i> (Edinburgh, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIFE<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (Fr. <i>fifre</i>; Med. Ger. <i>Schweizerpfeiff</i>, <i>Feldpfeiff</i>; Ital.
+<i>ottavino</i>), originally the small primitive cylindrical transverse
+flute, now the small B&#9837; military flute, usually conoidal in bore,
+used in a drum and fife band. The pitch of the fife lies between
+that of the concert flute and piccolo. The fife, like the flute, is
+an open pipe, for although the upper end is stopped by means
+of a cork, an outlet is provided by the embouchure which is
+never entirely closed by the lips. The six finger-holes of the
+primitive flute, with the open end of the tube for a key-note,
+gave the diatonic scale of the fundamental octave; the second
+octave was produced by overblowing the notes of the fundamental
+scale an octave higher; part of a third octave was
+obtained by means of the higher harmonics produced by using
+certain of the finger-holes as vent-holes. The modern fife has,
+in addition to the six finger-holes, 4, 5 or 6 keys. Mersenne
+describes and figures the fife, which had in his day the compass
+of a fifteenth.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The fife, which, he states, differed from the
+German flute only in having a louder and more brilliant tone and
+a shorter and narrower bore, was the instrument used by the
+Swiss with the drum. The sackbut, or serpent, was used as its
+bass, for, as Mersenne explains, the bass instrument could not
+be made long enough, nor could the hands reach the holes,
+although some flutes were actually made with keys and had the
+tube doubled back as in the bassoon.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The words <i>fife</i> and the Fr. <i>fifre</i> were undoubtedly derived from
+the Ger. <i>Pfeiff</i>, the fife being called by Praetorius<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> <i>Schweizerpfeiff</i>
+and <i>Feldpfeiff</i>, while Martin Agricola,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> writing a century earlier
+(1529), mentions the transverse flute by the names of <i>Querchpfeiff</i>
+or <i>Schweizerpfeiff</i>, which Sebastian Virdung<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> writes <i>Zwerchpfeiff</i>.
+The Old English spelling was <i>phife</i>, <i>phiphe</i> or <i>ffyffe</i>. The fife was in
+use in England in the middle of the 16th century, for at a muster of
+the citizens of London in 1540, <i>droumes</i> and ffyffes are mentioned.
+At the battle of St Quentin (1557) the list of the English army<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+employed states that one trumpet was allowed to each cavalry troop
+of 100 men, and a drum and fife to each hundred of foot. A drumme
+and <i>phife</i> were also employed at one shilling per diem for the &ldquo;Trayne
+of Artillery.&rdquo;<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> This was the nucleus of the modern military band,
+and may be regarded as the first step in its formation. In England
+the adoption of the fife as a military instrument was due to the
+initiative of Henry VIII., who sent to Vienna for ten good drums
+and as many fifers.<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Ralph Smith<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a> gives rules for drummers and
+fifers who, in addition to the duty of giving signals in peace and war
+to the company, were expected to be brave, secret and ingenious,
+and masters of several languages, for they were oft sent to parley
+with the enemy and were entrusted with honourable but dangerous
+missions. In 1585 the drum and fife formed part of the furniture
+for war among the companies of the city of London.<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Queen
+Elizabeth (according to Michaud, <i>Biogr. universelle</i>, tome xiii. p. 60)
+had a peculiar taste for noisy music, and during meals had a concert
+of twelve trumpets, two kettledrums, with fifes and drums. The
+fife became such a favourite military instrument during the 16th
+and 17th centuries in England that it displaced the bagpipe; it
+was, however, in turn superseded early in the 18th century by the
+hautboy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oboe</a></span>), introduced from France. In the middle of the
+18th century the fife was reintroduced into the British army band
+by the duke of Cumberland<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> in the Guards in 1745, commemorated
+by William Hogarth&rsquo;s picture of the &ldquo;March of the Guards towards
+Scotland in 1745,&rdquo; in which are seen a drummer and fifer; and by
+Colonel Bedford into the royal regiment of artillery in 1748, at the
+end of the war, when a Hanoverian fifer, John Ulrich, was brought
+over from Flanders as instructor.<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> In 1747 the 19th regiment,
+known as Green Howards, also had the advantage of a Hanoverian
+fifer as teacher, a youth presented by his colonel to Lieutenant-Colonel
+Williams commanding the regiment at Bois-le-Duc. Drum
+and fife bands in a short time became common in all infantry regiments,
+while among the cavalry the trumpet prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>For the acoustics, construction and origin of the fife see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flute</a></span>.
+Illustrations of the fife may be seen in Cowdray&rsquo;s picture of an encampment
+at Portsmouth in 1548; in Sandford&rsquo;s &ldquo;Coronation
+Procession of James II.,&rdquo; and in C.R. Day&rsquo;s <i>Descriptive Catalogue</i>,
+pl. i. (F) (description No. 42, p. 27).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), bk. v. prop. 9, pp. 241-244.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For an illustration of one of these bass flutes see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flute</a></span>,
+Fig. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Syntagma musicum</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pp. 40-41 of Reprint.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Musica instrumentalis</i> (Wittenberg, 1529).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Sir S.D. Scott, <i>The British Army</i>, vol. ii. p. 396.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See H.G. Farmer, <i>Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band</i> (London,
+1904).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Id.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Id.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Stowe&rsquo;s <i>Chronicles</i>, p. 702.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Grose, <i>Military Antiquities</i> (London, 1801), vol. ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See Colonel P. Forbes Macbean, <i>Memoirs of the Royal Regiment of
+Artillery</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIFTH MONARCHY MEN,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> the name of a Puritan sect in
+England which for a time supported the government of Oliver
+Cromwell in the belief that it was a preparation for the &ldquo;fifth
+monarchy,&rdquo; that is for the monarchy which should succeed the
+Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman, and during
+which Christ should reign on earth with His saints for a thousand
+years. These sectaries aimed at bringing about the entire abolition
+of the existing laws and institutions, and the substitution
+of a simpler code based upon the law of Moses. Disappointed
+at the delay in the fulfilment of their hopes, they soon began
+to agitate against the government and to vilify Cromwell; but
+the arrest of their leaders and preachers, Christopher Feake,
+John Rogers and others, cooled their ardour, and they were,
+perforce, content to cherish their hopes in secret until after the
+Restoration. Then, on the 6th of January 1661, a band of fifth
+monarchy men, headed by a cooper named Thomas Venner,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span>
+who was one of their preachers, made an attempt to obtain
+possession of London. Most of them were either killed or taken
+prisoners, and on the 19th and 21st of January Venner and ten
+others were executed for high treason. From that time the
+special doctrines of the sect either died out, or became merged
+in a milder form of millenarianism, similar to that which exists
+at the present day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the proceedings of the sect see S.R. Gardiner, <i>History of
+the Commonwealth and Protectorate</i>, <i>passim</i> (London, 1894-1901);
+and for an account of the rising of 1661 see Sir John Reresby,
+<i>Memoirs</i>, 1634-1689, edited by J.J. Cartwright (London, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIG,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> the popular name given to plants of the genus <i>Ficus</i>, an
+extensive group, included in the natural order Moraceae, and
+characterized by a remarkable development of the pear-shaped
+receptacle, the edge of which curves inwards, so as to form a
+nearly closed cavity, bearing the numerous fertile and sterile
+flowers mingled on its surface. The figs vary greatly in habit,&mdash;some
+being low trailing shrubs, others gigantic trees, among the
+most striking forms of those tropical forests to which they are
+chiefly indigenous. They have alternate leaves, and abound in a
+milky juice, usually acrid, though in a few instances sufficiently
+mild to be used for allaying thirst. This juice contains caoutchouc
+in large quantity.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:580px" src="images/img332.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figure</span> 1.&mdash;Fruiting Branch of Fig, <i>Ficus Carica</i>; about <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">7</span> nat. size.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">1. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise; about ½ nat. size. 2. Female
+flower taken from 1; enlarged. 3. Ripe fruit cut lengthwise; about
+½ nat. size.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Ficus Carica</i> (figure 1), which yields the well-known figs of
+commerce, is a bush or small tree&mdash;rarely more than 18 or 20 ft.
+high,&mdash;with broad, rough, deciduous leaves, very deeply lobed in
+the cultivated varieties, but in the wild plant sometimes nearly
+entire. The green, rough branches bear the solitary, nearly
+sessile receptacles in the axils of the leaves. The male flowers are
+placed chiefly in the upper part of the cavity, and in most
+varieties are few in number. As it ripens, the receptacle enlarges
+greatly, and the numerous single-seeded pericarps or true fruits
+become imbedded in it. The fruit of the wild fig never acquires
+the succulence of the cultivated kinds. The fig seems to be
+indigenous to Asia Minor and Syria, but now occurs in a wild
+state in most of the countries around the Mediterranean. From
+the ease with which the nutritious fruit can be preserved, it
+was probably one of the earliest objects of cultivation, as may
+be inferred from the frequent allusions to it in the Hebrew
+Scriptures.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> From a passage in Herodotus the fig would seem to
+have been unknown to the Persians in the days of the first Cyrus;
+but it must have spread in remote ages over all the districts
+around the Aegean and Levant. The Greeks are said to have
+received it from Caria (hence the specific name); but the fruit so
+improved under Hellenic culture that Attic figs became celebrated
+throughout the East, and special laws were made to regulate
+their exportation. From the contemptuous name given to informers
+against the violation of those enactments, <span class="grk" title="sukophantai
+(sukon, phainô)">&#963;&#965;&#954;&#959;&#966;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#953; (&#963;&#8166;&#954;&#959;&#957;, &#966;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#969;)</span>, our word sycophant is usually derived. The
+fig was one of the principal articles of sustenance among the
+Greeks; the Spartans especially used it largely at their public
+tables. From Hellas, at some prehistoric period, it was transplanted
+to Italy and the adjacent islands. Pliny enumerates
+many varieties, and alludes to those from Ebusus (the modern
+Iviza) as most esteemed by Roman epicures; while he describes
+those of home growth as furnishing a large portion of the food of
+the slaves, particularly those employed in agriculture, by whom
+great quantities were eaten in the fresh state at the periods of
+fig-harvest. In Latin myths the plant plays an important part.
+Held sacred to Bacchus, it was employed in religious ceremonies;
+and the fig-tree that overshadowed the twin founders of Rome in
+the wolf&rsquo;s cave, as an emblem of the future prosperity of the race,
+testified to the high value set upon the fruit by the nations of
+antiquity. The tree is now cultivated in all the Mediterranean
+countries, but the larger portion of our supply of figs comes from
+Asia Minor, the Spanish Peninsula and the south of France.
+Those of Asiatic Turkey are considered the best. The varieties
+are extremely numerous, and the fruit is of various colours, from
+deep purple to yellow, or nearly white. The trees usually bear
+two crops,&mdash;one in the early summer from the buds of the last
+year, the other in the autumn from those on the spring growth;
+the latter forms the chief harvest. Many of the immature
+receptacles drop off from imperfect fertilization, which circumstance
+has led, from very ancient times, to the practice of
+<i>caprification</i>.<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Branches of the wild fig in flower are placed over
+the cultivated bushes. Certain hymenopterous insects, of the
+genera <i>Blastophaga</i> and <i>Sycophaga</i>, which frequent the wild fig,
+enter the minute orifice of the receptacle, apparently to deposit
+their eggs; conveying thus the pollen more completely to the
+stigmas, they ensure the fertilization and consequent ripening of
+the fruit. By some the nature of the process has been questioned,
+and the better maturation of the fruit attributed merely to the
+stimulus given by the puncture of the insect, as in the case of the
+apple; but the arrangement of the unisexual flowers in the fig
+renders the first theory the more probable. In some districts a
+straw or small twig is thrust into the receptacle with a similar
+object. When ripe the figs are picked, and spread out to dry in
+the sun,&mdash;those of better quality being much pulled and extended
+by hand during the process. Thus prepared, the fruit is packed
+closely in barrels, rush baskets, or wooden boxes, for commerce.
+The best kind, known as elemi, are shipped at Smyrna, where the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span>
+pulling and packing of figs form one of the most important
+industries of the people.</p>
+
+<p>This fruit still constitutes a large part of the food of the natives
+of western Asia and southern Europe, both in the fresh and dried
+state. A sort of cake made by mashing up the inferior kinds
+serves in parts of the Archipelago as a substitute for bread.
+Alcohol is obtained from fermented figs in some southern
+countries; and a kind of wine, still made from the ripe fruit,
+was known to the ancients, and mentioned by Pliny under the
+name of <i>sycites</i>. Medicinally the fig is employed as a gentle
+laxative, when eaten abundantly often proving useful in
+chronic constipation; it forms a part of the well-known &ldquo;confection
+of senna.&rdquo; The milky juice of the stems and leaves is
+very acrid, and has been used in some countries for raising
+blisters. The wood is porous and of little value; though a piece,
+saturated with oil and spread with emery, is in France a common
+substitute for a hone.</p>
+
+<p>The fig is grown for its fresh fruit (eaten as an article of dessert)
+in all the milder parts of Europe, and in the United States, with
+protection in winter, succeeds as far north as Pennsylvania.
+The fig was introduced into England by Cardinal Pole, from
+Italy, early in the 16th century. It lives to a great age, and
+along the southern coast of England bears fruit abundantly as a
+standard; but in Scotland and in many parts of England a south
+wall is indispensable for its successful cultivation out of doors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fig trees are propagated by cuttings, which should be put into
+pots, and placed in a gentle hotbed. They may be obtained more
+speedily from layers, which should consist of two or three years old
+shoots, and these, when rooted, will form plants ready to bear fruit
+the first or second year after planting. The best soil for a fig border
+is a friable loam, not too rich, but well drained; a chalky subsoil
+is congenial to the tree, and, to correct the tendency to over-luxuriance
+of growth, the roots should be confined within spaces surrounded
+by a wall enclosing an area of about a square yard. The sandy soil
+of Argenteuil, near Paris, suits the fig remarkably well; but the best
+trees are those which grow in old quarries, where their roots are free
+from stagnant water, and where they are sheltered from cold, while
+exposed to a very hot sun, which ripens the fruit perfectly. The fig
+succeeds well planted in a paved court against a building with a
+south aspect.</p>
+
+<p>The fig tree naturally produces two sets of shoots and two crops
+of fruit in the season. The first shoots generally show young figs
+in July and August, but these in the climate of England very seldom
+ripen, and should therefore be rubbed off. The late or midsummer
+shoots likewise put forth fruit-buds, which, however, do not develop
+themselves till the following spring; and these form the only crop of
+figs on which the British gardener can depend.</p>
+
+<p>The fig tree grown as a standard should get very little pruning,
+the effect of cutting being to stimulate the buds to push shoots too
+vigorous for bearing. When grown against a wall, it has been
+recommended that a single stem should be trained to the height of
+a foot. Above this a shoot should be trained to the right, and
+another to the left; from these principals two other subdivisions
+should be encouraged, and trained 15 in. apart; and along these
+branches, at distances of about 8 in., shoots for bearing, as nearly
+as possible of equal vigour, should be encouraged. The bearing shoots
+produced along the leading branches should be trained in at full
+length, and in autumn every alternate one should be cut back to
+one eye. In the following summer the trained shoots should bear
+and ripen fruit, and then be cut back in autumn to one eye, while
+shoots from the bases of those cut back the previous autumn should
+be trained for succession. In this way every leading branch will
+be furnished alternately with bearing and successional shoots.</p>
+
+<p>When protection is necessary, as it may be in severe winters,
+though it is too often provided in excess, spruce branches have been
+found to answer the purpose exceedingly well, owing to the fact
+that their leaves drop off gradually when the weather becomes
+milder in spring, and when the trees require less protection and
+more light and air. The principal part requiring protection is the
+main stem, which is more tender than the young wood.</p>
+
+<p>In forcing, the fig requires more heat than the vine to bring it
+into leaf. It may be subjected to a temperature of 50° at night,
+and from 60° to 65 ° C in the day, and this should afterwards be increased
+to 60° and 65° by night, and 70° to 75° by day, or even
+higher by sun heat, giving plenty of air at the same time. In this
+temperature the evaporation from the leaves is very great, and this
+must be replaced and the wants of the swelling fruit supplied by
+daily watering, by syringing the foliage, and by moistening the
+floor, this atmospheric moisture being also necessary to keep down
+the red spider. When the crop begins to ripen, a moderately dry
+atmosphere should be maintained, with abundant ventilation when
+the weather permits.</p>
+
+<p>The fig tree is easily cultivated in pots, and by introducing the
+plants into heat in succession the fruiting season may be considerably
+extended. The plants should be potted in turfy loam mixed
+with charcoal and old mortar rubbish, and in summer top-dressings
+of rotten manure, with manure water two or three times a week,
+will be beneficial. While the fruit is swelling, the pots should be
+plunged in a bed of fermenting leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The following are a few of the best figs; those marked F, are good
+forcing sorts, and those marked W. suitable for walls:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Agen: brownish-green, turbinate.</p>
+
+<p>Brown Ischia, F.: chestnut-coloured, roundish-turbinate.</p>
+
+<p>Brown Turkey (Lee&rsquo;s Perpetual), F., W.: purplish-brown, turbinate.</p>
+
+<p>Brunswick, W.: brownish-green, pyriform.</p>
+
+<p>Col di Signora Bianca, F.: greenish-yellow, pyriform.</p>
+
+<p>Col di Signora Nero: dark chocolate, pyriform.</p>
+
+<p>Early Violet, F.: brownish-purple, roundish.</p>
+
+<p>Grizzly Bourjassotte: chocolate, round.</p>
+
+<p>Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari: pale chestnut, turbinate.</p>
+
+<p>Negro Largo, F.: black, long pyriform.</p>
+
+<p>White Ischia, F.: greenish-yellow, roundish-obovate.</p>
+
+<p>White Marseilles, F., W.: pale green, roundish-obovate.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sycamore fig, <i>Ficus Sycomorus</i>, is a tree of large size, with
+heart-shaped leaves, which, from their fancied resemblance to
+those of the mulberry, gave origin to the name <span class="grk" title="Sukomoros">&#931;&#965;&#954;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>. From
+the deep shade cast by its spreading branches, it is a favourite
+tree in Egypt and Syria, being often planted along roads and
+near houses. It bears a sweet edible fruit, somewhat like that of
+the common fig, but produced in racemes on the older boughs.
+The apex of the fruit is sometimes removed, or an incision made
+in it, to induce earlier ripening. The ancients, after soaking it in
+water, preserved it like the common fig. The porous wood is only
+fit for fuel.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:436px" src="images/img333.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figure</span> 2.&mdash;India-rubber Tree, <i>Ficus elastica</i>, showing spreading
+woody roots.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The sacred fig, peepul, or bo, <i>Ficus religiosa</i>, a large tree with
+heart-shaped, long-pointed leaves on slender footstalks, is much
+grown in southern Asia. The leaves are used for tanning, and
+afford lac, and a gum resembling caoutchouc is obtained from the
+juice; but in India it is chiefly planted with a religious object,
+being regarded as sacred by both Brahmans and Buddhists.
+The former believe that the last avatar of Vishnu took place
+beneath its shade. A gigantic bo, described by Sir J. Emerson
+Tennent as growing near Anarajapoora, in Ceylon, is, if tradition
+may be trusted, one of the oldest trees in the world. It is said to
+have been a branch of the tree under which Gautama Buddha
+became endued with his divine powers, and has always been held
+in the greatest veneration. The figs, however, hold as important
+a place in the religious fables of the East as the ash in the myths
+of Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ficus elastica</i>, the India-rubber tree (figure 2), the large,
+oblong, glossy leaves, and pink buds of which are so familiar in
+our greenhouses, furnishes most of the caoutchouc obtained
+from the East Indies. It grows to a large size, and is remarkable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span>
+for the snake-like roots that extend in contorted masses around
+the base of the trunk. The small fruit is unfit for food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ficus bengalensis</i>, or the Banyan, wild in parts of northern
+India, but generally planted throughout the country, has a woody
+stem, branching to a height of 70 to 100 ft. and of vast extent
+with heart-shaped entire leaves terminating in acute points.
+Every branch from the main body throws out its own roots, at
+first in small tender fibres, several yards from the ground; but
+these continually grow thicker until they reach the surface,
+when they strike in, increase to large trunks, and become parent
+trees, shooting out new branches from the top, which again
+in time suspend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks,
+produce other branches, the growth continuing as long as the
+earth contributes her sustenance. On the bank&rsquo;s of the Nerbudda
+stood a celebrated tree of this kind, which is supposed to be that
+described by Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the Great.
+This tree once covered an area so immense, that it was known
+to shelter no fewer than 7000 men, and though much reduced in
+size by the destructive power of the floods, the remainder was
+described by James Forbes (1749-1819), in his <i>Oriental Memoirs</i>
+(1813-1815) as nearly 2000 ft. in circumference, while the trunks
+large and small exceeded 3000 in number. The tree usually
+grows from seeds dropped by birds on other trees. The leaf-axil
+of a palm forms a frequent receptacle for their growth, the palm
+becoming ultimately strangled by the growth of the fig, which
+by this time has developed numerous daughter stems which
+continue to expand and cover ultimately a large area. The
+famous tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, began its
+growth at the end of the 18th century on a sacred date-palm.
+In 1907 it had nearly 250 aerial roots, the parent trunk was
+42 ft. in girth, and its leafy crown had a circumference of 857 ft.;
+and it was still growing vigorously. Both this tree and <i>F. religiosa</i>
+cause destruction to buildings, especially in Bengal, from seeds
+dropped by birds germinating on the walls. The tree yields an
+inferior rubber, and a coarse rope is prepared from the bark and
+from the aerial roots.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Of these the case of the Barren Fig-tree (Mark. xi. 12-14, 20-21:
+compare Matt. xxi. 18-20), which Jesus cursed and which then
+withered away, has been much discussed among theologians. The
+difficulty is in Mark xi. 13: &ldquo;And seeing a fig-tree afar off having
+leaves, he came, if haply he might find anything thereon; and when
+he came to it he found nothing but leaves, for the time of figs was
+not yet.&rdquo; These last words obviously raise the question whether
+the expectation of Jesus of finding figs, and his cursing of the tree
+on finding none, were not unreasonable. Many ingenious solutions
+have been propounded, by suggested emendations of the text and
+otherwise, for which consult M&rsquo;Clintock and Strong&rsquo;s <i>Cyclopaedia
+of Biblical Literature</i> (<i>sub</i> &ldquo;Fig&rdquo;) and the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>
+(&ldquo;Fig-tree&rdquo;); the former demurs to the unreasonableness, and
+contends that the appearance of the leaves at this season (March)
+indicated a pretentious precocity in this particular fig-tree, so that
+Jesus was entitled to expect that it would also have fruit, even
+though the season had not arrived; the <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, on the other
+hand, supposes that some &ldquo;early Christian,&rdquo; confounding parable
+with history, has misunderstood the parable in Luke xiii. 6-9, and,
+forgetting that the season was not one for figs, has transformed it
+here into the narrative of an act of Jesus. The probability seems to
+be that the words &ldquo;for the time of figs was not yet&rdquo; are an unintelligent
+gloss by an early reader, which has made its way into the
+text. For authorities see the works mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> From Lat. <i>caprificus</i>, a wild fig; O. Eng. <i>caprifig</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIGARO,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> a famous dramatic character first introduced on the
+stage by Beaumarchais in the <i>Barbier de Séville</i>, the <i>Mariage
+de Figaro</i>, and the <i>Folle Journée</i>. The name is said to be an old
+Spanish and Italian word for a wigmaker, connected with the
+verb <i>cigarrar</i>, to roll in paper. Many of the traits of the character
+are to be found in earlier comic types of the Roman and Italian
+stage, but as a whole the conception was marked by great
+originality; and Figaro soon, seized the popular imagination,
+and became the recognized representative of daring, clever and
+nonchalant roguery and intrigue. Almost immediately after its
+appearance, Mozart chose the <i>Marriage of Figaro</i> as the subject
+of an opera, and the <i>Barber of Seville</i> was treated first by Paisiello,
+and afterwards in 1816 by Rossini. In 1826 the name of the
+witty rogue was taken by a journal which continued till 1833
+to be one of the principal Parisian periodicals, numbering among
+its contributors such men as Jules Janin, Paul Lacroix, Léon
+Gozlan, Alphonse Karr, Dr Veron, Jules Sandeau and George
+Sand. Various abortive attempts were made to restore the
+<i>Figaro</i> during the next twenty years; and in 1854 the efforts of
+M. de Villemessant were crowned with success (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newspapers</a></span>:
+<i>France</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Marc Monnier, <i>Les Aieux de Figaro</i> (1868); H. de Villemessant,
+<i>Mémoires d&rsquo;un journaliste</i> (1867).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIGEAC,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Lot, 47 m. E.N.E. of
+Cahors on the Orléans railway. Pop. (1906) 4330. It is enclosed
+by an amphitheatre of wooded and vine-clad hills, on the right
+bank of the Célé, which is here crossed by an old bridge. It is
+ill-built and the streets are narrow and dirty; on the outskirts
+shady boulevards have taken the place of the ramparts by which
+it was surrounded. The town is very rich in old houses of the
+13th and 14th centuries; among them may be mentioned
+the Hôtel de Balène, of the 14th century, used as a prison.
+Another house, dating from the 15th century, was the birthplace
+of the Egyptologist J.F. Champollion, in memory of whom the
+town has erected an obelisk. The principal church is that of
+St Sauveur, which once belonged to the abbey of Figeac. It
+was built at the beginning of the 12th century, but restored
+later; the façade in particular is modern. Notre-Dame du Puy,
+in the highest part of the town, belongs to the 12th and 13th
+centuries. It has no transept and its aisles extend completely
+round the interior. The altar-screen is a fine example of carved
+woodwork of the end of the 17th century. Of the four obelisks
+which used to mark the limits of the authority of the abbots
+of Figeac, those to the south and the west of the town remain.
+Figeac is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance,
+and a communal college. Brewing, tanning, printing,
+cloth-weaving and the manufacture of agricultural implements
+are among the industries. Trade is in cattle, leather, wool, plums,
+walnuts and grain, and there are zinc mines in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>Figeac grew up round an abbey founded by Pippin the Short
+in the 8th century, and throughout the middle ages it was the
+property of the monks. At the end of the 16th century the lordship
+was acquired by King Henry IV.&rsquo;s minister, the duke of
+Sully, who sold it to Louis XIII. in 1622.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIGUEIRA DA FOZ,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Figueira</span>, a seaport of central
+Portugal, in the district of Coimbra, formerly included in the
+province of Beira; on the north bank of the river Mondego,
+at its mouth, and at the terminus of the Lisbon-Figueira and
+Guarda-Figueira railways. Pop. (1900) 6221. Figueira da Foz
+is an important fishing-station, and one of the headquarters of
+the coasting trade in grain, fruit, wine, olive oil, cork and coal;
+but owing to the bar at the mouth of the Mondego large ships
+cannot enter. Glass is manufactured, and the city attracts many
+visitors by its excellent climate and sea-bathing. A residential
+suburb, the Bairro Novo, exists chiefly for their accommodation,
+to the north-west of the old town. Figueira is connected by
+a tramway running 4 m. N. W. with Buarcos (pop. 5033) and
+with the coal-mines of Cape Mondego. Lavos (pop. 7939), on
+the south bank of the Mondego, was the principal landing-place
+of the British troops which came, in 1808, to take part in the
+Peninsular War. Figueira da Foz received the title and privileges
+of city by a decree dated the 20th of September 1882.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIGUERAS,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province
+of Gerona, 14 m. S. of the French frontier, on the Barcelona-Perpignan
+railway. Pop. (1900) 10,714. Figueras is built at
+the foot of the Pyrenees, and on the northern edge of El
+Ampurdan, a fertile and well-irrigated plain, which produces wine,
+olives and rice, and derives its name from the seaport of Ampurias,
+the ancient Emporiae. The castle of San Fernando, 1 m. N.W., is
+an irregular pentagonal structure, built by order of Ferdinand VI.
+(1746-1759), on the site of a Capuchin convent. Owing to its
+situation, and the rocky nature of the ground over which a
+besieger must advance, it is still serviceable as the key to the
+frontier. It affords accommodation for 16,000 men and is well
+provided with bomb-proof cover. In 1794 Figueras was surrendered
+to the French, but it was regained in 1795. During
+the Peninsular War it was taken by the French in 1808, recaptured
+by the Spaniards in 1811, and retaken by the French
+in the same year. In 1823, after a long defence, it was once more
+captured by the French. An annual pilgrimage from Figueras
+to the chapel of Nuestra Señora de Requesens, 15 m. N., commemorates
+the deliverance of the town from a severe epidemic
+of fever in 1612.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 98-45 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman
+savant, next to Varro the most learned Roman of the age. He
+was a friend of Cicero, to whom he gave his support at the time
+of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Plutarch, <i>Cicero</i>, 20; Cicero,
+<i>Pro Sulla</i>, xiv. 42). In 58 he was praetor, sided with Pompey
+in the Civil War, and after his defeat was banished by Caesar,
+and died in exile. According to Cicero (<i>Timaeus</i>, 1), Figulus
+endeavoured with some success to revive the doctrines of Pythagoreanism.
+With this was included mathematics, astronomy
+and astrology, and even the magic arts. According to Suetonius
+(<i>Augustus</i>, 94) he foretold the greatness of the future emperor
+on the day of his birth, and Apuleius (<i>Apologia</i>, 42) records
+that, by the employment of &ldquo;magic boys&rdquo; (<i>magici pueri</i>), he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span>
+helped to find a sum of money that had been lost. Jerome (the
+authority for the date of his death) calls him <i>Pythagoricus et
+magus</i>. The abstruse nature of his studies, the mystical character
+of his writings, and the general indifference of the Romans to
+such subjects, caused his works to be soon forgotten. Amongst
+his scientific, theological and grammatical works mention may
+be made of <i>De diis</i>, containing an examination of various cults
+and ceremonials; treatises on divination and the interpretation
+of dreams; on the sphere, the winds and animals. His <i>Commentarii
+grammatici</i> in at least 29 books was an ill-arranged collection
+of linguistic, grammatical and antiquarian notes. In these he
+expressed the opinion that the meaning of words was natural,
+not fixed by man. He paid especial attention to orthography,
+and sought to differentiate the meanings of cases of like ending by
+distinctive marks (the apex to indicate a long vowel is attributed
+to him). In etymology he endeavoured to find a Roman explanation
+of words where possible (according to him <i>frater</i> was
+= <i>fere alter</i>). Quintilian (<i>Instit. orat.</i> xi, 3. 143) speaks of a
+rhetorical treatise <i>De gestu</i> by him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Cicero, <i>Ad Fam.</i> iv. 13; scholiast on Lucan i. 639; several
+references in Aulus Gellius; Teuffel, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i>, 170;
+M. Hertz, De N.F. <i>studiis atque operibus</i> (1845); <i>Quaestiones
+Nigidianae</i> (1890), and edition of the fragments (1889) by A. Swoboda.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIGURATE NUMBERS,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> in mathematics. If we take the sum
+of n terms of the series 1 + 1 + 1 + ..., <i>i.e.</i> n, as the nth term of
+a new series, we obtain the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ..., the sum
+of n terms of which is ½n · n + 1. Taking this sum as the nth
+term, we obtain the series 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + ..., which has
+for the sum of n terms n (n + 1) (n + 2) / 3!<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> This sum is taken as
+the nth term of the next series, and proceeding in this way we
+obtain series having the following nth terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">1, n, n(n + 1)/2!, n(n + 1)(n + 2)/3!, ...n(n+1) ...(n + r &minus; 2)/(r &minus; 1)!.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The numbers obtained by giving n any value in these expressions
+are of the first, second, third, ... or rth order of figurate
+numbers.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 275px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:190px" src="images/img335a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Pascal treated these numbers in his <i>Traité du triangle arithmetique</i>
+(1665), using them to develop a theory of combinations
+and to solve problems in probability.
+His table is here shown
+in its simplest form. It is to be
+noticed that each number is the
+sum of the numbers immediately
+above and to the left of it; and
+that the numbers along a line,
+termed a <i>base</i>, which cuts off an
+equal number of units along the
+top row and column are the coefficients
+in the binomial expansion
+of (1 + x)<span class="sp">r&minus;1</span>, where r represents the number of units
+cut off.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The notation n! denotes the product 1 · 2 · 3 · ... n, and is termed
+&ldquo;factorial n.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIJI<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (<i>Viti</i>), a British colony consisting of an archipelago in
+the Pacific Ocean, the most important in Polynesia, between
+15° and 20° S., and on and about the meridian of 180°. The
+islands number about 250, of which some 80 are inhabited.
+The total land area is 7435 sq. m. (thus roughly equalling that
+of Wales), and the population is about 121,000. The principal
+island is Viti Levu, 98 m. in length (E. to W.) and 67 in extreme
+breadth, with an area of 4112 sq. m. Forty miles N.E. lies
+Vanua Levu, measuring 117 m. by 30, with an area of 2432 sq. m.
+Close off the south-eastern shore of Vanua Levu is Taviuni,
+26 m. in length by 10 in breadth; Kandavu or Kadavu, 36 m.
+long and very narrow, is 41 m. S. of Viti Levu, and the three
+other main islands, lying east of Viti Levu in the Koro Sea, are
+Koro, Ngau or Gau, and Ovalau. South-east from Vanua Levu
+a loop of islets extends nearly to 20° S., enclosing the Koro Sea.
+North-west of Viti Levu lies another chain, the Yasawa or
+western group; and, finally, the colony includes the island of
+Rotumah (<i>q.v.</i>), 300 m. N.W. by N. of Vanua Levu.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of the larger islands is volcanic, their surface
+rugged, their vegetation luxuriant, and their appearance very
+beautiful; their hills rise often above 3000, and, in the case of a
+few summits, above 4000 ft., and they contrast strongly with the
+low coral formation of the smaller members of the group. There
+is not much level country, except in the coral islets, and certain
+rich tracts along the coasts of the two large islands, especially
+near the mouths of the rivers. The large islands have a considerable
+extent of undulating country, dry and open on their
+lee sides. Streams and rivers are abundant, the latter very
+large in proportion to the size of the islands, affording a waterway
+to the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive
+mud flats and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, by which
+their fertility is increased, though at a heavy cost to the cultivator.
+The Rewa, debouching through a wide delta at the
+south-east of Viti Levu, is navigable for small vessels for 40 m.
+There are also in this island the Navua and Sigatoka (flowing S.),
+the Nandi (W.), and the Ba (N.W.). The Dreketi, flowing W.,
+is the chief stream of Vanua Levu. It breaches the mountains
+in a fine valley; for this island consists practically of one long
+range, whereas the main valleys and ranges separating them in
+Viti Levu radiate for the most part from a common centre.
+With few exceptions the islands are surrounded by barriers
+of coral, broken by openings opposite the mouths of streams.
+Viti Levu is the most important island not only from its size,
+but from its fertility, variety of surface, and population, which
+is over one-third of that of the whole group. The town of Suva
+lies on an excellent harbour at the south-east of the island, and
+has been the capital of the colony since 1882, containing the
+government buildings and other offices. Vanua Levu is less
+fertile than Viti Levu; it has good anchorages along its entire
+southern coast. Of the other islands, Taviuni, remarkable for
+a lake (presumably a crater-lake) at the top of its lofty central
+ridge, is fertile, but exceptionally devoid of harbours; whereas
+the well-timbered island of Kandavu has an excellent one. On
+the eastern shore of Ovalau, an island which contains in a small
+area a remarkable series of gorge-like valleys between commanding
+hills, is the town of Levuka, the capital until 1882. It stands
+partly upon the narrow shore, and partly climbs the rocky slope
+behind. The chief islands on the west of the chain enclosing
+the Koro Sea are Koro, Ngau, Moala and Totoya, all productive,
+affording good anchorage, elevated and picturesque. The
+eastern islands of the chain are smaller and more numerous,
+Vanua Batevu (one of the Exploring Group) being a centre of
+trade. Among others, Mago is remarkable for a subterranean
+outlet of the waters of the fertile valley in its midst.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:471px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img335b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The land is of recent geological formation, the principal
+ranges being composed of igneous rock, and showing traces of
+much volcanic disturbance. There are boiling springs in Vanua
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span>
+Levu and Ngau, and slight shocks of earthquake are occasionally
+felt. The tops of many of the mountains, from Kandavu in the
+S.W., through Nairai and Koro, to the Ringgold group in the
+N.E., have distinct craters, but their activity has long ceased.
+The various decomposing volcanic rocks&mdash;tufas, conglomerates
+and basalts&mdash;mingled with decayed vegetable matter, and
+abundantly watered, form a very fertile soil. Most of the high
+peaks on the larger islands are basaltic, and the rocks generally
+are igneous, with occasional upheaved coral found sometimes
+over 1000 ft. above the sea; but certain sedimentary rocks
+observed on Viti Levu seem to imply a nucleus of land of considerable
+age. Volcanic activity in the neighbourhood is further
+shown by the quantities of pumice-stone drifted on to the south
+coasts of Kandavu and Viti Levu; malachite, antimony and
+graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron-sand occur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The colony is beyond the limits of the perpetual
+S.E. trades, while not within the range of the N.W. monsoons.
+From April to November the winds are steady between S.E. and
+E.N.E., and the climate is cool and dry, after which the weather
+becomes uncertain and the winds often northerly, this being the
+wet warm season. In February and March heavy gales are
+frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur, causing scarcity by
+destroying the crops. The rainfall is much greater on the windward
+than on the lee sides of the islands (about 110 in. at Suva),
+but the mean temperature is much the same, viz., about 80° F.
+In the hills the temperature sometimes falls below 50°. The
+climate, especially from November to April, is somewhat enervating
+to the Englishman, but not unhealthy. Fevers are hardly
+known. Dysentery, which is common, and the most serious
+disease in the islands, is said to have been unknown before the
+advent of Europeans.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;Besides the dog and the pig, which (with the domestic
+fowl) must have been introduced in early times, the only land
+mammals are certain species of rats and bats. Insects are numerous,
+but the species few. Bees have been introduced. The avifauna is
+not remarkable. Birds of prey are few; the parrot and pigeon tribes
+are better represented. Fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are numerous
+and varied; Mollusca, especially marine, and Crustaceae are also
+very numerous. These three form an important element in the food
+supply.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;The vegetation is mostly of a tropical Indo-Malayan
+character&mdash;thick jungle with great trees covered with creepers and
+epiphytes. The lee sides of the larger islands, however, have grassy
+plains suitable for grazing, with scattered trees, chiefly <i>Pandanus</i>,
+and ferns. The flora has also some Australian and New Zealand
+affinities (resembling in this respect the New Caledonia and New
+Hebrides groups), shown especially in these western districts by the
+<i>Pandanus</i>, by certain acacias and others. At an elevation of about
+2000 ft. the vegetation assumes a more mountainous type. Among
+the many valuable timber trees are the vesi (<i>Afzelia bijuga</i>); the
+dilo (<i>Calophyllum Inophyllum</i>), the oil from its seeds being much
+used in the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheumatism;
+the dakua (<i>Dammara Vitiensis</i>), allied to the New Zealand kauri,
+and others. The dakua or Fiji pine, however, has become scarce.
+Most of the fruit trees are also valuable as timber. The native cloth
+(<i>masi</i>) is beaten out from the bark of the paper mulberry cultivated
+for the purpose. Of the palms the cocoanut is by far the most
+important. The yasi or sandal-wood was formerly a valuable
+product, but is now rarely found. There are various useful drugs,
+spices and perfumes; and many plants are cultivated for their
+beauty, to which the natives are keenly alive. Among the plants
+used as pot-herbs are several ferns, and two or three Solanums,
+one of which, <i>S. anthropophagorum</i>, was one of certain plants always
+cooked with human flesh, which was said to be otherwise difficult of
+digestion. The use of the kava root, here called yanggona, from
+which the well-known national beverage is made, is said to have been
+introduced from Tonga. Of fruit trees, besides the cocoanut, there
+may be mentioned the many varieties of the bread-fruit, of bananas
+and plantains, of sugar-cane and of lemon; the wi (<i>Spondias dulcis</i>),
+the kavika (<i>Eugenia malaccensis</i>), the ivi or Tahitian chestnut
+(<i>Inocarpus edulis</i>), the pine-apple and others introduced in modern
+times. Edible roots are especially abundant. The chief staple of
+life is the yam, the names of several months in the calendar having
+reference to its cultivation and ripening. The natives use no grain or
+pulse, but make a kind of bread (<i>mandrai</i>) from this, the taro, and other
+roots, as well as from the banana (which is the best), the bread-fruit,
+the ivi, the kavika, the arrowroot, and in times of scarcity the
+mangrove. This bread is made by burying the materials for months,
+till the mass is thoroughly fermented and homogeneous, when it is
+dug up and cooked by baking or steaming. This simple process,
+applicable to such a variety of substances, is a valuable security
+against famine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>People.</i>&mdash;The Fijians are a people of Melanesian (Papuan)
+stock much crossed with Polynesians (Tongans and Samoans).
+They occupy the extreme east limits of Papuan territory and
+are usually classified as Melanesians; but they are physically
+superior to the pure examples of that race, combining their dark
+colour, harsh hirsute skin, crisp hair, which is bleached with lime
+and worn in an elaborately trained mop, and muscular limbs,
+with the handsome features and well proportioned bodies of the
+Polynesians. They are tall and well built. The features are
+strongly marked, but not unpleasant, the eyes deep set, the beard
+thick and bushy. The chiefs are fairer, much better-looking, and
+of a less negroid type of face than the people. This negroid type
+is especially marked on the west coasts, and still more in the
+interior of Viti Levu. The Fijians have other characteristics of
+both Pacific races, <i>e.g.</i> the quick intellect of the fairer, and the
+savagery and suspicion of the dark. They wear a minimum of
+covering, but, unlike the Melanesians, are strictly decent, while
+they are more moral than the Polynesians. They are cleanly and
+particular about their personal appearance, though, unlike other
+Melanesians, they care little for ornament, and only the women
+are tattooed. A partial circumcision is practised, which is
+exceptional with the Melanesians, nor have these usually an
+elaborate political and social system like that of Fiji. The status
+of the women is also somewhat better, those of the upper class
+having considerable freedom and influence. If less readily
+amenable to civilizing influences than their neighbours to the
+eastward, the Fijians show greater force of character and ingenuity.
+Possessing the arts of both races they practise them
+with greater skill than either. They understand the principle of
+division of labour and production, and thus of commerce. They
+are skilful cultivators and good boat-builders, the carpenters
+being an hereditary caste; there are also tribes of fishermen and
+sailors; their mats, baskets, nets, cordage and other fabrics
+are substantial and tasteful; their pottery, made, like many of
+the above articles, by women, is far superior to any other in
+the South Seas; but many native manufactures have been
+supplanted by European goods.</p>
+
+<p>The Fijians were formerly notorious for cannibalism, which
+may have had its origin in religion, but long before the first
+contact with Europeans had degenerated into gluttony. The
+Fijian&rsquo;s chief table luxury was human flesh, euphemistically
+called by him &ldquo;long pig,&rdquo; and to satisfy his appetite he would
+sacrifice even friends and relatives. The Fijians combined with
+this greediness a savage and merciless <span class="correction" title="amended from natures">nature</span>. Human sacrifices
+were of daily occurrence. On a chief&rsquo;s death wives and slaves
+were buried alive with him. When building a chief&rsquo;s house a
+slave was buried alive in the hole dug for each foundation post.
+At the launching of a war-canoe living men were tied hand and
+foot between two plantain stems making a human ladder over
+which the vessel was pushed down into the water. The people
+acquiesced in these brutal customs, and willingly met their deaths.
+Affection and a firm belief in a future state, in which the exact
+condition of the dying is continued, are the Fijians&rsquo; own explanations
+of the custom, once universal, of killing sick or aged
+relatives. Yet in spite of this savagery the Fijians have always
+been remarkable for their hospitality, open-handedness and
+courtesy. They are a sensitive, proud, if vindictive, and boastful
+people, with good conversational and reasoning powers, much
+sense of humour, tact and perception of character. Their code of
+social etiquette is minute and elaborate, and the graduations of
+rank well marked. These are (1) chiefs, greater and lesser; (2)
+priests; (3) <i>Mata ni Vanua</i> (lit., eyes of the land), employés,
+messengers or counsellors; (4) distinguished warriors of low
+birth; (5) common people; (6) slaves.</p>
+
+<p>The family is the unit of political society. The families are
+grouped in townships or otherwise (<i>qali</i>) under the lesser chiefs,
+who again owe allegiance to the supreme chief of the <i>matanitu</i> or
+tribe. The chiefs are a real aristocracy, excelling the people in
+physique, skill, intellect and acquirements of all sorts; and the
+reverence felt for them, now gradually diminishing, was very
+great, and had something of a religious character. All that a man
+had belonged to his chief. On the other hand, the chief&rsquo;s property
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span>
+practically belonged to his people, and they were as ready to give
+as to take. In a time of famine, a chief would declare the
+contents of the plantations to be common property. A system
+of feudal service-tenures (<i>lala</i>) is the institution on which their
+social and political fabric mainly depended. It allowed the chief
+to call for the labour of any district, and to employ it in planting,
+house or canoe-building, supplying food on the occasion of another
+chief&rsquo;s visit, &amp;c. This power was often used with much discernment;
+thus an unpopular chief would redeem his character by
+calling for some customary service and rewarding it liberally, or a
+district would be called on to supply labour or produce as a
+punishment. The privilege might, of course, be abused by needy
+or unscrupulous chiefs, though they generally deferred somewhat
+to public opinion; it has now, with similar customary exactions
+of cloth, mats, salt, pottery, &amp;c. been reduced within definite
+limits. An allied custom, <i>solevu</i>, enabled a district in want of any
+particular article to call on its neighbours to supply it, giving
+labour or something else in exchange. Although, then, the chief
+is lord of the soil, the inferior chiefs and individual families have
+equally distinct rights in it, subject to payment of certain dues;
+and the idea of permanent alienation of land by purchase was
+never perhaps clearly realized. Another curious custom was that
+of <i>vasu</i> (lit. nephew). The son of a chief by a woman of rank had
+almost unlimited rights over the property of his mother&rsquo;s family,
+or of her people. In time of war the chief claimed absolute
+control over life and property. Warfare was carried on with
+many courteous formalities, and considerable skill was shown in
+the fortifications. There were well-defined degrees of dependence
+among the different tribes or districts: the first of these, <i>bati</i>, is
+an alliance between two nearly equal tribes, but implying a sort
+of inferiority on one side, acknowledged by military service; the
+second, <i>qali</i>, implies greater subjection, and payment of tribute.
+Thus A, being bati to B, might hold C in qali, in which case C was
+also reckoned subject to B, or might be protected by B for
+political purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The former religion of the Fijians was a sort of ancestor-worship,
+had much in common with the creeds of Polynesia, and
+included a belief in a future existence. There were two classes of
+gods&mdash;the first immortal, of whom Ndengei is the greatest, said
+to exist eternally in the form of a serpent, but troubling himself
+little with human or other affairs, and the others had usually only
+a local recognition. The second rank (who, though far above
+mortals, are subject to their passions, and even to death) comprised
+the spirits of chiefs, heroes and other ancestors. The
+gods entered and spoke through their priests, who thus pronounced
+on the issue of every enterprise, but they were not
+represented by idols; certain groves and trees were held sacred,
+and stones which suggest phallic associations. The priesthood
+usually was hereditary, and their influence great, and they had
+generally a good understanding with the chief. The institution
+of Taboo existed in full force. The <i>mburé</i> or temple was also the
+council chamber and place of assemblage for various purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The weapons of the Fijians are spears, slings, throwing clubs
+and bows and arrows. Their houses, of which the framework is
+timber and the rest lattice and thatch, are ingeniously constructed,
+with great taste in ornamentation, and are well
+furnished with mats, mosquito-curtains, baskets, fans, nets and
+cooking and other utensils. Their canoes, sometimes more than
+100 ft. long, are well built. Ever excellent agriculturists, their
+implements were formerly digging sticks and hoes of turtlebone
+or flat oyster-shells. In irrigation they showed skill, draining
+their fields with built watercourses and bamboo pipes. Tobacco,
+maize, sweet potatoes, yams, kava, taro, beans and pumpkins,
+are the principal crops.</p>
+
+<p>Fijians are fond of amusements. They have various games,
+and dancing, story-telling and songs are especially popular.
+Their poetry has well-defined metres, and a sort of rhyme.
+Their music is rude, and is said to be always in the major key.
+They are clever cooks, and for their feasts preparations are sometimes
+made months in advance, and enormous waste results
+from them. Mourning is expressed by fasting, by shaving the
+head and face, or by cutting off the little finger. This last is
+sometimes done at the death of a rich man in the hope that his
+family will reward the compliment; sometimes it is done vicariously,
+as when one chief cuts off the little finger of his dependent
+in regret or in atonement for the death of another.</p>
+
+<p>A steady, if not a very rapid, decrease in the native population
+set in after 1875. A terrible epidemic of measles in that year
+swept away 40,000, or about one-third of the Fijians. Subsequent
+epidemics have not been attended by anything like this
+mortality, but there has, however, been a steady decrease,
+principally among young children, owing to whooping-cough,
+tuberculosis and croup. Every Fijian child seems to contract
+yaws at some time in its life, a mistaken notion existing on the
+part of the parents that it strengthens the child&rsquo;s physique.
+Elephantiasis, influenza; rheumatism, and a skin disease, <i>thoko</i>,
+also occur. One per cent of the natives are lepers. A commission
+appointed in 1891 to inquire into the causes of the native decrease
+collected much interesting anthropological information
+regarding native customs, and provincial inspectors and medical
+officers were specially appointed to compel the natives to carry
+out the sanitary reforms recommended by the commission.
+A considerable sum was also spent in laying on good water to the
+native villages. The Fijians show no disposition to intermarry
+with the Indian coolies. The European half-castes are not
+prolific <i>inter se</i>, and they are subject to a scrofulous taint. The
+most robust cross in the islands is the offspring of the African
+negro and the Fijian. Miscegenation with the Micronesians,
+the only race in the Pacific which is rapidly increasing, is regarded
+as the most hopeful manner of preserving the native Fijian
+population. There is a large Indian immigrant population.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trade, Administration, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The principal industries are the
+cultivation of sugar and fruits and the manufacture of sugar and
+copra, and these three are the chief articles of export trade,
+which is carried on almost entirely with Australia and New
+Zealand. The fruits chiefly exported are bananas and pineapples.
+There are also exported maize, vanilla and a variety
+of fruits in small quantities; pearl and other shells and bêche-de-mer.
+There is a manufacture of soap from coconut oil; a fair
+quantity of tobacco is grown, and among other industries may
+be included boat-building and saw-milling. Regular steamship
+communications are maintained with Sydney, Auckland and
+Vancouver. Good bridle-tracks exist in all the larger islands,
+and there are some macadamized roads, principally in Viti Levu.
+There is an overland mail service by native runners. The export
+trade is valued at nearly £600,000 annually, and the imports at
+£500,000. The annual revenue of the colony is about £140,000
+and the expenditure about £125,000. The currency and weights
+and measures are British. Besides the customs and stamp
+duties, some £18,000 of the annual revenue is raised from native
+taxation. The seventeen provinces of the colony (at the head of
+which is either a European or a <i>roko tui</i> or native official) are
+assessed annually by the legislative council for a fixed tax in kind.
+The tax on each province is distributed among districts under
+officials called <i>bulis</i>, and further among villages within these
+districts. Any surplus of produce over the assessment is sold to
+contractors, and the money received is returned to the natives.</p>
+
+<p>Under a reconstruction made in 1904 there is an executive
+council consisting of the governor and four official members.
+The legislative council consists of the governor, ten official, six
+elected and two native members. The native chiefs and provincial
+representatives meet annually under the presidency of
+the governor, and their recommendations are submitted for
+sanction to the legislative council. Suva and Levuka have each
+a municipal government, and there are native district and
+village councils. There is an armed native constabulary; and
+a volunteer and cadet corps in Suva and Levuka.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the natives are Wesleyan Methodists. The
+Roman Catholic missionaries have about 3000 adherents; the
+Church of England is confined to the Europeans and <i>kanakas</i>
+in the towns; the Indian coolies are divided between Mahommedans
+and Hindus. There are public schools for Europeans
+and half-castes in the towns, but there is no provision for the
+education of the children of settlers in the out-districts. By an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span>
+ordinance of 1890 provision was made for the constitution of
+school boards, and the principle was first applied in Suva and
+Levuka. The missions have established schools in every native
+village, and most natives are able to read and write their own
+language. The government has established a native technical
+school for the teaching of useful handicrafts. The natives show
+themselves very slow in adopting European habits in food,
+clothing and house-building.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;A few islands in the north-east of the group were
+first seen by Abel Tasman in 1643. The southernmost of the
+group, Turtle Island, was discovered by Cook in 1773. Lieutenant
+Bligh, approaching them in the launch of the &ldquo;Bounty,&rdquo; 1789,
+had a hostile encounter with natives. In 1827 Dumont d&rsquo;Urville
+in the &ldquo;Astrolabe&rdquo; surveyed them much more accurately, but
+the first thorough survey was that of the United States exploring
+expedition in 1840. Up to this time, owing to the evil reputation
+of the islanders, European intercourse was very limited. The
+labours of the Wesleyan missionaries, however, must always have
+a prominent place in any history of Fiji. They came from Tonga
+in 1835 and naturally settled first in the eastern islands, where
+the Tongan element, already familiar to them, preponderated.
+They perhaps identified themselves too closely with their Tongan
+friends, whose dissolute, lawless, tyrannical conduct led to much
+mischief; but it should not be forgotten that their position was
+difficult, and it was mainly through their efforts that many
+terrible heathen practices were stamped out.</p>
+
+<p>About 1804 some escaped convicts from Australia and runaway
+sailors established themselves around the east part of Viti Levu,
+and by lending their services to the neighbouring chiefs probably
+led to their preponderance over the rest of the group. Na
+Ulivau, chief of the small island of Mbau, established before
+his death in 1829 a sort of supremacy, which was extended by
+his brother Tanoa, and by Tanoa&rsquo;s son Thakombau, a ruler
+of considerable capacity. In his time, however, difficulties
+thickened. The Tongans, who had long frequented Fiji (especially
+for canoe-building, their own islands being deficient in
+timber), now came in larger numbers, led by an able and ambitious
+chief, Maafu, who, by adroitly taking part in Fijian
+quarrels, made himself chief in the Windward group, threatening
+Thakombau&rsquo;s supremacy. He was harassed, too, by an arbitrary
+demand for £9000 from the American government, for alleged
+injuries to their consul. Several chiefs who disputed his authority
+were crushed by the aid of King George of Tonga, who (1855)
+had opportunely arrived on a visit; but he afterwards, taking
+some offence, demanded £12,000 for his services. At last
+Thakombau, disappointed in the hope that his acceptance
+of Christianity (1854) would improve his position, offered the
+sovereignty to Great Britain (1859) with the fee simple of 100,000
+acres, on condition of her paying the American claims. Colonel
+Smythe, R.A., was sent out to report on the question, and
+decided against annexation, but advised that the British consul
+should be invested with full magisterial powers over his countrymen,
+a step which would have averted much subsequent difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Dr B. Seemann&rsquo;s favourable report on the
+capabilities of the islands, followed by a time of depression in
+Australia and New Zealand, led to a rapid increase of settlers&mdash;from
+200 in 1860 to 1800 in 1869. This produced fresh complications,
+and an increasing desire among the respectable settlers
+for a competent civil and criminal jurisdiction. Attempts
+were made at self-government, and the sovereignty was again
+offered, conditionally, to England, and to the United States.
+Finally, in 1871, a &ldquo;constitutional government&rdquo; was formed
+by certain Englishmen under King Thakombau; but this,
+after incurring heavy debt, and promoting the welfare of neither
+whites nor natives, came after three years to a deadlock, and
+the British government felt obliged, in the interest of all parties,
+to accept the unconditional cession now offered (1874). It had
+besides long been thought desirable to possess a station on the
+route between Australia and Panama; it was also felt that the
+Polynesian labour traffic, the abuses in which had caused much
+indignation, could only be effectually regulated from a point
+contiguous to the recruiting field, and the locality where that
+labour was extensively employed. To this end the governor of
+Fiji was also created &ldquo;high commissioner for the western
+Pacific.&rdquo; Rotumah (<i>q.v.</i>) was annexed in 1881.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the British annexation the islands were suffering
+from commercial depression, following a fall in the price of cotton
+after the American Civil War. Coffee, tea, cinchona and sugar
+were tried in turn, with limited success. The coffee was attacked
+by the leaf disease; the tea could not compete with that grown
+by the cheap labour of the East; the sugar machinery was too
+antiquated to withstand the fall in prices consequent on the
+European sugar bounties. In 1878 the first coolies were imported
+from India and the cultivation of sugar began to pass
+into the hands of large companies working with modern
+machinery. With the introduction of coolies the Fijians began
+to fall behind in the development of their country. Many of the
+coolies chose to remain in the colony after the termination of
+their indentures, and began to displace the European country
+traders. With a regular and plentiful supply of Indian coolies,
+the recruiting of <i>kanaka</i> labourers practically ceased. The
+settlement of European land claims, and the measures taken
+for the protection of native institutions, caused lively dissatisfaction
+among the colonists, who laid the blame of the commercial
+depression at the door of the government; but with returning
+prosperity this feeling began to disappear. In 1900 the government
+of New Zealand made overtures to absorb Fiji. The
+Aborigines Society protested to the colonial office, and the
+imperial government refused to sanction the proposal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Smyth, <i>Ten Months in the Fiji Islands</i> (London, 1864);
+B. Seemann, <i>Flora Vitiensis</i> (London, 1865); and <i>Viti: Account of
+a Government Mission in the Vitian or Fijian Islands</i> (1860-1861);
+W.T. Pritchard, <i>Polynesian Reminiscences</i> (London, 1866); H.
+Forbes, <i>Two Years in Fiji</i> (London, 1875); Commodore Goodenough,
+<i>Journal</i> (London, 1876); H.N. Moseley, <i>Notes of a Naturalist in the
+&ldquo;Challenger&rdquo;</i> (London, 1879); Sir A.H. Gordon, <i>Story of a Little
+War</i> (Edinburgh, privately printed, 1879); J.W. Anderson, <i>Fiji
+and New Caledonia</i> (London, 1880); C.F. Gordon-Cumming, <i>At
+Home in Fiji</i> (Edinburgh, 1881); John Horne, <i>A Year in Fiji</i>
+(London, 1881); H.S. Cooper, <i>Our New Colony, Fiji</i> (London,
+1882); S.E. Scholes, <i>Fiji and the Friendly Islands</i> (London, 1882);
+Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales, <i>Cruise of H. M. S. &ldquo;Bacchante&rdquo;</i>
+(London, 1886); A. Agassiz, <i>The Islands and Coral Reefs of
+Fiji</i> (Cambridge, Mass., U.S., 1899); H.B. Guppy, <i>Observations of
+a Naturalist in the Pacific</i> (1896-1899), vol. i.; <i>Vanua Levu, Fiji</i>
+(Phys. Geog. and Geology) (London, 1903); Lorimer Fison, <i>Tales
+from Old Fiji</i> (folk-lore, &amp;c.) (London, 1904); B. Thomson, <i>The
+Fijians</i> (London, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILANDER,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> the name by which the Aru Island wallaby
+(<i>Macropus brunii</i>) was first described. It occurs in a translation
+of C. de Bruyn&rsquo;s <i>Travels</i> (ii. 101) published in 1737.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILANGIERI, CARLO<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1784-1867), prince of Satriano,
+Neapolitan soldier and statesman, was the son of Gaetano
+Filangieri (1752-1788), a celebrated philosopher and jurist.
+At the age of fifteen he decided on a military career, and having
+obtained an introduction to Napoleon Bonaparte, then first
+consul, was admitted to the Military Academy at Paris. In
+1803 he received a commission in an infantry regiment, and
+took part in the campaign of 1805 under General Davoust, first
+in the Low Countries, and later at Ulm, Maria Zell and Austerlitz,
+where he fought with distinction, was wounded several times
+and promoted. He returned to Naples as captain on Masséna&rsquo;s
+staff to fight the Bourbons and the Austrians in 1806, and
+subsequently went to Spain, where he followed Jerome Bonaparte
+in his retreat from Madrid. In consequence of a fatal
+duel he was sent back to Naples; there he served under Joachim
+Murat with the rank of general, and fought against the Anglo-Sicilian
+forces in Calabria and at Messina. On the fall of
+Napoleon he took part in Murat&rsquo;s campaign against Eugène
+Beauharnais, and later in that against Austria, and was severely
+wounded at the battle of the Panaro (1815). On the restoration
+of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (I.), Filangieri retained his
+rank and command, but found the army utterly disorganized
+and impregnated with Carbonarism. In the disturbances of
+1820 he adhered to the Constitutionalist party, and fought
+under General Pepe (<i>q.v.</i>) against the Austrians. On the reestablishment
+of the autocracy he was dismissed from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span>
+service, and retired to Calabria where he had inherited the
+princely title and estates of Satriano. In 1831 he was recalled
+by Ferdinand II. and entrusted with various military reforms.
+On the outbreak of the troubles of 1848 Filangieri advised the
+king to grant the constitution, which he did in February 1848,
+but when the Sicilians formally seceded from the Neapolitan
+kingdom Filangieri was given the command of an armed force
+with which to reduce the island to obedience. On the 3rd of
+September he landed near Messina, and after very severe fighting
+captured the city. He then advanced southwards, besieged
+and took Catania, where his troops committed many atrocities,
+and by May 1849 he had conquered the whole of Sicily, though
+not without much bloodshed. He remained in Sicily as governor
+until 1855, when he retired into private life, as he could not
+carry out the reforms he desired owing to the hostility of Giovanni
+Cassisi, the minister for Sicily. On the death of Ferdinand II.
+(22nd of May 1859) the new king Francis II. appointed Filangieri
+premier and minister of war. He promoted good relations
+with France, then fighting with Piedmont against the Austrians
+in Lombardy, and strongly urged on the king the necessity of
+an alliance with Piedmont and a constitution as the only means
+whereby the dynasty might be saved. These proposals being
+rejected, Filangieri resigned office. In May 1860, Francis at
+last promulgated the constitution, but it was too late, for Garibaldi
+was in Sicily and Naples was seething with rebellion.
+On the advice of Liborio Romano, the new prefect of police,
+Filangieri was ordered to leave Naples. He went to Marseilles
+with his wife and subsequently to Florence, where at the instance
+of General La Marmora he undertook to write an account of
+the Italian army. Although he adhered to the new government
+he refused to accept any dignity at its hands, and died at his
+villa of San Giorgio a Cremano near Naples on the 9th of October
+1867.</p>
+
+<p>Filangieri was a very distinguished soldier, and a man of
+great ability; although he changed sides several times he
+became really attached to the Bourbon dynasty, which he hoped
+to save by freeing it from its reactionary tendencies and infusing
+a new spirit into it. His conduct in Sicily was severe and harsh,
+but he was not without feelings of humanity, and he was an
+honest man and a good administrator.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His biography has been written by his daughter Teresa Filangieri
+Fieschi-Ravaschieri, <i>Il Generale Carlo Filangieri</i> (Milan, 1902), an
+interesting, although somewhat too laudatory volume based on the
+general&rsquo;s own unpublished memoirs; for the Sicilian expedition see
+V. Finocchiaro, <i>La Rivoluzione siciliana del 1848-49</i> (Catania, 1906,
+with bibliography), in which Filangieri is bitterly attacked; see also
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naples</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand IV.</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Francis I.</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand II.</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Francis II.</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILANGIERI, GAETANO<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1752-1788), Italian publicist, was
+born at Naples on the 18th of August 1752. His father, Caesar,
+prince of Arianiello, intended him for a military career, which he
+commenced at the early age of seven, but soon abandoned for the
+study of the law. At the bar his knowledge and eloquence early
+secured his success, while his defence of a royal decree reforming
+abuses in the administration of justice gained him the favour of
+the king, Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and led to
+several honourable appointments at court. The first two books of
+his great work, <i>La Scienza della legislazione</i>, appeared in 1780.
+The first book contained an exposition of the rules on which
+legislation in general ought to proceed, while the second was
+devoted to economic questions. These two books showed him an
+ardent reformer, and vehement in denouncing the abuses of his
+time. He insisted on unlimited free trade, and the abolition of the
+medieval institutions which impeded production and national
+well-being. Its success was great and immediate not only in
+Italy, but throughout Europe at large. In 1783 he married, resigned
+his appointments at court, and retiring to Cava, devoted
+himself steadily to the completion of his work. In the same year
+appeared the third book, relating entirely to the principles of
+criminal jurisprudence. The suggestion which he made in it as to
+the need for reform in the Roman Catholic church brought upon
+him the censure of the ecclesiastical authorities, and it was
+condemned by the congregation of the Index in 1784. In 1785 he
+published three additional volumes, making the fourth book of
+the projected work, and dealing with education and morals. In
+1787 he was appointed a member of the supreme treasury council
+by Ferdinand IV., but his health, impaired by close study and
+over-work in his new office, compelled his withdrawal to the
+country at Vico Equense. He died somewhat suddenly on the
+21st of July 1788, having just completed the first part of the
+fifth book of his <i>Scienza</i>. He left an outline of the remainder of
+the work, which was to have been completed in six books.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>La Scienza della legislazione</i> has gone through many editions, and
+has been translated into most of the languages of Europe. The
+best Italian edition is in 5 vols. 8vo. (1807). The Milan edition (1822)
+contains the <i>Opusculi scelti</i> and a life by Donato Tommasi. A French
+translation appeared in Paris in 7 vols. 8vo. (1786-1798); it was
+republished in 1822-1824, with the addition of the <i>Opuscles</i> and
+notes by Benjamin Constant. <i>The Science of Legislation</i> was translated
+into English by Sir R. Clayton (London, 1806).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILARIASIS,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> the name of a disease due to the nematode
+<i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>. A milky appearance of the urine, due
+to the presence of a substance like chyle, which forms a clot, had
+been observed from time to time, especially in tropical and
+subtropical countries; and it was proved by Dr Wucherer of
+Bahia, and by Dr Timothy Lewis, that this peculiar condition is
+uniformly associated with the presence in the blood of minute
+eel-like worms, visible only under the microscope, being the
+embryo forms of a <i>Filaria</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nematoda</a></span>). Sometimes the
+discharge of lymph takes place at one or more points of the
+surface of the body, and there is in other cases a condition of
+naevoid elephantiasis of the scrotum, or lymph-scrotum. More
+or less of blood may occur along with the chylous fluid in the
+urine. Both the chyluria and the presence of filariae in the blood
+are curiously intermittent; it may happen that not a single
+filaria is to be seen during the daytime, while they swarm in the
+blood at night, and it has been ingeniously shown by Dr S.
+Mackenzie that they may be made to disappear if the patient sits
+up all night, reappearing while he sleeps through the day.</p>
+
+<p>Sir P. Manson proved that mosquitoes imbibe the embryo
+filariae from the blood of man; and that many of these reach full
+development within the mosquito, acquiring their freedom when
+the latter resorts to water, where it dies after depositing its eggs.
+Mosquitoes would thus be the intermediate host of the filariae,
+and their introduction into the human body would be through the
+medium of water (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parasitic Diseases</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILDES, SIR LUKE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1844-&emsp;&emsp;), English painter, was born at
+Liverpool, and trained in the South Kensington and Royal
+Academy schools. At first a highly successful illustrator, he took
+rank later among the ablest English painters, with &ldquo;The Casual
+Ward&rdquo; (1874), &ldquo;The Widower&rdquo; (1876), &ldquo;The Village Wedding&rdquo;
+(1883), &ldquo;An Al-fresco Toilette&rdquo; (1889); and &ldquo;The Doctor&rdquo;
+(1891), now in the National Gallery of British Art. He also
+painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many notable
+portraits, among them the coronation portraits of King Edward
+VII. and Queen Alexandra. He was elected an associate of the
+Royal Academy in 1879, and academician in 1887; and was
+knighted in 1906.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See David Croal Thomson, <i>The Life and Work of Luke Fildes, R.A.</i>
+(1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILE.<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> 1. A bar of steel having sharp teeth on its surface, and
+used for abrading or smoothing hard surfaces. (The O. Eng. word
+is <i>féol</i>, and cognate forms appear in Dutch <i>vijl</i>, Ger. <i>Feile</i>, &amp;c.;
+the ultimate source is usually taken to be an Indo-European root
+meaning to mark or scratch, and seen in the Lat. <i>pingere</i>, to
+paint.) Some uncivilized tribes polish their weapons with such
+things as rough stones, pieces of shark skin or fishes&rsquo; teeth.
+The operation of filing is recorded in 1 Sam. xiii. 21; and, among
+other facts, the similarity of the name for the filing instrument
+among various European peoples points to an early practice of
+the art. A file differs from a <i>rasp</i> (which is chiefly used for
+working wood, horn and the like) in having its teeth cut with a
+chisel whose straight edge extends across its surface, while the
+teeth of the rasp are formed by solitary indentations of a pointed
+chisel. According to the form of their teeth, files may be <i>single-cut</i>
+or <i>double-cut</i>; the former have only one set of parallel ridges
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span>
+(either at right angles or at some other angle with the length);
+the latter (and more common) have a second set cut at an angle
+with the first. The double-cut file presents sharp angles to the
+filed surface, and is better suited for hard metals. Files are
+classed according to the fineness of their teeth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>), and
+their shapes present almost endless varieties. Common forms
+are&mdash;the <i>flat</i> file, of parallelogram section, with uniform breadth
+and thickness, or tapering, or &ldquo;bellied&rdquo;; the <i>four-square</i> file, of
+square section, sometimes with one side &ldquo;safe,&rdquo; or left smooth;
+and the so-called <i>three-square</i> file, having its cross section an
+equilateral triangle, the <i>half-round</i> file, a segment of a circle, the
+<i>round</i> or <i>rat-tail</i> file, a circle, which are generally tapered. The
+<i>float</i> file is like the <i>flat</i>, but single-cut. There are many others.
+Files vary in length from three-quarters of an inch (watchmakers&rsquo;)
+to 2 or 3 ft. and upwards (engineers&rsquo;). The length is reckoned
+exclusively of the spike or tang which enters the handle. Most
+files are tapered; the <i>blunt</i> are nearly parallel, with larger section
+near the middle; a few are parallel. The <i>rifflers</i> of sculptors and
+a few other files are curvilinear in their central line.</p>
+
+<p>In manufacturing files, steel blanks are forged from bars which
+have been sheared or rolled as nearly as possible to the sections
+required, and after being carefully annealed are straightened, if
+necessary, and then rendered clean and accurate by grinding or
+filing. The process of cutting them used to be largely performed
+by hand, but machines are now widely employed. The hand-cutter,
+holding in his left hand a short chisel (the edge of which is
+wider than the width of the file), places it on the blank with an
+inclination from the perpendicular of 12° or 14°, and beginning
+near the farther end (the blank is placed with the tang or handle
+end towards him) strikes it sharply with a hammer. An indentation
+is thus made, and the steel, slightly thrown up on the side
+next the tang, forms a ridge. The chisel is then transferred to the
+uncut surface and slid away from the operator till it encounters
+the ridge just made; the position of the next cut being thus
+determined, the chisel is again struck, and so on. The workman
+seeks to strike the blows as uniformly as possible, and he will
+make 60 or 80 cuts a minute. If the file is to be single-cut, it is
+now ready to be hardened, but if it is to be double-cut he proceeds
+to make the second series or course of cuts, which are
+generally somewhat finer than the first. Thus the surface is
+covered with teeth inclined towards the point of the file. If the
+file is flat and is to be cut on the other side, it is turned over, and a
+thin plate of pewter placed below it to protect the teeth. Triangular
+and other files are supported in grooves in lead. In
+cutting round and half-round files, a straight chisel is applied as
+tangent to the curve. The round face of a half-round file requires
+eight, ten or more courses to complete it. Numerous attempts
+were made, even so far back as the 18th century, to invent
+machinery for cutting files, but little success was attained till the
+latter part of the 19th century. In most of the machines the
+idea was to arrange a metal arm and hand to hold the chisel with
+a hammer to strike the blow, and so to imitate the manual
+process as closely as possible. The general principle on which the
+successful forms are constructed is that the blanks, laid on a
+moving table, are slowly traversed forward under a rapidly
+reciprocating chisel or knife.</p>
+
+<p>The filing of a flat surface perfectly true is the test of a good
+filer; and this is no easy matter to the beginner. The piece to be
+operated upon is generally fixed about the level of the elbow,
+the operator standing, and, except in the case of small files,
+grasping the file with both hands, the handle with the right,
+the farther end with the left. The great point is to be able to
+move the file forward with pressure in horizontal straight lines;
+from the tendency of the hands to move in arcs of circles, the heel
+and point of the file are apt to be alternately raised. This is
+partially compensated by the bellied form given to many files
+(which also counteracts the frequent warping effect of the hardening
+process, by which one side of a flat file may be rendered
+concave and useless). In bringing back the file for the next
+thrust it is nearly lifted off the work. Further, much delicacy
+and skill are required in adapting the pressure and velocity,
+ascertaining if foreign matters or filings remain interposed
+between the file and the work, &amp;c. Files can be cleaned with
+a piece of the so-called <i>cotton-card</i> (used in combing cotton wool)
+nailed to a piece of wood. In <i>draw-filing</i>, which is sometimes
+resorted to to give a neat finish, the file is drawn sideways to
+and fro over the work. New files are generally used for a time
+on brass or cast-iron, and when partially worn they are still
+available for filing wrought iron and steel.</p>
+
+<p>2. A string or thread (through the Fr. <i>fil</i> and <i>file</i>, from Lat.
+<i>filum</i>, a thread); hence used of a device, originally a cord, wire
+or spike on which letters, receipts, papers, &amp;c., may be strung
+for convenient reference. The term has been extended to
+embrace various methods for the preservation of papers in a
+particular order, such as expanding books, cabinets, and ingenious
+improvements on the simple wire file which enable any
+single document to be readily found and withdrawn without
+removing the whole series. From the devices used for filing the
+word is transferred to the documents filed, and thus is used of a
+catalogue, list, or collection of papers, &amp;c. File is also employed
+to denote a row of persons or objects arranged one behind the
+other. In military usage a &ldquo;file&rdquo; is the opposite of a &ldquo;rank,&rdquo;
+that is, it is composed of a (variable) number of men aligned from
+front to rear one behind the other, while a rank contains a number
+of men aligned from right to left abreast. Thus a British infantry
+company, in line two deep, one hundred strong, has two ranks
+of fifty men each, and fifty &ldquo;files&rdquo; of two men each. Up to
+about 1600 infantry companies or battalions were often sixteen
+deep, one front rank man and the fifteen &ldquo;coverers&rdquo; forming a
+file. The number of ranks and, therefore, of men in the file
+diminished first to ten (1600), then to six (1630), then to three
+(1700), and finally to two (about 1808 in the British army, 1888
+in the German). Denser formations when employed have been
+formed, not by altering the order of men within the unit, but by
+placing several units, one closely behind the other (&ldquo;doubling&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;trebling&rdquo; the line of battle, as it used to be called). In
+the 17th century a file formed a small command under the &ldquo;file
+leader,&rdquo; the whole of the front rank consisting therefore of old
+soldiers or non-commissioned officers. This use of the word to
+express a unit of command gave rise to the old-fashioned term
+&ldquo;file firing,&rdquo; to imply a species of fire (equivalent to the modern
+&ldquo;independent&rdquo;) in which each man in the file fired in succession
+after the file leader, and to-day a corporal or sergeant is still
+ordered to take one or more files under his charge for independent
+work. In the above it is to be understood that the men are facing
+to the front or rear. If they are turned to the right or left so
+that the company now stands two men broad and fifty deep, it
+is spoken of as being &ldquo;in file.&rdquo; From this come such phrases as
+&ldquo;single file&rdquo; or &ldquo;Indian file&rdquo; (one man leading and the rest
+following singly behind him).<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The use of verbs &ldquo;to file&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;to defile,&rdquo; implying the passage from fighting to marching
+formation, is to be derived from this rather than from the resemblance
+of a marching column to a long flexible thread, for
+in the days when the word was first used the infantry company
+whether in battle or on the march was a solid rectangle of men,
+a file often containing even more men than a rank.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This may also be understood as meaning simply &ldquo;a single file,&rdquo;
+but the explanation given above is more probable, as it is essentially
+a marching and not a fighting formation that is expressed by the
+phrase.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILE-FISH,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Trigger-Fish</span>, the names given to fishes
+of the genus <i>Balistes</i> (and <i>Monacanthus</i>) inhabiting all tropical
+and subtropical seas. Their body is compressed and not covered
+with ordinary scales, but with small juxtaposed scutes. Their
+other principal characteristics consist in the structure of their
+first dorsal fin (which consists of three spines) and in their peculiar
+dentition. The first of the three dorsal spines is very strong,
+roughened in front like a file, and hollowed out behind to receive
+the second much smaller spine, which, besides, has a projection
+in front, at its base, fitting into a notch of the first. Thus these
+two spines can only be raised or depressed simultaneously, in
+such a manner that the first cannot be forced down unless the
+second has been previously depressed. The latter has been compared
+to a trigger, hence the name of Trigger-fish. Also the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span>
+generic name <i>Balistes</i> and the Italian name of &ldquo;Pesce balistra&rdquo;
+refer to this structure. Both jaws are armed with eight strong
+incisor-like and sometimes pointed teeth, by which these fishes are
+enabled, not only to break off pieces of madrepores and other
+corals on which they feed, but also to chisel a hole into the hard
+shells of Mollusca, in order to extract the soft parts. In this way
+they destroy an immense number of molluscs, and become most
+injurious to the pearl-fisheries. The gradual failure of those
+fisheries in Ceylon has been ascribed to this cause, although
+evidently other agencies must have been at work at the same
+time. The <i>Monacanthi</i> are distinguished from the <i>Balistes</i> in
+having only one dorsal spine and a velvety covering of the skin.
+Some 30 different species are known of <i>Balistes</i> and about 50
+of <i>Monacanthus</i>. Two species (<i>B. maculatus</i> and <i>capriscus</i>),
+common in the Atlantic, sometimes wander to the British
+coasts.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:447px; height:276px" src="images/img341.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Balistes vidua.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILELFO, FRANCESCO<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1398-1481), Italian humanist, was
+born in 1398 at Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. When he
+appeared upon the scene of human life, Petrarch and the students
+of Florence had already brought the first act in the recovery of
+classic culture to conclusion. They had created an eager appetite
+for the antique, had disinterred many important Roman
+authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent from
+the barbarism of the middle ages. Filelfo was destined to carry
+on their work in the field of Latin literature, and to be an important
+agent in the still unaccomplished recovery of Greek
+culture. His earliest studies in grammar, rhetoric and the Latin
+language were conducted at Padua, where he acquired so great
+a reputation for learning that in 1417 he was invited to teach
+eloquence and moral philosophy at Venice. According to the
+custom of that age in Italy, it now became his duty to explain the
+language, and to illustrate the beauties of the principal Latin
+authors, Cicero and Virgil being considered the chief masters of
+moral science and of elegant diction. Filelfo made his mark
+at once in Venice. He was admitted to the society of the first
+scholars and the most eminent nobles of that city; and in 1419
+he received an appointment from the state, which enabled him
+to reside as secretary to the consul-general (<i>baylo</i>) of the Venetians
+in Constantinople. This appointment was not only honourable
+to Filelfo as a man of trust and general ability, but it also gave
+him the opportunity of acquiring the most coveted of all possessions
+at that moment for a scholar&mdash;a knowledge of the Greek
+language. Immediately after his arrival in Constantinople,
+Filelfo placed himself under the tuition of John Chrysoloras,
+whose name was already well known in Italy as relative of Manuel,
+the first Greek to profess the literature of his ancestors in Florence.
+At the recommendation of Chrysoloras he was employed in several
+diplomatic missions by the emperor John Palaeologus. Before
+very long the friendship between Filelfo and his tutor was
+cemented by the marriage of the former to Theodora, the
+daughter of John Chrysoloras. He had now acquired a thorough
+knowledge of the Greek language, and had formed a large
+collection of Greek manuscripts. There was no reason why he
+should not return to his native country. Accordingly, in 1427 he
+accepted an invitation from the republic of Venice, and set sail for
+Italy, intending to resume his professorial career. From this
+time forward until the date of his death, Filelfo&rsquo;s history consists
+of a record of the various towns in which he lectured, the masters
+whom he served, the books he wrote, the authors he illustrated,
+the friendships he contracted, and the wars he waged with rival
+scholars. He was a man of vast physical energy, of inexhaustible
+mental activity, of quick passions and violent appetites; vain,
+restless, greedy of gold and pleasure and fame; unable to stay
+quiet in one place, and perpetually engaged in quarrels with his
+compeers.</p>
+
+<p>When Filelfo arrived at Venice with his family in 1427, he
+found that the city had almost been emptied by the plague,
+and that his scholars would be few. He therefore removed to
+Bologna; but here also he was met with drawbacks. The
+city was too much disturbed with political dissensions to attend
+to him; so Filelfo crossed the Apennines and settled in Florence.
+At Florence began one of the most brilliant and eventful periods
+of his life. During the week he lectured to large audiences of
+young and old on the principal Greek and Latin authors, and on
+Sundays he explained Dante to the people in the Duomo. In
+addition to these labours of the chair, he found time to translate
+portions of Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias from the
+Greek. Nor was he dead to the claims of society. At first he
+seems to have lived with the Florentine scholars on tolerably
+good terms; but his temper was so arrogant that Cosimo de&rsquo;
+Medici&rsquo;s friends were not long able to put up with him. Filelfo
+hereupon broke out into open and violent animosity; and when
+Cosimo was exiled by the Albizzi party in 1433, he urged the
+signoria of Florence to pronounce upon him the sentence of
+death. On the return of Cosimo to Florence, Filelfo&rsquo;s position
+in that city was no longer tenable. His life, he asserted, had
+been already once attempted by a cut-throat in the pay of the
+Medici; and now he readily accepted an invitation from the
+state of Siena. In Siena, however, he was not destined to remain
+more than four years. His fame as a professor had grown great
+in Italy, and he daily received tempting offers from princes and
+republics. The most alluring of these, made him by the duke
+of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, he decided on accepting; and
+in 1440 he was received with honour by his new master in the
+capital of Lombardy.</p>
+
+<p>Filelfo&rsquo;s life at Milan curiously illustrates the multifarious
+importance of the scholars of that age in Italy. It was his duty
+to celebrate his princely patrons in panegyrics and epics, to
+abuse their enemies in libels and invectives, to salute them with
+encomiastic odes on their birthdays, and to compose poems on
+their favourite themes. For their courtiers he wrote epithalamial
+and funeral orations; ambassadors and visitors from foreign
+states he greeted with the rhetorical lucubrations then so much
+in vogue. The students of the university he taught in daily
+lectures, passing in review the weightiest and lightest authors
+of antiquity, and pouring forth a flood of miscellaneous erudition.
+<span class="correction" title="amended from No">Not</span> satisfied with these outlets for his mental energy, Filelfo
+went on translating from the Greek, and prosecuted a paper
+warfare with his enemies in Florence. He wrote, moreover,
+political pamphlets on the great events of Italian history; and
+when Constantinople was taken by the Turks, he procured the
+liberation of his wife&rsquo;s mother by a message addressed in his own
+name to the sultan. In addition to a fixed stipend of some
+700 golden florins yearly, he was continually in receipt of special
+payments for the orations and poems he produced; so that,
+had he been a man of frugal habits or of moderate economy,
+he might have amassed a considerable fortune. As it was, he
+spent his money as fast as he received it, living in a style of
+splendour ill befitting a simple scholar, and indulging his taste
+for pleasure in more than questionable amusements. In consequence
+of this prodigality, he was always poor. His letters
+and his poems abound in impudent demands for money from
+patrons, some of them couched in language of the lowest adulation,
+and others savouring of literary brigandage.</p>
+
+<p>During the second year of his Milanese residence Filelfo lost
+his first wife, Theodora. He soon married again; and this time
+he chose for his bride a young lady of good Lombard family,
+called Orsina Osnaga. When she died he took in wedlock for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span>
+the third time a woman of Lombard birth, Laura Magiolini. To
+all his three wives, in spite of numerous infidelities, he seems
+to have been warmly attached; and this is perhaps the best
+trait in a character otherwise more remarkable for arrogance
+and heat than for any amiable qualities.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Filelfo, after a short
+hesitation, transferred his allegiance to Francesco Sforza, the
+new duke of Milan; and in order to curry favour with this
+parvenu, he began his ponderous epic, the <i>Sforziad</i>, of which
+12,800 lines were written, but which was never published. When
+Francesco Sforza died, Filelfo turned his thoughts towards
+Rome. He was now an old man of seventy-seven years, honoured
+with the friendship of princes, recognized as the most distinguished
+of Italian humanists, courted by pontiffs, and decorated
+with the laurel wreath and the order of knighthood by kings.
+Crossing the Apennines and passing through Florence, he reached
+Rome in the second week of 1475. The terrible Sixtus IV. now
+ruled in the Vatican; and from this pope Filelfo had received
+an invitation to occupy the chair of rhetoric with good emoluments.
+At first he was vastly pleased with the city and court
+of Rome; but his satisfaction ere long turned to discontent,
+and he gave vent to his ill-humour in a venomous satire on the
+pope&rsquo;s treasurer, Milliardo Cicala. Sixtus himself soon fell
+under the ban of his displeasure; and when a year had passed
+he left Rome never to return. Filelfo reached Milan to find that
+his wife had died of the plague in his absence, and was already
+buried. His own death followed speedily. For some time past
+he had been desirous of displaying his abilities and adding to
+his fame in Florence. Years had healed the breach between
+him and the Medicean family; and on the occasion of the Pazzi
+conspiracy against the life of Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici, he had sent
+violent letters of abuse to his papal patron Sixtus, denouncing
+his participation in a plot so dangerous to the security of Italy.
+Lorenzo now invited him to profess Greek at Florence, and
+thither Filelfo journeyed in 1481. But two weeks after his
+arrival he succumbed to dysentery, and was buried at the age
+of eighty-three in the church of the Annunziata.</p>
+
+<p>Filelfo deserves commemoration among the greatest humanists
+of the Italian Renaissance, not for the beauty of his style, not
+for the elevation of his genius, not for the accuracy of his learning,
+but for his energy, and for his complete adaptation to the times
+in which he lived. His erudition was large but ill-digested;
+his knowledge of the ancient authors, if extensive, was superficial;
+his style was vulgar; he had no brilliancy of imagination, no
+pungency of epigram, no grandeur of rhetoric. Therefore he
+has left nothing to posterity which the world would not very
+willingly let die. But in his own days he did excellent service
+to learning by his untiring activity, and by the facility with
+which he used his stores of knowledge. It was an age of accumulation
+and preparation, when the world was still amassing and
+cataloguing the fragments rescued from the wrecks of Greece
+and Rome. Men had to receive the very rudiments of culture
+before they could appreciate its niceties. And in this work of
+collection and instruction Filelfo excelled, passing rapidly from
+place to place, stirring up the zeal for learning by the passion
+of his own enthusiastic temperament, and acting as a pioneer
+for men like Poliziano and Erasmus.</p>
+
+<p>All that is worth knowing about Filelfo is contained in Carlo de&rsquo;
+Rosmini&rsquo;s admirable <i>Vita di Filelfo</i> (Milan, 1808); see also W.
+Roscoe&rsquo;s <i>Life of Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici</i>, Vespasiano&rsquo;s <i>Vite di uomini
+illustri</i>, and J.A. Symonds&rsquo;s <i>Renaissance in Italy</i> (1877).</p>
+<div class="author">(J. A. S.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of Filelfo&rsquo;s Greek letters (based on the Codex
+Trevulzianus) was published for the first time, with French translation,
+notes and commentaries, by E. Legrand in 1892 at Paris (C. xii.
+of <i>Publications de l&rsquo;école des lang. orient.</i>). For further references,
+especially to monographs, &amp;c., on Filelfo&rsquo;s life and work, see Ulysse
+Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist., bio-bibliographie</i> (Paris, 1905),
+s.v. <i>Philelphe, François</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILEY,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary
+division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 9-1/2 m. S.E. of
+Scarborough by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 3003. It stands upon the slope and
+summit of the cliffs above Filey Bay, which is fringed by a fine
+sandy beach. The northern horn of the bay is formed by Filey
+Brigg, a narrow and abrupt promontory, continued seaward by
+dangerous reefs. The coast-line sweeps hence south-eastward to
+the finer promontory of Flamborough Head, beyond which is the
+watering-place of Bridlington. The church of St Oswald at
+Filey is a fine cruciform building with central tower, Transitional
+Norman and Early English in date. There are pleasant
+promenades and good golf links, also a small spa which has fallen
+into disuse. Filey is in favour with visitors who desire a quiet
+resort without the accompaniment of entertainment common to
+the larger watering-places. Roman remains have been discovered
+on the cliff north of the town; the site was probably
+important, but nothing is certainly known about it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILIBUSTER,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a name originally given to the buccaneers
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The term is derived most probably from the Dutch <i>vry
+buiter</i>, Ger. <i>Freibeuter</i>, Eng. <i>freebooter</i>, the word changing first into
+<i>fribustier</i>, and then into Fr. <i>flibustier</i>, Span. <i>filibustero</i>. <i>Flibustier</i>
+has passed into the French language, and <i>filibustero</i> into
+the Spanish language, as a general name for a pirate. The term
+&ldquo;filibuster&rdquo; was revived in America to designate those
+adventurers who, after the termination of the war between
+Mexico and the United States, organized expeditions within the
+United States to take part in West Indian and Central American
+revolutions. From this has sprung the modern use of the word
+to imply one who engages in private, unauthorized and irregular
+warfare against any state. In the United States it is colloquially
+applied to legislators who practise obstruction.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1642-1707), Italian poet, sprung
+from an ancient and noble family of Florence, was born in that
+city on the 30th of December 1642. From an incidental notice
+in one of his letters, stating the amount of house rent paid during
+his childhood, his parents must have been in easy circumstances,
+and the supposition is confirmed by the fact that he enjoyed all
+the advantages of a liberal education, first under the Jesuits of
+Florence, and then in the university of Pisa.</p>
+
+<p>At Pisa his mind became stored, not only with the results of
+patient study in various branches of letters, but with the great
+historical associations linked with the former glory of the Pisan
+republic, and with one remarkable institution of which Pisa was
+the seat. To the tourist who now visits Pisa the banners and
+emblems of the order of St Stephen are mere matter of curiosity,
+but they had a serious significance two hundred years ago to the
+young Tuscan, who knew that these naval crusaders formed the
+main defence of his country and commerce against the Turkish,
+Algerine and Tunisian corsairs. After a five years&rsquo; residence in
+Pisa he returned to Florence, where he married Anna, daughter of
+the senator and marquis Scipione Capponi, and withdrew to a
+small villa at Figline, not far from the city. Abjuring the thought
+of writing amatory poetry in consequence of the premature death
+of a young lady to whom he had been attached, he occupied
+himself chiefly with literary pursuits, above all the composition of
+Italian and Latin poetry. His own literary eminence, the
+opportunities enjoyed by him as a member of the celebrated
+Academy Della Crusca for making known his critical taste and
+classical knowledge, and the social relations within the reach of a
+noble Florentine so closely allied with the great house of Capponi,
+sufficiently explain the intimate terms on which he stood with
+such eminent men of letters as Magalotti, Menzini, Gori and Redi.
+The last-named, the author of <i>Bacchus in Tuscany</i>, was not only
+one of the most brilliant poets of his time, and a safe literary
+adviser; he was the court physician, and his court influence was
+employed with zeal and effect in his friend&rsquo;s favour. Filicaja&rsquo;s
+rural seclusion was owing even more to his straitened means than
+to his rural tastes. If he ceased at length to pine in obscurity, the
+change was owing not merely to the fact that his poetical genius,
+fired by the deliverance of Vienna from the Turks in 1683, poured
+forth the right strains at the right time, but also to the influence of
+Redi, who not only laid Filicaja&rsquo;s verses before his own sovereign,
+but had them transmitted with the least possible delay to the
+foreign princes whose noble deeds they sung. The first recompense
+came, however, not from those princes, but from Christina,
+the ex-queen of Sweden, who, from her circle of savants and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span>
+courtiers at Rome, spontaneously and generously announced to
+Filicaja her wish to bear the expense of educating his two sons,
+enhancing her kindness by the delicate request that it should
+remain a secret.</p>
+
+<p>The tide of Filicaja&rsquo;s fortunes now turned. The grand-duke of
+Tuscany, Cosmo III., conferred on him an important office, the
+commissionership of official balloting. He was named governor
+of Volterra in 1696, where he strenuously exerted himself to raise
+the tone of public morality. Both there and at Pisa, where he
+was subsequently governor in 1700, his popularity was so great
+that on his removal the inhabitants of both cities petitioned for
+his recall. He passed the close of his life at Florence; the grand-duke
+raised him to the rank of senator, and he died in that city on
+the 24th of September 1707. He was buried in the family vault in
+the church of St Peter, and a monument was erected to his
+memory by his sole surviving son Scipione Filicaja. In the six
+celebrated odes inspired by the great victory of Sobieski, Filicaja
+took a lyrical flight which has placed him at moments on a level
+with the greatest Italian poets. They are, however, unequal,
+like all his poetry, reflecting in some passages the native vigour of
+his genius and purest inspirations of his tastes, whilst in others
+they are deformed by the affectations of the <i>Seicentisti</i>. When
+thoroughly natural and spontaneous&mdash;as in the two sonnets
+&ldquo;Italia, Italia, o tu cui feo la sorte&rdquo; and &ldquo;Dov&rsquo; è, Italia, il tuo
+braccio? e a che ti serve;&rdquo; in the verses &ldquo;Alla beata Vergine,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Al divino amore;&rdquo; in the sonnet &ldquo;Sulla fede nelle disgrazie&rdquo;&mdash;the
+truth and beauty of thought and language recall the verse
+of Petrarch.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the poems published in the complete Venice edition of
+1762, several other pieces appeared for the first time in the small
+Florence edition brought out by Barbera in 1864.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILIGREE<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (formerly written <i>filigrain</i> or <i>filigrane</i>; the Ital.
+<i>filigrana</i>, Fr. <i>filigrane</i>, Span, <i>filigrana</i>, Ger. <i>Drahtgeflecht</i>),
+jewel work of a delicate kind made with twisted threads usually
+of gold and silver. The word, which is usually derived from the
+Lat. <i>filum</i>, thread, and <i>granum</i>, grain, is not found in Ducange,
+and is indeed of modern origin. According to Prof. Skeat it is
+derived from the Span. <i>filigrana</i>, from &ldquo;<i>filar</i>, to spin, and <i>grano</i>,
+the grain or principal fibre of the material.&rdquo; Though filigree has
+become a special branch of jewel work in modern times it was
+anciently part of the ordinary work of the jeweller. Signor A.
+Castellani states, in his <i>Memoir on the Jewellery of the Ancients</i>
+(1861), that all the jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks (other
+than that intended for the grave, and therefore of an unsubstantial
+character) was made by soldering together and so building
+up the gold rather than by chiselling or engraving the material.</p>
+
+<p>The art may be said to consist in curling, twisting and plaiting
+fine pliable threads of metal, and uniting them at their points of
+contact with each other, and with the ground, by means of gold
+or silver solder and borax, by the help of the blowpipe. Small
+grains or beads of the same metals are often set in the eyes of
+volutes, on the junctions, or at intervals at which they will set
+off the wire-work effectively. The more delicate work is generally
+protected by framework of stouter wire. Brooches, crosses,
+earrings and other personal ornaments of modern filigree are
+generally surrounded and subdivided by bands of square or flat
+metal, giving consistency to the filling up, which would not otherwise
+keep its proper shape. Some writers of repute have laid equal
+stress on the <i>filum</i> and the <i>granum</i>, and have extended the use of
+the term filigree to include the granulated work of the ancients,
+even where the twisted wire-work is entirely wanting. Such a
+wide application of the term is not approved by current usage,
+according to which the presence of the twisted threads is the
+predominant fact.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian jewellers employed wire, both to lay down on a
+background and to plait or otherwise arrange <i>à jour</i>. But, with
+the exception of chains, it cannot be said that filigree work was
+much practised by them. Their strength lay rather in their
+cloisonné work and their moulded ornaments. Many examples,
+however, remain of round plaited gold chains of fine wire, such
+as are still made by the filigree workers of India, and known
+as Trichinopoly chains. From some of these are hung smaller
+chains of finer wire with minute fishes and other pendants
+fastened to them. In ornaments derived from Phoenician sites,
+such as Cyprus and Sardinia, patterns of gold wire are laid
+down with great delicacy on a gold ground, but the art was
+advanced to its highest perfection in the Greek and Etruscan
+filigree of the 6th to the 3rd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A number of earrings
+and other personal ornaments found in central Italy are preserved
+in the Louvre and in the British Museum. Almost all
+of them are made of filigree work. Some earrings are in the
+form of flowers of geometric design, bordered by one or more
+rims each made up of minute volutes of gold wire, and this kind
+of ornament is varied by slight differences in the way of disposing
+the number or arrangement of the volutes. But the feathers
+and petals of modern Italian filigree are not seen in these ancient
+designs. Instances occur, but only rarely, in which filigree
+devices in wire are self-supporting and not applied to metal
+plates. The museum of the Hermitage at St Petersburg contains
+an amazingly rich collection of jewelry from the tombs of the
+Crimea. Many bracelets and necklaces in that collection are
+made of twisted wire, some in as many as seven rows of plaiting,
+with clasps in the shape of heads of animals of beaten work.
+Others are strings of large beads of gold, decorated with volutes,
+knots and other patterns of wire soldered over the surfaces.
+(See the <i>Antiquités du Bosphore Cimmérien</i>, by Gille, 1854;
+reissued by S. Reinach, 1892, in which will be found careful
+engravings of these objects.) In the British Museum a sceptre,
+probably that of a Greek priestess, is covered with plaited and
+netted gold wire, finished with a sort of Corinthian capital and
+a boss of green glass.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that in India and various parts of central Asia
+filigree has been worked from the most remote period without
+any change in the designs. Whether the Asiatic jewellers were
+influenced by the Greeks settled on that continent, or merely
+trained under traditions held in common with them, it is certain
+that the Indian filigree workers retain the same patterns as those
+of the ancient Greeks, and work them in the same way, down to
+the present day. Wandering workmen are given so much gold,
+coined or rough, which is weighed, heated in a pan of charcoal,
+beaten into wire, and then worked in the courtyard or verandah
+of the employer&rsquo;s house according to the designs of the artist,
+who weighs the complete work on restoring it and is paid at a
+specified rate for his labour. Very fine grains or beads and
+spines of gold, scarcely thicker than coarse hair, projecting
+from plates of gold are methods of ornamentation still used.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to later times we may notice in many collections of
+medieval jewel work (such as that in the South Kensington
+Museum) reliquaries, covers for the gospels, &amp;c., made either
+in Constantinople from the 6th to the 12th centuries, or in
+monasteries in Europe, in which Byzantine goldsmiths&rsquo; work
+was studied and imitated. These objects, besides being enriched
+with precious stones, polished, but not cut into facets, and with
+enamel, are often decorated with filigree. Large surfaces of gold
+are sometimes covered with scrolls of filigree soldered on; and
+corner pieces of the borders of book covers, or the panels of
+reliquaries, are not unfrequently made up of complicated pieces
+of plaited work alternating with spaces encrusted with enamel.
+Byzantine filigree work occasionally has small stones set amongst
+the curves or knots. Examples of such decoration can be seen
+in the South Kensington and British Museums.</p>
+
+<p>In the north of Europe the Saxons, Britons and Celts were
+from an early period skilful in several kinds of goldsmiths&rsquo; work.
+Admirable examples of filigree patterns laid down in wire on
+gold, from Anglo-Saxon tombs, may be seen in the British
+Museum&mdash;notably a brooch from Dover, and a sword-hilt from
+Cumberland.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish filigree work is more thoughtful in design and more
+varied in pattern than that of any period or country that could
+be named. Its highest perfection must be placed in the 10th
+and 11th centuries. The Royal Irish Academy in Dublin
+contains a number of reliquaries and personal jewels, of which
+filigree is the general and most remarkable ornament. The
+&ldquo;Tara&rdquo; brooch has been copied and imitated, and the shape and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span>
+decoration of it are well known. Instead of fine curls or volutes
+of gold thread, the Irish filigree is varied by numerous designs
+in which one thread can be traced through curious knots and
+complications, which, disposed over large surfaces, balance one
+another, but always with special varieties and arrangements
+difficult to trace with the eye. The long thread appears and
+disappears without breach of continuity, the two ends generally
+worked into the head and the tail of a serpent or a monster.
+The reliquary containing the &ldquo;Bell of St Patrick&rdquo; is covered
+with knotted work in many varieties. A two-handled chalice,
+called the &ldquo;Ardagh cup,&rdquo; found near Limerick in 1868, is
+ornamented with work of this kind of extraordinary fineness.
+Twelve plaques on a band round the body of the vase, plaques
+on each handle and round the foot of the vase have a series of
+different designs of characteristic patterns, in fine filigree wire
+work wrought on the front of the repoussé ground. (See a paper
+by the 3rd earl of Dunraven in <i>Transactions of Royal Irish
+Academy</i>, xxiv. pt. iii. 1873.)</p>
+
+<p>Much of the medieval jewel work all over Europe down to
+the 15th century, on reliquaries, crosses, croziers and other
+ecclesiastical goldsmiths&rsquo; work, is set off with bosses and borders
+of filigree. Filigree work in silver was practised by the Moors
+of Spain during the middle ages with great skill, and was introduced
+by them and established all over the Peninsula, whence
+it was carried to the Spanish colonies in America. The Spanish
+filigree work of the 17th and 18th centuries is of extraordinary
+complexity (examples in the Victoria and Albert Museum), and
+silver filigree jewelry of delicate and artistic design is still made
+in considerable quantities throughout the country. The manufacture
+spread over the Balearic Islands, and among the populations
+that border the Mediterranean. It is still made all over
+Italy, and in Malta, Albania, the Ionian Islands and many
+other parts of Greece. That of the Greeks is sometimes on a
+large scale, with several thicknesses of wires alternating with
+larger and smaller bosses and beads, sometimes set with
+turquoises, &amp;c., and mounted on convex plates, making rich
+ornamental headpieces, belts and breast ornaments. Filigree
+silver buttons of wire-work and small bosses are worn by the
+peasants in most of the countries that produce this kind of
+jewelry. Silver filigree brooches and buttons are also made
+in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Little chains and pendants
+are added to much of this northern work.</p>
+
+<p>Some very curious filigree work was brought from Abyssinia
+after the capture of Magdala&mdash;arm-guards, slippers, cups, &amp;c.,
+some of which are now in the South Kensington Museum. They
+are made of thin plates of silver, over which the wire-work is
+soldered. The filigree is subdivided by narrow borders of simple
+pattern, and the intervening spaces are made up of many
+patterns, some with grains set at intervals.</p>
+
+<p>A few words must be added as to the granulated work which,
+as stated above, some writers have classed under the term of
+filigree, although the twisted wires may be altogether wanting.
+Such decoration consists of minute globules of gold, soldered
+to form patterns on a metal surface. Its use is rare in Egypt.
+(See J. de Morgan, <i>Fouilles à Dahchour</i>, 1894-1895, pl. xii.)
+It occurs in Cyprus at an early period, as for instance on a gold
+pendant in the British Museum from Enkomi in Cyprus (10th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The pendant is in the form of a pomegranate,
+and has upon it a pattern of triangles, formed by more than
+3000 minute globules separately soldered on. It also occurs on
+ornaments of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> from Camirus in Rhodes.
+But these globules are large, compared with those which are
+found on Etruscan jewelry. Signor Castellani, who had made
+the antique jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks his special
+study, with the intention of reproducing the ancient models,
+found it for a long time impossible to revive this particular
+process of delicate soldering. He overcame the difficulty at
+last, by the discovery of a traditional school of craftsmen at
+St Angelo in Vado, by whose help his well-known reproductions
+were executed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For examples of antique work the student should examine the
+gold ornament rooms of the British Museum, the Louvre and the
+collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The last contains a
+large and very varied assortment of modern Italian, Spanish, Greek
+and other jewelry made for the peasants of various countries. It
+also possesses interesting examples of the modern work in granulated
+gold by Castellani and Giuliano. The Celtic work is well represented
+in the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILLAN, SAINT,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Faelan</span>, the name of the two Scottish
+saints, of Irish origin, whose lives are of a purely legendary
+character. The St Fillan whose feast is kept on the 20th of June
+had churches dedicated to his honour at Ballyheyland, Queen&rsquo;s
+county, Ireland, and at Loch Earn, Perthshire. The other,
+who is commemorated on the 9th of January, was specially
+venerated at Cluain Mavscua, Co. Westmeath, Ireland, and so
+early as the 8th or 9th century at Strathfillan, Perthshire, Scotland,
+where there was an ancient monastery dedicated to him, which,
+like most of the religious houses of early times, was afterwards
+secularized. The lay-abbot, who was its superior in the reign
+of William the Lion, held high rank in the Scottish kingdom.
+This monastery was restored in the reign of Robert Bruce, and
+became a cell of the abbey of canons regular at Inchaffray.
+The new foundation received a grant from King Robert, in gratitude
+for the aid which he was supposed to have obtained from a
+relic of the saint on the eve of the great victory of Bannockburn.
+Another relic was the saint&rsquo;s staff or crozier, which became
+known as the coygerach or quigrich, and was long in the possession
+of a family of the name of Jore or Dewar, who were its
+hereditary guardians. They certainly had it in their custody
+in the year 1428, and their right was formally recognized by
+King James III. in 1487. The head of the crozier, which is of
+silver-gilt with a smaller crozier of bronze inclosed within it, is
+now deposited in the National Museum of the Society of Antiquaries
+of Scotland.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The legend of the second of these saints is given in the Bollandist
+<i>Acta SS.</i> (1643), 9th of January, i. 594-595; A.P. Forbes, <i>Kalendars
+of Scottish Saints</i> (Edinburgh, 1872), pp. 341-346; D. O&rsquo;Hanlon&rsquo;s
+<i>Lives of Irish Saints</i> (Dublin), n.d. pp. 134-144. See also <i>Historical
+Notices of St Fillan&rsquo;s Crozier</i>, by Dr John Stuart (Aberdeen, 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILLET<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>filet</i>, from the med. Lat. <i>filettum</i>, diminutive
+of <i>filum</i>, a thread), a band or ribbon used for tying the hair,
+the Lat. <i>vitta</i>, which was used as a sacrificial emblem, and also
+worn by vestal virgins, brides and poets. The word is thus
+applied to anything in the shape of a band or strip, as, in coining,
+to the metal ribbon from which the blanks are punched. In
+architecture, a &ldquo;fillet&rdquo; is a narrow flat band, sometimes called
+a &ldquo;listel,&rdquo; which is used to separate mouldings one from the other,
+or to terminate a suite of mouldings as at the top of a cornice.
+In the fluted column of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders the fillet
+is employed between the flutes. It is a very important feature
+in Gothic work, being frequently worked on large mouldings;
+when placed on the front and sides of the moulding of a rib it
+has been termed the &ldquo;keel and wings&rdquo; of the rib.</p>
+
+<p>In cooking, &ldquo;fillet&rdquo; is used of the &ldquo;undercut&rdquo; of a sirloin of
+beef, or of a thick slice of fish or meat; more particularly of a
+boned and rolled piece of veal or other meat, tied by a &ldquo;fillet&rdquo;
+or string.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILLMORE, MILLARD<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1800-1874), thirteenth president of
+the United States of America, came of a family of English stock,
+which had early settled in New England. His father, Nathaniel,
+in 1795, made a clearing within the limits of what is now the town
+of Summerhill, Cayuga county, New York, and there Millard
+Fillmore was born, on the 7th of January 1800. Until he was
+fifteen he could have acquired only the simplest rudiments of
+education, and those chiefly from his parents. At that age he
+was apprenticed to a fuller and clothier, to card wool, and to dye
+and dress the cloth. Two years before the close of his term, with
+a promissory note for thirty dollars, he bought the remainder
+of his time from his master, and at the age of nineteen began to
+study law. In 1820 he made his way to Buffalo, then only
+a village, and supported himself by teaching school and aiding
+the postmaster while continuing his studies.</p>
+
+<p>In 1823 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice at
+Aurora, New York, to which place his father had removed.
+Hard study, temperance and integrity gave him a good reputation
+and moderate success, and in 1827 he was made an attorney
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span>
+and, in 1829, counsellor of the supreme court of the state.
+Returning to Buffalo in 1830 he formed, in 1832, a partnership
+with Nathan K. Hall (1810-1874), later a member of Congress
+and postmaster-general in his cabinet. Solomon G. Haven (1810-1861),
+member of Congress from 1851 to 1857, joined them in
+1836. The firm met with great success. From 1829 to 1832
+Fillmore served in the state assembly, and, in the single term
+of 1833-1835, the national House of Representatives, coming
+in as anti-Jackson, or in opposition to the administration. From
+1837 to 1843, when he declined further service, he again represented
+his district in the House, this time as a member of the
+Whig party. In Congress he opposed the annexation of Texas
+as slave territory, was an advocate of internal improvements and
+a protective tariff, supported J.Q. Adams in maintaining the
+right of offering anti-slavery petitions, advocated the prohibition
+by Congress of the slave trade between the states, and favoured
+the exclusion of slavery from the District of Columbia. His
+speech and tone, however, were moderate on these exciting
+subjects, and he claimed the right to stand free of pledges, and
+to adjust his opinions and his course by the development of
+circumstances. The Whigs having the ascendancy in the Twenty-Seventh
+Congress, he was made chairman of the House Committee
+of Ways and Means. Against a strong opposition he
+carried an appropriation of $30,000 to Morse&rsquo;s telegraph,
+and reported from his committee the Tariff Bill of 1842. In
+1844 he was the Whig candidate for the governorship of New
+York, but was defeated. In November 1847 he was elected
+comptroller of the state of New York, and in 1848 he was
+elected vice-president of the United States on the ticket with
+Zachary Taylor as president. Fillmore presided over the senate
+during the exciting debates on the &ldquo;Compromise Measures of
+1850.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>President Taylor died on the 9th of July 1850, and on the next
+day Fillmore took the oath of office as his successor. The cabinet
+which he called around him contained Daniel Webster, Thomas
+Corwin and John J. Crittenden. On the death of Webster in
+1852, Edward Everett became secretary of state. Unlike Taylor,
+Fillmore favoured the &ldquo;Compromise Measures,&rdquo; and his signing
+one of them, the Fugitive Slave Law, in spite of the vigorous
+protests of anti-slavery men, lost him much of his popularity
+in the North. Few of his opponents, however, questioned his
+own full persuasion that the Compromise Measures were vitally
+necessary to pacify the nation. In 1851 he interposed promptly
+but ineffectively in thwarting the projects of the &ldquo;filibusters,&rdquo;
+under Narciso Lopez for the invasion of Cuba. Commodore
+Matthew Calbraith Perry&rsquo;s expedition, which opened up diplomatic
+relations with Japan, and the exploration of the valley
+of the Amazon by Lieutenants William L. Herndon (1813-1857)
+and Lardner Gibbon also occurred during his term. In the
+autumn of 1852 he was an unsuccessful candidate for nomination
+for the presidency by the Whig National Convention, and he went
+out of office on the 4th of March 1853. In February 1856, while
+he was travelling abroad, he was nominated for the presidency
+by the American or Know Nothing party, and later this nomination
+was also accepted by the Whigs; but in the ensuing presidential
+election, the last in which the Know Nothings and the
+Whigs as such took any part, he received the electoral votes of
+only one state, Maryland. Thereafter he took no public share
+in political affairs. Fillmore was twice married: in 1826 to
+Abigail Powers (who died in 1853, leaving him with a son and
+daughter), and in 1858 to Mrs. Caroline C. Mclntosh. He died
+at Buffalo on the 8th of March 1874.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1907 the Buffalo Historical Society, of which Fillmore was one
+of the founders and the first president, published the <i>Millard Fillmore
+Papers</i> (2 vols., vol. x. and xi. of the Society&rsquo;s publications; edited
+by F.H. Severance), containing miscellaneous writings and speeches,
+and official and private correspondence. Most of his correspondence,
+however, was destroyed in pursuance of a direction in his son&rsquo;s will.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILMER, SIR RORERT<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (d. 1653), English political writer, was
+the son of Sir Edward Filmer of East Sutton in Kent. He
+studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in
+1604. Knighted by Charles I. at the beginning of his reign, he
+was an ardent supporter of the king&rsquo;s cause, and his house is said
+to have been plundered by the parliamentarians ten times. He
+died on the 26th of May 1653.</p>
+
+<p>Filmer was already a middle-aged man when the great controversy
+between the king and the Commons roused him into literary
+activity. His writings afford an exceedingly curious example of
+the doctrines held by the most extreme section of the Divine
+Right party. Filmer&rsquo;s theory is founded upon the statement that
+the government of a family by the father is the true original and
+model of all government. In the beginning of the world God gave
+authority to Adam, who had complete control over his descendants,
+even as to life and death. From Adam this authority was
+inherited by Noah; and Filmer quotes as not unlikely the
+tradition that Noah sailed up the Mediterranean and allotted the
+three continents of the Old World to the rule of his three sons.
+From Shem, Ham and Japheth the patriarchs inherited the
+absolute power which they exercised over their families and
+servants; and from the patriarchs all kings and governors
+(whether a single monarch or a governing assembly) derive their
+authority, which is therefore absolute, and founded upon divine
+right. The difficulty that a man &ldquo;by the secret will of God may
+unjustly&rdquo; attain to power which he has not inherited appeared to
+Filmer in no way to alter the nature of the power so obtained,
+for &ldquo;there is, and always shall be continued to the end of the
+world, a natural right of a supreme father over every multitude.&rdquo;
+The king is perfectly free from all human control. He cannot be
+bound by the acts of his predecessors, for which he is not responsible;
+nor by his own, for &ldquo;impossible it is in nature that a
+man should give a law unto himself&rdquo;&mdash;a law must be imposed by
+another than the person bound by it. With regard to the English
+constitution, he asserted, in his <i>Freeholder&rsquo;s Grand Inquest
+touching our Sovereign Lord the King and his Parliament</i> (1648),
+that the Lords only give counsel to the king, the Commons only
+&ldquo;perform and consent to the ordinances of parliament,&rdquo; and the
+king alone is the maker of laws, which proceed purely from his
+will. It is monstrous that the people should judge or depose
+their king, for they would then be judges in their own cause.</p>
+
+<p>The most complete expression of Filmer&rsquo;s opinions is given in
+the <i>Patriarcha</i>, which was published in 1680, many years after his
+death. His position, however, was sufficiently indicated by the
+works which he published during his lifetime: the <i>Anarchy of a
+Limited and Mixed Monarchy</i> (1648), an attack upon a treatise on
+monarchy by Philip Hunton (1604?-1682), who maintained that
+the king&rsquo;s prerogative is not superior to the authority of the
+houses of parliament; the pamphlet entitled <i>The Power of Kings,
+and in particular of the King of England</i> (1648), first published
+in 1680; and his <i>Observations upon Mr Hobbes&rsquo;s Leviathan, Mr
+Milton against Salmasius, and H. Grotius De jure belli et pacis,
+concerning the Originall of Government</i> (1652). Filmer&rsquo;s theory,
+owing to the circumstances of the time, obtained a recognition
+which it is now difficult to understand. Nine years after the
+publication of the <i>Patriarcha</i>, at the time of the Revolution which
+banished the Stuarts from the throne, Locke singled out Filmer
+as the most remarkable of the advocates of Divine Right, and
+thought it worth while to attack him expressly in the first part of
+the <i>Treatise on Government</i>, going into all his arguments <i>seriatim</i>,
+and especially pointing out that even if the first steps of his
+argument be granted, the rights of the eldest born have been so
+often set aside that modern kings can claim no such inheritance of
+authority as he asserted.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILMY FERNS,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> a general name for a group of ferns with
+delicate much-divided leaves and often moss-like growth,
+belonging to the genera <i>Hymenophyllum</i>, <i>Todea</i> and <i>Trichomanes</i>.
+They require to be kept in close cases in a cool fernery, and the
+stones and moss amongst which they are grown must be kept
+continually moist so that the evaporated water condenses on the
+very numerous divisions of the leaves.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), French man
+of letters, son of the historian Charles Auguste Désiré Filon
+(1800-1875), was born in Paris in 1841. His father became
+professor of history at Douai, and eventually &ldquo;<i>inspecteur
+d&rsquo;académie</i>&rdquo; in Paris; his principal works were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span>
+<i>Histoire comparée de France et de l&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (1832), <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;Europe au
+XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1838), <i>La Diplomatie française sous Louis XV</i>
+(1843), <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;Italie méridionale</i> (1849), <i>Histoire du sénat
+romain</i> (1850), <i>Histoire de la démocratie athénienne</i> (1854).
+Educated at the École normale, Augustin Filon was appointed
+tutor to the prince imperial and accompanied him to England,
+where he remained for some years. He is the author of <i>Guy
+Patin, sa vie, sa correspondance</i> (1862); <i>Nos grands-pères</i> (1887);
+<i>Prosper Mérimée</i> (1894); <i>Sous la tyrannie</i> (1900). On English
+subjects he has written chiefly under the pseudonym of Pierre
+Sandrié, <i>Les Mariages de Londres</i> (1875); <i>Histoire de la littérature
+anglaise</i> (1883); <i>Le Théâtre anglais</i> (1896), and <i>La Caricature
+en Angleterre</i> (1902).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILOSA<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (A. Lang), one of the two divisions of Rhizopoda,
+characterized by protoplasm granular at the surface, and fine
+pseudopodia branching and usually acutely pointed at the tips.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FILTER<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (a word common in various forms to most European
+languages, adapted from the medieval Lat. <i>filtrum</i>, felt, a
+material used as a filtering agent), an arrangement for separating
+solid matter from liquids. In some cases the operation of
+filtration is performed for the sake of removing impurities from
+the filtrate or liquid filtered, as in the purification of water for
+drinking purposes; in others the aim is to recover and collect
+the solid matter, as when the chemist filters off a precipitate from
+the liquid in which it is suspended.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the purification of water, filtration was long looked
+upon as merely a mechanical process of straining out the solid
+particles, whereby a turbid water could be rendered clear. In
+the course of time it was noticed that certain materials, such as
+charcoal, had the power to some extent also of softening hard
+water and of removing organic matter, and at the beginning of
+the 19th century charcoal, both animal and vegetable, came into
+use for filtering purposes. Porous carbon blocks, made by
+strongly heating a mixture of powdered charcoal with oil, resin,
+&amp;c., were introduced about a generation later, and subsequently
+various preparations of iron (spongy iron, magnetic oxide) found
+favour. Innumerable forms of filters made with these and other
+materials were put on the market, and were extolled as removing
+impurities of every kind from water, and as affording complete
+protection against the communication of disease. But whatever
+merits they had as clarifiers of turbid water, the advent of
+bacteriology, and the recognition of the fact that the bacteria of
+certain diseases may be water-borne, introduced a new criterion
+of effectiveness, and it was perceived that the removal of solid
+particles, or even of organic impurities (which were realized to be
+important not so much because they are dangerous to health
+<i>per se</i> as because their presence affords grounds for suspecting
+that the water in which they occur has been exposed to circumstances
+permitting contamination with infective disease), was not
+sufficient; the filter must also prevent the passage of pathogenic
+organisms, and so render the water sterile bacteriologically.
+Examined from this point of view the majority of domestic
+filters were found to be gravely defective, and even to be worse
+than useless, since unless they were frequently and thoroughly
+cleansed, they were liable to become favourable breeding-places for
+microbes. The first filter which was more or less completely
+impermeable to bacteria was the Pasteur-Chamberland, which
+was devised in Pasteur&rsquo;s laboratory, and is made of dense biscuit
+porcelain. The filtering medium in this, as in other filters of the
+same kind, takes the form of a hollow cylinder or &ldquo;candle,&rdquo;
+through the walls of which the water has to pass from the outside
+to the inside, the candles often being arranged so that they may
+be directly attached to a tap, whereby the rate of flow, which is
+apt to be slow, is accelerated by the pressure of the main. But
+even filters of this type, if they are to be fully relied upon, must be
+frequently cleaned and sterilized, and great care must be taken
+that the joints and connexions are watertight, and that the
+candles are without cracks or flaws. In cases where the water
+supply is known to be infected, or even where it is merely
+doubtful, it is wise to have recourse to sterilization by boiling,
+rather than trust to any filter. Various machines have been
+constructed to perform this operation, some of them specially
+designed for the use of troops in the field; those in which
+economy of fuel is studied have an exchange-heater, by means of
+which the incoming cold water receives heat from the outgoing
+hot water, which thus arrives at the point of outflow at a
+temperature nearly as low as that of the supply. Chemical
+methods of sterilization have also been suggested, depending on
+the use of iodine, chlorine, bromine, ozone, potassium permanganate,
+copper sulphate or chloride and other substances.
+For the sand-filtration of water on a large scale, in which the
+presence of a surface film containing zooglaea of bacteria is an
+essential feature, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Water Supply</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Filtration in the chemical laboratory is commonly effected
+by the aid of a special kind of unsized paper, which in the more
+expensive varieties is practically pure cellulose, impurities like
+<span class="correction" title="amended from feric">ferric</span> oxide, alumina, lime, magnesia and silica having been removed
+by treatment with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids.
+A circular piece of this paper is folded twice upon itself so as to
+form a quadrant, one of the folds is pulled out, and the cone thus
+obtained is supported in a glass or porcelain funnel having an
+apical angle of 60°. The liquid to be filtered is poured into the
+cone, preferably down a glass rod upon the sides of the funnel
+to prevent splashing and to preserve the apex of the filter-paper,
+and passes through the paper, upon which the solid matter is
+retained. In the case of liquids containing strong acids or
+alkalis, which the paper cannot withstand, a plug of carefully
+purified asbestos or glass-wool (spun glass) is often employed,
+contained in a bulb blown as an enlargement on a narrow &ldquo;filter-tube.&rdquo;
+To accelerate the rate of filtration various devices are
+resorted to, such as lengthening the tube below the filtering
+material, increasing the pressure on the liquid being filtered,
+or decreasing it in the receiver of the filtrate. R.W. Bunsen may
+be regarded as the originator of the second method, and it was he
+who devised the small cone of platinum foil, sometimes replaced
+by a cone of parchment perforated with pinholes, arranged at
+the apex of the funnel to serve as a support for the paper, which
+is apt to burst under the pressure differences. In the so-called
+&ldquo;Buchner funnel,&rdquo; the filtering vessel is cylindrical, and the
+paper receives support by being laid upon its flat perforated
+bottom. In filtering into a vacuum the flask receiving the filtrate
+should be connected to the exhaust through a second flask.
+The suction may be derived from any form of air-pump; a form
+often employed where water at fair pressure is available is
+the jet-pump, which in consequence is known as a filter-pump.
+Another method of filtering into a vacuum is to immerse a porous
+jar (&ldquo;Pukall cell&rdquo;) in the liquid to be filtered, and attach a
+suction-pipe to its interior. A filtering arrangement devised
+by F.C. Gooch, which has come into common use in quantitative
+analysis where the solid matter has to be submitted to heating
+or ignition, consists of a crucible having a perforated bottom.
+By means of a piece of stretched rubber tubing, this crucible
+is supported in the mouth of an ordinary funnel which is connected
+with an exhausting apparatus; and water holding in
+suspension fine scrapings of asbestos, purified by boiling with
+strong hydrochloric acid and washing with water, is run through
+it, so that the perforated bottom is covered with a layer of felted
+asbestos. The crucible is then removed from the rubber support,
+weighed and replaced; the liquid is filtered through in the
+ordinary way; and the crucible with its contents is again removed,
+dried, ignited and weighed. A perforated cone, similarly coated
+with asbestos and fitted into a conical funnel, is sometimes
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>In many processes of chemical technology filtration plays an
+important part. A crude method consists of straining the liquid
+through cotton or other cloth, either stretched on wooden frames
+or formed into long narrow bags (&ldquo;bag-filters&rdquo;). Occasionally
+filtration into a vacuum is practised, but more often, as in filter-presses,
+the liquid is forced under pressure, either hydrostatic
+or obtained from a force-pump or compressed air, into a series of
+chambers partitioned off by cloth, which arrests the solids, but
+permits the passage of the liquid portions. For separating
+liquids from solids of a fibrous or crystalline character &ldquo;hydro-extractors&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;centrifugals&rdquo; are frequently employed. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span>
+material is placed in a perforated cage or &ldquo;basket,&rdquo; which
+is enclosed in an outer casing, and when the cage is rapidly
+rotated by suitable gearing, the liquid portions are forced out
+into the external casing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (d. 84 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman soldier and
+a violent partisan of Marius. He was sent to Asia in 86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+as legate to L. Valerius Flaccus, but quarrelled with him and was
+dismissed. Taking advantage of the absence of Flaccus at
+Chalcedon and the discontent aroused by his avarice and severity,
+Fimbria stirred up a revolt and slew Flaccus at Nicomedia.
+He then assumed the command of the army and obtained several
+successes against Mithradates, whom he shut up in Pitane on
+the coast of Aeolis, and would undoubtedly have captured him
+had Lucullus co-operated with the fleet. Fimbria treated most
+cruelly all the people of Asia who had revolted from Rome or
+sided with Sulla. Having gained admission to Ilium by declaring
+that, as a Roman, he was friendly, he massacred the inhabitants
+and burnt the place to the ground. But in 84 Sulla crossed over
+from Greece to Asia, made peace with Mithradates, and turned
+his arms against Fimbria, who, seeing that there was no chance
+of escape, committed suicide. His troops were made to serve in
+Asia till the end of the third Mithradatic War.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i>; and arts, on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sulla</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marius</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIMBRIATE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>fimbriae</i>, fringe), a zoological and
+botanical term, meaning fringed. In heraldry, &ldquo;fimbriate&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;fimbriated&rdquo; refers to a narrow edge or border running round
+a bearing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINALE<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (Ital. for &ldquo;end&rdquo;), a term in music for the concluding
+movement in an instrumental composition, whether symphony,
+concerto or sonata, and, in dramatic music, the concerted piece
+which ends each act. Of instrumental finales, the great choral
+finale to Beethoven&rsquo;s 9th symphony, and of operatic finales,
+that of Mozart&rsquo;s <i>Nozze di Figaro</i>, to the second act, and to the
+last act of Verdi&rsquo;s <i>Falstaff</i> may be mentioned. In the Wagnerian
+opera the finale has no place.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINANCE.<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> The term &ldquo;finance,&rdquo; which comes into English
+through French, in its original meaning denoted a payment
+(<i>finatio</i>). In the later middle ages, especially in Germany, it
+acquired the sense of usurious or oppressive dealing with money
+and capital. The specialized use of the word as equivalent to
+the management of the public expenditure and receipts first
+became prominent in France during the 16th century and quickly
+spread to other countries. The plural form (<i>Les Finances</i>) was
+particularly reserved for this application, while the singular
+came to denote business activity in respect to monetary dealings
+(as in the expression <i>la haute finance</i>). For the Germans the
+phrase &ldquo;science of finance&rdquo; (<i>Finanzwissenschaft</i>) refers exclusively
+to the economy of the state. English and American
+writers are less definite in their employment of the term, which
+varies with the convenience of the author.</p>
+
+<p>A work on &ldquo;finance&rdquo; may deal with the Money Market or the
+Stock Exchange; it may treat of banking and credit organization,
+or it may be devoted to state revenue and expenditure,
+which is on the whole the prevailing sense. The expressions
+&ldquo;science of finance&rdquo; and &ldquo;public finance&rdquo; have been suggested as
+suitable to delimit the last mentioned application. At all events,
+the broad sense is quite intelligible. &ldquo;Financial&rdquo; means what is
+concerned with business, and the idea of a balance between
+effort and return is also prominent. In the present article
+attention will be directed to &ldquo;public finance&rdquo;; for the other
+aspects of the subject reference may be made (<i>inter alia</i>) to the
+following:&mdash;<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Banks and Banking</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exchange</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Market</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stock Exchange</a></span>. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Finance</a></span>,
+and the sections on finance under headings of countries.</p>
+
+<p>Finance, regarded as state house-keeping, or &ldquo;political
+economy&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Economics</a></span>) in the older sense of the term, deals
+with (1) the expenditure of the state; (2) state revenues; (3)
+the balance between expenditure and receipts; (4) the organization
+which collects and applies the public funds. Each of these
+large divisions presents a series of problems of which the practical
+treatment is illustrated in the financial history of the great nations
+of the world. Thus the amount and character of public expenditure
+necessarily depends on the functions that the state
+undertakes to perform&mdash;national defence, the maintenance of
+internal order, and the efficient equipment of the state organization;
+such are the tasks that all governments have to discharge,
+and for their cost due provision has to be made. The widening
+sphere of state activity, so marked a characteristic of modern
+civilization, involves outlay for what may be best described
+as &ldquo;developmental&rdquo; services. Education, relief of distress,
+regulation of labour and trade, are duties now in great part
+performed by public agencies, and their increasing prominence
+involves augmented expense. The first problem on this side of
+expenditure is the due balancing of outlay by income. The
+financier has to &ldquo;cover&rdquo; his outlay. There is, further, the duty
+of establishing a proper proportion between the several forms of
+expenditure. Not only has there to be a strict control over the
+total national expense; supervision has to be carried into each
+department of the state. No one branch of public activity is
+entitled to make unlimited calls on the state&rsquo;s revenue. The
+claims of the &ldquo;expert&rdquo; require to be carefully scrutinized. The
+great financiers have made their reputation quite as much by
+rigorous control over extravagance in expenditure as by dexterity
+in devising new forms of revenue. Unfortunately they have not
+been able to reduce their methods to rule. As yet no more definite
+principle has been discovered than the somewhat obvious one of
+measuring the proposed items of outlay (1) against each other,
+(2) against the sacrifice that additional taxation involves. Of
+almost equal importance is the rule that the utmost return is to
+be obtained for the given outlay. The canon of <i>economy</i> is as
+fundamental in regard to public expenditure as it will appear,
+later, to be in respect to revenue. Just application of the outlay
+of the state, so that no class receives undue advantage, and the
+use of public funds for &ldquo;reproductive,&rdquo; in preference to &ldquo;unproductive&rdquo;
+objects, are evident general principles whose
+difficulty lies in their application to the circumstances of each
+particular case.</p>
+
+<p>Far greater progress has been made in the formulation of
+general canons as to the nature, growth and treatment of the
+public revenues. Historically, there is, first, the tendency
+towards increase in state income to balance the advance in outlay.
+A second general feature is the relative decline of the receipts
+from state property and industries in contrast to the expansion
+of taxation. Regarded as an organized system, the body of
+receipts has to be made conformable to certain general conditions.
+Thus there should be revenue sufficient to meet the public requirements.
+Otherwise the financial organization has failed in
+one of its essential purposes. In order continuously to attain
+this end, the revenue must be flexible, or, as is often said, elastic
+enough to vary in response to pressure. Frequently recurring
+deficits are, in themselves, a condemnation of the methods
+under which they are found. Again, the rule of &ldquo;economy&rdquo;
+in raising revenue, or, in other words, taking as little as possible
+from the contributors over and above what the state receives,
+holds good for the whole and for each part of public revenue.
+In like manner the principle of formal justice has the same claim
+in respect to revenue as to expenditure. No class of person should
+bear more than his or its proper share. In fact the special maxims
+usually placed under the head of taxation have really a wider
+scope as governing the whole financial system. The recognition
+of even the most elementary rules has been a very slow process,
+as the course of financial history abundantly proves. Until the
+18th century no scientific treatment of financial problems was
+attained, though there had been great advances on the administrative
+side.</p>
+
+<p>A brief description of the historical evolution of the earlier
+financial forms will be the most effective illustration of this
+statement. The theory of well-organized public finance is also
+discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Taxation</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">National Debt</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest forms of public revenue are those obtained
+from the property of the chief or ruler. Land, cattle and slaves
+are the principal kinds of wealth, and they are all constituents
+of the king&rsquo;s revenue; enforced work contributed by members of
+the community, and the furnishing commodities on requisition,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span>
+further aid in the maintenance of the primitive state. Financial
+organization makes its earliest appearance in the great Eastern
+monarchies, in which tribute was regularly collected and the
+oldest and most general form of taxation&mdash;that levied on the
+produce of land&mdash;was established. In its normal shape this
+impost consisted in a given proportion of the yield, or of certain
+portions of the yield, of the soil; one-fourth as in India, one-fifth
+as in Egypt, or two separate levies of a tenth as in Palestine,
+are examples of what may from the last instance be called the
+&ldquo;tithe&rdquo; system. Dues of various kinds were gradually added
+to the land revenue, until, as in the later Egyptian monarchy,
+the forms of revenue reached a bewildering complexity. But
+no Eastern state advanced beyond the condition generally
+characterized as the &ldquo;patrimonial,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> an organization on the
+model of the household. The part played by money economy
+was small, and it is noticeable that the revenues were collected
+by the monarch&rsquo;s servants, the farming out of taxes being
+completely unknown. Tribute, however, was paid by subject
+communities as a whole, and was collected by them for transmission
+to the conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>A much higher stage was reached in the financial methods
+of the Greek states, or more correctly speaking of Athens, the
+best-known specimen of the class. Instead of the
+comparatively simple expedients of the barbarian
+<span class="sidenote">Ancient Greek.</span>
+monarchies, as indicated above, the Athenian city
+state by degrees developed a rather complex revenue system.
+Some of the older forms are retained. The city owned public
+land which was let on lease and the rents were farmed out by
+auction. A specially valuable property of Athens was the
+possession of the silver mines at Laurium, which were worked on
+lease by slave labour. The produce, at first distributed amongst
+the citizens, was later a part of the state income, and forms the
+subject of some of the suggestions respecting the revenue in
+the treatise formerly ascribed to Xenophon. The reverence
+that attached to the precious metals caused undue exaltation
+of the services rendered by this property.</p>
+
+<p>One of the characteristics of the ancient state was its extensive
+control over the persons and property of its citizens. In respect
+to finance this authority was strikingly manifested in the
+burdens imposed on wealthy citizens by the requirements of the
+&ldquo;liturgies&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="leitourgiai">&#955;&#949;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span>), which consisted in the provision of
+a chorus for theatrical performances, or defraying the expenses
+of the public games, or, finally, the equipment of a ship, &ldquo;the
+trierarchy,&rdquo; which was economically and politically the most
+important. Athenian statesmanship in the time of Demosthenes
+was gravely exercised to make this form of contribution more
+effective. The grouping into classes and the privilege of exchanging
+property, granted to the contributor against any one whom
+he believed entitled to take his place, are marks of the defective
+economic and financial organization of the age.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst taxes strictly so called were the market dues or tolls,
+which in some cases approximated to excise duties, though in
+their actual mode of levy they were closely similar to the <i>octrois</i>
+of modern times. Of greater importance were the customs
+duties on imports and exports. These at the great period of
+Athenian history were only 2%. The prohibition of export
+of corn was an economic rather than a financial provision. In
+the treatment of her subject allies Athens was more rigorous,
+general import and export duties of 5% being imposed on their
+trade. The high cost of carriage, and the need of encouraging
+commerce in a community relying on external sources for its
+food supply, help to explain the comparatively low rates adopted.
+Neither as financial nor as protective expedients were the custom
+duties of classical societies of much importance.</p>
+
+<p>Direct taxation received much greater expansion. A special
+levy on the class of resident aliens (<span class="grk" title="metoikton">&#956;&#949;&#964;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>), probably
+paralleled by a duty on slaves, was in force. A far more important
+source of revenue was the general tax on property (<span class="grk" title="eisphora">&#949;&#7984;&#963;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#940;</span>),
+which according to one view existed as early as the time of Solon,
+who made it a part of his constitutional system. Modern
+inquiry, however, tends towards the conclusion that it was under
+the stress of the Peloponnesian War that this impost was introduced
+(428 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). At first it was only levied at irregular intervals;
+afterwards, in 378 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it became a permanent tax based on
+elaborate valuation under which the richer members paid on a
+larger quota of their capital; in the case of the wealthiest class
+the taxable quota was taken as one-fifth, smaller fractions being
+adopted for those belonging to the other divisions. The assessment
+(<span class="grk" title="timema">&#964;&#943;&#956;&#951;&#956;&#945;</span>) included all the property of the contributor,
+whose accuracy in making full returns was safeguarded by the
+right given to other citizens to proceed against him for fraudulent
+under-valuation. A further support was provided in the reform
+of 378 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the establishment of the symmories, or groups
+of tax-paying citizens; the wealthier members of each group
+being responsible for the tax payments of all the members.</p>
+
+<p>The scanty and obscure references to finance, and to economic
+matters generally, in classical literature do not elucidate all the
+details of the system; but the analogies of other countries, <i>e.g.</i>
+the mode of levying the <i>taille</i> in 18th century France and the
+&ldquo;tenth and fifteenth&rdquo; in medieval England, make it tolerably
+plain that in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Athenian state had developed
+a mode of taxation on property which raised those questions of
+just distribution and effective valuation that present themselves
+in the latest tax systems of the modern world. Taken together
+with the liturgies, the &ldquo;eisphora&rdquo; placed a very heavy burden
+on the wealthier citizens, and this financial pressure accounts
+in great part for the hostility of the rich towards the democratic
+constitution that facilitated the imposition of graduated taxation
+and super-taxes&mdash;to use modern terms&mdash;on the larger incomes.
+The normal yield of the property tax is reported as 60 talents
+(£14,400); but on special occasions it reached 200 talents
+(£48,000), or about one-sixth of the total receipts.</p>
+
+<p>On the administrative side also remarkable advances were
+made by the entrusting of military expenditure to the &ldquo;generals,&rdquo;
+and in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the appointment of an administrator
+whose duty it was to distribute the revenue of the state
+under the directions of the assembly. The absence of settled
+public law and the influence of direct democracy made a complete
+ministry of finance impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The Athenian &ldquo;hegemony&rdquo; in its earlier and later phases
+had an important financial side. The confederacy of Delos
+made provision for the collection of a revenue (<span class="grk" title="phoros">&#966;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>) from the
+members of the league, which was employed at first for defence
+against Persian aggression, but afterwards was at the disposal
+of Athens as the ruling state. The annual collection of 460
+talents (£110,400) shows sufficiently the magnitude of the league.</p>
+
+<p>Too little is known of the financial methods of the other
+Greek states and of the Macedonian kingdoms to allow of any
+definite account of their position. In the latter, particularly
+in Egypt, the methods of the earlier rulers probably survived.
+Their finance, like their social life generally, exhibited a blending
+of Hellenic and barbarian elements. The older land-taxes were
+probably accompanied by import dues and taxes on property.</p>
+
+<p>In the infancy of the Roman republic its revenues were of
+the kind usual in such communities. The public land yielded
+receipts which may indifferently be regarded as rents
+or taxes; the citizens contributed their services or
+<span class="sidenote">Roman.</span>
+commodities, and dues were raised on certain articles coming
+to market. With the progress of the Roman dominion the
+financial organization grew in extent. In order to meet the
+cost of the early wars a special contribution from property
+(<i>tributum ex censu</i>) was levied at times of emergency, though it
+was in some cases regarded as an advance to be repaid when
+the occasion of expense was over. Owing to the great military
+successes, and the consequent increase of the other sources of
+revenue, it became feasible to suspend the <i>tributum</i> in 167 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+and it was not again levied till after the death of Julius Caesar.
+From this date the expenses of the Roman state &ldquo;were undisguisedly
+supported by the taxation of the provinces.&rdquo;
+Neither the state monopolies nor the public land in Italy afforded
+any appreciable revenue. The other charges that affected Italy
+were the 5% duty on manumissions, and customs dues on seaborne
+imports. But with the acquisition of the important
+provinces of Sicily, Spain and Africa, the formation of a tax
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span>
+system based on the tributes of the dependencies became possible.
+To a great extent the pre-existing forms of revenue were retained,
+but were gradually systematized. In legal theory the land of
+conquered communities passed into the ownership of the Roman
+state; in practice a revenue was obtained through land taxes
+in the form of either tithes (<i>decumae</i>) or money payments
+(<i>stipendia</i>). To the latter were adjoined capitation and trade
+taxes (the <i>tributum capitis</i>). For pasture land a special rent
+was paid. In some provinces (<i>e.g.</i> Sicily) payment in produce
+was preferred, as affording the supply needed for the free
+distribution of corn at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The great form of indirect taxation consisted in the customs
+dues (<i>portoria</i>), which were collected at the provincial boundaries
+and varied in amount, though the maximum did not exceed 5%.
+Under the same head were included the town dues (or <i>octrois</i>).
+Further, the local administration was charged on the district
+concerned, and requisitions for the public service were frequently
+made on the provincial communities. Supplies of grain, ships
+and timber for military use were often demanded.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of levy may be regarded as an additional tax.
+&ldquo;Vexation,&rdquo; as Adam Smith remarks, &ldquo;though not strictly
+speaking expense, is certainly equivalent to the expense at which
+every man would be willing to redeem himself from it&rdquo;; and
+the Roman system was extraordinarily vexatious. From an
+early date the collection of the taxes had been farmed out to
+companies of contractors (<i>societates vectigales</i>), who became a
+by-word for rapacity. Being bound to pay a stated sum to the
+public authorities these <i>publicani</i> naturally aimed at extracting
+the largest possible amount from the unfortunate provincials,
+and, as they belonged to the Roman capitalist class, they were
+able to influence the provincial governors. Undue claims on the
+part of the tax collectors were aggravated by the extortion of
+the public officials. The defects of the financial organization
+were a serious influence in the complex of causes that brought
+about the fall of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>One of the reasons that induced the subject populations
+to accept with pleasure the establishment of the Empire was the
+improvement in financial treatment that it secured. The corrupt
+and uneconomical method of farming out the collection of the
+revenue was, to a great extent, replaced by collection through
+the officials of the imperial household. The earlier Roman
+treasury (<i>aerarium</i>) was formally retained for the receipt of
+revenue from the senatorial provinces, but the officials were
+appointed by the Princeps and became gradually mere municipal
+officers. The real centre of finance was the <i>fiscus</i> or imperial
+treasury, which was under the exclusive control of the ruler
+(&ldquo;res fiscales,&rdquo; says Ulpian, &ldquo;quasi propriae et privatae principis
+sunt&rdquo;), and was administered by officials of his household.
+Under the Republic the Senate had been the financial authority,
+with the Censors as finance ministers and the Quaestors as
+secretaries of the treasury. Never very precise, this system in
+the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> fell into extreme decay. By means of his
+freedmen the emperor introduced the more rigorous economy
+of the Roman household into public finance. The census as a
+method of valuation was revived; the important and productive
+land taxes were placed on a more definite footing; while, above
+all, the substitution of direct collection by state officials for the
+letting out by auction of the tax-collection to the companies
+of <i>publicani</i> was made general. Thus some of the most valuable
+lessons as to the normal evolution of a system of finance are to
+be learned in this connexion. Of equal, or even greater moment
+is the failure of the administrative reforms of the Empire to
+secure lasting improvement, a result due to the absence of
+constitutional guarantees. The close relation between finance
+and general policy is most impressively illustrated in this failure
+of benevolent autocracy.</p>
+
+<p>Viewed broadly, the financial resources of the earlier Empire
+were obtained from (1) the public land alike of the state and the
+Princeps; (2) the monopolies, principally of minerals; (3) the
+land tax; (4) the customs; (5) the taxes on inheritances, on
+sales and on the purchase of slaves (<i>vectigalia</i>). One result
+of the establishment of the Principate was the consolidation of
+the public domain. The old &ldquo;public land&rdquo; in Italy had nearly
+disappeared; but the royal possessions in the conquered provinces
+and the private properties of the emperor became ultimately
+a part of the property of the Fiscus. Such land was let either
+on five-year leases or in perpetuity to coloni. Mines were also
+taken over for public use and worked by slaves or, in later times,
+by convict labour. The tendency towards state monopoly
+became more marked in the closing days of the Empire, the 4th
+and 5th centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Perhaps the most comprehensive of the
+fiscal reforms of the Empire was the reconstruction of the land
+tax, based on a census or (to use the French term) <i>cadastre</i>, in
+which the area, the modes of cultivation and the estimated
+productiveness of each holding were stated, the average of ten
+preceding years being taken as the standard. After the reconstruction
+under Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+fifteen years (the <i>indictio</i>)&mdash;though probably used as early as
+the time of Hadrian&mdash;was recognized as the period for revaluation.
+With the growing needs of the state this taxation became
+more rigorous and was one of the great grievances of the population,
+especially of the sections that were declining in status and
+passing into the condition of villenage. The <i>portoria</i>, or customs,
+received a better organization, though the varying rates for
+different provinces continued. By degrees the older maximum
+of 5% was exceeded, until in the 4th century 12½% was in
+some cases levied. Even at this higher rate the facilities for
+trade were greater than in medieval or (until the revolution in
+transport) modern times. In spite of certain prejudices against
+the import of luxuries and the export of gold, there is little
+indication of the influence of mercantilist or protectionist ideas.
+The nearest approach to excise was the duty of 1% on all sales,
+a tax that in Gibbon&rsquo;s words &ldquo;has ever been the occasion of
+clamour and discontent.&rdquo; The higher charge of 4% on the
+purchase of slaves, and the still heavier 5% on successions after
+death, were likewise established at the beginning of the Empire
+and specially applied to the full citizens. Escheats and lapsed
+legacies (<i>caduca</i>) were further miscellaneous sources of gain to
+the state.</p>
+
+<p>Taken as a whole, the financial system of Imperial Rome
+shows a very high elaboration in <i>form</i>. The <i>patrimonium</i>,
+the <i>tributa</i> and the <i>vectigalia</i> are divisions parallel to the <i>domaine</i>,
+the <i>contributions directes</i> and the <i>contributions indirectes</i> of
+modern French administration; or the English &ldquo;non-tax&rdquo;
+revenue, inland revenue and &ldquo;customs and excise.&rdquo; The
+careful regulations given in the Codes and the Digest show the
+observance of technical conditions as to assessment and accounting.
+In substance and spirit, however, Roman finance was
+essentially backward. Without altogether accepting Merivale&rsquo;s
+judgment that &ldquo;their principles of finance were to the last rude
+and unphilosophical,&rdquo; it may be granted that Roman statesmen
+never seriously faced the questions of just distribution and
+maximum productiveness in the tax system. Still less did they
+perceive the connexion between these two aspects of finance.
+Mechanical uniformity and minute regulation are inadequate
+substitutes for observance of the canons of equality, certainty
+and economy in the operation of the tax system. Whether
+(as has been suggested) an Adam Smith in power could have
+saved the Empire is doubtful; but he would certainly have
+remodelled its finance. The most glaring fault was plainly
+the undue and increasing pressure on the productive classes.
+Each century saw heavier burdens imposed on the actual workers
+and on their employers, while expenditure was chiefly devoted
+to unproductive purposes. The distribution was also unfair as
+between the different territorial divisions. The capital and
+certain provincial towns were favoured at the expense of the
+provinces and the country districts. Again, the cost of collection,
+though less than under the farming-out system, was far too
+great. Some alleviation was indeed obtained by the apportionment
+of contributions amongst the districts liable, leaving to
+the community to decide as it thought best between its members.
+The allotment of the land-tax to units (<i>juga</i>) of equal value
+whatever might be the area, was a contrivance similar in
+character.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span></p>
+
+<p>The gradual way in which the several provinces were brought
+under the general tax system, and the equally gradual extension
+of Roman citizenship, account further for the irregularity and
+increased weight of the taxes; as the absence of publicity and
+the growth of autocracy explain the sense of oppression and the
+hopelessness of resistance so vividly indicated in the literature
+of the later Empire. Exemptions at first granted to the
+citizens were removed, while the cost of local government which
+continually increased was placed on the middle-class of the
+towns as represented by the <i>decuriones</i>, or members of the
+municipalities.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that no ingenuity of modern research has been able
+to construct a real budget of expenditure and receipt for any
+part of the long centuries of the Empire is significant as to the
+secrecy that surrounded the finances, especially in the later
+period. For at the beginning of the principate Augustus seems
+to have aimed at a complete estimate of the financial situation,
+though this may be regarded as due to the influence of the freer
+republican traditions which the reverence that soon attached
+to the emperor&rsquo;s dignity completely extinguished.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to its value as illustrating the difficulties and
+defects that beset the development of a complex financial
+organization from the simpler forms of the city and the province,
+Roman finance is of special importance in consequence of its
+place as supplying a model or rather a guide for the administration
+of the states that arose on its ruins. The barbarian invaders,
+though they were accustomed to contributions to their chiefs
+and to the payment of commodities as tributes or as penalties,
+had no acquaintance with the working of a regular system of
+taxation. The more astute rulers utilized the machinery that
+they inherited from the Roman government. Under the Franks
+the land tax and the provincial customs continued as forms of
+revenue, while beside them the gifts and court fees of Teutonic
+origin took their place. Similar conditions appear in Theodoric&rsquo;s
+administration of Italy. The maintenance of Roman forms and
+terms is prominent in fiscal administration. But institutions
+that have lost their life and animating spirit can hardly be
+preserved for any length of time. All over western Europe the
+elaborate devices of the <i>census</i> and the stations for the collection
+of customs crumbled away; taxation as such disappeared,
+through the hostility of the clergy and the exemptions accorded
+to powerful subjects. This process of disintegration spread out
+over centuries. The efforts made from time to time by vigorous
+rulers to enforce the charges that remained legally due, proved
+quite ineffectual to restore the older fiscal system. The final
+result was a complete transformation of the ingredients of
+revenue. The character of the change may be best indicated
+as a substitution of private claims for public rights. Thus, the
+land-tax disappears in the 7th century and only comes into
+notice in the 9th century in the shape of private customary
+dues. The customs duties become the tolls and transit charges
+levied by local potentates on the diminishing trade of the earlier
+middle ages. This revolution is in accordance with&mdash;indeed it
+is one side of&mdash;the movement towards feudalism which was the
+great feature of this period. Finance is essentially a part of <i>public</i>
+law and administration. It could, therefore, hold no prominent
+place in a condition of society which hardly recognized the state,
+as distinct from the members of the community, united by feudal
+ties. The same conception may be expressed in another way,
+viz. by the statement that the kingdoms which succeeded the
+Roman Empire were organized on the patrimonial basis (<i>i.e.</i> the
+revenues passed into the hands of the king or, rather, his domestic
+officials), and thus in fact returned to the condition of pre-classical
+times. Notwithstanding the differing features in the
+several countries, retrogression is the common characteristic
+of European history from the 5th to the 10th century, and it
+was from the ruder state that this decline created that the rebuilding
+of social and political organization had to be accomplished.
+On the financial side the work, as already suggested,
+was aided by the ideas and institutions inherited from the Roman
+Empire. This influence was common to all the continental states
+and indirectly was felt even in England. Each of the great realms
+has, however, worked out its financial system on lines suitable
+to its own particular conditions, which are best considered in
+connexion with the separate national histories.</p>
+
+<p>Running through the different national systems there are
+some common elements the result not of inheritance merely but
+still more of necessity, or at the lowest of similarity in environment.
+Over and above the details of financial development
+there is a thread of connexion which requires treatment under
+Finance taken as a whole. As the great aim of this side of public
+activity is to secure funds for the maintenance of the state&rsquo;s life
+and working, the administration which operates for this end is the
+true nucleus of all national finance. The first sign of revival
+from the catastrophe of the invasions is the reorganization of the
+Imperial household under Charlemagne with the intention of
+establishing a more exact collection of revenue. The later
+German empire of Otto and the Frederics; the French Capetian
+monarchy and, in a somewhat different sphere, the medieval
+Italian and German cities show the same movement. The
+treasury is the centre towards which the special receipts of the
+ruler or rulers should be brought, and from it the public wants
+should be supplied. Feudalism, as the antithesis of this orderly
+treatment, had to be overthrown before national finance could
+become established. The development can be traced in the
+financial history of England, France and the German states;
+but the advance in the French financial organization of the 15th
+and 16th centuries affords the best illustration. The gradual
+unification operates on all the branches of finance,&mdash;expenditure,
+revenue, debt and methods of control. In respect to the first
+head there is a well-marked &ldquo;integration&rdquo; of the modes for
+meeting the cost of the public services. What were semi-private
+duties become public tasks, which, with the growing importance
+of &ldquo;money-economy,&rdquo; have to be defrayed by state payments.
+Thus, the creation of the standing army in France by Charles VII.
+marks a financial change of the first order. The English navy,
+though more gradually developed, is an equally good illustration
+of the movement. All outlay by the state is brought into due
+co-ordination, and it becomes possible for constitutional government
+to supervise and direct it. This improvement, due to
+English initiative, has been adopted amongst the essential forms
+of financial administration on the continent. The immense importance
+of this view of public expenditure as representing the
+consumption of the state in its unified condition is obvious;
+it has affected, for the most part unconsciously, the conception of
+all modern peoples as to the functions of the state and the right
+of the people to direct them.</p>
+
+<p>On the side of receipts a similar unifying process has been
+accomplished. The almost universal separation between
+&ldquo;ordinary&rdquo; and &ldquo;extraordinary&rdquo; receipts, taxation being put
+under the latter head, has completely ceased. It was, however,
+the fundamental division for the early French writers on
+finance, and it survives for England as late as Blackstone&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>.
+The idea that the ruler possessed a normal income
+in certain rents and dues of a quasi-private character, which on
+emergency he might supplement by calls on the revenues of his
+subjects, was a bequest of feudalism which gave way before the
+increasing power of the state. In order to meet the unified
+public wants, an equally unified public fund was requisite. The
+great economic changes which depreciated the value of the
+king&rsquo;s domain contributed towards the result. Only by well-adjusted
+taxation was it possible to meet the public necessities.
+In respect to taxation also there has been a like course of readjustment.
+Separate charges, assigned for distinct purposes,
+have been taken into the national exchequer and come to form
+a part of the general revenue. There has been&mdash;taking long
+periods&mdash;a steady absorption of special taxes into more general
+categories. The replacement of the four direct taxes by the
+income tax in France, as proposed in 1909, is a very recent
+example. Equally important is the growth of &ldquo;direct&rdquo; taxation.
+As tax contributions have taken the places of the revenue
+from land and fees, so, it would seem, are the taxes on commodities
+likely to be replaced or at least exceeded by the imposts
+levied on income as such, in the shape either of income taxes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span>
+proper or of charges on accumulated wealth. The recent history
+of the several financial systems of the world is decisive on this
+point. A clearer perception of the conditions under which the
+effective attainment of revenue is possible is another outcome of
+financial development. Security, and in particular the absence
+of arbitrary impositions, combined with convenient modes of
+collection, have come to be recognized as indispensable auxiliaries
+in financial administration which further aims at the selection of
+really productive forms of charge. Unproductiveness is, according
+to modern standard, the cardinal fault of any particular tax.
+How great has been the progress in these aspects is best illustrated
+in the case of English finance, but both French and German
+fiscal history can supply many instructive examples.</p>
+
+<p>In a third direction the co-ordination of finance has been just
+as remarkable. Financial adjustment implies the conception of
+a balance, and this should be found in the relation of outlay and
+income. Under the pressure of war and other emergencies it has
+been found impossible to maintain this desirable equilibrium.
+But the use of the system of credit, and the general establishment
+of constitutional government, have enabled the difficulty to be
+surmounted by the creation on a vast scale of national debts.
+Apart from the special problems that this system of borrowing
+raises, there is the general one of its aid in making national
+finance continuous and orderly. Deficits can be transferred to
+the capital account, and the country&rsquo;s resources employed most
+usefully by repaying liabilities contracted in times of extreme
+need. The growth of this department, parallel with the general
+progress of finance, is significant of its function.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in all countries though with diversities due to national
+peculiarities, the modes of account and control have been brought
+into a more effective condition. Previous legislative sanction for
+both expenditure and receipts in all their particular forms is
+absolutely necessary; so is thorough scrutiny of the actual
+application of the funds provided. Either by administrative
+survey or by judicial examination care is taken to see that there
+has been no improper diversion from the designed purposes. It
+is only when the varied systems of financial organization are
+studied in their general bearing, and with regard to what may be
+called their frame-work, that their essential resemblance is
+thoroughly realized. Such a real underlying unity is the reason
+and justification for regarding &ldquo;public finance&rdquo; as a distinct
+subject of study and as an independent division of political
+science.</p>
+
+<p><i>Local Finance.</i>&mdash;One of the most remarkable features of
+modern financial development has been the growth of the complementary
+system of local finance, which in extent and complication
+bids to rival that of the central authority. Under the
+constraining power of the Roman Empire the older city states
+were reduced to the position of municipalities, and their financial
+administration became dependent on the control of the Emperor&mdash;as
+is abundantly illustrated in the correspondence of Pliny and
+Trajan. After the fall of the Western Empire, a partial revival
+of city life, particularly in Italy and Germany, gave some scope
+for a return to the type of finance presented by the Athenian
+state. Florence affords an instructive specimen; but the
+passage from feudalism to the national state under the authority
+of monarchy made the cities and country districts parts of a
+larger whole. It is in this condition of subordination that the
+finance of localities has been framed and effectively organized.
+Though each great state has adopted its own methods, influenced
+by historical circumstances and by ideas of policy, there are
+general resemblances that furnish material for scientific treatment
+and allow of important generalizations being made.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst these the first to be noticed is the essential <i>subordination</i>
+of local finance. Alike in expenditure, in forms of receipt,
+and in methods of administration the central government has
+the right of directing and supervising the work of municipal and
+provincial agencies. The modes employed are various, but they
+all rest on the sovereignty of the state, whether exercised by the
+central officials or by the courts. A second characteristic is the
+predominance of the <i>economic</i> element in the several tasks that
+local administrations have to perform, and the consequent
+tendency to treat the charges of local finance as payments for
+services rendered, or, in the usual phrase, to apply the &ldquo;benefits&rdquo;
+principle, in contrast to that of &ldquo;ability,&rdquo; which rightly prevails
+in national finance. Over a great part of municipal administration&mdash;particularly
+that engaged in supplying the needs of the
+individual citizens&mdash;the finance may be assimilated to that of the
+joint-stock company, with of course the necessary differences,
+viz. that the association is compulsory; and that dividends are
+paid, not in money, but in social advantage. The great expansion
+in recent years of what is known as <i>Municipal Trading</i> has
+brought this aspect of local finance into prominence. Water
+supply, transport and lighting have become public services,
+requiring careful financial management, and still retaining traces
+of their earlier private character.</p>
+
+<p>Corresponding to the mainly economic nature of local expenditure
+there is the further limitation imposed on the side of
+revenue. Unlike the state in this, localities are limited in respect
+to the amount and form of their taxation. Several distinct
+influences combine to produce this result. The needs of the
+central government lead to its retention of the more profitable
+modes of procuring revenue. No modern country can surrender
+the chief direct and indirect taxes to the local administrations.
+Another limiting condition is found in the practical impossibility
+of levying by local agencies such imposts as the customs and the
+income-tax in their modern forms. The elaborate machinery
+that is requisite for covering the national area and securing the
+revenue against loss can only be provided by an authority that
+can deal with the whole territory. Hence the very general
+limitation of local revenues to certain typical forms. Though in
+some cases municipal taxation is imposed on commodities in the
+form of <i>octrois</i> or entry duties&mdash;as is notably the case in France&mdash;yet
+the prevailing tendency is towards the levy of direct charges
+on immovable property, which cannot escape by removal outside
+the tax jurisdiction. In addition to these &ldquo;land&rdquo; and &ldquo;house&rdquo;
+taxes, the employment of licence duties on trades, particularly
+those that are in special need of supervision, is a favourite
+method. Closely akin are the payments demanded for privileges
+to industrial undertakings given as &ldquo;franchises,&rdquo; very often in
+connexion with monopolies, <i>e.g.</i> gas-works and tramways.
+Over and above the peculiar revenues of local bodies there is the
+further resource&mdash;which emphasizes the subordinate position of
+local finance&mdash;of obtaining supplemental revenue from the
+central treasury, either by taxes additional to the charges of the
+state, and collected at the same time; or by donations from its
+funds, in the shape of grants for special services, or assignments of
+certain parts of the state&rsquo;s receipts. Great Britain, France and
+Prussia furnish good examples of these different modes of
+preserving local administration from financial collapse.</p>
+
+<p>The broad resemblance between the two parts of the entire
+system of public finance is seen in another direction. To national
+debts there has been added a great mass of municipal and local
+indebtedness, which seems likely to equal, or even exceed in
+magnitude the liabilities of the central governments. But here
+also the essential limitations of the newer form are easily perceptible.
+The sovereignty of the state enables it to deal as it
+thinks best with the public creditor. In its methods of borrowing,
+in its plans for repayment, or, in extremity, in its power of
+repudiation it is independent of external control. Local debt on
+the other hand can only be contracted under the sanction of the
+appropriate administrative organ of the state. The creditor has
+the right of claiming the aid of the law against the defaulting
+municipality; and the amounts, the terms, and the time of
+duration of local debt are supervised in order to prevent injustice
+to particular persons or improvidence with regard to the revenue
+and property of the local units. The chief reason for contracting
+local debt being the establishment of works that are, directly or
+indirectly, reproductive, the governing conditions are evidently
+to be found in the character and probable yield of those businesses.
+The principles of company investments are fully applicable: the
+creation of sinking-funds, the fixing the term of each loan to the
+time at which the return from its employment ceases, and the
+avoidance of the formation of fictitious capital, become guiding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span>
+rules from this part of finance, and indicate the connexion with
+what the commercial world calls &ldquo;financial operations.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Finally, there is the same set of problems in respect to accounting
+and control in local as in central finance. Though the
+materials are simpler, the need for a well-prepared budget is
+existent in the case of the city, county or department, if there is
+to be clear and accurate financial management. Perhaps the
+greatest weakness of local finance lies in this direction. The
+public opinion that affects the national budget is unfortunately
+too often lacking in the most important towns, not excluding
+those in which political life is highly developed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The English literature on finance is rather unsatisfactory;
+for public finance the available text-books are:
+Adams, <i>Science of Finance</i> (New York, 1898); Bastable, <i>Public
+Finance</i> (London, 1892; 3rd ed., 1903); Daniels, <i>Public Finance</i>
+(New York, 1899), and Plehn, <i>Public Finance</i> (3rd ed., New York,
+1909). In French, Leroy-Beaulieu, <i>Traité de la science des finances</i>
+(1877; 3rd ed., 1908), is the standard work. The German literature
+is abundant. Roscher, 5th ed. (edited by Gerlach), 1901; Wagner
+(4 vols.), incomplete; Cohn (1889) and Eheberg (9th ed., 1908)
+have published works entitled <i>Finanzwissenschaft</i>, dealing with
+all the aspects of state finance. For Greek financial history Boekh,
+<i>Staalshaushaltung der Athenen</i> (ed. Fränkel, 1887), is still a standard
+work. For Rome, Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, vol. ii.,
+and Humbert, <i>Les Finances et la comptabilité publique chez les Romains</i>,
+are valuable. Clamageran, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;impôt en France</i> (1876),
+gives the earlier development of French finance. R.H. Patterson,
+<i>Science of Finance</i> (London, 1868), C.S. Meade, <i>Trust Finance</i> (1903),
+and E. Carroll, <i>Principles and Practice of Finance</i>, deal with finance
+in the wider sense of business transactions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. F. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINCH, FINCH-HATTON.<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> This old English family has had
+many notable members, and has contributed in no small degree
+to the peerage. Sir Thomas Finch (d. 1563), who was knighted
+for his share in suppressing Sir T. Wyatt&rsquo;s insurrection against
+Queen Mary, was a soldier of note, and was the son and heir of
+Sir William Finch, who was knighted in 1513. He was the
+father of Sir Moyle Finch (d. 1614), who was created a baronet
+in 1611, and whose widow Elizabeth (daughter of Sir Thomas
+Heneage) was created a peeress as countess of Maidstone in 1623
+and countess of Winchilsea in 1628; and also of Sir Henry
+Finch (1558-1625), whose son John, Baron Finch of Fordwich
+(1584-1660), is separately noticed. Thomas, eldest son of Sir
+Moyle, succeeded his mother as first earl of Winchilsea; and
+Sir Heneage, the fourth son (d. 1631), was the speaker of the
+House of Commons, whose son Heneage (1621-1682), lord
+chancellor, was created earl of Nottingham in 1675. The latter&rsquo;s
+second son Heneage (1649-1719) was created earl of Aylesford
+in 1714. The earldoms of Winchilsea and Nottingham became
+united in 1729, when the fifth earl of Winchilsea died, leaving
+no son, and the title passed to his cousin the second earl of
+Nottingham, the earldom of Nottingham having since then been
+held by the earl of Winchilsea. In 1826, on the death of the ninth
+earl of Winchilsea and fifth of Nottingham, his cousin George
+William Finch-Hatton succeeded to the titles, the additional
+surname of Hatton (since held in this line) having been assumed
+in 1764 by his father under the will of an aunt, a daughter of
+Christopher, Viscount Hatton (1632-1706), whose father was
+related to the famous Sir Christopher Hatton.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1584-1660),
+generally known as Sir John Finch, English judge, a member
+of the old family of Finch, was born on the 17th of September
+1584, and was called to the bar in 1611. He was returned to
+parliament for Canterbury in 1614, and became recorder of the
+same place in 1617. Having attracted the notice of Charles I.,
+who visited Canterbury in 1625, and was received with an address
+by Finch in his capacity as recorder, he was the following year
+appointed king&rsquo;s counsel and attorney-general to the queen and
+was knighted. In 1628 he was elected speaker of the House of
+Commons, a post which he retained till its dissolution in 1629.
+He was the speaker who was held down in his chair by Holles
+and others on the occasion of Sir John Eliot&rsquo;s resolution on
+tonnage and poundage. In 1634 he was appointed chief justice of
+the court of common pleas, and distinguished himself by the active
+zeal with which he upheld the king&rsquo;s prerogative. Notable
+also was the brutality which characterized his conduct as chief
+justice, particularly in the cases of William Prynne and John
+Langton. He presided over the trial of John Hampden, who
+resisted the payment of ship-money, and he was chiefly responsible
+for the decision of the judges that ship-money was
+constitutional. As a reward for his services he was, in 1640,
+appointed lord keeper, and was also created Baron Finch of
+Fordwich. He had, however, become so unpopular that one of
+the first acts of the Long Parliament, which met in the same
+year was his impeachment. He took refuge in Holland, but had
+to suffer the sequestration of his estates. When he was allowed
+to return to England is uncertain, but in 1660 he was one of the
+commissioners for the trial of the regicides, though he does not
+appear to have taken much part in the proceedings. He died
+on the 27th of November 1660 and was buried in St Martin&rsquo;s
+church near Canterbury, his peerage becoming extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>; Campbell, <i>Lives of the Chief Justices</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINCH<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Fink</i>, Lat. <i>Fringilla</i>), a name applied (but
+almost always in composition&mdash;as bullfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch,
+hawfinch, &amp;c.) to a great many small birds of the order <i>Passeres</i>,
+and now pretty generally accepted as that of a group or family&mdash;the
+<i>Fringillidae</i> of most ornithologists. Yet it is one the extent
+of which must be regarded as being uncertain. Many writers
+have included in it the buntings (<i>Emberizidae</i>), though these
+seem to be quite distinct, as well as the larks (<i>Alaudidae</i>), the
+tanagers (<i>Tanagridae</i>), and the weaver-birds (<i>Ploceidae</i>).
+Others have separated from it the crossbills, under the title of
+<i>Loxiidae</i>, but without due cause. The difficulty which at this
+time presents itself in regard to the limits of the <i>Fringillidae</i>
+arises from our ignorance of the anatomical features, especially
+those of the head, possessed by many exotic forms.</p>
+
+<p>Taken as a whole, the finches, concerning which no reasonable
+doubt can exist, are not only little birds with a hard bill, adapted
+in most cases for shelling and eating the various seeds that form
+the chief portion of their diet when adult, but they appear to be
+mainly forms which predominate in and are highly characteristic
+of the Palaearctic Region; moreover, though some are found
+elsewhere on the globe, the existence of but very few in the
+Notogaean hemisphere can as yet be regarded as certain.</p>
+
+<p>But even with this limitation, the separation of the undoubted
+<i>Fringillidae</i><a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> into groups is a difficult task. Were we merely
+to consider the superficial character of the form of the bill, the
+genus <i>Loxia</i> (in its modern sense) would be easily divided not
+only from the other finches, but from all other birds. The birds
+of this genus&mdash;the crossbills&mdash;when their other characters are
+taken into account, prove to be intimately allied on the one hand
+to the grosbeaks (<i>Pinicola</i>) and on the other through the redpolls
+(<i>Aegiothus</i>) to the linnets (<i>Linota</i>)&mdash;if indeed these two can be
+properly separated. The linnets, through the genus <i>Leucosticte</i>,
+lead to the mountain-finches (<i>Montifringilla</i>), and the redpolls
+through the siskins (<i>Chrysomitris</i>) to the goldfinches (<i>Carduelis</i>);
+and these last again to the hawfinches, one group of which
+(<i>Coccothraustes</i>) is apparently not far distant from the chaffinches
+(<i>Fringilla</i> proper), and the other (<i>Hesperiphona</i>) seems to be
+allied to the greenfinches (<i>Ligurinus</i>). Then there is the group
+of serins (<i>Serinus</i>), to which the canary belongs, that one is in
+doubt whether to refer to the vicinity of the greenfinches or that
+of the redpolls. The mountain-finches may be regarded as
+pointing first to the rock-sparrows (<i>Petronia</i>) and then to the
+true sparrows (<i>Passer</i>); while the grosbeaks pass into many
+varied forms and throw out a very well marked form&mdash;the
+bullfinches (<i>Pyrrhula</i>). Some of the modifications of the family
+are very gradual, and therefore conclusions founded on them
+are likely to be correct; others are further apart, and the links
+which connect them, if not altogether missing, can but be
+surmised. To avoid as much as possible prejudicing the case,
+we shall therefore take the different groups of <i>Fringillidae</i> which
+it is convenient to consider in this article in an alphabetical
+arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Bullfinches the best known is the familiar bird (<i>Pyrrhula</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span>
+<i>europaea</i>). The varied plumage of the cock&mdash;his bright red
+breast and his grey back, set off by his coal-black head and quills&mdash;is
+naturally attractive; while the facility with which he
+is tamed, with his engaging disposition in confinement, makes
+him a popular cage-bird,&mdash;to say nothing of the fact (which
+in the opinion of so many adds to his charms) of his readily
+learning to &ldquo;pipe&rdquo; a tune, or some bars of one. By gardeners
+the bullfinch has long been regarded as a deadly enemy, from its
+undoubted destruction of the buds of fruit-trees in spring-time,
+though whether the destruction is really so much of a detriment
+is by no means so undoubted. Northern and eastern Europe
+is inhabited by a larger form (<i>P. major</i>), which differs in nothing
+but size and more vivid tints from that which is common in the
+British Isles and western Europe. A very distinct species (<i>P.
+murina</i>), remarkable for its dull coloration, is peculiar to the
+Azores, and several others are found in Asia from the Himalayas
+to Japan. A bullfinch (<i>P. cassini</i>) has been discovered in Alaska,
+being the first recognition of this genus in the New World.</p>
+
+<p>The Canary (<i>Serinus canarius</i>) is indigenous to the islands
+whence it takes its name, as well, apparently, as to the neighbouring
+groups of the Madeiras and Azores, in all of which it abounds.
+It seems to have been imported into Europe at least as early
+as the first half of the 16th century,<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and has since become the
+commonest of cage-birds. The wild stock is of an olive-green,
+mottled with dark brown above, and greenish-yellow beneath.
+All the bright-hued examples we now see in captivity have been
+induced by carefully breeding from any chance varieties that
+have shown themselves; and not only the colour, but the build
+and stature of the bird have in this manner been greatly modified.
+The ingenuity of &ldquo;the fancy,&rdquo; which might seem to have exhausted
+itself in the production of topknots, feathered feet,
+and so forth, has brought about a still further change from the
+original type. It has been found that by a particular treatment,
+in which the mixing of large quantities of vegetable colouring
+agents with the food plays an important part, the ordinary
+&ldquo;canary yellow&rdquo; may be intensified so as to verge upon a
+more or less brilliant flame colour.<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Very nearly resembling the canary, but smaller in size, is the
+Serin (<i>Serinus hortulanus</i>), a species which not long since was
+very local in Europe, and chiefly known to inhabit the countries
+bordering on the Mediterranean. It has pushed its way towards
+the north, and has even been several times taken in England
+(Yarrell&rsquo;s <i>Brit. Birds</i>, ed. 4, ii. pp. 111-116). A closely allied
+species (<i>S. canonicus</i>) is peculiar to Palestine.</p>
+
+<p>The Chaffinches are regarded as the type-form of <i>Fringillidae</i>.
+The handsome and sprightly <i>Fringilla coelebs</i><a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> is common
+throughout the whole of Europe. Conspicuous by his variegated
+plumage, his peculiar call note<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and his glad song, the cock is
+almost everywhere a favourite. In Algeria the British chaffinch
+is replaced by a closely-allied species (<i>F. spodogenia</i>), while in
+the Atlantic Islands it is represented by two others (<i>F. tintillon</i>
+and <i>F. teydea</i>)&mdash;all of which, while possessing the general appearance
+of the European bird, are clothed in soberer tints.<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Another
+species of true <i>Fringilla</i> is the brambling (<i>F. montifringilla</i>),
+which has its home in the birch forests of northern Europe and
+Asia, whence it yearly proceeds, often in flocks of thousands,
+to pass the winter in more southern countries. This bird is
+still more beautifully coloured than the chaffinch&mdash;especially
+in summer, when, the brown edges of the feathers being shed, it
+presents a rich combination of black, white and orange. Even
+in winter, however, its diversified plumage is sufficiently striking.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the single species of bullfinch already
+noticed as occurring in Alaska, all the above forms of finches
+are peculiar to the Palaearctic Region.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> About 200 species of these have been described, and perhaps 150
+may really exist.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The earliest published description seems to be that of Gesner in
+1555 (<i>Orn.</i> p. 234), but he had not seen the bird, an account of which
+was communicated to him by Raphael Seiler of Augsburg, under the
+name of <i>Suckeruögele</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See also <i>The Canary Book</i>, by Robert L. Wallace; <i>Canaries and
+Cage Birds</i>, by W.A. Blackston; and Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Animals and Plants
+under Domestication</i>, vol. i. p. 295. An excellent monograph on the
+wild bird is that by Dr Carl Bolle (<i>Journ. für Orn.</i>, 1858, pp. 125-151).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This fanciful trivial name was given by Linnaeus on the supposition
+(which later observations do not entirely confirm) that in
+Sweden the hens of the species migrated southward in autumn,
+leaving the cocks to lead a celibate life till spring. It is certain,
+however, that in some localities the sexes live apart during the
+winter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This call-note, which to many ears sounds like &ldquo;pink&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;spink,&rdquo; not only gives the bird a name in many parts of Britain,
+but is also obviously the origin of the German <i>Fink</i> and the English
+<i>Finch</i>. The similar Celtic form <i>Pinc</i> is said to have given rise to the
+Low Latin <i>Pincio</i>, and thence come the Italian <i>Pincione</i>, the Spanish
+<i>Pinzon</i>, and the French <i>Pinson</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This is especially the ease with <i>F. teydea</i> of the Canary Islands,
+which from its dark colouring and large size forms a kind of parallel
+to the Azorean <i>Pyrrhula murina</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINCHLEY,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> an urban district in the Hornsey parliamentary
+division of Middlesex, England, 7 m. N.W. of St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral,
+London, on a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop.
+(1891) 16,647; (1901) 22,126. A part, adjoining Highgate on
+the north, lies at an elevation between 300 and 400 ft., while a
+portion in the Church End district lies lower, in the valley of
+the Dollis Brook. The pleasant, healthy situation has caused
+Finchley to become a populous residential district. Finchley
+Common was formerly one of the most notorious resorts of highwaymen
+near London; the Great North Road crossed it, and
+it was a haunt of Dick Turpin and Jack Sheppard, and was
+still dangerous to cross at night at the close of the 18th century.
+Sheppard was captured in this neighbourhood in 1724. The
+Common has not been preserved from the builder. In 1660
+George Monk, marching on London immediately before the
+Restoration, made his camp on the Common, and in 1745 a
+regular and volunteer force encamped here, prepared to resist
+the Pretender, who was at Derby. The gathering of this force
+inspired Hogarth&rsquo;s famous picture, the &ldquo;March of the Guards
+to Finchley.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1718-1766), Prussian
+soldier, was born at Strelitz in 1718. He first saw active service
+in 1734 on the Rhine, as a member of the suite of Duke Anton
+Ulrich of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Soon after this he transferred
+to the Austrian service, and thence went to Russia, where
+he served until the fall of his patron Marshal Münnich put an end
+to his prospects of advancement. In 1742 he went to Berlin, and
+Frederick the Great made him his aide-de-camp, with the rank of
+major. Good service brought him rapid promotion in the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War. After the battle of Kolin (June 18th, 1757) he was
+made colonel, and at the end of 1757 major-general. At the
+beginning of 1759 Finck became lieutenant-general, and in this
+rank commanded a corps at the disastrous battle of Kunersdorf,
+where he did good service both on the field of battle and
+(Frederick having in despair handed over to him the command)
+in the rallying of the beaten Prussians. Later in the year he
+fought in concert with General Wunsch a widespread combat,
+called the action of Korbitz (Sept. 21st) in which the Austrians and
+the contingents of the minor states of the Empire were sharply
+defeated. For this action Frederick gave Finck the Black Eagle
+(Seyfarth, <i>Beilagen</i>, ii. 621-630). But the subsequent catastrophe
+of Maxen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years&rsquo; War</a></span>) abruptly put an end to Finck&rsquo;s
+active career. Dangerously exposed, and with inadequate forces,
+Finck received the king&rsquo;s positive order to march upon Maxen
+(a village in the Pirna region of Saxony). Unfortunately for
+himself the general dared not disobey his master, and, cut off by
+greatly superior numbers, was forced to surrender with some
+11,000 men (21st Nov. 1759). After the peace, Frederick sent
+him before a court-martial, which sentenced him to be cashiered
+and to suffer a term of imprisonment in a fortress. At the expiry
+of this term Finck entered the Danish service as general of
+infantry. He died at Copenhagen in 1766.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He left a work called <i>Gedanken über militärische Gegenstände</i>
+(Berlin, 1788). See <i>Denkwürdigkeiten der militärischen Gesellschaft</i>,
+vol. ii. (Berlin, 1802-1805), and the report of the Finck court-martial
+in <i>Zeitschrift für Kunst, Wissenschaft und Geschichte des Krieges</i>, pt.
+81 (Berlin, 1851). There is a life of Finck in MS. in the library
+of the Great General Staff.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINCK, HEINRICH<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1519), German musical composer,
+was probably born at Bamberg, but nothing is certainly known
+either of the place or date of his birth. Between 1492 and 1506
+he was a musician in, and later possibly conductor of the court
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span>
+orchestra of successive kings of Poland at Warsaw. He held the
+post of conductor at Stuttgart from 1510 till about 1519, in
+which year he probably died. His works, mostly part songs and
+other vocal compositions, show great musical knowledge, and
+amongst the early masters of the German school he holds a high
+position. They are found scattered amongst ancient and modern
+collections of songs and other musical pieces (see R. Eitner,
+<i>Bibl. der Musiksammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahrh.</i>, Berlin, 1877).
+The library of Zwickau possesses a work containing a collection of
+fifty-five songs by Finck, printed about the middle of the 16th
+century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINCK, HERMANN<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1527-1558), German composer, the
+great-nephew of Heinrich Finck, was born on the 21st of March
+1527 in Pirna, and died at Wittenberg on the 28th of December
+1558. After 1553 he lived at Wittenberg, where he was organist,
+and there, in 1555, was published his collection of &ldquo;wedding
+songs.&rdquo; Few details of his life have been preserved. His
+theoretical writing was good, particularly his observations on the
+art of singing and of making ornamentations in song. His most
+celebrated work is entitled <i>Practica musica, exempla variorum
+signorum, proportionum, et canonum, judicium de tonis ac quaedam
+de arte suaviter et artificiose cantandi continens</i> (Wittenberg,
+1556). It is of great historic value, but very rare.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINDEN, WILLIAM<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1787-1852), English line engraver, was
+born in 1787. He served his apprenticeship to one James Mitan,
+but appears to have owed far more to the influence of James
+Heath, whose works he privately and earnestly studied. His
+first employment on his own account was engraving illustrations
+for books, and among the most noteworthy of these early plates
+were Smirke&rsquo;s illustrations to Don Quixote. His neat style and
+smooth finish made his pictures very attractive and popular, and
+although he executed several large plates, his chief work throughout
+his life was book illustration. His younger brother, Edward
+Finden, worked in conjunction with him, and so much demand
+arose for their productions that ultimately a company of
+assistants was engaged, and plates were produced in increasing
+numbers, their quality as works of art declining as their quantity
+rose. The largest plate executed by William Finden was the
+portrait of King George IV. seated on a sofa, after the painting by
+Sir Thomas Lawrence. For this work he received two thousand
+guineas, a sum larger than had ever before been paid for an
+engraved portrait. Finden&rsquo;s next and happiest works on a large
+scale were the &ldquo;Highlander&rsquo;s Return&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Village Festival,&rdquo;
+after Wilkie. Later in life he undertook, in co-operation with his
+brother, aided by their numerous staff, the publication as well as
+the production of various galleries of engravings. The first of
+these, a series of landscape and portrait illustrations to the life
+and works of Byron, appeared in 1833 and following years, and
+was very successful. But by his <i>Gallery of British Art</i> (in fifteen
+parts, 1838-1840), the most costly and best of these ventures, he
+lost the fruits of all his former success. Finden&rsquo;s last undertaking
+was an engraving on a large scale of Hilton&rsquo;s &ldquo;Crucifixion.&rdquo; The
+plate was bought by the Art Union for £1470. He died in London
+on the 20th of September 1852.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINDLATER, ANDREW<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1810-1885), Scottish editor, was
+born in 1810 near Aberdour, Aberdeenshire, the son of a small
+farmer. By hard study in the evening, after his day&rsquo;s work on
+the farm was finished, he qualified himself for entrance at
+Aberdeen University, and after graduating as M.A. he attended
+the Divinity classes with the idea of entering the ministry. In
+1853 he began that connexion with the firm of W. &amp; R. Chambers
+which gave direction to his subsequent activity. His first
+engagement was the editing of a revised edition of their <i>Information
+for the People</i> (1857). In this capacity he gave evidence of
+qualities and acquirements that marked him as a suitable editor
+for <i>Chambers&rsquo;s Encyclopaedia</i>, then projected, and his was the
+directing mind that gave it its character. Many of the more
+important articles were written by him. This work occupied him
+till 1868, and he afterwards edited a revised edition (1874). He
+also had charge of other publications for the same firm, and wrote
+regularly for the <i>Scotsman</i>. In 1864 he was made LL.D. of
+Aberdeen University. In 1877 he gave up active work for
+Chambers, but his services were retained as consulting editor.
+He died in Edinburgh on the 1st of January 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1829-1893), English railway
+manager, was of pure Scottish descent, and was born at Rainhill,
+in Lancashire, on the 18th of May 1829. For some time he
+attended Halifax grammar school, but left at the age of fourteen,
+and began to learn practical masonry on the Halifax railway,
+upon which his father was then employed. Two years later he
+obtained a situation on the Trent Valley railway works, and
+when that line was finished in 1847 went up to London. There
+he was for a short time among the men employed in building
+locomotive sheds for the London &amp; North-Western railway at
+Camden Town, and years afterwards, when he had become
+general manager of that railway, he was able to point out stones
+which he had dressed with his own hands. For the next two or
+three years he was engaged in a higher capacity as supervisor
+of the mining and brickwork of the Harecastle tunnel on the
+North Staffordshire line, and of the Walton tunnel on the
+Birkenhead, Lancashire &amp; Cheshire Junction railway. In 1850
+the charge of the construction of a section of the Shrewsbury
+&amp; Hereford line was entrusted to him, and when the line was
+opened for traffic T. Brassey, the contractor, having determined
+to work it himself, installed him as manager. In the course
+of his duties he was brought for the first time into official relations
+with the London &amp; North-Western railway, which had undertaken
+to work the Newport, Abergavenny &amp; Hereford line,
+and he ultimately passed into the service of that company, when
+in 1862, jointly with the Great Western, it leased the railway
+of which he was manager. In 1864 he was moved to Euston as
+general goods manager, in 1872 he became chief traffic manager,
+and in 1880 he was appointed full general manager; this last
+post he retained until his death, which occurred on the 26th
+of March 1893 at Edgware, Middlesex. He was knighted in
+1892. Sir George Findlay was the author of a book on the
+<i>Working and Management of an English Railway</i> (London, 1889),
+which contains a great deal of information, some of it not easily
+accessible to the general public, as to English railway practice
+about the year 1890.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1824-1898), Scottish newspaper
+owner and philanthropist, was born at Arbroath on the 21st of
+October 1824, and was educated at Edinburgh University.
+He entered first the publishing office and then the editorial
+department of the <i>Scotsman</i>, became a partner in the paper
+in 1868, and in 1870 inherited the greater part of the property
+from his great uncle, John Ritchie, the founder. The large
+increase in the influence and circulation of the paper was in
+a great measure due to his activity and direction, and it brought
+him a fortune, which he spent during his lifetime in public
+benefaction. He presented to the nation the Scottish National
+Portrait Gallery, opened in Edinburgh in 1889, and costing
+over £70,000; and he contributed largely to the collections of
+the Scottish National Gallery. He held numerous offices in
+antiquarian, educational and charitable societies, showing his
+keen interest in these matters, but he avoided political office
+and refused the offer of a baronetcy. The freedom of Edinburgh
+was given him in 1896. He died at Aberlour, Banffshire, on the
+16th of October 1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINDLAY,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Hancock county,
+Ohio, U.S.A., on Blanchard&rsquo;s Fork of the Auglaize river, about
+42 m. S. by W. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 18,553; (1900) 17,613,
+(1051 foreign-born); (1910) 14,858. It is served by the Cleveland,
+Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &amp;
+Dayton, the Lake Erie &amp; Western, and the Ohio Central railways,
+and by three interurban electric railways. Findlay lies about
+780 ft. above sea-level on gently rolling ground. The city is the
+seat of Findlay College (co-educational), an institution of the
+Church of God, chartered in 1882 and opened in 1886; it has
+collegiate, preparatory, normal, commercial and theological
+departments, a school of expression, and a conservatory of
+music, and in 1907 had 588 students, the majority of whom were
+in the conservatory of music. Findlay is the centre of the
+Ohio natural gas and oil region, and lime and building stone
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span>
+abound in the vicinity. Among manufactures are refined
+petroleum, flour and grist-mill products, glass, boilers, bricks,
+tile, pottery, bridges, ditching machines, carriages and furniture.
+The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,925,309, an
+increase of 73.6% since 1900. The municipality owns and
+operates the water-works. Findlay was laid out as a town in
+1821, was incorporated as a village in 1838, and was chartered
+as a city in 1890. The city was named in honour of Colonel
+James Findlay (<i>c.</i> 1775-1835), who built a fort here during the
+war of 1812; he served in this war under General William
+Hull, and from 1825 to 1833 was a Democratic representative
+in Congress.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINE,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> a word which in all its senses goes back to the Lat.
+<i>finire</i>, to bring to an end (<i>finis</i>). Thus in the common
+adjectival meanings of elegant, thin, subtle, excellent, reduced
+in size, &amp;c., it is in origin equivalent to &ldquo;finished.&rdquo; In the
+various substantival meanings in law, with which this article
+deals, the common idea underlying them is an end or final
+settlement of a matter.</p>
+
+<p>A fine, in the ordinary sense, is a pecuniary penalty inflicted
+for the less serious offences. Fines are necessarily discretionary
+as to amount; but a maximum is generally fixed when the
+penalty is imposed by statute. And it is an old constitutional
+maxim that fines must not be unreasonable. In Magna Carta,
+c. 111, it is ordained &ldquo;<i>Liber homo non amercietur pro parvo
+delicto nisi secundum modum ipsius delicti, et pro magno delicto
+secundum magnitudinem delicti.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The term is also applied to payments made to the lord of a
+manor on the alienation of land held according to the custom
+of the manor, to payments made by a lessee on a renewal of a
+lease, and to other similar payments.</p>
+
+<p>Fine also denotes a fictitious suit at law, which played the
+part of a conveyance of landed property. &ldquo;A fine,&rdquo; says
+Blackstone, &ldquo;may be described to be an amicable composition
+or agreement of a suit, either actual or fictitious, by leave of
+the king or his justices, whereby the lands in question become
+or are acknowledged to be the right of one of the parties. In
+its original it was founded on an actual suit commenced at law
+for the recovery of the possession of land or other hereditaments;
+and the possession thus gained by such composition was found
+to be so sure and effectual that fictitious actions were and
+continue to be every day commenced for the sake of obtaining
+the same security.&rdquo; Freehold estates could thus be transferred
+from one person to another without the formal delivery of
+possession which was generally necessary to a feoffment. This
+is one of the oldest devices of the law. A statute of 18 Edward
+I. describes it as the most solemn and satisfactory of securities,
+and gives a reason for its name&mdash;&ldquo;Qui quidem finis sic vocatur,
+eo quod finis et consummatio omnium placitorum esse debet,
+et hac de causa providebatur.&rdquo; The action was supposed to
+be founded on a breach of covenant: the defendant, owning
+himself in the wrong,<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> makes overtures of compromise, which
+are authorized by the <i>licentia concordandi</i>; then followed the
+concord, or the compromise itself. These, then were the essential
+parts of the performance, which became efficient as soon as
+they were complete; the formal parts were the <i>notes</i>, or abstract
+of the proceedings, and the <i>foot</i> of the fine, which recited the
+final agreement. Fines were said to be of four kinds, according
+to the purpose they had in view, as, for instance, to convey lands
+in pursuance of a covenant, to grant revisionary interest only,
+&amp;c. In addition to the formal record of the proceedings, various
+statutes required other solemnities to be observed, the great
+object of which was to give publicity to the transaction. Thus
+by statutes of Richard III. and Henry VII. the fine had to be
+openly read and proclaimed in court no less than sixteen times.
+A statute of Elizabeth required a list of fines to be exposed in the
+court of common pleas and at assizes. The reason for these
+formalities was the high and important nature of the conveyance,
+which, according to the act of Edward I. above mentioned,
+&ldquo;precludes not only those which are parties and privies to the
+fine and their heirs, but all other persons in the world who are
+of full age, out of prison, of sound memory, and within the four
+seas, the day of the fine levied, unless they put in their claim
+on the foot of the fine within a year and a day.&rdquo; This barring
+by <i>non-claim</i> was abolished in the reign of Edward III., but
+restored with an extension of the time to five years in the reign
+of Henry VII. The effect of this statute, intentional according
+to Blackstone, unintended and brought about by judicial
+construction according to others, was that a tenant-in-tail
+could bar his issue by a fine. A statute of Henry VIII. expressly
+declares this to be the law. Fines, along with the kindred
+fiction of recoveries, were abolished by the Fines and Recoveries
+Act 1833, which substituted a deed enrolled in the court of
+chancery.</p>
+
+<p>Fines are so generally associated in legal phraseology with
+recoveries that it may not be inconvenient to describe the
+latter in the present place. A recovery was employed as a means
+for evading the strict law of entail. The purchaser or alienee
+brought an action against the tenant-in-tail, alleging that he had
+no legal title to the land. The tenant-in-tail brought a third
+person into court, declaring that he had warranted his title,
+and praying that he might be ordered to defend the action.
+This person was called the <i>vouchee</i>, and he, after having appeared
+to defend the action, takes himself out of the way. Judgment
+for the lands is given in favour of the plaintiff; and judgment to
+recover lands of equal value from the vouchee was given to the
+defendant, the tenant-in-tail. In real action, such lands when
+recovered would have fallen under the settlement of entail;
+but in the fictitious recovery the vouchee was a man of straw,
+and nothing was really recovered from him, while the lands
+of the tenant-in-tail were effectually conveyed to the successful
+plaintiff. A recovery differed from a fine, as to <i>form</i>, in being
+an action carried through to the end, while a fine was settled
+by compromise, and as to effect, by barring all reversions and
+remainders in estates tail, while a fine barred the issue only of
+the tenant. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ejectment</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Proclamation</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hence called <i>cognizor</i>; the other party, the purchaser, is the
+<i>cognizee</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINE ARTS,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> the name given to a whole group of human
+activities, which have for their result what is collectively known
+as Fine Art. The arts which constitute the group are the
+five greater arts of architecture, sculpture, painting, music and
+poetry, with a number of minor or subsidiary arts, of which
+dancing and the drama are among the most ancient and universal.
+In antiquity the fine arts were not explicitly named, nor even
+distinctly recognized, as a separate class. In other modern
+languages besides English they are called by the equivalent
+name of the beautiful arts (<i>belle arti</i>, <i>beaux arts</i>, <i>schöne Künste</i>).
+The fine or beautiful arts then, it is usually said, are those among
+the arts of man which minister, not primarily to his material
+necessities or conveniences, but to his love of beauty; and if
+any art fulfils both these purposes at once, still as fulfilling the
+latter only is it called a fine art. Thus architecture, in so far as
+it provides shelter and accommodation, is one of the useful or
+mechanical arts, and one of the fine arts only in so far as its
+structures impress or give pleasure by the aspect of strength,
+fitness, harmony and proportion of parts, by disposition and
+contrast of light and shade, by colour and enrichment, by variety
+and relation of contours, surfaces and intervals. But this,
+the commonly accepted account of the matter, does not really
+cover the ground. The idea conveyed by the words &ldquo;love of
+beauty,&rdquo; even stretched to its widest, can hardly be made to
+include the love of caricature and the grotesque; and these are
+admittedly modes of fine art. Even the terrible, the painful,
+the squalid, the degraded, in a word every variety of the significant,
+can be so handled and interpreted as to be brought within
+the province of fine art. A juster and more inclusive, although
+clumsier, account of the matter might put it that the fine arts
+are those among the arts of man which spring from his impulse
+to do or make certain things in certain ways for the sake, first,
+of a special kind of pleasure, independent of direct utility, which
+it gives him so to do or make them, and next for the sake of the
+kindred pleasure which he derives from witnessing or contemplating
+them when they are so done or made by others.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span></p>
+
+<p>The nature of this impulse, and the several grounds of these
+pleasures, are subjects which have given rise to a formidable
+body of speculation and discussion, the chief phases of which
+will be found summarized under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aesthetics</a></span>.
+In the present article we have only to attend to the concrete
+processes and results of the artistic activities of man; in other
+words, we shall submit (1) a definition of fine art in general,
+(2) a definition and classification of the principal fine arts
+severally, (3) some observations on their historical development.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Of Fine Art in General.</i></p>
+
+<p>According to the popular and established distinction between
+art and nature, the idea of Art (<i>q.v.</i>) only includes phenomena
+of which man is deliberately the cause; while the
+idea of Nature includes all phenomena, both in man
+<span class="sidenote">Premeditation essential to art.</span>
+and in the world outside him, which take place without
+forethought or studied initiative of his own. Art,
+accordingly, means every regulated operation or dexterity whereby
+we pursue ends which we know beforehand; and it means
+nothing but such operations and dexterities. What is true of
+art generally is of course also true of the special group of the
+fine arts. One of the essential qualities of all art is premeditation;
+and when Shelley talks of the skylark&rsquo;s profuse strains
+of &ldquo;unpremeditated art,&rdquo; he in effect lays emphasis on the
+fact that it is only by a metaphor that he uses the word art in
+this case at all; he calls attention to that which (if the songs of
+birds are as instinctive as we suppose) precisely makes the
+difference between the skylark&rsquo;s outpourings and his own. We are
+slow to allow the title of fine art to natural eloquence, to charm
+or dignity of manner, to delicacy and tact in social intercourse,
+and other such graces of life and conduct, since, although in any
+given case they may have been deliberately cultivated in early
+life, or even through ancestral generations, they do not produce
+their full effect until they are so ingrained as to have become
+unreflecting and spontaneous. When the exigencies of a philosophic
+scheme lead some writers on aesthetics to include such
+acts or traits of beautiful and expressive behaviour among
+the deliberate artistic activities of mankind, we feel that an
+essential distinction is being sacrificed to the exigencies of a
+system. That distinction common parlance very justly observes,
+with its opposition of &ldquo;art&rdquo; to &ldquo;nature&rdquo; and its phrase of
+&ldquo;second nature&rdquo; for those graces which have become so habitual
+as to seem instinctive, whether originally the result of discipline
+or not. When we see a person in all whose ordinary movements
+there are freedom and beauty, we put down the charm of these
+with good reason to inherited and inbred aptitudes of which
+the person has never thought or long since ceased to think, and
+could not still be thinking without spoiling the charm by self-consciousness;
+and we call the result a gift of nature. But
+when we go on to notice that the same person is beautifully
+and appropriately dressed, since we know that it is impossible
+to dress without thinking of it, we put down the charm of this
+to judicious forethought and calculation and call the result a
+work of art.</p>
+
+<p>The processes then of fine art, like those of all arts properly
+so called, are premeditated, and the property of every fine art
+is to give to the person exercising it a special kind of
+active pleasure, and a special kind of passive or
+<span class="sidenote">The active and the passive pleasures of fine art.</span>
+receptive pleasure to the person witnessing the results
+of such exercise. This latter statement seems to imply
+that there exist in human societies a separate class
+producing works of fine art and another class enjoying them.
+Such an implication, in regard to advanced societies, is near
+enough the truth to be theoretically admitted (like the analogous
+assumption in political economy that there exist separate
+classes of producers and consumers). In developed communities
+the gifts and calling of the artist constitute in fact a separate
+profession of the creators or purveyors of fine art, while the rest
+of the community are its enjoyers or recipients. In the most
+primitive societies, apparently, this cannot have been so, and we
+can go back to an original or rudimentary stage of almost every
+fine art at which the separation between a class of producers
+or performers and a class of recipients hardly exists. Such an
+original or rudimentary stage of the dramatic art is presented
+by children, who will occupy themselves for ever with mimicry
+and make-believe for their own satisfaction, with small regard
+or none to the presence or absence of witnesses. The original
+or rudimentary type of the profession of imitative sculptors or
+painters is the cave-dweller of prehistoric ages, who, when he
+rested from his day&rsquo;s hunting, first took up the bone handle of
+his weapon, and with a flint either carved it into the shape,
+or on its surface scratched the outlines, of the animals of the
+chase. The original or rudimentary type of the architect, considered
+not as a mere builder but as an artist, is the savage
+who, when his tribe had taken to live in tents or huts instead
+of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of his tent or hut
+in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in some other
+way which was as good for shelter. The original type of the
+artificer or adorner of implements, considered in the same light,
+was the other savage who first took it into his head to fashion
+his club or spear in one way rather than another for the pleasure
+of the eye only and not for any practical reason, and to ornament
+it with tufts or markings. In none of these cases, it would
+seem, can the primitive artist have had much reason for pleasing
+anybody but himself. Again, the original or rudimentary
+type of lyric song and dancing arose when the first reveller
+clapped hands and stamped or shouted in time, in honour of his
+god, in commemoration of a victory, or in mere obedience to the
+blind stirring of a rhythmic impulse within him. To some very
+remote and solitary ancestral savage the presence or absence
+of witnesses at such a display may in like manner have been
+indifferent; but very early in the history of the race the primitive
+dancer and singer joined hands and voices with others of his
+tribe, while others again sat apart and looked on at the performance,
+and the rite thus became both choral and social. A
+primitive type of the instrumental musician is the shepherd who
+first notched a reed and drew sounds from it while his sheep
+were cropping. The father of all artists in dress and personal
+adornment was the first wild man who tattooed himself or bedecked
+himself with shells and plumes. In both of these latter
+instances, it may be taken as certain, the primitive artist had the
+motive of pleasing not himself only, but his mate, or the female
+whom he desired to be his mate, and in the last instance of all
+the further motive of impressing his fellow-tribesmen and striking
+awe or envy into his enemies. The tendency of recent speculation
+and research concerning the origins of art has been to
+ascribe the primitive artistic activities of man less and less to
+individual and solitary impulse, and more and more to social
+impulse and the desire of sharing and communicating pleasure.
+(The writer who has gone furthest in developing this view,
+and on grounds of the most careful study of evidence, has
+been Dr Yrjö Hirn of Helsingfors.) Whatever relative parts the
+individual and the social impulses may have in fact played at
+the outset, it is clear that what any one can enjoy or admire by
+himself, whether in the way of mimicry, of rhythmical movements
+or utterances, of imitative or ornamental carving and drawing,
+of the disposition and adornment of dwelling-places and utensils&mdash;the
+same things, it is clear, others are able also to enjoy or
+admire with him. And so, with the growth of societies, it came
+about that one class of persons separated themselves and became
+the ministers or producers of this kind of pleasures, while the rest
+became the persons ministered to, the participators in or recipients
+of the pleasures. Artists are those members of a society
+who are so constituted as to feel more acutely than the rest
+certain classes of pleasures which all can feel in their degree.
+By this fact of their constitution they are impelled to devote
+their active powers to the production of such pleasures, to the
+making or doing of some of those things which they enjoy so
+keenly when they are made and done by others. At the same
+time the artist does not, by assuming these ministering or
+creative functions, surrender his enjoying or receptive functions.
+He continues to participate in the pleasures of which he is
+himself the cause, and remains a conscious member of his own
+public. The architect, sculptor, painter, are able respectively
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span>
+to stand off from and appreciate the results of their own labours;
+the singer enjoys the sound of his own voice, and the musician
+of his own instrument; the poet, according to his temperament,
+furnishes the most enthusiastic or the most fastidious reader
+for his own stanzas. Neither, on the other hand, does the person
+who is a habitual recipient from others of the pleasures of fine
+art forfeit the privilege of producing them according to his
+capabilities, and of becoming, if he has the power, an <i>amateur</i>
+or occasional artist.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the common properties which have been recognized
+by consent as peculiar to the group of fine arts will be found on
+examination to be implied in, or deducible from,
+the one fundamental character generally claimed for
+<span class="sidenote">Pleasures of fine art disinterested.</span>
+them, namely, that they exist independently of direct
+practical necessity or utility. Let us take, first, a
+point relating to the frame of mind of the recipient, as distinguished
+from the producer, of the pleasures of fine art. It is
+an observation as old as Aristotle that such pleasures differ
+from most other pleasures of experience in that they are disinterested,
+in the sense that they are not such as nourish a man&rsquo;s
+body nor add to his riches; they are not such as can gratify
+him, when he receives them, by the sense of advantage or
+superiority over his fellow-creatures; they are not such as one
+human being can in any sense receive exclusively from the
+object which bestows them. Thus it is evidently characteristic
+of a beautiful building that its beauty cannot be monopolized,
+but can be seen and admired by the inhabitants of a whole city
+and by all visitors for all generations. The same thing is true
+of a picture or a statue, except in so far as an individual possessor
+may choose to keep such a possession to himself, in which case
+his pride in exclusive ownership is a sentiment wholly independent
+of his pleasure in artistic contemplation. Similarly, music is
+composed to be sung or played for the enjoyment of many at a
+time, and for such enjoyment a hundred years hence as much as
+to-day. Poetry is written to be read by all readers for ever
+who care for the ideas and feelings of the poet, and can apprehend
+the meaning and melody of his language. Hence, though we
+can speak of a class of the producers of fine art, we cannot
+speak of a class of its consumers, only of its recipients or
+enjoyers. If we consider other pleasures which might seem to be
+analogous to those of fine art, but to which common consent
+yet declines to allow that character, we shall see that one reason
+is that such pleasures are not in their nature thus disinterested.
+Thus the sense of smell and taste have pleasures of their own
+like the senses of sight and hearing, and pleasures neither less
+poignant nor very much less capable of fine graduation and
+discrimination than those. Why, then, is the title of fine art not
+claimed for any skill in arranging and combining them? Why
+are there no recognized arts of savours and scents corresponding
+in rank to the arts of forms, colours and sounds&mdash;or at least
+none among Western nations, for in Japan, it seems, there is a
+recognized and finely regulated social art of the combination
+and succession of perfumes? An answer commonly given is
+that sight and hearing are intellectual and therefore higher
+senses, that through them we have our avenues to all knowledge
+and all ideas of things outside us; while taste and smell are
+unintellectual and therefore lower senses, through which few
+such impressions find their way to us as help to build up our
+knowledge and our ideas. Perhaps a more satisfactory reason
+why there are no fine arts of taste and smell&mdash;or let us in deference
+to Japanese modes leave out smell, and say of taste only&mdash;is this,
+that savours yield only private pleasures, which it is not possible
+to build up into separate and durable schemes such that every
+one may have the benefit of them, and such as cannot be monopolized
+or used up. If against this it is contended that what the
+programme of a performance is in the musical art, the same is
+a <i>menu</i> in the culinary, and that practically it is no less possible
+to serve up a thousand times and to a thousand different companies
+the same dinner than the same symphony, we must fall
+back upon that still more fundamental form of the distinction
+between the aesthetic and non-aesthetic bodily senses, upon
+which the physiological psychologists of the English school lay
+stress. We must say that the pleasures of taste cannot be
+pleasures of fine art, because their enjoyment is too closely
+associated with the most indispensable and the most strictly
+personal of utilities, eating and drinking. To pass from these
+lower pleasures to the highest; consider the nature of the delight
+derived from the contemplation, by the person who is their
+object, of the signs and manifestations of love. That at least
+is a beautiful experience; why is the pleasure which it affords
+not an artistic pleasure either? Why, in order to receive an
+artistic pleasure from human signs and manifestations of this
+kind, are we compelled to go to the theatre and see them exhibited
+in favour of a third person who is not really their object any
+more than ourselves? This is so, for one reason, evidently,
+because of the difference between art and nature. Not to art,
+but to nature and life, belongs love where it is really felt, with its
+attendant train of vivid hopes, fears, passions and contingencies.
+To art belongs love displayed where it is not really felt; and in
+this sphere, along with reality and spontaneousness of the
+display, and along with its momentous bearings, there disappear
+all those elements of pleasure in its contemplation which are
+not disinterested&mdash;the elements of personal exultation and
+self-congratulation, the pride of exclusive possession or acceptance,
+all these emotions, in short, which are summed up in the
+lover&rsquo;s triumphant monosyllable, &ldquo;Mine.&rdquo; Thus, from the
+lowest point of the scale to the highest, we may observe that
+the element of personal advantage or monopoly in human gratifications
+seems to exclude, them from the kingdom of fine art.
+The pleasures of fine art, so far as concerns their passive or
+receptive part, seem to define themselves as pleasures of gratified
+contemplation, but of such contemplation only when it is
+disinterested&mdash;which is simply another way of saying, when it is
+unconcerned with ideas of utility.</p>
+
+<p>Modern speculation has tended in some degree to modify and
+obscure this old and established view of the pleasures of fine
+art by urging that the hearer or spectator is not after
+all so free from self-interest as he seems; that in the
+<span class="sidenote">An objection and its answer.</span>
+act of artistic contemplation he experiences an enhancement
+or expansion of his being which is in truth a
+gain of the egoistic kind; that in witnessing a play, for instance,
+a large part of his enjoyment consists in sympathetically identifying
+himself with the successful lover or the virtuous hero. All
+this may be true, but does not really affect the argument, since
+at the same time he is well aware that every other spectator
+or auditor present may be similarly engaged with himself. At
+most the objection only requires us to define a little more
+closely, and to say that the satisfactions of the ego excluded
+from among the pleasures of fine art are not these ideal, sympathetic,
+indirect satisfactions, which every one can share
+together, but only those which arise from direct, private and
+incommunicable advantage to the individual.</p>
+
+<p>Next, let us consider another generally accepted observation
+concerning the nature of the fine arts, and one, this time, relating
+to the disposition and state of mind of the practising
+artist himself. While for success in other arts it is only
+<span class="sidenote">Fine arts cannot be practised by rule and precept.</span>
+necessary to learn their rules and to apply them until
+practice gives facility, in the fine arts, it is commonly
+and justly said, rules and their application will carry
+but a little way towards success. All that can depend
+on rules, on knowledge, and on the application of knowledge
+by practice, the artist must indeed acquire, and the acquisition
+is often very complicated and laborious. But outside of and
+beyond such acquisitions he must trust to what is called genius
+or imagination, that is, to the spontaneous working together
+of an incalculably complex group of faculties, reminiscences,
+preferences, emotions, instincts in his constitution. This characteristic
+of the activities of the artist is a direct consequence
+or corollary of the fundamental fact that the art he practices
+is independent of utility. A utilitarian end is necessarily a
+determinate and prescribed end, and to every end which is
+determinate and prescribed there must be one road which is
+the best. Skill in any useful art means knowing practically, by
+rules and the application of rules, the best road to the particular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span>
+ends of that art. Thus the farmer, the engineer, the carpenter,
+the builder so far as he is not concerned with the look of his
+buildings, the weaver so far as he is not concerned with the
+designing of the patterns which he weaves, possesses each his
+peculiar skill, but a skill to which fixed problems are set, and
+which, if it indulges in new inventions and combinations at all,
+can indulge them only for the sake of an improved solution of
+those particular problems. The solution once found, the invention
+once made, its rules can be written down, or at any rate
+its practice can be imparted to others who will apply it in their
+turn. Whereas no man can write down, in a way that others
+can act upon, how Beethoven conquered unknown kingdoms
+in the world of harmony, or how Rembrandt turned the aspects
+of gloom, squalor and affliction into pictures as worthy of contemplation
+as those into which the Italians before him had
+turned the aspects of spiritual exaltation and shadowless day.
+The reason why the operations of the artist thus differ from the
+operations of the ordinary craftsman or artificer is that his ends,
+being ends other than useful, are not determinate nor fixed as
+theirs are. He has large liberty to choose his own problems, and
+may solve each of them in a thousand different ways according
+to the prompting of his own ordering or creating instincts.
+The musical composer has the largest liberty of all. Having
+learned what is learnable in his art, having mastered the complicated
+and laborious rules of musical form, having next determined
+the particular class of the work which he is about to
+compose, he has then before him the whole inexhaustible world
+of appropriate successions and combinations of emotional sound.
+He is merely directed and not fettered, in the case of song,
+cantata, oratorio or opera, by the sense of the words which he
+has to set. The value of the result depends absolutely on his
+possessing or failing to possess powers which can neither be
+trained in nor communicated to any man. And this double
+freedom, alike from practical service and from the representation
+of definite objects, is what makes music in a certain sense the
+typical fine art, or art of arts. Architecture shares one-half of
+this freedom. It has not to copy or represent natural objects;
+for this service it calls in sculpture to its aid; but architecture
+is without the other half of freedom altogether. The architect
+has a sphere of liberty in the disposition of his masses, lines,
+colours, alternations of light and shadow, of plain and ornamented
+surface, and the rest; but upon this sphere he can only
+enter on condition that he at the same time fulfils the strict
+practical task of supplying the required accommodation, and
+obeys the strict mechanical necessities imposed by the laws of
+weight, thrust, support, resistance and other properties of
+solid matter. The sculptor again, the painter, the poet, has
+each in like manner his sphere of necessary facts, rules and
+conditions corresponding to the nature of his task. The sculptor
+must be intimately versed both in the surface aspects and the
+inner mechanism of the human frame alike in rest and motion,
+and in the rules and conditions for its representation in solid
+form; the painter in a much more extended range of natural
+facts and appearances, and the rules and conditions for representing
+them on a plane surface; the poet&rsquo;s art of words has its
+own not inconsiderable basis of positive and disciplined acquisition.
+So far as rules, precepts, formulas and other communicable
+laws or secrets can carry the artist, so far also the spectator
+can account for, analyse, and, so to speak, tabulate the effects
+of his art. But the essential character of the artist&rsquo;s operation,
+its very bloom and virtue, lies in those parts of it which fall
+outside this range of regulation on the one hand and analysis
+on the other. His merit varies according to the felicity with
+which he is able, in that region, to exercise his free choice and
+frame his individual ideal, and according to the tenacity with
+which he strives to grasp and realize his choice, or to attain
+perfection according to that ideal.</p>
+
+<p>In this connexion the question naturally arises, In what way
+do the progress and expansion of mechanical art affect the power
+and province of fine art? The great practical movement of
+the world in our age is a movement for the development of
+<span class="sidenote">Fine arts and machinery: &ldquo;art manufactures.&rdquo;</span>
+mechanical inventions and multiplication of mechanical products.
+So far as these inventions are applied to purposes purely
+useful, and so far as their products to not profess to offer anything
+delightful to contemplation, this movement in
+no way concerns our argument. But there is a vast
+multitude of products which do profess qualities of
+pleasantness, and upon which the ornaments intended
+to make them pleasurable are bestowed by machinery;
+and in speaking of these we are accustomed to the
+phrases art-industry, industrial art, art manufactures and the
+like. In these cases the industry or ingenuity which directs the
+machine is not fine art at all, since the object of the machine
+is simply to multiply as easily and as perfectly as possible a
+definite and prescribed impress or pattern. This is equally
+true whether the machine is a simple one, like the engraver&rsquo;s
+press, for producing and multiplying impressions from an
+engraved plate, or a highly complex one, like the loom, in which
+elaborate patterns of carpet or curtain are set for weaving. In
+both cases there exists behind the mechanical industry an
+industry which is one of fine art in its degree. In the case of the
+engraver&rsquo;s press, there exists behind the industry of the printer
+the art of the engraver, which, if the engraver is also the free
+inventor of the design, is then a fine art, or, if he is but the
+interpreter of the invention of another, is then in its turn a
+semi-mechanical skill applied in aid of the fine art of the first
+inventor. In the case of the weaver&rsquo;s loom there is, behind the
+mechanical industry which directs the loom at its given task, the
+fine art, or what ought to be the fine art, of the designer who has
+contrived the pattern. In the case of the engraving, the mechanical
+industry of printing only exists for the sake of bringing out
+and disseminating abroad the fine art employed upon the design.
+In the case of the carpet or curtain, the fine art is often only
+called in to make the product of the useful or mechanical industry
+of the loom acceptable, since the eye of man is so constituted
+as to receive pleasure or the reverse of pleasure from whatever
+it rests upon, and it is to the interest of the manufacturer to
+have his product so made as to give pleasure if it can. Whether
+the machine is thus a humble servant to the artist, or the artist
+a kind of humble purveyor to the machine, the fine art in the
+result is due to the former alone; and in any case it reaches
+the recipient at second-hand, having been put in circulation by
+a medium not artistic but mechanical.</p>
+
+<p>Again, with reference not to the application of mechanical
+contrivances but to their invention; is not, it may be inquired,
+the title of artist due to the inventor of some of the
+astonishingly complex and astonishingly efficient
+<span class="sidenote">Perfected machines: are they works of fine art?</span>
+machines of modern-times? Does he not spend as
+much thought, labour, genius as any sculptor or
+musician in perfecting his construction according to
+his ideal, and is not the construction when it is done&mdash;so finished,
+so responsive in all its parts, so almost human&mdash;is not that
+worthy to be called a work of fine art? The answer is that the
+inventor has a definite and practical end before him; his ideal
+is not <i>free</i>; he deserves all credit as the perfector of a particular
+instrument for a prescribed function, but an artist, a free follower
+of the fine arts, he is not; although we may perhaps have to
+concede him a narrow sphere for the play of something like an
+artistic sense when he contrives the proportion, arrangement,
+form or finish of the several parts of his machine in one way
+rather than another, not because they work better so but simply
+because their look pleases him better.</p>
+
+<p>Returning from this digression, let us consider one common
+observation more on the nature of the fine arts. They are
+activities, it is said, which were put forth not because
+they need but because they like. They have the
+<span class="sidenote">Fine arts called a kind of play.</span>
+activity to spare, and to put it forth in this way pleases
+them. Fine art is to mankind what play is to the
+individual, a free and arbitrary vent for energy which is not
+needed to be spent upon tasks concerned with the conservation,
+perpetuation or protection of life. To insist on the superfluous
+or optional character of the fine arts, to call them the play or
+pastime of the human race as distinguished from its inevitable
+and sterner tasks, is obviously only to reiterate our fundamental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span>
+distinction between the fine arts and the useful or necessary.
+But the distinction, as expressed in this particular form, has been
+interpreted in a great variety of ways and followed out to an
+infinity of conclusions, conclusions regarding both the nature
+of the activities themselves and the character and value of their
+results.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, starting from this saying that the aesthetic
+activities are a kind of play, the English psychology of association
+goes back to the spontaneous cries and movements
+of children, in which their superfluous energies find a
+<span class="sidenote">The play idea as worked out by the English associationists.</span>
+vent. It then enumerates pleasures of which the
+human constitution is capable apart from direct
+advantage or utility. Such are the primitive or
+organic pleasures of sight and hearing, and the secondary
+or derivative pleasures of association or unconscious
+reminiscence and inference that soon become mixed up with
+these. Such are also the pleasures derived from following any
+kind of mimicry, or representation of things real or like reality.
+The association psychology describes the grouping within the
+mind of predilections based upon these pleasures; it shows
+how the growing organism learns to govern its play, or direct
+its superfluous energies, in obedience to such predilections,
+till in mature individuals, and still more in mature societies, a
+highly regulated and accomplished group of leisure activities are
+habitually employed in supplying to a not less highly cultivated
+group of disinterested sensibilities their appropriate artistic
+pleasures. It is by Herbert Spencer that this view has been
+most fully and systematically worked out.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in the views of an ancient philosopher, Plato, and a
+modern poet, Schiller, the consideration that the artistic activities
+are in the nature of play, and the manifestations in
+which they result independent of realities and utilities,
+<span class="sidenote">By Plato.</span>
+has led to judgments so differing as the following. Plato held
+that the daily realities of things in experience are not realities,
+indeed, but only far-off shows or reflections of the true realities,
+that is, of certain ideal or essential forms which can be apprehended
+as existing by the mind. Holding this, Plato saw in
+the works of fine art but the reflections of reflections, the shows
+of shows, and depreciated them according to their degree of
+remoteness from the ideal, typical or sense-transcending existences.
+He sets the arts of medicine, agriculture, shoemaking
+and the rest above the fine arts, inasmuch as they produce
+something serious or useful (<span class="grk" title="spoudaionti">&#963;&#960;&#959;&#965;&#948;&#945;&#8150;&#972;&#957;&#964;&#953;</span>). Fine art, he says, produces
+nothing useful, and makes only semblances (<span class="grk" title="eidolopiïke">&#949;&#7984;&#948;&#969;&#955;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#970;&#954;&#942;</span>),
+whereas what mechanical art produces are utilities, and even in
+the ordinary sense realities (<span class="grk" title="autopoietike">&#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>).</p>
+
+<p>In another age, and thinking according to another system,
+Schiller, so far from holding thus cheap the kingdom of play
+and show, regarded his sovereignty over that kingdom
+as the noblest prerogative of man. Schiller wrote his
+<span class="sidenote">By Schiller.</span>
+famous <i>Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man</i> in
+order to throw into popular currency, and at the same time
+to modify and follow up in a particular direction, certain metaphysical
+doctrines which had lately been launched upon the
+schools by Kant. The spirit of man, said Schiller after Kant,
+is placed between two worlds, the physical world or world of
+sense, and the moral world or world of will. Both of these are
+worlds of constraint or necessity. In the sensible world, the
+spirit of man submits to constraint from without; in the moral
+world, it imposes constraint from within. So far as man yields
+to the importunities of sense, in so far he is bound and passive,
+the subject of outward shocks and victim of irrational forces.
+So far as he asserts himself by the exercise of will, imposing upon
+sense and outward things the dominion of the moral law within
+him, in so far he is free and active, the rational lord of nature
+and not her slave. Corresponding to these two worlds, he has
+within him two conflicting impulses or impulsions of his nature,
+the one driving him towards one way of living, the other towards
+another. The one, or sense-impulsion (<i>Stofftrieb</i>), Schiller
+thinks of as that which enslaves the spirit of man as the victim
+of matter, the other or moral impulsion (<i>Formtrieb</i>) as that
+which enthrones it as the dictator of form. Between the two
+the conflict at first seems inveterate. The kingdom of brute
+nature and sense, the sphere of man&rsquo;s subjection and passivity,
+wages war against the kingdom of will and moral law, the sphere
+of his activity and control, and every conquest of the one is an
+encroachment upon the other. Is there, then, no hope of truce
+between the two kingdoms, no ground where the two contending
+impulses can be reconciled? Nay, the answer comes, there is
+such a hope; such a neutral territory there exists. Between
+the passive kingdom of matter and sense, where man is compelled
+blindly to feel and be, and the active kingdom of law and reason,
+where he is compelled sternly to will and act, there is a kingdom
+where both sense and will may have their way, and where man
+may give the rein to all his powers. But this middle kingdom
+does not lie in the sphere of practical life and conduct. It lies
+in the sphere of those activities which neither subserve any
+necessity of nature nor fulfil any moral duty. Towards activities
+of this kind we are driven by a third impulsion of our nature not
+less essential to it than the other two, the impulsion, as Schiller
+calls it, of Play (<i>Spieltrieb</i>). Relatively to real life and conduct,
+play is a kind of harmless show; it is that which we are free to
+do or leave undone as we please, and which lies alike outside the
+sphere of needs and duties. In play we may do as we like, and
+no mischief will come of it. In this sphere man may put forth
+all his powers without risk of conflict, and may invent activities
+which will give a complete ideal satisfaction to the contending
+faculties of sense and will at once, to the impulses which bid him
+feel and enjoy the shocks of physical and outward things, and
+the impulse which bids him master such things, control and
+regulate them. In play you may impose upon Matter what
+Form you choose, and the two will not interfere with one another
+or clash. The kingdom of Matter and the kingdom of Form
+thus harmonized, thus reconciled by the activities of play and
+show, will in other words be the kingdom of the Beautiful.
+Follow the impulsion of play, and to the beautiful you will find
+your road; the activities you will find yourself putting forth
+will be the activities of aesthetic creation&mdash;you will have discovered
+or invented the fine arts. &ldquo;Midway&rdquo;&mdash;these are Schiller&rsquo;s
+own words&mdash;&ldquo;midway between the formidable kingdom of
+natural forces and the hallowed kingdom of moral laws, the
+impulse of aesthetic creation builds up a third kingdom unperceived,
+the gladsome kingdom of play and show, wherein it
+emancipates man from all compulsion alike of physical and of
+moral forces.&rdquo; Schiller, the poet and enthusiast, thus making
+his own application of the Kantian metaphysics, goes on to set
+forth how the fine arts, or activities of play and show, are for
+him the typical, the ideal activities of the race, since in them
+alone is it possible for man to put forth his whole, that is his ideal
+self. &ldquo;Only when he plays is man really and truly man.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Man ought only to play with the beautiful, and he ought to
+play with the beautiful only.&rdquo; &ldquo;Education in taste and beauty
+has for its object to train up in the utmost attainable harmony
+the whole sum of the powers both of sense and spirit.&rdquo; And the
+rest of Schiller&rsquo;s argument is addressed to show how the activities
+of artistic creation, once invented, react upon other departments
+of human life, how the exercise of the play impulse prepares
+men for an existence in which the inevitable collision of the two
+other impulses shall be softened or averted more and more.
+That harmony of the powers which clash so violently in man&rsquo;s
+primitive nature, having first been found possible in the sphere
+of the fine arts, reflects itself, in his judgment, upon the whole
+composition of man, and attunes him, as an aesthetic being, into
+new capabilities for the conduct of his social existence.</p>
+
+<p>Our reasons for dwelling on this wide and enthusiastic formula
+of Schiller&rsquo;s are both its importance in the history of reflection&mdash;it
+remained, indeed, for nearly a century a formula
+almost classical&mdash;and the measure of positive value
+<span class="sidenote">The strong points of Schiller&rsquo;s theory.</span>
+which it still retains. The notion of a sphere of
+voluntary activity for the human spirit, in which,
+under no compulsion of necessity or conscience, we
+order matters as we like them apart from any practical end,
+seems coextensive with the widest conception of fine art and the
+fine arts as they exist in civilized and developed communities.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span>
+It insists on and brings into the light the free or optional character
+of these activities, as distinguished from others to which we are
+compelled by necessity or duty, as well as the fact that these
+activities, superfluous as they may be from the points of view of
+necessity and of duty, spring nevertheless from an imperious
+and a saving instinct of our nature. It does justice to the part
+which is, or at any rate may be, filled in the world by pleasures
+which are apart from profit, and by delights for the enjoyment
+of which men cannot quarrel. It claims the dignity they deserve
+for those shows and pastimes in which we have found a way to
+make permanent all the transitory delights of life and nature,
+to turn even our griefs and yearnings, by their artistic utterance,
+into sources of appeasing joy, to make amends to ourselves for
+the confusion and imperfection of reality by conceiving and
+imaging forth the semblances of things clearer and more complete,
+since in contriving them we incorporate with the experiences
+we have had the better experiences we have dreamed of and
+longed for.</p>
+
+<p>One manifestly weak point of Schiller&rsquo;s theory is that though
+it asserts that man ought only to play with the beautiful, and
+that he is his best or ideal self only when he does so,
+yet it does not sufficiently indicate what kinds of
+<span class="sidenote">Its weak points.</span>
+play are beautiful nor why we are moved to adopt
+them. It does not show how the delights of the eye and spirit
+in contemplating forms, colours and movements, of the ear and
+spirit in apprehending musical and verbal sounds, or of the whole
+mind at once in following the comprehensive current of images
+called up by poetry&mdash;it does not clearly show how delights
+like these differ from those yielded by other kinds of play or
+pastime, which are by common consent excluded from the
+sphere of fine art.</p>
+
+<p>The chase, for instance, is a play or pastime which gives scope
+for any amount of premeditated skill; it has pleasures, for
+those who take part in it, which are in some degree
+analogous to the pleasures of the artist; we all know
+<span class="sidenote">Kinds of play which are not fine art.</span>
+the claims made on behalf of the noble art of venerie
+(following true medieval precedent) by the knights
+and woodmen of Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s romances. It is an
+obvious reply to say that though the chase is play to us, who in
+civilized communities follow it on no plea of necessity, yet to a
+not remote ancestry it was earnest; in primitive societies
+hunting does not belong to the class of optional activities at all,
+but is among the most pressing of utilitarian needs. But this
+reply loses much of its force since we have learnt how many of
+the fine arts, however emancipated from direct utility now,
+have as a matter of history been evolved out of activities
+primarily utilitarian. It would be more to the point to remark
+that the pleasures of the sportsman are the only pleasures
+arising from the chase; his exertions afford pain to the victim,
+and no satisfaction to any class of recipients but himself; or
+at least the sympathetic pleasures of the lookers-on at a hunt
+or at a battle are hardly to be counted as pleasures of artistic
+contemplation. The issue which they witness is a real issue;
+the skilled endeavours with which they sympathize are put
+forth for a definite practical result, and a result disastrous to one
+of the parties concerned.</p>
+
+<p>What then, it may be asked, about athletic games and sports,
+which hurt nobody, have no connexion with the chase, and
+give pleasure to thousands of spectators? Here the difference
+is, that the event which excites the spectator&rsquo;s interest and
+pleasure at a race or match or athletic contest is not a wholly
+unreal or simulated event; it is less real than life, but it is more
+real than art. The contest has no momentous practical consequences,
+but it is a contest, an <span class="grk" title="athlos">&#7940;&#952;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, all the same, in which
+competitors put forth real strength, and one really wins and
+others are defeated. Such a struggle, in which the exertions
+are real and the issue uncertain, we follow with an excitement
+and a suspense different in kind from the feelings with which
+we contemplate a fictitious representation. For example, let
+the reader recall the feelings with which he may have watched
+a real fencing bout, and compare them with those with which
+he watches the simulated fencing bout in Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Hamlet</i>.
+The instance is a crucial one, because in the fictitious case the
+excitement is heightened by the introduction of the poisoned
+foil, and by the tremendous consequences which we are aware
+will turn, in the representation, on the issue. Yet because the
+fencing scene in <i>Hamlet</i> is a representation, and not real, we find
+ourselves watching it in a mood quite different from that in
+which we watch the most ordinary real fencing-match with
+vizors and blunt foils; a mood more exalted, if the representation
+is good, but amid the aesthetic emotions of which the
+fluctuations of strained, if trivial, suspense and the eagerness of
+sympathetic participation find no place. &ldquo;The delight of tragedy,&rdquo;
+says Johnson, &ldquo;proceeds from our consciousness  of fiction;
+if we thought murders and treasons real, they would please no
+more.&rdquo; So does the peculiar quality of our pleasure in watching
+the fencing-match in <i>Hamlet</i>, or the wrestling-match in <i>As You
+Like It</i>, depend on our consciousness of fiction: if we thought
+the matches real they might please us still, but please us in a
+different way. Again, of athletics in general, they are pursuits
+to a considerable degree definitely utilitarian, having for their
+specific end the training and strengthening of individual human
+bodies. Nevertheless, in some systems the title of fine arts
+has been consistently claimed, if not for athletics technically
+so called, and involving the idea of competition and defeat, at
+any rate for gymnastics, regarded simply as a display of the
+physical frame of man cultivated by exercise&mdash;as, for instance,
+it was cultivated by the ancient Greeks&mdash;to an ideal perfection
+of beauty and strength.</p>
+
+<p>But apart from criticisms like these on the theory of Schiller,
+the Kantian doctrine of a metaphysical opposition between
+the senses and the reason has for most minds of to-day
+lost its validity, and with it falls away Schiller&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">The play theory in the light of anthropological research.</span>
+derivative theory of a <i>Stofftrieb</i> and a <i>Formtrieb</i>
+contending like enemies for dominion over the human
+spirit, with a neutral or reconciling <i>Spieltrieb</i> standing
+between them. Even taking the existence of the
+<i>Spieltrieb</i>, or play-impulse, by itself as a plain and indubitable
+fact in human nature, the theory that this impulse
+is the general or universal source of the artistic activities of the
+race, which seemed adequate to thinkers so far apart as Schiller
+and Herbert Spencer, is found no longer to hold water. The
+tendency of recent thought and study on these subjects has been
+to abandon the abstract or dialectical method in favour of the
+methods of historical and anthropological inquiry. In the
+light of these methods it is claimed that the artistic activities
+of the race spring in point of fact from no single source but from
+a number of different sources. It is admitted that the play-impulse
+is one of these, and the allied and overlapping, but not
+identical, impulse of mimicry or imitation another. But it is
+urged at the same time that these twin impulses, rooted as they
+both are among the primordial faculties both of men and animals,
+are far from existing merely to provide a vent whereby the
+superfluous energies of sentient beings may discharge themselves
+at pleasure, but are indispensable utilitarian instincts, by which
+the young are led to practise and rehearse in sport those activities
+the exercise of which in earnest will be necessary to their preservation
+in the adult state. (The researches of Professor Karl
+Groos in this field seem to be conclusive.) A third impulse
+innate in man, though scarcely so primordial as the other two,
+and one which the animals cannot share with him, is the impulse
+of record or commemoration. Man instinctively desires, alike
+for safety, use and pleasure, to perpetuate and hand on the
+memory of his deeds and experiences whether by words or by
+works of his hands contrived for permanence. This impulse
+of record is the most stimulating ally of the impulse of mimicry
+or imitation, and perhaps a large part of the arts usually put
+down as springing from the love of imitation ought rather to
+be put down as springing from the commemorative or recording
+impulse, using imitation as its necessary means. Granting the
+existence in primitive man of these three allied impulses of play,
+of mimicry, and of record, it is urged that they are so many
+distinct though contiguous sources from which whole groups of
+the fine arts have sprung, and that all three in their origin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span>
+served ends primarily or in great part utilitarian. Examining
+any of the rudimentary artistic activities of primitive man already
+mentioned: the decoration of the person with tattooings or
+strings of shells or teeth or feathers had primarily the object
+of attracting or impressing the opposite sex, or terrifying an
+enemy, or indicating the tribal relations of the person so adorned;
+some of the same purposes were served by the scratches and
+tufts and markings on weapons or utensils; the <i>graffiti</i> or outline
+drawings of animals incised by cave-dwellers on bones are
+surmised to have sprung in like manner from the desire of conveying
+information, combined, probably, sometimes with that of
+obtaining magic power over the things represented; the erection
+of memorial shrines and images of all kinds, from the rudest
+upwards, had among other purposes the highly practical one of
+propitiating the spirits of the departed; and so on through the
+whole range of kindred activities. It is contended, next, that
+such activities only take on the character of rudimentary fine
+arts at a certain stage of their evolution. Before they can
+assume that character, they must come under the influence
+and control of yet another rooted and imperious impulse in
+mankind. That is the impulse of emotional self-expression,
+the instinct which compels us to seek relief under the stimulus
+of pent-up feeling; an instinct, it is added, second only in
+power to those which drive us to seek food, shelter, protection
+from enemies, and satisfaction for-sexual desires. According
+to a law of our constitution, the argument goes on, this need for
+emotional self-expression finds itself fully satisfied only by
+certain modes of activity; those, namely, which either have
+in themselves, or impress on their products, the property of
+rhythm, that is, of regular interval and recurrence, flow, order
+and proportion. Leaping, shouting, and clapping hands is the
+human animal&rsquo;s most primitive way of seeking relief under the
+pressure of emotion; so soon as one such animal found out
+that he both expressed and relieved his emotions best, and
+communicated them best to his fellows, when he moved in regular
+rhythm and shouted in regular time and with regular changes
+of pitch, he ceased to be a mere excited savage and became a
+primitive dancer, singer, musician&mdash;in a word, artist. So soon
+as another found himself taking pleasure in certain qualities of
+regular interval, pattern and arrangement of lines, shapes,
+and colours, apart from all questions of purpose or utility,
+in his tattooings and self-adornments, his decoration of tools
+or weapons or structures for shelter or commemoration, he in
+like manner became a primitive artist in ornamental and
+imitative design.</p>
+
+<p>The special qualities of pleasure felt and communicated by
+doing things in one way rather than another, independently
+of direct utility, which we indicated at the outset as characteristic
+of the whole range of the fine arts, appear on this showing to
+be dependent primarily on the response of our organic sensibilities
+of nerve and muscle, eye, ear and brain to the stimulus of rhythm,
+(using the word in its widest sense) imparted either to our own
+actions and utterances or to the works of our hands. Such
+pleasures would seem to have been first experienced by man
+directly, in the endeavour to find relief with limbs and voice
+from states of emotional tension, and then incidentally, as a
+kind of by-product arising and affording similar relief in the
+development of a wide range of utilitarian activities. Into the
+nature of those organic sensibilities, and the grounds of the
+relief they afford us when gratified, it is the province of physiological
+and psychological aesthetics to inquire: our business
+here is only with the activities directed towards their satisfaction
+and the results of those activities in the works of fine art. On
+the whole the account of the matter yielded by the method of
+anthropological research, and here very briefly summarized,
+may be accepted as answering more closely to the complex
+nature of the facts than any of the accounts hitherto current;
+and so we may expand our first tentative suggestion of a definition
+into one more complete, which from the nature of the case
+cannot be very brief or simple and must run somehow thus:
+<i>Fine art is everything which man does or makes in one way rather
+than another, freely and with premeditation, in order to express
+and arouse emotion, in obedience to laws of rhythmic movement
+or utterance or regulated design, and with results independent of
+direct utility and capable of affording to many permanent and
+disinterested delight.</i></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Of the Fine Arts severally.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Architecture</i>, <i>sculpture</i>, <i>painting</i>, <i>music</i> and <i>poetry</i> are by
+common consent, as has been said at the outset, the five principal
+or greater fine arts practised among developed communities
+of men. It is possible in thought to group
+<span class="sidenote">Modes in which the five greater arts have been classified.</span>
+these five arts in as many different orders as there are
+among them different kinds of relation or affinity.
+One thinker fixes his attention upon one kind of relations
+as the most important, and arranges his group
+accordingly; another upon another; and each, when
+he has done so, is very prone to claim for his arrangement the
+virtue of being the sole essentially and fundamentally true.
+For example, we may ascertain one kind of relations between
+the arts by inquiring which is the simplest or most limited in
+its effects, which next simplest, which another degree less
+simple, which least simple or most complex of them all. This,
+the relation of progressive complexity or comprehensiveness
+between the fine arts, is the relation upon which Auguste Comte
+fixed his attention, and it yields in his judgment the following
+order:&mdash;Architecture lowest in complexity, because both of the
+kinds of effects which it produces and of the material conditions
+and limitations under which it works; sculpture next; painting
+third; then music; and poetry highest, as the most complex
+or comprehensive art of all, both in its own special effects and
+in its resources for ideally calling up the effects of all the other
+arts as well as all the phenomena of nature and experiences of
+life. A somewhat similar grouping was adopted, though from
+the consideration of a wholly different set of relations, by Hegel.
+Hegel fixed his attention on the varying relations borne by the
+idea, or spiritual element, to the embodiment of the idea, or
+material element, in each art. Leaving aside that part of his
+doctrine which concerns, not the phenomena of the arts themselves,
+but their place in the dialectical world-plan or scheme of
+the universe, Hegel said in effect something like this. In certain
+ages and among certain races, as in Egypt and Assyria, and
+again in the Gothic age of Europe, mankind has only dim ideas
+for art to express, ideas insufficiently disengaged and realized,
+of which the expression cannot be complete or lucid, but only
+adumbrated and imperfect; the characteristic art of those
+ages is a symbolic art, with its material element predominating
+over and keeping down its spiritual; and such a symbolic art
+is architecture. In other ages, as in the Greek age, the ideas
+of men have come to be definite, disengaged, and clear; the
+characteristic art of such an age will be one in which the spiritual
+and material elements are in equilibrium, and neither predominates
+over nor keeps down the other, but a thoroughly realized
+idea is expressed in a thoroughly adequate and lucid form;
+this is the mode of expression called classic, and the classic art
+is sculpture. In other ages, again, and such are the modern
+ages of Europe, the idea grows in power and becomes importunate;
+the spiritual and material elements are no longer in equilibrium,
+but the spiritual element predominates; the characteristic
+arts of such an age will be those in which thought, passion,
+sentiment, aspiration, emotion, emerge in freedom, dealing with
+material form as masters or declining its shackles altogether;
+this is the romantic mode of expression, and the romantic arts
+are painting, music and poetry. A later systematizer, Lotze,
+fixed his attention on the relative degrees of freedom or independence
+which the several arts enjoy&mdash;their freedom, that is, from
+the necessity of either imitating given facts of nature or ministering,
+as part of their task, to given practical uses. In his grouping,
+instead of the order architecture, sculpture, painting, music,
+poetry, music comes first, because it has neither to imitate any
+natural facts nor to serve any practical end; architecture next,
+because, though it is tied to useful ends and material conditions,
+yet it is free from the task of imitation, and pleases the eye in
+its degree, by pure form, light and shade, and the rest, as music
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span>
+pleases the ear by pure sound; then, as arts all tied to the task
+of imitation, sculpture, painting and poetry, taken in progressive
+order according to the progressing comprehensiveness of their
+several resources.</p>
+
+<p>The thinker on these subjects has, moreover, to consider the
+enumeration and classification of the lesser or subordinate fine
+arts. Whole clusters or families of these occur to the
+mind at once; such as <i>dancing</i>, an art subordinate
+<span class="sidenote">Place of the minor or subordinate fine arts.</span>
+to music, but quite different in kind; <i>acting</i>, an art
+auxiliary to <i>poetry</i>, from which in kind it differs no
+less; <i>eloquence</i> in all kinds, so far as it is studied and
+not merely spontaneous; and among the arts which fashion or
+dispose material objects, <i>embroidery</i> and the weaving of patterns,
+<i>pottery</i>, <i>glassmaking</i>, <i>goldsmith&rsquo;s work</i> and <i>jewelry</i>, <i>joiner&rsquo;s work</i>,
+<i>gardening</i> (according to the claim of some), and a score of other
+dexterities and industries which are more than mere dexterities
+and industries because they add elements of beauty and pleasure
+to elements of serviceableness and use. To decide whether any
+given one of these has a right to the title of fine art, and, if so,
+to which of the greater fine arts it should be thought of as
+appended and subordinate, or between which two of them
+intermediate, is often no easy task.</p>
+
+<p>The weak point of all classifications of the kind of which
+we have above given examples is that each is intended to be
+final, and to serve instead of any other. The truth
+is, that the relations between the several fine arts are
+<span class="sidenote">No one classification final or sufficient.</span>
+much too complex for any single classification to bear
+this character. Every classification of the fine arts
+must necessarily be provisional, according to the
+particular class of relations which it keeps in view. And for
+practical purposes it is requisite to bear in mind not one classification
+but several. Fixing our attention, not upon complicated
+or problematical relations between the various arts, but only
+upon their simple and undisputed relations, and giving the first
+place in our consideration to the five greater arts of architecture,
+sculpture, painting, music and poetry, we shall find at least
+three principal modes in which every fine art either resembles
+or differs from the rest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>The Shaping and the Speaking Arts</i> (<i>or Arts of Form and Arts of
+Utterance, or Arts of Space and Arts of Time</i>).&mdash;Each of the greater
+arts either makes something or not which can be seen and
+handled. The arts which make something which can be
+<span class="sidenote">First classification: the shaping and the speaking arts.</span>
+seen and handled are architecture, sculpture and painting.
+In the products or results of all these arts external matter
+is in some way or another manually put together, fashioned
+or disposed. But music and poetry do not produce any
+results of this kind. What music produces is something
+that can be heard, and what poetry produces is something
+that can be either heard or read&mdash;which last is a kind of ideal hearing,
+having for its avenue the eye instead of the ear, and for its material,
+written signs for words instead of the spoken words themselves.
+Now what the eye sees from any one point of view, it sees all at once;
+in other words, the parts of anything we see fill or occupy not time
+but space, and reach us from various points in space at a single
+simultaneous perception. If we are at the proper distance we see
+at one glance a house from the ground to the chimneys, a statue from
+head to foot, and in a picture at once the foreground and background,
+and everything that is within the four corners of the frame. There
+is, indeed, this distinction to be drawn, that in walking round or
+through a temple, church, house or any other building, new parts
+and proportions of the building unfold themselves to view; and the
+same thing happens in walking round a statue or turning it on a turntable:
+so that the spectator, by his own motions and the time it
+takes to effect them, can impart to architecture and sculpture
+something of the character of time arts. But their products, as
+contemplated from any one point of view, are in themselves solid,
+stationary and permanent in space. Whereas the parts of anything
+we hear, or, reading, can imagine that we hear, fill or occupy not
+space at all but time, and can only reach us from various points in
+time through a continuous series of perceptions, or, in the case of
+reading, of images raised by words in the mind. We have to wait,
+in music, while one note follows another in a theme, and one theme
+another in a movement; and in poetry, while one line with its
+images follows another in a stanza, and one stanza another in a
+canto, and so on. It is a convenient form of expressing both aspects
+of this difference between the two groups of arts, to say that architecture,
+sculpture and painting are arts which give shape to things
+in space, or, more briefly, shaping arts; and music and poetry arts
+which give utterance to things in time, or, more briefly, speaking
+arts. These simple terms of the <i>shaping</i> and the <i>speaking</i> arts (the
+equivalent of the Ger. <i>bildende und redende Künste</i>) are not usual
+in English; but they seem appropriate and clear; the simplest
+alternatives for their use is to speak of the <i>manual</i> and the <i>vocal</i>
+arts, or the arts of <i>space</i> and the arts of <i>time</i>. This is practically,
+if not logically, the most substantial and vital distinction upon which
+a classification of the fine arts can be based. The arts which surround
+us in space with stationary effects for the eye, as the house we live
+in, the pictures on the walls, the marble figure in the vestibule, are
+stationary, hold a different kind of place in our experience&mdash;not a
+greater or a higher place, but essentially a different place&mdash;from the
+arts which provide us with transitory effects in time, effects capable
+of being awakened for the ear or mind at any moment, as a symphony
+is awakened by playing and an ode by reading, but lying in abeyance
+until we bid that moment come, and passing away when the performance
+or the reading is over. Such, indeed, is the practical force of the
+distinction that in modern usage the expression <i>fine art</i>, or even <i>art</i>,
+is often used by itself in a sense which tacitly excludes music and
+poetry, and signifies the group of manual or shaping arts alone.</p>
+
+<p>As between three of the five greater arts and the other two, the
+distinction on which we are now dwelling is complete. Buildings,
+statues, pictures, belong strictly to sight and space; to
+time and to hearing, real through the ear, or ideal through
+<span class="sidenote">Intermediate class of arts of motion.</span>
+the mind in reading, belong music and poetry. Among
+the lesser or subordinate arts, however, there are several
+in which this distinction finds no place, and which produce,
+in space and time at once, effects midway between the
+stationary or stable, and the transitory or fleeting. Such is the
+<i>dramatic</i> art, in which the actor makes with his actions and gestures,
+or several actors make with the combination of their different
+actions and gestures, a kind of shifting picture, which appeals to the
+eyes of the witnesses while the sung or spoken words of the drama
+appeal to their ears; thus making of them spectators and auditors
+at once, and associating with the pure time art of words the mixed
+time-and-space art of bodily movements. As all movement whatsoever
+is necessarily movement through space, and takes time to
+happen, so every other fine art which is wholly or in part an act of
+movement partakes in like manner of this double character. Along
+with acting thus comes <i>dancing</i>. Dancing, when it is of the mimic
+character, may itself be a kind of acting; historically, indeed, the
+dancer&rsquo;s art was the parent of the actor&rsquo;s; whether apart from or in
+conjunction with the mimic element, dancing is an art in which
+bodily movements obey, accompany, and, as it were, express or
+accentuate in space the time effects of music. <i>Eloquence</i> or oratory
+in like manner, so far as its power depends on studied and premeditated
+gesture, is also an art which to some extent enforces its
+primary appeal through the ear in time by a secondary appeal
+through the eye in space. So much for the first distinction, that
+between the shaping or space arts and the speaking or time arts,
+with the intermediate and subordinate class of arts which, like
+acting, dancing, oratory, add to the pure time element a mixed
+time-and-space element. These last can hardly be called shaping
+arts, because it is his own person, and not anything outside himself,
+which the actor, the dancer, the orator disposes or adjusts; they
+may perhaps best be called arts of motion, or moving arts.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Imitative and the Non-Imitative Arts.</i>&mdash;Each art either does
+or does not represent or imitate something which exists already in
+<span class="sidenote">Second classification: the imitative and non-imitative arts.</span>
+nature. Of the five greater fine arts, those which thus
+represent objects existing in nature are sculpture, painting
+and poetry. Those which do not represent anything so
+existing are music and architecture. On this principle we
+get a new grouping. Two shaping or space arts and one
+speaking or time art now form the imitative group of
+sculpture, painting and poetry; while one space art and
+one time art form the non-imitative group of music and
+architecture. The mixed space-and-time arts of the actor, and of the
+dancer, so far as he or she is also a mimic, belong, of course, by their
+very name and nature, to the imitative class.</p>
+
+<p>It was the imitative character of the fine arts which chiefly
+occupied the attention of Aristotle. But in order to understand the
+art theories of Aristotle it is necessary to bear in mind
+the very different meanings which the idea of imitation
+<span class="sidenote">The imitative functions of art according to Aristotle.</span>
+bore to his mind and bears to ours. For Aristotle the
+idea of imitation or representation (<i>mim&#275;sis</i>) was extended
+so as to denote the expressing, evoking or making manifest
+of anything whatever, whether material objects or ideas
+or feelings. Music and dancing, by which utterance or
+expression is given to emotions that may be quite detached
+from all definite ideas or images, are thus for him varieties of imitation.
+He says, indeed, <i>most</i> music and dancing, as if he was aware
+that there were exceptions, but he does not indicate what the exceptions
+are; and under the head of imitative music, he distinctly
+reckons some kinds of instrumental music without words. But in
+our own more restricted usage, to imitate means to copy, mimic or
+represent some existing phenomenon, some definite reality of
+experience; and we can only call those imitative arts which bring
+before us such things, either directly by showing us their actual
+likeness, as sculpture does in solid form, and as painting does by
+means of lines and colours on a plane surface, or else indirectly, by
+calling up ideas or images of them in the mind, as poetry and literature
+do by means of words. It is by a stretch of ordinary usage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span>
+that we apply the word imitation even to this last way of representing
+things; since words are no true likeness of, but only customary signs
+for, the thing they represent. And those arts we cannot call
+imitative at all, which by combinations of abstract sound or form
+express and arouse emotions unattended by the recognizable likeness,
+idea or image of any definite thing.</p>
+
+<p>Now the emotions of music when music goes along with words,
+whether in the shape of actual song or even of the instrumental
+accompaniment of song, are no doubt in a certain sense
+attended with definite ideas; those, namely, which are
+<span class="sidenote">Non-imitative character of music.</span>
+expressed by the words themselves. But the same ideas
+would be conveyed to the mind equally well by the same
+words if they were simply spoken. What the music
+contributes is a special element of its own, an element of pure
+emotion, aroused through the sense of hearing, which heightens the
+effect of the words upon the feelings without helping to elucidate
+them for the understanding. Nay, it is well known that a song well
+sung produces its intended effect upon the feelings almost as fully
+though we fail to catch the words or are ignorant of the language
+to which they belong. Thus the view of Aristotle cannot be defended
+on the ground that he was familiar with music only in an elementary
+form, and principally as the direct accompaniment of words, and
+that in his day the modern development of the art, as an art for
+building up constructions of independent sound, vast and intricate
+fabrics of melody and harmony detached from words, was a thing
+not yet imagined. That is perfectly true; the immense technical
+and intellectual development of music, both in its resources and its
+capacities, is an achievement of the modern world; but the essential
+character of musical sound is the same in its most elementary as in
+its most complicated stage. Its privilege is to give delight, not by
+communicating definite ideas, or calling up particular images, but
+by appealing to certain organic sensibilities in our nerves of hearing,
+and through such appeal expressing on the one part and arousing
+on the other a unique kind of emotion. The emotion caused by
+music may be altogether independent of any ideas conveyable by
+words. Or it may serve to intensify and enforce other emotions
+arising at the same time in connexion with the ideas conveyed by
+words; and it was one of the contentions of Richard Wagner that
+in the former phase the art is now exhausted, and that only in the
+latter are new conquests in store for it. But in either case the music
+is the music, and <i>is like nothing else</i>; it is no representation or
+similitude of anything whatsoever.</p>
+
+<p>But does not instrumental music, it will be said, sometimes really
+imitate the sounds of nature, as the piping of birds, the whispering
+of woods, the moaning of storms or explosion of thunder;
+or does it not, at any rate, suggest these things by resemblances
+<span class="sidenote">An objection and its answer.</span>
+so close that they almost amount in the strict
+sense to imitation? Occasionally, it is true, music does
+allow itself these playful excursions into a region of quasi-imitation
+or mimicry. It modifies the character of its abstract sounds into
+something, so to speak, more concrete, and, instead of sensations
+which are like nothing else, affords us sensations which recognizably
+resemble those we receive from some of the sounds of nature. But
+such excursions are hazardous, and to make them often is the surest
+proof of vulgarity in a musician. Neither are the successful effects
+of the great composers in evoking ideas of particular natural phenomena
+generally in the nature of real imitations or representations;
+although passages such as the notes of the dove and nightingale in
+Haydn&rsquo;s <i>Creation</i>, and of the cuckoo in Beethoven&rsquo;s <i>Pastoral Symphony</i>,
+the bleating of the sheep in the <i>Don Quixote</i> symphony of
+Richard Strauss, must be acknowledged to be exceptions. Again,
+it is a recognized fact concerning the effect of instrumental music
+on those of its hearers who try to translate such effect into words,
+that they will all find themselves in tolerable agreement as to the
+meaning of any passage so long as they only attempt to describe
+it in terms of vague emotion, and to say such and such a passage
+expresses, as the case may be, dejection or triumph, effort or the
+relaxation of effort, eagerness or languor, suspense or fruition,
+anguish or glee. But their agreement comes to an end the moment
+they begin to associate, in their interpretation, definite ideas with
+these vague emotions; then we find that what suggests in idea to
+one hearer the vicissitudes of war will suggest to another, or to the
+same at another time, the vicissitudes of love, to another those of
+spiritual yearning and aspiration, to another, it may be, those of
+changeful travel by forest, field and ocean, to another those of
+life&rsquo;s practical struggle and ambition. The infinite variety of ideas
+which may thus be called up in different minds by the same strain
+of music is proof enough that the music is not <i>like</i> any particular
+thing. The torrent of varied and entrancing emotion which it pours
+along the heart, emotion latent and undivined until the spell of
+sound begins, that is music&rsquo;s achievement and its secret. It is this
+effect, whether coupled or not with a trained intellectual recognition
+of the highly abstract and elaborate nature of the laws of the relation,
+succession and combinations of sounds on which the effect depends,
+that has caused some thinkers, with Schopenhauer at their head, to
+find in music the nearest approach we have to a voice from behind
+the veil, a universal voice expressing the central purpose and
+deepest essence of things, unconfused by fleeting actualities or by the
+distracting duty of calling up images of particular and perishable
+phenomena. &ldquo;Music,&rdquo; in Schopenhauer&rsquo;s own words, &ldquo;reveals the
+innermost essential being of the world, and expresses the highest
+wisdom in a language the reason does not understand.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle endeavoured to frame a classification of the arts, in their
+several applications and developments, on two grounds&mdash;the nature
+of the objects imitated by each, and the means or instruments
+employed in the imitation. But in the case of
+<span class="sidenote">Definition of music.</span>
+music, as it exists in the modern world, the first part of
+this endeavour falls to the ground, because the object imitated has,
+in the sense in which we now use the word imitation, no existence.
+The means employed by music are successions and combinations of
+vocal or instrumental sounds regulated according to the three
+conditions of time and pitch (which together make up melody) and
+harmony, or the relations of different strains of time and tone cooperant
+but not parallel. With these means, music either creates
+her independent constructions, or else accompanies, adorns, enforces
+the imitative art of speech&mdash;but herself imitates not; and may be
+best defined simply as <i>a speaking or time art, of which the business is to
+express and arouse emotion by successions and combinations of regulated
+sound</i>.</p>
+
+<p>That which music is thus among the speaking or time-arts,
+architecture is among the shaping or space-arts. As music appeals
+to our faculties for taking pleasure in non-imitative
+combinations of transitory sound, so architecture appeals
+<span class="sidenote">Non-imitative character of architecture.</span>
+to our faculties for taking pleasure in non-imitative
+combinations of stationary mass. Corresponding to the
+system of ear-effects or combinations of time, tone and
+harmony with which music works, architecture works
+with a system of eye-effects or combinations of mass, contour, light
+and shade; colour, proportion, interval, alternation of plain and
+decorated parts, regularity and variety in regularity, apparent
+stability, vastness, appropriateness and the rest. Only the materials
+of architecture are not volatile and intangible like sound, but solid
+timber, brick, stone, metal and mortar, and the laws of weight and
+force according to which these materials have to be combined are
+much more severe and cramping than the laws of melody and harmony
+which regulate the combinations of music. The architect is further
+subject, unlike the musician, to the dictates and precise prescriptions
+of utility. Even in structures raised for purposes not of everyday
+use and necessity, but of commemoration or worship, the rules for
+such commemoration and such worship have prescribed a more or
+less fixed arrangement and proportion of the parts or members,
+whether in the Egyptian temple or temple-tomb, the Greek temple
+or her&#333;on, or in the churches of the middle ages and Renaissance in
+the West.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the effects of architecture are necessarily less full of various,
+rapturous and unforeseen enchantment than the effects of music.
+Yet for those who possess sensibility to the pleasures of the
+eye and the perfections of shaping art, the architecture
+<span class="sidenote">Analogies of architecture and music.</span>
+of the great ages has yielded combinations which, so far
+as comparison is permissible between things unlike in their
+materials, fall little short of the achievements of music
+in those kinds of excellence which are common to them both. In
+the virtues of lucidity, of just proportion and organic interdependence
+of the several parts or members, in the mathematic subtlety of their
+mutual relations, and of the transitions from one part or member to
+another, in purity and finish of individual forms, in the character
+of one thing growing naturally out of another and everything serving
+to complete the whole&mdash;in these qualities, no musical combination
+can well surpass a typical Doric temple such as the Parthenon at
+Athens. None, again, can well surpass some of the great cathedrals
+of the middle ages in the qualities of sublimity, of complexity, in the
+power both of expressing and suggesting spiritual aspiration, in the
+invention of intricate developments and ramifications about a central
+plan, in the union of majesty in the main conception with fertility
+of adornment in detail. In fancifulness, in the unexpected, in
+capricious and far-sought opulence, in filling the mind with mingled
+enchantments of east and west and south and north, music can
+hardly do more than a building like St Mark&rsquo;s at Venice does with
+its blending of Byzantine elements, Italian elements, Gothic elements,
+each carried to the utmost pitch of elaboration and each enriched
+with a hundred caprices of ornament, but all working together, all in
+obedience to a law, and &ldquo;all beginning and ending with the Cross.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the case of architecture, however, as in the case of music, the
+non-imitative character must not be stated quite without exception
+or reserve. There have been styles of architecture in
+which forms suggesting or imitating natural or other
+<span class="sidenote">Exceptional and limited admission of imitative forms in architecture.</span>
+phenomena have held a place among the abstract forms
+proper to the art. Often the mode of such suggestions
+is rather symbolical to the mind than really imitative to
+the eye; as when the number and relations of the heavenly
+planets were imaged by that race of astronomers, the Babylonians,
+in the seven concentric walls of their great temple,
+and in many other architectural constructions; or as when
+the shape of the cross was adopted, with innumerable slight varieties
+and modifications, for the ground plan of the churches of Christendom.
+Passing to examples of imitation more properly so called,
+it may be true, and was, at any rate, long believed, that the aisles
+of Gothic churches, when once the use of the pointed arch had been
+evolved as a principle of construction, were partly designed to evoke
+the idea of the natural aisles of the forest, and that the upsoaring
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span>
+forest trunks and meeting branches were more or less consciously
+imaged in their piers and vaultings. In the temple-palaces of
+Egypt, one of the regular architectural members, the sustaining pier,
+is often systematically wrought in the actual likeness of a conventionalized
+cluster of lotus stems, with lotus flowers for the capital.
+When we come to the fashion, not rare in Greek architecture, of
+carving this same sustaining member, the column, in complete human
+likeness, and employing caryatids, canephori, atlases or the like,
+to support the entablature of a building, it then becomes difficult
+to say whether we have to do with a work of architecture or of
+sculpture. The case, at any rate, is different from that in which
+the sculptor is called in to supply surface decoration to the various
+members of a building, or to fill with the products of his own art
+spaces in the building specially contrived and left vacant for that
+purpose. When the imitative feature is in itself an indispensable
+member of the architectural construction, to architecture rather
+than sculpture we shall probably do best to assign it.</p>
+
+<p>Defining architecture, then (apart from its utility, which for the
+present we leave out of consideration), as <i>a shaping art, of which the
+<span class="sidenote">Definition of architecture.</span>
+function is to express and arouse emotion by combinations
+of ordered and decorated mass</i>, we pass from the characteristics
+of the non-imitative to those of the imitative group
+of arts, namely sculpture, painting and poetry.</p>
+
+<p>If we keep in mind the source and origin of these arts, we must
+remember what has already been observed, that they spring by no
+means from man&rsquo;s love of imitation alone, but from his
+desire to record and commemorate experience, using the
+<span class="sidenote">The imitative arts are arts of record using imitation as their means.</span>
+faculty of imitation as his means. Mnemosyne (Memory)
+was in Greek tradition the mother of the Muses; imitation,
+in the sense above defined, is but their instrument. Hence
+we might think &ldquo;arts of record&rdquo; a better name for this
+group than arts of imitation. The answer is&mdash;but a large
+part of pure architecture is also commemorative; from
+the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt down there are many
+monuments in which the impulse of men to perpetuate their own or
+others&rsquo; memories has worked without any aid of imitation. Hence
+as the definition of a class of arts contrasted with architecture and
+music the name &ldquo;arts of record&rdquo; would fail; and we have to fall
+back on the current and established name of the &ldquo;imitative arts.&rdquo;
+In considering them we cannot do better than follow that Aristotelian
+division which describes each art according, first, to the objects
+which it imitates, and, secondly, to the means it employs.</p>
+
+<p>Taking sculpture first, as imitating a smaller range of objects than
+the other two, and imitating them more completely: sculpture may
+have for the objects of its imitation the shapes of whatever
+things possess length, breadth and magnitude. For its
+<span class="sidenote">Sculpture as an imitative art.</span>
+means or instruments it has solid form, which the sculptor
+either carves out of a hard substance, as in the case of
+wood and stone, or models in a yielding substance, as in the case of
+clay and wax, or casts in a dissolved or molten substance, as in the
+case of plaster and of metal in certain uses, or beats, draws or chases
+in a malleable and ductile substance, as in the case of metal in other
+uses, or stamps from dies or moulds, a method sometimes used in
+all soft or fusible materials. Thus a statue or statuette may either
+be carved straight out of a block of stone or wood, or first modelled
+in clay or wax, then moulded in plaster or some equivalent material,
+and then carved in stone or cast in bronze. A gem is wrought in
+stone by cutting and grinding. Figures in jeweller&rsquo;s work are
+wrought by beating and chasing; a medallion by beating and
+chasing or else by stamping from a die; a coin by stamping from a
+die; and so forth. The process of modelling (Gr. <span class="grk" title="plattein">&#960;&#955;&#940;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>) in a soft
+substance being regarded as the typical process of the sculptor, the
+name <i>plastic art</i> has been given to his operations in general.</p>
+
+<p>In general terms, the task of sculpture is to imitate solid form with
+solid form. But sculptured form may be either completely or incompletely
+solid. Sculpture in completely solid form
+exactly reproduces, whether on the original or on a different
+<span class="sidenote">Sculpture in the round and in relief.</span>
+scale, the relations or proportions of the object imitated
+in the three dimensions of length, breadth and depth or
+thickness. Sculpture in incompletely solid form reproduces
+the proportions of the objects with exactness
+only so far as concerns two of its dimensions, namely, those of
+length and breadth; while the third dimension, that of depth
+or thickness, it reproduces in a diminished proportion, leaving it
+to the eye to infer, from the partial degree of projection given to
+the work, the full projection of the object imitated. The former, or
+completely solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture in the round;
+its works stand free, and can be walked round and seen from all
+points. The latter, or incompletely solid kind of sculpture, is called
+sculpture in relief; its works do not stand free, but are engaged in or
+attached to a background, and can only be seen from in front.
+According, in the latter kind of sculpture, to its degree of projection
+from the background, a work is said to be in high or in low relief.
+Sculpture in the round and sculpture in relief are alike in this, that
+the properties of objects which they imitate are their external forms
+as defined by their outlines&mdash;that is, by the boundaries and circumscriptions
+of their masses&mdash;and their light and shade&mdash;the lights and
+shadows, that is, which diversify the curved surfaces of the masses
+in consequence of their alternations and gradations of projection and
+recession. But the two kinds of sculpture differ in this. A work
+of sculpture in the round imitates the whole of the outlines by
+which the object imitated is circumscribed in the three dimensions
+of space, and presents to the eye, as the object itself would do,
+a new outline succeeding the last every moment as you walk round it.
+Whereas a work of sculpture in relief imitates only one outline of
+any object; it takes, so to speak, a section of the object as seen
+from a particular point, and traces on the background the boundary-line
+of that particular section, merely suggesting, by modelling the
+surface within such boundary according to a regular, but a diminished,
+ratio of projection, the other outlines which the object would
+present if seen from all sides successively.</p>
+
+<p>As sculpture in the round reproduces the real relations of a solid
+object in space, it follows that the only kind of object which it can
+reproduce with pleasurable effect according to the laws
+of regulated or rhythmical design must be one not too
+<span class="sidenote">Subjects proper for sculpture in the round.</span>
+vast or complicated, one that can afford to be detached
+and isolated from its surroundings, and of which all the
+parts can easily be perceived and apprehended in their
+organic relations. Further, it will need to be an object
+interesting enough to mankind in general to make them take
+delight in seeing it reproduced with all its parts in complete
+imitation. And again, it must be such that some considerable
+part of the interest lies in those particular properties of outline,
+play of surface, and light and shade which it is the special function
+of sculpture to reproduce. Thus a sculptured representation in
+the round, say, of a mountain with cities on it, would hardly be a
+sculpture at all; it could only be a model, and as a model might
+have value; but value as a work of fine art it could not have, because
+the object imitated would lack organic definiteness and completeness;
+it would lack universality of interest, and of the interest
+which it did possess, a very inconsiderable part would depend upon
+its properties of outline, surface, and light and shade. Obviously
+there is no kind of object in the world that so well unites the required
+conditions for pleasurable imitation in sculpture as the human body.
+It is at once the most complete of organisms, and the shape of all
+others the most subtle as well as the most intelligible in its outlines;
+the most habitually detached in active or stationary freedom;
+the most interesting to mankind, because its own; the richest in
+those particular effects, contours and modulations, contrasts,
+harmonies and transitions of modelled surface and circumscribing
+line, which it is the prerogative of sculpture to imitate. Accordingly
+the object of imitation for this art is pre-eminently the body of man
+or woman. That it has not been for the sake of representing men and
+women as such, but for the sake of representing gods in the likeness
+of men and women, that the human form has been most enthusiastically
+studied, does not affect this fact in the theory of the art, though
+it is a consideration of great importance in its history. Besides the
+human form, sculpture may imitate the forms of those of the lower
+animals whose physical endowments have something of a kindred
+perfection, with other natural or artificial objects as may be needed
+merely by way of accessory or symbol. The body must for the
+purposes of this art be divested of covering, or covered only with
+such tissues as reveal, translate or play about without concealing
+it. Chiefly in lands and ages where climate and social use have
+given the sculptor the opportunity of studying human forms so
+draped or undraped has this art attained perfection, and become
+exemplary and enviable to that of other races.</p>
+
+<p>Relief sculpture is more closely connected with architecture than
+the other kind, and indeed is commonly used in subordination to it.
+But if its task is thus somewhat different from that of
+sculpture in the round, its principal objects of imitation
+<span class="sidenote">Subjects proper for sculpture in relief.</span>
+are the same. The human body remains the principal
+theme of the sculptor in relief; but the nature of his art
+allows, and sometimes compels, him to include other
+objects in the range of his imitation. As he has not to
+represent the real depth or projection of things, but only
+to suggest them according to a ratio which he may fix himself, so
+he can introduce into the third or depth dimension, thus arbitrarily
+reduced, a multitude of objects for which the sculptor in the round,
+having to observe the real ratio of the three dimensions, has no room.
+He cam place one figure in slightly raised outline emerging from
+behind the more fully raised outline of another, and by the same
+system can add to his representation rocks, trees, nay mountains
+and cities and birds on the wing. But the more he uses this liberty
+the less will he be truly a sculptor. Solid modelling, and real light
+and shade, are the special means or instrument of effect which the
+sculptor alone among imitative artists enjoys. Single outlines and
+contours, the choice of one particular section and the tracing of its
+circumscription, are means which the sculptor enjoys in common
+with the painter or draughtsman. And indeed, when we consider
+works executed wholly or in part in very low relief, whether Assyrian
+battle-pieces and hunting-pieces in alabaster or bronze, or the
+backgrounds carved in bronze, marble or wood by the Italian
+sculptors who followed the example set by Ghiberti at the Renaissance,
+we shall see that the principle of such work is not the principle
+of sculpture at all. Its effect depends little on qualities of surface-light
+and shadow, and mainly on qualities of contour, as traced by a
+slight line of shadow on the side away from the light, and a slight
+line of light on the side next to it. And we may fairly hesitate
+whether we shall rank the artist who works on this principle, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span>
+is properly a graphic rather than a plastic principle, among sculptors
+or among draughtsmen. The above are cases in which the relief
+sculptor exercises his liberty in the introduction of other objects
+besides human figures into his sculptured compositions. But there is
+another kind of relief sculpture in which the artist has less choice.
+That is, the kind in which the sculptor is called in to decorate with
+carved work parts of an architectural construction which are not
+adapted for the introduction of figure subjects, or for their introduction
+only as features in a scheme of ornament that comprises many
+other elements. To this head belongs most of the carving of capitals,
+mouldings, friezes (except the friezes of Greek temples), bands,
+cornices, and, in the Gothic style, of doorway arches, niches, canopies,
+pinnacles, brackets, spandrels and the thousand members and parts
+of members which that style so exquisitely adorned with true or
+conventionalized imitations of natural forms. This is no doubt a
+subordinate function of the art; and it is impossible, as we have seen
+already, to find a precise line of demarcation between carving, in this
+decorative use, which is properly sculpture, and that which belongs
+properly to architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving such discussions, we may content ourselves with the
+definition of sculpture as
+<span class="sidenote">Definition of sculpture.</span>
+<i>a shaping art, of which the business is to
+express and arouse emotion by the imitation of natural
+objects, and principally the human body, in solid form,
+reproducing either their true proportions in three dimensions,
+or their proportions in the two dimensions of length and
+breadth only, with a diminished proportion in the third dimension of
+depth or thickness.</i></p>
+
+<p>In considering bas-relief as a form of sculpture, we have found
+ourselves approaching the confines of the second of the shaping
+imitative arts, the graphic art or art of painting. Painting,
+as to its means or instruments of imitation, dispenses
+<span class="sidenote">Painting as an imitative art.</span>
+with the third dimension altogether. It imitates natural
+objects by representing them as they are represented on
+the retina of the eye itself, simply as an assemblage of
+variously shaped and variously shaded patches of colour on a flat
+surface. Painting does not reproduce the third dimension of reality
+by any third dimension of its own whatever; but leaves the eye to
+infer the solidity of objects, their recession and projection, their
+nearness and remoteness, by the same perspective signs by which
+it also infers those facts in nature, namely, by the direction of their
+several boundary lines, the incidence and distribution of their lights
+and shadows, the strength or faintness of their tones of colour.</p>
+
+<p>Hence this art has an infinitely greater range and freedom than
+any form of sculpture. Near and far is all the same to it, and
+whatever comes into the field of vision can come also
+into the field of a picture; trees as well as persons, and
+<span class="sidenote">Range of objects imitable by painting.</span>
+clouds as well as trees, and stars as well as clouds; the
+remotest mountain snows, as well as the violet of the
+foreground, and far-off multitudes of people as well as
+one or two near the eye. Whatever any man has seen, or can imagine
+himself as seeing, that he can also fix by painting, subject only to
+one great limitation,&mdash;that of the range of brightness which he is
+able to attain in imitating natural colour illuminated by light.
+In this particular his art can but correspond according to a greatly
+diminished ratio with the effects of nature. But excepting this it
+can do for the eye almost all that nature herself does; or at least
+all that nature would do if man had only one eye since the three
+dimensions of space produce upon our binocular machinery of vision
+a particular stereoscopic effect of which a picture, with its two
+dimensions only, is incapable. The range of the art being thus almost
+unbounded, its selections have naturally been dictated by the varying
+interest felt in this or that subject of representation by the societies
+among whom the art has at various times been practised. As in
+sculpture, so in painting, the human form has always held the first
+place. For the painter, the intervention of costume between man
+and his environment is not a misfortune in the same degree as it is
+for the sculptor. For him, clothes of whatever fashion or amplitude
+have their own charm; they serve to diversify the aspect of the
+world, and to express the characters and stations, if not the physical
+frames, of his personages; and he is as happy or happier among the
+brocades of Venice as among the bare limbs of the Spartan palaestra.
+Along with man, there come into painting all animals and vegetation,
+all man&rsquo;s furniture and belongings, his dwelling-places, fields and
+landscape; and in modern times also landscape and nature for their
+own sakes, skies, seas, mountains and wildernesses apart from man.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the two questions about any art, what objects does it
+imitate, and by the use of what means or instruments, Aristotle
+proposes (in the case of poetry) the further question,
+which of several possible forms does the imitation in any
+<span class="sidenote">The chief forms or modes of painting: line, light-and-shade and colour.</span>
+given case assume? We may transfer very nearly the
+same inquiry to painting, and may ask, concerning any
+painter, according to which of three possible systems he
+works. The three possible systems are (1) that which
+attends principally to the configuration and relations of
+natural objects as indicated by the direction of their
+boundaries, for defining which there is a convention in universal
+use, the convention, that is, of line; this may be called for short
+the system of <i>line</i>; (2) that which attends chiefly to their configuration
+and relations as indicated by the incidence and distribution
+of their lights and shadows&mdash;this is the system of <i>light-and-shade</i> or
+<i>chiaroscuro</i>; and (3) that which attends chiefly, not to their configuration
+at all, but to the distribution, qualities and relations of
+local colours upon their surface&mdash;this is the system of <i>colour</i>. It is
+not possible for a painter to imitate natural objects to the eye at all
+without either defining their boundaries by outlines, or suggesting
+the shape of their masses by juxtapositions of light and dark or of
+local colours. In the complete art of painting, of course, all three
+methods are employed at once. But in what is known as outline
+drawing and outline engraving, one of the three methods only is
+employed, line; in monochrome pictures, and in shaded drawings
+and engravings, two only, line with light-and-shade; and in the
+various shadeless forms of decorative painting and colour-printing,
+two only, line with colour. Even in the most accomplished examples
+of the complete art of painting, as was pointed out by Ruskin, we
+find that there almost always prevails a predilection for some one
+of these three parts of painting over the other two. Thus among
+the mature Italians of the Renaissance, Titian is above all things a
+painter in colour, Michelangelo in line, Leonardo in light-and-shade.
+Many academic painters in their day tried to combine the three
+methods in equal balance; to the impetuous spirit of the great
+Venetian, Tintoretto, it was alone given to make the attempt with a
+great measure of success. A great part of the effort of modern
+painting has been to get rid of the linear convention altogether, to
+banish line and develop the resources of the oil medium in imitating
+on canvas, more strictly than the early masters attempted, the actual
+appearance of things on the retina as an assemblage of coloured
+streaks and patches modified and toned in the play of light-and-shade
+and atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to consider, for the purpose of our classification, what
+are the technical varieties of the painter&rsquo;s craft. Since we gave the
+generic name of painting to all imitation of natural objects
+by the assemblage of lines, colours and lights and darks
+<span class="sidenote">Technical varieties of the painter&rsquo;s craft.</span>
+on a single plane, we must logically include as varieties of
+painting not only the ordinary crafts of spreading or
+laying pictures on an opaque surface in fresco, oil, distemper
+or water-colour, but also the craft of arranging a
+picture to be seen by the transmission of light through a transparent
+substance, in glass painting; the craft of fitting together a multitude
+of solid cubes or cylinders so that their united surface forms a
+picture to the eye, as in mosaic; the craft of spreading vitreous
+colours in a state of fusion so that they form a picture when hardened,
+as in enamel; and even, it would seem, the crafts of weaving, tapestry,
+and embroidery, since these also yield to the eye a plane surface
+figured in imitation of nature. As drawing we must also count
+incised or engraved work of all kinds representing merely the outlines
+of objects and not their modellings, as for instance the <i>graffiti</i>
+on Greek and Etruscan mirror-backs and dressing-cases; while
+raised work in low relief, in which outlines are plainly marked and
+modellings neglected, furnishes, as we have seen, a doubtful class
+between sculpture and painting. In all figures that are first modelled
+in the solid and then variously coloured, sculpture and painting
+bear a common share; and by far the greater part both of ancient
+and medieval statuary was in fact tinted so as to imitate or at least
+suggest the colours of life. But as the special characteristic of
+sculpture, solidity in the third dimension, is in these cases present,
+it is to that art and not to painting that we shall still ascribe the
+resulting work.</p>
+
+<p>With these indications we may leave the art of painting defined
+in general terms as a
+<span class="sidenote">Definition of painting.</span>
+<i>shaping or space art, of which the business is to
+express and arouse emotion by the imitation of all kinds of
+natural objects, reproducing on a plane surface the relations
+of their boundary lines, lights and shadows, or colours, or
+all three of these appearances together</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The next and last of the imitative arts is the speaking art of poetry.
+The transition from sculpture and painting to poetry is, from the
+point of view not of our present but of our first division
+among the fine arts, abrupt and absolute. It is a transition
+<span class="sidenote">Poetry as an imitative art.</span>
+from space into time, from the sphere of material forms
+to the sphere of immaterial images. Following Aristotle&rsquo;s
+method, we may define the objects of poetry&rsquo;s imitation or evocation,
+as everything of which the idea or image can be called up by words,
+that is, every force and phenomenon of nature, every operation and
+result of art, every fact of life and history, or every imagination of
+such a fact, every thought and feeling of the human spirit, for which
+mankind in the course of its long evolution has been able to create
+in speech an explicit and appropriate sign. The means or instruments
+of poetry&rsquo;s imitation are these verbal signs or words, arranged
+in lines, strophes or stanzas, so that their sounds have some of the
+regulated qualities and direct emotional effect of music.</p>
+
+<p>The three chief modes or forms of the imitation may still be
+defined as they were defined by Aristotle himself. First comes the
+<i>epic</i> or narrative form, in which the poet speaks alternately
+for himself and his characters, now describing their
+<span class="sidenote">The chief forms or modes of poetry.</span>
+situations and feelings in his own words, and anon making
+each of them speak in the first person for himself. Second
+comes the <i>lyric</i> form, in which the poet speaks in his own
+name exclusively, and gives expression to sentiments which are
+purely personal. Third comes the <i>dramatic</i> form, in which the poet
+does not speak for himself at all, but only puts into the mouths of
+each of his personages successively such discourse as he thinks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span>
+appropriate to the part. The last of these three forms of poetry,
+the dramatic, calls, if it is merely read, on the imagination of the
+reader to fill up those circumstances of situation, action and the rest,
+which in the first or epic form are supplied by the narrative between
+the speeches, and for which in the lyric or personal form there is no
+occasion. To avoid making this call upon the imagination, to bring
+home its effects with full vividness, dramatic poetry has to call in
+the aid of several subordinate arts, the shaping or space art of the
+scene-painter, the mixed time and space arts of the actor and the
+dancer. Occasionally also, or in the case of opera throughout,
+dramatic poetry heightens the emotional effect of its words with
+music. A play or drama is thus, as performed upon the theatre,
+not a poem merely, but a poem accompanied, interpreted, completed
+and brought several degrees nearer to reality by a combination of
+auxiliary effects of the other arts. Besides the narrative, the lyric
+and dramatic forms of poetry, the <i>didactic</i>, that is the teaching or
+expository form, has usually been recognized as a fourth. Aristotle
+refused so to recognize it, regarding a didactic poem in the light
+not so much of a poem as of a useful treatise. But from the <i>Works
+and Days</i> down to the <i>Loves of the Plants</i> there has been too much
+literature produced in this form for us to follow Aristotle here. We
+shall do better to regard didactic poetry as a variety corresponding,
+among the speaking arts, to architecture and the other manual
+arts of which the first purpose is use, but which are capable of
+accompanying and adorning use by a pleasurable appeal to the
+emotions.</p>
+
+<p>We shall hardly make our definition of poetry, considered as an
+imitative art, too extended if we say that it is
+<span class="sidenote">Definition of poetry.</span>
+<i>a speaking or time art,
+of which the business is to express and arouse emotion by
+imitating or evoking all or any of the phenomena of life and
+nature by means of words arranged with musical regularity</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Neither the varieties of poetical form, however, nor the modes in
+which the several forms have been mixed up and interchanged&mdash;as
+such mixture and interchange are implied, for instance,
+by the very title of a group of Robert Browning&rsquo;s poems,
+<span class="sidenote">Relation of poetry as an Imitative art to painting and sculpture.</span>
+the <i>Dramatic Lyrics</i>,&mdash;the observation of neither of these
+things concerns us here so much as the observation of the
+relations of poetry in general, as an art of representation
+or imitation, to the other arts of imitation, painting and
+sculpture. Verbal signs have been invented for innumerable
+things which cannot be imitated or represented
+at all either in solid form or upon a coloured surface. You cannot
+carve or paint a sigh, or the feeling which finds utterance in a sigh;
+you can only suggest the idea of the feeling, and that in a somewhat
+imperfect and uncertain way, by representing the physical aspect of a
+person in the act of breathing the sigh. Similarly you cannot carve
+or paint any movement, but only figures or groups in which the
+movement is represented as arrested in some particular point of time;
+nor any abstract idea, but only figures or groups in which the
+abstract idea, as for example release, captivity, mercy, is symbolized
+in the concrete shape of allegorical or illustrative figures. The whole
+field of thought, of propositions, arguments, injunctions and exhortations
+is open to poetry but closed to sculpture and painting.
+Poetry, by its command over the regions of the understanding, of
+abstraction, of the movement and succession of things in time, by
+its power of instantaneously associating one image with another
+from the remotest regions of the mind, by its names for every shade
+of feeling and experience, exercises a sovereignty a hundred times
+more extended than that of either of the two arts of manual imitation.
+But, on the other hand, words do not as a rule bear any sensible
+resemblance to the things of which they are the signs. There are few
+things that words do not stand for or cannot call up; but they stand
+for things symbolically and at second hand, and call them up only
+in idea, and not in actual presentment to the senses. In strictness,
+the business of poetry should not be called imitation at all, but rather
+evocation. The strength of painting and sculpture lies in this, that
+though there are countless phenomena which they cannot represent
+at all, and countless more which they can only represent by symbolism
+and suggestion more or less ambiguous, yet there are a few which
+each can represent more fully and directly than poetry can represent
+any thing at all. These are, for sculpture, the forms or configurations
+of things, which that art represents directly to the senses both of
+sight and touch; and for painting the forms and colours of things
+and their relations to each other in space, air and light, which the
+art represents to the sense of sight, directly so far as regards surface
+appearance, and indirectly so far as regards solidity. For many
+delicate qualities and differences in these visible relations of things
+there are no words at all&mdash;the vocabulary of colours, for instance,
+is in all languages surprisingly scanty and primitive. And those
+visible qualities, for which words exist, the words still call up indistinctly
+and at second hand. Poetry is almost as powerless to
+bring before the mind&rsquo;s eye with precision a particular shade of red
+or blue, a particular linear arrangement or harmony of colour-tones,
+as sculpture is to relate a continuous experience, or painting to enforce
+an exhortation or embellish an abstract proposition. The
+wise poet, as has been justly remarked, when he wants to produce a
+vivid impression of a visible thing, does not attempt to catalogue or
+describe its stationary beauties. Shakespeare, when he wants to
+make us realize the perfections of Perdita, puts into the mouth of
+Florizel, not, as a bad poet would have done, a description of her
+lilies and carnations, and the other charms which a painter could
+make us realize better, but the praises of her ways and movements;
+and with the final touch,</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+          <p class="i3">&ldquo;When you do dance, I wish you</p>
+<p>A wave o&rsquo; the sea, that you might ever do</p>
+<p>Nothing but that,&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">he evokes a twofold image of beauty in motion, of which one half
+might be the despair of those painters who designed the dancing
+maidens of the walls of Herculaneum, and the other half the despair
+of all artists who in modern times have tried to fix upon their canvas
+the buoyancy and grace of dancing waves. In representing the
+perfections of form in a bride&rsquo;s slender foot, the speaking art, poetry,
+would find itself distanced by either of the shaping arts, painting or
+sculpture. Suckling calls up the charm of such a foot by describing
+it not at rest but in motion, and in the feet which</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem f90"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+          <p class="i3">&ldquo;Beneath the petticoat,</p>
+<p>Like little mice, went in and out,&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">leaves us an image which baffles the power of the other arts. Keats,
+when he tells of Madeline unclasping her jewels on St Agnes&rsquo;s Eve,
+does not attempt to conjure up their lustre to the eye, as a painter
+would have done, and a less poetical poet might have tried to do,
+but in the words &ldquo;her warmed jewels&rdquo; evoked instead a quality,
+breathing of the very life of the wearer, which painting could not
+even have remotely suggested.</p>
+
+<p>The differences between the means and capacities of representation
+proper to the shaping arts of sculpture and painting and those
+proper to the speaking art of poetry were for a long while
+overlooked or misunderstood. The maxim of Simonides,
+<span class="sidenote">General law of the relative means and capacities of the several imitative arts: sculpture.</span>
+that poetry is a kind of articulate painting, and painting
+a kind of mute poetry, was vaguely accepted until the
+days of Lessing, and first overthrown by the famous
+treatise of that writer on the Laocoön. Following in the
+main the lines laid down by Lessing, other writers have
+worked out the conditions of representation or imitation
+proper not only to sculpture and painting as distinguished
+from poetry, but to sculpture as distinguished from
+painting. The chief points established may really all be
+condensed under one simple law, <i>that the more direct and complete
+the imitation effected by any art, the less is the range and number of
+phenomena which that art can imitate</i>. Thus sculpture in the round
+imitates its objects much more completely and directly than any other
+single art, reproducing one whole set of their relations which no
+other art attempts to reproduce at all, namely, their solid relations
+in space. Precisely for this reason, such sculpture is limited to a
+narrow class of objects. As we have seen, it must represent human
+or animal figures; nothing else has enough either of universal interest
+or of organic beauty and perfection. Sculpture in the round must
+represent such figures standing free in full clearness and detachment,
+in combinations and with accessories comparatively simple, on pain
+of teasing the eye with a complexity and entanglement of masses and
+lights and shadows; and in attitudes comparatively quiet, on pain
+of violating, or appearing to violate, the conditions of mechanical
+stability. Being a stationary or space-art, it can only represent a
+single action, which it fixes and perpetuates for ever; and it must
+therefore choose for that action one as significant and full of interest
+as is consistent with due observation of the above laws of simplicity
+and stability. Such actions, and the facial expressions accompanying
+them, should not be those of sharp crisis or transition, because sudden
+movement or flitting expression, thus arrested and perpetuated in
+full and solid imitation by bronze or marble, would be displeasing
+and not pleasing to the spectator. They must be actions and expressions
+in some degree settled, collected and capable of continuance,
+and in their collectedness must at the same time suggest to the
+spectator as much as possible of the circumstances which have led
+up to them and those which will next ensue. These conditions evidently
+bring within a very narrow range the phenomena with which
+this art can deal, and explain why, as a matter of fact, the greater
+number of statues represent simply a single figure in repose, with the
+addition of one or two symbolic or customary attributes. Paint a
+statue (as the greater part both of Greek and Gothic statuary was
+in fact painted), and you bring it to a still further point of imitative
+completeness to the eye; but you do not thereby lighten the restrictions
+laid upon the art by its material, so long as it undertakes to
+reproduce in full the third or solid dimension of bodies. You only
+begin to lighten its restrictions when you begin to relieve it of that
+duty. We have traced how sculpture in relief, which is satisfied
+with only a partial reproduction of the third dimension, is free to
+introduce a larger range of objects, bringing forward secondary
+figures and accessories, indicating distant planes, indulging even in
+considerable violence and complexity of motion, since limbs attached
+to a background do not alarm the spectator by any idea of danger of
+fragility. But sculpture in the round has not this licence. It is true
+that the art has at various periods made efforts to escape from its
+natural limitations. Several of the later schools of antiquity,
+especially that of Pergamus in the 3rd and 2nd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, strove
+hard both for violence of expression and complexity of design, not
+only in relief-sculptures, like the great altar-friezes now at Berlin,
+but in detached groups, such as (<i>pace</i> Lessing) the Laocoön itself.
+Many modern <i>virtuosi</i> of sculpture since Bernini have misspent their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span>
+skill in trying to fix in marble both the restlessness of momentary
+actions and the flimsiness of fluttering tissues. In latter days
+Auguste Rodin, an innovating master with a real genius for his art,
+has attacked many problems of complicated grouping, more or less
+in the nature of the Greek <i>symplegmata</i>, but keeps these interlocked
+or contorted actions circumscribed within strict limiting lines, so
+that they do not by jutting or straggling suggest a kind of acrobatic
+challenge to the laws of gravity. The same artist and others inspired
+by him have further sought to emancipate sculpture from the
+necessity of rendering form in clear and complete definition, and to
+enrich it with a new power of mysterious suggestion, by leaving his
+figures wrought in part to the highest finish and vitality of surface,
+while other parts (according to a precedent set in some unfinished
+works of Michelangelo) remain scarcely emergent from the rough-hewn
+or unhewn block. But it may be doubted whether such experiments
+and expedients can permanently do much to enlarge
+the scope of the art.</p>
+
+<p>Next we arrive at painting, in which the third dimension is dismissed
+altogether, and nothing is actually reproduced, in full or
+partially, except the effect made by the appearance of
+natural objects upon the retina of the eye. The consequence
+<span class="sidenote">Means and capacities of painting.</span>
+is that this art can range over distance and
+multitude, can represent complicated relations between its
+various figures and groups of figures, extensive backgrounds,
+and all those infinite subtleties of appearance in natural
+things which depend upon local colours and their modification in
+the play of light and shade and enveloping atmosphere. These last
+phenomena of natural things are in our experience subject to change
+in a sense in which the substantial or solid properties of things are
+not so subject. Colours, shadows and atmospheric effects are
+naturally associated with ideas of transition, mystery and evanescence.
+Hence painting is able to extend its range to another kind
+of facts over which sculpture has no power. It can suggest and
+perpetuate in its imitation, without breach of its true laws, many
+classes of facts which are themselves fugitive and transitory, as a
+smile, the glance of an eye, a gesture of horror or of passion, the
+waving of hair in the wind, the rush of horses, the strife of mobs,
+the whole drama of the clouds, the toss and gathering of ocean waves,
+even the flashing of lightning across the sky. Still, any long or
+continuous series of changes, actions or movements is quite beyond
+the means of this art to represent. Painting remains, in spite of its
+comparative width of range, tied down to the inevitable conditions
+of a space-art: that is to say, it has to delight the mind by a harmonious
+variety in its effects, but by a variety apprehended not
+through various points of time successively, but from various points
+in space at the same moment. The old convention which allowed
+painters to indicate sequence in time by means of distribution in
+space, dispersing the successive episodes of a story about the different
+parts of a single picture, has been abandoned since the early Renaissance;
+and Wordsworth sums up our modern view of the matter
+when he says that it is the business of painting</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+    <p class="i10">&ldquo;to give</p>
+<p>To one blest moment snatched from fleeting time</p>
+<p>The appropriate calm of blest eternity.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Lastly, a really unfettered range is only attained by the art which
+does not give a full and complete reproduction of any natural fact
+at all, but evokes or brings natural facts before the mind
+merely by the images which words convey. The whole
+<span class="sidenote">Means and capacities of poetry.</span>
+world of movement, of continuity, of cause and effect,
+of the successions, alternations and interaction of events,
+characters and passions of everything that takes time to happen and
+time to declare, is open to poetry as it is open to no other art. As
+an imitative or, more properly speaking, an evocative art, then,
+poetry is subject to no limitations except those which spring from
+the poverty of human language, and from the fact that its means of
+imitation are indirect. Poetry&rsquo;s account of the visible properties of
+things is from these causes much less full, accurate and efficient than
+the reproduction or delineation of the same properties by sculpture
+and painting. And this is the sum of the conditions concerning the
+respective functions of the three arts of imitation which had been
+overlooked, in theory at least, until the time of Lessing.</p>
+
+<p>To the above law, in the form in which we have expressed it,
+it may perhaps be objected that the acted drama is at once the most
+full and complete reproduction of nature which we owe
+to the fine arts, and that at the same time the number of
+<span class="sidenote">The acted drama no real exception to the general law.</span>
+facts over which its imitation ranges is the greatest.
+The answer is that our law applies to the several arts
+only in that which we may call their pure or unmixed
+state. Dramatic poetry is in that state only when it is
+read or spoken like any other kind of verse. When it is
+witnessed on the stage, it is in a mixed or impure state;
+the art of the actor has been called in to give actual reproduction
+to the gestures and utterances of the personages, that of the costumier
+to their appearances and attire, that of the stage-decorator to their
+furniture and surroundings, that of the scene-painter to imitate to
+the eye the dwelling-places and landscapes among which they
+move; and only by the combination of all these subordinate arts
+does the drama gain its character of imitative completeness or
+reality.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the above account of the imitative and non-imitative
+groups of fine arts, we have so far followed Aristotle as to allow the
+name of imitation to all recognizable representation or
+evocation of realities,&mdash;using the word &ldquo;realities&rdquo; in no
+<span class="sidenote">Things unknown shadowed forth by imitation of things known.</span>
+metaphysical sense, but to signify the myriad phenomena
+of life and experience, whether as they actually and
+literally exist to-day, or as they may have existed in the
+past, or may be conceived to exist in some other world
+not too unlike our own for us to conceive and realize in
+thought. When we find among the ruins of a Greek
+temple the statue of a beautiful young man at rest, or above
+the altar of a Christian church the painting of one transfixed
+with arrows, we know that the statue is intended to bring to our
+minds no mortal youth, but the god Hermes or Apollo, the transfixed
+victim no simple captive, but Sebastian the holy saint. At
+the same time we none the less know that the figures in either
+case have been studied by the artist from living models before his
+eyes. In like manner, in all the representations alike of sculpture,
+painting and poetry the things and persons represented may bear
+symbolic meanings and imaginary names and characters; they may
+be set in a land of dreams, and grouped in relations and circumstances
+upon which the sun of this world never shone; in point of fact,
+through many ages of history they have been chiefly used to embody
+human ideas of supernatural powers; but it is from real things
+and persons that their lineaments and characters have been taken
+in the first instance, in order to be attributed by the imagination to
+another and more exalted order of existences.</p>
+
+<p>The law which we have last laid down is a law defining the relations
+of sculpture, painting and poetry, considered simply as arts having
+their foundations at any rate in reality, and drawing from
+the imitation of reality their indispensable elements and
+<span class="sidenote">Imitation by art necessarily an idealized imitation.</span>
+materials. It is a law defining the range and character
+of those elements or materials in nature which each art is
+best fitted, by its special means and resources, to imitate.
+But we must remember that, even in this fundamental
+part of its operations, none of these arts proceeds by
+imitation or evocation pure and simple. None of them contents
+itself with seeking to represent realities, however literally
+taken, exactly as those realities are. A portrait in sculpture or
+painting, a landscape in painting, a passage of local description in
+poetry, may be representations of known things taken literally or
+for their own sakes, and not for the sake of carrying out thoughts
+to the unknown; but none of them ought to be, or indeed can possibly
+be, a representation of all the observed parts and details of such a
+reality on equal terms and without omissions. Such a representation,
+were it possible, would be a mechanical inventory and not a work of
+fine art.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the value of a pictorial imitation is by no means necessarily
+in proportion to the number of facts which it records. Many accomplished
+pictures, in which all the resources of line, colour
+and light-and-shade have been used to the utmost of
+<span class="sidenote">Completeness not the test of value in a pictorial imitation.</span>
+the artist&rsquo;s power for the imitation of all that he could see
+in nature, are dead and worthless in comparison with a
+few faintly touched outlines or lightly laid shadows or
+tints of another artist who could see nature more vitally
+and better. Unless the painter knows how to choose and
+combine the elements of his finished work so that it
+shall contain in every part suggestions and delights over and
+above the mere imitation, it will fall short, in that which
+is the essential charm of fine art, not only of any scrap
+of a great master&rsquo;s handiwork, such as an outline sketch of
+a child by Raphael or a colour sketch of a boat or a mackerel by
+Turner, but even of any scrap of the merest journeyman&rsquo;s handiwork
+produced by an artistic race, such as the first Japanese drawing in
+which a water-flag and kingfisher, or a spray of peach or almond
+blossom across the sky, is dashed in with a mere hint of colour,
+but a hint that tells a whole tale to the imagination. That only, we
+know, is fine art which affords keen and permanent delight to contemplation.
+Such delight the artist can never communicate by the
+display of a callous and pedantic impartiality in presence of the
+facts of life and nature. His representation of realities will only
+strike or impress others in so far as it concentrates their attention on
+things by which he has been struck and impressed himself. To
+arouse emotion, he must have felt emotion; and emotion is impossible
+without partiality. The artist is one who instinctively tends to
+modify and work upon every reality before him in conformity with
+some poignant and sensitive principle of preference or selection in his
+mind. He instinctively adds something to nature in one direction
+and takes away something in another, overlooking this kind of fact
+and insisting on that, suppressing many particulars which he holds
+irrelevant in order to insist on and bring into prominence others by
+which he is attracted and arrested.</p>
+
+<p>The instinct by which an artist thus prefers, selects and brings into
+light one order of facts or aspects in the thing before him rather
+than the rest, is part of what is called the <i>idealizing</i> or <i>ideal</i>
+faculty. Interminable discussion has been spent on the
+<span class="sidenote">Nature of the idealizing process.</span>
+questions,&mdash;What is the ideal, and how do we idealize?
+The answer has been given in one form by those thinkers
+(<i>e.g.</i> Vischer and Lotze) who have pointed out that the
+process of aesthetic idealization carried on by the artist is only the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span>
+higher development of a process carried on in an elementary fashion
+by all men, from the very nature of their constitution. The physical
+organs of sense themselves do not retain or put on record all the
+impressions made upon them. When the nerves of the eye receive
+a multitude of different stimulations at once from different points in
+space, the sense of eyesight, instead of being aware of all these
+stimulations singly, only abstracts and retains a total impression
+of them together. In like manner we are not made aware by the
+sense of hearing of all the several waves of sound that strike in a
+momentary succession upon the nerves of the ear; that sense only
+abstracts and retains a total impression from the combined effect
+of a number of such waves. And the office which each sense thus
+performs singly for its own impressions, the mind performs in a
+higher degree for the impressions of all the senses equally, and for
+all the other parts of our experience. We are always dismissing or
+neglecting a great part of our impressions, and abstracting and
+combining among those which we retain. The ordinary human
+consciousness works like an artist up to this point; and when we
+speak of the ordinary or inartistic man as being impartial in the
+retention or registry of his daily impressions, we mean, of course,
+in the retention or registry of his impressions as already thus far
+abstracted and assorted in consciousness. The artistic man, whose
+impressions affect him much more strongly, has the faculty of
+carrying much farther these same processes of abstraction, combination
+and selection among his impressions.</p>
+
+<p>The possession of this faculty is the artist&rsquo;s most essential gift.
+To attempt to carry farther the psychological analysis of the gift is
+outside our present object; but it is worth while to consider
+somewhat closely its modes of practical operation.
+<span class="sidenote">Subjective and objective ideals.</span>
+One mode is this: the artist grows up with certain innate
+or acquired predilections which become a part of his
+constitution whether he will or no,&mdash;predilections, say,
+if he is a dramatic poet, for certain types of plot, character and
+situation; if he is a sculptor, for certain proportions and a certain
+habitual carriage and disposition of the limbs; if he is a figure
+painter, for certain schemes of composition and moulds of figure
+and airs and expressions of countenance; if a landscape painter,
+for a certain class of local character, sentiment and pictorial effect in
+natural scenery. To such predilections he cannot choose but make
+his representations of reality in large measure conform. This is one
+part of the transmuting process which the data of life and experience
+have to undergo at the hands of artists, and may be called the
+subjective or purely personal mode of idealization. But there is
+another part of that work which springs from an impulse in the
+artistic constitution not less imperious than the last named, and in a
+certain sense contrary to it. As an imitator or evoker of the facts
+of life and nature, the artist must recognize and accept the character
+of those facts with which he has in any given case to deal. All facts
+cannot be of the cast he prefers, and in so far as he undertakes to
+deal with those of an opposite cast he must submit to them; he
+must study them as they actually are, must apprehend, enforce and
+bring into prominence their own dominant tendencies. If he cannot
+find in them what is most pleasing to himself, he will still be led
+by the abstracting and discriminating powers of his observation to
+discern what is most expressive and significant in <i>them</i>, he will
+emphasize and put on record this, idealizing the facts before him not
+in his direction but in their own. This is the second or objective
+half of the artist&rsquo;s task of idealization. It is this half upon which
+Taine dwelt almost exclusively, and on the whole with a just insight
+into the principles of the operation, in his well-known treatise <i>On
+the Ideal in Art</i>. Both these modes of idealization are legitimate;
+that which springs from inborn and overmastering personal preference
+in the artist for particular aspects of life and nature, and that which
+springs from his insight into the dominant and significant character
+of the phenomena actually before him, and his desire to emphasize
+and disengage them. But there is a third mode of idealizing which
+is less vital and genuine than either of these, and therefore less
+legitimate, though unfortunately far more common. This mode
+consists in making things conform to a borrowed and conventional
+standard of beauty and taste, which corresponds neither to any
+strong inward predilection of the artist nor to any vital characteristic
+in the objects of his representation. Since the rediscovery of Greek
+and Roman sculpture in the Renaissance, a great part of the efforts
+of artists have been spent in falsifying their natural instincts and
+misrepresenting the facts of nature in pursuit of a conventional ideal
+of abstract and generalized beauty framed on a false conception
+and a shallow knowledge of the antique. School after school from
+the 16th century downwards has been confirmed in this practice by
+academic criticism and theory, with resulting insipidities and insincerities
+of performance which have commonly been acclaimed in
+their day, but from which later generations have sooner or later
+turned away with a wholesome reaction of distaste.</p>
+
+<p>The two genuine modes of idealization, the subjective and the
+objective, are not always easy to be reconciled. The greatest artist
+is no doubt he who can combine the strongest personal instincts
+of preference with the keenest power of observing characteristics as
+<span class="sidenote">Examples of the two modes and of their reconciliation.</span>
+they are, yet in fact we find few in whom both these elements of the
+ideal faculty have been equally developed. To take an example
+among Florentine painters, Sandro Botticelli is usually thought of as
+one who could never escape from the dictation of his own personal
+ideals, in obedience to which he is supposed to have invested all the
+creations of his art with nearly the same conformation of brows,
+lips, cheeks and chin, nearly the same looks of wistful
+yearning and dejection. There is some truth in this
+impression, though it is largely based on the works not of
+the master himself, but of pupils who exaggerated his
+mannerisms. Leonardo da Vinci was strong in both
+directions; haunted in much of his work by a particular
+human ideal of intellectual sweetness and alluring
+mystery, he has yet left us a vast number of exercises
+which show him as an indefatigable student of objective characteristics
+and psychological expressions of an order the most opposed to
+this. And in this case again followers have over-emphasized the
+master&rsquo;s predilections, Luini, Sodoma and the rest borrowing and
+repeating the mysterious smile of Leonardo till it becomes in their
+work an affectation cloying however lovely. Among latter-day
+painters, Burne-Jones will occur to every reader as the type of an
+artist always haunted and dominated by ideals of an intensely
+personal cast partly engendered in his imagination by sympathy
+with the early Florentines. If we seek for examples of the opposite
+principle, of that idealism which idealizes above all things objectively,
+and seeks to disengage the very inmost and individual characters
+of the thing or person before it, we think naturally of certain great
+masters of the northern schools, as Dürer, Holbein and Rembrandt.
+Dürer&rsquo;s endeavour to express such characters by the most searching
+intensity of linear definition was, however, hampered and conditioned
+by his inherited national and Gothic predilection for the strained in
+gesture and the knotted and the gnarled in structure, against which
+his deliberate scholarly ambition to establish a canon of ideal
+proportion contended for the most part in vain. And Rembrandt&rsquo;s
+profound spiritual insight into human character and personality
+did not prevent him from plunging his subjects, ever deeper and
+deeper as his life advanced, into a mysterious shadow-world of his
+own imagination, where all local colours were broken up and crumbled,
+and where amid the struggle of gloom and gleam he could make his
+intensely individualized men and women breathe more livingly than
+in plain human daylight.</p>
+
+<p>It is by the second mode of operation chiefly, that is by imaginatively
+discerning, disengaging and forcing into prominence their
+inherent significance, that the idealizing faculty brings
+into the sphere of fine art deformities and degeneracies
+<span class="sidenote">Caricature and the grotesque as modes of the ideal.</span>
+to which the name beautiful or sublime can by no stretch
+of usage be applied. Hence arise creations like the Stryge
+of Notre-Dame and a thousand other grotesques of Gothic
+architectural carving. Hence, although on a lower plane
+and interpreted with a less transmuting intensity of insight
+and emphasis, the snarling or jovial grossness of the
+peasants of Adrian Brauwer and the best of his Dutch compeers.
+Hence Shakespeare&rsquo;s Caliban and figures like those of Quilp and
+Quasimodo in the romances of Dickens and Hugo; hence the cynic
+grimness of Goya&rsquo;s Caprices and the profound and bitter impressiveness
+of Daumier&rsquo;s caricatures of Parisian bourgeois life; or
+again, in an angrier and more insulting and therefore less understanding
+temper, the brutal energy of the political drawings of
+Gilray.</p>
+
+<p>Sculpture, painting and poetry, then, are among the greater fine
+arts those which express and arouse emotion by imitating or evoking
+real and known things, either for their own sakes literally,
+or for the sake of shadowing forth things not known but
+<span class="sidenote">Unidealized imitation not fine art.</span>
+imagined. In either case they represent their originals,
+not indiscriminately as they are, but sifted, simplified,
+enforced and enhanced to our apprehensions partly by
+the artist&rsquo;s power of making things conform to his own instincts
+and preferences, partly by his other power of interpreting
+and emphasizing the significant characters of the facts before him.
+Any imitation that does not do one or other or both of these things
+in full measure fails in the quality of emotional expression and
+emotional appeal, and in so failing falls short, taken merely as
+imitation, of the standard of fine art.</p>
+
+<p>But we must remember that idealized imitation, as such, is not the
+whole task of these arts nor their only means of appeal. There is
+another part of their task, logically though not practically
+independent of the relations borne by their imitations
+<span class="sidenote">The appeal of the imitative arts depends partly on non-imitative elements.</span>
+to the original phenomena of nature, and dependent on
+the appeal made through the eye and ear to our primal
+organic sensibilities by the properties of rhythm, pattern
+and regulated design in the arrangement of sounds, lines,
+masses, colours and light-and-shade. That appeal we
+noted as lying at the root of the art impulse in its most
+elementary stage. In its most developed stage every
+fine art is bound still to play upon the same sensibilities.
+In a work of sculpture the contours and interchanges of
+light and shadow are bound to be such as would please the eye,
+whether the statue or relief represented the figure of anything real
+in the world or not. The flow and balance of line, and the distribution
+of colours and light-and-shade, in a picture are bound to be such as
+would make an agreeable pattern although they bore no resemblance
+to natural fact (as, indeed, many subordinate applications of this
+art, in decorative painting and geometrical and other ornaments,
+do, we know, give pleasure though they represent nothing). The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span>
+sound of a line or verse in poetry is bound to be such as would thrill
+the physical ear in hearing, or the mental ear in reading, with a
+delightful excitement even though the meaning went for nothing.
+If the imitative arts are to touch and elevate the emotions, if they
+are to afford permanent delight of the due pitch and volume, it is
+not a more essential law that their imitation, merely as such, should
+be of the order which we have defined as ideal, than that they should
+at the same time exhibit these independent effects which they share
+with the non-imitative group.</p>
+
+<p>So far we have assumed, without asserting, the necessity that
+the artist in whatever kind should possess a power of execution,
+or technique as it is called in modern phrase, adequate
+to the task of embodying and giving shape to his ideals.
+<span class="sidenote">Necessity of due balance between conception and technique: the non-imitative arts and their technique.</span>
+In thought it is possible to separate the conception of a
+work of art from its execution; in practice it is not
+possible, and half the errors in criticism and speculation
+about the fine arts spring from failing to realize that an
+artistic conception can only be brought home to us through
+and by its appropriate embodiment. Whatever the artist&rsquo;s
+cast of imagination or degree of sensibility may be in
+presence of the materials of life, it is essential that he
+should be able to express himself appropriately in the
+material of his particular art. To quote the writer
+(R.A.M. Stevenson) who has enforced this point most
+clearly and vividly, perhaps with some pardonable measure
+of over-statement: &ldquo;It is a sensitiveness to the special qualities
+of some visible or audible medium of art which distinguishes the
+species artist from the genus man.&rdquo; And again: &ldquo;There are as many
+separate faculties of imagination as there are separate mediums in
+which to conceive an image&mdash;clay, words, paint, notes of music.&rdquo;
+... &ldquo;Technique differs as the material of each art differs&mdash;differs
+as marble, pigments, musical notes and words differ.&rdquo; The artist
+who does not enjoy and has not with delighted labour mastered
+the effects of his own chosen medium will never be a master; the
+hearer, reader or spectator who cannot appreciate the qualities of
+skill, vitality and charm in the handling of the given material, or
+who fails to feel their absence when they are lacking, or who looks
+in one material primarily for the qualities appropriate to another,
+will never make a critic. The technique of the space-arts differs
+radically from that of the time-arts. So again do those of the imitative
+and the non-imitative arts differ among themselves. The non-imitative
+arts of music and architecture are in a certain degree
+alike in this, that the artist is in neither case his own executant
+(this at least is true of music so far as concerns its modern concerted
+and orchestral developments); the musical composer and the
+architect each imagines and composes a design in the medium of
+his own art which it is left for others to carry out under his direction.
+The technique in each case consists not in mastery of an instrument
+(though the musical composer may be, and often is, a master of
+some one of the instruments whose effects he in his mind&rsquo;s ear
+co-ordinates and combines); it lies in the power of knowing and
+conjuring up all the emotional resources and effects of the various
+materials at his command, and of conceiving and designing to their
+last detail vast and ordered structures, to be raised by subordinate
+executants from those materials, which shall adequately express his
+temperament and embody his ideals.</p>
+
+<p>In the imitative arts, on the other hand, the sculptor, unless he
+is a fraud, must be wholly his own executant in the original task
+of modelling his design in the soft material of clay or
+wax, though he must accept the aid of assistants whether
+<span class="sidenote">The imitative arts and their technique: painting and sculpture.</span>
+in the casting of his work in bronze or in first roughing
+it out from the block in marble. Too many sculptors
+have been inclined further to trust to trained mechanical
+help in finishing their work with the chisel; with the
+result that the surface loses the touch which is the expression
+of personal temperament and personal feeling
+for the relations of his material to nature. The artist in
+love with the vital qualities of form, or those of his own
+handiwork in expressing such qualities in modelling-clay, will
+never stop until he learns how to translate them for himself in
+marble. Proceeding to that imitative art which leaves out the third
+dimension of nature, and by so doing enormously increases the range
+of objects and effects which come within its power&mdash;proceeding to
+the art of painting, the painter is in theory exclusively his own
+executant, and in practice mainly so, though in certain schools and
+periods the great artists have been accustomed to surround themselves
+with pupils to whom they have imparted their methods and who
+have helped them in the subordinate and preparatory parts of their
+work. But the painter fit to teach and lead can by no means escape
+the necessity of being himself a master of his material, and his
+handling of it must needs bear the immediate impress of his temperament.
+His emotional preferences among the visible facts of nature,
+his feeling for the relative importance and charm of line, colour,
+light and shade, used whether for the interpretation and heightening
+of natural fact or for producing a pattern in itself harmonious and
+suggestive to the eye, his sense of the special modes of handling most
+effective for communicating the impression he desires, all these
+together inevitably appear in, and constitute, his style and technique.
+If he is careless or inexpert or conventional, or cold or without delight,
+in technique, though he may be animated by the noblest purposes
+and the loftiest ideas, he is a failure as a painter. At certain periods
+in the history of painting, as in the 13th and 14th centuries in Italy,
+the technique seems indeed to modern eyes wholly immature;
+but that was because there were many aspects of visible things which
+the art had not yet attempted or desired to portray, not because it
+did not put forth with delight its best traditional or newly acquired
+skill in portraying the special aspects with which it had so far
+attempted to grapple. At certain other periods, as in the later
+16th and 17th centuries in the same country, the elements of inherited
+technical facility and academic pride of skill outweigh the sincerity
+and freshness of interest taken in the aspects of things to be portrayed,
+and the true balance is lost. At other times, as in much of the work
+of the 19th century, especially in England, painters have been
+diverted from their true task, and lost hold of intelligent and living
+technique altogether, in trying to please a public blind to the special
+qualities of their art, and prone to seek in it the effects, frivolous or
+serious, which are appropriate not to paint and canvas but to
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the poet and literary artist must obviously be the exclusive
+master of his own technique. No one can help him: all depends on
+the keenness of his double sensibility to the thrill of life
+and to that of words, and to his power of maintaining a
+<span class="sidenote">Technique in poetry: the magic of words.</span>
+just balance between the two. If he is truly and organically
+sensitive to words alone, and has learnt life only
+through their medium and not through the energies of
+his own imagination, nor through personal sensibility to the impact
+of things and thoughts and passions and experience, then his work
+may be a miracle of accomplished verbal music, and may entrance
+the ear for the moment, but will never live to illuminate and sustain
+and console. If, on the other hand, he has imagination and sensibility
+in full measure, and lacks the inborn love of and gift for words
+and their magic, he will be but a dumb or stammering poet all his
+days. There is no better witness on this point than Wordsworth.
+His own prolonged lapses from verbal felicity, and continual habit
+of solemn meditation on themes not always inspiring, might make us
+hesitate to choose him as an example of that particular love and gift.
+But Wordsworth could never have risen to his best and greatest self
+had he not truly possessed the sensibilities which he attributes to
+himself in the Prelude:</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+       <p class="i10">&ldquo;Twice five years</p>
+<p>Or less I might have seen, when first my mind</p>
+<p>With conscious pleasure opened to the charm</p>
+<p>Of words in tuneful order, found them sweet</p>
+<p>For their own sakes, a passion, and a power;</p>
+<p>And phrases pleased me chosen for delight,</p>
+<p>For pomp, or love.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">And again, expressing better than any one else the relation which
+words in true poetry hold to things, he writes:</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+    <p class="i10">&ldquo;Visionary power</p>
+<p>Attends the motions of the viewless winds,</p>
+<p>Embodied in the mystery of words;</p>
+<p>There darkness makes abode, and all the host</p>
+<p>Of shadowy things work endless changes,&mdash;there,</p>
+<p>As in a mansion like their proper home,</p>
+<p>Even forms and substances are circumfused</p>
+<p>By that transparent veil with light divine,</p>
+<p>And, through the turnings intricate of verse,</p>
+<p>Present themselves as objects recognized,</p>
+<p>In flashes, and with glory not their own.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Serviceable and the Non-Serviceable Arts.</i>&mdash;It has been
+established from the outset that, though the essential distinction of
+fine art as such is to minister not to material necessity or
+practical use, but to delight, yet there are some among the
+<span class="sidenote">Third classification: the serviceable and the non-serviceable arts.</span>
+arts of men which do both these things at once and are
+arts of direct use and of beauty or emotional appeal
+together. Under this classification a survey of the field
+of art at different periods of history would yield different
+results. In ruder times, we have seen, the utilitarian aim
+was still the predominant aim of art, and most of what
+we now call fine arts served in the beginning to fulfil the
+practical needs of individual and social life; and this not only among
+primitive or savage races. In ancient Egypt and Assyria the primary
+purpose of the relief-sculptures on palace and temple walls was the
+practical one of historical record and commemoration. Even as late
+as the middle ages and early Renaissance the primary business of
+the painter was to give instruction to the unlearned in Bible history
+and in the lives of the saints, and to rouse him to moods of religious
+and ethical exaltation. The pleasures of fine art proper among the
+manual-imitative group&mdash;the pleasures, namely, of producing and
+contemplating certain arrangements rather than others of design,
+proportion, pattern, colour and light and shade, and of putting forth
+and appreciating certain qualities of skill, truth and significance in
+idealized imitation,&mdash;these were, historically speaking, by-products
+that arose gradually in the course of practice and development.
+As time went on, the conscious aim of ministering to such pleasures
+displaced and threw into the background the utilitarian ends for
+which the arts had originally been practised, and the pleasures
+became ends in themselves.</p>
+
+<p>But even in advanced societies the double qualities of use and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span>
+beauty still remain inseparable, among the five greater arts, in
+architecture. We build in the first instance for the sake of
+<span class="sidenote">Among the greater arts, architecture alone exist primarily for service.</span>
+necessary shelter and accommodation, or for the commemoration,
+propitiation or worship of spiritual powers on
+whom we believe our welfare to depend. By and by we
+find out that the aspect of our constructions is pleasurable
+or the reverse. Architecture is the art of building at once
+as we need and as we like, and a practical treatise on
+architecture must treat the beauty and the utility of
+buildings as bound up together. But for our present
+purpose it has been proper to take into account one half
+only of the vocation of architecture, the half by which it impresses,
+gives delight and belongs to that which is the subject of
+our study, to fine art; and to neglect the other half of its vocation,
+by which it belongs to what is not the subject of our study, to useful
+or mechanical art. It is plain, however, that the presence or absence
+of this foreign element, the element of practical utility, constitutes
+a fair ground for a new and separate classification of the fine arts.
+If we took the five greater arts as they exist in modern times by
+themselves, architecture would on this ground stand alone in one
+division, as the directly useful or serviceable fine art; with sculpture,
+painting, music and poetry together in the other division, as fine
+arts unassociated with such use or service. Not that the divisions
+would, even thus, be quite sharply and absolutely separated.
+Didactic poetry, we have already acknowledged, is a branch of the
+poetic art which aims at practice and utility. Again, the hortatory
+and patriotic kinds of lyric poetry, from the strains of Tyrtaeus to
+those of Arndt or Rouget de Lisle or Wordsworth&rsquo;s sonnets written
+in war-time, may fairly be said to belong to a phase of fine art which
+aims directly at one of the highest utilities, the stimulation of
+patriotic feeling and self-devotion. So may the strains of music
+which accompany such poetry. The same practical character, as
+stimulating and attuning the mind to definite ends and actions,
+might indeed have been claimed for the greater part of the whole art
+of music as that art was practised in antiquity, when each of several
+prescribed and highly elaborated moods, or modes, of melody was
+supposed to have a known effect upon the courage and moral temper
+of the hearer. Compare Milton, when he tells of the Dorian mood of
+flutes and soft recorders which assuaged the sufferings and renewed
+the courage of Satan and his legions as they marched through hell.
+In modern music, of which the elements, much more complex in
+themselves than those of ancient music, have the effect of stirring
+our fibres to moods of rapturous contemplation rather than of
+action, military strains in march time are in truth the only purely
+instrumental variety of the art which may still be said to retain
+this character.</p>
+
+<p>To reinforce, however, the serviceable or useful division of fine
+arts in our present classification, it is not among the greater arts
+that we must look. We must look among the lesser or
+auxiliary arts of the manual or shaping group. The
+<span class="sidenote">Other and minor arts of service subordinate to architecture.</span>
+weaver, the joiner, the potter, the smith, the goldsmith,
+the glass-maker, these and a hundred artificers who produce
+wares primarily for use, produce them in a form or
+with embellishments that have the secondary virtue of
+giving pleasure both to the producer and the user. Much
+ingenuity has been spent to little purpose in attempting to
+group and classify these lesser shaping arts under one or other of
+the greater shaping arts, according to the nature of the means
+employed in each. Thus the potter&rsquo;s art has been classed under
+sculpture, because he moulds in solid form the shapes of his cups,
+plates and ewers; the art of the joiner under that of the architect,
+because his tables, seats and cupboards are fitted and framed together,
+like the houses they furnish, out of solid materials previously prepared
+and cut; and the weaver and embroiderer, from the point of
+view of the effects produced by their art, among painters. But the
+truth is, that each one of these auxiliary handicrafts has its own
+materials and technical procedure, which cannot, without forcing
+and confusion, be described by the name proper to the materials
+and technical procedure of any of the greater arts. The only satisfactory
+classification of these handicrafts is that now before us,
+according to which we think of them all together in the same group
+with architecture, not because any one or more of them may be
+technically allied to that art, but because, like it, they all yield
+products capable of being practically useful and beautiful at the
+same time. Architecture is the art which fits and frames together,
+of stone, brick, mortar, timber or iron, the abiding and assembling
+places of man, all his houses, palaces, temples, monuments, museums,
+workshops, roofed places of meeting and exchange, theatres for
+spectacle, fortresses of defence, bridges, aqueducts, and ships for
+seafaring. The wise architect having fashioned any one of these
+great constructions at once for service and beauty in the highest
+degree, the lesser or auxiliary manual arts (commonly called &ldquo;industrial&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;applied&rdquo; arts) come in to fill, furnish and adorn it
+with things of service and beauty in a lower degree, each according
+to its own technical laws and capabilities; some, like pottery,
+delighting the user at once by beauty of form, delicacy of substance,
+and pleasantness of imitative or non-imitative ornament; some, like
+embroidery, by richness of tissue, and by the same twofold pleasantness
+of ornament; some, like goldsmith&rsquo;s work, by exquisiteness
+of fancy and workmanship proportionate to the exquisiteness of the
+material. To this vast group of workmen, whose work is at the same
+time useful and fine in its degree, the ancient Greek gave the place
+which is most just and convenient for thought, when he classed
+them all together under the name of <span class="grk" title="téktones">&#964;&#941;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>, or artificers, and called
+the builder by the name of <span class="grk" title="architéktôn">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#953;&#964;&#941;&#954;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>, arch-artificer or artificer-in-chief.
+Modern usage has adopted the phrase &ldquo;arts and crafts&rdquo;
+as a convenient general name for their pursuits.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Of the History of the Fine Arts.</i></p>
+
+<p>Students of human culture have concentrated a great deal
+of attentive thought upon the history of fine art, and have put
+forth various comprehensive generalizations intended
+at once to sum up and to account for the phases and
+<span class="sidenote">Current generalizations on the history of fine art: Hegel.</span>
+vicissitudes of that history. The most famous formulae
+are those of Hegel, who regarded particular arts as being
+characteristic of and appropriate to particular forms
+of civilization and particular ages of history. For him,
+architecture was the symbolic art appropriate to ages of
+obscure and struggling ideas, and characteristic of the Egyptian
+and the Asiatic races of old and of the medieval age in Europe.
+Sculpture was the classical art appropriate to ages of lucid and
+self-possessed ideas, and characteristic of the Greek and Roman
+period. Painting, music and poetry were the romantic arts,
+appropriate to the ages of complicated and overmastering ideas,
+and characteristic of modern humanity in general. In the
+working out of these generalizations Hegel brought together
+a mass of judicious and striking observations; and that they
+contain on the whole a preponderance of truth may be admitted.
+It has been objected against them, from the philosophical
+point of view, that they too much mix up the definition of what
+the several arts theoretically are with considerations of what
+in various historical circumstances they have practically been.
+From the historical point of view there can be taken what
+seems a more valid objection, that these formulae of Hegel
+tend too much to fix the attention of the student upon the one
+dominant art chosen as characteristic of any period, and to
+give him false ideas of the proportions and relations of the several
+arts at the same period&mdash;of the proportions and relations which
+poetry, say, really bore to sculpture among the Greeks and
+Romans, or sculpture to architecture among the Christian nations
+of the middle age. The truth is, that the historic survey gained
+over any field of human activity from the height of generalizations
+so vast in scope as these are must needs, in the complexity
+of earthly affairs, be a survey too distant to give much guidance
+until its omissions are filled up by a great deal of nearer study;
+and such nearer study is apt to compel the student in the long
+run to qualify the theories with which he has started until they
+are in danger of disappearing altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Another systematic exponent of the universe, whose system
+is very different from that of Hegel, Herbert Spencer, brought
+the doctrine of evolution to bear, not without interesting
+results, upon the history of the fine arts and their
+<span class="sidenote">Herbert Spencer and the evolution theory.</span>
+development. Herbert Spencer set forth how the
+manual group of fine arts, architecture, sculpture
+and painting, were in their first rudiments bound up
+together, and how each of them in the course of history has
+liberated itself from the rest by a gradual process of separation.
+These arts did not at first exist in the distinct and developed
+forms in which we have above described them. There were no
+statues in the round, and no painted panels or canvases hung
+upon the wall. Only the rudiments of sculpture and painting
+existed, and that only as ornaments applied to architecture,
+in the shape of tiers of tinted reliefs, representing in a kind of
+picture-writing the exploits of kings upon the walls of their
+temple-palaces. Gradually sculpture took greater salience
+and roundness, and tended to disengage itself from the wall,
+while painting found out how to represent solidity by means of
+its own, and dispensed with the raised surface upon which it
+was first applied. But the old mixture and union of the three
+arts, with an undeveloped art of painting and an undeveloped
+art of sculpture still engaged in or applied to the works of architecture,
+continued on the whole to prevail through the long
+cycles of Egyptian and Assyrian history. In the Egyptian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span>
+palace-temple we find a monument at once political and religious,
+upon the production of which were concentrated all the energies
+and faculties of all the artificers of the race. With its incised
+and pictured walls, its half-detached colossi, its open and its
+colonnaded chambers, the forms of the columns and their
+capitals recalling the stems and blossoms of the lotus and papyrus,
+with its architecture everywhere taking on the characters and
+covering itself with the adornments of immature sculpture and
+painting&mdash;this structure exhibits within its single fabric the
+origins of the whole subsequent group of shaping arts. From
+hence it is a long way to the innumerable artistic surroundings
+of later Greek and Roman life, the many temples with their
+detached and their engaged statues, the theatres, the porticoes,
+the baths, the training-schools, the stadiums, with free and
+separate statues both of gods and men adorning every building
+and public place, the frescoes upon the walls, the panel pictures
+hung in temples and public and private galleries. In the terms
+of the Spencerian theory of evolution, the advance from the
+early Egyptian to the later Greek stage is an advance from the
+one to the manifold, from the simple to the complex, from the
+homogeneous to the heterogeneous, and affords a striking
+instance of that vast and ceaseless process of differentiation and
+integration which it is the law of all things to undergo. In the
+Christian monuments of the early middle age, again, the arts,
+owing to the political and social cataclysm in which Roman
+civilization went down, have gone back to the rudimentary
+stage, and are once more attached to and combined with each
+other. The single monument, the one great birth of art, in that
+age, is the Gothic church. In this we find the art of applied
+sculpture exercised in fashions infinitely rich and various, but
+entirely in the service and for the adornment of the architecture;
+we find painting exercised in fashions more rudimentary still,
+principally in the forms of translucent imagery in the chancel
+windows and tinted decorations on the walls and vaultings.
+From this stage again the process of the differentiation of the
+arts is repeated. It is by a new evolution or unfolding, and
+by one carried to much further and more complicated stages
+than the last had reached, that the arts since the middle age
+have come to the point where we find them to-day; when
+architecture is applied to a hundred secular and civil uses with
+not less magnificence, or at least not less desire of magnificence,
+than that with which it fulfilled its two only uses in the middle
+age, the uses of worship and of defence; when detached sculptures
+adorn, or are intended to adorn, all our streets and commemorate
+all our likenesses; when the subjects of painting have been
+extended from religion to all life and nature, until this one art
+has been divided into the dozen branches of history, landscape,
+still life, genre, anecdote and the rest. Such being in brief the
+successive stages, and such the reiterated processes, of evolution
+among the shaping or space arts, the action of the same law
+can be traced, it is urged, in the growth of the speaking or time
+arts also. Originally poetry and music, the two great speaking
+arts, were not separated from each other and from the art of
+bodily motion, dancing. The father of song, music and dancing,
+all three, was that primitive man of whom so much has already
+been said, he who first clapped hands and leapt and shouted in
+time at some festival of his tribe. From the clapping, or rudimentary
+rhythmical noise, has been evolved the whole art of
+instrumental music, down to the entrancing complexity of the
+modern symphony. From the shout, or rudimentary emotional
+utterance, has proceeded by a kindred evolution the whole art
+of vocal music down to the modern opera or oratorio. From
+the leap, or rudimentary expression of emotion by rhythmical
+movements of the body, has descended every variety of dancing,
+from the stately figures of the tragic chorus of the Greeks to
+the <i>kordax</i> of their comedy or the complexities of the modern
+ballet.</p>
+
+<p>That the theory of evolution serves usefully to group and to
+interpret many facts in the history of art we shall not deny,
+though it would be easy to show that Herbert Spencer&rsquo;s instances
+and applications are not sufficient to sustain all the conclusions
+<span class="sidenote">Weak and strong points of Spencer&rsquo;s generalization.</span>
+that he seems to draw from them. Thus, it is perfectly true
+that the Egyptian or Assyrian palace wall is an instance of
+rudimentary painting and rudimentary sculpture in subservience
+to architecture. But it is not less true that races
+who had no architecture at all, but lived in caverns of
+the earth, exhibit, as we have already had occasion to
+notice, excellent rudiments of the other two shaping arts
+in a different form, in the carved or incised handles of
+their weapons. And it is almost certain that, among
+the nations of oriental antiquity themselves, the art of decorating
+solid walls so as to please the eye with patterns and presentations
+of natural objects was borrowed from the precedent of an older
+art which works in easier materials, namely, the art of the
+weaver. It would be in the perished textile fabrics of the
+earliest dwellers in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile
+that we should find, if anywhere, the origins of the systems of
+surface design, whether conventional or imitative, which those
+races afterwards applied to the decoration of their solid constructions.
+Not, therefore, in any one exclusive type of primitive
+artistic activity, but in a score of such types equally, varying
+according to race, region and circumstances, shall we find so
+many germs or nuclei from which whole families of fine arts
+have in the course of the world&rsquo;s history differentiated and
+unfolded themselves. And more than once during that history,
+a cataclysm of political and social forces has not only checked
+the process of the evolution of the fine arts, but from an advanced
+stage of development has thrown them back again to a primitive
+stage. Recent research has shown how the Minoan and Mycenaean
+civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, with their developed
+fine arts, must have perished and been effaced before the second
+growth of art from new rudiments took place in Greece. The
+great instance of the downfall of the Roman civilization need
+not be requoted. By Spencer&rsquo;s application of the theory of
+evolution, not less than by Hegel&rsquo;s theory of the historic periods,
+attention is called to the fact that Christian Europe, during
+several centuries of the middle age, presents to our study a
+civilization analogous to the civilization of the old oriental
+empires in this respect, that its ruling and characteristic manual
+art is architecture, to which sculpture and painting are, as in
+the oriental empires, once more subjugated and attached. It
+does not of course follow that such periods of fusion or mutual
+dependence among the arts are periods of bad art. On the
+contrary, each stage of the evolution of any art has its own
+characteristic excellence. The arts can be employed in combination,
+and yet be all severally excellent. When music, dancing,
+acting and singing were combined in the performance of the
+Greek chorus, the combination no doubt presented a relative
+perfection of each of the four elements analogous to the combined
+perfection, in the contemporary Doric temple, of pure architectural
+form, sculptured enrichment of spaces specially contrived
+for sculpture in the pediments and frieze, and coloured decoration
+over all. The extreme differentiation of any art from every
+other art, and of the several branches of one art among themselves,
+does not by any means tend to the perfection of that art. The
+process of evolution among the fine arts may go, and indeed
+in the course of history has gone, much too far for the health
+of the arts severally. Thus an artist of our own day is usually
+either a painter only or a sculptor only; but yet it is acknowledged
+that the painter who can model a statue, or the sculptor
+who can paint a picture, is likely to be the more efficient master
+of both arts; and in the best days of Florentine art the greatest
+men were generally painters, sculptors, architects and goldsmiths
+all at once. In like manner a landscape painter who paints
+landscape only is apt not to paint it so well as one who paints
+the figure too; and in recent times the craft of engraving had
+almost ceased to be an art from the habit of allotting one part
+of the work, as skies, to one hand, another part, as figures, to a
+second, and another part, as landscape, to a third. This kind
+of continually progressing subdivision of labour, which seems
+to be the necessary law of industrial processes, is fatal to any
+skill which demands, as skill in the fine arts, we have seen,
+demands, the free exercise and direction of a highly complex
+cluster both of faculties and sensibilities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span></p>
+
+<p>In the second half of the 19th century a reaction set in against
+such over-differentiation of the several manual arts and crafts.
+This reaction is chiefly identified in England with the
+name of William Morris, who insisted by precept and
+<span class="sidenote">Reaction against over-evolution amongst the fine arts.</span>
+example that one form of artistic activity was as
+worthy as another, and himself both practised and
+trained others in the practice of glass-painting, weaving,
+embroidery, furniture and wall-paper designing, and
+book decoration alike. His example has been to some
+extent followed in most European countries, and efforts have
+been made to reunite the functions of artist and craftsman,
+and to set a limit to the process of differentiation among the
+various manual arts. In the vocal or time arts also, a reformer
+of high genius and force of character, Richard Wagner, rose to
+contend that in music the process of evolution and differentiation
+had gone much too far. Music, he urged, as separated from
+words and actions, independent orchestral and instrumental
+music, had reached its utmost development, and its further
+advance could only be an advance into the inane; while operatic
+music had broken itself up into a number of set and separate
+forms, as aria, scena, recitative, which corresponded to no real
+varieties of instinctive emotional utterance, and in the aimless
+production of which the art was in danger of paralysing and
+stultifying itself. This process, he declared, must be checked;
+music and words must be brought back again into close connexion
+and mutual dependence; the artificial opera forms must be
+abolished, and a new and homogeneous music-drama be created,
+of which the author must combine in himself the functions of
+poet, composer, inventor, and director of scenery and stage
+appliances, so that the entire creation should bear the impress
+of a single mind; to the creation of such a music-drama he
+accordingly devoted all the energies of his being.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus evident that the evolution theory, though it furnishes
+us with some instructive points of view for the history of the fine
+arts as for other things, is far from being the whole
+key to that history. Another key, employed with
+<span class="sidenote">Taine&rsquo;s philosophy or natural history of the fine arts.</span>
+results perhaps less really luminous than they are
+certainly showy and attractive, is that supplied by
+Taine. Taine&rsquo;s philosophy, which might perhaps
+be better called a natural history, of fine art consists
+in regarding the fine arts as the necessary result of the
+general conditions under which they are at any time produced&mdash;conditions
+of race and climate, of religion, civilization and
+manners. Acquaint yourself with these conditions as they
+existed in any given people at any given period, and you will
+be able to account for the characters assumed by the arts of that
+people at that period, and to reason from one to the other, as a
+botanist can account for the flora of any given locality, and can
+reason from its soil, exposure and temperature, to the orders
+of vegetation which it will produce. This method of treating
+the history of the fine arts, again, is one which can be pursued
+with profit in so far as it makes the student realize the connexion
+of fine arts with human culture in general, and teaches him how
+the arts of any age and country are not an independent or
+arbitrary phenomenon, but are essentially an outcome, or
+efflorescence, to use a phrase of Ruskin&rsquo;s, of deep-seated elements
+in the civilization which produces them. But it is a method
+which, rashly used, is very apt to lead to a hasty and one-sided
+handling both of history and of art. It is easy to fasten on
+certain obvious relations of fine art to general civilization when
+you know a few of the facts of both, and to say, the cloudy skies
+and mongrel industrial population of Protestant Amsterdam at
+such and such a date had their inevitable reflection in the art of
+Rembrandt; the wealth and pomp of the full-fleshed burghers
+and burgesses of Catholic Antwerp had theirs in the art of
+Rubens. But to do this in the precise and conclusive manner
+of Taine&rsquo;s treatises on the philosophy of art always means to
+ignore a large range of conditions or causes for which no corresponding
+effect is on the surface apparent, and generally also
+a large number of effects for which appropriate causes cannot
+easily be discovered at all.</p>
+
+<p>These considerations have resulted in a reaction against
+Taine&rsquo;s theories which goes probably too far. It is no complete
+confutation of his philosophy of art-history to contend,
+as has been done somewhat contemptuously by
+<span class="sidenote">Criticisms and counter-criticisms on Taine&rsquo;s methods.</span>
+Professor Ernst Grosse and others, that the great
+artist, so far from representing the general tendencies
+of his time and environment, is commonly a solitary
+innovator and revolutionist, and has to educate and
+create his own public, often through years of obloquy
+or neglect. This is sometimes true when the traditions and
+ideals of art are undergoing revolution or swift experimental
+change, but hardly ever true in times of stable tradition and
+accepted ideals; and when true it only shows that the tendencies
+the innovating genius represents are tendencies which have till
+his time been working underground, and which he is born to
+bring into light and evidence. A new and revolutionary impulse
+in art, as in thought or politics, is like a yeast or ferment working
+at first secretly, affecting for a while only a few spirits, as a new
+epidemic may for a while only affect a few constitutions, and
+then gradually ripening and strengthening till it communicates
+itself to thousands. In its inception such a ferment is not,
+indeed, one of the obvious phenomena of the society in which
+it takes root, but it is none the less one of the most vital and
+significant phenomena. The truth is, that this particular
+efflorescence of human culture depends for its character at any
+given time upon combinations of causes which are by no means
+simple, but generally highly complex, obscure and nicely
+balanced. For instance, the student who should try to reason
+back from the holy and beatified character which prevails in
+much of the devotional painting of the Italian schools down
+to the Renaissance would be much mistaken were he to conclude,
+&ldquo;like art, like life, thoughts and manners.&rdquo; He would not
+understand the relation of the art to the general civilization of
+those days unless he were to remember that one of the chief
+functions of the imagination is to make up for the shortcomings
+of reality, and to supply to contemplation images of that which
+is most lacking in actual life; so that the visions at once peaceful
+and ardent embodied by the religious schools of art in the
+Italian cities are to be explained, not by the peace, but rather
+in great part by the dispeace, of contemporary existence, and
+by the longing of the human spirit to escape into happier and
+more calm conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Any one of the three modes of generalization to which we have
+referred might no doubt yield, however, supposing in the student
+the due gifts of patience and of caution, a working
+clue to guide him through that immense region of
+<span class="sidenote">Difficulty of combining the study of the manual with that of the vocal group of fine arts.</span>
+research, the history of the fine arts. But it is hardly
+possible to pursue to any purpose the history of the
+two great groups, the shaping group and the speaking
+group, together. At some stages of the world&rsquo;s
+history the manual and the monumental arts have
+flourished, as in Egypt and Assyria, when there was
+no fine art of words at all, and the only literature was
+that of records cut in hieroglyph or cuneiform on
+palace walls and temples, and on tablets, seals and cylinders.
+At other times and in other communities there has existed
+a great tradition and inheritance of poetry and song when the
+manual arts were only beginning to emerge again from the
+wreck of an old civilization, as in the Homeric age of Greece,
+or where they had never flourished at all except by imitation
+and importation, as in Palestine. In historic Greece all three
+divisions of the art of poetry, the epic, lyric and the dramatic,
+had been perfected, and two of them had again declined, before
+sculpture had reached maturity or painting had passed beyond
+the stage of its early severity. The European poetry of the
+middle ages, abundant and rich as it was alike in France and
+Provence, in Germany and Scandinavia, can yet not take rank,
+among the creations of human genius, beside the great masterpieces
+of Romanesque and Gothic architecture; it was in Italy
+only that Dante, before the end of that age, carried poetry to
+a place of equality if not of primacy among the arts. Taking the
+England of the Elizabethan age, we find the great outburst of
+our national genius in poetry contemporary with nothing more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span>
+interesting in the manual arts than the gradual and only half-intelligent
+transformation of late Gothic architecture by the
+adoption of Italian Renaissance forms imported principally
+by way of Flanders or France, together with a fine native skill
+shown in the art of miniature portrait-painting, and none at
+all worth mentioning in other branches of painting or in sculpture.
+If the course of poetry and that of the manual arts have thus
+run independently throughout almost the whole field of history,
+those of music and the manual arts have been more widely
+separated still. In ancient Greece music and poetry were, we
+know, most intimately connected, but of the true nature of Greek
+music we know but little, of that of the earlier middle ages less
+still, and throughout the later middle ages and the earlier
+Renaissance the art remained undeveloped, whether in the
+service of the church or in secular and popular use, and in both
+cases in strict subservience to words. The growth of independent
+music is entirely the work of the modern world, and will probably
+rank in the esteem of posterity as its highest spiritual achievement
+and claim to gratitude, when the mechanical inventions and
+applications of applied science, which now occupy so disproportionate
+a part of the attention of humanity, have become a
+normal and unregarded part of its existence.</p>
+
+<p>Moments in history there have no doubt been when literature
+and the manual arts, and even music, have been swept simultaneously
+along a single stream of ideas and feelings. Such a
+moment was experienced in France in 1830 and the following
+years, when (to choose only a few of the greatest names) Hugo
+in poetry, Delacroix in painting, and Berlioz in music were
+roused to a high pitch of consentaneous inspiration by the new
+ideas and feelings of romanticism. But such moments are rare
+and exceptional. On the other hand, it is very possible to take
+the whole of the shaping or manual group of fine arts together
+and to pursue their history connectedly throughout the course
+of civilization. By the history of art what is usually meant is
+indeed the history of these three arts with that of some of their
+subordinate and connected crafts. Leaving aside the arts of
+the races of the farther East, which, profoundly interesting
+as they are, have but gradually and late become known to us,
+and the relations of which with the arts of the nearer East and
+the Mediterranean are still quite obscure&mdash;leaving these aside,
+the history of the manual arts of architecture, painting and
+sculpture falls naturally into several great periods or divisions to
+some extent overlapping each other but in the main consecutive.</p>
+
+<p>These periods are roughly as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The period of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia
+and the Nile, beginning approximately about 5000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+<span class="sidenote">Main divisions of the history of art.</span>
+and ending, roughly speaking (but some of them
+much earlier), with the spread of Greek power and
+Greek ideas under Alexander. On the main characteristics
+of the art of these empires we have already
+had occasion to touch.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Minoan and Mycenaean period, partly contemporary
+with the above and dating probably from about 2500 to about
+1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; our knowledge of this is due entirely to quite recent
+researches, confined at present to certain points in Greece and
+Asia Minor, in Crete and other islands in the Mediterranean
+basin; enough has already been revealed to prove the existence
+of an original and highly developed palace-architecture and of
+forms of relief-painting and of all the minor and decorative
+arts more free and animated than anything known to Egypt or
+Assyria. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>3. The Greek and Roman period, from about 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the
+final triumph of Christianity, say <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400. During the first
+two or three centuries of this period the Hellenic race, beginning
+again after the cataclysm which had swallowed up the earlier
+Mediterranean civilizations, carried to perfection its most
+characteristic art, that of sculpture, in the endeavour to embody
+worthily its ideas of the supernatural powers governing the world.
+Putting aside the monstrous gods of Egypt and the East, it
+found its ideals in varieties of the human form as presented by
+the most harmoniously developed specimens of the race under
+conditions of the greatest health, activity and grace. In the figures
+of Greek sculpture, both decorative and independent, and no
+doubt in Greek painting also (but of that we can only judge from
+such specimens of the minor handicrafts, chiefly vase-paintings,
+as have come down to us)&mdash;in these were set for the whole
+Western world the types and standards of human beauty, and
+in their grouping and arrangement the types and standards
+of rhythmical composition and design. Gradually human portraiture
+and themes of everyday life took their place beside
+representations of the gods and heroes. New schools struck
+out new tendencies within certain limits. But in the general
+standards of form and design there was in the imitative arts
+relatively little change, though towards the end there was much
+failure of skill, throughout the whole period. The one great
+change was in architecture. Greece had been content with the
+constructive system of columns and horizontal entablature,
+and under that system had invented and perfected her three
+successive modes or orders of architecture&mdash;the Doric, Ionic and
+Corinthian. The genius of Rome invented the round arch,
+and by help of that system erected throughout her subject
+world a thousand vast constructions&mdash;temple, palace, bath,
+amphitheatre, forum, aqueduct, triumphal gate and the rest&mdash;on
+a scale of monumental grandeur such as Greece had never
+known.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Christian period, from about 400 to about 1400.
+The decay or petrifaction of the imitative arts which had set
+in during the latter days of Rome continued during all the
+earlier centuries of the Christian period, while the Western
+world was in process of remaking. Free painting and free
+sculpture practically ceased to exist. Roman architecture
+underwent modifications under the influence of the church and
+of the new conditions of life; the Byzantine form, touched at
+certain times and places with oriental influences, developed
+itself wherever the Eastern Empire still stood erect in decay;
+the Romanesque form, as it is called, in the barbarian-conquered
+regions of the west and north. Sculpture existed for centuries
+only in rudimentary and subordinate forms as applied to architecture;
+painting only in forms of rigid though sometimes
+impressive hieratic imagery, whether as mosaic in the apses and
+vaults of churches, as rude illumination in MSS. and service-books,
+or as still ruder altar-painting carried on according to a
+frozen mechanical tradition. As time went on and medieval
+institutions developed themselves, a gradual vitality dawned
+in all these arts. In architecture the introduction of the pointed
+or Gothic arch at the beginning of the 13th century led to almost
+as great a revolution as that brought about by the use of the
+round or vaulted arch among the Romans. The same vital
+impulse that informed the new Gothic architecture breathed
+into the still quite subordinate arts of sculpture and painting
+(the latter now including the craft of glass-painting for church
+windows) a new spirit whether of devotional intensity or sweetness,
+or of human pathos or rugged humour, with a new technical
+skill for its embodiment. We have not set down, as is usually
+done, a specifically Gothic period in art, for this reason. The
+characteristic of the whole Christian period is that its dominant
+art is architecture, chiefly employed in the service of the church,
+with painting and sculpture only subordinately introduced for
+its enrichment. It makes no essential difference that from the
+5th to the 12th century the forms of this art were derived with
+various modifications from the round-arched architecture of the
+Empire, and that by the 13th century new forms both of construction
+and decoration, in which the round arch was replaced
+by the pointed, had been invented in France, and from thence
+spread abroad to Germany and Scandinavia, Great Britain,
+Spain, and last and most superficially to Italy. The essential
+difference only begins when the imitative arts, sculpture and
+painting, begin to emancipate and detach themselves, to exist
+and strive after perfection on their own account. This happened
+first and very partially in Italy with the artificers of the 13th
+and 14th centuries&mdash;with the sculptors Nicola, Giovanni, and
+Andrea Pisano; the Sienese group of painters, Duccio, Simone
+Martini, and the Lorenzetti; and the Florentine group, Cimabue
+(if Cimabue is not a myth), Giotto and the Giotteschi. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span>
+development of the rapid and flowing craft of fresco in place of
+the laborious and piecemeal craft of mosaic (henceforth for
+several centuries almost lost) was a great aid to this movement.
+After a period of something like stagnation, the movement
+received a vigorous fresh impulse soon after 1400, at about
+which date in Italy (not till near a century later in northern
+Europe) the beginning of the Renaissance is usually fixed.</p>
+
+<p>5. The Renaissance period, from about 1400 to about 1600.
+The passion for classic literature, stimulated by the influence
+of Greek scholars into Italy after the fall of Constantinople;
+the enthusiastic revival of classic forms of architecture by
+architects like Brunelleschi and Alberti; the achievements in
+sculpture and painting of masters like Donatello and Masaccio,
+based on a new and impassioned study of nature and the antique
+together; these are the outstanding and universally known
+symptoms of the Italian Renaissance in the second and third
+quarters of the 15th century. Promptly and contemptuously
+in Italy, much more gradually and incompletely in the north,
+Gothic principles of construction and decoration were cast
+aside for classical principles, as reformulated by eager spirits
+from a combined study of Roman remains and of the text of
+Vitruvius. To the ideal types of devout and prayer-worn,
+ascetic and spiritualized humanity (tempered in certain subjects
+with elements of the homely and the grotesque), which the
+spirit of the middle ages had dictated to the sculptor and the
+painter, succeeded ideals of physical power, beauty and grace
+rivalling the Hellenic. The personages of the Christian faith
+and story were brought into visible kindred with those of ancient
+paganism. In the hands of certain artists a fortunate blending
+of the two ideals yielded results of a poignant and unique charm,
+which for us, who are the heirs both of antiquity and the middle
+ages, is far from being yet exhausted. At the same time, the
+love alike of republics, great princes, churchmen, nobles and
+merchants for works of art gave employment to sculptors and
+painters on themes other than ecclesiastical. The taste for civic
+or personal commemoration, for portraiture, for illustrations
+of allegory, romance and classic fable, covered with pictures
+the walls of council halls, of public and private palaces, and of
+villas. The invention of the oil medium by the painters of
+Flanders, and its gradual adoption by the Venetians and other
+schools of Italy for all purposes except the external decorations
+of buildings, added enormously to the resources of the art in
+rivalry with nature, and to the splendour of its results as objects
+of pride and luxury. The glories of matured Italian art reacted,
+not always favourably, on the north. The great days of Flemish
+painting had been from about 1430 to 1500, before any appreciable
+influence of the Renaissance had touched the schools of
+Brussels, of Bruges or of Antwerp. By about 1520 the artists
+of those schools had begun, except in portraiture, to lose their
+native vigour and originality by contact with the alien south.
+Among the great artists of Germany in the first half of the 16th
+century the work of one or two, like Burgkmair and Holbein,
+shows Italian influence reconciled not unsuccessfully with native
+instinct; but Dürer, the greatest of them, remained in all
+essentials Gothic and German to the end. During the last half
+of the century, the Netherlands and Germany alike yielded
+little but work of mongrel Teutonized Italian or Italianized
+Teutonic type, until towards its close Rubens accomplished, in
+the fire of his prodigious temperament, a true fusion of Flemish
+and Venetian qualities, at the same time closing gloriously
+the Renaissance period properly so called, and handing on an
+example which irresistibly affected a great part of modern
+painting.</p>
+
+<p>6. Modern period, from about 1600 to the present time.
+During this period architecture remained in all European
+countries, until the 19th century, more or less completely under
+the influence of the Italian Renaissance. The principles of the
+classical revival had during a century or more of transition been
+gradually absorbed, first by France, then by Germany, the Low
+Countries, and Spain, and last by England, each country modifying
+the style according to its degree of knowledge or ignorance,
+its needs, instincts and traditions. Sculpture, which in the
+hands of the great masters of the earlier and later Renaissance
+in Italy had almost equalled its ancient glories, nay, in those of
+Michelangelo had actually surpassed them in the qualities at
+least of superhuman energy and intellectual expression&mdash;sculpture
+lost the sense of its true limitations, and entered,
+with the work of Bernini and even earlier, into an extravagant
+or &ldquo;baroque&rdquo; period of relaxed and bulging line, of exaggerated
+and ostentatious virtuosity. In this it followed the lead given
+by Italian architecture, by Jesuit church architecture especially,
+at and after the height of the Catholic reaction. From the
+monumental and memorial purposes which sculpture principally
+serves, it remained still, except in purely iconic uses, attached
+to or dependent on architecture. Not so painting, which asserted
+its independence more and more. In Protestant countries the
+old ecclesiastical patronage of the art had quite died out; in
+those that remained Catholic it continued, and even received
+a new stimulus from the anti-Protestant reaction. The demand
+for religious art was supplied with abundance of traditional
+facility, of technical accomplishment and devotional display,
+but with a loss of the old sincerity and inspiration. Almost all
+painting, even for the most extensive and monumental phases
+of decoration in church or palace or civic hall, was on canvas
+stretched over or fitted into its allotted space in the architecture,
+and the art of fresco, even in Venice, its last stronghold, was
+for a time neglected or forgotten. Portable paintings for princely
+or private galleries and cabinets became the chief and most
+characteristic products of the art. The subjects of painting
+multiplied themselves. All manner of new aspects of life and
+nature were brought within the technical compass of the painter.
+Besides devotional and classical subjects and portraiture, daily
+life in all its phases, down to the homeliest and grossest, the
+life of the parlour and the tavern, of field and shore and sea,
+with landscape in all its varieties, took their place as material
+for the painter. The truths of indoor and outdoor atmosphere
+were translated on canvas for the first time. The Dutchmen
+from about 1620 to 1670 were the most active innovators and
+path-breakers of modern art along all these lines. The greatest
+of them, Rembrandt, dealt, as has been said, like a master and a
+magician with the problems of human individuality as revealed
+in a mysterious colour and shadow world of his own invention.
+At the same time a painter of no less power in Spain, Velazquez,
+viewing the world in the natural light of every day, showed for
+the first time how vitally and subtly paint could render the
+relief and mutual values of figures and objects in space, the
+essential truth of their visible relations and reactions in the
+enveloping atmosphere. The achievement of these two victorious
+innovators has only come to be fully understood in our own day.
+The simultaneous conquest of Claude le Lorrain, on the other
+hand, over the atmospheric glow of summer and sunset on the
+Roman Campagna and the adjacent hills and coasts, found
+acceptance instantly, less perhaps for its own sake than because
+of the classical associations of the scenery which he depicted.
+The vast widening of the field of the painter&rsquo;s art and multiplication
+of its subjects, which thus took place at the dawn of the
+modern period, were gains attended by one drawback, the loss,
+namely, of the sense of high seriousness and universal appeal
+which belonged to the art while its themes had been those of
+religion and classic story almost exclusively.</p>
+
+<p>During the three hundred or so years of the modern period,
+academical schools attempting, more or less unsuccessfully,
+to carry on the great Italian and classical traditions
+of the Renaissance have not ceased to exist side by
+<span class="sidenote">Classical and romantic revivals.</span>
+side with those which have striven to express new
+ways of seeing and feeling. Sometimes, as in France
+first under Louis XIV., and again for forty years from the
+beginning of the Revolution to the dawn of romanticism, such
+schools have succeeded in crushing out and discrediting all
+efforts in other directions. Between these two epochs, say
+from 1710 to 1780, French 18th-century ideals of social elegance
+and brilliant frivolity expressed themselves in forms of great
+accomplishment and vivacity both in poetry and sculpture,
+from the days of Watteau to those of Fragonard and Clodion.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span>
+At the same time England produced one of the finest and at the
+same time most national and downright masters of the brush in
+Hogarth; two of the greatest aristocratic portrait-painters of the
+world in Reynolds and Gainsborough, each of whom modified
+according to his own instincts the tradition imported in the
+previous century by Van Dyck, the greatest pupil of Rubens
+(Reynolds fusing with this influence those of Rembrandt and the
+Venetians in almost equal shares). Pastoral landscape in the
+hands of Gainsborough, classical, following Claude, in those of
+Wilson&mdash;these together with the humble but wholesome discipline
+of topographical illustration led on to the ambitious, wide-ranging
+and often inspired experiments of Turner, and to the narrower
+but more secure achievements of Constable in the same field,
+and made this country the acknowledged pioneer of modern
+landscape art. In the meantime the wave of classical enthusiasm
+which passed over Europe in the later years of the 18th century
+had produced in architecture generally a return to severer
+principles and purer lines, in reaction from the baroque and the
+rococo Renaissance styles of the preceding century and a half.
+In Italian sculpture, the same movement inspired during the
+Napoleonic period the over-honeyed accomplishment of Canova
+and his school; in northern sculpture, the more truly antique
+but almost wholly imitative work of Thorwaldsen, and the pure
+and rhythmic grace of the English Flaxman, a true master of
+design though scarcely of sculpture strictly so called. The
+same movement again was partly responsible in English painting
+and illustration from about 1770 to 1820 for much pastoral and
+idyllic work of agreeable but shallow elegance. In French
+painting the classic movement struck deeper. Along with
+much would-be Roman attitudinizing there was much real, if
+rigid, power in the work of David, much accomplished purity
+and sweetness in that of Prud&rsquo;hon. The last and truest classic
+of France, and at the same time in portraiture the greatest
+realist, Ingres, held high the standard of his cause even through
+and past the great romantic revival which began with Géricault
+and culminated in Delacroix and the school of landscape painters
+who had received their inspiration from Constable. The main
+instincts embodied in the Romantic movement were the awakening
+of the human spirit to an eager retrospective love of the past,
+and especially of the medieval past, and simultaneously to a
+new passion for the beauties of nature, and especially of wild
+nature. Germany and England preceded France in this double
+awakening; in both countries the movement inspired a fine
+literature, but in neither did it express itself so fully and self-consciously
+through literature and the other arts together as
+it did in France when the hour struck. The revival of medieval
+sentiment in Germany had inspired comparatively early in the
+century the learned but somewhat aridly ascetic and essentially
+unpainterlike work of the group of artists who styled themselves
+<i>Nazarener</i>. In England the same revival expressed itself
+during a great part of the Victorian age in an enthusiastic return
+to the early Gothic ecclesiastical styles of architecture, a return
+unsuccessful upon the whole, because in pursuit of archaeological
+and grammatical detail the root qualities of right proportion
+and organic design were too often neglected.</p>
+
+<p>Allied with this Gothic revival, and stimulated like it by the
+persuasive conviction and brilliant resource of Ruskin in criticism
+was the pre-Raphaelite movement in painting. Among
+the artists identified with this movement there was
+<span class="sidenote">The pre-Raphaelites.</span>
+little really in common except in impatience of the
+prevailing modes of empty academic convention or
+anecdotic frivolity. The name covered for a while the essentially
+divergent aims of a vigorous unintellectual craftsman like
+Millais, fired for a few years in youth by contact with more
+imaginative temperaments, of a strenuous imitator of unharmonized
+local colours and unsubordinated natural facts like Holman
+Hunt, and of born poets and impassioned medievalists like
+Rossetti and after him Burne-Jones. Meantime in France,
+putting aside the work of the great Delacroix, the impulse of
+1830 expressed itself best and most lastingly in the monumental
+work of Daumier both in caricature and romance, the impressive
+and significant treatment of peasant life and labour by J.F.
+Millet, the vitally truthful pastoral and landscape work of
+Troyon, Corot, Daubigny and the rest.</p>
+
+<p>Since the exhaustion of the Romantic movement, the other
+movements that have been taking place in European art have
+been too numerous and too rapid to be touched on
+here to any purpose. Both in sculpture and painting
+<span class="sidenote">Contemporary tendencies.</span>
+France has taken and held the lead. Mention has
+already been made of the special tendency in recent
+sculpture identified with the name and influence of Rodin. In
+painting there has been the fertilizing and transforming influence
+of Japan on the decorative ideals of the West; there have
+been successively the Realist movement, the movements of
+the Impressionists, the Luminists, the Neo-impressionists, the
+Independents, movements initiated almost always in Paris,
+and in other countries eagerly adopted and absorbed, or angrily
+controverted and denounced, or simply neglected and ignored
+according to the predilection of this or that group of artists
+and critics; there has been a vast amount of heterogeneous,
+hurried, confident and clamant innovating activity in this
+direction and in that, much of it perhaps doomed to futility in
+the eyes of posterity, but at any rate there has not been stagnation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;To attempt in this place anything like a full
+bibliography covering so vast a field would be idle. Many of the
+books necessary to a first-hand study of the subject are cited in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aesthetics</a></span>. The following are some of the most important
+writings actually referred to in the text, English translations being
+mentioned where they exist: Aristotle, <i>Poetics</i>, edited with critical
+notes and a translation by S.H. Butcher (1898); S.H. Butcher,
+<i>Aristotle&rsquo;s Theory of Poetry and Fine Art</i>, with a critical text and a
+translation of the <i>Poetics</i> (1902); Plato, <i>Republic</i>, bk. x. 596 ff.,
+600 ff. (Grote, iii. 117 ff.; Jowett, iii. 489 ff.); B. Bosanquet,
+<i>Introduction to Hegel&rsquo;s Philosophy of Fine Art</i> (<i>Ästhetik</i>), translation
+with notes and prefatory essay (1896); <i>The Philosophy of Art, an
+Introduction to the Science of Aesthetics</i>, by Hegel and C.L. Michelet,
+trans. Hastie (1886); Schiller, <i>Briefe über die ästhetische Erziehung
+des Menschen</i> (trans, by G.J. Weiss, with preface by J. Chapman,
+1845; also in Bohn&rsquo;s Standard Library, 1846); Herbert Spencer,
+<i>First Principles</i>, ch. xxii.; Gottfried Semper, <i>Der Stil</i> (1860-1863);
+Hippolyte Taine, <i>De l&rsquo;idéal dans l&rsquo;art</i> (1867), <i>Philosophie de l&rsquo;art en
+Grèce</i> (1869), <i>Philosophie de l&rsquo;art en Italie</i>, <i>Philosophic de l&rsquo;art dans
+les Pays-Bas</i> (translations in 5 vols. by J. Durand, New York, 1889);
+Karl Groos, <i>Die Spiele der Menschen</i> (1899; trans, by E.L. Baldwin,
+1901), and <i>Die Spiele der Tiere</i> (2nd ed., 1907; trans, by E.L.
+Baldwin, 1898); Ernst Grosse, <i>Die Anfänge der Kunst</i> (1894; trans,
+in the Anthropological Series, 1894); Yrjö Hirn, <i>The Origins of Art</i>
+(1900); G. Baldwin Brown, <i>The Fine Arts</i> (2nd ed., 1902); Felix
+Clay, <i>The Origins of the Sense of Beauty</i> (1908). For a general history
+of the manual or shaping group of arts, C.J.F. Schnasse, <i>Geschichte
+der bildenden Künste</i> (2nd ed., 1866-1879), though in parts obsolete,
+is still unsuperseded. A very summary general view is given in
+Salomon Reinach, <i>The Story of Art through the Ages</i> (trans. by
+Florence Simmonds, 1904); a general history of the same group
+was undertaken by Giulio Carotti (English translation by Alice Todd,
+1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINGER,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> one of the five members with which the hand is
+terminated, a digit; sometimes the word is restricted to the
+four digits other than the thumb. The word is common to
+Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch <i>vinger</i> and Ger. <i>Finger</i>; probably
+the ultimate origin is to be found in the root of the words appearing
+in Greek <span class="grk" title="pente">&#960;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#949;</span>, Lat. <i>quinque</i>, five. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skeleton</a></span>:
+<i>Appendicular</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINGER-AND-TOE,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> <span class="sc">Club Root</span> or <span class="sc">Anbury</span>, a destructive
+plant-disease known botanically as <i>Plasmodiophora Brassicae</i>,
+which attacks cabbages, turnips, radishes and other cultivated
+and wild members of the order Cruciferae. It is one of the
+so-called Slime-fungi or Myxogastres. The presence of the
+disease is indicated by nodules or warty outgrowths on the
+root, which sometimes becomes much swollen and ultimately
+rots, emitting an unpleasant smell. The disease is contracted
+from spores present in the soil, which enter the root. The
+parasite develops within the living cells of the plant, forming
+a glairy mass of protoplasm known as the <i>plasmodium</i>, the form
+of which alters from time to time. The cells which have been
+attacked increase enormously in size and the disease spreads
+from cell to cell. Ultimately the plasmodium becomes resolved
+into numerous minute round spores which, on the decay of the
+root, are set free in the soil. A preventive is quicklime, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span>
+application of which destroys the spores in the soil. It is important
+that diseased plants should be burned, also that cruciferous
+weeds, such as shepherd&rsquo;s purse, charlock, &amp;c., should not be
+allowed to grow in places where plants of the same order are in
+cultivation.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:352px; height:411px" src="images/img376.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Finger-and-Toe (<i>Plasmodiophora Brassicae</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1, Turnip attacked by the disease, reduced.</p>
+
+<p>2, A cell of the tissue containing the plasmodium; the smaller cells
+at the sides are unaffected.</p>
+
+<p>3, Infected cell, showing spore formation. 2, 3, highly magnified.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINGER-PRINTS.<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> The use of finger-prints as a system of
+identification (<i>q.v.</i>) is of very ancient origin, and was known
+from the earliest days in the East when the impression of his
+thumb was the monarch&rsquo;s sign-manual. A relic of this practice
+is still preserved in the formal confirmation of a legal document
+by &ldquo;delivering&rdquo; it as one&rsquo;s &ldquo;act and deed.&rdquo; The permanent
+character of the finger-print was first put forward scientifically
+in 1823 by J.E. Purkinje, an eminent professor of physiology,
+who read a paper before the university of Breslau, adducing nine
+standard types of impressions and advocating a system of classification
+which attracted no great attention. Bewick, the
+English draughtsman, struck with the delicate qualities of the
+lineation, made engravings of the impression of two of his finger-tips
+and used them as signatures for his work. Sir Francis
+Galton, who laboured to introduce finger-prints, points out that
+they were proposed for the identification of Chinese immigrants
+when registering their arrival in the United States. In India,
+Sir William Herschel desired to use finger-prints in the courts
+of the Hugli district to prevent false personation and fix
+the identity upon the executants of documents. The Bengal
+police under the wise administration of Sir E.R. Henry, afterwards
+chief commissioner of the London metropolitan police,
+usefully adopted finger-prints for the detection of crime, an
+example followed in many public departments in India. A
+transfer of property is attested by the thumb-mark, so are
+documents when registered, and advances made to opium-growers
+or to labourers on account of wages, or to contracts
+signed under the emigration law, or medical certificates to
+vouch for the persons examined, all tending to check the frauds
+and impostures constantly attempted.</p>
+
+<p>The prints depend upon a peculiarity seen in the human hand
+and to some extent in the human foot. The skin is traversed
+in all directions by creases and ridges, which are ineradicable
+and show no change from childhood to extreme old age. The
+persistence of the markings of the finger-tips has been proved
+beyond all question, and this universally accepted quality has
+been the basis of the present system of identification. The
+impressions, when examined, show that the ridges appear in
+certain fixed patterns, from which an alphabet of signs or a
+system of notation has been arrived at for convenience of record.
+As the result of much experiment a fourfold scheme of classification
+has been evolved, and the various types employed
+are styled &ldquo;arches,&rdquo; &ldquo;loops,&rdquo; &ldquo;whorls&rdquo; and &ldquo;composites.&rdquo;
+There are seven subclasses, and all are perfectly distinguishable
+by an expert, who can describe each by its particular symbol
+in the code arranged, so that the whole &ldquo;print&rdquo; can be read
+as a distinct and separate expression. Very few, and the simplest,
+appliances are required for taking the print&mdash;a sheet of white
+paper, a tin slab, and some printer&rsquo;s ink. Scars or malformations
+do not interfere with the result.</p>
+
+<p>The unchanging character of the finger-prints has repeatedly
+helped in the detection of crime. We may quote the case of the
+thief who broke into a residence and among other things helped
+himself to a glass of wine, leaving two finger-prints upon the
+tumbler which were subsequently found to be identical with
+those of a notorious criminal who was arrested, pleaded guilty
+and was convicted. Another burglar effected entrance by removing
+a pane of glass from a basement window, but, unhappily
+for him, left his imprints, which were referred to the registry
+and found to agree exactly with those of a convict at large;
+his address was known, and when visited some of the stolen
+property was found in his possession. In India a murderer was
+identified by the brown mark of a blood-stained thumb he had
+left when rummaging amongst the papers of the deceased.
+This man was convicted of theft but not of the murder.</p>
+
+<p>The keystone to the whole system is the central office where
+the register or index of all criminals is kept for ready reference.
+The operators need no special gifts or lengthy training; method
+and accuracy suffice, and abundant checks exist to obviate
+incorrect classification and reduce the liability to error.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;F. Galton, <i>Finger Prints</i> (1892), <i>Fingerprint
+Directories</i> (1895); E.R. Henry, <i>Classification and Uses of Finger
+Prints</i>; A. Yvert, <i>L&rsquo;Identification par les empreintes digitales palmaires</i>
+(1905); K. Windt, R.S. Kodicek, <i>Daktyloskopie. Verwertung
+von Fingerabdrücken zu Identifizierungszwecken</i> (Vienna, 1904); E.
+Loeard, <i>La Dactyloscopie. Identification des récidivistes par les
+empreintes digitales</i> (1904); H. Faulds, <i>Guide to Finger-Print
+Identification</i> (1905); H. Gross, <i>Criminal Investigation</i> (trans. J. and
+J.C. Adam, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINGO,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fengu</span> (<i>Ama-Fengu</i>, &ldquo;wanderers&rdquo;), a Bantu-Negro
+people, allied to the Zulu family, who have given their
+name to the district of Fingoland, the S.W. portion of the
+Transkei division of the Cape province. The Fingo tribes were
+formed from the nations broken up by Chaka and his Zulu;
+after some years of oppression by the Xosa they appealed to the
+Cape government in 1835, and were permitted by Sir Benjamin
+D&rsquo;Urban to settle on the banks of the Great Fish river. They
+have been always loyal to the British, and have steadily advanced
+in social respects. They have largely adapted themselves to
+western culture, wearing European clothes, supporting their
+schools by voluntary contributions, editing newspapers, translating
+English poetry, and setting their national songs to correct
+music. The majority call themselves Christians and many of
+them have intermarried with Europeans. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffirs</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINIAL<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (a variant of &ldquo;final&rdquo;; Lat. <i>finis</i>, end), an architectural
+term for the termination of a pinnacle, gable end,
+buttress, or canopy, consisting of a bunch of foliage, which
+bears a close affinity to the crockets (<i>q.v.</i>) running up the gables,
+turrets or spires, and in some cases may be formed by uniting
+four or more crockets together. Sometimes the term is incorrectly
+applied to a small pinnacle of which it is only the
+termination (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Epi</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINIGUERRA, MASO<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> [<i>i.e.</i> <span class="sc">Tommaso</span>] (1426-1464), Florentine
+goldsmith, draughtsman, and engraver, whose name is distinguished
+in the history of art and craftsmanship for reasons which
+are partly mythical. Vasari represents him as having been the
+first inventor of the art of engraving (using that word in its
+popular sense of taking impressions on paper from designs
+engraved on metal plates), and Vasari&rsquo;s account was universally
+accepted and repeated until recent research proved it erroneous.
+What we actually know from contemporary documents of
+Finiguerra, his origin, his life, and his work, is as follows. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span>
+was the son of Antonio, and grandson of Tommaso Finiguerra or
+Finiguerri, both goldsmiths of Florence, and was born in Sta
+Lucia d&rsquo;Ognissanti in 1426. He was brought up to the hereditary
+profession of goldsmith and was early distinguished for his work
+in niello. In his twenty-third year (1449) we find note of a
+sulphur cast from a niello of his workmanship being handed
+over by the painter Alessio Baldovinetti to a customer in payment
+or exchange for a dagger received. In 1452 Maso delivered
+and was paid for a niellated silver pax commissioned for the
+baptistery of St John by the consuls of the gild of merchants
+or Calimara. By this time he seems to have left his father&rsquo;s
+workshop: and we know that he was in partnership with Piero
+di Bartolommeo di Sali and the great Antonio Pollaiuolo in 1457,
+when the firm had an order for a pair of fine silver candlesticks
+for the church of San Jacopo at Pistoia. In 1459 we find Finiguerra
+noted in the house-book of Giovanni Rucellai as one of
+several distinguished artists with whose works the Casa Rucellai
+was adorned. In 1462 he is recorded as having supplied another
+wealthy Florentine, Cino di Filippo Rinuccini, with waist-buckles,
+and in the years next following with forks and spoons
+for christening presents. In 1463 he drew cartoons, the heads
+of which were coloured by Alessio Baldovinetti, for five or more
+figures for the sacristy of the duomo, which was being decorated
+in wood inlay by a group of artists with Giuliano da Maiano at
+their head. On the 14th of December 1464 Maso Finiguerra
+made his will, and died shortly afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>These documentary facts are supplemented by several writers
+of the next generation with statements more or less authoritative.
+Thus Baccio Bandinelli says that Maso was among the young
+artists who worked under Ghiberti on the famous gates of the
+baptistery; Benvenuto Cellini that he was the finest master of
+his day in the art of niello engraving, and that his masterpiece
+was a pax of the Crucifixion in the baptistery of St John; that
+being no great draughtsman, he in most cases, including that of
+the above-mentioned pax, worked from drawings by Antonio
+Pollaiuolo. Vasari, on the other hand, allowing that Maso was
+a much inferior draughtsman to Pollaiuolo, mentions nevertheless
+a number of original drawings by him as existing in his own
+collection, &ldquo;with figures both draped and nude, and histories
+drawn in water-colour.&rdquo; Vasari&rsquo;s account was confirmed and
+amplified in the next century by Baldinucci, who says that he
+has seen many drawings by Finiguerra much in the manner of
+Masaccio; adding that Maso was beaten by Pollaiuolo in competition
+for the reliefs of the great silver altar-table commission
+by the merchants&rsquo; gild for the baptistery of St John (this famous
+work is now preserved in the Opera del Duomo). But the paragraph
+of Vasari which has chiefly held the attention of posterity
+is that in which he gives this craftsman the credit of having
+been the first to print off impressions from niello plates on sulphur
+casts and afterwards on sheets of paper, and of having followed
+up this invention by engraving copper-plates for the express
+purpose of printing impressions from them, and thus became
+the inventor and father of the art of engraving in general.
+Finiguerra, adds Vasari, was succeeded in the practice of engraving
+at Florence by a goldsmith called Baccio Baldini, who, not
+having much invention of his own, borrowed his designs from
+other artists and especially from Botticelli. In the last years of
+the 18th century Vasari&rsquo;s account of Finiguerra&rsquo;s invention was
+held to have received a decisive and startling confirmation under
+the following circumstances. There was in the baptistery at
+Florence (now in the Bargello) a beautiful 15th-century niello
+pax of the Coronation of the Virgin. The Abate Gori, a savant
+and connoisseur of the mid-century, had claimed this conjecturally
+for the work of Finiguerra; a later and still more enthusiastic
+virtuoso, the Abate Zani, discovered first, in the collection
+of Count Seratti at Leghorn, a sulphur cast from the very same
+niello (this cast is now in the British Museum), and then, in the
+National library at Paris, a paper impression corresponding to
+both. Here, then, he proclaimed, was the actual material first-fruit
+of Finiguerra&rsquo;s invention and proof positive of Vasari&rsquo;s
+accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Zani&rsquo;s famous discovery, though still accepted in popular
+art histories and museum guides, is now discredited among
+serious students.  For one thing, it has been proved that the
+art of printing from engraved copper-plates had been known in
+Germany, and probably in Italy also, for years before the date
+of Finiguerra&rsquo;s alleged invention. For another, Maso&rsquo;s pax for
+the baptistery, if Cellini is to be trusted, represented not a
+Coronation of the Virgin but a Crucifixion. In the next place, its
+recorded weight does not at all agree with that of the pax claimed
+by Gori and Zani to be his. Again, and perhaps this is the
+strongest argument of any, all authentic records agree in representing
+Finiguerra as a close associate in art and business of
+Antonio Pollaiuolo. Now nothing is more marked than the
+special style of Pollaiuolo and his group; and nothing is more
+unlike it than the style of the Coronation pax, the designer of
+which must obviously have been trained in quite a different
+school, namely that of Filippo Lippi. So this seductive identification
+has to be abandoned, and we have to look elsewhere for
+traces of the real work of Finiguerra. The only fully authenticated
+specimens which exist are the above-mentioned tarsia
+figures, over half life-size, executed from his cartoons for the
+sacristy of the duomo. But his hand has lately been conjecturally
+recognized in a number of other things: first in a set of
+drawings of the school of Pollaiuolo at the Uffizi, some of which
+are actually inscribed &ldquo;Maso Finiguerra&rdquo; in a 17th-century
+writing, probably that of Baldinucci himself; and secondly
+in a very curious and important book of nearly a hundred
+drawings by the same hand, acquired in 1888 for the British
+Museum. The Florence series depicts for the most part figures
+of the studio and the street, to all appearance members of the
+artist&rsquo;s own family and workshop, drawn direct from life. The
+museum volume, on the other hand, is a picture-chronicle, drawn
+from imagination, and representing parallel figures of sacred
+and profane history, in a chronological series from the Creation
+to Julius Caesar, dressed and accoutred with inordinate richness
+according to the quaint pictures which Tuscan popular fancy
+in the mid-15th century conjured up to itself of the ancient
+world. Except for the differences naturally resulting from the
+difference of subject, and that the one series are done from life
+and the other from imagination, the technical style and handling
+of the two are identical and betray unmistakably a common
+origin. Both can be dated with certainty, from their style,
+costumes, &amp;c., within a few years of 1460. Both agree strictly
+with the accounts of Finiguerra&rsquo;s drawings left us by Vasari and
+Baldinucci, and disagree in no respect with the character of the
+inlaid figures of the sacristy. That the draughtsman was a
+goldsmith is proved on every page of the picture-chronicle by
+his skill and extravagant delight in the ornamental parts of
+design&mdash;chased and jewelled cups, helmets, shields, breastplates,
+scabbards and the like,&mdash;as well as by the symmetrical metallic
+forms into which he instinctively conventionalizes plants and
+flowers. That he was probably also an engraver in niello appears
+from the fact that figures from the Uffizi series of drawings are
+repeated among the rare anonymous Florentine niello prints
+of the time (the chief collection of which, formerly belonging to
+the marquis of Salamanca, is now in the cabinet of M. Edmond de
+Rothschild in Paris). That he was furthermore an engraver on
+copper seems certain from the fact that the general style and
+many particular figures and features of the British Museum
+chronicle drawings are exactly repeated in some of those primitive
+15th-century Florentine prints which used to be catalogued
+loosely under the names of Baldini or Botticelli, but have of
+late years been classed more cautiously as anonymous prints in
+the &ldquo;fine manner&rdquo; (in contradistinction to another contemporary
+group of prints in the &ldquo;broad manner&rdquo;). The fine-manner
+group of primitive Florentine engravings itself falls
+into two divisions, one more archaic, more vigorous and original
+than the other, and consisting for the most part of larger and
+more important prints. It is this division which the drawings of
+the Chronicle series most closely resemble; so closely as almost
+to compel the conclusion that drawings and engravings are by
+the same hand. The later division of fine-manner prints represent
+a certain degree of technical advance from the earlier, and are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span>
+softer in style, with elements of more classic grace and playfulness;
+their motives moreover are seldom original, but are
+borrowed from various sources, some from German engravings,
+some from Botticelli or a designer closely akin to him, some
+from the pages of the British Museum Chronicle-book itself,
+with a certain softening and attenuating of their rugged spirit;
+as though the book, after the death of the original draughtsman-engraver,
+had remained in his workshop and continued to be
+used by his successors. We thus find ourselves in presence of a
+draughtsman of the school of Pollaiuolo, some of whose drawings
+bear an ancient attribution to Finiguerra, while all agree with
+what is otherwise known of him, and one or two are exactly
+repeated in extant works of niello, the craft which was peculiarly
+his own; others being intimately related to the earliest or all
+but the earliest works of Florentine engraving, the kindred
+craft which tradition avers him to have practised, and which
+Vasari erroneously believed him to have invented. Surely,
+it has been confidently argued, this draughtsman must be no
+other than the true Finiguerra himself. The argument has not
+yet been universally accepted, but neither has any competent
+criticism appeared to shake it; so that it may be regarded for
+the present as holding the field.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See Bandinelli in Bottari, <i>Raccolta di lettere</i>
+(1754), i. p. 75; Vasari (ed. Milanesi), i. p. 209, iii. p. 206; Benvenuto
+Cellini, <i>I Trattati dell&rsquo; orificeria</i>, &amp;c. (ed. Lemonnier), pp. 7,
+12, 13, 14; Baldinucci, <i>Notizie dei professori di disegno</i> (1845), i.
+pp. 518, 519, 533; Zani, <i>Materiali per servire</i>, &amp;c. (1802); Duchesne,
+<i>Essai sur les nielles</i> (1824); Dutuit, <i>Manuel de l&rsquo;amateur d&rsquo;estampes</i>,
+vol. i. pref. and vol. ii.; and for a full discussion of the whole question,
+with quotations from earlier authorities and reproductions
+of the works discussed, Sidney Colvin, <i>A Florentine Picture Chronicle</i>
+(1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINISHING.<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> The term <i>finishing</i>, as specially applied in the
+textile industries, embraces the process or processes to which
+bleached, dyed or printed fabrics of any description are subjected,
+with the object of imparting a characteristic appearance to the
+surface of the fabric, or of influencing its handle or feel. Strictly
+speaking, certain operations might be classed under this heading
+which are conducted previous to bleaching, dyeing, &amp;c; <i>e.g.</i>
+mercerizing (<i>q.v.</i>), stretching and crabbing, singeing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>);
+but as these are not undertaken by the finisher, only
+those will be dealt with here which are not mentioned under
+other headings. By the various treatments to which the fabric
+is subjected in finishing, it is often so altered in appearance that
+it is impossible to recognize in it the same material that came
+from the loom or from the bleacher or dyer. On the other hand,
+one and the same fabric, subjected to different processes of
+finishing, may be made to represent totally different classes of
+material. In other cases, however, the appearance of the finished
+article differs but slightly from that of the piece on leaving the
+loom.</p>
+
+<p>All processes of finishing are purely mechanical in character,
+and the most important of them depend upon the fact that in
+their ordinary condition (<i>i.e.</i> containing their normal amount of
+moisture), or better still in a damp state, the textile fibres are
+plastic, and consequently yield to pressure or tension, ultimately
+assuming the shape imparted to them. The old-fashioned box
+press, formerly largely used for household linen, owed its efficacy
+to this principle. At elevated temperatures the damp fibres
+become very much more plastic than at the ordinary temperature,
+the simplest form of finishing appliance based on this fact being
+the ordinary flat iron. Indeed it may safely be stated that most
+of the modern finishing processes have been evolved from the
+household operations of washing (milling), brushing, starching,
+mangling, ironing and pressing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cotton Pieces.</i>&mdash;In the ordinary process of bleaching, cotton
+goods are subjected during the various operations to more or
+less continual longitudinal tension, and while becoming elongated,
+shrink more or less considerably in width. In order to bring
+them back to their original width, they are stretched or
+&ldquo;stentered&rdquo; by means of specially constructed machines. The
+most effective of these is the so-called stentering frame, which
+consists essentially of two slightly diverging endless chains
+carrying clips or pins which hold the piece in position as it
+traverses the machine. The length of a frame may vary from
+20 to 30 yds. On the upper part of the frame the chains run in
+slots, and by means of set screws the distance between the two
+chains can be set within the required limits. The pieces are
+fed on to one end of the machine in the damp state by hand and
+are then naturally slack. But before they have travelled many
+yards they become taut, the stretching increasing as they travel
+along. Simultaneously with the stretching, the pieces are dried
+by a current of hot air which is blown through from below, so
+that on arriving at the end of the machine they are not only
+stretched to the required degree but are also dry. The machine
+used for stentering is more fully described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mercerizing</a></span>
+(<i>q.v.</i>). In case the goods come straight from the loom to be
+finished, stentering is not necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Pieces intended to receive a &ldquo;pure&rdquo; finish pass on without
+further treatment to the ordinary finishing processes such as
+calendering, hot pressing, raising, &amp;c. But in the majority of
+cases they are previously impregnated, according to the finish
+desired, with stiffening or softening agents, weighting materials,
+&amp;c. Usually, starch constitutes the main stiffening agent, with
+additions of china clay, barium compounds, &amp;c., for weighting
+purposes, and Turkey red oil, with or without the addition of
+some vegetable oil or fat, as the softening agent. Magnesium
+sulphate is also largely used in order to give &ldquo;body&rdquo; to the cloth,
+which it does by virtue of its property of crystallizing in fine
+felted needle-shaped crystals throughout the mass of the fabric.
+When starch is used in filling, it is advisable to add some anti-septic,
+such as zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, phenol or
+salicylic acid, in order to prevent or retard subsequent development
+of mildew. The impregnation of the pieces with the
+filling is effected in two ways, viz. either throughout the thickness
+of the cloth or on one surface only (back starching). When the
+whole piece is to be impregnated the operation is conducted in a
+starching mangle, which is similar in construction to an ordinary
+household mangle, though naturally larger and more elaborate
+in construction. The pieces run at full width through a trough
+situated immediately below the bowls and containing the filling
+(starch paste, &amp;c.), then between the bowls, the pressure (&ldquo;nip&rdquo;)
+of which regulates the amount of filling taken up, and thence
+over a range of steam-heated drying cylinders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>).
+In case one side only of the goods is to be stiffened&mdash;and this
+is usually necessary in the case of printed goods,&mdash;a so-called
+back-starching mangle is employed.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:362px; height:146px" src="images/img378.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Principle of Back-Starching Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The construction of the machine varies, but the simplest form
+consists essentially of a wooden bowl <i>a</i> (Fig. 1) which runs in the
+starch paste contained in trough <i>t</i>. The pieces pass from the batch-roller
+B, through
+scrimp rails S and
+over the bowl
+under tension,
+touching the surface
+from which
+they gather the
+starch paste. By
+means of the fixed
+&ldquo;doctor&rdquo; blade <i>d</i>, which extends across the piece, the paste is
+levelled on the surface of the fabric and excess scraped off, falling
+back into the trough. The goods are then dried with the face side
+to the cylinders.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some goods come into the market with no further treatment
+after starching other than running through a mangle with a
+little softening and then drying, but in the great majority of
+cases they are subjected to further operations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Damping.</i>&mdash;When deprived of their natural moisture by
+drying on the cylinder drying machine, cotton goods are not in a
+fit condition to undergo the subsequent operations of calendering,
+beetling, &amp;c., since the fibres in the dry state have lost their
+plasticity. The pieces are consequently damped to the desired
+degree, and this is usually effected in a damping machine in
+passing through which they meet with a fine spray of water.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:377px; height:167px" src="images/img379a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Principle of Damping Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A simple and effective device for this purpose is shown in section
+in Fig. 2. It consists essentially of a brass roller <i>r</i> running in water
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span>
+contained in a trough or box <i>t</i>. Touching the brass roller is a brush
+roller <i>b</i> which revolves at a high speed, thus spraying the water,
+which it takes up
+continuously from
+the wet revolving
+brass roller in all
+directions, and
+consequently also
+against the piece
+which passes in a
+stretched condition
+over the top
+of the box, being
+drawn from the
+batch roller B,
+over scrimp rails S, and batched again on the other side on roller R.
+The level of the water in the trough is kept constant.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Calendering.</i>&mdash;The calender may be regarded as an elaboration
+of the ordinary mangle, from which, however, it differs essentially
+inasmuch as one or more of the rollers or bowls are made of steel
+or iron and can be treated either by gas or steam; the other
+bowls are made of compressed cotton or paper. Three distinct
+forms of calender are in use, viz. the ordinary calender, the
+friction calender and the embossing calender.</p>
+
+<p>The number of bowls in an ordinary calender varies between
+two and six according to the character of the finish for which
+it is intended. In a modern five-bowl calender the bottom bowl
+is made of cast iron, the second of compressed cotton or paper,
+the third of iron being hollow and fitted with steam heating
+apparatus. The fourth bowl is made of compressed cotton, and
+the fifth of cast iron. The pieces are simply passed through for
+&ldquo;swissing,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> for the production of an ordinary plain finish.
+The same calender may also be used for &ldquo;chasing,&rdquo; in which
+two pieces are passed through, face to face, in order to produce
+an imitation linen finish. Moiré or &ldquo;watered&rdquo; effects are
+produced in a similar way, but these effects are frequently
+imitated in the embossing calender.</p>
+
+<p>The friction calender, the object of which is to produce a high
+gloss on the fabric, differs from the ordinary calender inasmuch
+as one of the bowls is caused to revolve at a greater speed than
+the others. In an ordinary three-bowl friction calender the
+bottom bowl is made of cast iron, the middle one of compressed
+cotton or paper, and the top one (the friction bowl) of highly
+polished chilled iron. The last-named bowl, which has a greater
+peripheral speed than the others, is hollow and can be heated
+either by steam or gas.</p>
+
+<p>The embossing calender is usually constructed of two bowls,
+one of which is of steel and the other of compressed cotton or
+paper. The steel roller, which is hollow and can be heated
+either by steam or gas, is engraved with the pattern which it is
+desired to impart to the piece. If the pattern is deep, as is the
+case in the production of book cloths, it is necessary to run the
+machine empty under pressure until the pattern of the steel
+bowl has impressed itself into the cotton or paper bowls, but if
+the effect desired only consists of very fine lines, this is not
+necessary; for instance, in the production of the Schreiner
+finish, which is intended to give the pieces (especially after
+mercerizing) the appearance of silk, the steel roller is engraved
+with fine diagonal lines which are so close together (about 250
+to the in.) as to be undistinguishable by the naked eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beetling</i> is a process by which a peculiar linen-like appearance
+and a leathery feel or handle are imparted to cotton fabrics, the
+process being also employed for improving the appearance of
+linen goods. For the best class of beetle finish, the pieces are
+first impregnated with sago starch and the other necessary
+ingredients (softening, &amp;c.) and are dried on cylinders. They
+are then damped on a water mangle, and beamed on to the
+heavy iron bowl of the beetling machine.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A beetling machine of the kind, with four sets of &ldquo;fallers,&rdquo; is
+shown in Fig. 3. The fallers are made of beech wood, are about 8 ft.
+long, 5½ in. deep and 4 in. wide, and are kept in their vertical position
+by two pairs of guide rails. Each faller is provided with a tappet
+or wooden peg driven in at one side, which engages with the teeth
+or &ldquo;wipers&rdquo; of the revolving shaft in the front of the machine.
+The effect of this mechanism is to lift the faller a distance of about
+13 in. and then let it drop on to the cloth wound on the beam. This
+lifting and dropping of the fallers on to the beam takes place in
+rhythmical and rapid succession. To ensure even treatment the
+beam turns slowly round and also has a to-and-fro movement imparted
+to it. The treatment may last, according to the finish which
+it is desired to obtain, from one to sixty hours.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:335px" src="images/img379b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Beetling Machine (Edmeston &amp; Sons).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Beetling was originally used for linen goods, but to-day is
+almost entirely applied to cotton for the production of so-called
+<i>linenettes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hot-pressing</i> is used to a limited extent in order to obtain a
+soft finish on cotton goods, but as this operation is more used for
+wool, it will be described below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Raising.</i>&mdash;This operation, which was formerly only used for
+woollen goods (teasing), has come largely into use for cotton
+pieces, partly in consequence of the introduction of the direct
+cotton colours by which the cotton is dyed evenly throughout
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dyeing</a></span>), and partly in consequence of new and improved
+machinery having been devised for the purpose. Starting with
+a plain bleached, dyed or printed fabric, the process consists
+in principle in raising or drawing out the ends of individual
+fibres from the body of the cloth, so as to produce a nap or soft
+woolly surface on the face.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:527px; height:317px" src="images/img379c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Raising.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>This is effected by passing the fabric slowly round a large drum D,
+which is surrounded, as shown in the diagram, (Fig. 4), by a number of
+small cylinders or rollers, <i>r</i>, covered with steel wire brushes or
+&ldquo;carding,&rdquo; such as is used in carding engines (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cotton-Spinning
+Machinery</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The rollers <i>r</i>, which are all driven by one and the same belt
+(not shown in the figure), revolve at a high rate of speed, and can be
+made to do so either in the same direction as that followed by the
+piece as it travels through the machine or in the opposite one. In
+addition to their revolving round their own axes, the raising rollers
+may be either kept stationary or may be moved round the drum D in
+either direction.</p>
+
+<p>In the more modern machines there are two sets of raising rollers,
+of which each alternate one is caused to revolve in the direction
+followed by the piece, while the other is made to revolve in the
+opposite direction. By passing through an arrangement of this
+kind several times, or through several such machines in succession,
+the ends of the fibres are gradually drawn out to the desired extent.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span></p>
+
+<p>After raising, the pieces are sheared (for better class work)
+in order to produce greater regularity in the length of the nap.
+The raised style of finishing is used chiefly for the production of
+uniformly white or coloured flannelettes but is also used for
+such as are dyed in the yarn, and to a limited extent for printed
+fabrics.</p>
+
+<p><i>Woollen and Worsted Pieces.</i>&mdash;Although both of these classes
+of material are made from wool, their treatment in finishing
+differs so materially that it is necessary to deal with them
+separately. <i>Unions</i> or fabrics consisting of a cotton warp with
+a worsted weft are in general treated like worsteds.</p>
+
+<p>In the finishing of woollen pieces the most important operation
+is that of <i>milling</i>, which consists in subjecting the pieces to
+mechanical friction, usually in an alkaline medium (soap or
+soap and soda) but sometimes in an acid (sulphuric acid) medium,
+in order to bring about felting and consequent &ldquo;fulling&rdquo; of the
+fabric. This felting of the wool is due to the peculiar structure
+of the fibre, the scales of which all protrude in one direction, so
+that the individual fibres can slip past each other in one direction
+more readily than in the opposite one and thus become more and
+more interlocked as the milling proceeds. If the pieces contain
+<i>burrs</i> these are usually removed by a process known as &ldquo;carbonizing,&rdquo;
+which generally, but not necessarily, precedes the milling.
+Their removal depends upon the fact that the burrs, which
+consist in the main of cellulose, are disintegrated at elevated
+temperatures by dilute mineral acids. The pieces are run
+through sulphuric acid of from 4° to 6° Tw., squeezed or hydro-extracted,
+and dried over cylinders and then in stoves. The
+acid is thus concentrated and attacks the burrs, which fall to
+dust, while leaving the wool intact. For the removal of the acid
+the fabric is first washed in water and then in weak soda. Carbonizing
+is also sometimes used for worsteds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:529px; height:344px" src="images/img380a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Milling Stocks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Milling was formerly all done in milling or fulling stocks (see
+Fig. 5), in which the cloth saturated with a strong solution of soap
+(with or without other additions such as stale urine, potash,
+fuller&rsquo;s earth, &amp;c.) is subjected to the action of heavy wooden
+hammers, which are raised by the cams attached to the wheel
+(E) on the revolving shaft, and fall with their own weight on to
+the bundles of cloth. The shape of the hammer-head causes the
+cloth to turn slowly in the cavity in which the milling takes place.
+Occasionally, the cloth is taken out, straightened, washed if
+necessary, and then returned to the stocks to undergo further
+treatment, the process being continued until the material is
+uniformly shrunk or milled to the desired degree.</p>
+
+<p>In the more modern forms of milling machines the principle
+adopted is to draw the pieces in rope form, saturated with soap
+solution and sewn together end to end so as to form an endless
+band, between two or more rollers, on leaving which they are
+forced down a closed trough ending in an aperture the size of
+which can be varied, but which in any case is sufficiently small
+to cause a certain amount of force to be necessary to push the
+pieces through. A machine of this kind is shown in Fig. 6. It is
+evident that for coloured goods which have to be milled only
+such colouring matters must be chosen for dyeing that are
+absolutely fast to soap.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:361px; height:312px" src="images/img380b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Ganswindt, <i>Technologie der Appretur</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;Roller Milling Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>After the pieces have been milled down to the desired degree,
+they present an uneven and, undesirable appearance on the
+surface, the ends
+of many of the
+fibres which previously
+projected
+having been
+turned and thus
+become embedded
+in the body of the
+cloth. In order to
+bring these hairs
+to the surface
+again, the fabric is
+subjected to <i>teasing</i>
+or <i>raising</i>, an
+operation identical
+in principle
+with one which
+has already been
+noticed under the finishing of cotton. In place of the steel wire
+brushes it is the usual practice to employ teasels for the treatment
+of woollen goods.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The teasel (see Fig. 7) is the dried head (fruit) of a kind of thistle
+(<i>Dipsacus fullorum</i>), the horny sharp spikes of which turn downwards
+at their extremity, and, while possessing the necessary sharpness
+and strength for raising the fibres, are not sufficiently rigid to cause
+any material damage to the cloth. For raising, the teasels are fixed
+in rows on a large revolving drum, and the piece to be treated is
+drawn lengthways underneath the drum, being guided by rollers
+or rods so as to just touch the teasels as they sweep past. In the
+raising of woollen goods it is necessary that the pieces should be
+damp or moist while undergoing this treatment.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After teasing, the pieces are stretched and dried. At this
+stage they still have an irregular appearance, for although the
+raising has brought all the loose ends of the fibres to the surface,
+these vary considerably in length and thus give rise to an uneven
+nap.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:288px; height:465px" src="images/img380c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Ganswindt, <i>Technologie der Appretur</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Teasel used for Raising.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>By the next operation of <i>shearing</i> or <i>cropping</i>, the long hairs
+are cut off arid a uniform surface is thus obtained. Shearing
+was in former times done by
+hand, by means of shears,
+but is to-day universally
+effected by means of a cutting
+device which works on
+the same principle as an
+ordinary lawn-mower, in
+which a number of spiral
+blades set on the surface of
+a rapidly revolving roller
+pass continuously over a
+straight fixed blade underneath,
+the roller being set
+so that the spiral blades
+just touch the fixed blade.
+Before the piece comes to
+the shearing device the nap
+is raised by means of a
+rotary brush. Shearing may
+be effected either transversely,
+in which case the
+fixed blade is parallel to
+the warp, or longitudinally
+with the fixed blade parallel
+to the weft. In the first case,
+the piece being stretched on
+a table, over which the cutter, carried on rails, travels from selvedge
+to selvedge. The length of the piece that can be shorn in
+one operation will naturally depend upon the length of the blade,
+but in any case the process is necessarily intermittent, many
+operations being required before the whole piece is shorn. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span>
+the longitudinal shearing machines the process is continuous,
+the pieces passing from the beam in the stretched condition
+over the rotary brush, under the fixed blade, and then being
+again brushed before being beamed on the other side of the
+machine. Shearing once is generally insufficient, and for this
+reason many of the modern machines are constructed with
+duplicate arrangements so as to effect the shearing twice in the
+same operation. In the finishing of certain woollen goods the
+pieces, after having been milled, raised and sheared, go through
+these operations again in the same sequence.</p>
+
+<p>After these operations the goods are pressed either in the
+hydraulic press or in the continuous press, and according to the
+character of the material and the finish desired may or may
+not be steamed under pressure, all of which operations are
+described below.</p>
+
+<p>New cloth, as it comes into the hands of the tailor, frequently
+shows an undesirable gloss or sheen, which is removed before
+making up by a process known as shrinking, in which the material
+is simply damped or steamed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Worsteds and Unions.</i>&mdash;The pieces are first singed by gas or
+hot plate (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>), and are then usually subjected to a
+process known as &ldquo;crabbing,&rdquo; the object of which is to &ldquo;set&rdquo;
+the wool fibres. If this operation is omitted, especially in the
+case of unions, the fabric will &ldquo;cockle,&rdquo; or assume an uneven
+surface on being wetted. In crabbing the pieces are drawn
+at full breadth and under as much tension as they will stand
+through boiling water, and are wound or beamed on to a roller
+under the pressure of a superposed heavy iron roller, the operation
+being conducted two or three times as required. From the
+crabbing machine the pieces are wound on to a perforated
+shell or steel cylinder which is closed at one end. The open
+end is then attached to a steam pipe, and steam, at a pressure
+of 30 to 45 &#8468;, is allowed to enter until it makes its way through
+all the layers of cloth to the outside, when the steam is turned
+off and the whole allowed to cool. Since those layers of the cloth
+which are nearest the shell are acted upon for a longer period
+than those at the outside, it is necessary to re-wind and repeat
+the operation, the outside portions coming this time nearest to
+the shell. The principle of the process depends upon the fact
+that at elevated temperatures moist wool becomes plastic, and
+then easily assumes the shape imparted to it by the great tension
+under which the pieces are wound. On cooling the shape is
+retained, and since the temperature at which the pieces were
+steamed under tension exceeds any to which they are submitted
+in the subsequent processes, the &ldquo;setting&rdquo; of the fibres is
+permanent. After crabbing, the pieces are washed or &ldquo;scoured&rdquo;
+in soap either on the winch or at full width. In some cases the
+crabbing precedes the scouring. The goods are then dyed and
+finished.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of the finishing process will vary considerably
+according to the special character of the goods under treatment.
+Thus, for certain classes of goods cold pressing is sufficient,
+while in other cases the pieces are steamed under pressure in a
+manner analogous to the treatment after crabbing (&ldquo;decatizing&rdquo;).
+The treatment in most common use for worsteds and
+unions is hot pressing, which may be effected either in the
+hydraulic press or in the continuous press, but in most cases in
+the former.</p>
+
+<p>In pressing in the hydraulic press the pieces are folded down
+by hand on a table, a piece of press paper (thin hand-made
+cardboard with a glossed and extremely hard surface) being
+inserted between each lap. After a certain number of laps, a
+steel or iron press plate is inserted, and the folding proceeds
+in this way until the pile is sufficiently high, when it is placed
+in the press. The press being filled, the hydraulic ram is set
+in motion until the reading on the gauge shows that the desired
+amount of pressure has been obtained. The heating of the press
+plates was formerly done in ovens, previous to their insertion
+in the piece, but although this practice is still in vogue in rare
+instances, the heating is now effected either by means of steam
+which is caused to circulate through the hollow steel plates,
+or in the more modern forms of presses by means of an electric
+current. After the pieces have thus been subjected to the
+combined effects of heat and pressure for the desired length of
+time, they are allowed to cool in the press. It is evident that
+portions of the pieces, viz. the folds, thus escape the finishing
+process, and for this reason it is necessary to repeat the process,
+the folds now being made to lie in the middle of the press
+papers.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:411px" src="images/img381.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Ganswindt,&rsquo; <i>Technologie der Appretur</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Continuous Press.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The continuous press, which is used for certain classes of worsteds,
+but more especially for woollen goods, consists in principle of a
+polished steam-heated steel cylinder against which either one or two
+steam-heated chilled iron cheeks are set by means of levers and adjusting
+screws. The pieces to be pressed are drawn slowly between the
+cheeks and the bowl. A machine of the kind is shown in section in
+Fig. 8. In working, the cheeks C, C<span class="su">1</span> are pressed against the bowl B.
+The course followed by the cloth to be finished is shown by the
+dotted line, the finished material being mechanically folded down
+on the left-hand side of the machine. The pieces thus acquire a
+certain amount of finish which is, however, not comparable with
+that produced in the hydraulic press.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Pile Fabrics</i>, such as velvets, velveteens, corduroys, plushes,
+sealskins, &amp;c., require a special treatment in finishing, and great
+care must be taken in all operations to prevent the pile being
+crushed or otherwise damaged. Velveteens and corduroys are
+singed before boiling or bleaching. Velveteens dyed in black
+or in dark shades are brushed with an oil colour (<i>e.g.</i> Prussian
+blue for blacks), and dried over-night in a hot stove in order to
+give them a characteristic bloom. Regularity in the pile and
+gloss are obtained by shearing and brushing. Corduroys are
+stiffened at the back by the application of &ldquo;bone-size&rdquo; (practically
+an impure form of glue) in a machine similar to that used
+for back-starching. The face of the fabric is waxed with beeswax
+by passing the piece under a revolving drum, on the surface
+of which bars of this material are fixed parallel to the axis.
+The bars just touch the surface of the fabric as it passes through
+the machine. The gloss is then obtained by brushing with
+circular brushes which run partly in the direction of the piece
+and partly diagonally. In the finishing of velvets, shearing
+and brushing are the most important operations. The same
+applies to sealskins and other long pile fabrics, but with these
+an additional operation, viz. that of &ldquo;batting,&rdquo; is employed
+after dyeing and before shearing and brushing, which consists
+in beating the back of the stretched fabric with sticks in order
+to shake out the pile and cause it to stand erect.</p>
+
+<p>For the finishing of silk pieces the operations and machinery
+employed are similar in character to some of those used for
+cotton and worsteds. Most high-class silks require no further
+treatment other than simple damping and pressing after they
+leave the loom. Inferior qualities are frequently filled or back-filled
+with glue, sugar, gum tragacanth, dextrin, &amp;c., after which
+they are dried, damped and given a light calender finish. Moiré
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span>
+or watered effects are produced by running two pieces face to
+face through a calender or by means of an embossing calender.
+In the latter case the pattern repeats itself. For the production
+of silk crape the dyed (generally black) piece is impregnated
+with a solution of shellac in methylated spirit and dried. It
+is then &ldquo;goffered,&rdquo; an operation which is practically identical
+with embossing (see above), and may either be done on an
+embossing calender or by means of heated brass plates in which
+the design is engraved to the desired depth and pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The measuring, wrapping, doubling, folding, &amp;c., of piece goods
+previous to making up are done in the works by specially constructed
+machinery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finishing of Yarn.</i>&mdash;The finishing of yarn is not nearly so
+important as the finishing of textiles in the piece, and it will
+suffice to draw attention to the main operations. Cotton yarns
+are frequently &ldquo;gassed,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> drawn through a gas flame, in
+order to burn or singe off the projecting fibres and thus to produce
+a clean thread which is required for the manufacture of certain
+classes of fabrics. The most important finishing process for
+cotton yarn is &ldquo;mercerizing&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), by means of which a permanent
+silk-like gloss is obtained. The &ldquo;polishing&rdquo; of cotton
+yarn, by means of which a highly glazed product, similar in
+appearance to horsehair, is obtained, is effected by impregnating
+the yarn with a paste consisting essentially of starch, beeswax
+or paraffin wax and soap, and then subjecting the damp material
+to the action of revolving brushes until dry. Woollen yarn is
+not subjected to any treatment, but worsted yarns (especially
+twofold) have to be &ldquo;set&rdquo; before scouring and dyeing in order
+to prevent curling. This is effected by stretching the yarn
+tight on a frame, which is immersed in boiling water and then
+allowing it to cool in this condition.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar silk-like gloss and feel is sometimes imparted to
+yarns made from lustre wool by a treatment with a weak solution
+of chlorine (bleaching powder and hydrochloric acid) followed
+by a treatment with soap.</p>
+
+<p>Worsted and mohair yarns intended for the manufacture of
+braids are singed by gas, a process technically known as
+&ldquo;Genapping.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Silk yarn is subjected to various mechanical processes before
+weaving. The most important of these are stretching, shaking,
+lustreing and glossing. Stretching and shaking are simple
+operations the nature of which is sufficiently indicated by their
+names, and by these means the hanks are stretched to their
+original length and straightened out by hand or on a specially
+devised machine. In <i>lustreing</i>, the yarn is stretched slightly
+beyond its original length between two polished revolving
+cylinders (one of which is steam heated) contained in a box or
+chest into which steam is admitted. In <i>glossing</i>, the yarn is
+twisted tight, first in one direction and then in the other, on a
+machine, this alternating action being continued until the
+maximum gloss is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called &ldquo;scrooping&rdquo; process, which gives to silk a
+peculiar feel and causes it to crackle or crunch when compressed
+by the hand, is a very simple operation, and consists in treating
+the yarn after dyeing in a bath of dilute acid (acetic, tartaric or
+sulphuric) and then drying without washing. Heavily weighted
+black silks are passed after dyeing through an emulsion of olive
+oil in soap and dried without washing, in order to give additional
+lustre to the material or rather to restore some of the lustre
+which has been lost in weighting.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINISTÈRE,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Finisterre</span>, the most western department of
+France, formed from part of the old province of Brittany. Pop.
+(1906) 795,103. Area, 2713 sq. m. It is bounded W. and S. by
+the Atlantic Ocean, E. by the departments of Côtes-du-Nord
+and Morbihan, and N. by the English Channel. Two converging
+chains of hills run from the west towards the east of the department
+and divide it into three zones conveying the waters in three
+different directions. North of the Arrée, or more northern of
+the two chains, the waters of the Douron, Penzé and Flèche
+flow northward to the sea. The Elorn, however, after a short
+northerly course, turns westward and empties into the Brest
+roads. South of the Montagnes Noires, the Odet, Aven, Isole
+and Ellé flow southward; while the waters of the Aulne, flowing
+through a region enclosed by the two chains with a westward
+declination, discharge into the Brest roads. The rivers are all
+small, and none of the hills attain a height of 1300 ft. The
+coast is generally steep and rocky and at some points dangerous,
+notably off Cape Raz and the Île de Sein; it is indented with
+numerous bays and inlets, the chief of which&mdash;the roadstead
+of Brest and the Bays of Douarnenez and Audierne&mdash;are on the
+west. The principal harbours are those of Brest, Concarneau,
+Morlaix, Landerneau, Quimper and Douarnenez. Off the coast
+lie a number of islands and rocks, the principal of which are
+Ushant (<i>q.v.</i>) N.W. of Cape St Mathieu, and Batz off Roscoff.
+The climate is temperate and equable, but humid; the prevailing
+winds are the W., S.W. and N.W. Though more than a third
+of the department is covered by heath, waste land and forest,
+it produces oats, wheat, buckwheat, rye and barley in quantities
+more than sufficient for its population. In the extreme north
+the neighbourhood of Roscoff, and farther south the borders
+of the Brest roadstead, are extremely fertile and yield large
+quantities of asparagus, artichokes and onions, besides melons
+and other fruits. The cider apple is abundant and furnishes the
+chief drink of the inhabitants. Hemp and flax are also grown.
+The farm and dairy produce is plentiful, and great attention is
+paid to the breeding and feeding of cattle and horses. The production
+of honey and wax is considerable. The fisheries of the
+coast, particularly the pilchard fishery, employ a great many
+hands and render this department an excellent nursery of seamen
+for the French navy. Coal, though found in Finistère, is not
+mined; there are quarries of granite, slate, potter&rsquo;s clay, &amp;c.
+The lead mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoat, which for several
+centuries yielded a considerable quantity of silver, are no longer
+worked. The preparation of sardines is carried on on a large
+scale at several of the coast-towns. The manufactures include
+linens, woollens, sail-cloth, ropes, agricultural implements, paper,
+leather, earthenware, soda, soap, candles, and fertilizers and
+chemicals derived from seaweed. Brest has important foundries
+and engineering works; and shipbuilding is carried on there
+and at other seaports. Brest and Morlaix are the most important
+commercial ports. Trade is in fish, vegetables and fruit.
+Coal is the chief import. The department is served by the
+Orleans and Western railways. The canal from Nantes to Brest
+has 51 m. of its length in the department. The Aulne is
+navigable for 17 m., and many of the smaller rivers for short
+distances.</p>
+
+<p>Finistère is divided into the arrondissements of Quimperlé,
+Brest, Châteaulin, Morlaix and Quimper (43 cantons, 294 communes),
+the town of Quimper being the capital of the department
+and the seat of a bishopric. The department belongs to the
+region of the XI. army corps and to the archiepiscopal province
+and académie (educational division) of Rennes, where its court
+of appeal is also situated.</p>
+
+<p>The more important places are Quimper, Brest, Morlaix,
+Quimperlé, St Pol-de-Léon, Douarnenez, Concarneau, Roscoff,
+Penmarc&rsquo;h and Pont-l&rsquo;Abbé. Finistère abounds in menhirs and
+other megalithic monuments, of which those of Penmarc&rsquo;h,
+Plouarzal and Crozon are noted. The two religious structures
+characteristic of Brittany&mdash;calvaries and charnel-houses&mdash;are
+frequently met with. The calvaries of Plougastel-Daoulas,
+Pleyben, St Thégonnec, Lampaul-Guimiliau, which date from
+the 17th century, and that of Guimiliau (16th century), and the
+charnel-houses of Sizun and St Thégonnec (16th century) and
+of Guimiliau (17th century) may be instanced as the most
+remarkable. Daoulas has the remains of a fine church and
+cloister in the Romanesque style. The chapel of St Herbot
+(16th century) near Loqueffret, the churches of St Jean-du-Doigt
+and Locronan, which belong to the 15th and 16th centuries,
+those of Ploaré, Roscoff, Penmarc&rsquo;h and Pleyben of the 16th
+century, that of Le Folgoët (14th and 16th centuries), and the
+huge château of Kerjean (16th century) are of architectural interest.
+Religious festivals, and processions known as &ldquo;pardons,&rdquo;
+are held in many places, notably at Locronan, St Jean-du-Doigt,
+St Herbot and Le Faou.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3
+       "Fenton, Edward" to "Finistere"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 12, 2011 [EBook #35561]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FERDINAND V.: "He feared that Jimenez and the 267 Great
+      Captain would become too independent, and watched them in the
+      interest of the royal authority." 'Jimenez' amended from 'Ximinez'.
+
+    ARTICLE FERGUSSON, ROBERT: "Fergusson's poems were collected in the
+      year before his death." "Fergusson's" amended from "Fergussons'".
+
+    ARTICLE FERMENTATION: "For example, some species hydrolyse cane
+      sugar and maltose, and then carry on fermentation at the expense of
+      the simple sugars (hexoses) so formed." 'cane' amended from 'came'.
+
+    ARTICLE FERREIRA, ANTONIO: "... and though it has since been
+      handled by poets of renown in many different languages, none has
+      been able to surpass the old master." 'different' amended from
+      'differenc'.
+
+    ARTICLE FEVER: "The high temperature seems to cause disintegration
+      of cell protoplasm and increased excretion of nitrogen and of
+      carbonic acid." 'disintegration' amended from 'distintegration'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIBRES: "Transverse section of stem, X 235, showing bast
+      fibres occupying central zone." 'Transverse' amended from
+      'tranverse'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIBRES: "The textile yarn is produced by assembling
+      together the unit threads, which are wound together and suitably
+      twisted (silk; artificial silk)." 'and' amended from 'aud'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIBRES: "Aloe and Agave fibres in their softer forms are
+      also used for plasterers' brushes." "plasterers'" amended from
+      "plasterers's".
+
+    ARTICLE FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB: "The disasters of Prussia in 1806
+      drove Fichte from Berlin." 'disasters' amended from 'diasters'.
+
+    ARTICLE FICINO, MARSILIO: "Ficino, like nearly all the scholars of
+      that age in Italy, delighted in country life. 'life' amended from
+      'lfe'.
+
+    ARTICLE FICINO, MARSILIO: "From these it may be gathered that
+      nearly every living scholar of note was included in the list of his
+      friends, and that the subjects which interested him were by no
+      means confined to his Platonic studies. 'studies' amended from
+      'sudies'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD: "The following days were taken
+      up with tournaments, in which both kings took part, banquets and
+      other entertainments ..." 'taken' amended from 'take'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIFE: "... at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy there are high
+      schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy. 'Kirkcaldy'
+      amended from 'Kirkclady'.
+
+    ARTICLE FIJI: "The Fijians combined with this greediness a savage
+      and merciless nature." 'nature' amended from 'natures'.
+
+    ARTICLE FILELFO, FRANCESCO: "Not satisfied with these outlets for
+      his mental energy, Filelfo went on translating from the Greek, and
+      prosecuted a paper warfare with his enemies in Florence." 'Not'
+      amended from 'No'.
+
+    ARTICLE FILTER: "... impurities like ferric oxide, alumina, lime,
+      magnesia and silica having been removed by treatment with
+      hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids." 'ferric' amended from
+      'feric'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME X, SLICE III
+
+        Fenton, Edward to Finistere
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FENTON, EDWARD                    FEUDALISM
+  FENTON, ELIJAH                    FEUERBACH, ANSELM
+  FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY              FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS
+  FENTON, LAVINIA                   FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM
+  FENTON                            FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE
+  FENUGREEK                         FEUILLET, OCTAVE
+  FENWICK, SIR JOHN                 FEUILLETON
+  FEOFFMENT                         FEUQUIERES, ISAAC MANASSES DE PAS
+  FERDINAND                         FEVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN
+  FERDINAND I. (Roman emperor)      FEVER
+  FERDINAND II. (Roman emperor)     FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIME
+  FERDINAND III. (Roman emperor)    FEZ
+  FERDINAND I. (emperor of Austria) FEZZAN
+  FERDINAND I. (king of Naples)     FIACRE, SAINT
+  FERDINAND II. (king of Naples)    FIARS PRICES
+  FERDINAND IV. (king of Naples)    FIBRES
+  FERDINAND I. (king of Portugal)   FIBRIN
+  FERDINAND I. (king of Castile)    FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN VON
+  FERDINAND II. (king of Leon)      FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB
+  FERDINAND III. (king of Castile)  FICHTELGEBIRGE
+  FERDINAND IV. (king of Castile)   FICINO, MARSILIO
+  FERDINAND I. (king of Aragon)     FICKSBURG
+  FERDINAND V. (of Castile & Leon)  FICTIONS
+  FERDINAND VI. (king of Spain)     FIDDES, RICHARD
+  FERDINAND VII. (king of Spain)    FIDDLE
+  FERDINAND II. (king of Sicily)    FIDENAE
+  FERDINAND III. (duke of Tuscany)  FIDUCIARY
+  FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN MARIA       FIEF
+  FERDINAND (duke of Brunswick)     FIELD, CYRUS WEST
+  FERDINAND (archbishop of Cologne) FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY
+  FERENTINO                         FIELD, EUGENE
+  FERENTUM                          FIELD, FREDERICK
+  FERETORY                          FIELD, HENRY MARTYN
+  FERGHANA                          FIELD, JOHN
+  FERGUS FALLS                      FIELD, MARSHALL
+  FERGUSON, ADAM                    FIELD, NATHAN
+  FERGUSON, JAMES                   FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON
+  FERGUSON, ROBERT                  FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD
+  FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL              FIELD
+  FERGUSSON, JAMES                  FIELDFARE
+  FERGUSSON, ROBERT                 FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY
+  FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM            FIELDING, HENRY
+  FERINGHI                          FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS
+  FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM          FIELD-MOUSE
+  FERMANAGH                         FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD
+  FERMAT, PIERRE DE                 FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS
+  FERMENTATION                      FIENNES, NATHANIEL
+  FERMO                             FIERI FACIAS
+  FERMOY                            FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO
+  FERN                              FIESCO, GIOVANNI LUIGI
+  FERNANDEZ, ALVARO                 FIESOLE
+  FERNANDEZ, DIEGO                  FIFE (county of Scotland)
+  FERNANDEZ, JOHN                   FIFE (flute)
+  FERNANDEZ, JUAN                   FIFTH MONARCHY MEN
+  FERNANDEZ, LUCAS                  FIG
+  FERNANDINA                        FIGARO
+  FERNANDO DE NORONHA               FIGEAC
+  FERNANDO PO                       FIGUEIRA DA FOZ
+  FERNEL, JEAN FRANCOIS             FIGUERAS
+  FERNIE                            FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS
+  FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG               FIGURATE NUMBERS
+  FEROZEPUR                         FIJI
+  FEROZESHAH                        FILANDER
+  FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANCOIS CLAUDE  FILANGIERI, CARLO
+  FERRAR, NICHOLAS                  FILANGIERI, GAETANO
+  FERRAR, ROBERT                    FILARIASIS
+  FERRARA                           FILDES, SIR LUKE
+  FERRARA-FLORENCE                  FILE
+  FERRARI, GAUDENZIO                FILE-FISH
+  FERRARI, GIUSEPPE                 FILELFO, FRANCESCO
+  FERRARI, PAOLO                    FILEY
+  FERREIRA, ANTONIO                 FILIBUSTER
+  FERREL'S LAW                      FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA
+  FERRERS                           FILIGREE
+  FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY         FILLAN, SAINT
+  FERRET                            FILLET
+  FERRI, CIRO                       FILLMORE, MILLARD
+  FERRI, LUIGI                      FILMER, SIR RORERT
+  FERRIER, ARNAUD DU                FILMY FERNS
+  FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK          FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN
+  FERRIER, PAUL                     FILOSA
+  FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE         FILTER
+  FERROL                            FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS
+  FERRUCCIO, FRANCESCO              FIMBRIATE
+  FERRULE                           FINALE
+  FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE     FINANCE
+  FERRY                             FINCH, FINCH-HATTON
+  FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL              FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH
+  FERSEN, HANS AXEL                 FINCH
+  FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST            FINCHLEY
+  FESCENNIA                         FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON
+  FESCENNINE VERSES                 FINCK, HEINRICH
+  FESCH, JOSEPH                     FINCK, HERMANN
+  FESSA                             FINDEN, WILLIAM
+  FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT           FINDLATER, ANDREW
+  FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS           FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE
+  FESTA, CONSTANZO                  FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE
+  FESTINIOG                         FINDLAY
+  FESTOON                           FINE
+  FESTUS                            FINE ARTS
+  FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS           FINGER
+  FETIS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH            FINGER-AND-TOE
+  FETISHISM                         FINGER-PRINTS
+  FETTERCAIRN                       FINGO
+  FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS             FINIAL
+  FEU                               FINIGUERRA, MASO
+  FEUCHERES, SOPHIE                 FINISHING
+  FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST             FINISTERE
+  FEUD
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, EDWARD (d. 1603), English navigator, son of Henry Fenton and
+brother of Sir Geoffrey Fenton (q.v.), was a native of Nottinghamshire.
+In 1577 he sailed, in command of the "Gabriel," with Sir Martin
+Frobisher's second expedition for the discovery of the north-west
+passage, and in the following year he took part as second in command in
+Frobisher's third expedition, his ship being the "Judith." He was then
+employed in Ireland for a time, but in 1582 he was put in charge of an
+expedition which was to sail round the Cape of Good Hope to the Moluccas
+and China, his instructions being to obtain any knowledge of the
+north-west passage that was possible without hindrance to his trade. On
+this unsuccessful voyage he got no farther than Brazil, and throughout
+he was engaged in quarrelling with his officers, and especially with his
+lieutenant, William Hawkins, the nephew of Sir John Hawkins, whom he had
+in irons when he arrived back in the Thames. In 1588 he had command of
+the "Mary Rose," one of the ships of the fleet that was formed to oppose
+the Armada. He died fifteen years afterwards.
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730), English poet, was born at Shelton near
+Newcastle-under-Lyme, of an old Staffordshire family, on the 25th of May
+1683. He graduated from Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1704, but was
+prevented by religious scruples from taking orders. He accompanied the
+earl of Orrery to Flanders as private secretary, and on returning to
+England became assistant in a school at Headley, Surrey, being soon
+afterwards appointed master of the free grammar school at Sevenoaks in
+Kent. In 1710 he resigned his appointment in the expectation of a place
+from Lord Bolingbroke, but was disappointed. He then became tutor to
+Lord Broghill, son of his patron Orrery. Fenton is remembered as the
+coadjutor of Alexander Pope in his translation of the _Odyssey_. He was
+responsible for the first, fourth, nineteenth and twentieth books, for
+which he received L300. He died at East Hampstead, Berkshire, on the
+16th of July 1730. He was buried in the parish church, and his epitaph
+was written by Pope.
+
+  Fenton also published _Oxford and Cambridge Miscellany Poems_ (1707);
+  _Miscellaneous Poems_ (1717); _Mariamne_, a tragedy (1723); an edition
+  (1725) of Milton's poems, and one of Waller (1729) with elaborate
+  notes. See W.W. Lloyd, _Elijah Fenton, his Poetry and Friends_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY (c. 1539-1608), English writer and politician, was
+the son of Henry Fenton, of Nottinghamshire. He was brother of Edward
+Fenton the navigator. He is said to have visited Spain and Italy in his
+youth; possibly he went to Paris in Sir Thomas Hoby's train in 1566, for
+he was living there in 1567, when he wrote _Certaine tragicall
+discourses written oute of Frenche and Latin_. This book is a free
+translation of Francois de Belleforest's French rendering of Matteo
+Bandello's _Novelle_. Till 1579 Fenton continued his literary labours,
+publishing _Monophylo_ in 1572, _Golden epistles gathered out of
+Guevarae's workes as other authors_ ... 1575, and various religious
+tracts of strong protestant tendencies. In 1579 appeared the _Historie
+of Guicciardini, translated out of French by G.F._ and dedicated to
+Elizabeth. Through Lord Burghley he obtained, in 1580, the post of
+secretary to the new lord deputy of Ireland, Lord Grey de Wilton, and
+thus became a fellow worker with the poet, Edmund Spenser. From this
+time Fenton abandoned literature and became a faithful if somewhat
+unscrupulous servant of the crown. He was a bigoted protestant, longing
+to use the rack against "the diabolicall secte of Rome," and even
+advocating the assassination of the queen's most dangerous subjects. He
+won Elizabeth's confidence, and the hatred of all his fellow-workers, by
+keeping her informed of every one's doings in Ireland. In 1587 Sir John
+Perrot arrested Fenton, but the queen instantly ordered his release.
+Fenton was knighted in 1589, and in 1590-1591 he was in London as
+commissioner on the impeachment of Perrot. Full of dislike of the Scots
+and of James VI. (which he did not scruple to utter), on the latter's
+accession Fenton's post of secretary was in danger, but Burghley exerted
+himself in his favour, and in 1604 it was confirmed to him for life,
+though he had to share it with Sir Richard Coke. Fenton died in Dublin
+on the 19th of October 1608, and was buried in St Patrick's cathedral.
+He married in June 1585, Alice, daughter of Dr Robert Weston, formerly
+lord chancellor of Ireland, and widow of Dr Hugh Brady, bishop of Meath,
+by whom he had two children, a son, Sir William Fenton, and a daughter,
+Catherine, who in 1603 married Richard Boyle, 1st earl of Cork.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Harl. Soc. publications, vol. iv., Visitation of
+  Nottinghamshire, 1871; Roy. Hist. MSS. Comm. (particularly Hatfield
+  collection); Calendar of State papers, Ireland (very full), domestic,
+  Carew papers; Lismore papers, ed. A.B. Grosart (1886-1888); _Certaine
+  tragicall Discourses_, ed. R.L. Douglas (2 vols., 1898), Tudor
+  Translation series, vols. xix., xx. (introd.).
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, LAVINIA (1708-1760), English actress, was probably the daughter
+of a naval lieutenant named Beswick, but she bore the name of her
+mother's husband. Her first appearance was as Monimia in Otway's
+_Orphans_, in 1726 at the Haymarket. She then joined the company of
+players at the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, where her success and
+beauty made her the toast of the beaux. It was in Gay's _Beggar's
+Opera_, as Polly Peachum, that Miss Fenton made her greatest success.
+Her pictures were in great demand, verses were written to her and books
+published about her, and she was the most talked-of person in London.
+Hogarth's picture shows her in one of the scenes, with the duke of
+Bolton in a box. After appearing in several comedies, and then in
+numerous repetitions of the _Beggar's Opera_, she ran away with her
+lover Charles Paulet, 3rd duke of Bolton, a man much older than herself,
+who, after the death of his wife in 1751, married her. Their three
+children all died young. The duchess survived her husband and died on
+the 24th of January 1760.
+
+
+
+
+FENTON, a town of Staffordshire, England, on the North Staffordshire
+railway, adjoining the east side of Stoke-on-Trent, in which
+parliamentary and municipal borough it is included. Pop. (1891) 16,998;
+(1901) 22,742. The manufacture of earthenware common to the district
+(the Potteries) employs the bulk of the large industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+FENUGREEK, in botany, _Trigonella Foenum-graecum_ (so called from the
+name given to it by the ancients, who used it as fodder for cattle), a
+member of a genus of leguminous herbs very similar in habit and in most
+of their characters to the species of the genus _Medicago_. The leaves
+are formed of three obovate leaflets, the middle one of which is
+stalked; the flowers are solitary, or in clusters of two or three, and
+have a campanulate, 5-cleft calyx; and the pods are many-seeded,
+cylindrical or flattened, and straight or only slightly curved. The
+genus is widely diffused over the south of Europe, West and Central
+Asia, and the north of Africa, and is represented by several species in
+Australia. Fenugreek is indigenous to south-eastern Europe and western
+Asia, and is cultivated in the Mediterranean region, parts of central
+Europe, and in Morocco, and largely in Egypt and in India. It bears a
+sickle-shaped pod, containing from 10 to 20 seeds, from which 6% of a
+fetid, fatty and bitter oil can be extracted by ether. In India the
+fresh plant is employed as an esculent. The seed is an ingredient in
+curry powders, and is used for flavouring cattle foods. It was formerly
+much esteemed as a medicine, and is still in repute in veterinary
+practice.
+
+
+
+
+FENWICK, SIR JOHN (c. 1645-1697), English conspirator, was the eldest
+son of Sir William Fenwick, or Fenwicke, a member of an old
+Northumberland family. He entered the army, becoming major-general in
+1688, but before this date he had been returned in succession to his
+father as one of the members of parliament for Northumberland, which
+county he represented from 1677 to 1687. He was a strong partisan of
+King James II., and in 1685 was one of the principal supporters of the
+act of attainder against the duke of Monmouth; but he remained in
+England when William III. ascended the throne three years later. He
+began at once to plot against the new king, for which he underwent a
+short imprisonment in 1689. Renewing his plots on his release, he
+publicly insulted Queen Mary in 1691, and it is practically certain that
+he was implicated in the schemes for assassinating William which came to
+light in 1695 and 1696. After the seizure of his fellow-conspirators,
+Robert Charnock and others, he remained in hiding until the imprudent
+conduct of his friends in attempting to induce one of the witnesses
+against him to leave the country led to his arrest in June in 1696. To
+save himself he offered to reveal all he knew about the Jacobite
+conspiracies; but his confession was a farce, being confined to charges
+against some of the leading Whig noblemen, which were damaging, but not
+conclusive. By this time his friends had succeeded in removing one of
+the two witnesses, and in these circumstances it was thought that the
+charge of treason must fail. The government, however, overcame this
+difficulty by introducing a bill of attainder, which after a long and
+acrimonious discussion passed through both Houses of Parliament. His
+wife persevered in her attempts to save his life, but her efforts were
+fruitless, and Fenwick was beheaded in London on the 28th of January
+1697, with the same formalities as were usually observed at the
+execution of a peer. By his wife, Mary (d. 1708), daughter of Charles
+Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, he had three sons and one daughter.
+Macaulay says that "of all the Jacobites, the most desperate characters
+not excepted, he (Fenwick) was the only one for whom William felt an
+intense personal aversion"; and it is interesting to note that Fenwick's
+hatred of the king is said to date from the time when he was serving in
+Holland, and was reprimanded by William, then prince of Orange.
+
+
+
+
+FEOFFMENT, in English law, during the feudal period, the usual method of
+granting or conveying a freehold or fee. For the derivation of the word
+see FIEF and FEE. The essential elements were _livery of seisin_
+(delivery of possession), which consisted in formally giving to the
+feoffee on the land a clod or turf, or a growing twig, as a symbol of
+the transfer of the land, and words by the feoffor declaratory of his
+intent to deliver possession to the feoffee with a "limitation" of the
+estate intended to be transferred. This was called livery _in deed_.
+Livery _in law_ was made not on but in sight of this land, the feoffor
+saying to the feoffee, "I give you that land; enter and take
+possession." Livery in law, in order to pass the estate, had to be
+perfected by entry by the feoffee during the joint lives of himself and
+the feoffor. It was usual to evidence the feoffment by writing in a
+charter or deed of feoffment; but writing was not essential until the
+Statute of Frauds; now, by the Real Property Act 1845, a conveyance of
+real property is void unless evidenced by deed, and thus feoffments
+have been rendered unnecessary and superfluous. All corporeal
+hereditaments were by that act declared to be _in grant_ as well as
+_livery_, i.e. they could be granted by deed without livery. A feoffment
+might be a tortious conveyance, _i.e._ if a person attempted to give to
+the feoffee a greater estate than he himself had in the land, he
+forfeited the estate of which he was seised. (See CONVEYANCING; REAL
+PROPERTY.)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND (Span. _Fernando_ or _Hernando_; Ital. _Ferdinando_ or
+_Ferrante_; in O.H. Ger. _Herinand_, i.e. "brave in the host," from
+O.H.G. Heri, "army," A.S. _here_, Mod. Ger. _Heer_, and the Goth,
+_nanthjan_, "to dare"), a name borne at various times by many European
+sovereigns and princes, the more important of whom are noticed below in
+the following order: emperors, kings of Naples, Portugal, Spain
+(Castile, Leon and Aragon) and the two Sicilies; then the grand duke of
+Tuscany, the prince of Bulgaria, the duke of Brunswick and the elector
+of Cologne.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I. (1503-1564), Roman emperor, was born at Alcala de Henares
+on the 10th of March 1503, his father being Philip the Handsome, son of
+the emperor Maximilian I., and his mother Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. Philip died in 1506
+and Ferdinand, educated in Spain, was regarded with especial favour by
+his maternal grandfather who wished to form a Spanish-Italian kingdom
+for his namesake. This plan came to nothing, and the same fate attended
+a suggestion made after the death of Maximilian in 1519 that Ferdinand,
+and not his elder brother Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles V.,
+should succeed to the imperial throne. Charles, however, secured the
+Empire and the whole of the lands of Maximilian and Ferdinand, while the
+younger brother was perforce content with a subordinate position. Yet
+some provision must be made for Ferdinand. In April 1521 the emperor
+granted to him the archduchies and duchies of upper and lower Austria,
+Carinthia, Styria and Carniola, adding soon afterwards the county of
+Tirol and the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs in south-western
+Germany. About the same time the archduke was appointed to govern the
+duchy of Wurttemberg, which had come into the possession of Charles V.;
+and in May 1521 he was married at Linz to Anna (d. 1547), a daughter of
+Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, a union which had been arranged
+some years before by the emperor Maximilian. In 1521 also he was made
+president of the council of regency (_Reichsregiment_), appointed to
+govern Germany during the emperor's absence, and the next five years
+were occupied with imperial business, in which he acted as his brother's
+representative, and in the government of the Austrian lands.
+
+In Austria and the neighbouring duchies Ferdinand sought at first to
+suppress the reformers and their teaching, and this was possibly one
+reason why he had some difficulty in quelling risings in the districts
+under his rule after the Peasants' War broke out in 1524. But a new
+field was soon opened for his ambition. In August 1526 his childless
+brother-in-law, Louis II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, was killed at
+the battle of Mohacs, and the archduke at once claimed both kingdoms,
+both by treaty and by right of his wife. Taking advantage of the
+divisions among his opponents, he was chosen king of Bohemia in October
+1526, and crowned at Prague in the following February, but in Hungary he
+was less successful. John Zapolya, supported by the national party and
+soon afterwards by the Turks, offered a sturdy resistance, and although
+Ferdinand was chosen king at Pressburg in December 1526, and after
+defeating Zapolya at Tokay was crowned at Stuhlweissenburg in November
+1527, he was unable to take possession of the kingdom. The Bavarian
+Wittelsbachs, incensed at not securing the Bohemian throne, were
+secretly intriguing with his foes; the French, after assisting
+spasmodically, made a formal alliance with Turkey in 1535; and Zapolya
+was a very useful centre round which the enemies of the Habsburgs were
+not slow to gather. A truce made in 1533 was soon broken, and the war
+dragged on until 1538, when by the treaty of Grosswardein, Hungary was
+divided between the claimants. The kingly title was given to Zapolya,
+but Ferdinand was to follow him on the throne. Before this, in January
+1531, he had been chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Cologne,
+and his coronation took place a few days later at Aix-la-Chapelle. He
+had thoroughly earned this honour by his loyalty to his brother, whom he
+had represented at several diets. In religious matters the king was now
+inclined, probably owing to the Turkish danger, to steer a middle course
+between the contending parties, and in 1532 he agreed to the religious
+peace of Nuremberg, receiving in return from the Protestants some
+assistance for the war against the Turks. In 1534, however, his prestige
+suffered a severe rebuff. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his associates
+had succeeded in conquering Wurttemberg on behalf of its exiled duke,
+Ulrich (q.v.), and, otherwise engaged, neither Charles nor Ferdinand
+could send much help to their lieutenants. They were consequently
+obliged to consent to the treaty of Cadan, made in June 1534, by which
+the German king recognized Ulrich as duke of Wurttemberg, on condition
+that he held his duchy under Austrian suzerainty.
+
+In Hungary the peace of 1538 was not permanent. When Zapolya died in
+July 1540 a powerful faction refused to admit the right of Ferdinand to
+succeed him, and put forward his young son John Sigismund as a candidate
+for the throne. The cause of John Sigismund was espoused by the Turks
+and by Ferdinand's other enemies, and, unable to get any serious
+assistance from the imperial diet, the king repeatedly sought to make
+peace with the sultan, but his envoys were haughtily repulsed. In 1544,
+however, a short truce was made. This was followed by others, and in
+1547 one was concluded for five years, but only on condition that
+Ferdinand paid tribute for the small part of Hungary which remained in
+his hands. The struggle was renewed in 1551 and was continued in the
+same desultory fashion until 1562, when a truce was made which lasted
+during the remainder of Ferdinand's lifetime. During the war of the
+league of Schmalkalden in 1546 and 1547 the king had taken the field
+primarily to protect Bohemia, and after the conclusion of the war he put
+down a rising in this country with some rigour. He appears during these
+years to have governed his lands with vigour and success, but in
+imperial politics he was merely the representative and spokesman of the
+emperor. About 1546, however, he began to take up a more independent
+position. Although Charles had crushed the league of Schmalkalden he had
+refused to restore Wurttemberg to Ferdinand; and he gave further offence
+by seeking to secure the succession of his son Philip, afterwards king
+of Spain, to the imperial throne. Ferdinand naturally objected, but in
+1551 his reluctant consent was obtained to the plan that, on the
+proposed abdication of Charles, Philip should be chosen king of the
+Romans, and should succeed Ferdinand himself as emperor. Subsequent
+events caused the scheme to be dropped, but it had a somewhat
+unfortunate sequel for Charles, as during the short war between the
+emperor and Maurice, elector of Saxony, in 1552 Ferdinand's attitude was
+rather that of a spectator and mediator than of a partisan. There seems,
+however, to be no truth in the suggestion that he acted treacherously
+towards his brother, and was in alliance with his foes. On behalf of
+Charles he negotiated the treaty of Passau with Maurice in 1552, and in
+1555 after the conduct of imperial business had virtually been made over
+to him, and harmony had been restored between the brothers, he was
+responsible for the religious peace of Augsburg. Early in 1558 Charles
+carried out his intention to abdicate the imperial throne, and on the
+24th of March Ferdinand was crowned as his successor at Frankfort. Pope
+Paul IV. would not recognize the new emperor, but his successor Pius IV.
+did so in 1559 through the mediation of Philip of Spain. The emperor's
+short reign was mainly spent in seeking to settle the religious
+differences of Germany, and in efforts to prosecute the Turkish war more
+vigorously. His hopes at one time centred round the council of Trent
+which resumed its sittings in 1562, but he was unable to induce the
+Protestants to be represented. Although he held firmly to the Roman
+Catholic Church he sought to obtain tangible concessions to her
+opponents; but he refused to conciliate the Protestants by abrogating
+the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in the peace of
+Augsburg, and all his efforts to bring about reunion were futile. He did
+indeed secure the privilege of communion in both kinds from Pius IV. for
+the laity in Bohemia and in various parts of Germany, but the hearty
+support which he gave the Jesuits shows that he had no sympathy with
+Protestantism, and was only anxious to restore union in the Church. In
+November 1562 he obtained the election of his son Maximilian as king of
+the Romans, and having arranged a partition of his lands among his three
+surviving sons, died in Vienna on the 25th of July 1564. His family had
+consisted of six sons and nine daughters.
+
+In spite of constant and harassing engagements Ferdinand was fairly
+successful both as king and emperor. He sought to consolidate his
+Austrian lands, reformed the monetary system in Germany, and reorganized
+the Aulic council (_Reichshofrat_). Less masterful but more popular than
+his brother, whose character overshadows his own, he was just and
+tolerant, a good Catholic and a conscientious ruler.
+
+  See the article on CHARLES V. and the bibliography appended thereto.
+  Also, A. Ulloa, _Vita del potentissimo e christianissimo imperatore
+  Ferdinando primo_ (Venice, 1565); S. Schard, _Epitome rerum in variis
+  orbis partibus a confirmatione Ferdinandi I_. (Basel, 1574); F.B. von
+  Bucholtz_, Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands des Ersten_ (Vienna,
+  1831-1838); K. Oberleitner, _Osterreichs Finanzen und Kriegswesen
+  unter Ferdinand I_. (Vienna, 1859); A. Rezek, _Geschichte der
+  Regierung Ferdinands I. in Bohmen_ (Prague, 1878); E. Rosenthal, _Die
+  Behordenorganisation Kaiser Ferdinands I_. (Vienna, 1887); and W.
+  Bauer, _Die Anfange Ferdinands I_. (Vienna, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND II. (1578-1637), Roman emperor, was the eldest son of Charles,
+archduke of Styria (d. 1590), and his wife Maria, daughter of Albert
+IV., duke of Bavaria and a grandson of the emperor Ferdinand I. Born at
+Gratz on the 9th of July 1578, he was trained by the Jesuits, finishing
+his education at the university of Ingolstadt, and became the pattern
+prince of the counter-reformation. In 1596 he undertook the government
+of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, and after a visit to Italy began an
+organized attack on Protestantism which under his father's rule had made
+great progress in these archduchies; and although hampered by the
+inroads of the Turks, he showed his indifference to the material welfare
+of his dominions by compelling many of his Protestant subjects to choose
+between exile and conversion, and by entirely suppressing Protestant
+worship. He was not, however, unmindful of the larger interest of his
+family, or of the Empire which the Habsburgs regarded as belonging to
+them by hereditary right. In 1606 he joined his kinsmen in recognizing
+his cousin Matthias as the head of the family in place of the lethargic
+Rudolph II.; but he shrank from any proceedings which might lead to the
+deposition of the emperor, whom he represented at the diet of Regensburg
+in 1608; and his conduct was somewhat ambiguous during the subsequent
+quarrel between Rudolph and Matthias.
+
+In the first decade of the 17th century the house of Habsburg seemed
+overtaken by senile decay, and the great inheritance of Charles V. and
+Ferdinand I. to be threatened with disintegration and collapse. The
+reigning emperor, Rudolph II., was inert and childless; his surviving
+brothers, the archduke Matthias (afterwards emperor), Maximilian
+(1558-1618) and Albert (1559-1621), all men of mature age, were also
+without direct heirs; the racial differences among its subjects were
+increased by their religious animosities; and it appeared probable that
+the numerous enemies of the Habsburgs had only to wait a few years and
+then to divide the spoil. In spite of the recent murder of Henry IV. of
+France, this issue seemed still more likely when Matthias succeeded
+Rudolph as emperor in 1612. The Habsburgs, however, were not indifferent
+to the danger, and about 1615 it was agreed that Ferdinand, who already
+had two sons by his marriage with his cousin Maria Anna (d. 1616),
+daughter of William V., duke of Bavaria, should be the next emperor, and
+should succeed Matthias in the elective kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia.
+The obstacles which impeded the progress of the scheme were gradually
+overcome by the energy of the archduke Maximilian. The elder archdukes
+renounced their rights in the succession; the claims of Philip III. and
+the Spanish Habsburgs were bought off by a promise of Alsace; and the
+emperor consented to his supercession in Hungary and Bohemia. In 1617
+Ferdinand, who was just concluding a war with Venice, was chosen king of
+Bohemia, and in 1618 king of Hungary; but his election as German king,
+or king of the Romans, delayed owing to the anxiety of Melchior Klesl
+(q.v.) to conciliate the protestant princes, had not been accomplished
+when Matthias died in March 1619. Before this event, however, an
+important movement had begun in Bohemia. Having been surprised into
+choosing a devoted Roman Catholic as their king, the Bohemian
+Protestants suddenly realized that their religious, and possibly their
+civil liberties, were seriously menaced, and deeds of aggression on the
+part of Ferdinand's representatives showed that this was no idle fear.
+Gaining the upper hand they declared Ferdinand deposed, and elected the
+elector palatine of the Rhine, Frederick V., in his stead; and the
+struggle between the rivals was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War.
+At the same time other difficulties confronted Ferdinand, who had not
+yet secured the imperial throne. Bethlen Gabor, prince of Transylvania,
+invaded Hungary, while the Austrians rose and joined the Bohemians; but
+having seen his foes retreat from Vienna, Ferdinand hurried to
+Frankfort, where he was chosen emperor on the 28th of August 1619.
+
+To deal with the elector palatine and his allies the new emperor allied
+himself with Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and the Catholic League,
+who drove Frederick from Bohemia in 1620, while Ferdinand's Spanish
+allies devastated the Palatinate. Peace having been made with Bethlen
+Gabor in December 1621, the first period of the war ended in a
+satisfactory fashion for the emperor, and he could turn his attention to
+completing the work of crushing the Protestants, which had already begun
+in his archduchies and in Bohemia. In 1623 the Protestant clergy were
+expelled from Bohemia; in 1624 all worship save that of the Roman
+Catholic church was forbidden; and in 1627 an order of banishment
+against all Protestants was issued. A new constitution made the kingdom
+hereditary in the house of Habsburg, gave larger powers to the
+sovereign, and aimed at destroying the nationality of the Bohemians.
+Similar measures in Austria led to a fresh rising which was put down by
+the aid of the Bavarians in 1627, and Ferdinand could fairly claim that
+in his hereditary lands at least he had rendered Protestantism
+innocuous.
+
+The renewal of the Thirty Years' War in 1625 was caused mainly by the
+emperor's vigorous championship of the cause of the counter-reformation
+in northern and north-eastern Germany. Again the imperial forces were
+victorious, chiefly owing to the genius of Wallenstein, who raised and
+led an army in this service, although the great scheme of securing the
+southern coast of the Baltic for the Habsburgs was foiled partly by the
+resistance of Stralsund. In March 1629 Ferdinand and his advisers felt
+themselves strong enough to take the important step towards which their
+policy in the Empire had been steadily tending. Issuing the famous edict
+of restitution, the emperor ordered that all lands which had been
+secularized since 1552, the date of the peace of Passau, should be
+restored to the church, and prompt measures were taken to enforce this
+decree. Many and powerful interests were vitally affected by this
+proceeding, and the result was the outbreak of the third period of the
+war, which was less favourable to the imperial arms than the preceding
+ones. This comparative failure was due, in the initial stages of the
+campaign, to Ferdinand's weakness in assenting in 1630 to the demand of
+Maximilian of Bavaria that Wallenstein should be deprived of his
+command, and also to the genius of Gustavus Adolphus; and in its later
+stages to his insistence on the second removal of Wallenstein, and to
+his complicity in the assassination of the general. This deed was
+followed by the peace of Prague, concluded in 1635, primarily with John
+George I., elector of Saxony, but soon assented to by other princes; and
+this treaty, which made extensive concessions to the Protestants, marks
+the definite failure of Ferdinand to crush Protestantism in the Empire,
+as he had already done in Austria and Bohemia. It is noteworthy,
+however, that the emperor refused to allow the inhabitants of his
+hereditary dominions to share in the benefits of the peace. During these
+years Ferdinand had also been menaced by the secret or open hostility of
+France. A dispute over the duchies of Mantua and Monferrato was ended
+by the treaty of Cherasco in 1631, but the influence of France was
+employed at the imperial diets and elsewhere in thwarting the plans of
+Ferdinand and in weakening the power of the Habsburgs. The last
+important act of the emperor was to secure the election of his son
+Ferdinand as king of the Romans. An attempt in 1630 to attain this end
+had failed, but in December 1636 the princes, meeting at Regensburg,
+bestowed the coveted dignity upon the younger Ferdinand. A few weeks
+afterwards, on the 15th of February 1637, the emperor died at Vienna,
+leaving, in addition to the king of the Romans, a son Leopold William
+(1614-1662), bishop of Passau and Strassburg. Ferdinand's reign was so
+occupied with the Thirty Years' War and the struggle with the
+Protestants that he had little time or inclination for other business.
+It is interesting to note, however, that this orthodox and Catholic
+emperor was constantly at variance with Pope Urban VIII. The quarrel was
+due principally, but not entirely, to events in Italy, where the pope
+sided with France in the dispute over the succession to Mantua and
+Monferrato. The succession question was settled, but the enmity
+remained; Urban showing his hostility by preventing the election of the
+younger Ferdinand as king of the Romans in 1630, and by turning a deaf
+ear to the emperor's repeated requests for assistance to prosecute the
+war against the heretics. Ferdinand's character has neither
+individuality nor interest, but he ruled the Empire during a critical
+and important period. Kind and generous to his dependents, his private
+life was simple and blameless, but he was to a great extent under the
+influence of his confessors.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief authorities for Ferdinand's life and reign
+  are F.C. Khevenhiller, _Annales Ferdinandei_ (Regensburg, 1640-1646);
+  F. van Hurter, _Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II_. (Schaffhausen,
+  1850-1855); _Korrespondenz Kaiser Ferdinands II. mit P. Becanus und
+  P.W. Lamormaini_, edited by B. Dudik (Vienna, 1848 fol.); and F.
+  Stieve, in the _Allegmeine deutsche Biographie_, Band vi. (Leipzig,
+  1877). See also the elaborate bibliography in the _Cambridge Modern
+  History_, vol. iv. (Cambridge, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND III. (1608-1657), Roman emperor, was the elder son of the
+emperor Ferdinand II., and was born at Gratz on the 13th of July 1608.
+Educated by the Jesuits, he was crowned king of Hungary in December
+1625, and king of Bohemia two years later, and soon began to take part
+in imperial business. Wallenstein, however, refused to allow him to hold
+a command in the imperial army; and henceforward reckoned among his
+enemies, the young king was appointed the successor of the famous
+general when he was deposed in 1634; and as commander-in-chief of the
+imperial troops he was nominally responsible for the capture of
+Regensburg and Donauworth, and the defeat of the Swedes at Nordlingen.
+Having been elected king of the Romans, or German king, at Regensburg in
+December 1636, Ferdinand became emperor on his father's death in the
+following February, and showed himself anxious to put an end to the
+Thirty Years' War. He persuaded one or two princes to assent to the
+terms of the treaty of Prague; but a general peace was delayed by his
+reluctance to grant religious liberty to the Protestants, and by his
+anxiety to act in unison with Spain. In 1640 he had refused to entertain
+the idea of a general amnesty suggested by the diet at Regensburg; but
+negotiations for peace were soon begun, and in 1648 the emperor assented
+to the treaty of Westphalia. This event belongs rather to the general
+history of Europe, but it is interesting to note that owing to
+Ferdinand's insistence the Protestants in his hereditary dominions did
+not obtain religious liberty at this settlement. After 1648 the emperor
+was engaged in carrying out the terms of the treaty and ridding Germany
+of the foreign soldiery. In 1656 he sent an army into Italy to assist
+Spain in her struggle with France, and he had just concluded an alliance
+with Poland to check the aggressions of Charles X, of Sweden when he
+died on the 2nd of April 1657. Ferdinand was a scholarly and cultured
+man, an excellent linguist and a composer of music. Industrious and
+popular in public life, his private life was blameless; and although a
+strong Roman Catholic he was less fanatical than his father. His first
+wife was Maria Anna (d. 1646), daughter of Philip III. of Spain, by whom
+he had three sons: Ferdinand, who was chosen king of the Romans in
+1653, and who died in the following year; Leopold, who succeeded his
+father on the imperial throne; and Charles Joseph (d. 1664), bishop of
+Passau and Breslau, and grand-master of the Teutonic order. The
+emperor's second wife was his cousin Maria (d. 1649), daughter of the
+archduke Leopold; and his third wife was Eleanora of Mantua (d. 1686).
+His musical works, together with those of the emperors Leopold I. and
+Joseph I., have been published by G. Adler (Vienna, 1892-1893).
+
+  See M. Koch, _Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter der Regierung
+  Ferdinands III_. (Vienna, 1865-1866).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I. (1793-1875), emperor of Austria, eldest son of Francis I.
+and of Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at Vienna on the 19th of April
+1793. In his boyhood he suffered from epileptic fits, and could
+therefore not receive a regular education. As his health improved with
+his growth and with travel, he was not set aside from the succession. In
+1830 his father caused him to be crowned king of Hungary, a pure
+formality, which gave him no power, and was designed to avoid possible
+trouble in the future. In 1831 he was married to Anna, daughter of
+Victor Emmanuel I. of Sardinia. The marriage was barren. When Francis I.
+died on the 2nd of March 1835, Ferdinand was recognized as his
+successor. But his incapacity was so notorious that the conduct of
+affairs was entrusted to a council of state, consisting of Prince
+Metternich (q.v.) with other ministers, and two archdukes, Louis and
+Francis Charles. They composed the _Staatsconferenz_, the
+ill-constructed and informal regency which led the Austrian dominions to
+the revolutionary outbreaks of 1846-1849. (See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.) The
+emperor, who was subject to fits of actual insanity, and in his lucid
+intervals was weak and confused in mind, was a political nullity. His
+personal amiability earned him the affectionate pity of his subjects,
+and he became the hero of popular stories which did not tend to maintain
+the dignity of the crown. It was commonly said that having taken refuge
+on a rainy day in a farmhouse he was so tempted by the smell of the
+dumplings which the farmer and his family were eating for dinner, that
+he insisted on having one. His doctor, who knew them to be indigestible,
+objected, and thereupon Ferdinand, in an imperial rage, made the
+answer:--"Kaiser bin i', und Knudel muss i' haben" (I am emperor, and
+will have the dumpling)--which has become a Viennese proverb. His
+popular name of _Der Gutige_ (the good sort of man) expressed as much
+derision as affection. Ferdinand had good taste for art and music. Some
+modification of the tight-handed rule of his father was made by the
+_Staatsconferenz_ during his reign. In the presence of the revolutionary
+troubles, which began with agrarian riots in Galicia in 1846, and then
+spread over the whole empire, he was personally helpless. He was
+compelled to escape from the disorders of Vienna to Innsbruck on the
+17th of May 1848. He came back on the invitation of the diet on the 12th
+of August, but soon had to escape once more from the mob of students and
+workmen who were in possession of the city. On the 2nd of December he
+abdicated at Olmutz in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. He lived
+under supervision by doctors and guardians at Prague till his death on
+the 29th of June 1855.
+
+  See Krones von Marchland, _Grundriss der osterreichischen Geschichte_
+  (Vienna, 1882), which gives an ample bibliography; Count F. Hartig,
+  _Genesis der Revolution in Osterreich_ (Leipzig, 1850),--an enlarged
+  English translation will be found in the 4th volume of W. Coxe's
+  _House of Austria_ (London, 1862).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I. (1423-1494), also called Don Ferrante, king of Naples, the
+natural son of Alphonso V. of Aragon and I. of Sicily and Naples, was
+horn in 1423. In accordance with his father's will, he succeeded him on
+the throne of Naples in 1458, but Pope Calixtus III. declared the line
+of Aragon extinct and the kingdom a fief of the church. But although he
+died before he could make good his claim (August 1458), and the new Pope
+Pius II. recognized Ferdinand, John of Anjou, profiting by the
+discontent of the Neapolitan barons, decided to try to regain the throne
+conquered by his ancestors, and invaded Naples. Ferdinand was severely
+defeated by the Angevins and the rebels at Sarno in July 1460, but with
+the help of Alessandro Sforza and of the Albanian chief, Skanderbeg,
+who chivalrously came to the aid of the prince whose father had aided
+him, he triumphed over his enemies, and by 1464 had re-established his
+authority in the kingdom. In 1478 he allied himself with Pope Sixtus IV.
+against Lorenzo de' Medici, but the latter journeyed alone to Naples
+when he succeeded in negotiating an honourable peace with Ferdinand. In
+1480 the Turks captured Otranto, and massacred the majority of the
+inhabitants, but in the following year it was retaken by his son
+Alphonso, duke of Calabria. His oppressive government led in 1485 to an
+attempt at revolt on the part of the nobles, led by Francesca Coppola
+and Antonello Sanseverino and supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; the
+rising having been crushed, many of the nobles, notwithstanding
+Ferdinand's promise of a general amnesty, were afterwards treacherously
+murdered at his express command. In 1493 Charles VIII. of France was
+preparing to invade Italy for the conquest of Naples, and Ferdinand
+realized that this was a greater danger than any he had yet faced. With
+almost prophetic instinct he warned the Italian princes of the
+calamities in store for them, but his negotiations with Pope Alexander
+VI. and Ludovico il Moro, lord of Milan, having failed, he died in
+January 1494, worn out with anxiety. Ferdinand was gifted with great
+courage and real political ability, but his method of government was
+vicious and disastrous. His financial administration was based on
+oppressive and dishonest monopolies, and he was mercilessly severe and
+utterly treacherous towards his enemies.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Codice Aragonese_, edited by F. Trinchera (Naples,
+  1866-1874); P. Giannone, _Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli_; J.
+  Alvini, _De gestis regum Neapol. ab Aragonia_ (Naples, 1588); S. de
+  Sismondi, _Histoire des republiques italiennes_, vols. v. and vi.
+  (Brussels, 1838); P. Villari, _Machiavelli_, pp. 60-64 (Engl. transl.,
+  London, 1892); for the revolt of the nobles in 1485 see Camillo
+  Porzio, _La Congiura dei Baroni_ (first published Rome, 1565; many
+  subsequent editions), written in the Royalist interest.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND II. (1469-1496), king of Naples, was the grandson of the
+preceding, and son of Alphonso II. Alphonso finding his tenure of the
+throne uncertain on account of the approaching invasion of Charles VIII.
+of France and the general dissatisfaction of his subjects, abdicated in
+his son's favour in 1495, but notwithstanding this the treason of a
+party in Naples rendered it impossible to defend the city against the
+approach of Charles VIII. Ferdinand fled to Ischia; but when the French
+king left Naples with most of his army, in consequence of the formation
+of an Italian league against him, he returned, defeated the French
+garrisons, and the Neapolitans, irritated by the conduct of their
+conquerors during the occupation of the city, received him back with
+enthusiasm; with the aid of the great Spanish general Gonzalo de Cordova
+he was able completely to rid his state of its invaders shortly before
+his death, which occurred on the 7th of September 1496.
+
+  For authorities see under FERDINAND I. of Naples; for the exploits of
+  Gonzalo de Cordova see H.P. del Pulgar, _Cronica del gran capitano don
+  Gonzalo de Cordoba_ (new ed., Madrid, 1834).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND IV. (1751-1825), king of Naples (III. of Sicily, and I. of the
+Two Sicilies), third son of Don Carlos of Bourbon, king of Naples and
+Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain), was born in Naples on the
+12th of January 1751. When his father ascended the Spanish throne in
+1759 Ferdinand, in accordance with the treaties forbidding the union of
+the two crowns, succeeded him as king of Naples, under a regency
+presided over by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci. The latter, an able,
+ambitious man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his
+own hands, purposely neglected the young king's education, and
+encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his excessive
+devotion to outdoor sports. Ferdinand grew up athletic, but ignorant,
+ill-bred, addicted to the lowest amusements; he delighted in the company
+of the _lazzaroni_ (the most degraded class of the Neapolitan people),
+whose dialect and habits he affected, and he even sold fish in the
+market, haggling over the price.
+
+His minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion of the
+Jesuits. The following year he married Maria Carolina, daughter of the
+empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage contract the queen was to have a
+voice in the council of state after the birth of her first son, and she
+was not slow to avail herself of this means of political influence.
+Beautiful, clever and proud, like her mother, but cruel and treacherous,
+her ambition was to raise the kingdom of Naples to the position of a
+great power; she soon came to exercise complete sway over her stupid and
+idle husband, and was the real ruler of the kingdom. Tanucci, who
+attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777, and the Englishman Sir
+John Acton (1736), who in 1779 was appointed director of marine,
+succeeded in so completely winning the favour of Maria Carolina, by
+supporting her in her scheme to free Naples from Spanish influence and
+securing a _rapprochement_ with Austria and England, that he became
+practically and afterwards actually prime minister. Although not a mere
+grasping adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the
+internal administration of the country to an abominable system of
+espionage, corruption and cruelty. On the outbreak of the French
+Revolution the Neapolitan court was not hostile to the movement, and the
+queen even sympathized with the revolutionary ideas of the day. But when
+the French monarchy was abolished and the royal pair beheaded, Ferdinand
+and Carolina were seized with a feeling of fear and horror and joined
+the first coalition against France in 1793. Although peace was made with
+France in 1796, the demands of the French Directory, whose troops
+occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and at his wife's instigation
+he took advantage of Napoleon's absence in Egypt and of Nelson's
+victories to go to war. He marched with his army against the French and
+entered Rome (29th of November), but on the defeat of some of his
+columns he hurried back to Naples, and on the approach of the French,
+fled on board Nelson's ship the "Vanguard" to Sicily, leaving his
+capital in a state of anarchy. The French entered the city in spite of
+the fierce resistance of the _lazzaroni_, who were devoted to the king,
+and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeois established the
+Parthenopaean Republic (January 1799). When a few weeks later the French
+troops were recalled to the north of Italy, Ferdinand sent an expedition
+composed of Calabrians, brigands and gaol-birds, under Cardinal Ruffo, a
+man of real ability, great devotion to the king, and by no means so bad
+as he has been painted, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo was
+completely successful, and reached Naples in May. His army and the
+_lazzaroni_ committed nameless atrocities, which he honestly tried to
+prevent, and the Parthenopaean Republic collapsed.
+
+The savage punishment of the Neapolitan Republicans is dealt with in
+more detail under NAPLES, NELSON and CARACCIOLO, but it is necessary to
+say here that the king, and above all the queen, were particularly
+anxious that no mercy should be shown to the rebels, and Maria Carolina
+made use of Lady Hamilton, Nelson's mistress, to induce him to execute
+her own spiteful vengeance. Her only excuse is that as a sister of Marie
+Antoinette the very name of Republican or Jacobin filled her with
+loathing. The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and ordered
+wholesale arrests and executions of supposed Liberals, which continued
+until the French successes forced him to agree to a treaty in which
+amnesty for members of the French party was included. When war broke out
+between France and Austria in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty of
+neutrality with the former, but a few days later he allied himself with
+Austria and allowed an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples. The French
+victory at Austerlitz enabled Napoleon to despatch an army to southern
+Italy. Ferdinand with his usual precipitation fled to Palermo (23rd of
+January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son, and on the 14th
+of February the French again entered Naples. Napoleon declared that the
+Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the crown, and proclaimed his brother
+Joseph king of Naples and Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over
+the latter kingdom under British protection. Parliamentary institutions
+of a feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William
+Bentinck (q.v.), the British minister, insisted on a reform of the
+constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed practically
+abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis regent, and the queen,
+at Bentinck's instance, was exiled to Austria, where she died in 1814.
+
+After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded Joseph
+Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned, and Ferdinand
+returned to Naples. By a secret treaty he had bound himself not to
+advance further in a constitutional direction than Austria should at any
+time approve; but, though on the whole he acted in accordance with
+Metternich's policy of preserving the _status quo_, and maintained with
+but slight change Murat's laws and administrative system, he took
+advantage of the situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in
+violation of his oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into
+the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (December 12th, 1816). He was now
+completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent, being even
+made commander-in-chief of the army; and for four years he reigned as a
+despot, every tentative effort at the expression of liberal opinion
+being ruthlessly suppressed. The result was an alarming spread of the
+influence and activity of the secret society of the Carbonari (q.v.),
+which in time affected a large part of the army. In July 1820 a military
+revolt broke out under General Pepe, and Ferdinand was terrorized into
+subscribing a constitution on the model of the impracticable Spanish
+constitution of 1812. On the other hand, a revolt in Sicily, in favour
+of the recovery of its independence, was suppressed by Neapolitan
+troops.
+
+The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously alarmed the
+powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it might spread to other
+Italian states and so lead to that general European conflagration which
+it was their main preoccupation to avoid (see EUROPE: _History_). After
+long diplomatic negotiations, it was decided to hold a congress _ad hoc_
+at Troppau (October 1820). The main results of this congress were the
+issue of the famous Troppau Protocol, signed by Austria, Prussia and
+Russia only, and an invitation to King Ferdinand to attend the adjourned
+congress at Laibach (1821), an invitation of which Great Britain
+approved "as implying negotiation" (see TROPPAU, LAIBACH, CONGRESSES
+OF). At Laibach Ferdinand played so sorry a part as to provoke the
+contempt of those whose policy it was to re-establish him in absolute
+power. He had twice sworn, with gratuitous solemnity, to maintain the
+new constitution; but he was hardly out of Naples before he repudiated
+his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns of Europe,
+declared his acts to have been null and void. An attitude so indecent
+threatened to defeat the very objects of the reactionary powers, and
+Gentz congratulated the congress that these sorry protests would be
+buried in the archives, offering at the same time to write for the king
+a dignified letter in which he should express his reluctance at having
+to violate his oaths in the face of irresistible force! But, under these
+circumstances, Metternich had no difficulty in persuading the king to
+allow an Austrian army to march into Naples "to restore order."
+
+The campaign that followed did little credit either to the Austrians or
+the Neapolitans. The latter, commanded by General Pepe (q.v.), who made
+no attempt to defend the difficult defiles of the Abruzzi, were
+defeated, after a half-hearted struggle at Rieti (March 7th, 1821), and
+the Austrians entered Naples. The parliament was now dismissed, and
+Ferdinand inaugurated an era of savage persecution, supported by spies
+and informers, against the Liberals and Carbonari, the Austrian
+commandant in vain protesting against the savagery which his presence
+alone rendered possible.
+
+Ferdinand died on the 4th of January 1825. Few sovereigns have left
+behind so odious a memory. His whole career is one long record of
+perjury, vengeance and meanness, unredeemed by a single generous act,
+and his wife was a worthy helpmeet and actively co-operated in his
+tyranny.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard authority on Ferdinand's reign is Pietro
+  Colletta's _Storia del Reame di Napoli_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1848),
+  which, although heavily written and not free from party passion, is
+  reliable and accurate; L. Conforti, _Napoli nel 1799_ (Naples, 1886);
+  G. Pepe, _Memorie_ (Paris, 1847), a most valuable book; C. Auriol, _La
+  France, l'Angleterre, et Naples_ (Paris, 1906); for the Sicilian
+  period and the British occupation, G. Bianco, _La Sicilia durante
+  l'occupazione Inglese_ (Palermo, 1902), which contains many new
+  documents of importance; Freiherr A. von Helfert has attempted the
+  impossible task of whitewashing Queen Carolina in his _Konigin
+  Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien_ (Vienna, 1878), and _Maria Karolina
+  von Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1884); he has also written a useful life of
+  _Fabrizio Ruffo_ (Italian edit., Florence, 1885); for the Sicilian
+  revolution of 1820 see G. Bianco's _La Rivoluzione in Sicilia del
+  1820_ (Florence, 1905), and M. Amari's _Carteggio_ (Turin, 1896).
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I., king of Portugal (1345-1383), sometimes referred to as _el
+Gentil_ (the Gentleman), son of Pedro I. of Portugal (who is not to be
+confounded with his Spanish contemporary Pedro the Cruel), succeeded his
+father in 1367. On the death of Pedro of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as
+great-grandson of Sancho IV. by the female line, laid claim to the
+vacant throne, for which the kings of Aragon and Navarre, and afterwards
+the duke of Lancaster (married in 1370 to Constance, the eldest daughter
+of Pedro), also became competitors. Meanwhile Henry of Trastamara, the
+brother (illegitimate) and conqueror of Pedro, had assumed the crown and
+taken the field. After one or two indecisive campaigns, all parties were
+ready to accept the mediation of Pope Gregory XI. The conditions of the
+treaty, ratified in 1371, included a marriage between Ferdinand and
+Leonora of Castile. But before the union could take place the former had
+become passionately attached to Leonora Tellez, the wife of one of his
+own courtiers, and having procured a dissolution of her previous
+marriage, he lost no time in making her his queen. This strange conduct,
+although it raised a serious insurrection in Portugal, did not at once
+result in a war with Henry; but the outward concord was soon disturbed
+by the intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, who prevailed on Ferdinand to
+enter into a secret treaty for the expulsion of Henry from his throne.
+The war which followed was unsuccessful; and peace was again made in
+1373. On the death of Henry in 1379, the duke of Lancaster once more put
+forward his claims, and again found an ally in Portugal; but, according
+to the Continental annalists, the English proved as offensive to their
+companions in arms as to their enemies in the field; and Ferdinand made
+a peace for himself at Badajoz in 1382, it being stipulated that
+Beatrix, the heiress of Ferdinand, should marry King John of Castile,
+and thus secure the ultimate union of the crowns. Ferdinand left no male
+issue when he died on the 22nd of October 1383, and the direct
+Burgundian line, which had been in possession of the throne since the
+days of Count Henry (about 1112), became extinct. The stipulations of
+the treaty of Badajoz were set aside, and John, grand-master of the
+order of Aviz, Ferdinand's illegitimate brother, was proclaimed. This
+led to a war which lasted for several years.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I., _El Magno_ or "the Great," king of Castile (_d._ 1065),
+son of Sancho of Navarre, was put in possession of Castile in 1028, on
+the murder of the last count, as the heir of his mother Elvira, daughter
+of a previous count of Castile. He reigned with the title of king. He
+married Sancha, sister and heiress of Bermudo, king of Leon. In 1038
+Bermudo was killed in battle with Ferdinand at Tamaron, and Ferdinand
+then took possession of Leon by right of his wife, and was recognized in
+Spain as emperor. The use of the title was resented by the emperor Henry
+IV. and by Pope Victor II. in 1055, as implying a claim to the headship
+of Christendom, and as a usurpation on the Holy Roman Empire. It did
+not, however, mean more than that Spain was independent of the Empire,
+and that the sovereign of Leon was the chief of the princes of the
+peninsula. Although Ferdinand had grown in power by a fratricidal strife
+with Bermudo of Leon, and though at a later date he defeated and killed
+his brother Garcia of Navarre, he ranks high among the kings of Spain
+who have been counted religious. To a large extent he may have owed his
+reputation to the victories over the Mahommedans, with which he began
+the period of the great reconquest. But there can be no doubt that
+Ferdinand was profoundly pious. Towards the close of his reign he sent a
+special embassy to Seville to bring back the body of Santa Justa. The
+then king of Seville, Motadhid, one of the small princes who had divided
+the caliphate of Cordova, was himself a sceptic and poisoner, but he
+stood in wholesome awe of the power of the Christian king. He favoured
+the embassy in every way, and when the body of Santa Justa could not be
+found, helped the envoys who were also aided by a vision seen by one of
+them in a dream, to discover the body of Saint Isidore, which was
+reverently carried away to Leon. Ferdinand died on the feast of Saint
+John the Evangelist, the 24th of June 1065, in Leon, with many
+manifestations of ardent piety--having laid aside his crown and royal
+mantle, dressed in the frock of a monk and lying on a bier, covered with
+ashes, which was placed before the altar of the church of Saint Isidore.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND II., king of Leon only (d. 1188), was the son of Alphonso VII.
+and of Berenguela, of the house of the counts of Barcelona. On the
+division of the kingdoms which had obeyed his father, he received Leon.
+His reign of thirty years was one of strife marked by no signal success
+or reverse. He had to contend with his unruly nobles, several of whom he
+put to death. During the minority of his nephew Alphonso VIII. of
+Castile he endeavoured to impose himself on the kingdom as regent. On
+the west he was in more or less constant strife with Portugal, which was
+in process of becoming an independent kingdom. His relations to the
+Portuguese house must have suffered by his repudiation of his wife
+Urraca, daughter of Alphonso I. of Portugal. Though he took the king of
+Portugal prisoner in 1180, he made no political use of his success. He
+extended his dominions southward in Estremadura at the expense of the
+Moors. Ferdinand, who died in 1188, left the reputation of a good knight
+and hard fighter, but did not display political or organizing faculty.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND III., _El Santo_ or "the Saint," king of Castile (1199-1252),
+son of Alphonso IX. of Leon, and of Berengaria, daughter of Alphonso
+VIII. of Castile, ranks among the greatest of the Spanish kings. The
+marriage of his parents, who were second cousins, was dissolved as
+unlawful by the pope, but the legitimacy of the children was recognized.
+Till 1217 he lived with his father in Leon. In that year the young king
+of Castile, Henry, was killed by accident. Berengaria sent for her son
+with such speed that her messenger reached Leon before the news of the
+death of the king of Castile, and when he came to her she renounced the
+crown in his favour. Alphonso of Leon considered himself tricked, and
+the young king had to begin his reign by a war against his father and a
+faction of the Castilian nobles. His own ability and the remarkable
+capacity of his mother proved too much for the king of Leon and his
+Castilian allies. Ferdinand, who showed himself docile to the influence
+of Berengaria, so long as she lived, married the wife she found for him,
+Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Philip (of Hohenstaufen), and followed
+her advice both in prosecuting the war against the Moors and in the
+steps which she took to secure his peaceful succession to Leon on the
+death of his father in 1231. After the union of Castile and Leon in that
+year he began the series of campaigns which ended by reducing the
+Mahommedan dominions in Spain to Granada. Cordova fell in 1236, and
+Seville in 1248. The king of Granada did homage to Ferdinand, and
+undertook to attend the cortes when summoned. The king was a severe
+persecutor of the Albigenses, and his formal canonization was due as
+much to his orthodoxy as to his crusading by Pope Clement X. in 1671. He
+revived the university first founded by his grandfather Alphonso VIII.,
+and placed it at Salamanca. By his second marriage with Joan (d. 1279),
+daughter of Simon, of Dammartin, count of Ponthieu, by right of his wife
+Marie, Ferdinand was the father of Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. of
+England.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND IV., _El Emplazado_ or "the Summoned," king of Castile (_d_.
+1312), son of Sancho El Bravo, and his wife Maria de Molina, is a figure
+of small note in Spanish history. His strange title is given him in the
+chronicles on the strength of a story that he put two brothers of the
+name of Carvajal to death tyrannically, and was given a time, a _plazo_,
+by them in which to answer for his crime in the next world. But the tale
+is not contemporary, and is an obvious copy of the story told of Jacques
+de Molay, grand-master of the Temple, and Philippe Le Bel. Ferdinand IV.
+succeeded to the throne when a boy of six. His minority was a time of
+anarchy. He owed his escape from the violence of competitors and nobles,
+partly to the tact and undaunted bravery of his mother Maria de Molina,
+and partly to the loyalty of the citizens of Avila, who gave him refuge
+within their walls. As a king he proved ungrateful to his mother, and
+weak as a ruler. He died suddenly in his tent at Jaen when preparing for
+a raid into the Moorish territory of Granada, on the 7th of September
+1312.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND I., king of Aragon (1373-1416), called "of Antequera," was the
+son of John I. of Castile by his wife Eleanor, daughter of the third
+marriage of Peter IV. of Aragon. His surname "of Antequera" was given
+him because he was besieging that town, then in the hands of the Moors,
+when he was told that the cortes of Aragon had elected him king in
+succession to his uncle Martin, the last male of the old line of Wilfred
+the Hairy. As infante of Castile Ferdinand had played an honourable
+part. When his brother Henry III. died at Toledo, in 1406, the cortes
+was sitting, and the nobles offered to make him king in preference to
+his nephew John. Ferdinand refused to despoil his brother's infant son,
+and even if he did not act on the moral ground he alleged, his sagacity
+must have shown him that he would be at the mercy of the men who had
+chosen him in such circumstances. As co-regent of the kingdom with
+Catherine, widow of Henry III. and daughter of John of Gaunt by his
+marriage with Constance, daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de
+Padilla, Ferdinand proved a good ruler. He restrained the follies of his
+sister-in-law, and kept the realm quiet, by firm government, and by
+prosecuting the war with the Moors. As king of Aragon his short reign of
+two years left him little time to make his mark. Having been bred in
+Castile, where the royal authority was, at least in theory, absolute, he
+showed himself impatient under the checks imposed on him by the
+_fueros_, the chartered rights of Aragon and Catalonia. He particularly
+resented the obstinacy of the Barcelonese, who compelled the members of
+his household to pay municipal taxes. His most signal act as king was to
+aid in closing the Great Schism in the Church by agreeing to the
+deposition of the antipope Benedict XIV., an Aragonese. He died at
+Ygualada in Catalonia on the 2nd of April 1416.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND V. of Castile and Leon, and II. of Aragon (1452-1516), was the
+son of John I. of Aragon by his second marriage with Joanna Henriquez,
+of the family of the hereditary grand admirals of Castile, and was born
+at Sos in Aragon on the 16th of March 1452. Under the name of "the
+Catholic" and as the husband of Isabella, queen of Castile, he played a
+great part in Europe. His share in establishing the royal authority in
+all parts of Spain, in expelling the Moors from Granada, in the conquest
+of Navarre, in forwarding the voyages of Columbus, and in contending
+with France for the supremacy in Italy, is dealt with elsewhere (see
+SPAIN: _History_). In personal character he had none of the attractive
+qualities of his wife. It may fairly be said of him that he was purely a
+politician. His marriage in 1469 to his cousin Isabella of Castile was
+dictated by the desire to unite his own claims to the crown, as the head
+of the younger branch of the same family, with hers, in case Henry IV.
+should die childless. When the king died in 1474 he made an ungenerous
+attempt to procure his own proclamation as king without recognition of
+the rights of his wife. Isabella asserted her claims firmly, and at all
+times insisted on a voice in the government of Castile. But though
+Ferdinand had sought a selfish political advantage at his wife's
+expense, he was well aware of her ability and high character. Their
+married life was dignified and harmonious; for Ferdinand had no common
+vices, and their views in government were identical. The king cared for
+nothing but dominion and political power. His character explains the
+most ungracious acts of his life, such as his breach of his promises to
+Columbus, his distrust of Ximenez and of the Great Captain. He had given
+wide privileges to Columbus on the supposition that the discoverer would
+reach powerful kingdoms. When islands inhabited by feeble savages were
+discovered, Ferdinand appreciated the risk that they might become the
+seat of a power too strong to be controlled, and took measures to avert
+the danger. He feared that Jimenez and the Great Captain would become
+too independent, and watched them in the interest of the royal
+authority. Whether he ever boasted, as he is said to have boasted, that
+he had deceived Louis XII. of France twelve times, is very doubtful; but
+it is certain that when Ferdinand made a treaty, or came to an
+understanding with any one, the contract was generally found to contain
+implied meanings favourable to himself which the other contracting party
+had not expected. The worst of his character was prominently shown after
+the death of Isabella in 1504. He endeavoured to lay hands on the
+regency of Castile in the name of his insane daughter Joanna, and
+without regard to the claims of her husband Philip of Habsburg. The
+hostility of the Castilian nobles, by whom he was disliked, baffled him
+for a time, but on Philip's early death he reasserted his authority. His
+second marriage with Germaine of Foix in 1505 was apparently contracted
+in the hope that by securing an heir male he might punish his Habsburg
+son-in-law. Aragon did not recognize the right of women to reign, and
+would have been detached together with Catalonia, Valencia and the
+Italian states if he had had a son. This was the only occasion on which
+Ferdinand allowed passion to obscure his political sense, and lead him
+into acts which tended to undo his work of national unification. As king
+of Aragon he abstained from inroads on the liberties of his subjects
+which might have provoked rebellion. A few acts of illegal violence are
+recorded of him--as when he invited a notorious demagogue of Saragossa
+to visit him in the palace, and caused the man to be executed without
+form of trial. Once when presiding over the Aragonese cortes he found
+himself sitting in a thorough draught and ordered the window to be shut,
+adding in a lower voice, "If it is not against the _fueros_." But his
+ill-will did not go beyond such sneers. He was too intent on building up
+a great state to complicate his difficulties by internal troubles. His
+arrangement of the convention of Guadalupe, which ended the fierce
+Agrarian conflicts of Catalonia, was wise and profitable to the country,
+though it was probably dictated mainly by a wish to weaken the
+landowners by taking away their feudal rights. Ferdinand died at
+Madrigalejo in Estremadura on the 23rd of February 1516.
+
+  The lives of the kings of this name before Ferdinand V. are contained
+  in the chronicles, and in the _Anales de Aragon_ of Zurita, and the
+  History of Spain by Mariana. Both deal at length with the life of
+  Ferdinand V. Prescott's _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and
+  Isabella_, in any of its numerous editions, gives a full life of him
+  with copious references to authorities.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND VI., king of Spain (1713-1759), second son of Philip V.,
+founder of the Bourbon dynasty, by his first marriage with Maria Louisa
+of Savoy, was born at Madrid on the 23rd of September 1713. His youth
+was depressed. His father's second wife, Elizabeth Farnese, was a
+managing woman, who had no affection except for her own children, and
+who looked upon her stepson as an obstacle to their fortunes. The
+hypochondria of his father left Elizabeth mistress of the palace.
+Ferdinand was married in 1729 to Maria Magdalena Barbara, daughter of
+John V. of Portugal. The very homely looks of his wife were thought by
+observers to cause the prince a visible shock when he was first
+presented to her. Yet he became deeply attached to his wife, and proved
+in fact nearly as uxorious as his father. Ferdinand was by temperament
+melancholy, shy and distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented
+on his shooting, he replied, "It would be hard if there were not
+something I could do." As king he followed a steady policy of neutrality
+between France and England, and refused to be tempted by the offers of
+either into declaring war on the other. In his life he was orderly and
+retiring, averse from taking decisions, though not incapable of acting
+firmly, as when he cut short the dangerous intrigues of his able
+minister Ensenada by dismissing and imprisoning him. Shooting and music
+were his only pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous
+singer Farinelli (q.v.), whose voice soothed his melancholy. The death
+of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully
+abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between the date of
+her death in 1758 and his own on the 10th of August 1759 he fell into a
+state of prostration in which he would not even dress, but wandered
+unshaven, unwashed and in a night-gown about his park. The memoirs of
+the count of Fernan Nunez give a shocking picture of his death-bed.
+
+  A good account of the reign and character of Ferdinand VI. will be
+  found in vol. iv. of Coxe's _Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the
+  House of Bourbon_ (London, 1815). See also _Vida de Carlos III._, by
+  the count of Fernan Nunez, ed. M. Morel Fatio and Don A. Paz y Melia
+  (1898).
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND VII., king of Spain (1784-1833), the eldest son of Charles
+IV., king of Spain, and of his wife Maria Louisa of Parma, was born at
+the palace of San Ildefonso near Balsain in the Somosierra hills, on the
+14th of October 1784. The events with which he was connected were many,
+tragic and of the widest European interest. In his youth he occupied the
+painful position of an heir apparent who was carefully excluded from all
+share in government by the jealousy of his parents, and the prevalence
+of a royal favourite. National discontent with a feeble government
+produced a revolution in 1808 by which he passed to the throne by the
+forced abdication of his father. Then he spent years as the prisoner of
+Napoleon, and returned in 1814 to find that while Spain was fighting for
+independence in his name a new world had been born of foreign invasion
+and domestic revolution. He came back to assert the ancient doctrine
+that the sovereign authority resided in his person only. Acting on this
+principle he ruled frivolously, and with a wanton indulgence of whims.
+In 1820 his misrule provoked a revolt, and he remained in the hands of
+insurgents till he was released by foreign intervention in 1823. When
+free, he revenged himself with a ferocity which disgusted his allies. In
+his last years he prepared a change in the order of succession
+established by his dynasty in Spain, which angered a large part of the
+nation, and made a civil war inevitable. We have to distinguish the part
+of Ferdinand VII. in all these transactions, in which other and better
+men were concerned. It can confidently be said to have been uniformly
+base. He had perhaps no right to complain that he was kept aloof from
+all share in government while only heir apparent, for this was the
+traditional practice of his family. But as heir to the throne he had a
+right to resent the degradation of the crown he was to inherit, and the
+power of a favourite who was his mother's lover. If he had put himself
+at the head of a popular rising he would have been followed, and would
+have had a good excuse. His course was to enter on dim intrigues at the
+instigation of his first wife, Maria Antonietta of Naples. After her
+death in 1806 he was drawn into other intrigues by flatterers, and, in
+October 1807, was arrested for the conspiracy of the Escorial. The
+conspiracy aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon. When
+detected, Ferdinand betrayed his associates, and grovelled to his
+parents. When his father's abdication was extorted by a popular riot at
+Aranjuez in March 1808, he ascended the throne--not to lead his people
+manfully, but to throw himself into the hands of Napoleon, in the
+fatuous hope that the emperor would support him. He was in his turn
+forced to make an abdication and imprisoned in France, while Spain, with
+the help of England, fought for its life. At Valancay, where he was sent
+as a prisoner of state, he sank contentedly into vulgar vice, and did
+not scruple to applaud the French victories over the people who were
+suffering unutterable misery in his cause. When restored in March 1814,
+on the fall of Napoleon, he had just cause to repudiate the
+impracticable constitution made by the cortes without his consent. He
+did so, and then governed like an evil-disposed boy--indulging the
+merest animal passions, listening to a small _camarilla_ of low-born
+favourites, changing his ministers every three months, and acting on the
+impulse of whims which were sometimes mere buffoonery, but were at times
+lubricous, or ferocious. The autocratic powers of the Grand Alliance,
+though forced to support him as the representative of legitimacy in
+Spain, watched his proceedings with disgust and alarm. "The king," wrote
+Gentz to the hospodar Caradja on the 1st of December 1814, "himself
+enters the houses of his first ministers, arrests them, and hands them
+over to their cruel enemies"; and again, on the 14th of January 1815,
+"The king has so debased himself that he has become no more than the
+leading police agent and gaoler of his country." When at last the
+inevitable revolt came in 1820 he grovelled to the insurgents as he had
+done to his parents, descending to the meanest submissions while fear
+was on him, then intriguing and, when detected, grovelling again. When
+at the beginning of 1823, as a result of the congress of Verona, the
+French invaded Spain,[1] "invoking the God of St Louis, for the sake of
+preserving the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry IV., and of
+reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe," and in May the revolutionary
+party carried Ferdinand to Cadiz, he continued to make promises of
+amendment till he was free. Then, in violation of his oath to grant an
+amnesty, he revenged himself for three years of coercion by killing on a
+scale which revolted his "rescuers," and against which the duke of
+Angouleme, powerless to interfere, protested by refusing the Spanish
+decorations offered him for his services. During his last years
+Ferdinand's energy was abated. He no longer changed ministers every few
+months as a sport, and he allowed some of them to conduct the current
+business of government. His habits of life were telling on him. He
+became torpid, bloated and horrible to look at. After his fourth
+marriage in 1829 with Maria Christina of Naples, he was persuaded by his
+wife to set aside the law of succession of Philip V., which gave a
+preference to all the males of the family in Spain over the females. His
+marriage had brought him only two daughters. When well, he consented to
+the change under the influence of his wife. When ill, he was terrified
+by priestly advisers, who were partisans of his brother Don Carlos. What
+his final decision was is perhaps doubtful. His wife was mistress by his
+death-bed, and she could put the words she chose into the mouth of a
+dead man--and could move the dead hand at her will. Ferdinand died on
+the 29th of September 1833. It had been a frequent saying with the more
+zealous royalists of Spain that a king must be wiser than his ministers,
+for he was placed on the throne and directed by God. Since the reign of
+Ferdinand VII. no one has maintained this unqualified version of the
+great doctrine of divine right.
+
+  King Ferdinand VII. kept a diary during the troubled years 1820-1823,
+  which has been published by the count de Casa Valencia.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Louis XVIII.'s speech from the throne, Jan. 28, 1823.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND II. (1810-1859), king of the Two Sicilies, son of Francis I,
+was born at Palermo on the 12th of January 1810. In his early years he
+was credited with Liberal ideas and he was fairly popular, his free and
+easy manners having endeared him to the _lazzaroni_. On succeeding his
+father in 1830, he published an edict in which he promised to "give his
+most anxious attention to the impartial administration of justice," to
+reform the finances, and to "use every effort to heal the wounds which
+had afflicted the kingdom for so many years"; but these promises seem to
+have been meant only to lull discontent to sleep, for although he did
+something for the economic development of the kingdom, the existing
+burden of taxation was only slightly lightened, corruption continued to
+flourish in all departments of the administration, and an absolutism was
+finally established harsher than that of all his predecessors, and
+supported by even more extensive and arbitrary arrests. Ferdinand was
+naturally shrewd, but badly educated, grossly superstitious and
+possessed of inordinate self-esteem. Though he kept the machinery of his
+kingdom fairly efficient, and was a patriot to the extent of brooking no
+foreign interference, he made little account of the wishes or welfare of
+his subjects. In 1832 he married Cristina, daughter of Victor Emmanuel
+I., king of Sardinia, and shortly after her death in 1836 he took for a
+second wife Maria Theresa, daughter of archduke Charles of Austria.
+After his Austrian alliance the bonds of despotism were more closely
+tightened, and the increasing discontent of his subjects was manifested
+by various abortive attempts at insurrection; in 1837 there was a rising
+in Sicily in consequence of the outbreak of cholera, and in 1843 the
+Young Italy Society tried to organize a general rising, which, however,
+only manifested itself in a series of isolated outbreaks. The expedition
+of the Bandiera brothers (q.v.) in 1844, although it had no practical
+result, aroused great ill-feeling owing to the cruel sentences passed on
+the rebels. In January 1848 a rising in Sicily was the signal for
+revolutions all over Italy and Europe; it was followed by a movement in
+Naples, and the king granted a constitution which he swore to observe.
+A dispute, however, arose as to the nature of the oath which should be
+taken by the members of the chamber of deputies, and as neither the king
+nor the deputies would yield, serious disturbances broke out in the
+streets of Naples on the 15th of May; so the king, making these an
+excuse for withdrawing his promise, dissolved the national parliament on
+the 13th of March 1849. He retired to Gaeta to confer with various
+deposed despots, and when the news of the Austrian victory at Novara
+(March 1849) reached him, he determined to return to a reactionary
+policy. Sicily, whence the Royalists had been expelled, was subjugated
+by General Filangieri (q.v.), and the chief cities were bombarded, an
+expedient which won for Ferdinand the epithet of "King Bomba." During
+the last years of his reign espionage and arbitrary arrests prevented
+all serious manifestations of discontent among his subjects. In 1851 the
+political prisoners of Naples were calculated by Mr Gladstone in his
+letters to Lord Aberdeen (1851) to number 15,000 (probably the real
+figure was nearer 40,000), and so great was the scandal created by the
+prevailing reign of terror, and the abominable treatment to which the
+prisoners were subjected, that in 1856 France and England made
+diplomatic representations to induce the king to mitigate his rigour and
+proclaim a general amnesty, but without success. An attempt was made by
+a soldier to assassinate Ferdinand in 1856. He died on the 22nd of May
+1856, just after the declaration of war by France and Piedmont against
+Austria, which was to result in the collapse of his kingdom and his
+dynasty. He was bigoted, cruel, mean, treacherous, though not without a
+certain bonhomie; the only excuse that can be made for him is that with
+his heredity and education a different result could scarcely be
+expected.
+
+  See _Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Naples and Sicily,
+  1848-1849, presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her
+  Majesty_, 4th May 1849; _Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen_, by the
+  Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone, 1st ed., 1851 (an edition published in 1852
+  and the subsequent editions contain an _Examination of the Official
+  Reply of the Neapolitan Government_); N. Nisco, _Ferdinando II. il suo
+  regno_ (Naples, 1884); H. Remsen Whitehouse, _The Collapse of the
+  Kingdom of Naples_ (New York, 1899); R. de Cesare, _La Caduta d' un
+  Regno_, vol. i. (Citta di Castello, 1900), which contains a great deal
+  of fresh information, but is badly arranged and not always reliable.
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND III. (1769-1824), grand duke of Tuscany, and archduke of
+Austria, second son of the emperor Leopold II., was born on the 6th of
+May 1769. On his father becoming emperor in 1790, he succeeded him as
+grand duke of Tuscany. Ferdinand was one of the first sovereigns to
+enter into diplomatic relations with the French republic (1793); and
+although, a few months later, he was compelled by England and Russia to
+join the coalition against France, he concluded peace with that power in
+1795, and by observing a strict neutrality saved his dominions from
+invasion by the French, except for a temporary occupation of Livorno,
+till 1799, when he was compelled to vacate his throne, and a provisional
+Republican government was established at Florence. Shortly afterwards
+the French arms suffered severe reverses in Italy, and Ferdinand was
+restored to his territories; but in 1801, by the peace of Luneville,
+Tuscany was converted into the kingdom of Etruria, and he was again
+compelled to return to Vienna. In lieu of the sovereignty of Tuscany, he
+obtained in 1802 the electorship of Salzburg, which he exchanged by the
+peace of Pressburg in 1805 for that of Wurzburg. In 1806 he was admitted
+as grand duke of Wurzburg to the confederation of the Rhine. He was
+restored to the throne of Tuscany after the abdication of Napoleon in
+1814 and was received with enthusiasm by the people, but had again to
+vacate his capital for a short time in 1815, when Murat proclaimed war
+against Austria. The final overthrow of the French supremacy at the
+battle of Waterloo secured him, however, in the undisturbed possession
+of his grand duchy during the remainder of his life. The restoration in
+Tuscany was not accompanied by the reactionary excesses which
+characterized it elsewhere, and a large part of the French legislation
+was retained. His prime minister was Count V. Fossombroni (q.v.). The
+mild rule of Ferdinand, his solicitude for the welfare of his subjects,
+his enlightened patronage of art and science, his encouragement of
+commerce, and his toleration render him an honourable exception to the
+generality of Italian princes. At the same time his paternal despotism
+tended to emasculate the Tuscan character. He died in June 1824, and was
+succeeded by his son Leopold II. (q.v.).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. von Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas_ (Gotha, 1877);
+  and "Federico Manfredini e la politica Toscana nei primi anni di
+  Ferdinando III." (in the _Archivio Storico Italiano_, 1877); Emmer,
+  _Erzherzog Ferdinand III._, _Grossherzog von Toskana_ (Salzburg,
+  1871); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia durante il dominio francese_, ii. 1-44
+  (Turin, 1889), and _L' Italia durante il dominio austriaco_, ii. 1-18
+  (Turin, 1893). See also under FOSSOMBRONI; VITTORIO; and CAPPONI,
+  GINO.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA, king of Bulgaria (1861- ),
+fifth and youngest son of Prince Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was
+born on the 26th of February 1861. Great care was exercised in his
+education, and every encouragement given to the taste for natural
+history which he exhibited at an early age. In 1879 he travelled with
+his brother Augustus to Brazil, and the results of their botanical
+observations were published at Vienna, 1883-1888, under the title of
+_Itinera Principum S. Coburgi_. Having been appointed to a lieutenancy
+in the 2nd regiment of Austrian hussars, he was holding this rank when,
+by unanimous vote of the National Assembly, he was elected prince of
+Bulgaria, on the 7th of July 1887, in succession to Prince Alexander,
+who had abdicated on the 7th of September preceding. He assumed the
+government on the 14th of August 1887, for Russia for a long time
+refused to acknowledge the election, and he was accordingly exposed to
+frequent military conspiracies, due to the influence or attitude of that
+power. The firmness and vigour with which he met all attempts at
+revolution were at length rewarded, and his election was confirmed in
+March 1896 by the Porte and the great powers. On the 20th of April 1893
+he married Marie Louise de Bourbon (d. 1899), eldest daughter of Duke
+Robert of Parma, and in May following the Grand Sobranye confirmed the
+title of Royal Highness to the prince and his heir. The prince adhered
+to the Roman Catholic faith, but his son and heir, the young Prince
+Boris, was received into the Orthodox Greek Church on the 14th of
+February 1896. Prince Boris, to whom the tsar Nicholas III. became
+godfather, accompanied his father to Russia in 1898, when Prince
+Ferdinand visited St Petersburg and Moscow, and still further
+strengthened the bond already existing between Russia and Bulgaria. In
+1908 Ferdinand married Eleanor (b. 1860), a princess of the house of
+Reuss. Later in the year, in connexion with the Austrian annexation of
+Bosnia-Herzegovina and the crisis with Turkey, he proclaimed the
+independence of Bulgaria, and took the title of king or tsar. (See
+BULGARIA, and EUROPE: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND, duke of Brunswick (1721-1792), Prussian general field marshal,
+was the fourth son of Ferdinand Albert, duke of Brunswick, and was born
+at Wolfenbuttel on the 12th of January 1721. He was carefully educated
+with a view to a military career, and in his twentieth year he was made
+chief of a newly-raised Brunswick regiment in the Prussian service. He
+was present in the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusitz. In succession to
+Margrave Wilhelm of Brandenburg, killed at Prague (1744), Ferdinand
+received the command of Frederick the Great's _Leibgarde_ battalion, and
+at Sohr (1745) he distinguished himself so greatly at the head of his
+brigade that Frederick wrote of him, "le Prince Ferdinand s'est
+surpasse." The height which he captured was defended by his brother
+Ludwig as an officer of the Austrian service, and another brother of Duke
+Ferdinand was killed by his side in the charge. During the ten years'
+peace he was in the closest touch with the military work of Frederick the
+Great, who supervised the instruction of the guard battalion, and sought
+to make it a model of the whole Prussian army. Ferdinand was, moreover,
+one of the most intimate friends of the king, and thus he was peculiarly
+fitted for the tasks which afterwards fell to his lot. In this time he
+became successively major-general and lieutenant-general. In the first
+campaign of the Seven Years' War Ferdinand commanded one of the Prussian
+columns which converged upon Dresden, and in the operations which led up
+to the surrender of the Saxon army at Pirna (1756), and at the battle of
+Lobositz, he led the right wing of the Prussian infantry. In 1757 he was
+present, and distinguished himself, at Prague, and he served also in the
+campaign of Rossbach. Shortly after this he was appointed to command the
+allied forces which were being organized for the war in western Germany.
+He found this army dejected by a reverse and a capitulation, yet within a
+week of his taking up the command he assumed the offensive, and thus
+began the career of victory which made his European reputation as a
+soldier. His conduct of the five campaigns which followed (see SEVEN
+YEARS' WAR) was naturally influenced by the teachings of Frederick, whose
+pupil the duke had been for so many years. Ferdinand, indeed,
+approximated more closely to Frederick in his method of making war than
+any other general of the time. Yet his task was in many respects far more
+difficult than that of the king. Frederick was the absolute master of his
+own homogeneous army, Ferdinand merely the commander of a group of
+contingents, and answerable to several princes for the troops placed
+under his control. The French were by no means despicable opponents in
+the field, and their leaders, if not of the first grade, were cool and
+experienced veterans. In 1758 he fought and won the battle of Crefeld,
+several marches beyond the Rhine, but so advanced a position he could not
+well maintain, and he fell back to the Lippe. He resumed a bold offensive
+in 1759, only to be repulsed at Bergen (near Frankfort-on-Main). On the
+1st of August of this year Ferdinand won the brilliant victory of Minden
+(q.v.). Vellinghausen, Wilhelmsthal, Warburg and other victories attested
+the increasing power of Ferdinand in the following campaigns, and
+Frederick, hard pressed in the eastern theatre of war, owed much of his
+success in an almost hopeless task to the continued pressure exerted by
+Ferdinand in the west. In promoting him to be a field marshal (November
+1758) Frederick acknowledged his debt in the words, "Je n'ai fait que ce
+que je dois, mon cher Ferdinand." After Minden, King George II. gave the
+duke the order of the Garter, and the thanks of the British parliament
+were voted on the same occasion to the "Victor of Minden." After the war
+he was honoured by other sovereigns, and he received the rank of field
+marshal and a regiment from the Austrians. During the War of American
+Independence there was a suggestion, which came to nothing, of offering
+him the command of the British forces. He exerted himself to compensate
+those who had suffered by the Seven Years' War, devoting to this purpose
+most of the small income he received from his various offices and the
+rewards given to him by the allied princes. The estrangement of Frederick
+and Ferdinand in 1766 led to the duke's retirement from Prussian service,
+but there was no open breach between the old friends, and Ferdinand
+visited the king in 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782. After 1766 he passed the
+remainder of his life at his castle of Veschelde, where he occupied
+himself in building and other improvements, and became a patron of
+learning and art, and a great benefactor of the poor. He died on the 3rd
+of July 1792. The merits, civil and military, of the prince were
+recognized by memorials not only in Prussia and Hanover, but also in
+Denmark, the states of western Germany and England. The Prussian
+memorials include an equestrian statue at Berlin (1863).
+
+  See E. v. L. Knesebeck, _Ferdinand, Herzog von Braunschweig und
+  Luneburg, wahrend des Siebenjahrigen Kriegs_ (2 vols., Hanover,
+  1857-1858); Von Westphalen, _Geschichte der Feldzuge des Herzogs
+  Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Luneburg_ (5 vols., Berlin, 1859-1872); v.
+  d. Osten, _Tagebuch des Herzogl. Gen. Adjutanten v. Reden_ (Hamburg,
+  1805); v. Schafer, _Vie militaire du marechal Prince Ferdinand_
+  (Magdeburg, 1796; Nuremberg, 1798); also the _Oeuvres_ of Frederick
+  the Great, _passim_, and authorities for the SEVEN YEARS' WAR.
+
+
+
+
+FERDINAND (1577-1650), elector and archbishop of Cologne, son of William
+V., duke of Bavaria, was born on the 7th of October 1577. Intended for
+the church, he was educated by the Jesuits at the university of
+Ingolstadt, and in 1595 became coadjutor archbishop of Cologne. He
+became elector and archbishop in 1612 on the death of his uncle Ernest,
+whom he also succeeded as bishop of Liege, Munster and Hildesheim. He
+endeavoured resolutely to root out heresy in the lands under his rule,
+and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in every possible way. He
+supported the league founded by his brother Maximilian I., duke of
+Bavaria, and wished to involve the leaguers in a general attack on the
+Protestants of north Germany. The cool political sagacity of the duke
+formed a sharp contrast to the impetuosity of the archbishop, and he
+refused to accede to his brother's wish; but, in spite of these
+temporary differences, Ferdinand sent troops and money to the assistance
+of the league when the Thirty Years' War broke out in 1619. The
+elector's alliance with the Spaniards secured his territories to a great
+extent from the depredations of the war until the arrival of the Swedes
+in Germany in 1630, when the extension of the area of the struggle to
+the neighbourhood of Cologne induced him to enter into negotiations for
+peace. Nothing came of these attempts until 1647, when he joined his
+brother Maximilian in concluding an armistice with France and Sweden at
+Ulm. The elector's later years were marked by a conflict with the
+citizens of Liege; and when the peace of Westphalia freed him from his
+enemies, he was able to crush the citizens and deprive them of many
+privileges. Ferdinand, who had held the bishopric of Paderborn since
+1618, died at Arnsberg on the 13th of September 1650, and was buried in
+the cathedral at Cologne.
+
+  See L. Ennen, _Frankreich und der Niederrhein oder Geschichte von
+  Stadt und Kurstadt Koln seit dem 30 jahrigen Kriege_, Band i.
+  (Cologne, 1855-1856).
+
+
+
+
+FERENTINO (anc. _Ferentinum_, to be distinguished from Ferentum or
+Ferentinum in Etruria), a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the
+province of Rome, from which it is 48 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901)
+7957 (town), 12,279 (commune). It is picturesquely situated on a hill
+1290 ft. above sea-level, and still possesses considerable remains of
+ancient fortifications. The lower portion of the outer walls, which
+probably did not stand free, is built of roughly hewn blocks of a
+limestone which naturally splits into horizontal layers; above this in
+places is walling of rectangular blocks of tufa. Two gates, the Porta
+Sanguinaria (with an arch with tufa voussoirs), and the Porta S. Maria,
+a double gate constructed entirely of rectangular blocks of tufa, are
+preserved. Outside this gate is the tomb of A. Quinctilius Priscus, a
+citizen of Ferentinum, with a long inscription cut in the rock. See Th.
+Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x. (Berlin, 1883), No. 5853.
+
+The highest part of the town, the acropolis, is fortified also; it has
+massive retaining walls similar to those of the lower town. At the
+eastern corner, under the present episcopal palace, the construction is
+somewhat more careful. A projecting rectangular terrace has been
+erected, supported by walls of quadrilateral blocks of limestone
+arranged almost horizontally; while upon the level thus formed a
+building of rectangular blocks of local travertine was raised. The
+projecting cornice of this building bears two inscriptions of the period
+of Sulla, recording its construction by two censors (local officials);
+and in the interior, which contains several chambers, there is an
+inscription of the same censors over one of the doors, and another over
+a smaller external side door. The windows lighting these chambers come
+immediately above the cornice, and the wall continues above them again.
+The whole of this construction probably belongs to one period (Mommsen,
+_op. cit._ No. 5837 seq.). The cathedral occupies a part of the level
+top of the ancient acropolis; it was reconstructed on the site of an
+older church in 1099-1118; the interior was modernized in 1693, but was
+restored to its original form in 1902. It contains a fine canopy in the
+"Cosmatesque" style (see _Relazione dei lavori eseguiti dall' ufficio
+tecnico per la conservazione dei monumenti di Rome a provincia_, Rome,
+1903, 175 seq.). The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore, in the lower
+town (13th-14th century), has a very fine exterior; the interior, the
+plan of which is a perfect rectangle, has been spoilt by restoration.
+There are several other Gothic churches in the town.
+
+Ferentinum was the chief town of the Hernici; it was captured from them
+by the Romans in 364 B.C. and took no part in the rising of 306 B.C. The
+inhabitants became Roman citizens after 195 B.C., and the place later
+became a _municipium_. It lay just above the Via Latina and, being a
+strong place, served for the detention of hostages. Horace praises its
+quietness, and it does not appear much in later history. (T. As.)
+
+  See further Ashby, _Rom. Mittell._ xxiv. (1909).
+
+
+
+
+FERENTUM, or FERENTINUM, an ancient town of Etruria, about 6 m. N. of
+Viterbo (the ancient name of which is unknown) and 3-1/2 m. E. of the
+Via Cassia. It was the birthplace (32 A.D.) of the emperor Otho, was
+destroyed in the 11th century, and is now entirely deserted, though it
+retains its ancient name. It occupied a ridge running from east to west,
+with deep ravines on three sides. There are some remains of the city
+walls, and of various Roman structures, but the most important ruin is
+that of the theatre. The stage front is still standing; it is pierced by
+seven openings with flat arches, and shows traces of reconstruction. The
+acropolis was on the hill called Talone on the north-east.
+
+  See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London, 1883), i.
+  156; _Notizie degli scavi_, 1900, 401; 1902, 84; 1905, 31.
+
+
+
+
+FERETORY (from Lat. _feretrum_, a bier, from _ferre_, to bear), in
+architecture, the enclosure or chapel within which the "fereter" shrine,
+or tomb (as in Henry VII.'s chapel), was placed.
+
+
+
+
+FERGHANA, or FERGANA, a province of Russian Turkestan, formed in 1876
+out of the former khanate of Khokand. It is bounded by the provinces of
+Syr-darya on the N. and N.W., Samarkand on the W., and Semiryechensk on
+the N.E., by Chinese Turkestan (Kashgaria) on the E., and by Bokhara and
+Afghanistan on the S. Its southern limits, on the Pamirs, were fixed by
+an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from Zor-kul (Victoria Lake) to the
+Chinese frontier; and Shignan, Roshan and Wakhan were assigned to
+Bokhara in exchange for part of Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj),
+which was given to Afghanistan. The area amounts to some 53,000 sq. m.,
+of which 17,600 sq. m. are on the Pamirs. The most important part of the
+province is a rich and fertile valley (1200-1500 ft.), opening towards
+the S.W. Thence the province stretches northwards across the mountains
+of the Tian-shan system and southwards across the Alai and Trans-Alai
+Mts., which reach their highest point in Peak Kaufmann (23,000 ft.), in
+the latter range. The valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the Naryn
+and the Karadarya, which unite within its confines, near Namangan, to
+form the Syr-darya or Jaxartes. These streams, and their numerous
+mountain affluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but also bring
+down vast quantities of sand, which is deposited alongside their
+courses, more especially alongside the Syr-darya where it cuts its way
+through the Khojent-Ajar ridge, forming there the Karakchikum. This
+expanse of moving sands, covering an area of 750 sq. m., under the
+influence of south-west winds, encroaches upon the agricultural
+districts. The climate of this valley is dry and warm. In March the
+temperature reaches 68 deg. F., and then rapidly rises to 95 deg. in
+June, July and August. During the five months following April no rain
+falls, but it begins again in October. Snow and frost (down to -4 deg.
+F.) occur in December and January.
+
+Out of some 3,000,000 acres of cultivated land, about two-thirds are
+under constant irrigation and the remaining third under partial
+irrigation. The soil is admirably cultivated, the principal crops being
+wheat, rice, barley, maize, millet, lucerne, tobacco, vegetables and
+fruit. Gardening is conducted with a high degree of skill and success.
+Large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep are kept, and a good many
+camels are bred. Over 17,000 acres are planted with vines, and some
+350,000 acres are under cotton. Nearly 1,000,000 acres are covered with
+forests. The government maintains a forestry farm at Marghelan, from
+which 120,000 to 200,000 young trees are distributed free every year
+amongst the inhabitants of the province.
+
+Silkworm breeding, formerly a prosperous industry, has decayed, despite
+the encouragement of a state farm at New Marghelan. Coal, iron, sulphur,
+gypsum, rock-salt, lacustrine salt and naphtha are all known to exist,
+but only the last two are extracted. Some seventy or eighty factories
+are engaged in cotton cleaning; while leather, saddlery, paper and
+cutlery are the principal products of the domestic industries. A
+considerable trade is carried on with Russia; raw cotton, raw silk,
+tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit and cotton and leather goods are
+exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar are imported
+and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara. The total trade of
+Ferghana reaches an annual value of nearly L3,500,000. A new impulse was
+given to trade by the extension (1899) of the Transcaspian railway into
+Ferghana and by the opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent railway (1906). The
+routes to Kashgaria and the Pamirs are mere bridle-paths over the
+mountains, crossing them by lofty passes. For instance, the passes of
+Kara-kazyk (14,400 ft.) and Tenghiz-bai (11,200 ft.), both passable all
+the year round, lead from Marghelan to Kara-teghin and the Pamirs, while
+Kashgar is reached via Osh and Gulcha, and then over the passes of
+Terek-davan (12,205 ft.; open all the year round), Taldyk (11,500 ft.),
+Archat (11,600 ft.), and Shart-davan (14,000 ft.). Other passes leading
+out of the valley are the Jiptyk (12,460 ft.), S. of Khokand; the
+Isfairam (12,000 ft.), leading to the glen of the Surkhab, and the Kavuk
+(13,000 ft.), across the Alai Mts.
+
+The population numbered 1,571,243 in 1897, and of that number 707,132
+were women and 286,369 were urban. In 1906 it was estimated at
+1,796,500. Two-thirds of the total are Sarts and Uzbegs (of Turkic
+origin). They live mostly in the valley; while the mountain slopes above
+it are occupied by Kirghiz, partly nomad and pastoral, partly
+agricultural and settled. The other races are Tajiks, Kashgarians,
+Kipchaks, Jews and Gypsies. The governing classes are of course
+Russians, who constitute also the merchant and artizan classes. But the
+merchants of West Turkestan are called all over central Asia Andijanis,
+from the town of Andijan in Ferghana. The great mass of the population
+are Mussulmans (1,039,115 in 1897). The province is divided into five
+districts, the chief towns of which are New Marghelan, capital of the
+province (8977 inhabitants in 1897), Andijan (49,682 in 1900), Khokand
+(86,704 in 1900), Namangan (61,906 in 1897), and Osh (37,397 in 1900);
+but Old Marghelan (42,855 in 1900) and Chust (13,686 in 1897) are also
+towns of importance. For the history, see KHOKAND.
+     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+FERGUS FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Otter Tail county,
+Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red river, 170 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop.
+(1890) 3772; (1900) 6072, of whom 2131 were foreign-born; (1905) 6692;
+(1910) 6887. A large part of the population is of Scandinavian birth or
+descent. Fergus Falls is served by the Great Northern and the Northern
+Pacific railways. Situated in the celebrated "park region" of the state,
+the city possesses great natural beauty, which has been enhanced by a
+system of boulevards and well-kept private lawns. Lake Alice, in the
+residential district, adds to the city's attractions. The city has a
+public library, a county court house, St Luke's hospital, the G.B.
+Wright memorial hospital, and a city hall. It is the seat of a state
+hospital for the insane (1887) with about 1600 patients, of a business
+college, of the Park Region Luther College (Norwegian Lutheran, 1892),
+and of the North-western College (Swedish Lutheran; opened in 1901). It
+has one of the finest water-powers in the state. Flour is the principal
+product; among others are woollen goods, foundry and machine-shop
+products, wooden ware, sash, doors and blinds, caskets, shirts, wagons
+and packed meats. The city owns and operates its water-works and its
+electric-lighting plant. Fergus Falls was settled about 1859 and was
+incorporated in 1863.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816), Scottish philosopher and historian, was born
+on the 20th of June 1723, at Logierait, Perthshire. He was educated at
+Perth grammar school and the university of St Andrews. In 1745, owing to
+his knowledge of Gaelic, he was appointed deputy chaplain of the 43rd
+(afterwards the 42nd) regiment (the Black Watch), the licence to preach
+being granted him by special dispensation, although he had not completed
+the required six years of theological study. At the battle of Fontenoy
+(1745) Ferguson fought in the ranks throughout the day, and refused to
+leave the field, though ordered to do so by his colonel. He continued
+attached to the regiment till 1754, when, disappointed at not obtaining
+a living, he abandoned the clerical profession and resolved to devote
+himself to literary pursuits. In January 1757 he succeeded David Hume as
+librarian to the faculty of advocates, but soon relinquished this office
+on becoming tutor in the family of Lord Bute.
+
+In 1759 Ferguson was appointed professor of natural philosophy in the
+university of Edinburgh, and in 1764 was transferred to the chair of
+"pneumatics" (mental philosophy) "and moral philosophy." In 1767,
+against Hume's advice, he published his _Essay on the History of Civil
+Society_, which was well received and translated into several European
+languages. In 1776 appeared his (anonymous) pamphlet on the American
+revolution in opposition to Dr Price's _Observations on the Nature of
+Civil Liberty_, in which he sympathized with the views of the British
+legislature. In 1778 Ferguson was appointed secretary to the commission
+which endeavoured, but without success, to negotiate an arrangement with
+the revolted colonies. In 1783 appeared his _History of the Progress and
+Termination of the Roman Republic_; it was very popular, and went
+through several editions. Ferguson was led to undertake this work from a
+conviction that the history of the Romans during the period of their
+greatness was a practical illustration of those ethical and political
+doctrines which were the object of his special study. The history is
+written in an agreeable style and a spirit of impartiality, and gives
+evidence of a conscientious use of authorities. The influence of the
+author's military experience shows itself in certain portions of the
+narrative. Finding himself unequal to the labour of teaching, he
+resigned his professorship in 1785, and devoted himself to the revision
+of his lectures, which he published (1792) under the title of
+_Principles of Moral and Political Science_.
+
+When in his seventieth year, Ferguson, intending to prepare a new
+edition of the history, visited Italy and some of the principal cities
+of Europe, where he was received with honour by learned societies. From
+1795 he resided successively at the old castle of Neidpath near Peebles,
+at Hallyards on Manor Water and at St Andrews, where he died on the 22nd
+of February 1816.
+
+In his ethical system Ferguson treats man throughout as a social being,
+and illustrates his doctrines by political examples. As a believer in
+the progression of the human race, he placed the principle of moral
+approbation in the attainment of perfection. His speculations were
+carefully criticized by Cousin (see his _Cours d'histoire de la
+philosophie morale au dix-huitieme siecle_, pt. ii., 1839-1840):--"We
+find in his method the wisdom and circumspection of the Scottish school,
+with something more masculine and decisive in the results. The principle
+of _perfection_ is a new one, at once more rational and comprehensive
+than benevolence and sympathy, which in our view places Ferguson as a
+moralist above all his predecessors." By this principle Ferguson
+endeavours to reconcile all moral systems. With Hobbes and Hume he
+admits the power of self-interest or utility, and makes it enter into
+morals as the law of self-preservation. Hutcheson's theory of universal
+benevolence and Smith's idea of sympathy he combines under the law of
+society. But, as these laws are the means rather than the end of human
+destiny, they are subordinate to a supreme end, and this supreme end is
+perfection. In the political part of his system Ferguson follows
+Montesquieu, and pleads the cause of well-regulated liberty and free
+government. His contemporaries, with the exception of Hume, regarded his
+writings as of great importance; in point of fact they are superficial.
+The facility of their style and the frequent occurrence of would-be
+weighty epigrams blinded his critics to the fact that, in spite of his
+recognition of the importance of observation, he made no real
+contribution to political theory (see Sir Leslie Stephen, _English
+Thought in the Eighteenth Century_, x. 89-90).
+
+  The chief authority for Ferguson's life is the _Biographical Sketch_
+  by John Small (1864); see also _Public Characters_ (1799-1800);
+  _Gentleman's Magazine_, i. (1816 supp.); W.R. Chambers's _Biographical
+  Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen_; memoir by Principal Lee in early
+  editions of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; J. McCosh, _The Scottish
+  Philosophy_ (1875); articles in _Dictionary of National Biography_ and
+  _Edinburgh Review_ (January 1867); Lord Henry Cockburn, _Memorials of
+  his Time_ (1856).
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSON, JAMES (1710-1776), Scottish mechanician and astronomer, was
+born near Rothiemay in Banffshire on the 25th of April 1710, of parents
+in very humble circumstances. He first learned to read by overhearing
+his father teach his elder brother, and with the help of an old woman
+was "able," he says in his autobiography, "to read tolerably well before
+his father thought of teaching him." After receiving further instruction
+in reading from his father, who also taught him to write, he was sent at
+the age of seven for three months to the grammar school at Keith. His
+taste for mechanics was about this time accidentally awakened on seeing
+his father making use of a lever to raise a part of the roof of his
+house--an exhibition of seeming strength which at first "excited his
+terror as well as wonder." In 1720 he was sent to a neighbouring farm to
+keep sheep, where in the daytime he amused himself by making models of
+mills and other machines, and at night in studying the stars.
+Afterwards, as a servant with a miller, and then with a doctor, he met
+with hardships which rendered his constitution feeble through life.
+Being compelled by his weak health to return home, he there amused
+himself with making a clock having wooden wheels and a whalebone spring.
+When slightly recovered he showed this and some other inventions to a
+neighbouring gentleman, who engaged him to clean his clocks, and also
+desired him to make his house his home. He there began to draw patterns
+for needlework, and his success in this art led him to think of becoming
+a painter. In 1734 he went to Edinburgh, where he began to take
+portraits in miniature, by which means, while engaged in his scientific
+studies, he supported himself and his family for many years.
+Subsequently he settled at Inverness, where he drew up his _Astronomical
+Rotula_ for showing the motions of the planets, places of the sun and
+moon, &c., and in 1743 went to London, which was his home for the rest
+of his life. He wrote various papers for the Royal Society, of which he
+became a fellow in 1763, devised astronomical and mechanical models, and
+in 1748 began to give public lectures on experimental philosophy. These
+he repeated in most of the principal towns in England. His deep interest
+in his subject, his clear explanations, his ingeniously constructed
+diagrams, and his mechanical apparatus rendered him one of the most
+successful of popular lecturers on scientific subjects. It is, however,
+as the inventor and improver of astronomical and other scientific
+apparatus, and as a striking instance of self-education, that he claims
+a place among the most remarkable men of science of his country. During
+the latter years of his life he was in receipt of a pension of L50 from
+the privy purse. He died in London on the 17th of November 1776.
+
+  Ferguson's principal publications are _Astronomical Tables_ (1763);
+  _Lectures on Select Subjects_ (1st ed., 1761, edited by Sir David
+  Brewster in 1805); _Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Newton's
+  Principles_ (1756, edited by Sir David Brewster in 1811); and _Select
+  Mechanical Exercises, with a Short Account of the Life of the Author,
+  written by himself_ (1773). This autobiography is included in a _Life_
+  by E. Henderson, LL.D. (1st ed., 1867; 2nd, 1870), which also contains
+  a full description of Ferguson's principal inventions, accompanied
+  with illustrations. See also _The Story of the Peasant-Boy
+  Philosopher_, by Henry Mayhew (1857).
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSON, ROBERT (c. 1637-1714), British conspirator and pamphleteer,
+called the "Plotter," was a son of William Ferguson (d. 1699) of
+Badifurrow, Aberdeenshire, and after receiving a good education,
+probably at the university of Aberdeen, became a Presbyterian minister.
+According to Bishop Burnet he was cast out by the Presbyterians; but
+whether this be so or not, he soon made his way to England and became
+vicar of Godmersham, Kent, from which living he was expelled by the Act
+of Uniformity in 1662. Some years later, having gained meanwhile a
+reputation as a theological controversialist and become a person of
+importance among the Nonconformists, he attracted the notice of the earl
+of Shaftesbury and the party which favoured the exclusion of the duke of
+York (afterwards King James II.) from the throne, and he began to write
+political pamphlets just at the time when the feeling against the Roman
+Catholics was at its height. In 1680 he wrote "A Letter to a Person of
+Honour concerning the 'Black Box,'" in which he supported the claim of
+the duke of Monmouth to the crown against that of the duke of York;
+returning to the subject after Charles II. had solemnly denied the
+existence of a marriage between himself and Lucy Waters. He took an
+active part in the controversy over the Exclusion Bill, and claimed to
+be the author of the whole of the pamphlet "No Protestant Plot" (1681),
+parts of which are usually ascribed to Shaftesbury. Ferguson was deeply
+implicated in the Rye House Plot, although he asserted that he had
+frustrated both this and a subsequent attempt to assassinate the king,
+and he fled to Holland with Shaftesbury in 1682, returning to England
+early in 1683. For his share in another plot against Charles II. he was
+declared an outlaw, after which he entered into communication with
+Argyll, Monmouth and other malcontents. Ferguson then took a leading
+part in organizing the rising of 1685. Having overcome Monmouth's
+reluctance to take part in this movement, he accompanied the duke to the
+west of England and drew up the manifesto against James II., escaping to
+Holland after the battle of Sedgemoor. He landed in England with William
+of Orange in 1688, and aided William's cause with his pen; but William
+and his advisers did not regard him as a person of importance, although
+his services were rewarded with a sinecure appointment in the Excise.
+Chagrined at this treatment, Ferguson was soon in correspondence with
+the exiled Jacobites. He shared in all the plots against the life of
+William, and after his removal from the Excise in 1692 wrote violent
+pamphlets against the government. Although he was several times arrested
+on suspicion, he was never brought to trial. He died in great poverty in
+1714, leaving behind him a great and deserved reputation for treachery.
+It has been thought by Macaulay and others that Ferguson led the English
+government to believe that he was a spy in their interests, and that his
+frequent escapes from justice were due to official connivance. In a
+proclamation issued for his arrest in 1683 he is described as "a tall
+lean man, dark brown hair, a great Roman nose, thin-jawed, heat in his
+face, speaks in the Scotch tone, a sharp piercing eye, stoops a little
+in the shoulders." Besides numerous pamphlets Ferguson wrote: _History
+of the Revolution_ (1706); _Qualifications requisite in a Minister of
+State_ (1710); and part of the _History of all the Mobs, Tumults and
+Insurrections in Great Britain_ (London, 1715).
+
+  See James Ferguson, _Robert Ferguson, the Plotter_ (Edinburgh, 1887),
+  which gives a favourable account of Ferguson.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886), Irish poet and antiquary, was born at
+Belfast, on the 10th of March 1810. He was educated at Trinity College,
+Dublin, was called to the Irish bar in 1838, and was made Q.C. in 1859,
+but in 1867 retired from practice upon his appointment as deputy-keeper
+of the Irish records, then in a much neglected condition. He was an
+excellent civil servant, and was knighted in 1878 for his services to
+the department. His spare time was given to general literature, and in
+particular to poetry. He had long been a leading contributor to the
+_Dublin University Magazine_ and to _Blackwood_, where he had published
+his two literary masterpieces, "The Forging of the Anchor," one of the
+finest of modern ballads, and the humorous prose extravaganza of "Father
+Tom and the Pope." He published _Lays of the Western Gael_ in 1865,
+_Poems_ in 1880, and in 1872 _Congal_, a metrical narrative of the
+heroic age of Ireland, and, though far from ideal perfection, perhaps
+the most successful attempt yet made by a modern Irish poet to revivify
+the spirit of the past in a poem of epic proportions. Lyrics have
+succeeded better in other hands; many of Ferguson's pieces on modern
+themes, notably his "Lament for Thomas Davis" (1845), are, nevertheless,
+excellent. He was an extensive contributor on antiquarian subjects to
+the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, and was elected its
+president in 1882. His manners were delightful, and his hospitality was
+boundless. He died at Howth on the 9th of August 1886. His most
+important antiquarian work, _Ogham Inscriptions in Ireland, Wales,
+Scotland_, was published in the year after his death.
+
+  See _Sir Samuel Ferguson in the Ireland of his Day_ (1896), by his
+  wife, Mary C. Ferguson; also an article by A.P. Graves in _A Treasury
+  of Irish Poetry in the English Tongue_ (1900), edited by Stopford
+  Brooke and T.W. Rolleston.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSSON, JAMES (1808-1886), Scottish writer on architecture, was born
+at Ayr on the 22nd of January 1808. His father was an army surgeon.
+After being educated first at the Edinburgh high school, and afterwards
+at a private school at Hounslow, James went to Calcutta as partner in a
+mercantile house. Here he was attracted by the remains of the ancient
+architecture of India, little known or understood at that time. The
+successful conduct of an indigo factory, as he states in his own
+account, enabled him in about ten years to retire from business and
+settle in London. The observations made on Indian architecture were
+first embodied in his book on _The Rock-cut Temples of India_, published
+in 1845. The task of analysing the historic and aesthetic relations of
+this type of ancient buildings led him further to undertake a historical
+and critical comparative survey of the whole subject of architecture in
+_The Handbook of Architecture_, a work which first appeared in 1855.
+This did not satisfy him, and the work was reissued ten years later in a
+much more extended form under the title of _The History of
+Architecture_. The chapters on Indian architecture, which had been
+considered at rather disproportionate length in the _Handbook_, were
+removed from the general _History_, and the whole of this subject
+treated more fully in a separate volume, _The History of Indian and
+Eastern Architecture_, which appeared in 1876, and, although complete in
+itself, formed a kind of appendix to _The History of Architecture_.
+Previously to this, in 1862, he issued his _History of Modern
+Architecture_, in which the subject was continued from the Renaissance
+to the present day, the period of "modern architecture" being
+distinguished as that of revivals and imitations of ancient styles,
+which began with the Renaissance. The essential difference between this
+and the spontaneously evolved architecture of preceding ages Fergusson
+was the first clearly to point out and characterize. His treatise on
+_The True Principles of Beauty in Art_, an early publication, is a most
+thoughtful metaphysical study. Some of his essays on special points in
+archaeology, such as the treatise on _The Mode in which Light was
+introduced into Greek Temples_, included theories which have not
+received general acceptance. His real monument is his _History of
+Architecture_ (later edition revised by R. Phene Spiers), which, for
+grasp of the whole subject, comprehensiveness of plan, and thoughtful
+critical analysis, stands quite alone in architectural literature. He
+received the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in
+1871. Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are: _A Proposed
+New System of Fortification_ (1849)_, Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis
+restored_ (1851), _Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored_ (1862), _Tree
+and Serpent Worship_ (1868), _Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries_
+(1872), and _The Temples of the Jews and the other Buildings in the
+Haram Area at Jerusalem_ (1878). The sessional papers of the Institute
+of British Architects include papers by him on _The History of the
+Pointed Arch_, _Architecture of Southern India_, _Architectural
+Splendour of the City of Beejapore_, _On the Erechtheum_ and on the
+_Temple of Diana at Ephesus_.
+
+Although Fergusson never practised architecture he took a keen interest
+in all the professional work of his time. He was adviser with Austen
+Layard in the scheme of decoration for the Assyrian court at the Crystal
+Palace, and indeed assumed in 1856 the duties of general manager to the
+Palace Company, a post which he held for two years. In 1847 Fergusson
+had published an "Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem," in
+which he had contended that the "Mosque of Omar" was the identical
+church built by Constantine the Great over the tomb of our Lord at
+Jerusalem, and that it, and not the present church of the Holy
+Sepulchre, was the genuine burial-place of Jesus. The burden of this
+contention was further explained by the publication in 1860 of his
+_Notes on the Site of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem_; and _The Temples
+of the Jews and the other Buildings in the Haram Area at Jerusalem_,
+published in 1878, was a still completer elaboration of these theories,
+which are said to have been the origin of the establishment of the
+Palestine Exploration fund. His manifold activities continued till his
+death, which took place in London on the 9th of January 1886.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774), Scottish poet, son of Sir William
+Fergusson, a clerk in the British Linen Company, was born at Edinburgh
+on the 5th of September 1750. Robert was educated at the grammar school
+of Dundee, and at the university of St Andrews, where he matriculated in
+1765. His father died while he was still at college; but a bursary
+enabled him to complete his four years of study. He refused to study for
+the church, and was too nervous to study medicine as his friends wished.
+He quarrelled with his uncle, John Forbes of Round Lichnot,
+Aberdeenshire, and went to Edinburgh, where he obtained employment as
+copying clerk in a lawyer's office. In this humble occupation he passed
+the remainder of his life. While at college he had written a clever
+elegy on Dr David Gregory, and in 1771 he began to contribute verses
+regularly to Ruddiman's _Weekly Magazine_. He was a member of the Cape
+Club, celebrated by him in his poem of "Auld Reekie." "The Knights of
+the Cape" assembled at a tavern in Craig's Close, in the vicinity of the
+Cross; each member had a name and character assigned to him, which he
+was required to maintain at all gatherings of the order. David Herd
+(1732-1810), the collector of the classic edition of _Ancient and Modern
+Scottish Songs_ (1776), was sovereign of the Cape (in which he was known
+as "Sir Scrape") when Fergusson was dubbed a knight of the order, with
+the title of "Sir Precentor," in allusion to his fine voice. Alexander
+Runciman, the historical painter, his pupil Jacob More, and Sir Henry
+Raeburn were all members. The old minute books of the club abound with
+pencilled sketches by them, one of the most interesting of which,
+ascribed to Runciman's pencil, is a sketch of Fergusson in his character
+of "Sir Precentor."
+
+Fergusson's gaiety and wit made him an entertaining companion, and he
+indulged too freely in the convivial habits of the time. After a meeting
+with John Brown of Haddington he became, however, very serious, and
+would read nothing but his Bible. A fall by which his head was severely
+injured aggravated symptoms of mental aberration which had begun to show
+themselves; and after about two months' confinement in the old Darien
+House--then the only public asylum in Edinburgh--the poet died on the
+16th of October 1774.
+
+Fergusson's poems were collected in the year before his death. The
+influence of his writings on Robert Burns is undoubted. His "Leith
+Races" unquestionably supplied the model for the "Holy Fair." Not only
+is the stanza the same, but the Mirth who plays the part of conductor to
+Fergusson, and the Fun who renders a like service to Burns, are
+manifestly conceived on the same model. "The Mutual Complaint of
+Plainstanes and Causey" probably suggested "The Brigs of Ayr"; "On
+seeing a Butterfly in the Street" has reflections in it which strikingly
+correspond with "To a Mouse"; nor will a comparison of "The Farmer's
+Ingle" of the elder poet with "The Cottar's Saturday Night" admit of a
+doubt as to the influence of the city-bred poet's muse on that exquisite
+picturing of homely peasant life. Burns was himself the first to render
+a generous tribute to the merits of Fergusson; on his visit to Edinburgh
+in 1787 he sought out the poet's grave, and petitioned the authorities
+of the Canongate burying-ground for permission to erect the memorial
+stone which is preserved in the existing monument. The date there
+assigned for his birth differs from the one given above, which rests on
+the authority of his younger sister Margaret.
+
+  The first edition of Fergusson's poems was published by Ruddiman at
+  Edinburgh in 1773, and a supplement containing additional poems, in
+  1779. A second edition appeared in 1785. There are later editions, by
+  Robert Chambers (1850) and Dr A.B. Grosart (1851). A life of Fergusson
+  is included in Dr David Irving's _Lives of the Scottish Poets_, and in
+  Robert Chambers's Lives of _Illustrious and Distinguished Scotsmen_.
+
+
+
+
+FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1808-1877), British surgeon, the son of
+James Fergusson of Lochmaben, Dumfriesshire, was born at Prestonpans,
+East Lothian, on the 20th of March 1808. After receiving his early
+education at Lochmaben and the high school of Edinburgh, he entered the
+university of Edinburgh with the view of studying law, but soon
+afterwards abandoned his intention and became a pupil of the anatomist
+Robert Knox (1791-1862) whose demonstrator he was appointed at the age
+of twenty. In 1836 he succeeded Robert Liston as surgeon to the
+Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and coming to London in 1840 as professor of
+surgery in King's College, and surgeon to King's College Hospital, he
+acquired a commanding position among the surgeons of the metropolis. He
+revived the operation for cleft-palate, which for many years had fallen
+into disrepute, and invented a special mouth-gag for the same. He also
+devised many other surgical instruments, chief among which, and still in
+use to-day, are his bone forceps, lion forceps and vaginal speculum. In
+1866 he was created a baronet. He died in London on the 10th of February
+1877. As a surgeon Fergusson's greatest merit is that of having
+introduced the practice of "conservative surgery," by which he meant the
+excision of a joint rather than the amputation of a limb. He made his
+diagnosis with almost intuitive certainty; as an operator he was
+characterized by self-possession in the most critical circumstances, by
+minute attention to details and by great refinement of touch, and he
+relied more on his mechanical dexterity than on complicated instruments.
+He was the author of _The Progress of Anatomy and Surgery in the
+Nineteenth Century_ (1867), and of a _System of Practical Surgery_
+(1842), which went through several editions.
+
+
+
+
+FERINGHI, or FERINGHEE, a Frank (Persian, _Farangi_). This term for a
+European is very old in Asia, and was originally used in a purely
+geographical sense, but now generally carries a hostile or contemptuous
+significance. The combatants on either side during the Indian Mutiny
+called each other Feringhies and Pandies.
+
+
+
+
+FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM (c. 1570-c. 1611), Persian historian, was born
+at Astrabad, on the shores of the Caspian Sea. While he was still a
+child his father was summoned away from his native country into
+Hindostan, where he held high office in the Deccan; and by his influence
+the young Ferishta received court promotion. In 1589 Ferishta removed to
+Bijapur, where he spent the remainder of his life under the immediate
+protection of the shah Ibrahim Adil II., who engaged him to write a
+history of India. At the court of this monarch he died about 1611. In
+the introduction to his work a _resume_ is given of the history of
+Hindostan prior to the times of the Mahommedan conquest, and also of the
+victorious progress of the Arabs through the East. The first ten books
+are each occupied with a history of the kings of one of the provinces;
+the eleventh book gives an account of the Mussulmans of Malabar; the
+twelfth a history of the Mussulman saints of India; and the conclusion
+treats of the geography and climate of India. Ferishta is reputed one of
+the most trustworthy of the Oriental historians, and his work still
+maintains a high place as an authority. Several portions of it have been
+translated into English; but the best as well as the most complete
+translation is that published by General J. Briggs under the title of
+_The History of the Rise of the Mahometan Power in India_ (London, 1829,
+4 vols. 8vo). Several additions were made by Briggs to the original work
+of Ferishta, but he omitted the whole of the twelfth book, and various
+other passages which had been omitted in the copy from which he
+translated.
+
+
+
+
+FERMANAGH, a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, bounded N.W.
+by Donegal, N.E. by Tyrone, E. by Monaghan and S.W. by Cavan and
+Leitrim. The area is 457,369 acres or about 715 sq. m. The county is
+situated mostly in the basin of the Erne, which divides the county into
+two nearly equal sections. Its surface is hilly, and its appearance (in
+many parts) somewhat sterile, though in the main, and especially in the
+neighbourhood of Lough Erne, it is picturesque and attractive. The
+climate, though moist, is healthy, and the people are generally tall and
+robust. The chief mountains are Cuilcagh (2188 ft.), partly in Leitrim
+and Cavan, Belmore (1312), Glenkeel (1223), North Shean (1135), Tappahan
+(1110), Carnmore (1034). Tossett or Toppid and Turaw mountains command
+extensive prospects, and form striking features in the scenery of the
+county. But the most distinguishing features of Fermanagh are the Upper
+and Lower Loughs Erne, which occupy a great extent of its surface,
+stretching for about 45 m. from S.E. to N.W. These lakes are expansions
+of the river Erne, which enters the county from Cavan at Wattle Bridge.
+It passes Belturbet, the Loughs Erne, Enniskillen and Belleek, on its
+way to the Atlantic, into which it descends at Ballyshannon. At Belleek
+it forms a considerable waterfall and is here well known to sportsmen
+for its good salmon fishing. Trout are taken in most of the loughs, and
+pike of great size in the Loughs Erne. There are several mineral springs
+in the county, some of them chalybeate, others sulphurous. At Belcoo,
+near Enniskillen, there is a famous well called Daragh Phadric, held in
+repute by the peasantry for its cure of paralytic and other diseases;
+and 4 m. N.W. of the same town, at a place called "the Daughton," are
+natural caves of considerable size.
+
+This county includes in the north an area of the gneiss that is
+discussed under county Donegal, and, west of Omagh, a metamorphic region
+that stretches in from the central axis of Tyrone. A fault divides the
+latter from the mass of red-brown Old Red Sandstone that spreads south
+nearly to Enniskillen. Lower Carboniferous sandstone and limestone occur
+on the north of Lower Lough Erne. The limestone forms fine scarps on the
+southern side of the lake, capped by beds regarded as the Yoredale
+series. The scenery about the two Loughs Macnean is carved out in
+similarly scarped hills, rising to 2188 ft. in Cuilcagh on the south.
+The "Marble Arch" cave near Florence-court, with its emerging river, is
+a characteristic example of the subterranean waterways in the limestone.
+Upper Lough Erne is a typical meandering lake of the limestone lowland,
+with outliers of higher Carboniferous strata forming highlands
+north-east and south-west of it.
+
+With the exception of the pottery works at Belleek, where iridescent
+ware of good quality is produced, Fermanagh has no distinguishing
+manufactures. It is chiefly an agricultural county. The proportion of
+tillage to pasture is roughly as 1 to 2-1/2. Cattle and poultry are the
+principal classes of live stock. Oats and potatoes are the crops most
+extensively cultivated. The north-western division of the Great Northern
+railway passes through the most populous portion of the county, one
+branch connecting Enniskillen with Clones, another connecting
+Enniskillen with Londonderry via Omagh, and a third connecting Bundoran
+Junction with Bundoran, in county Donegal. The Sligo, Leitrim & Northern
+Counties railway connects with the Great Northern at Enniskillen, and
+the Clogher Valley light railway connects southern county Tyrone with
+the Great Northern at Maguiresbridge.
+
+The population (74,170 in 1891; 65,430 in 1901; almost wholly rural)
+shows a decrease among the most serious of the county populations of
+Ireland. It includes 55% of Roman Catholics and about 35% of Protestant
+Episcopalians. Enniskillen (the county town, pop. 5412) is the only town
+of importance, the rest being little more than villages. The principal
+are Lisnaskea, Irvinestown (formerly Lowtherstown), Maguiresbridge,
+Tempo, Newtownbutler, Belleek, Derrygonnelly and Kesh, at which fairs
+are held. Garrison, a fishing station on the wild Lough Melvin, and
+Pettigo, near to the lower Lough Erne, are market villages. Fermanagh
+returns two members to parliament, one each for the north and south
+divisions. It comprises eight baronies and nineteen civil parishes. The
+assizes are held at Enniskillen, quarter sessions at Enniskillen and
+Newtownbutler. The headquarters of the constabulary are at Enniskillen.
+Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant and Roman Catholic
+dioceses of Clogher and Kilmore.
+
+By the ancient Irish the district was called _Feor-magh-Eanagh_, or the
+"country of the lakes" (lit. "the mountain-valley marsh district"); and
+also Magh-uire, or "the country of the waters." A large portion was
+occupied by the _Guarii_, the ancestors of the MacGuires or Maguires, a
+name still common in the district. This family was so influential that
+for centuries the county was called after it Maguire's Country, and one
+of the towns still existing bears its name, Maguiresbridge. Fermanagh
+was formed into a county on the shiring of Ulster in 1585 by Sir John
+Perrot, and was included in the well-known scheme of colonization of
+James I., the Plantation of Ulster. In 1689 battles were fought between
+William III.'s army and the Irish under Macarthy (for James II.),
+Lisnaskea (26th July) and Newtownbutler (30th July). The chief place of
+interest to the antiquary is Devenish Island in Lough Erne, about 2-1/2
+m. N.W. from Enniskillen (q.v.), with its ruined abbey, round tower and
+cross. In various places throughout the county may be seen the ruins of
+several ancient castles, Danish raths or encampments, and tumuli, in the
+last of which urns and stone coffins have sometimes been found. The
+round tower on Devenish Island is one of the finest examples in the
+country.
+
+
+
+
+FERMAT, PIERRE DE (1601-1665), French mathematician, was born on the
+17th of August 1601, at Beaumont-de-Lomagne near Montauban. While still
+young, he, along with Blaise Pascal, made some discoveries in regard to
+the properties of numbers, on which he afterwards built his method of
+calculating probabilities. He discovered a simpler method of quadrating
+parabolas than that of Archimedes, and a method of finding the greatest
+and the smallest ordinates of curved lines analogous to that of the then
+unknown differential calculus. His great work _De maximis et minimis_
+brought him into conflict with Rene Descartes, but the dispute was
+chiefly due to a want of explicitness in the statement of Fermat (see
+INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). His brilliant researches in the theory of
+numbers entitle him to rank as the founder of the modern theory. They
+originally took the form of marginal notes in a copy of Bachet's
+_Diophantus_, and were published in 1670 by his son Samuel, who
+incorporated them in a new edition of this Greek writer. Other theorems
+were published in his _Opera Varia_, and in John Wallis's _Commercium
+epistolicum_ (1658). He died in the belief that he had found a relation
+which every prime number must satisfy, namely 2^2n + 1 = a prime. This
+was afterwards disproved by Leonhard Euler for the case when n = 5.
+_Fermat's Theorem_, if p is prime and a is prime to p then a^(p-1) - 1
+is divisible by p, was first given in a letter of 1640. _Fermat's
+Problem_ is that x^n + y^n = z^n is impossible for integral values of x,
+y and z when n is greater than 2.
+
+Fermat was for some time councillor for the parliament of Toulouse, and
+in the discharge of the duties of that office he was distinguished both
+for legal knowledge and for strict integrity of conduct. Though the
+sciences were the principal objects of his private studies, he was also
+an accomplished general scholar and an excellent linguist. He died at
+Toulouse on the 12th of January 1665. He left a son, Samuel de Fermat
+(1630-1690) who published translations of several Greek authors and
+wrote certain books on law in addition to editing his father's works.
+
+  The _Opera mathematica_ of Fermat were published at Toulouse, in 2
+  vols. folio, 1670 and 1679. The first contains the "Arithmetic of
+  Diophantus," with notes and additions. The second includes a "Method
+  for the Quadrature of Parabolas," and a treatise "on Maxima and
+  Minima, on Tangents, and on Centres of Gravity," containing the same
+  solutions of a variety of problems as were afterwards incorporated
+  into the more extensive method of fluxions by Newton and Leibnitz. In
+  the same volume are treatises on "Geometric Loci, or Spherical
+  Tangencies," and on the "Rectification of Curves," besides a
+  restoration of "Apollonius's Plane Loci," together with the author's
+  correspondence addressed to Descartes, Pascal, Roberval, Huygens and
+  others. The _Oeuvres_ of Fermat have been re-edited by P. Tannery and
+  C. Henry (Paris, 1891-1894).
+
+  See Paul Tannery, "Sur la date des principales decouvertes de Fermat,"
+  in the _Bulletin Darboux_ (1883); and "Les Manuscrits de Fermat," in
+  the _Annales de la faculte des lettres de Bordeaux_.
+
+
+
+
+FERMENTATION. The process of fermentation in the preparation of wine,
+vinegar, beer and bread was known and practised in prehistoric times.
+The alchemists used the terms fermentation, digestion and putrefaction
+indiscriminately; any reaction in which chemical energy was displayed in
+some form or other--such, for instance, as the effervescence occasioned
+by the addition of an acid to an alkaline solution--was described as a
+fermentation (Lat. _fervere_, to boil); and the idea of the
+"Philosopher's Stone" setting up a fermentation in the common metals and
+developing the essence or germ, which should transmute them into silver
+or gold, further complicated the conception of fermentation. As an
+outcome of this alchemical doctrine the process of fermentation was
+supposed to have a purifying and elevating effect on the bodies which
+had been submitted to its influence. Basil Valentine wrote that when
+yeast was added to wort "an internal inflammation is communicated to the
+liquid, so that it raises in itself, and thus the segregation and
+separation of the feculent from the clear takes place." Johann Becher,
+in 1669, first found that alcohol was formed during the fermentation of
+solutions of sugar; he distinguished also between fermentation and
+putrefaction. In 1697 Georg Stahl admitted that fermentation and
+putrefaction were analogous processes, but that the former was a
+particular case of the latter.
+
+The beginning of definite knowledge on the phenomenon of fermentation
+may be dated from the time of Antony Leeuwenhoek, who in 1680 designed a
+microscope sufficiently powerful to render yeast cells and bacteria
+visible; and a description of these organisms, accompanied by diagrams,
+was sent to the Royal Society of London. This investigator just missed a
+great discovery, for he did not consider the spherical forms to be
+living organisms but compared them with starch granules. It was not
+until 1803 that L.J. Thenard stated that yeast was the cause of
+fermentation, and held it to be of an animal nature, since it contained
+nitrogen and yielded ammonia on distillation, nor was it conclusively
+proved that the yeast cell was the originator of fermentation until the
+researches of C. Cagniard de la Tour, T. Schwann and F. Kutzing from
+1836 to 1839 settled the point. These investigators regarded yeast as a
+plant, and Meyer gave to the germs the systematic name of
+"Saccharomyces" (sugar fungus). In 1839-1840 J. von Liebig attacked the
+doctrine that fermentation was caused by micro-organisms, and enunciated
+his theory of mechanical decomposition. He held that every fermentation
+consisted of molecular motion which is transmitted from a substance in a
+state of chemical motion--that is, of decomposition--to other
+substances, the elements of which are loosely held together. It is clear
+from Liebig's publications that he first regarded yeast as a lifeless,
+albuminoid mass; but, although later he considered they were living
+cells, he would never admit that fermentation was a physiological
+process, the chemical aspect being paramount in the mind of this
+distinguished investigator.
+
+In 1857 Pasteur decisively proved that fermentation was a physiological
+process, for he showed that the yeast which produced fermentation was no
+dead mass, as assumed by Liebig, but consisted of living organisms
+capable of growth and multiplication. His own words are: "The chemical
+action of fermentation is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a
+vital act, beginning and ending with it. I think that there is never any
+alcoholic fermentation without there being at the same time
+organization, development and multiplication of globules, or the
+continued consecutive life of globules already formed." Fermentation,
+according to Pasteur, was caused by the growth and multiplication of
+unicellular organisms out of contact with free oxygen, under which
+circumstance they acquire the power of taking oxygen from chemical
+compounds in the medium in which they are growing. In other words
+"fermentation is life without air, or life without oxygen." This theory
+of fermentation was materially modified in 1892 and 1894 by A.J. Brown,
+who described experiments which were in disagreement with Pasteur's
+dictum. A.J. Brown writes: "If for the theory 'life without air' is
+substituted the consideration that yeast cells can use oxygen in the
+manner of ordinary aerobic fungi, and probably do require it for the
+full completion of their life-history, but that the exhibition of their
+fermentative functions is independent of their environment with regard
+to free oxygen, it will be found that there is nothing contradictory in
+Pasteur's experiments to such a hypothesis."
+
+Liebig and Pasteur were in agreement on the point that fermentation is
+intimately connected with the presence of yeast in the fermenting
+liquid, but their explanations concerning the mechanism of fermentation
+were quite opposed. According to M. Traube (1858), the active cause of
+fermentation is due to the action of different enzymes contained in
+yeast and not to the yeast cell itself. As will be seen later this
+theory was confirmed by subsequent researches of E. Fischer and E.
+Buchner.
+
+In 1879 C. Nageli formulated his well-known molecular-physical theory,
+which supported Liebig's chemical theory on the one hand and Pasteur's
+physiological hypothesis on the other: "Fermentation is the
+transference of the condition of motion of the molecules, atomic groups
+and atoms of the various compounds constituting the living plasma, to
+the fermenting material, in consequence of which equilibrium in the
+molecules of the latter is destroyed, the result being their
+disintegration." He agreed with Pasteur that the presence of living
+cells is essential to the transformation of sugar into alcohol, but
+dissented from the view that the process occurs within the cell. This
+investigator held that the decomposition of the sugar molecules takes
+place outside the cell wall. In 1894 and 1895, Fischer, in a remarkable
+series of papers on the influence of molecular structure upon the action
+of the enzyme, showed that various species of yeast behave very
+differently towards solutions of sugars. For example, some species
+hydrolyse cane sugar and maltose, and then carry on fermentation at the
+expense of the simple sugars (hexoses) so formed. _Saccharomyces
+Marxianus_ will not hydrolyse maltose, but it does attack cane sugar and
+ferment the products of hydrolysis. Fischer next suggested that enzymes
+can only hydrolyse those sugars which possess a molecular structure in
+harmony with their own, or to use his ingenious analogy, "the one may be
+said to fit into the other as a key fits into a lock." The preference
+exhibited by yeast cells for sugar molecules is shared by mould fungi
+and soluble enzymes in their fermentative actions. Thus, Pasteur showed
+that _Penicillium glaucum_, when grown in an aqueous solution of
+ammonium racemate, decomposed the dextro-tartrate, leaving the
+laevo-tartrate, and the solution which was originally inactive to
+polarized light became dextro-rotatory. Fischer found that the enzyme
+"invertase," which is present in yeast, attacks methyl-_d_-glucoside but
+not methyl-_l_-glucoside.
+
+In 1897 Buchner submitted yeast to great pressure, and isolated a
+nitrogenous substance, enzymic in character, which he termed "zymase."
+This body is being continually formed in the yeast cell, and decomposes
+the sugar which has diffused into the cell. The freshly-expressed yeast
+juice causes concentrated solutions of cane sugar, glucose, laevulose
+and maltose to ferment with the production of alcohol and carbon
+dioxide, but not milk-sugar and mannose. In this respect the plasma
+behaves in a similar manner towards the sugars as does the living yeast
+cell. Pasteur found that, when cane sugar was fermented by yeast, 49.4%
+of carbonic acid and 51.1% of alcohol were produced; with expressed
+yeast juice cane sugar yields 47% of carbonic acid and 47.7% of alcohol.
+According to Buchner the fermentative activity of yeast-cell juice is
+not due to the presence of living yeast cells, or to the action of
+living yeast protoplasm, but it is caused by a soluble enzyme. A.
+Macfadyen, G.H. Morris and S. Rowland, in repeating Buchner's
+experiments, found that zymase possessed properties differing from all
+other enzymes, thus: dilution with twice its volume of water practically
+destroys the fermentative power of the yeast juice. These investigators
+considered that differences of this nature cannot be explained by the
+theory that it is a soluble enzyme, which brings about the alcoholic
+fermentation of sugar. The remarkable discoveries of Fischer and Buchner
+to a great extent confirm Traube's views, and reconcile Liebig's and
+Pasteur's theories. Although the action of zymase may be regarded as
+mechanical, the enzyme cannot be produced by any other than living
+protoplasm.
+
+Pasteur's important researches mark an epoch in the technical aspect of
+fermentation. His investigations on vinegar-making revolutionized that
+industry, and he showed how, instead of waiting two or three months for
+the elaboration of the process, the vinegar could be made in eight or
+ten days by exposing the vats containing the mixture of wine and vinegar
+to a temperature of 20 deg. to 25 deg. C., and sowing with a small
+quantity of the acetic organism. To the study of the life-history of the
+butyric and acetic organisms we owe the terms "anaerobic" and "aerobic."
+His researches from 1860 and onwards on the then vexed question of
+spontaneous generation proved that, in all cases where spontaneous
+generation appeared to have taken place, some defect or other was in the
+experiment. Although the direct object of Pasteur was to prove a
+negative, yet it was on these experiments that sterilization as known
+to us was developed. It is only necessary to bear in mind the great part
+played by sterilization in the laboratory, and pasteurization on the
+fermentation industries and in the preservation of food materials.
+Pasteur first formulated the idea that bacteria are responsible for the
+diseases of fermented liquids; the corollary of this was a demand for
+pure yeast. He recommended that yeast should be purified by cultivating
+it in a solution of sugar containing tartaric acid, or, in wort
+containing a small quantity of phenol. It was not recognized that many
+of the diseases of fermented liquids are occasioned by foreign yeasts;
+moreover, this process, as was shown later by Hansen, favours the
+development of foreign yeasts at the expense of the good yeast.
+
+About this time Hansen, who had long been engaged in researches on the
+biology of the fungi of fermentation, demonstrated that yeast free from
+bacteria could nevertheless occasion diseases in beer. This discovery
+was of great importance to the zymo-technical industries, for it showed
+that bacteria are not the only undesirable organisms which may occur in
+yeast. Hansen set himself the task of studying the properties of the
+varieties of yeast, and to do this he had to cultivate each variety in a
+pure state. Having found that some of the commonest diseases of beer,
+such as yeast turbidity and the objectionable changes in flavour, were
+caused not by bacteria but by certain species of yeast, and, further,
+that different species of good brewery yeast would produce beers of
+different character, Hansen argued that the pitching yeast should
+consist only of a single species--namely, that best suited to the
+brewery in question. These views met with considerable opposition, but
+in 1890 Professor E. Duclaux stated that the yeast question as regards
+low fermentation has been solved by Hansen's investigations. He
+emphasized the opinion that yeast derived from one cell was of no good
+for top fermentation, and advocated Pasteur's method of purification.
+But in the course of time, notwithstanding many criticisms and
+objections, the reform spread from bottom fermentation to top
+fermentation breweries on the continent and in America. In the United
+Kingdom the employment of brewery yeasts selected from a single cell has
+not come into general use; it may probably be accounted for in a great
+measure by conservatism and the wrong application of Hansen's theories.
+
+_Pure Cultivation of Yeasts._--The methods which were first adopted by
+Hansen for obtaining pure cultures of yeast were similar in principle to
+one devised by J. Lister for isolating a pure culture of lactic acid
+bacterium. Lister determined the number of bacteria present in a drop of
+the liquid under examination by counting, and then diluted this with a
+sufficient quantity of sterilized water so that each drop of the mixture
+should contain, on an average, less than one bacterium. A number of
+flasks containing a nutrient medium were each inoculated with one drop
+of this mixture; it was found that some remained sterile, and Lister
+assumed that the remaining flasks each contained a pure culture. This
+method did not give very certain results, for it could not be guaranteed
+that the growth in the inoculated flask was necessarily derived from a
+single bacterium. Hansen counted the number of yeast cells suspended in
+a drop of liquid diluted with sterilized water. A volume of the diluted
+yeast was introduced into flasks containing sterilized wort, the degree
+of dilution being such that only a small proportion of the flasks became
+infected. The flasks were then well shaken, and the yeast cell or cells
+settled to the bottom, and gave rise to a separate yeast speck. Only
+those cultures which contained a single yeast speck were assumed to be
+pure cultivations. By this method several races of _Saccharomycetes_ and
+brewery yeasts were isolated and described.
+
+The next important advance was the substitution of solid for liquid
+media; due originally to Schroter. R. Koch subsequently improved the
+method. He introduced bacteria into liquid sterile nutrient gelatin.
+After being well shaken, the liquid was poured into a sterile glass
+Petrie dish and covered with a moist and sterile bell-jar. It was
+assumed that each separate speck contained a pure culture. Hansen
+pointed out that this was by no means the case, for it is more
+difficult to separate the cells from each other in the gelatin than in
+the liquid. To obtain an absolutely pure culture with certainty it is
+necessary, even when the gelatin method is employed, to start from a
+single cell. To effect this some of the nutrient gelatin containing
+yeast cells is placed on the under-surface of the cover-glass of the
+moist chamber. Those cells are accurately marked, the position of which
+is such that the colonies, to which they give rise, can grow to their
+full size without coming into contact with other colonies. The growth of
+the marked cells is kept under observation for three or four days, by
+which time the colonies will be large enough to be taken out of the
+chamber and placed in flasks. The contents of the flasks can then be
+introduced into larger flasks, and finally into an apparatus suitable
+for making enough yeast for technical purposes. Such, in brief, are the
+methods devised by that brilliant investigator Hansen; and these methods
+have not only been the basis on which our modern knowledge of the
+_Saccharomycetes_ is founded, but are the only means of attack which the
+present-day observer has at his disposal.
+
+From the foregoing it will be seen that the term fermentation has now a
+much wider significance than when it was applied to such changes as the
+decomposition of must or wort with the production of carbon dioxide and
+alcohol. Fermentation now includes all changes in organic compounds
+brought about by ferments elaborated in the living animal or vegetable
+cell. There are two distinct types of fermentation: (1) those brought
+about by living organisms (organized ferments), and (2) those brought
+about by non-living or unorganized ferments (enzymes). The first class
+include such changes as the alcoholic fermentation of sugar solutions,
+the acetic acid fermentation of alcohol, the lactic acid fermentation of
+milk sugar, and the putrefaction of animal and vegetable nitrogenous
+matter. The second class include all changes brought about by the agency
+of enzymes, such as the action of diastase on starch, invertase on cane
+sugar, glucase on maltose, &c. The actions are essentially hydrolytic.
+
+_Biological Aspect of Yeast._--The Saccharomycetes belong to that
+division of the Thallophyta called the Hyphomycetes or Fungi (q.v.). Two
+great divisions are recognized in the Fungi: (i.) the _Phycomycetes_ or
+Algal Fungi, which retain a definitely sexual method of reproduction as
+well as asexual (vegetative) methods, and (ii.) the _Mycomycetes_,
+characterized by extremely reduced or very doubtful sexual reproduction.
+The Mycomycetes may be divided as follows: (A) forms bearing both
+sporangia and conidia (see FUNGI), (B) forms bearing conidia only, e.g.
+the common mushroom. Division A comprises (a) the true _Ascomycetes_, of
+which the moulds Eurotium and Penicillium are examples, and (b) the
+_Hemiasci_, which includes the yeasts. The gradual disappearance of the
+sexual method of reproduction, as we pass upwards in the fungi from the
+points of their departure from the Algae, is an important fact, the last
+traces of sexuality apparently disappearing in the ascomycetes.
+
+With certain rare exceptions the Saccharomycetes have three methods of
+asexual reproduction:--
+
+1. The most common.--The formation of _buds_ which separate to form new
+cells. A portion of the nucleus of the parent cell makes its way through
+the extremely narrow neck into the daughter cell. This method obtains
+when yeast is vigorously fermenting a saccharine solution.
+
+2. A division by _fission_ followed by Endogenous spore formation,
+characteristic of the Schizosaccharomycetes. Some species show
+fermentative power.
+
+3. _Endospore_ formation, the conditions for which are as follows: (1)
+suitable temperature, (2) presence of air, (3) presence of moisture, (4)
+young and vigorous cells, (5) a food supply in the case of one species
+at least is necessary, and is in no case prejudicial. In some cases a
+sexual act would appear to precede spore formation. In most cases four
+spores are formed within the cell by free formation. These may readily
+be seen after appropriate staining.
+
+In some of the true Ascomycetes, such as _Penicillium glaucum_, the
+conidia if grown in saccharine solutions, which they have the power of
+fermenting, develop single cell yeast-like forms, and do not--at any
+rate for a time--produce again the characteristic branching mycelium.
+This is known as the _Torula_ condition. It is supposed by some that
+Saccharomyces is a very degraded Ascomycete, in which the Torula
+condition has become fixed.
+
+The yeast plant and its allies are saprophytes and form no chlorophyll.
+Their extreme reduction in form and loss of sexuality may be correlated
+with the saprophytic habit, the proteids and other organic material
+required for the growth and reproduction being appropriated ready
+synthesized, the plant having entirely lost the power of forming them
+for itself, as evidenced by the absence of chlorophyll. The beer yeast
+_S. cerevisiae_, is never found wild, but the wine yeasts occur
+abundantly in the soil of vineyards, and so are always present on the
+fruit, ready to ferment the expressed juice.
+
+_Chemical Aspect of Alcoholic Fermentation._--Lavoisier was the first
+investigator to study fermentation from a quantitative standpoint. He
+determined the percentages of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the sugar
+and in the products of fermentation, and concluded that sugar in
+fermenting breaks up into alcohol, carbonic acid and acetic acid. The
+elementary composition of sugar and alcohol was fixed in 1815 by
+analyses made by Gay-Lussac, Thenard and de Saussure. The
+first-mentioned chemist proposed the following formula to represent the
+change which takes place when sugar is fermented:--
+
+  C6H12O6    =      2CO2     +    2C2H6O.
+   Sugar.      Carbon dioxide.    Alcohol.
+
+This formula substantially holds good to the present day, although a
+number of definite bodies other than carbon dioxide and alcohol occur in
+small and varying quantities, according to the conditions of the
+fermentation and the medium fermented. Prominent among these are
+glycerin and succinic acid. In this connexion Pasteur showed that 100
+parts of cane sugar on inversion gave 105.4 parts of invert sugar,
+which, when fermented, yielded 51.1 parts alcohol, 49.4 carbonic acid,
+0.7 succinic acid, 3.2 glycerin and 1.0 unestimated. A. Bechamp and E.
+Duclaux found that acetic acid is formed in small quantities during
+fermentation; aldehyde has also been detected. The higher alcohols such
+as propyl, isobutyl, amyl, capryl, oenanthyl and caproyl, have been
+identified; and the amount of these vary according to the different
+conditions of the fermentation. A number of esters are also produced.
+The characteristic flavour and odour of wines and spirits is dependent
+on the proportion of higher alcohols, aldehydes and esters which may be
+produced.
+
+Certain yeasts exercise a reducing action, forming sulphuretted
+hydrogen, when sulphur is present. The "stinking fermentations"
+occasionally experienced in breweries probably arise from this, the free
+sulphur being derived from the hops. Other yeasts are stated to form
+sulphurous acid in must and wort. Another fact of considerable technical
+importance is, that the various races of yeast show considerable
+differences in the amount and proportion of fermentation products other
+than ethyl alcohol and carbonic acid which they produce. From these
+remarks it will be clear that to employ the most suitable kind of yeast
+for a given alcoholic fermentation is of fundamental importance in
+certain industries. It is beyond the scope of the present article to
+attempt to describe the different forms of budding fungi
+(Saccharomyces), mould fungi and bacteria which are capable of
+fermenting sugar solutions. Thus, six species isolated by Hansen,
+_Saccharomyces cerevisiae_, _S. Pasteurianus_ I.,[1] II., III., and _S.
+ellipsoideus_, contained invertase and maltase, and can invert and
+subsequently ferment cane sugar and maltose. _S. exiguus_ and _S.
+Ludwigii_ contain only invertase and not maltase, and therefore ferment
+cane sugar but not maltose. _S. apiculatus_ (a common wine yeast)
+contains neither of these enzymes, and only ferments solutions of
+glucose or laevulose.
+
+Previously to Hansen's work the only way of differentiating yeasts was
+by studying morphological differences with the aid of the microscope.
+Max Reess distinguished the species according to the appearance of the
+cells thus, the ellipsoidal cells were designated _Saccharomyces
+ellipsoideus_, the sausage-shaped _Saccharomyces Pasteurianus_, and so
+on. It was found by Hansen that the same species of yeast can assume
+different shapes; and it therefore became necessary to determine how the
+different varieties of yeast could be distinguished with certainty. The
+formation of spores in yeast (first discovered by T. Schwann in 1839)
+was studied by Hansen, who found that each species only developed spores
+between certain definite temperatures. The time taken for spore
+formation varies greatly; thus, at 52 deg. F., _S. cerevisiae_ takes 10,
+_S. Pasteurianus_ I. and II. about 4, _S. Pasteurianus_ III. about 7,
+and _S. ellipsoideus_ about 4-1/2 days. The formation of spores is used
+as an analytical method for determining whether a yeast is contaminated
+with another species,--for example: a sample of yeast is placed on a
+gypsum or porcelain block saturated with water; if in ten days at a
+temperature of 52 deg. F. no spores make their appearance, the yeast in
+question may be regarded as _S. cerevisiae_, and not associated with _S.
+Pasteurianus_ or _S. ellipsoideus_.
+
+The formation of films on fermented liquids is a well-known phenomenon
+and common to all micro-organisms. A free still surface with a direct
+access of air are the necessary conditions. Hansen showed that the
+microscopic appearance of film cells of the same species of
+Saccharomycetes varies according to the temperature of growth; the
+limiting temperatures of film formation, as well as the time of its
+appearance for the different species, also vary.
+
+In the zymo-technical industries the various species of yeast exhibit
+different actions during fermentations. A well-known instance of this is
+the "top" and "bottom" brewery fermentations (see BREWING). In a top
+fermentation--typical of English breweries--the yeast rises, in a bottom
+fermentation, as the phrase implies, it settles in the vessel. Sometimes
+a bottom yeast may for a time exhibit signs of a top fermentation. It
+has not, however, been possible to transform a typical top yeast into a
+permanent typical bottom yeast. There appear to be no true distinctive
+characteristics for these two types. Their selection for a particular
+purpose depends upon some special quality which they possess; thus for
+brewing certain essentials are demanded as regards stability,
+clarification, taste and smell; whereas, in distilleries, the production
+of alcohol and a high multiplying power in the yeast are required.
+Culture yeasts have also been successfully employed in the manufacture
+of wine and cider. By the judicious selection of a type of yeast it is
+possible to improve the bouquet, and from an inferior must obtain a
+better wine or cider than would otherwise be produced.
+
+Certain acid fermentations are of common occurrence. The _Bacterium
+acidi lacti_ described by Pasteur decomposes milk sugar into lactic
+acid. _Bacillus amylobacter_ usually accompanies the lactic acid
+organism, and decomposes lactic and other higher acids with formation of
+butyric acid. Moulds have been isolated which occasion the formation of
+citric acid from glucose. The production of acetic acid from alcohol has
+received much attention at the hands of investigators, and it has an
+important technical aspect in the manufacture of vinegar. The phenomenon
+of nitrification (see BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE and MANURE), i.e. the
+formation of nitrites and nitrates from ammonia and its compounds in the
+soil, was formerly held to be a purely chemical process, until
+Schloesing and Muntz suggested in 1877 that it was biological. It is now
+known that the action takes place in two stages; the ammonium salt is
+first oxidized to the nitrite stage and subsequently to the nitrate.
+     (J. L. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Hansen found there were three species of spore-bearing
+    Saccharomycetes and that these could be subdivided into varieties.
+    Thus, _S. cerevisiae_ I., _S. cerevisiae_ II., _S. Pasteurianus_ I.,
+    &c.
+
+
+
+
+FERMO (anc. _Firmum Picenum_), a town and archiepiscopal see of the
+Marches, Italy, in the province of Ascoli Piceno, on a hill with a fine
+view, 1046 ft. above sea-level, on a branch from Porto S. Giorgio on the
+Adriatic coast railway. Pop. (1901) town, 16,577, commune 20,542. The
+summit of the hill was occupied by the citadel until 1446. It is crowned
+by the cathedral, reconstructed in 1227 by Giorgio da Como; the fine
+facade and campanile of this period still remain, and the side portal
+is good; the beautiful rose-window over the main door dates from 1348.
+In the porch are several good tombs, including one of 1366 by Tura da
+Imola, and also the modern monument of Giuseppe Colucci, a famous writer
+on the antiquities of Picenum. The interior has been modernized. The
+building is now surrounded by a garden, with a splendid view. Against
+the side of the hill was built the Roman theatre; scanty traces of an
+amphitheatre also exist. Remains of the city wall, of rectangular blocks
+of hard limestone, may be seen just outside the Porta S. Francesco;
+whether the walling under the Casa Porti belongs to them is doubtful.
+The medieval battlemented walls superposed on it are picturesque. The
+church of S. Francesco has a good tower and choir in brickwork of 1240,
+the rest having been restored in the 17th century. Under the Dominican
+monastery is a very large Roman reservoir in two storeys, belonging to
+the imperial period, divided into many chambers, at least 24 on each
+level, each 30 by 20 ft., for filtration (see G. de Minicis in _Annali
+dell' Istituto_, 1846, p. 46; 1858, p. 125). The piazza contains the
+Palazzo Comunale, restored in 1446, with a statue of Pope Sixtus V. in
+front of it. The Biblioteca Comunale contains a collection of
+inscriptions and antiquities. Porto S. Giorgio has a fine castle of
+1269, blocking the valley which leads to Fermo.
+
+The ancient Firmum Picenum was founded as a Latin colony in 264 B.C.,
+after the conquest of the Picentes, as the local headquarters of the
+Roman power, to which it remained faithful. It was originally governed
+by five quaestors. It was made a colony with full rights after the
+battle of Philippi, the 4th legion being settled there. It lay at the
+junction of roads to Pausulae, Urbs Salvia and Asculum, being connected
+with the coast road by a short branch road from Castellum Firmanum
+(Porto S. Giorgio). In the 10th century it became the capital of the
+_Marchia Firmana_. In 1199 it became a free city, and remained
+independent until 1550, when it became subject to the papacy.
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FERMOY, a market town in the east riding of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the
+north-east parliamentary division, 21 m. by road N.E. of Cork, and 14 m.
+E. of Mallow by a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 6126. It is situated on the river Blackwater,
+which divides the town into two parts, the larger of which is on the
+southern bank, and there the trade of the town, which is chiefly in
+flour and agricultural produce, is mainly carried on. The town has
+several good streets and some noteworthy buildings. Of the latter, the
+most prominent are the military barracks on the north bank of the river,
+the Protestant church, the Roman Catholic cathedral and St Colman's
+Roman Catholic college. Fermoy rose to importance only at the beginning
+of the 19th century, owing entirely to the devotion of John Anderson, a
+citizen, on becoming landlord. The town is a centre for salmon and trout
+fishing on the Blackwater and its tributary the Funshion. The
+neighbouring scenery is attractive, especially in the Glen of Araglin,
+once famed for its ironworks.
+
+
+
+
+FERN (from O. Eng. _fearn_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf.
+Dutch _varen_, and Ger. _Farn_; the Indo-European root, seen in the
+Sanskrit _parna_, a feather, shows the primary meaning; cf. Gr. [Greek:
+pteron], feather, [Greek: pteris], fern), a name often used to denote
+the whole botanical class of Pteridophytes, including both the true
+ferns, Filicales, by far the largest group of this class in the existing
+flora, and the fern-like plants, Equisetales, Sphenophyllales,
+Lycopodiales (see PTERIDOPHYTA).
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, ALVARO, one of the leading Portuguese explorers of the
+earlier 15th century, the age of Henry the Navigator. He was brought up
+(as a page or esquire) in the household of Prince Henry, and while still
+"young and audacious" took an important part in the discovery of
+"Guinea." He was a nephew of Joao Goncalvez Zarco, who had rediscovered
+the Madeira group in Henry's service (1418-1420), and had become
+part-governor of Madeira and commander of Funchal; when the great
+expedition of 1445 sailed for West Africa he was entrusted by his uncle
+with a specially fine caravel, under particular injunctions to devote
+himself to discovery, the most cherished object of his princely master,
+so constantly thwarted. Fernandez, as a pioneer, outstripped all other
+servants of the prince at this time. After visiting the mouth of the
+Senegal, rounding Cape Verde, and landing in Goree (?), he pushed on to
+the "Cape of Masts" (Cabo dos Matos, or Mastos, so called from its tall
+spindle-palms), probably between Cape Verde and the Gambia, the most
+southerly point till then attained. Next year (1446) he returned, and
+coasted on much farther, to a bay one hundred and ten leagues "south"
+(i.e. S.S.E.) of Cape Verde, perhaps in the neighbourhood of Konakry and
+the Los Islands, and but little short of Sierra Leone. This record was
+not broken till 1461, when Sierra Leone was sighted and named. A wound,
+received from a poisoned arrow in an encounter with natives, now
+compelled Fernandez to return to Portugal, where he was received with
+distinguished honour and reward by Prince Henry and the regent of the
+kingdom, Henry's brother Pedro.
+
+  See Gomes Eannes de Azurara, _Chronica de ... Guine_, chs. lxxv.,
+  lxxxvii.; Joao de Barros, _Asia_, Decade I., bk. i. chs. xiii., xiv.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, DIEGO, a Spanish adventurer and historian of the 16th
+century. Born at Palencia, he was educated for the church, but about
+1545 he embarked for Peru, where he served in the royal army under
+Alonzo de Alvarado. Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, marquess of Canete, who
+became viceroy of Peru in 1655, bestowed on Fernandez the office of
+chronicler of Peru; and in this capacity he wrote a narrative of the
+insurrection of Francisco Hernandez Giron, of the rebellion of Gonzalo
+Pizarro, and of the administration of Pedro de la Gasca. The whole work,
+under the title _Primera y segunda parte de la Historia del Piru_, was
+published at Seville in 1571 and was dedicated to King Philip II. It is
+written in a clear and intelligible style, and with more art than is
+usual in the compositions of the time. It gives copious details, and, as
+he had access to the correspondence and official documents of the
+Spanish leaders, it is, although necessarily possessing bias, the
+fullest and most authentic record existing of the events it relates.
+
+  A notice of the work will be found in W.H. Prescott's _History of the
+  Conquest of Peru_ (new ed., London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, JOHN (_Joao_, _Joam_), Portuguese traveller of the 15th
+century. He was perhaps the earliest of modern explorers in the upland
+of West Africa, and a pioneer of the European slave- and gold-trade of
+Guinea. We first hear of him (before 1445) as a captive of the Barbary
+Moors in the western Mediterranean; while among these he acquired a
+knowledge of Arabic, and probably conceived the design of exploration in
+the interior of the continent whose coasts the Portuguese were now
+unveiling. In 1445 he volunteered to stay in Guinea and gather what
+information he could for Prince Henry the Navigator; with this object he
+accompanied Antam Goncalvez to the "River of Gold" (Rio d'Ouro, Rio de
+Oro) in 23 deg. 40' N., where he landed and went inland with some native
+shepherds. He stayed seven months in the country, which lay just within
+Moslem Africa, slightly north of Pagan Negroland (W. Sudan); he was
+taken off again by Antam Goncalvez at a point farther down the coast,
+near the "Cape of Ransom" (Cape Mirik), in 19 deg. 22' 14"; and his
+account of his experiences proved of great interest and value, not only
+as to the natural features, climate, fauna and flora of the
+south-western Sahara, but also as to the racial affinities, language,
+script, religion, nomad habits, and trade of its inhabitants. These
+people--though Mahommedans, maintaining a certain trade in slaves, gold,
+&c., with the Barbary coast (especially with Tunis), and classed as
+"Arabs," "Berbers," and "Tawny Moors"--did not then write or speak
+Arabic. In 1446 and 1447 John Fernandez accompanied other expeditions to
+the Rio d'Ouro and other parts of West Africa in the service of Prince
+Henry. He was personally known to Gomes Eannes de Azurara, the historian
+of this early period of Portuguese expansion; and from Azurara's
+language it is clear that Fernandez' revelation of unknown lands and
+races was fully appreciated at home.
+
+  See Azurara, _Chronica de ... Guine_, chs. xxix., xxxii., xxxiv.,
+  xxxv., lxxvii., lxxviii., xc., xci., xciii.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, JUAN (fl. c. 1570), Spanish navigator and discoverer. While
+navigating the coasts of South America it occurred to him that the south
+winds constantly prevailing near the shore, and retarding voyages
+between Peru and Chile, might not exist farther out at sea. His idea
+proved correct, and by the help of the trade winds and some currents at
+a distance from the coast he sailed with such rapidity (thirty days)
+from Callao to Chile that he was apprehended on a charge of sorcery. His
+inquisitors, however, accepted his natural explanation of the marvel.
+During one of his voyages in 1563 (from Lima to Valdivia) Fernandez
+discovered the islands which now bear his name. He was so enchanted with
+their beauty and fertility that he solicited the concession of them from
+the Spanish government. It was granted in 1572, but a colony which he
+endeavoured to establish at the largest of them (Isla Mas-a-Tierra) soon
+broke up, leaving behind the goats, whose progeny were hunted by
+Alexander Selkirk. In 1574 Fernandez discovered St Felix and St Ambrose
+islands (in 27 deg. S., 82 deg. 7' W.); and in 1576, while voyaging in
+the southern ocean, he is said to have sighted not only Easter Island,
+but also a continent, which was probably Australia or New Zealand if the
+story (rejected by most critics, but with reservations as to Easter
+Island) is to be accepted.
+
+  See J.L. Arias, _Memoir recommending to the king the conversion of the
+  new discovered islands_ (in Spanish, 1609; Eng. trans., 1773); Ulloa,
+  _Relacion del Viaje_, bk. ii. ch. iv.; Alexander Dalrymple, _An
+  Historical Collection of the several Voyages and Discoveries in the
+  South Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1769-1771); Freville, _Voyages de la Mer
+  du Sud par les Espagnols_.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDEZ, LUCAS, Spanish dramatist, was born at Salamanca about the
+middle of the 15th century. Nothing is known of his life, and he is
+represented by a single volume of plays, _Farsas y eglogas al modo y
+estilo pastoril_ (1514). In his secular pieces--a _comedia_ and two
+_farsas_--he introduces few personages, employs the simplest possible
+action, and burlesques the language of the uneducated class; the secular
+and devout elements are skilfully intermingled in his two _Farsas del
+nascimiento de Nuestro Senor Jesucristo_. But the best of his dramatic
+essays is the _Auto de la Pasion_, a devout play intended to be given on
+Maundy Thursday. It is written in the manner of Encina, with less
+spontaneity, but with a sombre force to which Encina scarcely attained.
+
+  Fernandez' plays were reprinted by the Spanish Academy in 1867.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDINA, a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of Nassau
+county, Florida, U.S.A., a winter and summer resort, in the N.E. part of
+the state, 36 m. N.E. of Jacksonville, on Amelia Island (about 22 m.
+long and from 1/2 m. to 1-1/2 m. wide), which is separated from the
+mainland by an arm of the sea, known as Amelia river and bay. Pop.
+(1900) 3245; (1905, state census), 4959 (2957 negroes); (1910) 3482.
+Fernandina is served by the Seaboard Air Line railway, and by steamship
+lines connecting with domestic and foreign ports; its harbour, which has
+the deepest water on the E. coast of Florida, opens on the N. to
+Cumberland Sound, which was improved by the Federal government,
+beginning in 1879, reducing freight rates at Fernandina by 25 to 40%.
+Under an act of 1907 the channel of Fernandina harbour, 1300 ft. wide at
+the entrance and about 2 m. long, was dredged to a depth of 20 to 24 ft.
+at mean low water with a width of 400 to 600 ft. The "inside"
+water-route between Savannah, Georgia and Fernandina is improved by the
+Federal government (1892 sqq.) and has a 7-ft. channel. The principal
+places of interest are "Amelia Beach," more than 20 m. long and 200 ft.
+wide, connected with the city by a compact shell road nearly 2 m. long
+and by electric line; the Amelia Island lighthouse, in the N. end of the
+island, established in 1836 and rebuilt in 1880; Fort Clinch, at the
+entrance to the harbour; Cumberland Island, in Georgia, N. of Amelia
+Island, where land was granted to General Nathanael Greene after the War
+of American Independence by the state of Georgia; and Dungeness, the
+estate of the Carnegie family. Ocean City, on Amelia Beach, is a popular
+pleasure resort. The principal industries are the manufacture of lumber,
+cotton, palmetto fibres, and cigars, the canning of oysters, and the
+building and repair of railway cars. The foreign exports, chiefly
+lumber, railway ties, cotton, phosphate rock, and naval stores, were
+valued at $9,346,704 in 1907; and the imports in 1907 at $116,514.
+
+The harbour of Fernandina was known to the early explorers of Florida,
+and it was here that Dominic de Gourgues landed when he made his
+expedition against the Spanish at San Mateo in 1568. An Indian mission
+was established by Spanish priests later in the same century, but it was
+not successful. When Georgia was founded, General James Oglethorpe
+placed a military guard on Amelia Island to prevent sudden attack upon
+his colony by the Spanish, and the first blood shed in the petty warfare
+between Georgia and Florida was the murder of two unarmed members of the
+guard by a troop of Spanish soldiers and Indians in 1739. The first
+permanent settlement was made by the Spanish in 1808, at what is now the
+village of Old Fernandina, about 1 m. from the city. The island was a
+centre for smuggling during the period of the embargo and
+non-importation acts preceding the war of 1812. This was the pretext for
+General George Matthews (1738-1812) to gather a band of adventurers at
+St Mary's, Georgia, invade the island, and capture Fernandina in 1812.
+In the following year the American forces were withdrawn. In 1817 Gregor
+MacGregor, a filibuster who had aided the Spanish provinces of South
+America in their revolt against Spain, fitted out an expedition in
+Baltimore and seized Fernandina, but departed soon after. Later in the
+same year Louis Aury, another adventurer, appeared with a small force
+from Texas, and took possession of the place in the name of the Republic
+of Mexico. In the following year Aury was expelled by United States
+troops, who held Fernandina in trust for Spain until Florida was finally
+ceded to the United States in 1821. Fernandina was first incorporated in
+1859. In 1861 Fort Clinch was seized by the Confederates, and Fernandina
+harbour was a centre of blockade running in the first two years of the
+Civil War. In 1862 the place was captured by a Federal naval force from
+Port Royal, South Carolina, commanded by Commodore S.F. Du Pont.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDO DE NORONHA [_Fernao de N._], an island in the South Atlantic,
+125 m. from the coast of Brazil, to which country it belongs, in 3 deg.
+50' S., 32 deg. 25' W. It is about 7 m. long and 1-1/2 wide, and some
+other islets lie adjacent to it. Its surface is rugged, and it contains
+a number of rocky hills from 500 to 700 ft. high, and one peak towering
+to the height of 1089 ft. It is formed of basalt, trachyte and
+phonolite, and the soil is very fertile. The climate is healthy. It is
+defended by forts, and serves as a place of banishment for criminals
+from Brazil. The next largest island of the group is about a mile in
+circumference, and the others are small barren rocks. The population is
+about 2000, all males, including some 1400 criminals, and a garrison of
+150. Communication is maintained by steamer with Pernambuco. The island
+takes name from its Portuguese discoverer (1503), the count of Noronha.
+
+
+
+
+FERNANDO PO, or FERNANDO POO, a Spanish island on the west coast of
+Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, about 20 m. from the mainland, in 3 deg.
+12' N. and 8 deg. 48' E. It is of volcanic origin, related to the
+Cameroon system of the adjacent mainland, is the largest island in the
+Gulf of Guinea, is 44 m. long from N.N.E. to S.S.W., about 20 m. broad,
+and has an area of about 780 sq. m. Fernando Po is noted for its
+beautiful aspect, seeming from a short distance to be a single mountain
+rising from the sea, its sides covered with luxuriant vegetation. The
+shores are steep and rocky and the coast plain narrow. This plain is
+succeeded by the slopes of the mountains which occupy the rest of the
+island and culminate in the magnificent cone of Clarence Peak or Pico de
+Santa Isabel (native name Owassa). Clarence Peak, about 10,000 ft.
+high,[1] is in the north-central part of the island. In the south Musolo
+Mt. attains a height of 7400 ft. There are numerous other peaks between
+4000 and 6000 ft. high. The mountains contain craters and crater lakes,
+and are covered, most of them to their summits, with forests. Down the
+narrow intervening valleys rush torrential streams which have cut deep
+beds through the coast plains. The trees most characteristic of the
+forest are oil palms and tree ferns, but there are many varieties,
+including ebony, mahogany and the African oak. The undergrowth is very
+dense; it includes the sugar-cane and cotton and indigo plants. The
+fauna includes antelopes, monkeys, lemurs, the civet cat, porcupine,
+pythons and green tree-snakes, crocodiles and turtles. The climate is
+very unhealthy in the lower districts, where malarial fever is common.
+The mean temperature on the coast is 78 deg. Fahr. and varies little,
+but in the higher altitudes there is considerable daily variation. The
+rainfall is very heavy except during November-January, which is
+considered the dry season.
+
+The inhabitants number about 25,000. In addition to about 500 Europeans,
+mostly Spaniards and Cubans, they are of two classes, the Bubis or Bube
+(formerly also called Ediya), who occupy the interior, and the coast
+dwellers, a mixed Negro race, largely descended from slave ancestors
+with an admixture of Portuguese and Spanish blood, and known to the
+Bubis as "Portos"--a corruption of Portuguese. The Bubis are of Bantu
+stock and early immigrants from the mainland. Physically they are a
+finely developed race, extremely jealous of their independence and
+unwilling to take service of any kind with Europeans. They go unclothed,
+smearing their bodies with a kind of pomatum. They stick pieces of wood
+in the lobes of their ears, wear numerous armlets made of ivory, beads
+or grass, and always wear hats, generally made of palm leaves. Their
+weapons are mainly of wood; stone axes and knives were in use as late as
+1858. They have no knowledge of working iron. Their villages are built
+in the densest parts of the forest, and care is taken to conceal the
+approach to them. The Bubis are sportsmen and fishermen rather than
+agriculturists. The staple foods of the islanders generally are millet,
+rice, yams and bananas. Alcohol is distilled from the sugar-cane. The
+natives possess numbers of sheep, goats and fowls.
+
+The principal settlement is Port Clarence (pop. 1500), called by the
+Spaniards Santa Isabel, a safe and commodious harbour on the north
+coast. In its graveyard are buried Richard Lander and several other
+explorers of West Africa. Port Clarence is unhealthy, and the seat of
+government has been removed to Basile, a small town 5 m. from Port
+Clarence and over 1000 ft. above the sea. On the west coast are the bay
+and port of San Carlos, on the east coast Concepcion Bay and town. The
+chief industry until the close of the 19th century was the collection of
+palm-oil, but the Spaniards have since developed plantations of cocoa,
+coffee, sugar, tobacco, vanilla and other tropical plants. The kola nut
+is also cultivated. The cocoa plantations are of most importance. The
+amount of cocoa exported in 1905 was 1800 tons, being 370 tons above the
+average export for the preceding five years. The total value of the
+trade of the island (1900-1905) was about L250,000 a year.
+
+_History._--The island was discovered towards the close of the 15th
+century by a Portuguese navigator called Fernao do Po, who, struck by
+its beauty, named it Formosa, but it soon came to be called by the name
+of its discoverer.[2] A Portuguese colony was established in the island,
+which together with Annobon was ceded to Spain in 1778. The first
+attempts of Spain to develop the island ended disastrously, and in 1827,
+with the consent of Spain, the administration of the island was taken
+over by Great Britain, the British "superintendent" having a Spanish
+commission as governor. By the British Fernando Po was used as a naval
+station for the ships engaged in the suppression of the slave trade. The
+British headquarters were named Port Clarence and the adjacent
+promontory Cape William, in honour of the duke of Clarence (William
+IV.). In 1844 the Spaniards reclaimed the island, refusing to sell their
+rights to Great Britain. They did no more at that time, however, than
+hoist the Spanish flag, appointing a British resident, John Beecroft,
+governor. Beecroft, who was made British consul in 1849, died in 1854.
+During the British occupation a considerable number of Sierra Leonians,
+West Indians and freed slaves settled in the island, and English became
+and remains the common speech of the coast peoples. In 1858 a Spanish
+governor was sent out, and the Baptist missionaries who had laboured in
+the island since 1843 were compelled to withdraw. They settled in Ambas
+Bay on the neighbouring mainland (see CAMEROON). The Jesuits who
+succeeded the Baptists were also expelled, but mission and educational
+work is now carried on by other Roman Catholic agencies, and (since
+1870) by the Primitive Methodists. In 1879 the Spanish government
+recalled its officials, but a few years later, when the partition of
+Africa was being effected, they were replaced and a number of Cuban
+political prisoners were deported thither. Very little was done to
+develop the resources of the island until after the loss of the Spanish
+colonies in the West Indies and the Pacific, when Spain turned her
+attention to her African possessions. Stimulated by the success of the
+Portuguese cocoa plantations in the neighbouring island of St Thomas,
+the Spaniards started similar plantations, with some measure of success.
+The strategical importance and commercial possibilities of the island
+caused Germany and other powers to approach Spain with a view to its
+acquisition, and in 1900 the Spaniards gave France, in return for
+territorial concessions on the mainland, the right of pre-emption over
+the island and her other West African possessions.
+
+The administration of the island is in the hands of a governor-general,
+assisted by a council, and responsible to the ministry of foreign
+affairs at Madrid. The governor-general has under his authority the
+sub-governors of the other Spanish possessions in the Gulf of Guinea,
+namely, the Muni River Settlement, Corisco and Annobon (see those
+articles). None of these possessions is self-supporting.
+
+  See E. d'Almonte, "Someras Notas ... de la isla de Fernando Poo y de
+  la Guinea continental espanola," in _Bol. Real. Soc. Geog._ of Madrid
+  (1902); and a further article in the _Riv. Geog. Col._ of Madrid
+  (1908); E.L. Vilches, "Fernando Poo y la Guinea espanola," in the
+  _Bol. Real. Soc. Geog._ (1901); San Javier, _Tres Anos en Fernando
+  Poo_ (Madrid, 1875); O. Baumann, _Eine africanische Tropeninsel:
+  Fernando Poo und die Bube_ (Vienna, 1888); Sir H.H. Johnston, _George
+  Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on Fernando Po_ (London, 1908);
+  Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, ch. iii. (London, 1897);
+  T.J. Hutchinson, sometime British Consul at Fernando Po, _Impressions
+  of Western Africa_, chs. xii. and xiii. (London, 1858), and _Ten
+  Years' Wanderings among the Ethiopians_, chs. xvii. and xviii.
+  (London, 1861). For the Bubi language see J. Clarke, _The Adeeyah
+  Vocabulary_ (1841), and _Introduction to the Fernandian Tongue_
+  (1848). Consult also _Wanderings in West Africa_ (1863) and other
+  books written by Sir Richard Burton as the result of his consulship at
+  Fernando Po, 1861-1865, and the works cited under MUNI RIVER
+  SETTLEMENTS.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The heights given by explorers vary from 9200 to 10,800 ft.
+
+  [2] Some authorities maintain that another Portuguese seaman, Lopes
+    Gonsalves, was the discoverer of the island. The years 1469, 1471 and
+    1486 are variously given as those of the date of the discovery.
+
+
+
+
+FERNEL, JEAN FRANCOIS (1497-1558), French physician, was born at
+Clermont in 1497, and after receiving his early education at his native
+town, entered the college of Sainte-Barbe, Paris. At first he devoted
+himself to mathematical and astronomical studies; his _Cosmotheoria_
+(1528) records a determination of a degree of the meridian, which he
+made by counting the revolutions of his carriage wheels on a journey
+between Paris and Amiens. But from 1534 he gave himself up entirely to
+medicine, in which he graduated in 1530. His extraordinary general
+erudition, and the skill and success with which he sought to revive the
+study of the old Greek physicians, gained him a great reputation, and
+ultimately the office of physician to the court. He practised with great
+success, and at his death in 1558 left behind him an immense fortune. He
+also wrote_ Monalosphaerium, sive astrolabii genus, generalis horarii
+structura et usus_ (1526); _De proportionibus_ (1528); _De evacuandi
+ratione_ (1545); _De abditis rerum causis_ (1548); and _Medicina ad
+Henricum II._ (1554).
+
+
+
+
+FERNIE, an important city in the east Kootenay district of British
+Columbia. Pop. about 4000. It is situated on the Crow's Nest branch of
+the Canadian Pacific railway, at the junction of Coal Creek with the Elk
+river, and owes its importance to the extensive coal mines in its
+vicinity. There are about 500 coke ovens in operation at Fernie, which
+supply most of the smelting plants in southern British Columbia with
+fuel.
+
+
+
+
+FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG (1763-1808), German art-critic and archaeologist,
+was born in Pomerania on the 19th of November 1763. His father was a
+servant in the household of the lord of Blumenhagen. At the age of
+twelve he became clerk to a notary, and was afterwards apprenticed to a
+druggist. While serving his time he had the misfortune accidentally to
+shoot a young man who came to visit him; and although through the
+intercession of his master he escaped prosecution, the untoward event
+weighed heavily on his mind, and led him at the close of his
+apprenticeship to quit his native place. He obtained a situation at
+Lubeck, where he had leisure to cultivate his natural taste for drawing
+and poetry. Having formed an acquaintance with the painter Carstens,
+whose influence was an important stimulus and help to him, he renounced
+his trade of druggist, and set up as a portrait-painter and
+drawing-master. At Ludwigslust he fell in love with a young girl, and
+followed her to Weimar; but failing in his suit, he went next to Jena.
+There he was introduced to Professor Reinhold, and in his house met the
+Danish poet Baggesen. The latter invited him to accompany him to
+Switzerland and Italy, a proposal which he eagerly accepted (1794) for
+the sake of the opportunity of furthering his studies in the fine arts.
+On Baggesen's return to Denmark, Fernow, assisted by some of his
+friends, visited Rome and made some stay there. He now renewed his
+intercourse with Carstens, who had settled at Rome, and applied himself
+to the study of the history and theory of the fine arts and of the
+Italian language and literature. Making rapid progress, he was soon
+qualified to give a course of lectures on archaeology, which was
+attended by the principal artists then at Rome. Having married a Roman
+lady, he returned in 1802 to Germany, and was appointed in the following
+year professor extraordinary of Italian literature at Jena. In 1804 he
+accepted the post of librarian to Amelia, duchess-dowager of Weimar,
+which gave him the leisure he desired for the purpose of turning to
+account the literary and archaeological researches in which he had
+engaged at Rome. His most valuable work, the _Romische Studien_,
+appeared in 3 vols. (1806-1808). Among his other works are--_Das Leben
+des Kunstlers Carstens_ (1806), _Ariosto's Lebenslauf_ (1809), and
+_Francesco Petrarca_ (1818). Fernow died at Weimar, December 4, 1808.
+
+  A memoir of his life by Johanna Schopenhauer, mother of the
+  philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, appeared in 1810, and a complete
+  edition of his works in 1829.
+
+
+
+
+FEROZEPUR, or FIROZPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
+Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is a railway junction
+connecting the North-Western and Rajputana railways, and is situated
+about 4 m. from the present south bank of the Sutlej. Pop. (1901)
+49,341. The arsenal is the largest in India, and Ferozepur is the
+headquarters of a brigade in the 3rd division of the northern army
+corps. British rule was first established at Ferozepur in 1835, when, on
+the failure of heirs to the Sikh family who possessed it, a small
+territory 86 m. in extent became an escheat to the British government,
+and the present district has been gradually formed around this nucleus.
+The strategic importance of Ferozepur was at this time very great; and
+when, in 1839, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) Lawrence took charge of
+the station as political officer, it was the outpost of British India in
+the direction of the Sikh power. Ferozepur accordingly became the scene
+of operations during the first Sikh War. The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej in
+December 1845, and were defeated successively at Mudki, Ferozepur,
+Aliwal and Sobraon; after which they withdrew into their own territory,
+and peace was concluded at Lahore. At the time of the mutiny Ferozepur
+cantonments contained two regiments of native infantry and a regiment of
+native cavalry, together with the 61st Foot and two companies of
+European artillery. One of the native regiments, the 57th, was disarmed;
+but the other, the 45th, broke into mutiny, and, after an unsuccessful
+attempt to seize the magazine, which was held by the Europeans,
+proceeded to join the rebel forces in Delhi. Throughout the mutiny
+Ferozepur remained in the hands of the English.
+
+Ferozepur has rapidly advanced in material prosperity of late years, and
+is now a very important seat of commerce, trade being mainly in grain.
+The main streets of the city are wide and well paved, and the whole is
+enclosed by a low brick wall. Great improvements have been made in the
+surroundings of the city. The cantonment lies 2 m. to the south of the
+city, and is connected with it by a good metalled road.
+
+The DISTRICT OF FEROZEPUR comprises an area of 4302 sq. m. The surface
+is level, with the exception of a few sand-hills in the south and
+south-east. The country consists of two distinct tracts, that liable to
+annual fertilizing inundations from the Sutlej, known as the _bhet_, and
+the _rohi_ or upland tract. The only river is the Sutlej, which runs
+along the north-western boundary. The principal crops are wheat, barley,
+millet, gram, pulses, oil-seeds, cotton, tobacco, &c. The manufactures
+are of the humblest kind, consisting chiefly of cotton and wool-weaving,
+and are confined entirely to the supply of local wants. The Lahore and
+Ludhiana road runs for 51 m. through the district, and forms an
+important trade route. The North-Western, the Southern Punjab, and a
+branch of the Rajputana-Malwa railways serve the district. The other
+important towns and seats of commerce are Fazilka (pop. 8505), Dharmkot
+(6731), Moga (6725), and Muktsar (6389). Owing principally to the
+dryness of its climate, Ferozepur has the reputation of being an
+exceptionally healthy district. In September and October, however, after
+the annual rains, the people suffer a good deal from remittent fever. In
+1901 the population was 958,072. Distributaries of the Sirhind canal
+water the whole district.
+
+
+
+
+FEROZESHAH, a village in the Punjab, India, notable as the scene of one
+of the chief battles in the first Sikh War. The battle immediately
+succeeded that of Mudki, and was fought on the 21st and 22nd of December
+1845. During its course Sir Hugh Gough, the British commander, was
+overruled by the governor-general, Lord Hardinge, who was acting as his
+second in command (see SIKH WARS). At the end of the first day's
+fighting the British had occupied the Sikh position, but had not gained
+an undisputed victory. On the following morning the battle was resumed,
+and the Sikhs were reinforced by a second army under Tej Singh; but
+through cowardice or treachery Tej Singh withdrew at the critical
+moment, leaving the field to the British. In the course of the fight the
+British lost 694 killed and 1721 wounded, the vast majority being
+British troops, while the Sikhs lost 100 guns and about 5000 killed and
+wounded.
+
+
+
+
+FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANCOIS CLAUDE, COMTE (1751-1825), French statesman
+and political writer, was born in Paris on the 4th of July 1751, and
+became a member of the parlement of Paris at eighteen. He left France
+with the first party of emigrants, and attached himself to the prince of
+Conde; later he was a member of the council of regency formed by the
+comte de Provence after the death of Louis XVI. He lived at Regensburg
+until 1801, when he returned to France, though he still sought to serve
+the royalist cause. In 1814 Ferrand was made minister of state and
+postmaster-general. He countersigned the act of sequestration of
+Napoleon's property, and introduced a bill for the restoration of the
+property of the emigrants, establishing a distinction, since become
+famous, between royalists of _la ligne droite_ and those of _la ligne
+courbe_. At the second restoration Ferrand was again for a short time
+postmaster-general. He was also made a peer of France, member of the
+privy council, grand-officer and secretary of the orders of Saint Michel
+and the Saint Esprit, and in 1816 member of the Academy, He continued
+his active support of ultra-royalist views until his death, which took
+place in Paris on the 17th of January 1825.
+
+  Besides a large number of political pamphlets, Ferrand is the author
+  of _L'Esprit de l'histoire, ou Lettres d'un pere a son fils sur la
+  maniere d'etudier l'histoire_ (4 vols., 1802), which reached seven
+  editions, the last number in 1826 having prefixed to it a biographical
+  sketch of the author by his nephew Hericart de Thury; _Eloge
+  historique de Madame Elisabeth de France_ (1814); _Oeuvres dramatiques
+  _(1817); _Theorie des revolutions rapprochee des evenements qui en ont
+  ete l'origine, le developpement, ou la suite_ (4 vols., 1817); and
+  _Histoire des trois demembrements de la Pologne, pour faire suite a
+  l'Histoire de l'anarchie de Pologne par Rulhiere_ (3 vols., 1820).
+
+
+
+
+FERRAR, NICHOLAS (1592-1637), English theologian, was born in London in
+1592 and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, graduating in 1610. He was
+obliged for some years to travel for his health, but on returning to
+England in 1618 became actively connected with the Virginia Company.
+When this company was deprived of its patent in 1623 Ferrar turned his
+attention to politics, and was elected to parliament. But he soon
+decided to devote himself to a religious life; he purchased the manor
+of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where he organized a small
+religious community. Here, in 1626, he was ordained a deacon by Laud,
+and declining preferment, he lived an austere, almost monastic life of
+study and good works. He died on the 4th of December 1637, and the house
+was despoiled and the community broken up ten years later. There are
+extant a number of "harmonies" of the Gospel, printed and bound by the
+community, two of them by Ferrar himself. One of the latter was made for
+Charles I. on his request, after a visit in 1633 to see the "Arminian
+Nunnery at Little Gidding," which had been the subject of some
+scandalous--and undeserved--criticism.
+
+
+
+
+FERRAR, ROBERT (d. 1555), bishop of St David's and martyr, born about
+the end of the 15th century of a Yorkshire family, is said to have been
+educated at Cambridge, whence he proceeded to Oxford and became a canon
+regular of St Augustine. He came under the influence of Thomas Gerrard
+and Lutheran theology, and was compelled to bear a faggot with Anthony
+Dalaber and others in 1528. He graduated B.D. in 1533, accompanied
+Bishop Barlow on his embassy to Scotland in 1535, and was made prior of
+St Oswald's at Nostell near Pontefract. At the dissolution he
+surrendered his priory without compunction to the crown, and received a
+liberal pension. For the rest of Henry's reign his career is obscure;
+perhaps he fled abroad on the enactment of the Six Articles. He
+certainly married, and is said to have been made Cranmer's chaplain, and
+bishop of Sodor and Man; but he was never consecrated to that see.
+
+After the accession of Edward VI., Ferrar was, probably through the
+influence of Bishop Barlow, appointed chaplain to Protector Somerset, a
+royal visitor, and bishop of St David's on Barlow's translation to Bath
+and Wells in 1548. He was the first bishop appointed by letters patent
+under the act passed in 1547 without the form of capitular election; and
+the service performed at his consecration was also novel, being in
+English; he also preached at St Paul's on the 11th of November clad only
+as a priest and not as a bishop, and inveighed against vestments and
+altars. At St David's he had trouble at once with his singularly
+turbulent chapter, who, finding that he was out of favour at court since
+Somerset's fall in 1549, brought a long list of fantastic charges
+against him. He had taught his child to whistle, dined with his
+servants, talked of "worldly things such as baking, brewing, enclosing,
+ploughing and mining," preferred walking to riding, and denounced the
+debasement of the coinage. He seems to have been a kindly, homely,
+somewhat feckless person like many an excellent parish priest, who did
+not conceal his indignation at some of Northumberland's deeds. He had
+voted against the act of November 1549 for a reform of the canon law,
+and on a later occasion his nonconformity brought him into conflict with
+the Council; he was also the only bishop who satisfied Hooper's test of
+sacramental orthodoxy. The Council accordingly listened to the
+accusations of Ferrar's chapter, and in 1552 he was summoned to London
+and imprisoned on a charge of _praemunire_ incurred by omitting the
+king's authority in a commission which he issued for the visitation of
+his diocese.
+
+Imprisonment on such a charge under Northumberland might have been
+expected to lead to liberation under Mary. But Ferrar had been a monk
+and was married. Even so, it is difficult to see on what legal ground he
+was kept in the queen's bench prison after July 1553; for Mary herself
+was repudiating the royal authority in religion. Ferrar's marriage
+accounts for the loss of his bishopric in March 1554, and his opinions
+for his further punishment. As soon as the heresy laws and
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction had been re-established, Ferrar was examined
+by Gardiner, and then with signal indecency sent down to be tried by
+Morgan, his successor in the bishopric of St David's. He appealed from
+Morgan's sentence to Pole as papal legate, but in vain, and was burnt at
+Caermarthen on the 30th of March 1555. It was perhaps the most wanton of
+all Mary's acts of persecution; Ferrar had been no such protagonist of
+the Reformation as Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper and Latimer; he had had
+nothing to do with Northumberland's or Wyatt's conspiracy. He had taken
+no part in politics, and, so far as is known, had not said a word or
+raised a hand against Mary. He was burnt simply because he could not
+change his religion with the law and would not pretend that he could;
+and his execution is a complete refutation of the idea that Mary only
+persecuted heretics because and when they were traitors.
+
+  See _Dictionary of National Biography_, xviii. 380-382, and
+  authorities there cited. Also Acts of the Privy Council (1550-1554);
+  H.A.L. Fisher, _Political History of England_, vol. vi.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+FERRARA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy, capital of the
+province of Ferrara, 30 m. N.N.E. of Bologna, situated 30 ft. above
+sea-level on the Po di Vomano, a branch channel of the main stream of
+the Po, which is 3-1/2 m. N. Pop. (1901) 32,968 (town), 86,392
+(commune). The town has broad streets and numerous palaces, which date
+from the 16th century, when it was the seat of the court of the house of
+Este, and had, it is said, 100,000 inhabitants.
+
+The most prominent building is the square castle of the house of Este,
+in the centre of the town, a brick building surrounded by a moat, with
+four towers. It was built after 1385 and partly restored in 1554; the
+pavilions on the top of the towers date from the latter year. Near it is
+the hospital of S. Anna, where Tasso was confined during his attack of
+insanity (1579-1586). The Palazzo del Municipio, rebuilt in the 18th
+century, was the earlier residence of the Este family. Close by is the
+cathedral of S. Giorgio, consecrated in 1135, when the Romanesque lower
+part of the main facade and the side facades were completed. It was
+built by Guglielmo degli Adelardi (d. 1146), who is buried in it. The
+upper part of the main facade, with arcades of pointed arches, dates
+from the 13th century, and the portal has recumbent lions and elaborate
+sculptures above. The interior was restored in the baroque style in
+1712. The campanile, in the Renaissance style, dates from 1451-1493, but
+the last storey was added at the end of the 16th century. Opposite the
+cathedral is the Gothic Palazzo della Ragione, in brick (1315-1326), now
+the law-courts. A little way off is the university, which has faculties
+of law, medicine and natural science (hardly 100 students in all); the
+library has valuable MSS., including part of that of the _Orlando
+Furioso_ and letters by Tasso. The other churches are of less interest
+than the cathedral, though S. Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Maria in Vado
+and S. Cristoforo are all good early Renaissance buildings. The numerous
+early Renaissance palaces, often with good terra-cotta decorations, form
+quite a feature of Ferrara; few towns of Italy have so many of them
+proportionately, though they are mostly comparatively small in size.
+Among them may be noted those in the N. quarter (especially the four at
+the intersection of its two main streets), which was added by Ercole
+(Hercules) I. in 1492-1505, from the plans of Biagio Rossetti, and hence
+called the "Addizione Erculea." The finest of these is the Palazzo de'
+Diamanti, so called from the diamond points into which the blocks of
+stone with which it is faced are cut. It contains the municipal picture
+gallery, with a large number of pictures of artists of the school of
+Ferrara. This did not require prominence until the latter half of the
+15th century, when its best masters were Cosimo Tura (1432-1495),
+Francesco Cossa (d. 1480) and Ercole dei Roberti (d. 1496). To this
+period are due famous frescoes in the Palazzo Schifanoia, which was
+built by the Este family; those of the lower row depict the life of
+Borso of Este, in the central row are the signs of the zodiac, and in
+the upper are allegorical representations of the months. The vestibule
+was decorated with stucco mouldings by Domenico di Paris of Padua. The
+building also contains fine choir-books with miniatures, and a
+collection of coins and Renaissance medals. The simple house of Ariosto,
+erected by himself after 1526, in which he died in 1532, lies farther
+west. The best Ferrarese masters of the 16th century of the Ferrara
+school were Lorenzo Costa (1460-1535), and Dosso Dossi (1479-1542), the
+most eminent of all, while Benvenuto Tisi (Garofalo, 1481-1559) is
+somewhat monotonous and insipid.
+
+The origin of Ferrara is uncertain, and probabilities are against the
+supposition that it occupies the site of the ancient Forum Alieni. It
+was probably a settlement formed by the inhabitants of the lagoons at
+the mouth of the Po. It appears first in a document of Aistulf of 753 or
+754 as a city forming part of the exarchate of Ravenna. After 984 we
+find it a fief of Tedaldo, count of Modena and Canossa, nephew of the
+emperor Otho I. It afterwards made itself independent, and in 1101 was
+taken by siege by the countess Matilda. At this time it was mainly
+dominated by several great families, among them the Adelardi.
+
+In 1146 Guglielmo, the last of the Adelardi, died, and his property
+passed, as the dowry of his niece Marchesella, to Azzolino d' Este.
+There was considerable hostility between the newly entered family and
+the Salinguerra, but after considerable struggles Azzo Novello was
+nominated perpetual podesta in 1242; in 1259 he took Ezzelino of Verona
+prisoner in battle. His grandson, Obizzo II. (1264-1293), succeeded him,
+and the pope nominated him captain-general and defender of the states of
+the Church; and the house of Este was from henceforth settled in
+Ferrara. Niccolo III. (1393-1441) received several popes with great
+magnificence, especially Eugene IV., who held a council here in 1438.
+His son Borso received the fiefs of Modena and Reggio from the emperor
+Frederick III. as first duke in 1452 (in which year Girolamo Savonarola
+was born here), and in 1470 was made duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II.
+Ercole I. (1471-1505) carried on a war with Venice and increased the
+magnificence of the city. His son Alphonso I. married Lucrezia Borgia,
+and continued the war with Venice with success. In 1509 he was
+excommunicated by Julius II., and attacked the pontifical army in 1512
+outside Ravenna, which he took. Gaston de Foix fell in the battle, in
+which he was supporting Alphonso. With the succeeding popes he was able
+to make peace. He was the patron of Ariosto from 1518 onwards. His son
+Ercole II. married Renata, daughter of Louis XII. of France; he too
+embellished Ferrara during his reign (1534-1559). His son Alphonso II.
+married Barbara, sister of the emperor Maximilian II. He raised the
+glory of Ferrara to its highest point, and was the patron of Tasso and
+Guarini, favouring, as the princes of his house had always done, the
+arts and sciences. He had no legitimate male heir, and in 1597 Ferrara
+was claimed as a vacant fief by Pope Clement VIII., as was also
+Comacchio. A fortress was constructed by him on the site of the castle
+of Tedaldo, at the W. angle of the town. The town remained a part of the
+states of the Church, the fortress being occupied by an Austrian
+garrison from 1832 until 1859, when it became part of the kingdom of
+Italy.
+
+A considerable area within the walls of Ferrara is unoccupied by
+buildings, especially on the north, where, the handsome Renaissance
+church of S. Cristoforo, with the cemetery, stands; but modern times
+have brought a renewal of industrial activity. Ferrara is on the main
+line from Bologna to Padua and Venice, and has branches to Ravenna and
+Poggio Rusco (for Suzzara).
+
+  See G. Agnelli, _Ferrara e Pomposa_ (Bergamo, 1902); E.G. Gardner,
+  _Dukes and Poets of Ferrara_ (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+FERRARA-FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF (1438 ff.). The council of Ferrara and
+Florence was the culmination of a series of futile medieval attempts to
+reunite the Greek and Roman churches. The emperor, John VI. Palaeologus,
+had been advised by his experienced father to avoid all serious
+negotiations, as they had invariably resulted in increased bitterness;
+but John, in view of the rapid dismemberment of his empire by the Turks,
+felt constrained to seek a union. The situation was, however,
+complicated by the strife which broke out between the pope (Eugenius
+IV.) and the oecumenical council of Basel. Both sides sent embassies to
+the emperor at Constantinople, as both saw the importance of gaining the
+recognition and support of the East, for on this practically depended
+the victory in the struggle between papacy and council for the supreme
+jurisdiction over the church (see COUNCILS). The Greeks, fearing the
+domination of the papacy, were at first more favourably inclined toward
+the conciliar party; but the astute diplomacy of the Roman
+representatives, who have been charged by certain Greek writers with the
+skilful use of money and of lies, won over the emperor. With a retinue
+of about 700 persons, entertained in Italy at the pope's expense, he
+reached Ferrara early in March 1438. Here a council had been formally
+opened in January by the papal party, a bull of the previous year having
+promptly taken advantage of the death of the Emperor Sigismund by
+ordering the removal of the council of Basel to Ferrara; and one of the
+first acts of the assemblage at Ferrara had been to excommunicate the
+remnant at Basel. A month after the coming of the Greeks, the Union
+Synod was solemnly inaugurated on the 9th of April 1438. After six
+months of negotiation, the first formal session was held on the 8th of
+October, and on the 14th the real issues were reached. The time-honoured
+question of the _filioque_ was still in the foreground when it seemed
+for several reasons advisable to transfer the council to Florence:
+Ferrara was threatened by condottieri, the pest was raging; Florence
+promised a welcome subvention, and a situation further inland would make
+it more difficult for uneasy Greek bishops to flee the synod.
+
+The first session at Florence and the seventeenth of the union council
+took place on the 26th of February 1439; there ensued long debates and
+negotiations on the _filioque_, in which Markos Eugenikos, archbishop of
+Ephesus, spoke for the irreconcilables; but the Greeks under the
+leadership of Bessarion, archbishop of Nicaea, and Isidor, metropolitan
+of Kiev, at length made a declaration on the _filioque_ (4th of June),
+to which all save Markos Eugenikos subscribed. On the next topic of
+importance, the primacy of the pope, the project of union nearly
+suffered shipwreck; but here a vague formula was finally constructed
+which, while acknowledging the pope's right to govern the church,
+attempted to safeguard as well the rights of the patriarchs. On the
+basis of the above-mentioned agreements, as well as of minor discussions
+as to purgatory and the Eucharist, the decree of union was drawn up in
+Latin and in Greek, and signed on the 5th of July by the pope and the
+Greek emperor, and all the members of the synod save Eugenikos and one
+Greek bishop who had fled; and on the following day it was solemnly
+published in the cathedral of Florence. The decree explains the
+_filioque_ in a manner acceptable to the Greeks, but does not require
+them to insert the term in their symbol; it demands that celebrants
+follow the custom of their own church as to the employment of leavened
+or unleavened bread in the Eucharist. It states essentially the Roman
+doctrine of purgatory, and asserts the world-wide primacy of the pope as
+the "true vicar of Christ and the head of the whole Church, the Father
+and teacher of all Christians"; but, to satisfy the Greeks,
+inconsistently adds that all the rights and privileges of the Oriental
+patriarchs are to be maintained unimpaired. After the consummation of
+the union the Greeks remained in Florence for several weeks, discussing
+matters such as the liturgy, the administration of the sacraments, and
+divorce; and they sailed from Venice to Constantinople in October.
+
+The council, however, desirous of negotiating unions with the minor
+churches of the East, remained in session for several years, and seems
+never to have reached a formal adjournment. The decree for the Armenians
+was published on the 22nd of November 1439; they accepted the _filioque_
+and the Athanasian creed, rejected Monophysitism and Monothelitism,
+agreed to the developed scholastic doctrine concerning the seven
+sacraments, and conformed their calendar to the Western in certain
+points. On the 26th of April 1441 the pope announced that the synod
+would be transferred to the Lateran; but before leaving Florence a union
+was negotiated with the Oriental Christians known as Jacobites, through
+a monk named Andreas, who, at least as regards Abyssinia, acted in
+excess of his powers. The _Decretum pro Jacobitis_, published on the 4th
+of February 1442, is, like that for the Armenians, of high dogmatic
+interest, as it summarizes the doctrine of the great medieval
+scholastics on the points in controversy. The decree for the Syrians,
+published at the Lateran on the 30th of September 1444, and those for
+the Chaldeans (Nestorians) and the Maronites (Monothelites), published
+at the last known session of the council on the 7th of August 1445,
+added nothing of doctrinal importance. Though the direct results of
+these unions were the restoration of prestige to the absolutist papacy
+and the bringing of Byzantine men of letters, like Bessarion, to the
+West, the outcome was on the whole disappointing. Of the complicated
+history of the "United" churches of the East it suffices to say that
+Rome succeeded in securing but fragments, though important fragments, of
+the greater organizations. As for the Greeks, the union met with much
+opposition, particularly from the monks, and was rejected by three
+Oriental patriarchs at a synod of Jerusalem in 1443; and after various
+ineffective attempts to enforce it, the fall of Constantinople in 1453
+put an end to the endeavour. As Turkish interests demanded the isolation
+of the Oriental Christians from their western brethren, and as the
+orthodox Greek nationalists feared Latinization more than Mahommedan
+rule, a patriarch hostile to the union was chosen, and a synod of
+Constantinople in 1472 formally rejected the decisions of Florence.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Hardouin, vol. 9; Mansi, vols. 31 A, 31 B, 35; Sylvester
+  Sguropulus (properly Syropulus), _Vera historia Unionis_, transl. R.
+  Creyghton (Hague, 1660); Cecconi, _Studi storici sul concilio di
+  Firenze_ (Florence, 1869), (appendix); J. Zhishman, _Die
+  Unionsverhandlungen ... bis zum Concil von Ferrara_ (Vienna, 1858);
+  Gorski, of Moscow, 1847, _The History of the Council of Florence_,
+  trans. from the Russian by Basil Popoff, ed. by J.M. Neale (London,
+  1861); C.J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 7 (Freiburg i. B.,
+  1874), 659-761, 793 ff., 814 ff.; H. Vast, _Le Cardinal Bessarion_
+  (Paris, 1878), 53-113; A. Warschauer, _Uber die Quellen zur Geschichte
+  des Florentiner Concils_ (Breslau, 1881), (Dissertation); M.
+  Creighton, _A History of the Papacy during the Period of the
+  Reformation_, vol. 2 (London, 1882), 173-194 (vivid); Knopfler, in
+  Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. 4 (2nd ed., Freiburg i. B.,
+  1885), 1363-1380 (instructive); L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_,
+  vol. 1 (London, 1891), 315 ff.; F. Kattenbusch, _Lehrbuch der
+  vergleichenden Confessionskunde_, vol. 1 (Freiburg i. B., 1892), 128
+  ff.; N. Kalogeras, archbishop of Patras, "Die Verhandlungen zwischen
+  der orthodox-katholischen Kirche und dem Konzil von Basel uber die
+  Wiedervereinigung der Kirchen" (_Internationale Theologische
+  Zeitschrift_), vol. 1 (Bern, 1893, 39-57); P. Tschackert, in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, vol. 6 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1899),
+  45-48 (good bibliography); Walter Norden, _Das Papsttum und Byzanz:
+  Die Trennung der beiden Machte und das Problem ihrer Wiedervereinigung
+  bis 1453_ (Berlin, 1903), 712 ff.     (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+FERRARI, GAUDENZIO (1484-1549), Italian painter and sculptor, of the
+Milanese, or more strictly the Piedmontese, school, was born at
+Valduggia, Piedmont, and is said (very dubiously) to have learned the
+elements of painting at Vercelli from Girolamo Giovenone. He next
+studied in Milan, in the school of Scotto, and some say of Luini;
+towards 1504 he proceeded to Florence, and afterwards (it used to be
+alleged) to Rome. His pictorial style may be considered as derived
+mainly from the old Milanese school, with a considerable tinge of the
+influence of Da Vinci, and later on of Raphael; in his personal manner
+there was something of the demonstrative and fantastic. The gentler
+qualities diminished, and the stronger intensified, as he progressed. By
+1524 he was at Varallo in Piedmont, and here, in the chapel of the Sacro
+Monte, the sanctuary of the Piedmontese pilgrims, he executed his most
+memorable work. This is a fresco of the Crucifixion, with a multitude of
+figures, no less than twenty-six of them being modelled in actual
+relief, and coloured; on the vaulted ceiling are eighteen lamenting
+angels, powerful in expression. Other leading examples are the
+following. In the Royal Gallery, Turin, a "Pieta," an able early work.
+In the Brera Gallery, Milan, "St Katharine miraculously preserved from
+the Torture of the Wheel," a very characteristic example, hard and
+forcible in colour, thronged in composition, turbulent in emotion; also
+several frescoes, chiefly from the church of Santa Maria della Pace,
+three of them being from the history of Joachim and Anna. In the
+cathedral of Vercelli, the choir, the "Virgin with Angels and Saints
+under an Orange Tree." In the refectory of San Paolo, the "Last Supper."
+In the church of San Cristoforo, the transept (in 1532-1535), a series
+of paintings in which Ferrari's scholar Lanini assisted him; by Ferrari
+himself are the "Birth of the Virgin," the "Annunciation," the
+"Visitation," the "Adoration of the Shepherds and Kings," the
+"Crucifixion," the "Assumption of the Virgin," all full of life and
+decided character, though somewhat mannered. In the Louvre, "St Paul
+Meditating." In Varallo, convent of the Minorites (1507), a
+"Presentation in the Temple," and "Christ among the Doctors," and (after
+1510) the "History of Christ," in twenty-one subjects; also an ancona in
+six compartments, named the "Ancona di San Gaudenzio." In Santa Maria di
+Loreto, near Varallo (after 1527), an "Adoration." In the church of
+Saronno, near Milan, the cupola (1535), a "Glory of Angels," in which
+the beauty of the school of Da Vinci alternates with bravura of
+foreshortenings in the mode of Correggio. In Milan, Santa Maria delle
+Grazie (1542), the "Scourging of Christ," an "Ecce Homo" and a
+"Crucifixion." The "Scourging," or else a "Last Supper," in the Passione
+of Milan (unfinished), is regarded as Ferrari's latest work. He was a
+very prolific painter, distinguished by strong expression, animation and
+fulness of composition, and abundant invention; he was skilful in
+painting horses, and his decisive rather hard colour is marked by a
+partiality for shot tints in drapery. In general character, his work
+appertains more to the 15th than the 16th century. His subjects were
+always of the sacred order. Ferrari's death took place in Milan. Besides
+Lanini, already mentioned, Andrea Solario, Giambattista della Cerva and
+Fermo Stella were three of his principal scholars. He is represented to
+us as a good man, attached to his country and his art, jovial and
+sometimes facetious, but an enemy of scandal. The reputation which he
+enjoyed soon after his death was very great, but it has not fully stood
+the test of time. Lomazzo went so far as to place him seventh among the
+seven prime painters of Italy.
+
+  See G. Bordiga, two works concerning _Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (1821 and
+  1835); G. Colombo, _Vita ed opere di Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (1881); Ethel
+  Halsey, _Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (in the series _Great Masters_, 1904).
+
+  There was another painter nearly contemporary with Gaudenzio,
+  Difendente Ferrari, also of the Lombard school. His celebrity is by no
+  means equal to that of Gaudenzio; but _Kugler_ (1887, as edited by
+  Layard) pronounced him to be "a good and original colourist, and the
+  best artist that Piedmont has produced."     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FERRARI, GIUSEPPE (1812-1876), Italian philosopher, historian and
+politician, was born at Milan on the 7th of March 1812, and died in Rome
+on the 2nd of July 1876. He studied law at Pavia, and took the degree of
+doctor in 1831. A follower of Romagnosi (d. 1835) and Giovan Battista
+Vico (q.v.), his first works were an article in the _Biblioteca
+Italiana_ entitled "Mente di Gian Domenico Romagnosi" (1835), and a
+complete edition of the works of Vico, prefaced by an appreciation
+(1835). Finding Italy uncongenial to his ideas, he went to France and,
+in 1839, produced in Paris his _Vico et l'Italie_, followed by _La
+Nouvelle Religion de Campanella_ and _La Theorie de l'erreur_. On
+account of these works he was made Docteur-es-lettres of the Sorbonne
+and professor of philosophy at Rochefort (1840). His views, however,
+provoked antagonism, and in 1842 he was appointed to the chair of
+philosophy at Strassburg. After fresh trouble with the clergy, he
+returned to Paris and published a defence of his theories in a work
+entitled _Idees sur la politique de Platon et d'Aristote_. After a short
+connexion with the college at Bourges, he devoted himself from 1849 to
+1858 exclusively to writing. The works of this period are _Les
+Philosophes Salaries, Machiavel juge des revolutions de notre temps_
+(1849), _La Federazione repubblicana_ (1851), _La Filosofia della
+rivoluzione_ (1851), _L' Italia dopo il colpo di Stato_ (1852),
+_Histoire des revolutions, ou Guelfes et Gibelins_ (1858; Italian
+trans., 1871-1873). In 1859 he returned to Italy, where he opposed
+Cavour, and upheld federalism against the policy of a single Italian
+monarchy. In spite of this opposition, he held chairs of philosophy at
+Turin, Milan and Rome in succession, and during several administrations
+represented the college of Gavirate in the chamber. He was a member of
+the council of education and was made senator on the 15th of May 1876.
+Amongst other works may be mentioned _Histoire de la raison d'etat, La
+China et l' Europa, Corso d' istoria degli scrittori politici italiani_.
+A sceptic in philosophy and a revolutionist in politics, rejoicing in
+controversy of all kinds, he was admired as a man, as an orator, and as
+a writer.
+
+  See Marro Macchi, _Annuario istorico italiano_ (Milan, 1877);
+  Mazzoleni, _Giuseppe Ferrari_; Werner, _Die ital. Philosophie des 19.
+  Jahrh._ vol. 3 (Vienna, 1885); Uberweg, _History of Philosophy_ (Eng.
+  trans. ii. 461 foll.).
+
+
+
+
+
+FERRARI, PAOLO (1822-1889), Italian dramatist, was born at Modena. After
+producing some minor pieces, in 1852 he made his reputation as a
+playwright with _Goldoni e le sue sedici commedie_. Among numerous later
+plays his comedy _Parini e la satira_ (1857) had considerable success.
+Ferrari may be regarded as a follower of Goldoni, modelling himself on
+the French theatrical methods. His collected plays were published in
+1877-1880.
+
+
+
+
+FERREIRA, ANTONIO (1528-1569), Portuguese poet, was a native of Lisbon;
+his father held the post of _escrivao de fazenda_ in the house of the
+duke of Coimbra at Setubal, so that he must there have met the great
+adventurer Mendes Pinto. In 1547-1548 he went to the university of
+Coimbra, and on the 16th of July 1551 took his bachelor's degree. The
+Sonnets forming the First Book in his collected works date from 1552 and
+contain the history of his early love for an unknown lady. They seem to
+have been written in Coimbra or during vacations in Lisbon; and if some
+are dry and stilted, others, like the admirable No. 45, are full of
+feeling and tears. The Sonnets in the Second Book were inspired by D.
+Maria Pimentel, whom he afterwards married, and they are marked by that
+chastity of sentiment, seriousness and ardent patriotism which
+characterized the man and the writer. Ferreira's ideal, as a poet, was
+to win "the applause of the good," and, in the preface to his poems, he
+says, "I am content with this glory, that I have loved my land and my
+people." He was intimate with princes, nobles and the most distinguished
+literary men of the time, such as the scholarly Diogo de Teive and the
+poets Bernardes, Caminha and Corte-Real, as well as with the aged Sa de
+Miranda, the founder of the classical school of which Ferreira became
+the foremost representative.
+
+The death in 1554 of Prince John, the heir to the throne, drew from him,
+as from Camoens, Bernardes and Caminha, a poetical lament, which
+consisted of an elegy and two eclogues, imitative of Virgil and Horace,
+and devoid of interest. On the 14th of July 1555 he took his doctor's
+degree, an event which was celebrated, according to custom, by a sort of
+Roman triumph, and he stayed on as a professor, finding Coimbra with its
+picturesque environs congenial to his poetical tastes and love of a
+country life. The year 1557 produced his sixth elegy, addressed to the
+son of the great Albuquerque, a poem of noble patriotism expressed in
+eloquent and sonorous verse, and in the next year he married. After a
+short and happy married life, his wife died, and the ninth sonnet of
+Book 2 describes her end in moving words. This loss lent Ferreira's
+verse an added austerity, and the independence of his muse is remarkable
+when he addresses King Sebastian and reminds him of his duties as well
+as his rights. On the 14th of October 1567 he became _Disembargador da
+Casa do Civel_, and had to leave the quiet of Coimbra for Lisbon. His
+verses tell how he disliked the change, and how the bustle of the
+capital, then a great commercial emporium, made him sad and almost
+tongue-tied for poetry. The intrigues and moral twists of the courtiers
+and traders, among whom he was forced to live, hurt his fine sense of
+honour, and he felt his mental isolation the more, because his friends
+were few and scattered in that great city which the discoveries and
+conquests of the Portuguese had made the centre of a world empire. In
+1569 a terrible epidemic of carbunculous fever broke out and carried off
+50,000 inhabitants of Lisbon, and, on the 29th of November, Ferreira,
+who had stayed there doing his duty when others fled, fell a victim.
+
+Horace was his favourite poet, erudition his muse, and his admiration of
+the classics made him disdain the popular poetry of the Old School
+(_Escola Velha_) represented by Gil Vicente. His national feeling would
+not allow him to write in Latin or Spanish, like most of his
+contemporaries, but his Portuguese is as Latinized as he could make it,
+and he even calls his poetical works _Poemas Lusitanos_. Sa de Miranda
+had philosophized in the familiar _redondilha_, introduced the epistle
+and founded the comedy of learning. It was the beginning of a
+revolution, which Ferreira completed by abandoning the hendecasyllable
+for the Italian decasyllable, and by composing the noble and austere
+Roman poetry of his letters, odes and elegies. It was all done of set
+purpose, for he was a reformer conscious of his mission and resolved to
+carry it out. The gross realism of the popular poetry, its lack of
+culture and its carelessness of form, offended his educated taste, and
+its picturesqueness and ingenuity made no appeal to him. It is not
+surprising, however, that though he earned the applause of men of
+letters he failed to touch the hearts of his countrymen. Ferreira wrote
+the Terentian prose comedy _Bristo_, at the age of twenty-five (1553),
+and dedicated it to Prince John in the name of the university. It is
+neither a comedy of character nor manners, but its _vis comica_ lies in
+its plot and situations. The _Cioso_, a later product, may almost be
+called a comedy of character. _Castro_ is Ferreira's most considerable
+work, and, in date, is the first tragedy in Portuguese, and the second
+in modern European literature. Though fashioned on the great models of
+the ancients, it has little plot or action, and the characters, except
+that of the prince, are ill-designed. It is really a splendid poem, with
+a chorus which sings the sad fate of Ignez in musical odes, rich in
+feeling and grandeur of expression. Her love is the chaste, timid
+affection of a wife and a vassal rather than the strong passion of a
+mistress, but Pedro is really the man history describes, the
+love-fettered prince whom the tragedy of Ignez's death converted into
+the cruel tyrant. King Alfonso is little more than a shadow, and only
+meets Ignez once, his son never; while, stranger still, Pedro and Ignez
+never come on the stage together, and their love is merely narrated.
+Nevertheless, Ferreira merits all praise for choosing one of the most
+dramatic episodes in Portuguese history for his subject, and though it
+has since been handled by poets of renown in many different languages,
+none has been able to surpass the old master.
+
+  The _Castro_ was first printed in Lisbon in 1587, and it is included
+  in Ferreira's _Poemas_, published in 1598 by his son. It has been
+  translated by Musgrave (London, 1825), and the chorus of Act I.
+  appeared again in English in the _Savoy_ for July 1896. It has also
+  been done into French and German. The _Bristo_ and _Cioso_ first
+  appeared with the comedies of Sa de Miranda in Lisbon in 1622. There
+  is a good modern edition of the Complete Works of Ferreira (2 vols.,
+  Paris, 1865). See Castilho's _Antonio Ferreira_ (3 vols., Rio, 1865),
+  which contains a full biographical and critical study with extracts.
+      (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+FERREL'S LAW, in physical geography. "If a body moves in any direction
+on the earth's surface, there is a deflecting force arising from the
+earth's rotation, which deflects it to the right in the northern
+hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere." This law applies
+to every body that is set in motion upon the surface of the rotating
+earth, but usually the duration of the motion of any body due to a
+single impulse is so brief, and there are so many frictional
+disturbances, that it is not easy to observe the results of this
+deflecting force. The movements of the atmosphere, however, are upon a
+scale large enough to make this observation easy, and the simplest
+evidence is obtained from a study of the direction of the air movements
+in the great wind systems of the globe. (See METEOROLOGY.)
+
+
+
+
+FERRERS, the name of a great Norman-English feudal house, derived from
+Ferrieres-St-Hilaire, to the south of Bernay, in Normandy. Its ancestor
+Walkelin was slain in a feud during the Conqueror's minority, leaving a
+son Henry, who took part in the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday
+survey his fief extended into fourteen counties, but the great bulk of
+it was in Derbyshire and Leicestershire, especially the former. He
+himself occurs in Worcestershire as one of the royal commissioners for
+the survey. He established his chief seat at Tutbury Castle,
+Staffordshire, on the Derbyshire border, and founded there a Cluniac
+priory. As was the usual practice with the great Norman houses, his
+eldest son succeeded to Ferrieres, and, according to Stapleton, he was
+ancestor of the Oakham house of Ferrers, whose memory is preserved by
+the horseshoes hanging in the hall of their castle. Robert, a younger
+son of Henry, inherited his vast English fief, and, for his services at
+the battle of the Standard (1138), was created earl of Derby by Stephen.
+He appears to have died a year after.
+
+Both the title and the arms of the earls have been the subject of much
+discussion, and they seem to have been styled indifferently earls of
+Derby or Nottingham (both counties then forming one shrievalty) or of
+Tutbury, or simply (de) Ferrers. Robert, the 2nd earl, who founded
+Merevale Abbey, was father of William, the 3rd earl, who began the
+opposition of his house to the crown by joining in the great revolt of
+1173, when he fortified his castles of Tutbury and Duffield and
+plundered Nottingham, which was held for the king. On his subsequent
+submission his castles were razed. Dying at the siege of Acre, 1190, he
+was succeeded by his son William, who attacked Nottingham on Richard's
+behalf in 1194, but whom King John favoured and confirmed in the earldom
+of Derby, 1199. A claim that he was heir to the honour of Peveral of
+Nottingham, which has puzzled genealogists, was compromised with the
+king, whom the earl thenceforth stoutly supported, being with him at his
+death and witnessing his will, with his brother-in-law the earl of
+Chester, and with William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, whose daughter
+married his son. With them also he acted in securing the succession of
+the young Henry, joining in the siege of Mountsorrel and the battle of
+Lincoln. But he was one of those great nobles who looked with jealousy
+on the rising power of the king's favourites. In 1227 he was one of the
+earls who rose against him on behalf of his brother Richard and made him
+restore the forest charters, and in 1237 he was one of the three
+counsellors forced on the king by the barons. His influence had by this
+time been further increased by the death, in 1232, of the earl of
+Chester, whose sister, his wife, inherited a vast estate between the
+Ribble and the Mersey. On his death in 1247, his son William succeeded
+as 5th earl, and inherited through his wife her share of the great
+possessions of the Marshals, earls of Pembroke. By his second wife, a
+daughter of the earl of Winchester, he was father of Robert, 6th and
+last earl. Succeeding as a minor in 1254, Robert had been secured by the
+king, as early as 1249, as a husband for his wife's niece, Marie,
+daughter of Hugh, count of Angouleme, but, in spite of this, he joined
+the opposition in 1263 and distinguished himself by his violence. He was
+one of the five earls summoned to Simon de Montfort's parliament,
+though, on taking the earl of Gloucester's part, he was arrested by
+Simon. In spite of this he was compelled on the king's triumph to
+forfeit his castles and seven years' revenues. In 1266 he broke out
+again in revolt on his own estates in Derbyshire, but was utterly
+defeated at Chesterfield by Henry "of Almain," deprived of his earldom
+and lands and imprisoned. Eventually, in 1269, he agreed to pay L50,000
+for restoration, and to pledge all his lands save Chartley and Holbrook
+for its payment. As he was not able to find the money, the lands passed
+to the king's son, Edmund, to whom they had been granted on his
+forfeiture.
+
+The earl's son John succeeded to Chartley, a Staffordshire estate long
+famous for the wild cattle in its chase, and was summoned as a baron in
+1299, though he had joined the baronial opposition in 1297. On the
+death, in 1450, of the last Ferrers lord of Chartley, the barony passed
+with his daughter to the Devereux family and then to the Shirleys, one
+of whom was created Earl Ferrers in 1711. The barony has been in
+abeyance since 1855.
+
+The line of Ferrers of Groby was founded by William, younger brother of
+the last earl, who inherited from his mother Margaret de Quinci her
+estate of Groby in Leicestershire, and some Ferrers manors from his
+father. His son was summoned as a baron in 1300, but on the death of his
+descendant, William, Lord Ferrers of Groby, in 1445, the barony passed
+with his granddaughter to the Grey family and was forfeited with the
+dukedom of Suffolk in 1554. A younger son of William, the last lord,
+married the heiress of Tamworth Castle, and his line was seated at
+Tamworth till 1680, when an heiress carried it to a son of the first
+Earl Ferrers. From Sir Henry, a younger son of the first Ferrers of
+Tamworth, descended Ferrers of Baddesley Clinton, seated there in the
+male line till towards the end of the 19th century. The line of Ferrers
+of Wemme was founded by a younger son of Lord Ferrers of Chartley, who
+married the heiress of Wemme, Co. Salop, and was summoned as a baron in
+her right; but it ended with their son. There are doubtless male
+descendants of this great Norman house still in existence.
+
+Higham Ferrers, Northants, and Woodham Ferrers, Essex, take their names
+from this family. It has been alleged that they bore horseshoes for
+their arms in allusion to Ferrieres (i.e. ironworks); but when and why
+they were added to their coat is a moot point.
+
+  See Dugdale's _Baronage_; J.R. Planche's _The Conqueror and his
+  Companions_; G.E. C(okayne)'s _Complete Peerage_; _Chronicles and
+  Memorials_ (Rolls Series); T. Stapleton's _Rotuli Scaccarii
+  Normannie_.     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY, 4TH EARL (1720-1760), the last nobleman in
+England to suffer a felon's death, was born on the 18th of August 1720.
+There was insanity in his family, and from an early age his behaviour
+seems to have been eccentric, and his temper violent, though he was
+quite capable of managing his business affairs. In 1758 his wife
+obtained a separation from him for cruelty. The Ferrers estates were
+then vested in trustees, the Earl Ferrers secured the appointment of an
+old family steward, Johnson, as receiver of rents. This man faithfully
+performed his duty as a servant to the trustees, and did not prove
+amenable to Ferrer's personal wishes. On the 18th of January 1760,
+Johnson called at the earl's mansion at Staunton Harold, Leicestershire,
+by appointment, and was directed to his lordship's study. Here, after
+some business conversation, Lord Ferrers shot him. In the following
+April Ferrers was tried for murder by his peers in Westminster Hall. His
+defence, which he conducted in person with great ability, was a plea of
+insanity, and it was supported by considerable evidence, but he was
+found guilty. He subsequently said that he had only pleaded insanity to
+oblige his family, and that he had himself always been ashamed of such a
+defence. On the 5th of May 1760, dressed in a light-coloured suit,
+embroidered with silver, he was taken in his own carriage from the Tower
+of London to Tyburn and there hanged. It has been said that as a
+concession to his order the rope used was of silk.
+
+  See Peter Burke, _Celebrated Trials connected with the Aristocracy in
+  the Relations of Private Life_ (London, 1849); Edward Walford, _Tales
+  of our Great Families_ (London, 1877); _Howell's State Trials_ (1816),
+  xix. 885-980.
+
+
+
+
+FERRET, a domesticated, and frequently albino breed of quadruped,
+derived from the wild polecat (_Putorius foetidus_, or _P. putorius_),
+which it closely resembles in size, form, and habits, and with which it
+interbreeds. It differs in the colour of its fur, which is usually
+yellowish-white, and of its eyes, which are pinky-red. The
+"polecat-ferret" is a brown breed, apparently the product of the
+above-mentioned cross. The ferret attains a length of about 14 in.,
+exclusive of the tail, which measures 5 in. Although exhibiting
+considerable tameness, it seems incapable of attachment, and when not
+properly fed, or when irritated, is apt to give painful evidence of its
+ferocity. It is chiefly employed in destroying rats and other vermin,
+and in driving rabbits from their burrows. The ferret is remarkably
+prolific, the female bringing forth two broods annually, each numbering
+from six to nine young. It is said to occasionally devour its young
+immediately after birth, and in this case produces another brood soon
+after. The ferret was well known to the Romans, Strabo stating that it
+was brought from Africa into Spain, and Pliny that it was employed in
+his time in rabbit-hunting, under the name _Viverra_; the English name
+is not derived from this, but from Fr. _furet_, Late Lat. _furo_,
+robber. The date of its introduction into Great Britain is uncertain,
+but it has been known in England for at least 600 years.
+
+The ferret should be kept in dry, clean, well-ventilated hutches, and
+fed twice daily on bread, milk, and meat, such as rabbits' and fowls'
+livers. When used to hunt rabbits it is provided with a muzzle, or,
+better and more usual, a cope, made by looping and knotting twine about
+the head and snout, in order to prevent it killing its quarry, in which
+case it would gorge itself and go to sleep in the hole. As the ferret
+enters the hole the rabbits flee before it, and are shot or caught by
+dogs as they break ground. A ferret's hold on its quarry is as obstinate
+as that of a bulldog, but can easily be broken by a strong pressure of
+the thumb just above the eyes. Only full-grown ferrets are "worked to"
+rats. Several are generally used at a time and without copes, as rats
+are fierce fighters.
+
+  See Ferrets, by Nicholas Everitt (London, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+FERRI, CIRO (1634-1689), Roman painter, the chief disciple and successor
+of Pietro da Cortona. He was born in the Roman territory, studied under
+Pietro, to whom he became warmly attached, and, at an age a little past
+thirty, completed the painting of the ceilings and other internal
+decorations begun by his instructor in the Pitti palace, Florence. He
+also co-operated in or finished several other works by Pietro, both in
+Florence and in Rome, approaching near to his style and his particular
+merits, but with less grace of design and native vigour, and in especial
+falling short of him in colour. Of his own independent productions, the
+chief is an extensive series of scriptural frescoes in the church of S.
+Maria Maggiore in Bergamo; also a painting (rated as Ferri's best work)
+of St Ambrose healing a sick person, the principal altarpiece in the
+church of S. Ambrogio della Massima in Rome. The paintings of the cupola
+of S. Agnese in the same capital might rank even higher than these; but
+this labour remained uncompleted at the death of Ferri, and was marred
+by the performances of his successor Corbellini. He executed also a
+large amount of miscellaneous designs, such as etchings and
+frontispieces for books; and he was an architect besides. Ferri was
+appointed to direct the Florentine students in Rome, and Gabbiani was
+one of his leading pupils. As regards style, Ferri ranks as chief of the
+so-called Machinists, as opposed to the school founded by Sacchi, and
+continued by Carlo Maratta. He died in Rome--his end being hastened, as
+it is said, by mortification at his recognized inferiority to Bacciccia
+in colour.
+
+
+
+
+FERRI, LUIGI (1826-1895), Italian philosopher, was born at Bologna on
+the 15th of June 1826. His education was obtained mainly at the Ecole
+Normale in Paris, where his father, a painter and architect, was engaged
+in the construction of the Theatre Italien. From his twenty-fifth year
+he began to lecture in the colleges of Evreux, Dieppe, Blois and
+Toulouse. Later, he was lecturer at Annecy and Casal-Montferrat, and
+became head of the education department under Mamiani in 1860. Three
+years later he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Istituto
+di Perfezionamento at Florence, and, in 1871, was made professor of
+philosophy in the university of Rome. On the death of Mamiani in 1885 he
+became editor of the _Filosofia delle scuole italiane_, the title of
+which he changed to _Rivista italiana di filosofia_. He wrote both on
+psychology and on metaphysics, but is known especially as a historian of
+philosophy. His original work is eclectic, combining the psychology of
+his teachers, Jules Simon, Saisset and Mamiani, with the idealism of
+Rosmini and Gioberti. Among his works may be mentioned _Studii sulla
+coscienza_; _Il Fenomeno nelle sue relazioni con la sensazione_; _Della
+idea del vero_; _Della filosofia del diritto presso Aristotile_ (1885);
+_Il Genio di Aristotile_; _La Psicologia di Pietro Pomponazzi_ (1877),
+and, most important, _Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en Italie
+au XIX^e siecle_ (Paris, 1869), and _La Psychologie de l'association
+depuis Hobbes jusqu'a nos jours_.
+
+
+
+
+FERRIER, ARNAUD DU (c. 1508-1585), French jurisconsult and diplomatist,
+was born at Toulouse about 1508, and practised as a lawyer first at
+Bourges, afterwards at Toulouse. Councillor to the _parlement_ of the
+latter town, and then to that of Rennes, he later became president of
+the _parlement_ of Paris. He represented Charles IX., king of France, at
+the council of Trent in 1562, but had to retire in consequence of the
+attitude he had adopted, and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he
+remained till 1567, returning again in 1570. On his return to France he
+came into touch with the Calvinists whose tenets he probably embraced,
+and consequently lost his place in the privy council and part of his
+fortune. As compensation, Henry, king of Navarre, appointed him his
+chancellor. He died in the end of October 1585.
+
+  See also E. Fremy, _Un Ambassadeur liberal sous Charles IX et Henri
+  III, Arnaud du Ferrier_ (Paris, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864), Scottish metaphysical writer, was
+born in Edinburgh on the 16th of June 1808, the son of John Ferrier,
+writer to the signet. His mother was a sister of John Wilson
+(Christopher North). He was educated at the university of Edinburgh and
+Magdalen College, Oxford, and subsequently, his metaphysical tastes
+having been fostered by his intimate friend, Sir William Hamilton, spent
+some time at Heidelberg studying German philosophy. In 1842 he was
+appointed professor of civil history in Edinburgh University, and in
+1845 professor of moral philosophy and political economy at St Andrews.
+He was twice an unsuccessful candidate for chairs in Edinburgh, for that
+of moral philosophy on Wilson's resignation in 1852, and for that of
+logic and metaphysics in 1856, after Hamilton's death. He remained at St
+Andrews till his death on the 11th of June 1864. He married his cousin,
+Margaret Anne, daughter of John Wilson. He had five children, one of
+whom became the wife of Sir Alexander Grant.
+
+Ferrier's first contribution to metaphysics was a series of articles in
+_Blackwood's Magazine_ (1838-1839), entitled _An Introduction to the
+Philosophy of Consciousness_. In these he condemns previous philosophers
+for ignoring in their psychological investigations the fact of
+consciousness, which is the distinctive feature of man, and confining
+their observation to the so-called "states of the mind." Consciousness
+comes into manifestation only when the man has used the word "I" with
+full knowledge of what it means. This notion he must originate within
+himself. Consciousness cannot spring from the states which are its
+object, for it is in antagonism to them. It originates in the will,
+which in the act of consciousness puts the "I" in the place of our
+sensations. Morality, conscience, and responsibility are necessary
+results of consciousness. These articles were succeeded by a number of
+others, of which the most important were _The Crisis of Modern
+Speculation_ (1841), _Berkeley and Idealism_ (1842), and an important
+examination of Hamilton's edition of Reid (1847), which contains a
+vigorous attack on the philosophy of common sense. The perception of
+matter is pronounced to be the _ne plus ultra_ of thought, and Reid, for
+presuming to analyse it, is declared to be a representationist in fact,
+although he professed to be an intuitionist. A distinction is made
+between the "perception of matter" and "our apprehension of the
+perception of matter." Psychology vainly tries to analyse the former.
+Metaphysic shows the latter alone to be analysable, and separates the
+subjective element, "our apprehension," from the objective element, "the
+perception of matter,"--not matter _per se_, but the perception of
+matter is the existence independent of the individual's thought. It
+cannot, however, be independent of thought. It must belong to some mind,
+and is therefore the property of the Divine Mind. There, he thinks, is
+an indestructible foundation for the _a priori_ argument for the
+existence of God.
+
+Ferrier's matured philosophical doctrines find expression in the
+_Institutes of Metaphysics_ (1854), in which he claims to have met the
+twofold obligation resting on every system of philosophy, that it should
+be reasoned and true. His method is that of Spinoza, strict
+demonstration, or at least an attempt at it. All the errors of natural
+thinking and psychology must fall under one or other of three
+topics:--Knowing and the Known, Ignorance, and Being. These are
+all-comprehensive, and are therefore the departments into which
+philosophy is divided, for the sole end of philosophy is to correct the
+inadvertencies of ordinary thinking.
+
+The problems of knowing and the known are treated in the "Epistemology
+or Theory of Knowing." The truth that "along with whatever any
+intelligence knows it must, as the ground or condition of its knowledge,
+have some cognizance of itself," is the basis of the whole philosophical
+system. Object + subject, thing + me, is the only possible knowable.
+This leads to the conclusion that the only independent universe which
+any mind can think of is the universe in synthesis with some _other_
+mind or _ego_.
+
+The leading contradiction which is corrected in the "Agnoiology or
+Theory of Ignorance" is this: that there can be an ignorance of that of
+which there can be no knowledge. Ignorance is a defect. But there is no
+defect in not knowing what cannot be known by any intelligence (e.g.
+that two and two make five), and therefore there can be an ignorance
+only of that of which there can be a knowledge, i.e. of
+some-object-_plus_-some-subject. The knowable alone is the ignorable.
+Ferrier lays special claim to originality for this division of the
+_Institutes_.
+
+The "Ontology or Theory of Being" forms the third and final division. It
+contains a discussion of the origin of knowledge, in which Ferrier
+traces all the perplexities and errors of philosophers to the assumption
+of the absolute existence of matter. The conclusion arrived at is that
+the only true real and independent existences are
+minds-together-with-that-which-they-apprehend, and that the one strictly
+necessary absolute existence is a supreme and infinite and everlasting
+mind in synthesis with all things.
+
+  Ferrier's works are remarkable for an unusual charm and simplicity of
+  style. These qualities are especially noticeable in the _Lectures on
+  Greek Philosophy_, one of the best introductions on the subject in the
+  English language. A complete edition of his philosophical writings was
+  published in 1875, with a memoir by E.L. Lushington; see also
+  monograph by E.S. Haldane in the Famous Scots Series.
+
+
+
+
+FERRIER, PAUL (1843-   ), French dramatist, was born at Montpellier on
+the 29th of March 1843. He had already produced several comedies when in
+1873 he secured real success with two short pieces, _Chez l'avocat_ and
+_Les Incendies de Massoulard_. Others of his numerous plays are _Les
+Compensations_ (1876); _L'Art de tromper les femmes_ (1890), with M.
+Najac. One of Ferrier's greatest triumphs was the production with
+Fabrice Carre of _Josephine vendue par ses soeurs_ (1886), an _opera
+bouffe_ with music by Victor Roger. His opera libretti include _La
+Marocaine_ (1879), music of J. Offenbach; _Le Chevalier d'Harmental_
+(1896) after the play of Dumas pere, for the music of A. Messager; _La
+Fille de Tabarin_ (1901), with Victorien Sardou, music of Gabriel
+Pierne.
+
+
+
+
+FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE (1782-1854), Scottish novelist, born in
+Edinburgh on the 7th of September 1782, was the daughter of James
+Ferrier, for some years factor to the duke of Argyll, and at one time
+one of the clerks of the court of session with Sir Walter Scott. Her
+mother was a Miss Coutts, the beautiful daughter of a Forfarshire
+farmer. James Frederick Ferrier, noticed above, was Susan Ferrier's
+nephew.
+
+Miss Ferrier's first novel, _Marriage_, was begun in concert with a
+friend, Miss Clavering, a niece of the duke of Argyll; but this lady
+only wrote a few pages, and _Marriage_, completed by Miss Ferrier as
+early as 1810, appeared in 1818. It was followed in 1824 by _The
+Inheritance_, a better constructed and more mature work; and the last
+and perhaps best of her novels, _Destiny_, dedicated to Sir Walter Scott
+(who himself undertook to strike the bargain with the publisher Cadell),
+appeared in 1831. All these novels were published anonymously; but, with
+their clever portraiture of contemporary Scottish life and manners, and
+even recognizable caricatures of some social celebrities of the day,
+they could not fail to become popular north of the Tweed. "Lady
+MacLaughlan" represents Mrs Seymour Damer in dress and Lady Frederick
+Campbell, whose husband, Lord Ferrier, was executed in 1760, in manners.
+Mary, Lady Clark, well known in Edinburgh, figured as "Mrs Fox" and the
+three maiden aunts were the Misses Edmonstone. Many were the conjectures
+as to the authorship of the novels. In the _Noctes Ambrosianae_
+(November 1826), James Hogg is made to mention _The Inheritance_, and
+adds, "which I aye thought was written by Sir Walter, as weel's
+_Marriage_, till it spunked out that it was written by a leddy." Scott
+himself gave Miss Ferrier a very high place indeed among the novelists
+of the day. In his diary (March 27, 1826), criticizing a new work which
+he had been reading, he says, "The women do this better. Edgeworth,
+Ferrier, Austen, have all given portraits of real society far superior
+to anything man, vain man, has produced of the like nature." Another
+friendly recognition of Miss Ferrier is to be found at the conclusion of
+his _Tales of my Landlord_, where Scott calls her his "sister shadow,"
+the still anonymous author of "the very lively work entitled
+_Marriage_." Lively, indeed, all Miss Ferrier's works are,--written in
+clear, brisk English, and with an inexhaustible fund of humour. It is
+true her books portray the eccentricities, the follies, and foibles of
+the society in which she lived, caricaturing with terrible exactness its
+hypocrisy, boastfulness, greed, affectation, and undue subservience to
+public opinion. Yet Miss Ferrier wrote less to reform than to amuse. In
+this she is less like Miss Edgeworth than Miss Austen. Miss Edgeworth
+was more of a moralist; her wit is not so involuntary, her caricatures
+not always so good-natured. But Miss Austen and Miss Ferrier were
+genuine humorists, and with Miss Ferrier especially a keen sense of the
+ludicrous was always dominant. Her humorous characters are always her
+best. It was no doubt because she felt this that in the last year of her
+life she regretted not having devoted her talents more exclusively to
+the service of religion. But if she was not a moralist, neither was she
+a cynic; and her wit, even where it is most caustic, is never
+uncharitable.
+
+Miss Ferrier's mother died in 1797, and from that date she kept house
+for her father until his death in 1829. She lived quietly at Morningside
+House and in Edinburgh for more than twenty years after the publication
+of her last work. The pleasantest picture that we have of her is in
+Lockhart's description of her visit to Scott in May 1831. She was asked
+there to help to amuse the dying master of Abbotsford, who, when he was
+not writing _Count Robert of Paris_, would talk as brilliantly as ever.
+Only sometimes, before he had reached the point in a narrative, "it
+would seem as if some internal spring had given way." He would pause,
+and gaze blankly and anxiously round him. "I noticed," says Lockhart,
+"the delicacy of Miss Ferrier on such occasions. Her sight was bad, and
+she took care not to use her glasses when he was speaking; and she
+affected to be also troubled with deafness, and would say, 'Well, I am
+getting as dull as a post; I have not heard a word since you said
+so-and-so,'--being sure to mention a circumstance behind that at which
+he had really halted. He then took up the thread with his habitual smile
+of courtesy--as if forgetting his case entirely in the consideration of
+the lady's infirmity."
+
+Miss Ferrier died on the 5th of November 1854, at her brother's house in
+Edinburgh. She left among her papers a short unpublished article,
+entitled "Recollections of Visits to Ashestiel and Abbotsford." This is
+her own very interesting account of her long friendship with Sir Walter
+Scott, from the date of her first visit to him and Lady Scott at
+Ashestiel, where she went with her father in the autumn of 1811, to her
+last sad visit to Abbotsford in 1831. It contains some impromptu verses
+written by Scott in her album at Ashestiel.
+
+  Miss Ferrier's letters to her sister, which contained much interesting
+  biographical matter, were destroyed at her particular request, but a
+  volume of her correspondence with a memoir by her grand-nephew, John
+  Ferrier, was published in 1898.
+
+
+
+
+FERROL [_El Ferrol_], a seaport of north-western Spain, in the province
+of Corunna; situated 12 m. N.E. of the city of Corunna, and on the Bay
+of Ferrol, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 25,281. Together
+with San Fernando, near Cadiz, and Cartagena, Ferrol is governed by an
+admiral, with the special title of captain-general; and it ranks beside
+these two ports as one of the principal naval stations of Spain. The
+town is beautifully situated on a headland overlooking the bay, and is
+surrounded by rocky hills which render it invisible from the sea. Its
+harbour, naturally one of the best in Europe, and the largest in Spain
+except those of Vigo and Corunna, is deep, capacious and secure; but the
+entrance is a narrow strait about 2 m. long, which admits only one
+vessel at a time, and is commanded by modern and powerfully armed forts,
+while the neighbouring heights are also crowned by defensive works.
+Ferrol is provided with extensive dockyards, quays, warehouses and an
+arsenal; most of these, with the palace of the captain-general, the
+bull-ring, theatres, and other principal buildings, were built or
+modernized between 1875 and 1905. The local industries are mainly
+connected with the shipping trade, or the refitting of warships. Owing
+to the lack of railway communication, and the competition of Corunna at
+so short a distance, Ferrol is not a first-class commercial port; and in
+the early years of the 20th century its trade, already injured by the
+loss to Spain of Cuba and Porto Rico in 1898, showed little prospect of
+improvement. The exports are insignificant, and consist chiefly of
+wooden staves and beams for use as pit-props; the chief imports are
+coal, cement, timber, iron and machinery. In 1904, 282 vessels of
+155,881 tons entered the harbour. In the same year the construction of a
+railway to the neighbouring town of Betanzos was undertaken, and in 1909
+important shipbuilding operations were begun.
+
+Ferrol was a mere fishing village until 1752, when Ferdinand VI. began
+to fit it for becoming an arsenal. In 1799 the British made a fruitless
+attempt to capture it, but on the 4th of November 1805 they defeated the
+French fleet in front of the town, which they compelled to surrender. On
+the 27th of January 1809 it was through treachery delivered over to the
+French, but it was vacated by them on the 22nd of July. On the 15th of
+July 1823 another blockade was begun by the French, and Ferrol
+surrendered to them on the 27th of August.
+
+
+
+
+FERRUCCIO, or FERRUCCI, FRANCESCO (1489-1530), Florentine captain. After
+spending a few years as a merchant's clerk he took to soldiering at an
+early age, and served in the _Bande Nere_ in various parts of Italy,
+earning a reputation as a daring fighter and somewhat of a swashbuckler.
+When Pope Clement VII. and the emperor Charles V. decided to reinstate
+the Medici in Florence, they made war on the Florentine republic, and
+Ferruccio was appointed Florentine military commissioner at Empoli,
+where he showed great daring and resource by his rapid marches and
+sudden attacks on the Imperialists. Early in 1530 Volterra had thrown
+off Florentine allegiance and had been occupied by an Imperialist
+garrison, but Ferruccio surprised and recaptured the city. During his
+absence, however, the Imperialists captured Empoli by treachery, thus
+cutting off one of the chief avenues of approach to Florence. Ferruccio
+proposed to the government of the republic that he should march on Rome
+and terrorize the pope by the threat of a sack into making peace with
+Florence on favourable terms, but although the war committee appointed
+him commissioner-general for the operations outside the city, they
+rejected his scheme as too audacious. Ferruccio then decided to attempt
+a diversion by attacking the Imperialists in the rear and started from
+Volterra for the Apennines. But at Pisa he was laid up for a month with
+a fever--a misfortune which enabled the enemy to get wind of his plan
+and to prepare for his attack. At the end of July Ferruccio left Pisa at
+the head of about 4000 men, and although the besieged in Florence,
+knowing that a large part of the Imperialists under the prince of Orange
+had gone to meet Ferruccio, wished to co-operate with the latter by
+means of a sortie, they were prevented from doing so by their own
+traitorous commander-in-chief, Malatesta Baglioni. Ferruccio encountered
+a much larger force of the enemy on the 3rd of August at Gavinana; a
+desperate battle ensued, and at first the Imperialists were driven back
+by Ferruccio's fierce onslaught and the prince of Orange himself was
+killed, but reinforcements under Fabrizio Maramaldo having arrived, the
+Florentines were almost annihilated and Ferruccio was wounded and
+captured. Maramaldo out of personal spite despatched the wounded man
+with his own hand. This defeat sealed the fate of the republic, and nine
+days later Florence surrendered. Ferruccio was one of the great soldiers
+of the age, and his enterprise is the finest episode of the last days of
+the Florentine republic. See also under FLORENCE and MEDICI.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Sassetti, _Vita di Francesco Ferrucci_, written in
+  the 16th century and published in the _Archivio storico_, vol. iv. pt.
+  ii. (Florence, 1853), with an introduction by C. Monzani; E. Aloisi,
+  _La Battaglia di Gavinana_ (Bologna, 1881); cf. P. Villari's criticism
+  of the latter work, "Ferruccio e Maramaldo," in his _Arte, storia, e
+  filosofia_ (Florence, 1884); Gino Capponi, _Storia della repubblica di
+  Firenze_, vol. ii. (Florence, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+FERRULE, a small metal cap or ring used for holding parts of a rod, &c.,
+together, and for giving strength to weakened materials, or especially,
+when attached to the end of a stick, umbrella, &c., for preventing
+wearing or splitting. The word is properly _verrel_ or _verril_, in
+which form it was used till the 18th century, and is derived through the
+O. Fr. _virelle_, modern _virole_, from a diminutive Latin _viriola_ of
+_viriae_, bracelets. The form in which the word is now known is due to
+the influence of Latin _ferrum_, iron. "Ferrule" must be distinguished
+from "ferule" or "ferula," properly the Latin name of the "giant
+fennel." From the use of the stalk of this plant as a cane or rod for
+punishment, comes the application of the word to many instruments used
+in chastisement, more particularly a short flat piece of wood or leather
+shaped somewhat like the sole of a boot, and applied to the palms of the
+hand. It is the common form of disciplinary instrument in Roman Catholic
+schools; the pain inflicted is exceedingly sharp and immediate, but the
+effects are momentary and leave no chance for any dangerous results. The
+word is sometimes applied to the ordinary cane as used by schoolmasters.
+
+
+
+
+FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE (1832-1893), French statesman, was born at
+Saint Die (Vosges) on the 5th of April 1832. He studied law, and was
+called to the bar at Paris, but soon went into politics, contributing to
+various newspapers, particularly to the _Temps_. He attacked the Empire
+with great violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron
+Haussmann, prefect of the Seine. Elected republican deputy for Paris in
+1869, he protested against the declaration of war with Germany, and on
+the 6th of September 1870 was appointed prefect of the Seine by the
+government of national defence. In this position he had the difficult
+task of administering Paris during the siege, and after the Commune was
+obliged to resign (5th of June 1871). From 1872-1873 he was sent by
+Thiers as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy for
+the Vosges, and became one of the leaders of the republican party. When
+the first republican ministry was formed under W.H. Waddington on the
+4th of February 1879, he was one of its members, and continued in the
+ministry until the 30th of March 1885, except for two short
+interruptions (from the 10th of November 1881 to the 30th of January
+1882, and from the 29th of July 1882 to the 21st of February 1883),
+first as minister of education and then as minister of foreign affairs.
+He was twice premier (1880-1881 and 1883-1885). Two important works are
+associated with his administration, the non-clerical organization of
+public education, and the beginning of the colonial expansion of France.
+Following the republican programme he proposed to destroy the influence
+of the clergy in the university. He reorganized the committee of public
+education (law of the 27th of February 1880), and proposed a regulation
+for the conferring of university degrees, which, though rejected,
+aroused violent polemics because the 7th article took away from the
+unauthorized religious orders the right to teach. He finally succeeded
+in passing the great law of the 28th of March 1882, which made primary
+education in France free, non-clerical and obligatory. In higher
+education the number of professors doubled under his ministry. After the
+military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, he formed the idea of
+acquiring a great colonial empire, not to colonize it, but for the sake
+of economic exploitation. He directed the negotiations which led to the
+establishment of a French protectorate in Tunis (1881), prepared the
+treaty of the 17th of December 1885 for the occupation of Madagascar;
+directed the exploration of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above
+all he organized the conquest of Indo-China. The excitement caused at
+Paris by an unimportant reverse of the French troops at Lang-son caused
+his downfall (30th of March 1885), but the treaty of peace with China
+(9th of June 1885) was his work. He still remained an influential member
+of the moderate republican party, and directed the opposition to General
+Boulanger. After the resignation of President Grevy (2nd of December
+1887), he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the
+radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favour of Sadi
+Carnot. The violent polemics aroused against him at this time caused a
+madman to attack him with a revolver, and he died from the wound, on the
+17th of March 1893. The chamber of deputies voted him a state funeral.
+
+  See Edg. Zevort, _Histoire de la troisieme Republique_; A. Rambaud,
+  _Jules Ferry_ (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+
+FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb "to fare," to journey or
+travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _fahren_; it is connected
+with the root of Gr. [Greek: poros], way, and Lat. _portare_, to carry),
+a place where boats ply regularly across a river or arm of the sea for
+the conveyance of goods and persons. The word is also applied to the
+boats employed (ferry boats). In a car-ferry or train-ferry railway cars
+or complete trains are conveyed across a piece of water in vessels which
+have railway lines laid on their decks, so that the vehicles run on and
+off them on their own wheels. In law the right of ferrying persons or
+goods across a particular river or strait, and of exacting a reasonable
+toll for the service, belongs, like the right of fair and market, to the
+class of rights known as franchises. Its origin must be by statute,
+royal grant, or prescription. It is wholly unconnected with the
+ownership or occupation of land, so that the owner of the ferry need not
+be proprietor of the soil on either side of the water over which the
+right is exercised. He is bound to maintain safe and suitable boats
+ready for the use of the public, and to employ fit persons as ferrymen.
+As a correlative of this duty he has a right of action, not only against
+those who evade or refuse payment of toll when it is due, but also
+against those who disturb his franchise by setting up a new ferry, so as
+to diminish his custom, unless a change of circumstances, such as an
+increase of population near the ferry, justify other means of passage,
+whether of the same kind or not. See also WATER RIGHTS.
+
+
+
+
+FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL, COUNT VON (1719-1794), Swedish politician, was a
+son of Lieutenant-General Hans Reinhold Fersen and entered the Swedish
+Life Guards in 1740, and from 1743 to 1748 was in the French service
+(_Royal-Suedois_), where he rose to the rank of brigadier. In the Seven
+Years' War Fersen distinguished himself during the operations round
+Usedom and Wollin (1759), when he inflicted serious loss on the
+Prussians. But it is as a politician that he is best known. At the diet
+of 1755-1756 he was elected _landtmarskalk_, or marshal of the diet, and
+from henceforth, till the revolution of 1772, led the Hat party (see
+SWEDEN: _History_). In 1756 he defeated the projects of the court for
+increasing the royal power; but, after the disasters of the Seven Years'
+War, gravitated towards the court again and contributed, by his energy
+and eloquence, to uphold the tottering Hats for several years. On the
+accession of the Caps to power in 1766, Fersen assisted the court in its
+struggle with them by refusing to employ the Guards to keep order in the
+capital when King Adolphus Frederick, driven to desperation by the
+demands of the Caps, publicly abdicated, and a seven days' interregnum
+ensued. At the ensuing diet of 1769, when the Hats returned to power,
+Fersen was again elected marshal of the diet; but he made no attempt to
+redeem his pledges to the crown prince Gustavus, as to a very necessary
+reform of the constitution, which he had made before the elections, and
+thus involuntarily contributed to the subsequent establishment of
+absolutism. When Gustavus III. ascended the throne in 1772, and
+attempted to reconcile the two factions by a composition which aimed at
+dividing all political power between them, Fersen said he despaired of
+bringing back, in a moment, to the path of virtue and patriotism a
+people who had been running riot for more than half a century in the
+wilderness of political licence and corruption. Nevertheless he
+consented to open negotiations with the Caps, and was the principal Hat
+representative on the abortive composition committee. During the
+revolution of August 1772, Fersen remained a passive spectator of the
+overthrow of the constitution, and was one of the first whom Gustavus
+summoned to his side after his triumph. Yet his relations with the king
+were never cordial. The old party-leader could never forget that he had
+once been a power in the state, and it is evident, from his _Historiska
+Skrifter_, how jealous he was of Gustavus's personal qualities. There
+was a slight collision between them as early as the diet of 1778; but at
+the diet of 1786 Fersen boldly led the opposition against the king's
+financial measures (see GUSTAVUS III.) which were consequently rejected;
+while in private interviews, if his own account of them is to be
+trusted, he addressed his sovereign with outrageous insolence. At the
+diet of 1789 Fersen marshalled the nobility around him for a combat _a
+outrance_ against the throne and that, too, at a time when Sweden was
+involved in two dangerous foreign wars, and national unity was
+absolutely indispensable. This tactical blunder cost him his popularity
+and materially assisted the secret operations of the king. Obstruction
+was Fersen's chief weapon, and he continued to postpone the granting of
+subsidies by the house of nobles for some weeks. But after frequent
+stormy scenes in the diet, which were only prevented from becoming
+melees by Fersen's moderation, or hesitation, at the critical moment, he
+and twenty of his friends of the nobility were arrested (17th February
+1789) and the opposition collapsed. Fersen was speedily released, but
+henceforth kept aloof from politics, surviving the king two years. He
+was a man of great natural talent, with an imposing presence, and he
+always bore himself like the aristocrat he was. But his haughtiness and
+love of power are undeniable, and he was perhaps too great a
+party-leader to be a great statesman. Yet for seventeen years, with very
+brief intervals, he controlled the destinies of Sweden, and his
+influence in France was for some time pretty considerable. His
+_Historiska Skrifter_, which are a record of Swedish history, mainly
+autobiographical, during the greater part of the 18th century, is
+excellent as literature, but somewhat unreliable as an historical
+document, especially in the later parts.
+
+  See C.G. Malmstrom, _Sveriges politiska Historia_ (Stockholm,
+  1855-1865); R.N. Bain, _Gustavus III._ (London, 1895); C.T. Odhner,
+  _Sveriges politiska Historia under Gustaf III.'s Regering_ (Stockholm,
+  1885, &c.); F.A. Fersen, _Historiska Skrifter_ (Stockholm, 1867-1872).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FERSEN, HANS AXEL, COUNT VON (1755-1810), Swedish statesman, was
+carefully educated at home, at the Carolinum at Brunswick and at Turin.
+In 1779 he entered the French military service (_Royal-Baviere_),
+accompanied General Rochambeau to America as his adjutant, distinguished
+himself during the war with England, notably at the siege of Yorktown,
+1781, and in 1785 was promoted to be _colonel proprietaire_ of the
+regiment _Royal-Suedois_. The young nobleman was, from the first, a
+prime favourite at the French court, owing, partly to the recollection
+of his father's devotion to France, but principally because of his own
+amiable and brilliant qualities. The queen, Marie Antoinette, was
+especially attracted by the grace and wit of _le beau Fersen_, who had
+inherited his full share of the striking handsomeness which was
+hereditary in the family.
+
+It is possible that Fersen would have spent most of his life at
+Versailles, but for a hint from his own sovereign, then at Pisa, that he
+desired him to join his suite. He accompanied Gustavus III. in his
+Italian tour and returned home with him in 1784. When the war with
+Russia broke out, in 1788, Fersen accompanied his regiment to Finland,
+but in the autumn of the same year was sent to France, where the
+political horizon was already darkening. It was necessary for Gustavus
+to have an agent thoroughly in the confidence of the French royal
+family, and, at the same time, sufficiently able and audacious to help
+them in their desperate straits, especially as he had lost all
+confidence in his accredited minister, the baron de Stael. With his
+usual acumen, he fixed upon Fersen, who was at his post early in 1790.
+Before the end of the year he was forced to admit that the cause of the
+French monarchy was hopeless so long as the king and queen of France
+were nothing but captives in their own capital, at the mercy of an
+irresponsible mob. He took a leading part in the flight to Varennes. He
+found most of the requisite funds at the last moment. He ordered the
+construction of the famous carriage for six, in the name of the baroness
+von Korff, and kept it in his hotel grounds, rue Matignon, that all
+Paris might get accustomed to the sight of it. He was the coachman of
+the _fiacre_ which drove the royal family from the Carrousel to the
+Porte Saint-Martin. He accompanied them to Bondy, the first stage of
+their journey.
+
+In August 1791, Fersen was sent to Vienna to induce the emperor Leopold
+to accede to a new coalition against revolutionary France, but he soon
+came to the conclusion that the Austrian court meant to do nothing at
+all. At his own request, therefore, he was transferred to Brussels,
+where he could be of more service to the queen of France. In February
+1792, at his own mortal peril, he once more succeeded in reaching Paris
+with counterfeit credentials as minister plenipotentiary to Portugal. On
+the 13th he arrived, and the same evening contrived to steal an
+interview with the queen unobserved. On the following day he was with
+the royal family from six o'clock in the evening till six o'clock the
+next morning, and convinced himself that a second flight was physically
+impossible. On the afternoon of the 21st he succeeded in paying a third
+visit to the Tuileries, stayed there till midnight and succeeded, with
+great difficulty, in regaining Brussels on the 27th. This perilous
+expedition, a monumental instance of courage and loyalty, had no
+substantial result. In 1797 Fersen was sent to the congress of Rastatt
+as the Swedish delegate, but in consequence of a protest from the French
+government, was not permitted to take part in it.
+
+During the regency of the duke of Sudermania (1792-1796) Fersen, like
+all the other Gustavians, was in disgrace; but, on Gustavus IV.
+attaining his majority in 1796, he was welcomed back to court with open
+arms, and reinstated in all his offices and dignities. In 1801 he was
+appointed _Riksmarskalk_ (= earl-marshal). On the outbreak of the war
+with Napoleon, Fersen accompanied Gustavus IV. to Germany to assist him
+in gaining fresh allies. He prevented Gustavus from invading Prussia in
+revenge for the refusal of the king of Prussia to declare war against
+France, and during the rest of the reign was in semi-disgrace, though
+generally a member of the government when the king was abroad.
+
+Fersen stood quite aloof from the revolution of 1809. (See SWEDEN:
+_History_.) His sympathies were entirely with Prince Gustavus, son of
+the unfortunate Gustavus IV., and he was generally credited with the
+desire to see him king. When the newly elected successor to the throne,
+the highly popular prince Christian Augustus of Augustenburg, died
+suddenly in Skane in May 1810, the report spread that he had been
+poisoned, and that Fersen and his sister, the countess Piper, were
+accessories. The source of this equally absurd and infamous libel has
+never been discovered. But it was eagerly taken up by the anti-Gustavian
+press, and popular suspicion was especially aroused by a fable called
+"The Foxes" directed against the Fersens, which appeared in _Nya
+Posten_. When, then, on the 20th of June 1810, the prince's body was
+conveyed to Stockholm, and Fersen, in his official capacity as
+_Riksmarskalk_, received it at the barrier and led the funeral cortege
+into the city, his fine carriage and his splendid robes seemed to the
+people an open derision of the general grief. The crowd began to murmur
+and presently to fling stones and cry "murderer!" He sought refuge in a
+house in the Riddarhus Square, but the mob rushed after him, brutally
+maltreated him and tore his robes to pieces. To quiet the people and
+save the unhappy victim, two officers volunteered to conduct him to the
+senate house and there place him in arrest. But he had no sooner mounted
+the steps leading to the entrance than the crowd, which had followed him
+all the way beating him with sticks and umbrellas, made a rush at him,
+knocked him down, and kicked and trampled him to death. This horrible
+outrage, which lasted more than an hour, happened, too, in the presence
+of numerous troops, drawn up in the Riddarhus Square, who made not the
+slightest effort to rescue the Riksmarskalk from his tormentors. In the
+circumstances, one must needs adopt the opinion of Fersen's
+contemporary, Baron Gustavus Armfelt, "One is almost tempted to say that
+the government wanted to give the people a victim to play with, just as
+when one throws something to an irritated wild beast to distract its
+attention. The more I consider it all, the more I am certain that the
+mob had the least to do with it.... But in God's name what were the
+troops about? How could such a thing happen in broad daylight during a
+procession, when troops and a military escort were actually present?"
+The responsibility certainly rests with the government of Charles XIII.,
+which apparently intended to intimidate the Gustavians by the removal of
+one of their principal leaders. Armfelt escaped in time, so Fersen fell
+the victim.
+
+  See R.M. Klinckowstrom, _Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France_
+  (Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., London, 1902); _Historia om Axel von Fersens
+  mord_ (Stockholm, 1844); R.N. Bain, _Gustavus III._, vol. ii. (London,
+  1895); P. Gaulot, _Un Ami de la reine_ (Paris, 1892); F.F. Flach,
+  _Grefve Hans Axel von Fersen_ (Stockholm, 1896); E. Tegner, _Gustaf
+  Mauritz Armfelt_, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1883-1887).      (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST (1789-1826), German violinist and composer of
+instrumental music, was born on the 15th of February 1789 at Magdeburg,
+where he received his early musical education. He completed his studies
+at Leipzig under Eberhard Muller, and at the early age of fifteen
+appeared before the public with several concerti for the violin, which
+were received with general applause, and resulted in his being appointed
+leading violinist of the Leipzig orchestra. This position he occupied
+till 1806, when he became concert-master to the duke of Oldenburg. In
+1808 he was appointed solo-violinist by King Jerome of Westphalia at
+Cassel, and there he remained till the end of the French occupation
+(1814), when he went to Vienna, and soon afterwards to Carlsruhe, having
+been appointed concert-master to the grand-duke of Baden. His failing
+health prevented him from enjoying the numerous and well-deserved
+triumphs he owed to his art, and in 1826 he died of consumption at the
+early age of thirty-seven. As a virtuoso Fesca ranks amongst the best
+masters of the German school of violinists, the school subsequently of
+Spohr and of Joachim. Especially as leader of a quartet he is said to
+have been unrivalled with regard to classic dignity and simplicity of
+style. Amongst his compositions, his quartets for stringed instruments
+and other pieces of chamber music are the most remarkable. His two
+operas, _Cantemira_ and _Omar and Leila_, were less successful, lacking
+dramatic power and originality. He also wrote some sacred compositions,
+and numerous songs and vocal quartets.
+
+
+
+
+FESCENNIA, an ancient city of Etruria, which is probably to be placed
+immediately to the N. of the modern Corchiano, 6 m. N.W. of Civita
+Castellana (see FALERII). The Via Amerina traverses it. G. Dennis
+(_Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, London, 1883, i. 115) proposed to
+place it at the Riserva S. Silvestro, 3 m. E. of Corchiano, nearer the
+Tiber, where remains of Etruscan walls exist. At Corchiano itself,
+however, similar walls may be traced, and the site is a strong and
+characteristic one--a triangle between two deep ravines, with the third
+(west) side cut off by a ditch. Here, too, remains of two bridges may be
+seen, and several rich tombs have been excavated.
+
+  See A. Buglione, "Conte di Monale," in _Romische Mitteilungen_ (1887),
+  p. 21 seq.
+
+
+
+
+FESCENNINE VERSES (_Fescennina carmina_), one of the earliest kinds of
+Italian poetry, subsequently developed into the Satura and the Roman
+comic drama. Originally sung at village harvest-home rejoicings, they
+made their way into the towns, and became the fashion at religious
+festivals and private gatherings--especially weddings, to which in later
+times they were practically restricted. They were usually in the
+Saturnian metre and took the form of a dialogue, consisting of an
+interchange of extemporaneous raillery. Those who took part in them wore
+masks made of the bark of trees. At first harmless and good-humoured, if
+somewhat coarse, these songs gradually outstripped the bounds of
+decency; malicious attacks were made upon both gods and men, and the
+matter became so serious that the law intervened and scurrilous
+personalities were forbidden by the Twelve Tables (Cicero, _De re
+publica_, iv. 10). Specimens of the Fescennines used at weddings are the
+Epithalamium of Manlius (Catullus, lxi. 122) and the four poems of
+Claudian in honour of the marriage of Honorius and Maria; the first,
+however, is distinguished by a licentiousness which is absent in the
+latter. Ausonius in his _Cento nuptialis_ mentions the Fescennines of
+Annianus Faliscus, who lived in the time of Hadrian. Various derivations
+have been proposed for _Fescennine_. According to Festus, they were
+introduced from Fescennia in Etruria, but there is no reason to assume
+that any particular town was specially devoted to the use of such songs.
+As an alternative Festus suggests a connexion with _fascinum_, either
+because the Fescennina were regarded as a protection against evil
+influences (see Munro, _Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus_, p. 76)
+or because _fascinum_ (= _phallus_), as the symbol of fertility, would
+from early times have been naturally associated with harvest festivals.
+H. Nettleship, in an article on "The Earliest Italian Literature"
+(_Journal of Philology_, xi. 1882), in support of Munro's view,
+translates the expression "verses used by charmers," assuming a noun
+_fescennus_, connected with _fas fari_.
+
+  The _locus classicus_ in ancient literature is Horace, _Epistles_, ii.
+  1. 139; see also Virgil, _Georgics_, ii. 385; Tibullus ii. 1. 55; E.
+  Hoffmann, "Die Fescenninen," in _Rheinisches Museum_, li. p. 320
+  (1896); art. LATIN LITERATURE.
+
+
+
+
+FESCH, JOSEPH (1763-1839), cardinal, was born at Ajaccio on the 3rd of
+January 1763. His father, a Swiss officer in the service of the Genoese
+Republic, had married the mother of Laetitia Bonaparte, after the
+decease of her first husband. Fesch therefore stood almost in the
+relation of an uncle to the young Bonapartes, and after the death of
+Lucien Bonaparte, archdeacon of Ajaccio, he became for a time the
+protector and patron of the family. In the year 1789, when the French
+Revolution broke out, he was archdeacon of Ajaccio, and, like the
+majority of the Corsicans, he felt repugnance for many of the acts of
+the French government during that period; in particular he protested
+against the application to Corsica of the act known as the "Civil
+Constitution of the Clergy" (July 1790). As provost of the "chapter" in
+that city he directly felt the pressure of events; for on the
+suppression of religious orders and corporations, he was constrained to
+retire into private life.
+
+Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Bonaparte family in the
+intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually by that family into
+espousing the French cause against Paoli and the Anglophiles, he was
+forced to leave Corsica and to proceed with Laetitia and her son to
+Toulon, in the early part of the autumn of 1793. Failing to find
+clerical duties at that time (the period of the Terror), he entered
+civil life, and served in various capacities, until on the appointment
+of Napoleon Bonaparte to the command of the French "Army of Italy" he
+became a commissary attached to that army. This part of his career is
+obscure and without importance. His fortunes rose rapidly on the
+attainment of the dignity of First Consul by his former charge,
+Napoleon, after the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire (November 1799).
+Thereafter, when the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion was in
+the mind of the First Consul, Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and
+took an active part in the complex negotiations which led to the signing
+of the Concordat with the Holy See on the 15th of July 1801. His reward
+came in the prize of the archbishopric of Lyons, on the duties of which
+he entered in August 1802. Six months later he received a still more
+signal reward for his past services, being raised to the dignity of
+cardinal.
+
+In 1804 on the retirement of Cacault from the position of French
+ambassador at Rome, Fesch received that important appointment. He was
+assisted by Chateaubriand, but soon sharply differed with him on many
+questions. Towards the close of the year 1804 Napoleon entrusted to
+Fesch the difficult task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII. at
+the forthcoming coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (Dec.
+2nd, 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope to be
+present at the coronation (it was only eight months after the execution
+of the duc d'Enghien) received further recognition. He received the
+grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, became grand-almoner of the empire
+and had a seat in the French senate. He was to receive further honours.
+In 1806 one of the most influential of the German clerics, Karl von
+Dalberg, then prince bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor
+and designated him as his successor.
+
+Events, however, now occurred which overclouded his prospects. In the
+course of the years 1806-1807 Napoleon came into sharp collision with
+the pope on various matters both political and religious. Fesch sought
+in vain to reconcile the two potentates. Napoleon was inexorable in his
+demands, and Pius VII. refused to give way where the discipline and
+vital interests of the church seemed to be threatened. The emperor on
+several occasions sharply rebuked Fesch for what he thought to be
+weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however, that the cardinal went
+as far as possible in counselling the submission of the spiritual to the
+civil power. For a time he was not on speaking terms with the pope; and
+Napoleon recalled him from Rome.
+
+Affairs came to a crisis in the year 1809, when Napoleon issued at
+Vienna the decree of the 17th of May, ordering the annexation of the
+papal states to the French empire. In that year Napoleon conferred on
+Fesch the archbishopric of Paris, but he refused the honour. He,
+however, consented to take part in an ecclesiastical commission formed
+by the emperor from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in
+1810 the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect to
+Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year 1810 whereby
+Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria.
+
+In the year 1811 the emperor convoked a national council of Gallican
+clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and Fesch was appointed to
+preside over their deliberations. Here again, however, he failed to
+satisfy the inflexible emperor and was dismissed to his diocese. The
+friction between uncle and nephew became more acute in the following
+year. In June 1812, Pius VII. was brought from his first place of
+detention, Savona, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under
+surveillance in the hope that he would give way in certain matters
+relating to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured
+to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands of the
+emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he stopped the sum of
+150,000 florins which had been accorded to him. The disasters of the
+years 1812-1813 brought Napoleon to treat Pius VII. with more lenity and
+the position of Fesch thus became for a time less difficult. On the
+first abdication of Napoleon (April 11th, 1814) and the restoration of
+the Bourbons, he, however, retired to Rome where he received a welcome.
+The events of the Hundred Days (March-June, 1815) brought him back to
+France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at Lyons and was further
+named a member of the senate. On the second abdication of the emperor
+(June 22nd, 1815) Fesch retired to Rome, where he spent the rest of his
+days in dignified ease, surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many
+of which he bequeathed to the city of Lyons. He died at Rome on the 13th
+of May 1839.
+
+  See J.B. Monseigneur Lyonnet, _Le Cardinal Fesch_ (2 vols., Lyons,
+  1841); Ricard, _Le Cardinal Fesch_ (Paris, 1893); H. Welschinger, _Le
+  Pape et l'empereur_ (Paris, 1905); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_
+  (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).
+
+
+
+
+FESSA, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars. The town
+is situated in a fertile plain in 29 deg. N. and 90 m. from Shiraz, and
+has a population of about 5000. The district has forty villages and
+extends about 40 m. north-south from Runiz to Nassirabad and 16 m.
+east-west from Vasilabad to Deh Dasteh (Dastajah); it produces much
+grain, dates, tobacco, opium and good fruit.
+
+
+
+
+FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT (1806-1869), American statesman and financier,
+was born in Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the 16th of October 1806. After
+graduating at Bowdoin College in 1823, he studied law, and in 1827 was
+admitted to the bar, eventually settling in Portland, Maine, where for
+two years he was associated in practice with his father, Samuel
+Fessenden (1784-1869), a prominent lawyer and anti-slavery leader. In
+1832 and in 1840 Fessenden was a representative in the Maine
+legislature, and in 1841-1843 was a Whig member of the national House of
+Representatives. When his term in this capacity was over, he devoted
+himself unremittingly and with great success to the law. He became well
+known, also, as an eloquent advocate of slavery restriction. In
+1845-1846 and 1853-1854 he again served in the state House of
+Representatives, and in 1854 was chosen by the combined votes of Whigs
+and Anti-Slavery Democrats to the United States Senate. Within a
+fortnight after taking his seat he delivered a speech in opposition to
+the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which at once made him a force in the
+congressional anti-slavery contest. From then on he was one of the most
+eloquent and frequent debaters among his colleagues, and in 1859, almost
+without opposition, he was re-elected to the Senate as a member of the
+Republican party, in the organization of which he had taken an
+influential part. He was a delegate in 1861 to the Peace Congress, but
+after the actual outbreak of hostilities he insisted that the war should
+be prosecuted vigorously. As chairman of the Senate Committee on
+Finance, his services were second in value only to those of President
+Lincoln and Secretary Salmon P. Chase in efforts to provide funds for
+the defence of the Union; and in July 1864 Fessenden succeeded Chase as
+secretary of the treasury. The finances of the country in the early
+summer of 1864 were in a critical condition; a few days before leaving
+office Secretary Chase had been compelled to withdraw from the market
+$32,000,000 of 6% bonds, on account of the lack of acceptable bids; gold
+had reached 285 and was fluctuating between 225 and 250, while the value
+of the paper dollar had sunk as low as 34 cents. It was Secretary
+Fessenden's policy to avoid a further increase of the circulating
+medium, and to redeem or consolidate the temporary obligations
+outstanding. In spite of powerful pressure the paper currency was not
+increased a dollar during his tenure of the office. As the sales of
+bonds and treasury notes were not sufficient for the needs of the
+Treasury, interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness were issued to
+cover the deficits; but when these began to depreciate the secretary,
+following the example of his predecessors, engaged the services of the
+Philadelphia banker Jay Cooke (q.v.) and secured the consent of Congress
+to raise the balance of the $400,000,000 loan authorized on the 30th of
+June 1864 by the sale of the so-called "seven-thirty" treasury notes
+(i.e. notes bearing interest at 7.3% payable in currency in three years
+or convertible at the option of the holder into 6% 5-20 year gold
+bonds). Through Cooke's activities the sales became enormous; the notes,
+issued in denominations as low as $50, appealed to the patriotic
+impulses of the people who could not subscribe for bonds of a higher
+denomination. In the spring of 1865 Congress authorized an additional
+loan of $600,000,000 to be raised in the same manner, and for the first
+time in four years the Treasury was able to meet all its obligations.
+After thus securing ample funds for the enormous expenditures of the
+war, Fessenden resigned the treasury portfolio in March 1865, and again
+took his seat in the Senate, serving till his death. In the Senate he
+again became chairman of the finance committee, and also of the joint
+committee on reconstruction. He was the author of the report of this
+last committee (1866), in which the Congressional plan of reconstruction
+was set forth and which has been considered a state paper of remarkable
+power and cogency. He was not, however, entirely in accord with the more
+radical members of his own party, and this difference was exemplified in
+his opposition to the impeachment of President Johnson and subsequently
+in his voting for Johnson's acquittal. He bore with calmness the storm
+of reproach from his party associates which followed, and lived to
+regain the esteem of those who had attacked him. He died at Portland,
+Maine, on the 6th of September 1869.
+
+  See Francis Fessenden, _Life and Public Services of William Pitt
+  Fessenden_ (2 vols., Boston, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS (1756-1839), Hungarian ecclesiastic, historian
+and freemason, was born on the 18th of May 1756 at the village of Zurany
+in the county of Moson. In 1773 he joined the order of Capuchins, and in
+1779 was ordained priest. He had meanwhile continued his classical and
+philological studies, and his liberal views brought him into frequent
+conflict with his superiors. In 1784, while at the monastery of Modling,
+near Vienna, he wrote to the emperor Joseph II., making suggestions for
+the better education of the clergy and drawing his attention to the
+irregularities of the monasteries. The searching investigation which
+followed raised up against him many implacable enemies. In 1784 he was
+appointed professor of Oriental languages and hermeneutics in the
+university of Lemberg, when he took the degree of doctor of divinity;
+and shortly afterwards he was released from his monastic vows on the
+intervention of the emperor. In 1788 he brought out his tragedy of
+_Sidney_, an _expose_ of the tyranny of James II. and of the fanaticism
+of the papists in England. This was attacked so violently as profane and
+revolutionary that he was compelled to resign his office and seek refuge
+in Silesia. In Breslau he met with a cordial reception from G.W. Korn
+the publisher, and was, moreover, subsequently employed by the prince of
+Carolath-Schonaich as tutor to his sons. In 1791 Fessler was converted
+to Lutheranism and next year contracted an unhappy marriage, which was
+dissolved in 1802, when he married again. In 1796 he went to Berlin,
+where he founded a humanitarian society, and was commissioned by the
+freemasons of that city to assist Fichte in reforming the statutes and
+ritual of their lodge. He soon after this obtained a government
+appointment in connexion with the newly-acquired Polish provinces, but
+in consequence of the battle of Jena (1806) he lost this office, and
+remained in very needy circumstances until 1809, when he was summoned to
+St Petersburg by Alexander I., to fill the post of court councillor, and
+the professorship of oriental languages and philosophy at the
+Alexander-Nevski Academy. This office, however, he was soon obliged to
+resign, owing to his alleged atheistic tendencies, but he was
+subsequently nominated a member of the legislative commission. In 1815
+he went with his family to Sarepta, where he joined the Moravian
+community and again became strongly orthodox. This cost him the loss of
+his salary, but it was restored to him in 1817. In November 1820 he was
+appointed consistorial president of the evangelical communities at
+Saratov and subsequently became chief superintendent of the Lutheran
+communities in St Petersburg. Fessler's numerous works are all written
+in German. In recognition of his important services to Hungary as a
+historian, he was in 1831 elected a corresponding member of the
+Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He died at St Petersburg on the 15th of
+December 1839.
+
+Fessler was a voluminous writer, and during his life exercised great
+influence; but, with the possible exception of the history of Hungary,
+none of his books has any value now. He did not pretend to any critical
+treatment of his materials, and most of his historical works are
+practically historical novels. He did much, however, to make the study
+of history popular. His most important works are--_Die Geschichten der
+Ungarn und ihrer Landsassen_ (10 vols. Leipzig, 1815-1825); _Marcus
+Aurelius_ (3 vols., Breslau, 1790-1792; 3rd edition, 4 vols., 1799);
+_Aristides und Themistokles_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1792; 3rd edition, 1818);
+_Attila, Konig der Hunnen_ (Breslau, 1794); _Mathias Corvinus_ (2 vols.,
+Breslau, 1793-1794); and _Die drei grossen Konige der Hungarn aus dem
+Arpadischen Stamme_ (Breslau, 1808).
+
+  See Fessler's _Ruckblicke auf seine siebzigjahrige Pilgerschaft_
+  (Breslau, 1824; 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1851).
+
+
+
+
+FESTA, CONSTANZO (c. 1495-1545), Italian singer and musical composer,
+became a member of the Pontifical choir in Rome in 1517, and soon
+afterwards _maestro_ at the Vatican. His motets and madrigals (the first
+book of which appeared in 1537) excited Dr Burney's warm praise in his
+_History of Music_; and, among other church music, his _Te Deum_
+(published in 1596) is still sung at important services in Rome. His
+madrigal, called in English "Down in a flow'ry vale," is well known.
+
+
+
+
+FESTINIOG (or FFESTINIOG), a town of Merionethshire, North Wales, at the
+head of the Festiniog valley, 600 ft. above the sea, in the midst of
+rugged scenery, near the stream Dwyryd, 31 m. from Conway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901), 11,435. There are many large slate quarries in this
+parish, especially at Blaenau Festiniog, the junction of three railways,
+London & North Western, Great Western and Festiniog, a narrow-gauge line
+between Portmadoc and Duffws. This light railway runs at a considerable
+elevation (some 700 ft.), commanding a view across the valley and lake
+of Tan y Bwlch. Lord Lyttelton's letter to Mr Bower is a well-known
+panegyric on Festiniog. Thousands of workmen are employed in the slate
+quarries. The Cynfael falls are famous. Near are _Beddau gwyr Ardudwy_
+(the graves of the men of Ardudwy), memorials of a fight to recover
+women of the Clwyd valley from the men of Ardudwy. Near, too, is a rock
+named "Hugh Lloyd's pulpit" (Lloyd lived in the time of Charles I.,
+Cromwell and Charles II.).
+
+
+
+
+FESTOON (from Fr. _feston_, Ital. _festone_, from a Late Lat. _festo_,
+originally a "festal garland," Lat. _festum_, feast), a wreath or
+garland, and so in architecture a conventional arrangement of flowers,
+foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons, either from a
+decorated knot, or held in the mouths of lions, or suspended across the
+back of bulls' heads as in the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. The "motif" is
+sometimes known as a "swag." It was largely employed both by the Greeks
+and Romans and formed the principal decoration of altars, friezes and
+panels. The ends of the ribbons are sometimes formed into bows or
+twisted curves; when in addition a group of foliage or flowers is
+suspended it is called a "drop." Its origin is probably due to the
+representation in stone of the garlands of natural flowers, &c., which
+were hung up over an entrance doorway on fete days, or suspended round
+the altar.
+
+
+
+
+FESTUS (? RUFUS or RUFIUS), one of the Roman writers of _breviaria_
+(epitomes of Roman history). The reference to the defeat of the Goths at
+Noviodunum (A.D. 369) by the emperor Valens, and the fact that the
+author is unaware of the constitution of Valentia as a province (which
+took place in the same year) are sufficient indication to fix the date
+of composition. Mommsen identifies the author with Rufius Festus,
+proconsul of Achaea (366), and both with Rufius Festus Avienus (q.v.),
+the translator of Aratus. But the absence of the name Rufius in the best
+MSS. is against this. Others take him to be Festus of Tridentum,
+_magister memoriae_ (secretary) to Valens and proconsul of Asia, where
+he was sent to punish those implicated in the conspiracy of Theodorus, a
+commission which he executed with such merciless severity that his name
+became a byword. The work itself (_Breviarium rerum gestarum populi
+Romani_) is divided into two parts--one geographical, the other
+historical. The chief authorities used are Livy, Eutropius and Florus.
+It is extremely meagre, but the fact that the last part is based on the
+writer's personal recollections makes it of some value for the history
+of the 4th century.
+
+  Editions by W. Forster (Vienna, 1873) and C. Wagener (Prague, 1886);
+  see also R. Jacobi, _De Festi breviarii fontibus_ (Bonn, 1874), and H.
+  Peter, _Die geschichtliche Litt. uber die romische Kaiserzeit_ ii. p.
+  133 (1897), where the epitomes of Festus, Aurelius Victor and
+  Eutropius are compared.
+
+
+
+
+FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS, Roman grammarian, probably flourished in the
+2nd century A.D. He made an epitome of the celebrated work _De verborum
+significatu_, a valuable treatise alphabetically arranged, written by M.
+Verrius Flaccus, a freedman and celebrated grammarian who flourished in
+the reign of Augustus. Festus gives the etymology as well as the meaning
+of every word; and his work throws considerable light on the language,
+mythology and antiquities of ancient Rome. He made a few alterations,
+and inserted some critical remarks of his own. He also omitted such
+ancient Latin words as had long been obsolete; these he discussed in a
+separate work now lost, entitled _Priscorum verborum cum exemplis_. Of
+Flaccus's work only a few fragments remain, and of Festus's epitome only
+one original copy is in existence. This MS., the Codex Festi Farnesianus
+at Naples, only contains the second half of the work (M-V) and that not
+in a perfect condition. It has been published in facsimile by Thewrewk
+de Ponor (1890). At the close of the 8th century Paulus Diaconus
+abridged the abridgment. From his work and the solitary copy of the
+original attempts have been made with the aid of conjecture to
+reconstruct the treatise of Festus.
+
+  Of the early editions the best are those of J. Scaliger (1565) and
+  Fulvius Ursinus (1581); in modern times, those of C.O. Muller (1839,
+  reprinted 1880) and de Ponor (1889); see J.E. Sandys, _History of
+  Classical Scholarship_, vol. i. (1906).
+
+
+
+
+FETIS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1784-1871), Belgian composer and writer on
+music, was born at Mons in Belgium on the 25th of March 1784, and was
+trained as a musician by his father, who followed the same calling. His
+talent for composition manifested itself at the age of seven, and at
+nine years old he was an organist at Sainte-Waudru. In 1800 he went to
+Paris and completed his studies at the conservatoire under such masters
+as Boieldieu, Rey and Pradher. In 1806 he undertook the revision of the
+Roman liturgical chants in the hope of discovering and establishing
+their original form. In this year he married the granddaughter of the
+Chevalier de Keralio, and also began his _Biographie universelle des
+musiciens_, the most important of his works, which did not appear until
+1834. In 1821 he was appointed professor at the conservatoire. In 1827
+he founded the _Revue musicale_, the first serious paper in France
+devoted exclusively to musical matters. Fetis remained in the French
+capital till in 1833, at the request of Leopold I., he became director
+of the conservatoire of Brussels and the king's chapel-master. He also
+was the founder, and, till his death, the conductor of the celebrated
+concerts attached to the conservatoire of Brussels, and he inaugurated a
+free series of lectures on musical history and philosophy. He produced a
+large quantity of original compositions, from the opera and the oratorio
+down to the simple _chanson_. But all these are doomed to oblivion.
+Although not without traces of scholarship and technical ability, they
+show total absence of genius. More important are his writings on music.
+They are partly historical, such as the _Curiosites historiques de la
+musique_ (Paris, 1850), and the _Histoire universelle de musique_
+(Paris, 1869-1876); partly theoretical, such as the _Methode des
+methodes de piano_ (Paris, 1837), written in conjunction with Moscheles.
+Fetis died at Brussels on the 26th of March 1871. His valuable library
+was purchased by the Belgian government and presented to the Brussels
+conservatoire. His work as a musical historian was prodigious in
+quantity, and, in spite of many inaccuracies and some prejudice revealed
+in it, there can be no question as to its value for the student.
+
+
+
+
+FETISHISM, an ill-defined term, used in many different senses: (a) the
+worship of inanimate objects, often regarded as peculiarly African; (b)
+negro religion in general; (c) the worship of inanimate objects
+conceived as the residence of spirits not inseparably bound up with, nor
+originally connected with, such objects; (d) the doctrine of spirits
+embodied in, or attached to, or conveying influence through, certain
+material objects (Tylor); (e) the use of charms, which are not
+worshipped, but derive their magical power from a god or spirit; (f) the
+use as charms of objects regarded as magically potent in themselves. A
+further extension is given by some writers, who use the term as
+synonymous with the religions of primitive peoples, including under it
+not only the worship of inanimate objects, such as the sun, moon or
+stars, but even such phases of primitive philosophy as totemism. Comte
+applied the term to denominate the view of nature more commonly termed
+animism.
+
+_Derivation._--The word fetish (or fetich) was first used in connexion
+with Africa by the Portuguese discoverers of the last half of the 15th
+century; relics of saints, rosaries and images were then abundant all
+over Europe and were regarded as possessing magical virtue; they were
+termed by the Portuguese _feiticos_ (_i.e._ charms). Early voyagers to
+West Africa applied this term to the wooden figures, stones, &c.,
+regarded as the temporary residence of gods or spirits, and to charms.
+There is no reason to suppose that the word _feitico_ was applied either
+to an animal or to the local spirit of a river, hill or forest.
+_Feitico_ is sometimes interpreted to mean artificial, made by man, but
+the original sense is more probably "magically active or artful." The
+word was probably brought into general use by C. de Brosses, author of
+_Du culte des dieux fetiches_ (1760), but it is frequently used by W.
+Bosman in his _Description of Guinea_ (1705), in the sense of "the false
+god, Bossum" or "Bohsum," properly a tutelary deity of an individual.
+
+_Definition._--The term fetish is commonly understood to mean the
+worship of or respect for material, inanimate objects, conceived as
+magically active from a virtue inherent in them, temporarily or
+permanently, which does not arise from the fact that a god or spirit is
+believed to reside in them or communicate virtue to them. Taken in this
+sense fetishism is probably a mark of decadence. There is no evidence
+of any such belief in Africa or elsewhere among primitive peoples. It is
+only after a certain grade of culture has been attained that the belief
+in luck appears; the fetish is essentially a mascot or object carried
+for luck.
+
+_Ordinary Usage._--In the sense in which Dr Tylor uses the term the
+fetish is (1) a "god-house" or (2) a charm derived from a tutelary deity
+or spirit, and magically active in virtue of its association with such
+deity or spirit. In the first of these senses the word is applied to
+objects ranging from the unworked stone to the pot or the wooden figure,
+and is thus hardly distinguishable from idolatry. (a) The _bohsum_ or
+tutelary deity of a particular section of the community is derived from
+the local gods through the priests by the performance of a certain
+series of rites. The priest indicates into what object the _bohsum_ will
+enter and proceeds to the abode of the local god to procure the object
+in question. After making an offering the object is carried to an
+appropriate spot and a "fetish" tree set up as a shade for it, which is
+sacred so long as the _bohsum_ remains beneath it. The fall of the tree
+is believed to mark the departure of the spirit. A _bohsum_ may also be
+procured through a dream; but in this case, too, it is necessary to
+apply to the priest to decide whether the dream was veridical. (b) The
+_suhman_ or tutelary deity of an individual is not an object selected at
+random to be the residence of the spirit. It is only procurable at the
+residence of a Sasabonsum, a malicious non-human being. Various
+ceremonies are performed, and a spirit connected with the Sasabonsum is
+finally asked to enter an object. This is then kept for three days; if
+no good fortune results it is concluded either that the spirit did not
+enter the object selected, or that it is disinclined to extend its
+protection. In either case the ceremonies must be commenced afresh.
+Otherwise offerings and even human sacrifices in exceptional cases are
+made to the _suhman_. It is commonly believed that the negro claims the
+power of coercing his tutelary deity. This is denied by Colonel Ellis.
+It is certain that coercion of deities is not unknown, but further
+evidence is required that the negro uses it when his deity is
+refractory.
+
+The _suhman_ can, it is believed, communicate a part of his powers to
+various objects in which he does not dwell; these are also termed
+_suhman_ by the natives and may have given rise to the belief that the
+practices commonly termed fetishism are not animistic. These charms are
+many in number; offerings of food and drink are made, _i.e._ to the
+portion of the power of the _suhman_ which resides in them. These charms
+can only be made by the possessor of the _suhman_.
+
+On the Guinea Coast the spirit implanted in the object is usually, if
+not invariably, non-human. Farther south on the Congo the "fetish" is
+inhabited by human souls also. The priest goes into the forest and cuts
+an image; when a party enters a wood for this purpose they may not
+mention the name of any living being unless they wish him to die and his
+soul to enter the fetish. The right person having been selected, his
+name is mentioned; and he is believed to die within ten days, his soul
+passing into the _nkissi_. It is into these figures that the nails are
+driven, in order to procure the vengeance of the indwelling spirit on
+some enemy.
+
+In many cases the fetish spirit is believed to leave the "god-house" and
+pass for the time being into the body of the priest, who manifests the
+phenomena of possession (q.v.). It is a common error to suppose that the
+whole of African religion is embraced in the practices connected with
+these tutelary deities; so far from this being the case, belief in
+higher gods, not necessarily accompanied with worship or propitiation,
+is common in many parts of Africa, and there is no reason to suppose
+that it had been derived in every case, perhaps not in any case, from
+Christian or Mahommedan missionaries.
+
+  See A.B. Ellis, _Tshi-speaking Peoples_, chs. vii., viii. and xii.;
+  Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvolker_, ii. 174; R.E. Dennett in
+  _Folklore_, vol. xvi.; R.H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (1904);
+  also Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii. 143, and M.H. Kingsley, _West
+  African Studies_ (2nd ed., 1901), where the term is used in a more
+  extended sense.     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+FETTERCAIRN, a burgh of barony of Kincardineshire, Scotland, 4-1/2 m.
+N.W. of Laurencekirk. Pop. of parish (1901) 1390. The chief structures
+include a public hall, library and reading-room, and the arch built to
+commemorate the visit of Queen Victoria in 1861. The most interesting
+relic, however, is the market cross, which originally belonged to the
+extinct town of Kincardine. To the S.W. is Balbegno Castle, dating from
+1509, and planned on a scale that threatened to ruin its projector. It
+contains a lofty hall of fine proportions. Two miles N. is Fasque, the
+estate of the Gladstones, which was acquired in 1831 by Sir John
+Gladstone (1764-1851), the father of W.E. Gladstone. The castle, which
+stands in beautiful grounds, was built in 1809. Sir John Gladstone's
+tomb is in the Episcopal church of St Andrew, which he erected and
+endowed. In the immediate vicinity are the ruins of the royal castle of
+Kincardine, where, according to tradition, Kenneth III. was assassinated
+in 1005, although he is more generally said to have been slain in battle
+at Monzievaird, near Crieff in Perthshire.
+
+
+
+
+FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS, instruments for securing the feet and hands of
+prisoners under arrest, or as a means of punishment. The old names were
+manacles, shackbolts or shackles, gyves and swivels. Until within recent
+times handcuffs were of two kinds, the figure-8 ones which confined the
+hands close together either in front or behind the prisoner, or the
+rings from the wrists were connected by a short chain much on the model
+of the handcuffs in use by the police forces of to-day. Much improvement
+has been made in handcuffs of late. They are much lighter and they are
+adjustable, fitting any wrist, and thus the one pair will serve a police
+officer for any prisoner. For the removal of gangs of convicts an
+arrangement of handcuffs connected by a light chain is used, the chain
+running through a ring on each fetter and made fast at both ends by what
+are known as _end-locks_. Several recently invented appliances are used
+as handcuffs, e.g. snaps, nippers, twisters. They differ from handcuffs
+in being intended for one wrist only, the other portion being held by
+the captor. In the snap the smaller circlet is snapped to on the
+prisoner's wrist. The nippers can be instantly fastened on the wrist.
+The twister, not now used in England as being liable to injure prisoners
+seriously, is a chain attached to two handles; the chain is put round
+the wrist and the two handles twisted till the chain is tight enough.
+
+Leg-irons are anklets of steel connected by light chains long enough to
+permit of the wearer walking with short steps. An obsolete form was an
+anklet and chain to the end of which was attached a heavy weight,
+usually a round shot. The Spanish used to secure prisoners in bilboes,
+shackles round the ankles secured by a long bar of iron. This form of
+leg-iron was adopted in England, and was much employed in the services
+during the 17th and 18th centuries. An ancient example is preserved in
+the Tower of London. The French marine still use a kind of leg-iron of
+the bilbo type.
+
+
+
+
+FEU, in Scotland, the commonest mode of land tenure. The word is the
+Scots variant of "fee" (q.v.). The relics of the feudal system still
+dominate Scots conveyancing. That system has recognized as many as seven
+forms of tenure--ward, socage, mortification, feu, blench, burgage,
+booking. Ward, the original military holding, was abolished in 1747 (20
+G. II. c. 20), as an effect of the rising of 1745. Socage and
+mortification have long since disappeared. Booking is a conveyance
+peculiar to the borough of Paisley, but does not differ essentially from
+feu. Burgage is the system by which land is held in royal boroughs.
+Blench holding is by a nominal payment, as of a penny Scots, or a red
+rose, often only to be rendered upon demand. In feu holding there is a
+substantial annual payment in money or in kind in return for the
+enjoyment of the land. The crown is the first overlord or superior, and
+land is held of it by crown vassals, but they in their turn may "feu"
+their land, as it is called, to others who become _their_ vassals,
+whilst they themselves are mediate overlords or superiors; and this
+process of sub-infeudation may be repeated to an indefinite extent. The
+Conveyancing Act of 1874 renders any clause in a disposition against
+sub-infeudation null and void. In England on the other hand, since
+1290, when the statute _Quia Emptores_ was passed, sub-infeudation is
+impossible, as the new holder simply effaces the grantor, holding by the
+same title as the grantor himself. Casualties, which are a feature of
+land held in feu, are certain payments made to the superior, contingent
+on the happening of certain events. The most important was the payment
+of an amount equal to one year's feu-duty by a new holder, whether heir
+or purchaser of the feu. The Conveyancing Act of 1874 abolished
+casualties in all feus after that date, and power was given to redeem
+this burden on feus already existing. If the vassal does not pay the
+feu-duty for two years, the superior, among other remedies, may obtain
+by legal process a decree of irritancy, whereupon _tinsel_ or forfeiture
+of the feu follows. Previously to 1832 only the vassals of the crown had
+votes in parliamentary elections for the Scots counties, and this made
+in favour of sub-infeudation as against sale outright. In Orkney and
+Shetland land is still largely possessed as udal property, a holding
+derived or handed down from the time when these islands belonged to
+Norway. Such lands may be converted into feus at the will of the
+proprietor and held from the crown or Lord Dundas. At one time the
+system of conveyancing by which the transfer of feus was effected was
+curious and complicated, requiring the presence of parties on the land
+itself and the symbolical handing over of the property, together with
+the registration of various documents. But legislation since the middle
+of the 19th century has changed all that. The system of feuing in
+Scotland, as contrasted with that of long leaseholds in England, has
+tended to secure greater solidity and firmness in the average buildings
+of the northern country.
+
+  See Erskine's _Principles_; Bell's _Principles_; Rankine, _Law of
+  Landownership in Scotland_.
+
+
+
+
+FEUCHERES, SOPHIE, BARONNE DE (1795-1840), Anglo-French adventuress, was
+born at St Helens, Isle of Wight, in 1795, the daughter of a drunken
+fisherman named Dawes. She grew up in the workhouse, went up to London
+as a servant, and became the mistress of the duc de Bourbon, afterwards
+prince de Conde. She was ambitious, and he had her well educated not
+only in modern languages but, as her exercise books--still extant--show,
+in Greek and Latin. He took her to Paris and, to prevent scandal and to
+qualify her to be received at court, had her married in 1818 to Adrien
+Victor de Feucheres, a major in the Royal Guards. The prince provided
+her dowry, made her husband his aide-de-camp and a baron. The baroness,
+pretty and clever, became a person of consequence at the court of Louis
+XVIII. De Feucheres, however, finally discovered the relations between
+his wife and Conde, whom he had been assured was her father, left
+her--he obtained a legal separation in 1827--and told the king, who
+thereupon forbade her appearance at court. Thanks to her influence,
+however, Conde was induced in 1829 to sign a will bequeathing about ten
+million francs to her, and the rest of his estate--more than sixty-six
+millions--to the duc d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe. Again she
+was in high favour. Charles X. received her at court, Talleyrand visited
+her, her niece married a marquis and her nephew was made a baron. Conde,
+wearied by his mistress's importunities, and but half pleased by the
+advances made him by the government of July, had made up his mind to
+leave France secretly. When on the 27th of August 1830 he was found
+hanging dead from his window, the baroness was suspected and an inquiry
+was held, but the evidence of death being the result of any crime
+appearing insufficient, she was not prosecuted. Hated as she was alike
+by legitimatists and republicans, life in Paris was no longer agreeable
+for her, and she returned to London, where she died in December 1840.
+
+
+
+
+FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1806-1849), Austrian physician,
+poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna on the 29th of April 1806; of
+an old Saxon noble family. He attended the "Theresian Academy" in his
+native city, and in 1825 entered its university as a student of
+medicine. In 1833 he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine, settled
+in Vienna as a practising surgeon, and in 1834 married. The young doctor
+kept up his connexion with the university, where he lectured, and in
+1844 was appointed dean of the faculty of medicine. He cultivated the
+acquaintance of Franz Grillparzer, Heinrich Laube, and other
+intellectual lights of the Viennese world, interested himself greatly in
+educational matters, and in 1848, while refusing the presidency of the
+ministry of education, accepted the appointment of under secretary of
+state in that department. His health, however, gave way, and he died at
+Vienna on the 3rd of September 1849. He was not only a clever physician,
+but a poet of fine aesthetical taste and a philosopher. Among his
+medical works may be mentioned: _Uber das Hippokratische erste Buch von
+der Diat_ (Vienna, 1835), _Arzte und Publicum_ (Vienna, 1848) and
+_Lehrbuch der arztlichen Seelenkunde_ (1845). His poetical works include
+_Gedichte_ (Stutt. 1836), among which is the well-known beautiful hymn,
+which Mendelssohn set to music. "_Es ist bestimmt in Gottes Rat._" As a
+philosopher he is best known by his _Zur Diatetik der Seele_ [Dietetics
+of the soul] (Vienna, 1838), which attained great popularity, and the
+tendency of which, in contrast to Hufeland's _Makrobiotik_ (On the Art
+of Prolonging Life), is to show the true way of rendering life
+harmonious and lovely. This work had by 1906 gone into fifty editions.
+Noteworthy also is his _Beitrage zur Litteratur-, Kunst- und
+Lebenstheorie_ (Vienna, 1837-1841), and an anthology, _Geist der
+deutschen_ Klassiker (Vienna, 1851; 3rd ed. 1865-1866).
+
+  His collected works (with the exception of the purely medical ones)
+  were published in 7 vols. by Fr. Hebbel (Vienna, 1851-1853). See M.
+  Necker, "Ernst von Feuchtersleben, der Freund Grillparzers," in the
+  _Jahrbuch der Grillparzer Gesellschaft_, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+FEUD, animosity, hatred, especially a permanent condition of hostilities
+between persons, and hence applied to a state of private warfare between
+tribes, clans or families, a "vendetta." The word appears in Mid. Eng.
+as _fede_, which came through the O. Fr. from the O. High Ger. _fehida_,
+modern _Fehde_. The O. Teutonic _faiho_, an adjective, the source of
+_fehida_, gives the O. Eng. fah, foe. "Fiend," originally an enemy (cf.
+Ger. _Feind_), hence the enemy of mankind, the devil, and so any evil
+spirit, is probably connected with the same source. The word _fede_ was
+of Scottish usage, but in the 16th century took the form _foode_, _fewd_
+in English. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that "feud, fee
+(Lat. _feudum_) could not have influenced the change, for it appears
+fifty years later than the first instances of _foode_, &c., and was only
+used by writers on feudalism." For the etymology of "feud" (_feudum_)
+see FEE, and for its history see FEUDALISM.
+
+
+
+
+FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. _feodum_ or _feudum_, a fee or fiel; see FEE).
+In every case of institutional growth in history two things are to be
+clearly distinguished from the beginning for a correct understanding of
+the process and its results. One of these is the change of conditions in
+the political or social environment which made growth necessary. The
+other is the already existing institutions which began to be transformed
+to meet the new needs. In studying the origin and growth of political
+feudalism, the distinction is easy to make. The all-prevailing need of
+the later Roman and early medieval society was protection--protection
+against the sudden attacks of invading tribes or revolted peasants,
+against oppressive neighbours, against the unwarranted demands of
+government officers, or even against the legal but too heavy exactions
+of the government itself. In the days of the decaying empire and of the
+chaotic German settlement, the weak freeman, the small landowner, was
+exposed to attack in almost every relation of life and on every side.
+The protection which normally it is the business of government to
+furnish he could no longer obtain. He must seek protection elsewhere
+wherever he could get it, and pay the price demanded for it. This is the
+great social fact--the failure of government to perform one of its most
+primary duties, the necessity of finding some substitute in private
+life--extending in greater or less degree through the whole formative
+period of feudalism, which explains the transformation of institutions
+that brought it into existence. Similar conditions have produced an
+organization which may be called feudal, in various countries, and in
+widely separated periods of history. While these different feudal
+systems have shown a general similarity of organization, there has been
+also great variation in their details, because they have started from
+different institutions and developed in different ways. The feudal
+system with which history most concerns itself is that of medieval
+western Europe, and it is that which will be here described.
+
+
+  Roman origins.
+
+The institutions which the need of protection seized upon when it first
+began to turn away from the state were twofold. They had both long
+existed in the private, not public, relations of the Romans, and they
+had up to this time shown no tendency to grow. One of them related to
+the person, to the man himself, without reference to property, the other
+related to land. There are thus distinguished at the beginning those two
+great sides of feudalism which remained to the end of its history more
+or less distinct, the personal relation and the land relation. The
+personal institution needs little description. It was the Roman patron
+and client relationship which had remained in existence into the days of
+the empire, in later times less important perhaps legally than socially,
+and which had been reinforced in Gaul by very similar practices in use
+among the Celts before their conquest. The description of this
+institution which has come down to us from Roman sources of the days
+when feudalism was beginning is not so detailed as we could wish, but we
+can see plainly enough that it met a frequent need, that it was called
+by a new name, the _patrocinium_, and that it was firmly enough
+entrenched in usage to survive the German conquest, and to be taken up
+and continued by the conquerors. In its new use, alike in the later
+Roman and the early German state, the landless freeman who could not
+support himself went to some powerful man, stated his need, and offered
+his services, those proper to a freeman, in return for shelter and
+support. This transaction, which was called commendation, gave rise in
+the German state to a written contract which related the facts and
+provided a penalty for its violation. It created a relationship of
+protection and support on one side, and of free service on the other.
+
+The other institution, relating to land, was that known to the Roman law
+as the _precarium_, a name derived from one of its essential features
+through all its history, the prayer of the suppliant by which the
+relationship was begun. The _precarium_ was a form of renting land not
+intended primarily for income, but for use when the lease was made from
+friendship for example, or as a reward, or to secure a debt. Legally its
+characteristic feature was that the lessee had no right of any kind
+against the grantor. The owner could call in his land and terminate the
+relation at any time, for any reason, or for none at all. Even a
+definite understanding at the outset that the lease might be enjoyed to
+a specified date was no protection.[1] It followed of course that the
+heir had no right in the land which his father held in this way, nor was
+the heir of the donor bound by his father's act. The legal character of
+this transaction is summed up in a well-known passage in the
+_Digest:--Interdictum de precariis merito introductum est, quia nulla eo
+nomine juris civilis actio esset, magis enim ad donationes et beneficii
+causam, quam ad negotii contracti spectat precarii conditio._[2] This
+may be paraphrased as follows:--The _precarium_ tenant may employ the
+interdict against a third party, because he cannot use the ordinary
+civil action, his holding being not a matter of business but rather of
+favour and kindness. It should be noted that from its very beginning the
+land relationship of feudalism was not created primarily for the
+grantor's income, but that it emphasized in the most striking way his
+continued ownership.
+
+As used for protection in later Roman days the _precarium_ gave rise to
+what was called the commendation of lands, _patrocinium fundorum_. The
+poor landowner, likely to lose all that he had from one kind of
+oppression or another, went to the great landowner, his neighbour, whose
+position gave him immunity from attack or the power to prevent official
+abuses, and begged to be protected. The rich man answered, I can only
+protect my own. Of necessity the poor man must surrender to his powerful
+neighbour the ownership of his lands, which he then received back as a
+_precarium_--gaining protection during his lifetime at the cost of his
+children, who were left without legal claim and compelled to make the
+best terms they could.[3] Applied to this use the _precarium_ found
+extensive employment in the last age of the empire. The government
+looked on the practice with great disfavour, because it transferred
+large areas from the easy access of the state to an ownership beyond its
+reach. The laws repeatedly forbade it under increasing penalties, but
+clearly it could not be stopped. The motive was too strong on both
+sides--the need of protection on one side, the natural desire to
+increase large possessions and means of self-defence on the other.
+
+
+  Frankish development.
+
+These practices the Frankish conquerors of Gaul found in full possession
+of society when they entered into that province. They seem to have
+understood them at once, and, like much else Roman, to have made them
+their own without material change. The _patrocinium_ they were made
+ready to understand by the existence of a somewhat similar institution
+among themselves, the _comitatus_, described by Tacitus. In this
+institution the chief of the tribe, or of some plainly marked division
+of the tribe, gathered about himself a band of chosen warriors, who
+formed a kind of private military force and body-guard. The special
+features of the institution were the strong tie of faith and service
+which bound the man, the support and rewards given by the lord, and the
+pride of both in the relationship. The _patrocinium_ might well seem to
+the German only a form of the _comitatus_, but it was a form which
+presented certain advantages in his actual situation. The chief of these
+was perhaps the fact that it was not confined to king or tribal chief,
+but that every noble was able in the Roman practice to surround himself
+with his organized private army. Probably this fact, together with the
+more general fact of the absorption in most things of the German in the
+Roman, accounts for the substitution of the _patrocinium_ for the
+_comitatus_ which took place under the Merovingians.
+
+This change did not occur, however, without some modification of the
+Roman customs. The _comitatus_ made contributions of its own to future
+feudalism, to some extent to its institutional side, largely to the
+ideas and spirit which ruled in it. Probably the ceremony which grew
+into feudal homage, and the oath of fealty, certainly the honourable
+position of the vassal and his pride in the relationship, the strong tie
+which bound lord and man together, and the idea that faith and service
+were due on both sides in equal measure, we may trace to German sources.
+But we must not forget that the origin of the vassal relationship, as an
+institution, is to be found on Roman and not on German soil. The
+_comitatus_ developed and modified, it did not originate. Nor was the
+feudal system established in any sense by the settlement of the
+_comitatus_ group on the conquered land. The uniting of the personal and
+the land sides of feudalism came long after the conquest, and in a
+different way.
+
+To the _precarium_ German institutions offered no close parallel. The
+advantages, however, which it afforded were obvious, and this side of
+feudalism developed as rapidly after the conquest as the personal. The
+new German noble was as eager to extend the size of his lands and to
+increase the numbers of his dependants as the Roman had been. The new
+German government furnished no better protection from local violence,
+nor was it able any more effectively to check the practices which were
+creating feudalism; indeed for a long time it made no attempt to do so.
+_Precarium_ and _patrocinium_ easily passed from the Roman empire to the
+Frankish kingdom, and became as firmly rooted in the new society as they
+had ever been in the old. Up to this point we have seen only the small
+landowner and the landless man entering into these relations. Feudalism
+could not be established, however, until the great of the land had
+adopted them for themselves, and had begun to enter the clientage of
+others and to hold lands by the _precarium_ tenure. The first step
+towards this result was easily and quickly taken. The same class
+continued to furnish the king's men, and to form his household and
+body-guard whether the relation was that of the _patrocinium_ or the
+_comitatus_, and to be made noble by entering into it. It was later that
+they became clients of one another, and in part at least as a result of
+their adoption of the _precarium_ tenure. In this latter step the
+influence of the Church rather than of the king seems to have been
+effective. The large estates which pious intentions had bestowed on the
+Church it was not allowed to alienate. It could most easily make them
+useful to gain the influence and support which it needed, and to provide
+for the public functions which fell to its share, by employing the
+_precarium_ tenure. On the other side, the great men coveted the wide
+estates of bishop and abbot, and were ready without persuasion to annex
+portions of them to their own on the easy terms of this tenure, not
+always indeed observed by the holder, or able to be enforced by the
+Church. The employment of the _precarium_ by the Church seems to have
+been one of the surest means by which this form of landholding was
+carried over from the Romans to the Frankish period and developed into
+new forms. It came to be made by degrees the subject of written
+contract, by which the rights of the holder were more definitely defined
+and protected than had been the case in Roman law. The length of time
+for which the holding should last came to be specified, at first for a
+term of years and then for life, and some payment to the grantor was
+provided for, not pretending to represent the economic value of the
+land, but only to serve as a mark of his continued ownership.
+
+These changes characterize the Merovingian age of Frankish history. That
+period had practically ended, however, before these two institutions
+showed any tendency to join together as they were joined in later
+feudalism. Nor had the king up to that time exerted any apparent
+influence on the processes that were going forward. Grants of land of
+the Merovingian kings had carried with them ownership and not a limited
+right, and the king's _patrocinium_ had not widened in extent in the
+direction of the later vassal relation. It was the advent of the
+Carolingian princes and the difficulties which they had to overcome that
+carried these institutions a stage further forward. Making their way up
+from a position among the nobility to be the rulers of the land, and
+finally to supplant the kings, the Carolingians had especial need of
+resources from which to purchase and reward faithful support. This need
+was greatly increased when the Arab attack on southern Gaul forced them
+to transform a large part of the old Frankish foot army into cavalry.[4]
+The fundamental principle of the Frankish military system, that the man
+served at his own expense, was still unchanged. It had indeed begun to
+break down under the strain of frequent and distant campaigns, but it
+was long before it was changed as the recognized rule of medieval
+service. If now, in addition to his own expenses, the soldier must
+provide a horse and its keeping, the system was likely to break down
+altogether. It was this problem which led to the next step. To solve it
+the early Carolingian princes, especially Charles Martel, who found the
+royal domains exhausted and their own inadequate, grasped at the land of
+the Church. Here was enough to endow an army, if some means could be
+devised to permit its use. This means was found in the _precarium_
+tenure. Keeping alive, as it did, the fact of the grantor's ownership,
+it did not in form deprive the Church of the land. Recognizing that
+ownership by a small payment only, not corresponding to the value of the
+land, it left the larger part of the income to meet the need which had
+arisen. At the same time undoubtedly the new holder of the land, if not
+already the vassal of the prince, was obliged to become so and to assume
+an obligation of service with a mounted force when called upon.[5] This
+expedient seems to have solved the problem. It gave rise to the numerous
+_precariae verbo regis_, of the Church records, and to the condemnation
+of Charles Martel in the visions of the clergy to worse difficulties in
+the future life than he had overcome in this. The most important
+consequences of the expedient, however, were not intended or perceived
+at the time. It brought together the two sides of feudalism, vassalage
+and benefice, as they were now commonly called, and from this age their
+union into what is really a single institution was rapid;[6] it
+emphasized military service as an essential obligation of the vassal;
+and it spread the vassal relation between individual proprietors and the
+sovereign widely over the state.
+
+In the period that followed, the reign of Charlemagne and the later
+Carolingian age, continued necessities, military and civil, forced the
+kings to recognize these new institutions more fully, even when standing
+in a position between the government and the subject, intercepting the
+public duties of the latter. The incipient feudal baron had not been
+slow to take advantage of the break-down of the old German military
+system. As in the last days of the Roman empire the poor landowner had
+found his only refuge from the exactions of the government in the
+protection of the senator, who could in some way obtain exemptions, so
+the poor Frank could escape the ruinous demands of military service only
+by submitting himself and his lands to the count, who did not hesitate
+on his side to force such submission. Charlemagne legislated with vigour
+against this tendency, trying to make it easier for the poor freeman to
+fulfil his military duties directly to the state, and to forbid the
+misuse of power by the rich, but he was not more successful than the
+Roman government had been in a like attempt. Finally the king found
+himself compelled to recognize existing facts, to lay upon the lord the
+duty of producing his men in the field and to allow him to appear as
+their commander. This solved the difficulty of military service
+apparently, but with decisive consequences. It completed the
+transformation of the army into a vassal army; it completed the
+recognition of feudalism by the state, as a legitimate relation between
+different ranks of the people; and it recognized the transformation in a
+great number of cases of a public duty into a private obligation.
+
+In the meantime another institution had grown up in this Franco-Roman
+society, which probably began and certainly assisted in another
+transformation of the same kind. This is the immunity. Suggested
+probably by Roman practices, possibly developed directly from them, it
+received a great extension in the Merovingian period, at first and
+especially in the interest of the Church, but soon of lay land-holders.
+By the grant of an immunity to a proprietor the royal officers, the
+count and his representatives, were forbidden to enter his lands to
+exercise any public function there. The duties which the count should
+perform passed to the proprietor, who now represented the government for
+all his tenants free and unfree. Apparently no modification of the royal
+rights was intended by this arrangement, but the beginning of a great
+change had really been made. The king might still receive the same
+revenues and the same services from the district held by the lord as
+formerly, but for their payment a private person in his capacity as
+overlord was now responsible. In the course of a long period
+characterized by a weak central government, it was not difficult to
+enlarge the rights which the lord thus obtained, to exclude even the
+king's personal authority from the immunity, and to translate the duties
+and payments which the tenant had once owed to the state into
+obligations which he owed to his lord, even finally into incidents of
+his tenure. The most important public function whose transformation into
+a private possession was assisted by the growth of the immunity was the
+judicial. This process had probably already begun in a small way in the
+growth of institutions which belong to the economic side of feudalism,
+the organization of agriculture on the great estates. Even in Roman days
+the proprietor had exercised a jurisdiction over the disputes of his
+unfree tenants. Whether this could by its own growth have been extended
+over his free tenants and carried so far as to absorb a local court,
+like that of the hundred, into private possession, is not certain. It
+seems probable that it could. But in any case, the immunity easily
+carried the development of private jurisdiction through these stages.
+The lord's court took the place of the public court in civil, and even
+by degrees in criminal cases. The plaintiff, even if he were under
+another lord, was obliged to sue in the court of the defendant's lord,
+and the portion of the fine for a breach of the peace which should have
+gone to the state went in the end to the lord.
+
+The transfer of the judicial process, and of the financial and
+administrative sides of the government as well, into private possession,
+was not, however, accomplished entirely by the road of the immunity. As
+government weakened after the strong days of Charlemagne, and disorder,
+invasion, and the difficulty of intercommunication tended to throw the
+locality more and more upon its own resources, the officer who had once
+been the means of centralization, the count, found success in the effort
+for independence which even Charlemagne had scarcely overcome. He was
+able to throw off responsibility to any central authority, and to
+exercise the powers which had been committed to him as an agent of the
+king, as if they were his own private possession. Nor was the king's aid
+lacking to this method of dividing up the royal authority, any more than
+to the immunity, for it became a frequent practice to make the
+administrative office into a fief, and to grant it to be held in that
+form of property by the count. In this way the feudal county, or duchy,
+formed itself, corresponding in most cases only roughly to the old
+administrative divisions of the state, for within the bounds of the
+county there had often formed private feudal possessions too powerful to
+be forced into dependence upon the count, sometimes the vice-comes had
+followed the count's example, and often, on the other hand, the count
+had attached to his county like private possessions of his own lying
+outside its boundaries. In time the private lord, who had never been an
+officer of the state, assumed the old administrative titles and called
+himself count or viscount, and perhaps with some sort of right, for his
+position in his territories, through the development of the immunity,
+did not differ from that now held by the man who had been originally a
+count.
+
+In these two ways then the feudal system was formed, and took possession
+of the state territorially, and of its functions in government. Its
+earliest stage of growth was that of the private possession only. Under
+a government too weak to preserve order, the great landowner formed his
+estate into a little territory which could defend itself. His smaller
+neighbours who needed protection came to him for it. He forced them to
+become his dependants in return under a great variety of forms, but
+especially developing thereby the _precarium_ land tenure and the
+_patrocinium_ personal service, and organizing a private jurisdiction
+over his tenants, and a private army for defence. Finally he secured
+from the king an immunity which excluded the royal officers from his
+lands and made him a quasi-representative of the state. In the meantime
+his neighbour the count had been following a similar process, and in
+addition he had enjoyed considerable advantages of his own. His right to
+exact military, financial and judicial duties for the state he had used
+to force men to become his dependants, and then he had stood between
+them and the state, freeing them from burdens which he threw with
+increased weight upon those who still stood outside his personal
+protection. In ignorance of their danger, and later in despair of
+getting public services adequately performed in any other way, the kings
+first adopted for themselves some of the forms and practices which had
+thus grown up, and by degrees recognized them as legally proper for all
+classes. It proved to be easier to hold the lord responsible for the
+public duties of all his dependants because he was the king's vassal and
+by attaching them as conditions to the benefices which he held, than to
+enforce them directly upon every subject.
+
+When this stage was reached the formative age of feudalism may be
+considered at an end. When the government of the state had entered into
+feudalism, and the king was as much senior as king; when the vassal
+relationship was recognized as a proper and legal foundation of public
+duties; when the two separate sides of early feudalism were united as
+the almost universal rule, so that a man received a fief because he owed
+a vassal's duties, or looked at in the other and finally prevailing way,
+that he owed a vassal's duties because he had received a fief; and
+finally, when the old idea of the temporary character of the _precarium_
+tenure was lost sight of, and the right of the vassal's heir to receive
+his father's holding was recognized as the general rule--then the feudal
+system may be called full grown. Not that the age of growth was really
+over. Feudal history was always a becoming, always a gradual passing
+from one stage to another, so long as feudalism continued to form the
+main organization of society. But we may say that the formative age was
+over when these features of the system had combined to be its
+characteristic marks. What follows is rather a perfection of details in
+the direction of logical completeness. To assign any specific date to
+the end of this formative age is of course impossible, but meaning by
+the end what has just been stated, we shall not be far wrong if we place
+it somewhere near the beginning of the 10th century.
+
+Before we leave the history of feudal origins another word is necessary.
+We have traced a definite line of descent for feudal institutions from
+Roman days through the Merovingian and Carolingian ages to the 10th
+century. That line of descent can be made out with convincing clearness
+and with no particular difficulty from epoch to epoch, from the
+_precarium_ and the _patrocinium_, through the benefice and
+commendation, to the fief and vassalage. But the definiteness of this
+line should not cause us to overlook the fact that there was during
+these centuries much confusion of custom and practice. All round and
+about this line of descent there was a crowd of varying forms branching
+off more or less widely from the main stem, different kinds of
+commendation, different forms of _precarium_, some of which varied
+greatly from that through which the fief descends, and some of which
+survived in much the old character and under the old name for a long
+time after later feudalism was definitely established.[7] The variety
+and seeming confusion which reign in feudal society, under uniform
+controlling principles, rule also in the ages of beginning. It is easy
+to lose one's bearings by over-emphasizing the importance of variation
+and exception. It is indeed true that what was the exception, the
+temporary offshoot, might have become the main line. It would then have
+produced a system which would have been feudal, in the wide sense of the
+term, but it would have been marked by different characteristics, it
+would have operated in a somewhat different way. The crowd of varying
+forms should not prevent us from seeing that we can trace through their
+confusion the line along which the characteristic traits and
+institutions of European feudalism, as it actually was, were growing
+constantly more distinct.[8] That is the line of the origin of the
+feudal system. (See also FRANCE: _Law and Institutions_.)
+
+
+  Results in England.
+
+The growth which we have traced took place within the Frankish empire.
+When we turn to Anglo-Saxon England we find a different situation and a
+different result. There _precarium_ and _patrocinium_ were lacking.
+Certain forms of personal commendation did develop, certain forms of
+dependent land tenure came into use. These do not show, however, the
+characteristic marks of the actual line of feudal descent. They belong
+rather in the varying forms around that line. Scholars are not yet
+agreed as to what would have been their result if their natural
+development had not been cut off by the violent introduction of Frankish
+feudalism with the Norman conquest, whether the historical feudal
+system, or a feudal system in the general sense. To the writer it seems
+clear that the latter is the most that can be asserted. They were forms
+which may rightly be called feudal, but only in the wider meaning in
+which we speak of the feudalism of Japan, or of Central Africa, not in
+the sense of 12th-century European feudalism; Saxon commendation may
+rightly be called vassalage, but only as looking back to the early
+Frankish use of the term for many varying forms of practice, not as
+looking forward to the later and more definite usage of completed
+feudalism; and such use of the terms feudal and vassalage is sure to be
+misleading. It is better to say that European feudalism is not to be
+found in England before the Conquest, not even in its beginnings. If
+these had really been in existence it would require no argument to show
+the fact. There is no trace of the distinctive marks of Frankish
+feudalism in Saxon England, not where military service may be thought to
+rest upon the land, nor even in the rare cases where the tenant seems to
+some to be made responsible for it, for between these cases as they are
+described in the original accounts, legally interpreted, and the feudal
+conception of the vassal's military service, there is a great gulf.
+
+
+  The completed system.
+
+In turning from the origin of feudalism to a description of the
+completed system one is inevitably reminded of the words with which de
+Quincey opens the second part of his essay on style. He says: "It is a
+natural resource that whatsoever we find it difficult to investigate as
+a result, we endeavour to follow as a growth. Failing analytically to
+probe its nature, historically we seek relief to our perplexities by
+tracing its origin.... Thus for instance when any feudal institution (be
+it Gothic, Norman, or Anglo-Saxon) eludes our deciphering faculty from
+the imperfect records of its use and operation, then we endeavour
+conjecturally to amend our knowledge by watching the circumstances in
+which that institution arose." The temptation to use the larger part of
+any space allotted to the history of feudalism for a discussion of
+origins does not arise alone from greater interest in that phase of the
+subject. It is almost impossible even with the most discriminating care
+to give a brief account of completed feudalism and convey no wrong
+impression. We use the term "feudal system" for convenience sake, but
+with a degree of impropriety if it conveys the meaning "systematic."
+Feudalism in its most flourishing age was anything but systematic. It
+was confusion roughly organized. Great diversity prevailed everywhere,
+and we should not be surprised to find some different fact or custom in
+every lordship. Anglo-Norman feudalism attained a logical completeness
+and a uniformity of practice which, in the feudal age proper, can hardly
+be found elsewhere through so large a territory; but in Anglo-Norman
+feudalism the exception holds perhaps as large a place as the regular,
+and the uniformity itself was due to the most serious of exceptions from
+the feudal point of view--centralization under a powerful monarchy.
+
+But too great emphasis upon variation conveys also a wrong impression.
+Underlying all the apparent confusion of fact and practice were certain
+fundamental principles and relationships, which were alike everywhere,
+and which really gave shape to everything that was feudal, no matter
+what its form might be. The chief of these are the following: the
+relation of vassal and lord; the principle that every holder of land is
+a tenant and not an owner, until the highest rank is reached, sometimes
+even the conception rules in that rank; that the tenure by which a thing
+of value is held is one of honourable service, not intended to be
+economic, but moral and political in character; the principle of mutual
+obligations of loyalty, protection and service binding together all the
+ranks of this society from the highest to the lowest; and the principle
+of contract between lord and tenant, as determining all rights,
+controlling their modification, and forming the foundation of all law.
+There was actually in fact and practice a larger uniformity than this
+short list implies, because these principles tended to express
+themselves in similar forms, and because historical derivation from a
+common source in Frankish feudalism tended to preserve some degree of
+uniformity in the more important usages.
+
+The foundation of the feudal relationship proper was the fief, which was
+usually land, but might be any desirable thing, as an office, a revenue
+in money or kind, the right to collect a toll, or operate a mill. In
+return for the fief, the man became the vassal of his lord; he knelt
+before him, and, with his hands between his lord's hands, promised him
+fealty and service; he rose to his feet and took the oath of fealty
+which bound him to the obligations he had assumed in homage; he received
+from his lord ceremonial investiture with the fief. The faithful
+performance of all the duties he had assumed in homage constituted the
+vassal's right and title to his fief. So long as they were fulfilled,
+he, and his heir after him, held the fief as his property, practically
+and in relation to all under tenants as if he were the owner. In the
+ceremony of homage and investiture, which is the creative contract of
+feudalism, the obligations assumed by the two parties were, as a rule,
+not specified in exact terms. They were determined by local custom. What
+they were, however, was as well known, as capable of proof, and as
+adequate a check on innovation by either party, as if committed to
+writing. In many points of detail the vassal's services differed widely
+in different parts of the feudal world. We may say, however, that they
+fall into two classes, general and specific. The general included all
+that might come under the idea of loyalty, seeking the lord's interests,
+keeping his secrets, betraying the plans of his enemies, protecting his
+family, &c. The specific services are capable of more definite
+statement, and they usually received exact definition in custom and
+sometimes in written documents. The most characteristic of these was the
+military service, which included appearance in the field on summons with
+a certain force, often armed in a specified way, and remaining a
+specified length of time. It often included also the duty of guarding
+the lord's castle, and of holding one's own castle subject to the plans
+of the lord for the defence of his fief. Hardly less characteristic was
+court service, which included the duty of helping to form the court on
+summons, of taking one's own cases to that court instead of to some
+other, and of submitting to its judgments. The duty of giving the lord
+advice was often demanded and fulfilled in sessions of the court, and in
+these feudal courts the obligations of lord and vassal were enforced,
+with an ultimate appeal to war. Under this head may be enumerated also
+the financial duties of the vassal, though these were not regarded by
+the feudal law as of the nature of the tenure, i.e. failure to pay them
+did not lead to confiscation, but they were collected by suit and
+distraint like any debt. They did not have their origin in economic
+considerations, but were either intended to mark the vassal's tenant
+relation, like the relief, or to be a part of his service, like the aid,
+that is, he was held to come to the aid of his lord in a case of
+financial as of military necessity. The relief was a sum paid by the
+heir for the lord's recognition of his succession. The aids were paid on
+a few occasions, determined by custom, where the lord was put to unusual
+expense, as for his ransom when captured by the enemy, or for the
+knighting of his eldest son. There was great variety regarding the
+occasion and amount of these payments, and in some parts of the feudal
+world they did not exist at all. The most lucrative of the lord's rights
+were wardship and marriage, but the feudal theory of these also was
+non-economic. The fief fell into the hands of the lord, and he enjoyed
+its revenues during the minority of the heir, because the minor could
+not perform the duties by which it was held. The heiress must marry as
+the lord wished, because he had a right to know that the holder of the
+fief could meet the obligations resting upon it. Both wardship and
+marriage were, however, valuable rights which the lord could exercise
+himself or sell to others. These were by no means the only rights and
+duties which could be described as existing in feudalism, but they are
+the most characteristic, and on them, or some of them, as a foundation,
+the whole structure of feudal obligation was built, however detailed.
+
+Ideally regarded, feudalism covered Europe with a network of these
+fiefs, rising in graded ranks one above the other from the smallest, the
+knight's fee, at the bottom, to the king at the top, who was the supreme
+landowner, or who held the kingdom from God. Actually not even in the
+most regular of feudal countries, like England or Germany, was there any
+fixed gradation of rank, titles or size. A knight might hold directly of
+the king, a count of a viscount, a bishop of an abbot, or the king
+himself of one of his own vassals, or even of a vassal's vassal, and in
+return his vassal's vassal might hold another fief directly of him. The
+case of the count of Champagne, one of the peers of France, is a famous
+example. His great territory was held only in small part of the king of
+France. He held a portion of a foreign sovereign, the emperor, and other
+portions of the duke of Burgundy, of two archbishops, of four bishops,
+and of the abbot of St Denis. Frequently did great lay lords, as in this
+case, hold lands by feudal tenure of ecclesiastics.
+
+It is now possible perhaps to get some idea of the way in which the
+government of a feudal country was operated. The early German
+governments whose chief functions, military, judicial, financial,
+legislative, were carried on by the freemen of the nation because they
+were members of the body politic, and were performed as duties owed to
+the community for its defence and sustenance, no longer existed. New
+forms of organization had arisen in which indeed these conceptions had
+not entirely disappeared, but in which the vast majority of cases a
+wholly different idea of the ground of service and obligation prevailed.
+Superficially, for example, the feudal court differed but little from
+its Teutonic predecessor. It was still an assembly court. Its procedure
+was almost the same as the earlier. It often included the same classes
+of men. Saxon Witenagemot and Norman _Curia regis_ seem very much alike.
+But the members of the feudal court met, not to fulfil a duty owed to
+the community, but a private obligation which they had assumed in return
+for the fiefs they held, and in the history of institutions it is
+differences of this sort which are the determining principles. The
+feudal state was one in which, as it has been said, private law had
+usurped the place of public law. Public duty had become private
+obligation. To understand the feudal state it is essential to make clear
+to one's mind that all sorts of services, which men ordinarily owe to
+the public or to one another, were translated into a form of rent paid
+for the use of land, and defined and enforced by a private contract. In
+every feudal country, however, something of the earlier conception
+survived. A general military levy was occasionally made. Something like
+taxation occasionally occurred, though the government was usually
+sustained by the scanty feudal payments, by the proceeds of justice and
+by the income of domain manors. About the office of king more of this
+earlier conception gathered than elsewhere in the state, and gradually
+grew, aided not merely by traditional ideas, but by the active influence
+of the Bible, and soon of the Roman law. The kingship formed the nucleus
+of new governments as the feudal system passed away.
+
+Actual government in the feudal age was primitive and undifferentiated.
+Its chief and almost only organ, for kingdom and barony alike, was the
+_curia_--a court formed of the vassals. This acted at once and without
+any consciousness of difference of function, as judiciary, as
+legislature, in so far as there was any in the feudal period, and as
+council, and it exercised final supervision and control over revenue and
+administration. Almost all the institutions of modern states go back to
+the _curia regis_, branching off from it at different dates as the
+growing complexity of business forced differentiation of function and
+personnel. In action it was an assembly court, deciding all questions by
+discussion and the weight of opinion, though its decisions obtained
+their legal validity by the formal pronunciation of the presiding
+member, i.e. of the lord whose court it was. It can readily be seen that
+in a government of this kind the essential operative element was the
+baron. So long as the government remained dependent on the baron, it
+remained feudal in its character. When conditions so changed that
+government could free itself from its dependence on the baron, feudalism
+disappeared as the organization of society; when a professional class
+arose to form the judiciary, when the increased circulation of money
+made regular taxation possible and enabled the government to buy
+military and other services, and when better means of intercommunication
+and the growth of common ideas made a wide centralization possible and
+likely to be permanent. Feudalism had performed a great service, during
+an age of disintegration, by maintaining a general framework of
+government, while allowing the locality to protect and care for itself.
+When the function of protection and local supervision could be resumed
+by the general government the feudal age ended. In nearly all the states
+of Europe this end was reached during, or by the close of, the 13th
+century.
+
+
+  Decline and survivals.
+
+At the moment, however, when feudalism was disappearing as the
+organization of society, it gave rise to results which in a sense
+continued it into after ages and even to our own day. One of these
+results was the system of law which it created. As feudalism passed
+from its age of supremacy into its age of decline, its customs tended to
+crystallize into fixed forms. At the same time a class of men arose
+interested in these forms for their own sake, professional lawyers or
+judges, who wrote down for their own and others' use the feudal usages
+with which they were familiar. The great age of these codes was the 13th
+century, and especially the second half of it. The codes in their turn
+tended still further to harden these usages into fixed forms, and we may
+date from the end of the 13th century an age of feudal law regulating
+especially the holding and transfer of land, and much more uniform in
+character than the law of the feudal age proper. This was particularly
+the case in parts of France and Germany where feudalism continued to
+regulate the property relations of lords and vassals longer than
+elsewhere, and where the underlying economic feudalism remained in large
+part unchanged. In this later pseudo-feudalism, however, the political
+had given way to the economic, and customs which had once had no
+economic significance came to have that only.
+
+Feudalism formed the starting-point also of the later social nobilities
+of Europe. They drew from it their titles and ranks and many of their
+regulative ideas, though these were formed into more definite and
+regular systems than ever existed in feudalism proper. It was often the
+policy of kings to increase the social privileges and legal exemptions
+of the nobility while taking away all political power, so that it is
+necessary in the history of institutions to distinguish sharply between
+these nobilities and the feudal baronage proper. It is only in certain
+backward parts of Europe that the terms feudal and baronage in any
+technical sense can be used of the nobility of the 15th century.
+     (G. B. A.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For more detailed information the reader is referred to
+  the articles ENGLISH LAW; FRANCE: _French Law and Institutions_,
+  VILLENAGE; MANOR; SCUTAGE; KNIGHT SERVICE; HIDE. For a general sketch
+  of Feudalism the chapters in tome ii. of the _Histoire generale_ of
+  Lavisse and Rambaud should be consulted. Other general works are J.T.
+  Abdy, _Feudalism_ (1890); Paul Roth, _Feudalitat und Unterthanverband_
+  (Weimar, 1863); and _Geschichte des Beneficialwesens_ (1850); M.M.
+  Kovalevsky, _Okonomische Entwickelung Europas_ (1902); E. de Laveleye,
+  _De la propriete et de ses formes primitives_ (1891); and _The Origin
+  of Property in Land_, a translation by M. Ashley from the works of
+  N.D. Fustel de Coulanges, with an introductory chapter by Professor
+  W.J. Ashley. Two other works of value are Sir H.S. Maine, _Village
+  Communities in the East and West_ (1876); and Leon Gautier, _La
+  Chevalerie_ (Paris, 1884; Eng. trans. by Henry Frith, _Chivalry_,
+  London, 1891).
+
+  For feudalism in England see the various constitutional histories,
+  especially W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i.
+  (ed. 1897). Very valuable also are the writings of Mr J.H. Round, of
+  Professor F.W. Maitland and of Professor P. Vinogradoff. Among Round's
+  works may be mentioned _Feudal England_ (1895); _Geoffrey de
+  Mandeville_ (1892); and _Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer_
+  (1898). Maitland's _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897) is
+  indispensable; and the same remark applies to his _History of English
+  Law before the time of Edward I._ (Cambridge, 1895), written in
+  conjunction with Sir Frederick Pollock. Vinogradoff has illuminated
+  the subject in his _Villainage in England_ (1892) and his _English
+  Society in the 11th century_ (1908). See also J.F. Baldwin, _The
+  Scutage and Knight Service in England_ (Chicago, 1897); Rudolf Gneist,
+  _Adel und Ritterschaft in England_ (1853); and F. Seebohm, _The
+  English Village Community_ (1883).
+
+  For feudalism in France see N.D. Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des
+  institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_ (_Les Origines du
+  systeme feodal_, 1890; _Les Transformations de la royaute pendant
+  l'epoque carolingienne_, 1892); A. Luchaire, _Histoire des
+  institutions monarchiques de la France sous les premiers Capetiens,
+  987-1180_ (2nd ed., 1890); and _Manuel des institutions francaises:
+  periode des Capetiens directs_ (1892); J. Flach, _Les Origines de
+  l'ancienne France_ (1886-1893); Paul Viollet, _Droit public: Histoires
+  des institutions politiques et administratives de la France_
+  (1890-1898); and Henri See, _Les classes rurales et le regime
+  domanial_ (1901).
+
+  For Germany see G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Kiel and
+  Berlin, 1844 foll.); H. Brunner, _Grundzuge der deutschen
+  Rechtsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1901); V. Menzel, _Die Entstehung des
+  Lebenswesens_ (Berlin, 1890); and G.L. von Maurer's works on the early
+  institutions of the Germans.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Digest_, xliii. 26. 12.
+
+  [2] _Ibid._ xliii. 26. 14, and cf. 17.
+
+  [3] Salvian, _De gub. Dei_, v. 8, ed. Halm, p. 62.
+
+  [4] H. Brunner, _Zeitschr. der sav. Stift. fur Rechtsgeschichte_,
+    Germ. Abth. viii. 1-38 (1887). Also in his Forschungen, 39-74 (1894).
+
+  [5] See F. Dahn, _Konige der Germanen_, viii. 2, 90 ff.
+
+  [6] F. Dahn, _Konige der Germanen_, viii. 2, 197.
+
+  [7] G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, vi. 112 ff. (1896).
+    Most fully described in G. Seeliger, _Die soziale u. politische
+    Bedeutung d. Grundherrschaft im fruheren Mittelalter_ (1903).
+
+  [8] F. Dahn, _Konige_, viii. 2, 89-90; 95.
+
+
+
+
+FEUERBACH, ANSELM (1829-1880), German painter, born at Spires, the son
+of a well-known archaeologist, was the leading classicist painter of the
+German 19th-century school. He was the first to realize the danger
+arising from contempt of technique, that mastery of craftsmanship was
+needed to express even the loftiest ideas, and that an ill-drawn
+coloured cartoon can never be the supreme achievement in art. After
+having passed through the art schools of Dusseldorf and Munich, he went
+to Antwerp and subsequently to Paris, where he benefited by the teaching
+of Couture, and produced his first masterpiece, "Hafiz at the Fountain"
+in 1852. He subsequently worked at Karlsruhe, Venice (where he fell
+under the spell of the greatest school of colourists), Rome and Vienna.
+He was steeped in classic knowledge, and his figure compositions have
+the statuesque dignity and simplicity of Greek art. Disappointed with
+the reception given in Vienna to his design of "The Fall of the Titans"
+for the ceiling of the Museum of Modelling, he went to live in Venice,
+where he died in 1880. His works are to be found at the leading public
+galleries of Germany; Stuttgart has his "Iphigenia"; Karlsruhe, the
+"Dante at Ravenna"; Munich, the "Medea"; and Berlin, "The Concert," his
+last important picture. Among his chief works are also "The Battle of
+the Amazons," "Pieta," "The Symposium of Plato," "Orpheus and Eurydice"
+and "Ariosto in the Park of Ferrara."
+
+
+
+
+FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS (1804-1872), German philosopher, fourth son of
+the eminent jurist (see below), was born at Landshut in Bavaria on the
+28th of July 1804. He matriculated at Heidelberg with the intention of
+pursuing an ecclesiastical career. Through the influence of Prof. Daub
+he was led to an interest in the then predominant philosophy of Hegel
+and, in spite of his father's opposition, went to Berlin to study under
+the master himself. After two years' discipleship the Hegelian influence
+began to slacken. "Theology," he wrote to a friend, "I can bring myself
+to study no more. I long to take nature to my heart, that nature before
+whose depth the faint-hearted theologian shrinks back; and with nature
+man, man in his entire quality." These words are a key to Feuerbach's
+development. He completed his education at Erlangen with the study of
+natural science. His first book, published anonymously, _Gedanken uber
+Tod und Unsterblichkeit_ (1830, 3rd ed. 1876), contains an attack upon
+personal immortality and an advocacy of the Spinozistic immortality of
+reabsorption in nature. These principles, combined with his embarrassed
+manner of public speaking, debarred him from academic advancement. After
+some years of struggling, during which he published his_ Geschichte der
+neueren Philosophie_ (2 vols., 1833-1837, 2nd ed. 1844), and _Abalard
+und Heloise_ (1834, 3rd ed. 1877), he married in 1837 and lived a rural
+existence at Bruckberg near Nuremberg, supported by his wife's share in
+a small porcelain factory. In two works of this period, _Pierre Bayle_
+(1838) and _Philosophie und Christentum_ (1839), which deal largely with
+theology, he held that he had proved "that Christianity has in fact long
+vanished not only from the reason but from the life of mankind, that it
+is nothing more than a fixed idea" in flagrant contradiction to the
+distinctive features of contemporary civilization. This attack is
+followed up in his most important work, _Das Wesen des Christentums_
+(1841), which was translated into English (_The Essence of Religion_, by
+George Eliot, 1853, 2nd ed. 1881), French and Russian. Its aim may be
+described shortly as an effort to humanize theology. He lays it down
+that man, so far as he is rational, is to himself his own object of
+thought. Religion is consciousness of the infinite. Religion therefore
+is "nothing else than the consciousness of the infinity of the
+consciousness; or, in the consciousness of the infinite, the conscious
+subject has for his object the infinity of his own nature." Thus God is
+nothing else than man: he is, so to speak, the outward projection of
+man's inward nature. In part 1 of his book he develops what he calls the
+"true or anthropological essence of religion." Treating of God in his
+various aspects "as a being of the understanding," "as a moral being or
+law," "as love" and so on, Feuerbach shows that in every aspect God
+corresponds to some feature or need of human nature. "If man is to find
+contentment in God, he must find himself in God." In part 2 he discusses
+the "false or theological essence of religion," i.e. the view which
+regards God as having a separate existence over against man. Hence arise
+various mistaken beliefs, such as the belief in revelation which not
+only injures the moral sence, but also "poisons, nay destroys, the
+divinest feeling in man, the sense of truth," and the belief in
+sacraments such as the Lord's Supper, a piece of religious materialism
+of which "the necessary consequences are superstition and immorality."
+In spite of many admirable qualities both of style and matter the
+_Essence of Christianity_ has never made much impression upon British
+thought. To treat the actual forms of religion as expressions of our
+various human needs is a fruitful idea which deserves fuller development
+than it has yet received; but Feuerbach's treatment of it is fatally
+vitiated by his subjectivism. Feuerbach denied that he was rightly
+called an atheist, but the denial is merely verbal: what he calls
+"theism" is atheism in the ordinary sense. Feuerbach labours under the
+same difficulty as Fichte; both thinkers strive in vain to reconcile the
+religious consciousness with subjectivism.
+
+During the troubles of 1848-1849 Feuerbach's attack upon orthodoxy made
+him something of a hero with the revolutionary party; but he never threw
+himself into the political movement, and indeed had not the qualities of
+a popular leader. During the period of the diet of Frankfort he had
+given public lectures on religion at Heidelberg. When the diet closed he
+withdrew to Bruckberg and occupied himself partly with scientific study,
+partly with the composition of his _Theogonie_ (1857). In 1860 he was
+compelled by the failure of the porcelain factory to leave Bruckberg,
+and he would have suffered the extremity of want but for the assistance
+of friends supplemented by a public subscription. His last book,
+_Gottheit, Freiheit und Unsterblichkeit_, appeared in 1866 (2nd ed.,
+1890). After a long period of decay he died on the 13th of September
+1872.
+
+Feuerbach's influence has been greatest upon the anti-Christian
+theologians such as D.F. Strauss, the author of the _Leben Jesu_, and
+Bruno Bauer, who like Feuerbach himself had passed over from Hegelianism
+to a form of naturalism. But many of his ideas were taken up by those
+who, like Arnold Ruge, had entered into the struggle between church and
+state in Germany, and those who, like F. Engels and Karl Marx, were
+leaders in the revolt of labour against the power of capital. His work
+was too deliberately unsystematic ("keine Philosophie ist meine
+Philosophie") ever to make him a power in philosophy. He expressed in an
+eager, disjointed, but condensed and laboured fashion, certain
+deep-lying convictions--that philosophy must come back from
+unsubstantial metaphysics to the solid facts of human nature and natural
+science, that the human body was no less important than the human spirit
+("Der Mensch ist was er isst") and that Christianity was utterly out of
+harmony with the age. His convictions gained weight from the simplicity,
+uprightness and diligence of his character; but they need a more
+effective justification than he was able to give them.
+
+  His works appeared in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1846-1866); his
+  correspondence has been edited with an indifferent biography by Karl
+  Grun (1874). See A. Levy, _La Philosophie de Feuerbach_ (1904); M.
+  Meyer, _L. Feuerbach's Moralphilosophie_ (Berlin, 1899); E. v.
+  Hartmann, _Geschichte d. Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1899-1900), ii.
+  437-444: F. Engels, _L. Feuerbach und d. Ausgang d. class, deutsch.
+  Philos._ (2nd ed., 1895).     (H. St.)
+
+
+
+
+FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM, RITTER VON (1775-1833), German jurist and
+writer on criminal law, was born at Hainichen near Jena on the 14th of
+November 1775. He received his early education at Frankfort on Main,
+whither his family had removed soon after his birth. At the age of
+sixteen, however, he ran away from home, and, going to Jena, was helped
+by relations there to study at the university. In spite of poor health
+and the most desperate poverty, he made rapid progress. He attended the
+lectures of Karl Leonhard Reinhold and Gottlieb Hufeland, and soon
+published some literary essays of more than ordinary merit. In 1795 he
+took the degree of doctor in philosophy, and in the same year, though he
+only possessed 150 thalers (L22: 10s.), he married. It was this step
+which led him to success and fame, by forcing him to turn from his
+favourite studies of philosophy and history to that of law, which was
+repugnant to him, but which offered a prospect of more rapid
+advancement. His success in this new and uncongenial sphere was soon
+assured. In 1796 he published _Kritik des naturlichen Rechts als
+Propadeutik zu einer Wissenschaft der naturlichen Rechte_, which was
+followed, in 1798, by _Anti-Hobbes, oder uber die Grenzen der
+burgerlichen Gewalt_, a dissertation on the limits of the civil power
+and the right of resistance on the part of subjects against their
+rulers, and by _Philosophische, juristische Untersuchungen uber das
+Verbrechen des Hochverraths_. In 1799 he obtained the degree of doctor
+of laws. Feuerbach, as the founder of a new theory of penal law, the
+so-called "psychological-coercive or intimidation theory," occupied a
+prominent place in the history of criminal science. His views, which he
+first made known in his _Revision der Grundsatze und Grundbegriffe des
+positiven peinlichen Rechts_ (1799), were further elucidated and
+expounded in the _Bibliothek fur die peinliche Rechtswissenschaft_
+(1800-1801), an encyclopaedic work produced in conjunction with Karl
+L.W.G. Grolmann and Ludwig Harscher von Almendingen, and in his famous
+_Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland geltenden peinlichen Rechts_
+(1801). These works were a powerful protest against vindictive
+punishment, and did much towards the reformation of the German criminal
+law. The _Carolina_ (the penal code of the emperor Charles V.) had long
+since ceased to be respected. What in 1532 was an inestimable blessing,
+as a check upon the arbitrariness and violence of the effete German
+procedure, had in the course of time outlived its usefulness and become
+a source of evils similar to those it was enacted to combat. It availed
+nothing that, at the commencement of the 18th century, a freer and more
+scientific spirit had been breathed into Roman law; it failed to reach
+the criminal law. The administration of justice was, before Feuerbach's
+time, especially distinguished by two characteristics: the superiority
+of the judge to all law, and the blending of the judicial and executive
+offices, with the result that the individual was practically at the
+mercy of his prosecutors. This state of things Feuerbach set himself to
+reform, and using as his chief weapon the _Revision der Grundbegriffe_
+above referred to, was successful in his task. His achievement in the
+struggle may be summed up as: _nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege_ (no
+wrong and no punishment without a remedy). In 1801 Feuerbach was
+appointed extraordinary professor of law without salary, at the
+university of Jena, and in the following year accepted a chair at Kiel,
+where he remained two years. In 1804 he removed to the university of
+Landshut; but on being commanded by King Maximilian Joseph to draft a
+penal code for Bavaria (_Strafgesetzbuch fur das Konigreich Bayern_), he
+removed in 1805 to Munich, where he was given a high appointment in the
+ministry of justice and was ennobled in 1808. Meanwhile the practical
+reform of penal legislation in Bavaria was begun under his influence in
+1806 by the abolition of torture. In 1808 appeared the first volume of
+his _Merkwurdige Criminalfalle_, completed in 1811--a work of deep
+interest for its application of psychological considerations to cases Of
+crime, and intended to illustrate the inevitable imperfection of human
+laws in their application to individuals. In his _Betrachtungen uber das
+Geschworenengericht_ (1811) Feuerbach declared against trial by jury,
+maintaining that the verdict of a jury was not adequate legal proof of a
+crime. Much controversy was aroused on the subject, and the author's
+view was subsequently to some extent modified. The result of his labours
+was promulgated in 1813 as the Bavarian penal code. The influence of
+this code, the embodiment of Feuerbach's enlightened views, was immense.
+It was at once made the basis for new codes in Wurttemberg and
+Saxe-Weimar; it was adopted in its entirety in the grand-duchy of
+Oldenburg; and it was translated into Swedish by order of the king.
+Several of the Swiss cantons reformed their codes in conformity with it.
+Feuerbach had also undertaken to prepare a civil code for Bavaria, to be
+founded on the Code Napoleon. This was afterwards set aside, and the
+Codex Maximilianus adopted as a basis. But the project did not become
+law. During the war of liberation (1813-1814) Feuerbach showed himself
+an ardent patriot, and published several political brochures which, from
+the writer's position, had almost the weight of state manifestoes. One
+of these is entitled _Uber deutsche Freiheit und Vertretung deutsche
+Volker durch Landstande_ (1514). In 1814 Feuerbach was appointed second
+president of the court of appeal at Bamberg, and three years later he
+became first president of the court of appeal at Anspach. In 1821 he was
+deputed by the government to visit France, Belgium, and the Rhine
+provinces for the purpose of investigating their juridical institutions.
+As the fruit of this visit, he published his treatises _Betrachtungen
+uber Offentlichkeit und Mundigkeit der Gerechtigkeitspflege_ (1821) and
+_Uber die Gerichtsverfassung und das gerichtliche Verfahren Frankreichs_
+(1825). In these he pleaded unconditionally for publicity in all legal
+proceedings. In his later years he took a deep interest in the fate of
+the strange foundling Kaspar Hauser (q.v.), which had excited so much
+attention in Europe; and he was the first to publish a critical summary
+of the ascertained facts, under the title of _Kaspar Hauser, ein
+Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben_ (1832). Shortly before his
+death appeared a collection of his _Kleine Schriften_ (1833). Feuerbach,
+still in the full enjoyment of his intellectual powers, died suddenly at
+Frankfort, while on his way to the baths of Schwalbach, on the 29th of
+May 1833. In 1853 was published the _Leben und Wirken Ans. von
+Feuerbachs_, 2 vols., consisting of a selection of his letters and
+journals, with occasional notes by his fourth son Ludwig, the
+distinguished philosopher.
+
+  See also, for an estimate of Feuerbach's life and work, Marquardtsen,
+  in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol. vi.; and an "in memoriam"
+  notice in _Die allgemeine Zeitung_ (Augsburg), 15th Nov. 1875, by
+  Professor Dr Karl Binding of Leipzig University.
+
+
+
+
+FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE, a political association which played a
+prominent part during the French Revolution. It was founded on the 16th
+of July 1791 by several members of the Jacobin Club, who refused to sign
+a petition presented by this body, demanding the deposition of Louis
+XVI. Among the dissident members were B. Barere; and E.J. Sieyes, who
+were later joined by other politicians, among them being Dupont de
+Nemours. The name of Feuillants was popularly given to this group of
+men, because they met in the fine buildings which had been occupied by
+the religious order bearing this name, in the rue Saint-Honore, near the
+Place Vendome, in Paris. The members of the club preserved the title of
+_Amis de la Constitution_, as being a sufficient indication of the line
+they intended to pursue. This consisted in opposing everything not
+contained in the Constitution; in their opinion, the latter was in need
+of no modification, and they hated alike all those who were opposed to
+it, whether _emigres_ or Jacobins; they affected to avoid all political
+discussion, and called themselves merely a "conservative assembly."
+
+This attitude they maintained after the Constituent Assembly had been
+succeeded by the Legislative, but not many of the new deputies became
+members of the club. With the rapid growth of extreme democratic ideas
+the Feuillants soon began to be looked upon as reactionaries, and to be
+classed with "aristocrats." They did, indeed, represent the aristocracy
+of wealth, for they had to pay a subscription of four louis, a large sum
+at that time, besides six livres for attendance. Moreover, the luxury
+with which they surrounded themselves, and the restaurant which they had
+annexed to their club, seemed to mock the misery of the half-starved
+proletariat, and added to the suspicion with which they were viewed,
+especially after the popular triumphs of the 20th of June and the 10th
+of August 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). A few days after the
+insurrection of the 10th of August, the papers of the Feuillants were
+seized, and a list was published containing the names of 841 members
+proclaimed as suspects. This was the death-blow of the club. It had made
+an attempt, though a weak one, to oppose the forward march of the
+Revolution, but, unlike the Jacobins, had never sent out branches into
+the provinces. The name of Feuillants, as a party designation, survived
+the club. It was applied to those who advocated a policy of "cowardly
+moderation," and _feuillantisme_ was associated with _aristocratie_ in
+the mouths of the sansculottes.
+
+  The act of separation of the Feuillants from the Jacobins was
+  published in a pamphlet dated the 16th of July 1791, beginning with
+  the words, _Les Membres de l'assemblee nationale_ ... (Paris, 1791).
+  The statutes of the club were also published in Paris. See also A.
+  Aulard, _Histoire politique de la Revolution francaise_ (Paris, 1903),
+  2nd ed., p. 153.
+
+
+
+
+
+FEUILLET, OCTAVE (1821-1890), French novelist and dramatist, was born at
+Saint-Lo, Manche, on the 11th of August 1821. He was the son of a Norman
+gentleman of learning and distinction, who would have played a great
+part in politics "sans ses diables de nerfs," as Guizot said. This
+nervous excitability was inherited, though not to the same excess, by
+Octave, whose mother died in his infancy and left him to the care of the
+hyper-sensitive invalid. The boy was sent to the lycee Louis-le Grand,
+in Paris, where he achieved high distinction, and was destined for the
+diplomatic service. In 1840 he appeared before his father at Saint-Lo,
+and announced that he had determined to adopt the profession of
+literature. There was a stormy scene, and the elder Feuillet cut off his
+son, who returned to Paris and lived as best he could by a scanty
+journalism. In company with Paul Bocage he began to write for the stage,
+and not without success; at all events, he continued to exist until,
+three years after the quarrel, his father consented to forgive him.
+Enjoying a liberal allowance, he now lived in Paris in comfort and
+independence, and he published his early novels, none of which is quite
+of sufficient value to retain the modern reader. The health and spirits
+of the elder M. Feuillet, however, having still further declined, he
+summoned his son to leave Paris and bury himself as his constant
+attendant in the melancholy chateau at Saint-Lo. This was to demand a
+great sacrifice, but Octave Feuillet cheerfully obeyed the summons. In
+1851 he married his cousin, Mlle Valerie Feuillet, who helped him to
+endure the mournful captivity to which his filial duty bound him.
+Strangely enough, in this exile--rendered still more irksome by his
+father's mania for solitude and by his tyrannical temper--the genius of
+Octave Feuillet developed. His first definite success was gained in the
+year 1852, when he published the novel _Bellah_ and produced the comedy
+_La Crise_. Both were reprinted from the _Revue des deux mondes_, where
+many of his later novels also appeared. He wrote books which have long
+held their place, _La Petite Comtesse_ (1857), _Dalila_ (1857), and in
+particular that universal favourite, _Le Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre_
+(1858). He himself fell into a nervous state in his "prison," but he was
+sustained by the devotion and intelligence of his wife and her mother.
+In 1857, having been persuaded to make a play of the novel of _Dalila_,
+he brought out this piece at the Vaudeville, and enjoyed a brilliant
+success; on this occasion he positively broke through the _consigne_ and
+went up to Paris to see his play rehearsed. His father bore the shock of
+his temporary absence, and the following year Octave ventured to make
+the same experiment on occasion of the performance of _Un Jeune Homme
+pauvre_. To his infinite chagrin, during this brief absence his father
+died. Octave was now, however, free, and the family immediately moved to
+Paris, where they took part in the splendid social existence of the
+Second Empire. The elegant and distinguished young novelist became a
+favourite at court; his pieces were performed at Compiegne before they
+were given to the public, and on one occasion the empress Eugenie
+deigned to play the part of Mme de Pons in _Les Portraits de la
+Marquise_. Feuillet did not abandon the novel, and in 1862 he achieved a
+great success with _Sibylle_. His health, however, had by this time
+begun to decline, affected by the sad death of his eldest son. He
+determined to quit Paris, where the life was far too exciting for his
+nerves, and to regain the quietude of Normandy. The old chateau of the
+family had been sold, but he bought a house called "Les Paillers" in the
+suburbs of Saint-Lo, and there he lived, buried in his roses, for
+fifteen years. He was elected to the French Academy in 1862, and in 1868
+he was made librarian of Fontainebleau palace, where he had to reside
+for a month or two in each year. In 1867 he produced his masterpiece of
+_Monsieur de Camors_, and in 1872 he wrote _Julia de Treoeur_, which is
+hardly less admirable. His last years, after the sale of "Les Paillers,"
+were passed in a ceaseless wandering, the result of the agitation of his
+nerves. He was broken by sorrow and by ill-health, and when he passed
+away in Paris on the 29th of December 1890, his death was a release. His
+last book was _Honneur d'artiste_ (1890). Among the too-numerous
+writings of Feuillet, the novels have lasted longer than the dramas; of
+the former three or four seem destined to retain their charm as
+classics. He holds a place midway between the romanticists and the
+realists, with a distinguished and lucid portraiture of life which is
+entirely his own. He drew the women of the world whom he saw around him
+with dignity, with indulgence, with extraordinary penetration and
+clairvoyance. There is little description in his novels, which sometimes
+seem to move on an almost bare and colourless stage, but, on the other
+hand, the analysis of motives, of emotions, and of "the fine shades" has
+rarely been carried further. Few have written French with greater purity
+than Feuillet, and his style, reserved in form and never excessive in
+ornament, but full of wit and delicate animation, is in admirable
+uniformity with his subjects and his treatment. It is probably in
+_Sibylle_ and in _Julia de Trecoeur_ that he can now be studied to most
+advantage, though _Monsieur de Camors_ gives a greater sense of power,
+and though _Le Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre_ still preserves its
+popularity.
+
+  See also Sainte-Beuve, _Nouveaux Lundis_, vol. v.; F. Brunetiere,
+  _Nouveaux Essais sur la litterature contemporaine_ (1895).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FEUILLETON (a diminutive of the Fr. _feuillet_, the leaf of a book),
+originally a kind of supplement attached to the political portion of
+French newspapers. Its inventor was Bertin the elder, editor of the
+_Debats_. It was not usually printed on a separate sheet, but merely
+separated from the political part of the newspaper by a line, and
+printed in smaller type. In French newspapers it consists chiefly of
+non-political news and gossip, literature and art criticism, a chronicle
+of the fashions, and epigrams, charades and other literary trifles; and
+its general characteristics are lightness, grace and sparkle. The
+_feuilleton_ in its French sense has never been adopted by English
+newspapers, though in various modern journals (in the United States
+especially) the sort of matter represented by it is now included. But
+the term itself has come into English use to indicate the instalment of
+a serial story printed in one part of a newspaper.
+
+
+
+
+FEUQUIERES, ISAAC MANASSES DE PAS, MARQUIS DE (1590-1640), French
+soldier, came of a distinguished family of which many members held high
+command in the civil wars of the 16th century. He entered the Royal army
+at the age of thirty, and soon achieved distinction. In 1626 he served
+in the Valtelline, and in 1628-1629 at the celebrated siege of La
+Rochelle, where he was taken prisoner. In 1629 he was made _Marechal de
+Camp_, and served in the fighting on the southern frontiers of France.
+After occupying various military positions in Lorraine, he was sent as
+an ambassador into Germany, where he rendered important services in
+negotiations with Wallenstein. In 1636 he commanded the French corps
+operating with the duke of Weimar's forces (afterwards Turenne's "Army
+of Weimar"). With these troops he served in the campaigns of 1637 (in
+which he became lieutenant-general), 1638 and 1639. At the siege of
+Thionville (Diedenhofen) he received a mortal wound. His _lettres
+inedites_ appeared (ed. Gallois) in Paris in 1845.
+
+His son ANTOINE MANASSES DE PAS, Marquis de Feuquieres (1648-1711), was
+born at Paris in 1648, and entered the army at the age of eighteen. His
+conduct at the siege of Lille in 1667, where he was wounded, won him
+promotion to the rank of captain. In the campaigns of 1672 and 1673 he
+served on the staff of Marshal Luxemburg, and at the siege of Oudenarde
+in the following year the king gave him command of the Royal Marine
+regiment, which he held until he obtained a regiment of his own in 1676.
+In 1688 he served as a brigadier at the siege of Philipsburg, and
+afterwards led a ravaging expedition into south Germany, where he
+acquired much booty. Promoted _Marechal de Camp_, he served under
+Catinat against the Waldenses, and in the course of the war won the
+nickname of the "Wizard." In 1692 he made a brilliant defence of
+Speierbach against greatly superior forces, and was rewarded with the
+rank of lieutenant-general. He bore a distinguished part in Luxemburg's
+great victory of Neerwinden or Landen in 1693. Marshal Villeroi
+impressed him less favourably than his old commander Luxemburg, and the
+resumption of war in 1701 found him in disfavour in consequence. The
+rest of his life, embittered by the refusal of the marshal's baton, he
+spent in compiling his celebrated memoirs, which, coloured as they were
+by the personal animosities of the writer, were yet considered by
+Frederick the Great and the soldiers of the 18th century as the standard
+work on the art of war as a whole. He died in 1711. The _Memoires sur la
+guerre_ appeared in the same year and new editions were frequently
+published (Paris 1711, 1725, 1735, &c., London 1736, Amsterdam
+subsequently). An English version appeared in London 1737, under the
+title _Memoirs of the Marquis de Feuquieres_, and a German translation
+(_Feuquieres geheime Nachrichten_) at Leipzig 1732, 1738, and Berlin
+1786. They deal in detail with every branch of the art of war and of
+military service.
+
+
+
+
+FEVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN (1817-1887), French novelist and dramatist,
+was born on the 27th of September 1817, at Rennes in Brittany, and much
+of his best work deals with the history of his native province. He was
+educated for the bar, but after his first brief he went to Paris, where
+he gained a footing by the publication of his "Club des phoques" (1841)
+in the _Revue de Paris_. The _Mysteres de Londres_ (1844), in which an
+Irishman tries to avenge the wrongs of his countrymen by seeking the
+annihilation of England, was published under the ingenious pseudonym
+"Sir Francis Trolopp." Others of his novels are: _Le Fils du diable_
+(1846); _Les Compagnons du silence_ (1857); _Le Bossu_ (1858); _Le
+Poisson d'or_ (1863); _Les Habits noirs_ (1863); _Jean le diable_
+(1868), and _Les Compagnons du tresor_ (1872). Some of his novels were
+dramatized, _Le Bossu_ (1863), in which he had M. Victorien Sardou for a
+collaborator, being especially successful in dramatic form. His
+chronicles of crime exercised an evil influence, eventually recognized
+by the author himself. In his later years he became an ardent Catholic,
+and occupied himself in revising his earlier works from his new
+standpoint and in writing religious pamphlets. Reverses of fortune and
+consequent overwork undermined his mental and bodily health, and he died
+of paralysis in the monastery of the Brothers of Saint John in Paris on
+the 8th of March 1887.
+
+His son, PAUL FEVAL (1860- ), became well known as a novelist and
+dramatist. Among his works are _Nouvelles_ (1890), _Maria Laura_ (1891),
+and _Chantepie_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+FEVER (Lat. _febris_, connected with _fervere_, to burn), a term
+generally used to include all conditions in which the normal temperature
+of the animal body is markedly exceeded for any length of time. When the
+temperature reaches as high a point as 106 deg. F. the term hyperpyrexia
+(excessive fever) is applied, and is regarded as indicating a condition
+of danger; while, if it exceeds 107 deg. or 108 deg. for any length of
+time, death almost always results. The diseases which are called
+specific fevers, because of its being a predominant factor in them, are
+discussed separately under their ordinary names. Occasionally in certain
+specific fevers and febrile diseases the temperature may attain the
+elevation of 110 deg.-112 deg. prior to the fatal issue. For the
+treatment of fever in general, see THERAPEUTICS.
+
+_Pathology._--Every rise of temperature is due to a disturbance in the
+heat-regulating mechanism, the chief variable in which is the action of
+the skin in eliminating heat (see ANIMAL HEAT). Although for all
+practical purposes this mechanism works satisfactorily, it is not by any
+means perfect, and many physiological conditions cause a transient rise
+of temperature; e.g. severe muscular exercise, in which the cutaneous
+eliminating mechanism is unable at once to dispose of the increased
+amount of heat produced in the muscles. Pathologically, the
+heat-regulating mechanism may be disturbed in three different ways: 1st,
+by mechanical interference with the nervous system; 2nd, by interference
+with heat elimination; 3rd, by the action of various poisons.
+
+1. In the human subject, fever the result of _mechanical interference_
+with the nervous system rarely occurs, but it can readily be produced in
+the lower animals by stimulating certain parts of the great brain, e.g.
+the anterior portion of the corpus striatum. This leads to a rise of
+temperature with increased heat production. The high temperature seems
+to cause disintegration of cell protoplasm and increased excretion of
+nitrogen and of carbonic acid. Possibly some of the cases of high
+temperature recorded after injuries to the nervous system may be caused
+in this way; but some may also be due to stimulation of vaso-constrictor
+fibres to the cutaneous vessels diminishing heat elimination. So far the
+pathology of this condition has not been studied with the same care that
+has been devoted to the investigation of the third type of fever.
+
+2. Fever may readily be produced by _interference with heat
+elimination_. This has been done by submitting dogs to a temperature
+slightly below that of the rectum, and it is seen in man in _Sunstroke_.
+The typical nervous symptoms of fever are thus produced, and the rate of
+chemical change in the tissues is accelerated, as is shown by the
+increased excretion of carbonic acid. The protoplasm is also injured and
+the proteids are broken down, and thus an increased excretion of
+nitrogen is produced and the cells undergo degenerative changes.
+
+3. The products of various micro-organisms have a toxic action on the
+protoplasm of a large number of animals, and among the symptoms of this
+toxic action one of the most frequent is a rise in temperature. While
+this is by no means a necessary accompaniment, its occurrence is so
+general that the term _Fever_ has been applied to the general reaction
+of the organism to the microbial poison. Toxins which cause a marked
+rise of temperature in men may cause a fall in other animals. It is not
+the alteration of temperature which is the great index of the severity
+of the struggle between the host and the parasite, but the death and
+removal to a greater or lesser extent of the protoplasm of the host. In
+this respect fever resembles poisoning with phosphorus and arsenic and
+other similar substances. The true measure of the intensity of a fever
+is the extent of disintegration of protoplasm, and this may be estimated
+by the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine. The increased
+disintegration of protoplasm is also indicated by the rise in the
+excretion of sulphur and phosphorus and by the appearance in the urine
+of acetone, aceto-acetic and [beta]-oxybutyric acids (see NUTRITION).
+Since the temperature is generally proportionate to the intensity of the
+toxic action, its height is usually proportionate to the excretion of
+nitrogen. But sometimes the rise of temperature is not marked, while the
+excretion of nitrogen is very decidedly increased. When the temperature
+is sufficiently elevated, the heat has of itself an injurious action on
+the protoplasm, and tends to increase disintegration just as when heat
+elimination is experimentally retarded. But the increase due to rise of
+temperature is small compared to that produced by the destructive action
+of the microbial products. In the beginning of a fever the activity of
+the metabolism is not increased to any marked extent, and any increase
+is necessarily largely due to the greater activity of the muscles of the
+heart and respiratory mechanism, and to the muscular contractions which
+produce the initial rigors. Thus the excretion of carbon dioxide--the
+great measure of the _activity of metabolism_--is not usually increased,
+and there is no evidence of an increased combustion. In the later stages
+the increased temperature may bring about an acceleration in the rate of
+chemical change; but this is comparatively slight, less in fact than the
+increase observed on taking muscular exercise after rest. The _rise of
+temperature_ is primarily due to diminished heat elimination. This
+diminished giving off of heat was demonstrated by means of the
+calorimeter by I. Rosenthal, while E. Maragliano showed that the
+cutaneous vessels are contracted. Even in the later stages, until
+defervescence occurs, heat elimination is inadequate to get rid of the
+heat produced.
+
+The toxic action is manifested not only by the increased disintegration
+of protoplasm, but also by disturbances in the functions of the various
+organs. The activity of the _digestive glands_ is diminished and
+appetite is lost. Food is therefore not taken, although when taken it
+appears to be absorbed in undiminished quantities. As a result of this
+the patient suffers from inanition, and lives largely on his own fats
+and proteids, and for this reason rapidly emaciates. The functions of
+the _liver_ are also diminished in activity. Glycogen is not stored in
+the cells, and the bile secretion is modified, the essential
+constituents disappearing almost entirely in some cases. The production
+of urea is also interfered with, and the proportion of nitrogen in the
+urine not in the urea increases. This is in part due to the increased
+disintegration of proteids setting free sulphur and phosphorus, which,
+oxidized into sulphuric and phosphoric acids, combine with the ammonia
+which would otherwise have been changed to urea. Thus the proportion of
+ammonia in the urine is increased. Concurrently with these alterations
+in the functions of the liver-cells, a condition of granular
+degeneration and probably a state of fatty degeneration makes its
+appearance. That the functional activity of the _kidneys_ is modified,
+is shown by the frequent appearance of proteoses or of albumen and
+globulin in the urine. Frequently the toxin acts very markedly on the
+protoplasm of the kidney epithelium, and causes a shedding of the cells
+and sometimes inflammatory reaction. The _muscles_ are weakened, but so
+far no satisfactory study has been made of the influence of microbial
+poisons on muscular contraction. A granular and fatty degeneration
+supervenes, and the fibres waste. The _nervous structures_, especially
+the nerve-cells, are acted upon, and not only is their functional
+activity modified, but they also undergo structural changes of a
+chromatolytic nature. The _blood_ shows two important changes--first, a
+fall in the alkalinity due to the products of disintegration of
+protoplasm; and, secondly, an increase in the number of leucocytes, and
+chiefly in the polymorpho-nuclear variety. This is best marked in
+pneumonia, where the normal number is often increased twofold and
+sometimes more than tenfold, while it is altogether absent in enteric
+fever.
+
+An interesting general modification in the metabolism is the enormous
+fall in the excretion of chlorine, a fall far in excess of what could be
+accounted for by inanition, and out of all proportion to the fall in the
+sodium and potassium with which the chlorine is usually combined in the
+urine. The fevered animal in fact stores chlorine in its tissues, though
+in what manner and for what reason is not at present known.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Von Noorden, L_ehrbuch der Pathologie des Stoffwechsels_
+  (Berlin, 1893); _Metabolism and Practical Medicine_, vol. ii., article
+  "Fever" by F. Kraus (1907); Dr A. Rabe, _Die modernen Fiebertheorien_
+  (Berlin, 1894); Dr G.B. Ughetti, _Das Fieber_, trans. by Dr R.
+  Teuscher (Jena, 1895); Dr M. Lovit, "Die Lehre von Fieber,"
+  _Vorlesungen uber allgemeine Pathologie_, erstes Heft (Jena, 1897);
+  Louis Guinon, "De la fievre," in Bouchard's _Traite de pathologie
+  generale_, t. iii. 2nd partie (Paris, 1899); Sir J.B. Sanderson, "The
+  Doctrine of Fever," in Allbutt's _System of Medicine_, vol. i. p. 139
+  (London, 1896).     (D. N. P.)
+
+
+
+
+FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIME (1821-1873), French author, was born in Paris, on
+the 16th of March 1821. He began his literary career in 1844, by the
+publication of a volume of poetry, _Les Nationales_. Either the partial
+failure of this literary effort, or his marriage soon afterwards to a
+daughter of the economist Blanqui, caused him to devote himself to
+finance and to archaeology. He gained a great success with his novel
+_Fanny_ (1858), a success due chiefly to the cleverness with which it
+depicted and excused the corrupt manners of a certain portion of French
+society. This was followed in rapid succession by a series of fictions,
+similar in character, but wanting the attraction of novelty; none of
+them enjoyed the same vogue as _Fanny_. Besides his novels Feydeau wrote
+several plays, and he is also the author of _Histoire generale des
+usages funebres et des sepultures des peuples anciens_ (3 vols.,
+1857-1861); _Le Secret du bonheur_ (sketches of Algerian life) (2 vols.,
+1864); and _L'Allemagne en 1871_ (1872), a clever caricature of German
+life and manners. He died in Paris on the 27th of October 1873.
+
+  See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. xiv., and Barbey
+  d'Aurevilly, _Les Oeuvres et les hommes au XIX^e siecle_.
+
+
+
+
+FEZ (_Fas_), the chief city of Morocco, into which empire it was
+incorporated in 1548. It lies in 34 deg. 6' 3" N., 4 deg. 38' 15" W.,
+about 230 m. N.E. of Marrakesh, 100 m. E. from the Atlantic and 85 m. S.
+of the Mediterranean. It is beautifully situated in a deep valley on the
+Wad Fas, an affluent of the Wad Sebu, which divides the town into two
+parts--the ancient town, Fas el Bali, on the right bank, and the new,
+Fas el Jadid, on the left.
+
+Like many other Oriental cities, Fez from a distance appears a very
+attractive place. It stretches out between low hills, crowned by the
+ruins of ancient fortresses, and though there is nothing imposing,
+there is something particularly impressive in the sight of that
+white-roofed conglomeration of habitations, broken only by occasional
+mosque towers or, on the outskirts, by luxuriant foliage. Except on the
+south side the city is surrounded by hills, interspersed with groves of
+orange, pomegranate and other fruit trees, and large olive gardens.
+
+From its peculiar situation Fez has a drainage superior to that of most
+Moorish towns. When the town becomes very dirty, the water is allowed to
+run down the streets by opening lids for the purpose in the conduits and
+closing the ordinary exits, so that it overflows and cleanses the
+pavements. The Fasis as a rule prefer to drink the muddy river water
+rather than that of the pure springs which abound in certain quarters of
+the town. But the assertion that the supply and drainage system are one
+is a libel, since the drainage system lies below the level of the fresh
+river water, and was organized by a French renegade, under Mohammed
+XVI., about the close of the 18th century. The general dampness of the
+town renders it unhealthy, however, as the pallid faces of the
+inhabitants betoken, but this is considered a mark of distinction and is
+jealously guarded.
+
+Most of the streets are exceedingly narrow, and as the houses are high
+and built in many cases over the thoroughfares these are often very dark
+and gloomy, though, since wooden beams, rough stones and mortar are used
+in building, there is less of that ruined, half-decayed appearance so
+common in other Moorish towns where mud concrete is the material
+employed.
+
+As a commercial town Fez is a great depot for the trade of Barbary and
+wares brought from the east and south by caravans. The manufactures
+still carried on are those of yellow slippers of the famous Morocco
+leather, fine white woollen and silk haiks, of which it is justly proud,
+women's embroidered sashes, various coarse woollen cloths and blankets,
+cotton and silk handkerchiefs, silk cords and braids, swords and guns,
+saddlery, brass trays, Moorish musical instruments, rude painted pottery
+and coloured tiles. Until recent times the city had a monopoly of the
+manufacture of Fez caps, for it was supposed that the dye which imparts
+the dull crimson hue of these caps could not be procured elsewhere; they
+are now, however, made both in France and Turkey. The dye is obtained
+from the juice of a berry which grows in large quantities near the town,
+and is also used in the dyeing of leather. Some gold ornaments are made,
+the gold being brought from the interior by caravans which trade
+regularly with Timbuktu.
+
+As in other capitals each trade has a district or street devoted chiefly
+to its activities. Old Fez is the business portion of the town, new Fez
+being occupied principally by government quarters and the Jews' mellah.
+The tradesman usually sits cross-legged in a corner of his shop with his
+goods so arranged that he can reach most of them without moving.
+
+In the early days of Mahommedan rule in Morocco, Fez was the seat of
+learning and the empire's pride. Its schools of religion, philosophy and
+astronomy enjoyed a great reputation in Africa and also in southern
+Europe, and were even attended by Christians. On the expulsion of the
+Moors from Spain, refugees of all kinds flocked to Fez, and brought with
+them some knowledge of arts, sciences and manufactures, and thither
+flocked students to make use of its extensive libraries. But its glories
+were brief, and though still "the university town" of Morocco, it
+retains but a shadow of its greatness. Its library, estimated by Gerhard
+Rohlfs in 1861 to contain 5000 volumes, is open on Fridays, and any Moor
+of known respectability may borrow volumes on getting an order and
+signing a receipt for them. There are about 1500 students who read at
+the Karueein. They pay no rents, but buy the keys of the rooms from the
+last occupants, selling them again on leaving.
+
+The Karueein is celebrated as the largest mosque in Africa, but it is by
+no means the most magnificent. On account of the vast area covered, the
+roof, supported by three hundred and sixty-six pillars of stone, appears
+very low. The side chapel for services for the dead contains twenty-four
+pillars. All these columns support horse-shoe arches, on which the roof
+is built, long vistas of arches being seen from each of the eighteen
+doors of the mosque. The large lamp is stated to weigh 1763 lb. and to
+have 509 lights, but it is very seldom lit. The total number of lights
+in the Karueein is given as seventeen hundred, and they are said to
+require 3-1/2 cwt. of oil for one filling. The mosque of Mulai Idris,
+built by the founder of Fez about the year 810, is considered so sacred
+that the streets which approach its entrance are forbidden to Jews,
+Christians or four-footed beasts. The sanctity of the shrine in
+particular is esteemed very great, and this accounts for the crowds
+which daily flock to it. The Tumiat door leading to it was once very
+fine, but is now much faded. Opposite to it is a refuge for friendless
+sharifas--the female descendants of Mahomet--built by Mohammed XVII.
+
+It is believed that the foundation stone of Fez was laid in 808 by Idris
+II. Since then its history has been chequered, as it was successfully
+besieged no fewer than eight times in the first five hundred years of
+its existence, yet only once knew foreign masters, when in 1554 the
+Turks took possession of it without a siege and held it for a short
+time. Fez became the chief residence of the Filali dynasty, who obtained
+possession of the town in 1649 (see further MOROCCO: _History_).
+
+The population has been very varyingly estimated; probably the
+inhabitants number under one hundred thousand, even when the court is in
+residence.
+
+  See H. Gaillard, _Une Ville de l'Islam. Fes_ (Paris, 1905); C.
+  Rene-Leclerc, "Le commerce et l'industrie a Fez" in _Renseignements
+  col. comite afrique francaise_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+FEZZAN (the ancient _Phazania_, or country of the Garamantes), a region
+of the Sahara, forming a "kaimakamlik" of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripoli
+(q.v.). Its frontiers, ill-defined, run from Bonjem, within 50 m. of the
+Mediterranean on the north, south-westward to the Akakus range of hills,
+which separates Fezzan from Ghat, thence eastward for over 400 m., and
+then turn north and west to Bonjem again, embracing an area of about
+156,000 sq. m.
+
+_Physical Features._--The general form of the country is determined by
+the ranges of hills, including the Jebel-es-Suda (highest peak about
+4000 ft.), the Haruj-el-Aswad and the Haruj-el-Abiad, which between 14
+deg. and 19 deg. E. and 27 deg. and 29 deg. N. form the northern edge of
+a broad desert plateau, and shut off the northern region draining to the
+Mediterranean from the depressions in which lie the oases of Fezzan
+proper in the south. The central depression of Hofra ("ditch"), as it is
+called, lies in about 26 deg. N. It does not form a continuous fertile
+tract, but consists of a monotonous sandy expanse somewhat more thickly
+studded with oases than the surrounding wastes. The Hofra at its lowest
+part is not more than 600 ft. above the sea-level, and in this hollow is
+situated the capital Murzuk. It has a general east to west direction.
+North-west of the Hofra is a long narrow valley, the Wadi-el-Gharbi,
+which trends north-east and is the most fertile district of Fezzan. It
+contains several perennial springs and lake-like basins. One of these
+basins, the saline Bahr-el-Dud ("Sea of Worms"), has an extent of 600
+sq. m., and is in places 26 ft. deep. Southwards the Hofra rises to a
+height of 2000 ft., and in this direction lies the oasis of Gatron,
+followed by Tejerri on the verge of the desert, which marks the southern
+limit of the date and the northern of the dum palm. Beyond Tejerri the
+Saharan plateau rises continuously to the Tibesti highlands. (See
+further TRIPOLI.)
+
+_Climate._--The average temperature of Murzuk was found by Rohlfs to be
+70 deg. F. Frost is not uncommon in the winter months. The climate is a
+very regular one, and is in general healthy, the dryness of the air in
+summer making the heat more bearable than on the sea coast. An almost
+perpetual blue sky overhangs the desert, and the people of Fezzan are so
+unaccustomed to and so ill-prepared for wet weather that, as in Tuat and
+Tidikelt, they pray to be spared from rain. Water is found almost
+everywhere at small depths.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--The date-palm is the characteristic tree of Fezzan,
+and constitutes the chief wealth of the land. Many different kinds of
+date-palms are found in the oases: in that of Murzuk alone more than 30
+varieties are counted, the most esteemed being named the Tillis, Tuati
+and Auregh. In all Fezzan the date is the staple food, not only for men,
+but for camels, horses and dogs. Even the stones of the fruit are
+softened and given to the cattle. The huts of the poorer classes are
+entirely made of date-palm leaves, and the more substantial habitations
+consist chiefly of the same material. The produce of the tree is small,
+100 full-grown trees yielding only about 40 cwt. of dates. Besides the
+date there are numerous olive, fig and almond trees. Various grains are
+cultivated. Wheat and barley are sown in winter, and in spring, summer
+and autumn several kinds of durra, especially ksob and gafoli. Cotton
+flourishes, is perennial for six or seven years, and gives large pods of
+moderate length of staple.
+
+There are no large carnivora in Fezzan. In the uninhabited oases
+gazelles and antelopes are occasionally found. The most important animal
+is the camel, of which there are two varieties, the Tebu or Sudan camel
+and the Arabian, differing very much in size, form and capabilities.
+Horses and cattle are not numerous. Among birds are ostriches, falcons,
+vultures, swallows and ravens; in summer wild pigeons and ducks are
+numerous, but in winter they seek a warmer climate. There are no
+remarkable insects or snakes. A species of _Artemia_ or brine shrimp,
+about a quarter of an inch in length, of a colour resembling the bright
+hue of the gold fish, is fished for with cotton nets in the "Sea of
+Worms," and mixed with dates and kneaded into a paste, which has the
+taste and smell of salt herring, is considered a luxury by the people of
+Fezzan.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The total population is estimated at between 50,000 and
+80,000. The inhabitants are a mixed people, derived from the surrounding
+Teda and Bornu on the south, Tuareg of the plateaus on the west, Berbers
+and Arabs from the north. The primitive inhabitants, called by their
+Arab conquerors Berauna, are believed to have been of Negro origin. They
+no longer persist as a distinct people. In colour the present
+inhabitants vary from black to white, but the prevailing hue of skin is
+a Malay-like yellow, the features and woolly hair being Negro. The chief
+languages are the Kanuri or Bornu language and Arabic. Many understand
+Targish, the Teda and the Hausa tongues. If among such a mixed people
+there can be said to be any national language, it is that of Bornu,
+which is most widely understood and spoken. The people of Sokna, north
+of the Jebel-es-Suda, have a peculiar Berber dialect which Rohlfs found
+to be very closely allied to that of Ghadames. The men wear a haik or
+barakan like those of Tripoli, and a fez; short hose, and a large loose
+shirt called mansaria, with red or yellow slippers, complete their
+toilet. Yet one often sees the large blue or white _tobe_ of Bornu, and
+the _litham_ or shawl-muffler of the Tuareg, wound round the mouth to
+keep out the blown sand of the desert. The women, who so long as they
+are young have very plump forms, and who are generally small, are more
+simply dressed, as a rule, in the barakan, wound round their bodies;
+they seldom wear shoes, but generally have sandals made of palm leaf.
+Like the Arab women they load arms and legs with heavy metal rings,
+which are of silver among the more wealthy. The hair, thickly greased
+with butter, soon catching the dust which forms a crust over it, is done
+up in numberless little plaits round the head, in the same fashion as in
+Bornu and the Hausa countries. Children run about naked until they
+attain the age of puberty, which comes very early, for mothers of ten or
+twelve years of age are not uncommon. The Fezzani are of a gay
+disposition, much given to music and dancing.
+
+_Towns and Trade._--Murzuk, the present capital, which is in telegraphic
+communication with the town of Tripoli, lies in the western corner of
+the Hofra depression, in 25 deg. 55' N. and 14 deg. 10' E. It was
+founded about 1310, about which time the _kasbah_ or citadel was built.
+The Turks repaired it, as well as the town-wall, which has, however,
+again fallen into a ruinous condition. Murzuk, which had in 1906 some
+3000 inhabitants, is cut in two by a wide street, the _dendal_. The
+citadel and most of the houses are built of salt-saturated dried mud.
+Sokna, about midway between Tripoli and Murzuk, situated on a great
+gravel plain north of the Suda range, has a population of about 2500.
+
+Garama (Jerma-el-Kedima), the capital under the Garamantes and the
+Romans, was in the Wadi-el-Gharbi. It was a flourishing town at the time
+of the Arab conquest but is now deserted. Among the ruins is a
+well-preserved stone monument marking the southern limit of the Roman
+dominions in this part of Africa. The modern Jerma is a small place a
+little north of the site of Garama. Zuila, the capital under the Arabs,
+lies in a depression called the Sherguia east of Murzuk on the most
+direct caravan route to Barca and Egypt. Of Traghen, the capital under
+the Nesur dynasty, which was on the same caravan route and between Zuila
+and Murzuk, little besides the ruined kasbah remains.
+
+Placed roughly midway between the countries of the central Sudan and
+Tripoli, Fezzan serves as a depot for caravans crossing the Sahara; its
+commerce is unimportant. Its most important export is that of dates.
+Slave dealing, formerly the most lucrative occupation of the people, is
+moribund owing to the stoppage of slave raiding by the European
+governments in their Sudan territories.
+
+_History._--The country formed part of the territory of the Garamantes,
+described by Herodotus as a very powerful people. Attempts have been
+made to identify the Garamantes with the Berauna of the Arabs of the 7th
+century, and to the period of the Garamantes Duveyrier assigns the
+remains of remarkable hydraulic works, and certain tombs and rock
+sculptures--indications, it is held, of a Negro civilization of ancient
+date which existed in the northern Sahara. The Garamantes, whether of
+Libyan or Negro origin, had certainly a considerable degree of
+civilization when in the year 19 B.C. they were conquered by the
+proconsul L. Cornelius Balbus Minor and their country added to the Roman
+empire. By the Romans it was called Phazania, whence the present name
+Fezzan. After the Vandal invasion Phazania appears to have regained
+independence and to have been ruled by a Berauna dynasty. At this time
+the people were Christians, but in 666 the Arabs conquered the country
+and all traces of Christianity seem speedily to have disappeared.
+Subject at first to the caliphs, an independent Arab dynasty, that of
+the Beni Khattab, obtained power early in the 10th century. In the 13th
+century the country came under the rule of the king of Kanem (Bornu),
+but soon afterwards the Nesur, said to have been a native or Berauna
+dynasty, were in power. More probably the Nesur were hereditary
+governors originally appointed by the rulers of Kanem. In the 14th
+century the Nesur were conquered and dethroned by an Arab tribe, that of
+Khorman, who reduced the people of Fezzan to a state of slavery, a
+position from which they were rescued about the middle of the 16th
+century by a sherif of Morocco, Montasir-b.-Mahommed, who founded the
+dynasty of Beni Mahommed. This dynasty, which came into frequent
+conflict with the Turks, who had about the same time that Montasir
+secured Fezzan established themselves in Tripoli, gradually extended its
+borders as far as Sokna in the north. It was the Beni Mahommed who chose
+Murzuk as their capital. They became intermittently tributary to the
+pasha of Tripoli, but within Fezzan the power of the sultans was
+absolute. They maintained a body-guard of mamelukes, mostly
+Europeans--Greeks, Genoese, or their immediate descendants. The annual
+tribute was paid to the pasha either in money or in gold, senna or
+slaves. The last of the Beni Mahommed sultans was killed in the vicinity
+of Traghen in 1811 by El-Mukkeni, one of the lieutenants of Yusef Pasha,
+the last sovereign but one of the independent Karamanli dynasty of
+Tripoli. El-Mukkeni now made himself sultan of Fezzan, and became
+notorious by his slaving expeditions into the central Sudan, in which he
+advanced as far as Bagirmi. In 1831, Abd-el-Jelil, a chief of the
+Walid-Sliman Arabs, usurped the sovereign authority. After a troublous
+reign of ten years he was slain in battle by a Turkish force under Bakir
+Bey, and Fezzan was added to the Turkish empire. Towards the end of the
+19th century the Turks, alarmed at the increase of French influence in
+the neighbouring countries, reinforced their garrison in Fezzan. The
+kaimakamlik is said to yield an annual revenue of L6000 only to the
+Tripolitan treasury.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The most notable of the European travellers who have
+  visited Fezzan, and to whose works reference should be made for more
+  detailed information regarding it, are, taking them in the order of
+  date, as follows: F. Hornemann, 1798; G.F. Lyon, 1819; D. Denham, H.
+  Clapperton and W. Oudney, 1822; J. Richardson, 1845; H. Barth,
+  1850-1855; E. Vogel, 1854; H. Duveyrier, 1859-1861; M. von Beurmann,
+  1862; G. Rohlfs, 1865; G. Nachtigal, 1869; P.L. Monteil, 1892; H.
+  Vischer, 1906. Nachtigal's _Sahara and Sudan_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879),
+  gathers up much of the information in earlier works, and a list of the
+  Beni Mahommed sovereigns is given in A.M.H.J. Stokvis, _Manuel
+  d'histoire_, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888), p. 471. Miss Tinne (q.v.), who
+  travelled with Nachtigal as far as Murzuk, was shortly afterwards
+  murdered at the Sharaba wells on the road to Ghat.
+
+
+
+
+FIACRE, SAINT (Celt. _Fiachra_), an anchorite of the 7th century, of
+noble Irish descent. We have no information concerning his life in his
+native country. His _Acta_, which have scarcely any historical value,
+relate that he left Ireland, and came to France with his companions. He
+approached St Faro, the bishop of Meaux, to whom he made known his
+desire to live a life of solitude in the forest. St Faro assigned him a
+spot called Prodilus (Brodolium), the modern Breuil, in the province of
+Brie. There St Fiacre built a monastery in honour of the Holy Virgin,
+and to it added a small house for guests, to which he himself withdrew.
+Here he received St Chillen (? Killian), who was returning from a
+pilgrimage to Rome, and here he remained until his death, having
+acquired a great reputation for miracles. His remains rested for a long
+time in the place which he had sanctified. In 1568, at the time of the
+religious troubles, they were transferred to the cathedral of Meaux,
+where his shrine may still be seen in the sacristy. Various relics of St
+Fiacre were given to princes and great personages. His festival is
+celebrated on the 30th of August. He is the patron of Brie, and
+gardeners invoke him as their protector. French hackney-coaches received
+the name of _fiacre_ from the Hotel St Fiacre, in the rue St Martin,
+Paris, where one Sauvage, who was the first to provide cabs for hire,
+kept his vehicles.
+
+  See _Acta Sanctorum_, Augusti vi. 598-620; J. O'Hanlon, _Lives of the
+  Irish Saints_, viii. 421-447 (Dublin, 1875-1904); J.C. O'Meagher,
+  "Saint Fiacre de la Brie," in _Proceedings of the Royal Irish
+  Academy_, 3rd series, ii. 173-176.     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+FIARS PRICES, in the law of Scotland, the average prices of each of the
+different sorts of grain grown in each county, as fixed annually by the
+sheriff, usually after the verdict of a jury; they serve as a rule for
+ascertaining the value of the grain due to feudal superiors, to the
+clergy or to lay proprietors of teinds, to landlords as a part or the
+whole of their rents and in all cases where the price of grain has not
+been fixed by the parties. It is not known when or how the practice of
+"striking the fiars," as it is called, originated. It probably was first
+used to determine the value of the grain rents and duties payable to the
+crown. In confirmation of this view it seems that at first the duty of
+the sheriffs was merely to make a return to the court of exchequer of
+the prices of grain within their counties, the court itself striking the
+fiars; and from an old case it appears that the fiars were struck above
+the true prices, being regarded rather as punishments to force the
+king's tenants to pay their rents than as the proper equivalent of the
+grain they had to pay. Co-existent, however, with these fiars, which
+were termed sheriffs' fiars, there was at an early period another class
+called commissaries' fiars, by which the values of teinds were
+regulated. They have been traced back to the Reformation, and were under
+the management of the commissary or consistorial courts, which then took
+the place of the bishops and their officials. They have now been long
+out of use, but they were perhaps of greater antiquity than the
+sheriffs' fiars, and the model upon which these were instituted. In 1723
+the court of session passed an Act of Sederunt for the purpose of
+regulating the procedure in fiars courts. Down to that date the practice
+of striking the fiars was by no means universal over Scotland; and even
+in those counties into which it had been introduced, there was, as the
+preamble of the act puts it, "a general complaint that the said fiars
+are struck and given out by the sheriffs without due care and inquiry
+into the current and just prices." The act in consequence provided that
+all sheriffs should summon annually, between the 4th and the 20th of
+February, a competent number of persons, living in the shire, of
+experience in the prices of grain within its bounds, and that from these
+they should choose a jury of fifteen, of whom at least eight were to be
+heritors; that witnesses and other evidence as to the price of grain
+grown in the county, especially since the 1st of November preceding
+until the day of inquiry, were to be brought before the jury, who might
+also proceed on "their own proper knowledge"; that the verdict was to be
+returned and the sentence of the sheriff pronounced by the 1st of March;
+and further, where custom or expediency recommended it, the sheriff was
+empowered to fix fiars of different values according to the different
+qualities of the grain. It cannot be said that this act has remedied all
+the evils of which it complained. The propriety of some of its
+provisions has been questioned, and the competency of the court to pass
+it has been doubted, even by the court itself. Its authority has been
+entirely disregarded in one county--Haddingtonshire--where the fiars are
+struck by the sheriff alone, without a jury; and when this practice was
+called in question the court declined to interfere, observing that the
+fiars were better struck in Haddingtonshire than anywhere else. The
+other sheriffs have in the main followed the act, but with much variety
+of detail, and in many instances on principles the least calculated to
+reach the true average prices. Thus in some counties the averages are
+taken on the number of transactions, without regard to the quantities
+sold. In one case, in 1838, the evidence was so carelessly collected
+that the second or inferior barley fiars were 2s. 4d. higher than the
+first. Formerly the price was struck by the boll, commonly the
+Linlithgowshire boll; now the imperial quarter is always used.
+
+  The origin of the plural word fiars (feors, feers, fiers) is
+  uncertain. Jamieson, in his _Dictionary_, says that it comes from the
+  Icelandic _fe_, wealth; Paterson derives it from an old French word
+  _feur_, an average; others connect it with the Latin _forum_ (i.e.
+  market). The _New English Dictionary_ accepts the two latter
+  connexions. On the general subject of fiars prices see Paterson's
+  _Historical Account of the Fiars in Scotland_ (Edin., 1852); Connell,
+  _On Tithes_; Hunter's _Landlord and Tenant_.
+
+
+
+
+FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. _fibra_, apparently
+connected either with _filum_, thread, or _findere_, to split), the
+general term for certain structural components of animal and vegetable
+tissue utilized in manufactures, and in respect of such uses, divided
+for the sake of classification into textile, papermaking, brush and
+miscellaneous fibres.
+
+I. _Textile Fibres_ are mostly products of the organic world, elaborated
+in their elongated form to subserve protective functions in animal life
+(as wool and epidermal hairs, &c.) or as structural components of
+vegetable tissues (flax, hemp and wood cells). It may be noted that the
+inorganic world provides an exception to this general statement in the
+fibrous mineral asbestos (q.v.), which is spun or twisted into coarse
+textiles. Other silicates are also transformed by artificial processes
+into fibrous forms, such as "glass," which is fused and drawn or spun to
+a continuous fibre, and various "slags" which, in the fused state, are
+transformed into "slag wool." Lastly, we note that a number of metals
+are drawn down to the finest dimensions, in continuous lengths, and
+these are woven into cloth or gauze, such metallic cloths finding
+valuable applications in the arts. Certain metals in the form of fine
+wire are woven into textile fabrics used as dress materials. Such
+exceptional applications are of insignificant importance, and will not
+be further considered in this article.
+
+The common characteristics of the various forms of matter comprised in
+the widely diversified groups of textile fibres are those of the
+colloids. Colloidal matter is intrinsically devoid of structure, and in
+the mass may be regarded as homogeneous; whereas crystalline matter in
+its proximate forms assumes definite and specific shapes which express a
+complex of internal stresses. The properties of matter which condition
+its adaptation to structural functions, first as a constituent of a
+living individual, and afterwards as a textile fibre, are homogeneous
+continuity of substance, with a high degree of interior cohesion, and
+associated with an irreducible minimum of elasticity or extensibility.
+The colloids show an infinite diversity of variations in these essential
+properties: certain of them, and notably cellulose (q.v.), maintain
+these characteristics throughout a cycle of transformations such as
+permit of their being brought into a soluble plastic form, in which
+condition they may be drawn into filaments in continuous length. The
+artificial silks or lustra-celluloses are produced in this way, and have
+already taken an established position as staple textiles. For a more
+detailed account of these products see CELLULOSE.
+
+The animal fibres are composed of nitrogenous colloids of which the
+typical representatives are the albumens, fibrines and gelatines. They
+are of highly complex constitution and their characteristics have only
+been generally investigated. The vegetable fibre substances are
+celluloses and derivatives of celluloses, also typically colloidal
+bodies. The broad distinction between the two groups is chiefly evident
+in their relationship to alkalis. The former group are attacked,
+resolved and finally dissolved, under conditions of action by no means
+severe. The celluloses, on the other hand, and therefore the vegetable
+fibres, are extraordinarily resistant to the action of alkalis.
+
+The animal fibres are relatively few in number but of great industrial
+importance. They occur as detached units and are of varying dimensions;
+sheep's wool having lengths up to 36 in., the fleeces being shorn for
+textile uses at lengths of 2 to 16 in.; horse hair is used in lengths of
+4 to 24 in., whereas the silks may be considered as being produced in
+continuous length, "reeled silks" having lengths measured in hundreds of
+yards, but "spun silks" are composed of silk fibres purposely broken up
+into short lengths.
+
+The vegetable fibres are extremely numerous and of very diversified
+characteristics. They are individualized units only in the case of seed
+hairs, of which cotton is by far the most important; with this exception
+they are elaborated as more or less complex aggregates. The bast tissues
+of dicotyledonous annuals furnish such staple materials as flax, hemp,
+rhea or ramie and jute. The bast occurs in a peripheral zone, external
+to the wood and beneath the cortex, and is mechanically separated from
+the stem, usually after steeping, followed by drying.
+
+The commercial forms of these fibres are elongated filaments composed of
+the elementary bast cells (ultimate fibres) aggregated into bundles. The
+number of these as any part of the filament may vary from 3 to 20 (see
+figs.). In the processes of refinement preparatory to the spinning
+(hackling, scutching) and in the spinning process itself, the
+fibre-bundles are more or less subdivided, and the divisibility of the
+bundles is an element in the textile value of the raw material. But the
+value of the material is rather determined by the length of the ultimate
+fibres (for, although not the spinning unit, the tensile strength of the
+yarn is ultimately limited by the cohesion of these fibres), qualified
+by the important factor of uniformity.
+
+Thus, the ultimate fibre of flax has a length of 25 to 35 mm.; jute, on
+the other hand, 2 to 3 mm.; and this disparity is an essential condition
+of the difference of values of these fibres. Rhea or ramie, to cite
+another typical instance, has an ultimate fibre of extraordinary length,
+but of equally conspicuous variability, viz. from 50 to 200 mm. The
+variability is a serious impediment in the preparation of the material
+for spinning and this defect, together with low drawing or spinning
+quality, limits the applications of this fibre to the lower counts or
+grades of yarn.
+
+The monocotyledons yield still more complex fibre aggregates, which are
+the fibro-vascular bundles of leaves and stems. These complex structures
+as a class do not yield to the mechanical treatment by which the bast
+fibres are subdivided, nor is there any true spinning quality such as is
+conditioned by bringing the ultimate fibres into play under the drawing
+process, which immediately precedes the twisting into yarn. Such
+materials are therefore only used for the coarsest textiles, such as
+string or rope. An exception to be noted in passing is to be found in
+the pine apple (_Ananassa Sativa_) the fibres of which are worked into
+yarns and cloth of the finest quality. The more important fibres of this
+class are manila, sisal, phormium. A heterogeneous mass of still more
+complex fibre aggregates, in many cases the entire stem (cereal straws,
+esparto), in addition to being used in plaited form, e.g. in hats,
+chairs, mats, constitute the staple raw material for paper
+manufacturers, requiring a severe chemical treatment for the separation
+of the ultimate fibres.
+
+In this class we must include the woods which furnish wood pulps of
+various classes and grades. Chemical processes of two types, (a) acid
+and (b) alkaline, are also employed in resolving the wood, and the
+resolution not only effects a complete isolation of the wood cells, but,
+by attacking the hydrolysable constituents of the wood substance
+(lignocellulose), the cells are obtained in the form of cellulose. These
+cellulose pulps are known in commerce as "sulphite pulps" and "soda
+pulps" respectively. In addition to these raw materials or "half stuffs"
+the paper-maker employs the rejecta of the vegetable and textile
+industries, scutching, spinning and cloth wastes of all kinds, which are
+treated by chemical (boiling) and mechanical means (beating) to separate
+the ultimate fibres and reduce them to the suitable dimensions (0.5-2.0
+mm.). These papermaking fibres have also to be reckoned with as textile
+raw materials, in view of a new and growing industry in "pulp yarns"
+(_Papierstoffgarn_), a coarse textile obtained by treating paper as
+delivered in narrow strips from the paper machine; the strips are
+reeled, dried to retain 30-40% moisture, and in this condition subjected
+to the twisting operation, which confers the cylindrical form and adds
+considerably to the strength of the fibrous strip. The following are the
+essential characteristics of the economically important fibres.
+
+_Animal._--A. Silk. (a) The true silks are produced by the _Bombyx
+Mori_, the worm feeding on the leaves of the mulberry. The fibre is
+extruded as a viscous liquid from the glands of the worm, and solidifies
+to a cylindrical thread. The cohesion of these threads in pairs gives to
+raw silk the form of a dual cylinder (Plate I. fig. 2). For textile
+purposes the thread is reeled from the cocoon, and several units, five
+and upwards, are brought together and suitably twisted. (b) The "Wild"
+silks are produced by a large variety of insects, of which the most
+important are the various species of Antherea, which yield the Tussore
+silks. These silks differ in form and composition from the true silks.
+While they consist of a "dual" thread, each unit of these is complex,
+being made up of a number of fibrillae. This unit thread is quadrangular
+in section, and of larger diameter than the true silk, the mean breadth
+being 0.052 mm., as compared with 0.018, the mean diameter of the true
+silks. The variations in structure as well as in dimensions are,
+however, very considerable.
+
+B. Epidermal hairs. Of these (a) wool, the epidermal protective covering
+of sheep, is the most important. The varying species of the animal
+produce wools of characteristic qualities, varying considerably in
+fineness, in length of staple, in composition and in spinning quality.
+Hence the classing of the fleeces or raw wool followed by the elaborate
+processes of selection, i.e. "sorting" and preparation, which precede
+the actual spinning or twisting of the yarn. These consist in entirely
+freeing the fibres and sorting them mechanically (combing, &c.),
+thereafter forming them into continuous lengths of parallelized units.
+This is followed by the spinning process which consists in a
+simultaneous drawing and twisting, and a continuous production of the
+yarn with the structural characteristics of worsted yarns. The shorter
+staple--from 5 to 25% of average fleeces--is prepared by the "carding"
+process for the spinning operation, in which drawing and twisting are
+simultaneous, the length spun being then wound up, and the process being
+consequently intermittent. This section of the industry is known as
+"woollen spinning" in contrast to the former or "_worsted_ spinning."
+
+(b) An important group of raw material closely allied to the wools are
+the epidermal hairs of the Angora goat (mohair), the llama, alpaca.
+Owing to their form and the nature of the substance of which they are
+composed, they possess more lustre than the wools. They present
+structural differences from sheep wools which influence the processes by
+which they are prepared or spun, and the character of the yarns; but the
+differences are only of subordinate moment.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  FIG. 1.--RAW SILK. _Bombyx mori_. Filament of bave, viewed in length.
+  X 110.
+
+  FIG. 2.--RAW SILK. _Bombyx mori_. Single fibres in transverse section
+  showing each fibre or "bave" as dual cylinder. X 235.
+
+  FIG. 3.--ARTIFICIAL "SILK." Lustra-cellulose viscose process, single
+  fibres in transverse section X 235. Normal type--polygon of 5
+  sides--with concave sides due to contact of the component units of
+  textile filament.
+
+  FIG. 4.--WOOL FIBRES. Australian merino viewed in length, X 235.
+  Surface imbrications--the structural cause of true felting properties.
+
+  FIG. 5.--FLAX STEM. _Linum usitatissimum_. Transverse section of stem,
+  X 235, showing bast fibres occupying central zone.
+
+  FIG. 6.--RAMIE. Section of bast region, X 235. Showing bast fibres
+  bundles but only slightly occurring as individuals.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  FIG. 7.--JUTE. Bast bundles. Section of bast region, X 235, showing
+  agglomerated bundles of bast fibre, each bundle representing a
+  spinning unit or filament.
+
+  FIG. 8.--MAIZE STEM. _Zea mais_. Fibro-vascular bundle in section. X
+  110, typical of monocotyledonous structure.
+
+  FIG. 9.--COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres in the length, X
+  110. Portions selected to show typical structural characteristics.
+
+  FIG. 10.--COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres--transverse
+  section, X 110. Note similarity of ramie to cotton and jute to flax.
+
+  FIG. 11.--ESPARTO. Cellulose. Ultimate fibres of paper making pulp.
+  Typical fusiform bast fibres. X 65.
+
+  FIG. 12.--SECTION OF HAND-MADE PAPER. X 110. Ultimate component fibres
+  disposed in every plane.]
+
+(c) Various animal hairs, such as those of the cow, camel and rabbit,
+are also employed; the latter is largely worked into the class of
+fabrics known as felts. In these the hairs are compacted together by
+taking advantage of the peculiarity of structure which causes the
+imbrications of the surface.
+
+(d) Horse hair is employed in its natural form as an individual filament
+or monofil.[1]
+
+_Vegetable Fibres._--The subjoined scheme of classification sets out the
+morphological structural characteristics of the vegetable fibres:--
+
+  Produced from
+
+  _Dicotyledons._      _Monocotyledons._
+
+  A. Seed hairs.       D. Fibro-vascular bundles.
+  B. Bast fibres.      E. Entire leaves and stems.
+  C. Bast aggregates.
+
+In the list of the more important fibrous raw materials subjoined, the
+capital letter immediately following the name refers the individual to
+its position in this classification. In reference to the important
+question of chemical composition and the actual nature of the fibre
+substance, it may be premised that the vegetable fibres are composed of
+cellulose, an important representative of the group of carbohydrates, of
+which the cotton fibre substance is the chemical prototype, mixed and
+combined with various derivatives belonging to the subgroups. (a)
+Carbohydrates. (b) Unsaturated compounds of benzenoid and furfuroid
+constitutions. (c) "Fat and wax" derivatives, i.e. groups belonging to
+the fatty series, and of higher molecular dimensions--of such compound
+celluloses the following are the prototypes:--
+
+(a) Cellulose combined and mixed with "pectic" bodies (i.e.
+pecto-celluloses), flax, rhea.
+
+(b) Cellulose combined with unsaturated groups or ligno-celluloses, jute
+and the woods.
+
+(c) Cellulose combined and mixed with higher fatty acids, alcohols,
+ethers, cuto-celluloses, protective epidermal covering of leaves.
+
+The letters a, b, c in the table below and following the capitals, which
+have reference to the structural basis of classification, indicate the
+main characteristics of the fibre substances. (See also CELLULOSE.)
+
+_Miscellaneous._--Various species of the family Palmaceae yield fibrous
+products of value, of which mention must be made of the following.
+_Raffia_, epidermal strips of the leaves of _Raphia ruffia_
+(Madagascar), _R. taedigera_ (Japan), largely employed as binder twine
+in horticulture, replacing the "bast" (linden) formerly employed.
+_Coir_, the fibrous envelope of the fruit of the _Cocos nucifera_,
+extensively used for matting and other coarse textiles. _Carludovica
+palmata_ (Central America) yields the raw material for Panama hats, the
+_Corypha australis_ (Australia) yields a similar product. The leaves of
+the date palm, _Phoenix dactylifera_, are employed locally in making
+baskets and mats, and the fibro-vascular bundles are isolated for
+working up into coarse twine and rope; similarly, the leaves of the
+_Elaeis guineensis_, the fruit of which yields the "palm oil" of
+commerce, yield a fibre which finds employment locally (Africa) for
+special purposes. _Chamaerops humilis_, the dwarf palm, yields the
+well-known "Crin d'Afrique." Locally (Algiers) it is twisted into ropes,
+but its more general use, in Europe, is in upholstery as a stuffing
+material. The cereal straws are used in the form of plait in the making
+of hats and mats. Esparto grass is also used in the making of coarse
+mats.
+
+The processes by which the fibres are transformed into textile fabrics
+are in the main determined by their structural features. The following
+are the distinctive types of treatment.
+
+A. The fibre is in virtually continuous lengths. The textile yarn is
+produced by assembling together the unit threads, which are wound
+together and suitably twisted (silk; artificial silk).
+
+
+  +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |                |    Botanical    |                            |                        |                                     |
+  |                |    Identity.    |     Country of Origin.     | Dimensions of Ultimate.|            Textile Uses.            |
+  |                | Genus and Order.|                            |                        |                                     |
+  +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |Cotton, A.a.    | Gossypium       |Tropical and subtropical    |12-40 mm. 0.019-0.025.  | Universal. Also as a raw material   |
+  |                | Malvaceae       |  countries                 |  Av. 28 mm.            |   in chemical industries, notably   |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   explosives, celluloid.            |
+  |Flax, B.a       | Linum           |Temperate (and subtropical) |6.60 mm. 0.011-0.025.   | General. Special effects in lustre  |
+  |                | Linaceae        |  countries, chiefly        |  Av. 28 mm.            |   damasks. In India and America     |
+  |                |                 |  European                  |                        |   plants grown for seed (linseed).  |
+  |Hemp, B.a       | Cannabis        |Temperate countries, chiefly|5-55 mm. 0.016-0.050.   | Coarser textiles, sail-cloth,       |
+  |                | Cannabineae     |  Europe                    |  Av. 22. mm. Av. 0.022 |   rope and twine.                   |
+  |Ramie, B.a.     | Boehmeria       |Tropical countries (some    |60-200 mm. 0.03-0.08.   | Coarse textiles. Cost of preparation|
+  |                | Urticaceae      |  temperate)                |  Av. 120 mm. Av. 0.050 |   for fine textiles prohibitive.    |
+  |Jute, B.b       | Corchorus       |Tropical countries, chiefly |1.5-5 mm. 0.020-0.025.  | Coarse textiles, chiefly "Hessians" |
+  |                | Tiliaceae       |  India                     |  Av. 2.5 mm. Av. 0.022 |   and sacking. "Line" spun yarns    |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   used in cretonne and furniture    |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   textiles.                         |
+  |      B.b       | Crotalaria      |India                       |4.0-12.0. 0.025-0.050.  | Twine and rope. Coarse textiles.    |
+  |                | Leguminosae     |                            |  Av. 7.5. Av. 0.022    |                                     |
+  |Hibiscus, B.b   | Hibiscus        |Tropical, chiefly India     |2-6 mm. 0.014-0.033.    | Coarse textiles. H. Elams has been  |
+  |                |                 |                            |  Av. 4 mm. Av. 0.021   |   extensively used in making mats.  |
+  |Sida, B.b       | Sida            |Tropical and subtropical    |1.5-4 mm. 0.013-0.02.   | Coarse textiles. Appears capable of |
+  |                | Malvaceae       |                            |  Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.015   |   substituting jute.                |
+  |Lime or         | Tilia           |European countries, chiefly |1.5 mm. 0.014-0.020.    | Matting and binder twine.           |
+  |  Linden,C.b    | Tiliaceae       |  Russia                    |  Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.016   |                                     |
+  |Mulberry, C     | Broussonetia    |Far East                    |5-31 mm. 0.02-0.04.     | Paper and paper cloths.             |
+  |                | Moraceae        |                            |  Av. 15 mm. Av. 0.03   |                                     |
+  |Monocotyledons--|                 |                            |                        |                                     |
+  |  Manila, D.    | Musa            |Tropical countries, chiefly |3-12 mm. 0.016-0.032.   | Twine and ropes. Produces papers    |
+  |                | Musaceae        |  Philippine Islands        |  Av. 6 mm. Av. 0.024   |   of special quality.               |
+  |  Sisal, D      | Agave           |Tropical countries, chiefly |1.5-4 mm. 0.020-0.032.  | Twine and ropes.                    |
+  |                | Amaryllideae    |   Central America          |  Av. 2.5. Av. 0.024    |                                     |
+  |                | Yucca           |       do.                  |0.5-6 mm. 0.01-0.02.    |           do.                       |
+  |                | Liliaceae       |                            |                        |                                     |
+  |                | Sansevieria     |East Indies, Ceylon, East   |1.5-6 mm. 0.015-0.026.  |           do.                       |
+  |                | Liliaceae       |  Africa                    |  Av. 3 mm. Av. 0.020   |                                     |
+  |  Phormium, D.  | Phormium tenax  |New Zealand                 |5.0-15 mm. 0.010-0.020. | Twine and ropes. Distinguished by   |
+  |                | Liliaceae       |                            |  Av. 9 mm. Av. 0.016   |   high yield of fibre from green    |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   leaf.                             |
+  |  Pine-apple, D.| Ananassa        |Tropical East and West      |3.0-9.0 mm. 0.004-0.008.| Textiles of remarkable fineness.    |
+  |                | Bromeliaceae    |  Indies                    |  Av. 5. Av. 0.006      |   Exceptional fineness of ultimate  |
+  |                |                 |                            |                        |   fibre.                            |
+  +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+
+B. The fibres in the form of units of variable short dimensions are
+treated by more or less elaborate processes of scutching, hackling,
+combing, with the aim of producing a mass of free parallelized units of
+uniform dimensions; these are then laid together and drawn into
+continuous bands of sliver and roving, which are finally drawn and
+twisted into yarns. In this group are comprised the larger number of
+textile products, such as cotton, wool, flax and jute, and it also
+includes at the other extreme the production of coarse textiles, such as
+twine and rope.
+
+C. The fibres of still shorter dimensions are treated in various ways
+for the production of a fabric in continuous length.
+
+The distinction of type of manufacturing processes in which the
+relatively short fibres are utilized, either as disintegrated units or
+comminuted long fibres, follows the lines of division into long and
+short fibres; the long fibres are worked into yarns by various
+processes, whereas the shorter fibres are agglomerated by both dry and
+wet processes to felted tissues or felts. It is obvious, however, that
+these distinctions do not constitute rigid dividing lines. Thus the
+principles involved in felting are also applied in the manipulation of
+long fibre fabrics. For instance, woollen goods are closed or shrunk by
+milling, the web being subjected to a beating or hammering treatment in
+an apparatus known as "the Stocks," or is continuously run through
+squeezing rollers, in weak alkaline liquids. Flax goods are "closed" by
+the process of beetling, a long-continued process of hammering, under
+which the ultimate fibres are more or less subdivided, and at the same
+time welded or incorporated together. As already indicated, paper, which
+is a web composed of units of short dimensions produced by deposition
+from suspension in water and agglomerated by the interlacing of the
+component fibres in all planes within the mass, is a species of textile.
+Further, whereas the silks are mostly worked up in the extreme lengths
+of the cocoon, there are various systems of spinning silk wastes of
+variable short lengths, which are similar to those required for spinning
+the fibres which occur naturally in the shorter lengths.
+
+The fibres thus enumerated as commercially and industrially important
+have established themselves as the result of a struggle for survival,
+and each embodies typical features of utility. There are innumerable
+vegetable fibres, many of which are utilized in the locality or region
+of their production, but are not available for the highly specialized
+applications of modern competitive industry to qualify for which a very
+complex range of requirements has to be met. These include primarily the
+factors of production and transport summed up in cost of production,
+together with the question of regularity of supply; structural
+characteristics, form and dimensions, including uniformity of ultimate
+unit and adaptability to standard methods of preparing and spinning,
+together with tenacity and elasticity, lustre. Lastly, composition,
+which determines the degree of resistance to chemical disintegrating
+influences as well as subsidiary questions of colour and relationship to
+colouring matters. The quest for new fibres, as well as modified methods
+of production of those already known, require critical investigation
+from the point of view of established practice. The present perspective
+outline of the group will be found to contain the elements of a grammar
+of the subject. But those who wish to pursue the matter will require to
+amplify this outlined picture by a study of the special treatises which
+deal with general principles, as well as the separate articles on the
+various fibres.
+
+_Analysis and Identification._--For the analysis of textile fabrics and
+the identification of component fibre, a special treatise must be
+consulted. The following general facts are to be noted as of importance.
+
+All animal fibres are effectively dissolved by 10% solution of caustic
+potash or soda. The fabric or material is boiled in this solution for 10
+minutes and exhaustively washed. Any residue will be vegetable or
+cellulose fibre. It must not be forgotten that the chemical properties
+of the fibre substances are modified more or less by association in
+combination with colouring matters and mordants. These may, in many
+cases, be removed by treatments which do not seriously modify the fibre
+substances.
+
+Wool is distinguished from silk by its relative resistance to the action
+of sulphuric acid. The cold concentrated acid rapidly dissolves silk as
+well as the vegetable fibres. The attack on wool is slow, and the
+epidermal scales of wool make their appearance. The true silks are
+distinguished from the wild silks by the action of concentrated
+hydrochloric acid in the cold, which reagent dissolves the former, but
+has only a slight effect on Tussore silk. After preliminary resolution
+by these group reagents, the fabric is subjected to microscopical
+analysis for the final identification of its component fibres (see H.
+Schlichter, _Journal Soc. Chem. Ind_., 1890, p. 241).
+
+A scheme for the commercial analysis or assay of vegetable fibres,
+originally proposed by the author,[2] and now generally adopted,
+includes the following operations:--
+
+  1. Determination of moisture.
+
+  2. Determination of ash left after complete ignition.
+
+  3. Hydrolysis:
+
+    (a) loss of weight after boiling the raw fibre with a 1% caustic
+      soda solution for five minutes;
+    (b) loss after boiling for one hour.
+
+  4. Determination of cellulose: the white residue after
+
+    (a) boiling for five minutes with 1% caustic soda,
+    (b) exposure to chlorine gas for one hour,
+    (c) boiling with basic sodium sulphite solution.
+
+  5. Mercerizing: the loss of weight after digestion with a 20% solution
+  of sodium hydrate for one hour in the cold.
+
+  6. Nitration: the weight of the product obtained after digestion with
+  a mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric and nitric acids for one hour
+  in the cold.
+
+  7. Acid purification: treatment of the raw fibre with 20% acetic acid
+  for one minute, the product being washed with water and alcohol, and
+  then dried.
+
+  8. Determination of the total carbon by combustion.
+
+II. _Papermaking._--The papermaking industry (see PAPER) employs as raw
+materials a large proportion of the vegetable fibre products already
+enumerated, and, for the reasons incidentally mentioned, they may be,
+and are, employed in a large variety of forms: in fact any fibrous
+material containing over 30% "cellulose" and yielding ultimate fibres of
+a length exceeding 1 mm. can be used in this industry. Most important
+staples are cotton and flax; these are known to the paper-maker as "rag"
+fibres, rags, i.e. cuttings of textile fabrics, new and old, being their
+main source of supply. These are used for writing and drawing papers. In
+the class of "printings" two of the most important staples are wood
+pulp, prepared by chemical treatment from both pine and foliage woods,
+and in England esparto cellulose, the cellulose obtained from esparto
+grass by alkali treatment; the cereal straws are also used and are
+resolved into cellulose by alkaline boiling followed by bleaching. In
+the class of "wrappings" and miscellaneous papers a large number of
+other materials find use, such as various residues of manufacturing and
+preparing processes, scutching wastes, ends of rovings and yarns, flax,
+hemp and manila rope waste, adansonia bast, and jute wastes, raw
+(cuttings) and manufactured (bagging). Other materials have been
+experimentally tried, and would no doubt come into use on their
+papermaking merits, but as a matter of fact the actually suitable raw
+materials are comprised in the list above enumerated, and are limited in
+number, through the influence of a number of factors of value or
+utility.
+
+III. _Brush Fibres, &c._--In addition to the textile industries there
+are manufactures which utilize fibres of both animal and vegetable
+character. The most important of these is brush-making. The familiar
+brushes of everyday use are extremely diversified in form and texture.
+The supplies of animal fibres are mainly drawn from the badger, hog,
+bear, sable, squirrel and horse. These fibres and bristles cover a large
+range of effects. Brushes required for cleansing purposes are composed
+of fibres of a more or less hard and resilient character, such as horse
+hairs, and other tail hairs and bristles. For painting work brushes of
+soft quality are employed, graduating for fine work into the extreme
+softness of the "camel hair" pencil. Of vegetable fibres the following
+are used in this industry. The _Caryota urens_ furnishes the Kittul
+fibre, obtained from the base of the leaf stalks. Piassava is obtained
+from the _Attalea funifera_, also from the _Leopoldina piassaba_
+(Brazil). Palmyra fibre is obtained from the _Borassus flabellifer_.
+These are all members of the natural order of the Palmaceae. Mexican
+fibre, or Istle, is obtained from the agave. The fibre known as Whisk,
+largely used for dusting brushes, is obtained from various species of
+the Gramineae; the "Mexican Whisk" from _Epicampeas macroura_; and
+"Italian Whisk" from _Andropogon_. The _coir_ fibre mentioned above in
+connexion with coarse textiles is also extensively used in brush-making.
+Aloe and Agave fibres in their softer forms are also used for
+plasterers' brushes. Many of the whitewashes and cleansing solutions
+used in house decoration are alkaline in character, and for such uses
+advantage is taken of the specially resistant character of the cellulose
+group of materials.
+
+_Stuffing and Upholstery._--Another important use for fibrous materials
+is for filling or stuffing in connexion with the seats and cushions in
+upholstery. In the large range of effects required, a corresponding
+number and variety of products find employment. One of the most
+important is the floss or seed-hair of the _Eriodendron anfractuosum_,
+known as Kapok, the use of which in Europe was created by the Dutch
+merchants who drew their supplies from Java. The fibre is soft, silky
+and elastic, and maintains its elasticity in use. Many fibres when used
+in the mass show, on the other hand, a tendency to become matted and
+compressed in use, and to restore them to their original state the fibre
+requires to be removed and subjected to a teasing or carding process.
+This defect limits the use of other "flosses" or seed hairs in
+competition with Kapok. Horse hair is extensively used in this industry,
+as are also wool flocks and other short animal hairs and wastes.
+
+_Hats and Matting._--For these manufactures a large range of the fibrous
+products above described are employed, chiefly in their natural or raw
+state.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The list of works appended comprises only a small
+  fraction of the standard literature of the subject, but they are
+  sufficiently representative to enable the specialist, by referring to
+  them, to cover the subject-matter. F.H. Bowman, _The Structure of the
+  Wood Fibre_ (1885), _The Structure of Cotton Fibre_ (1882); Cross,
+  Bevan and King, _Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances_ (London, 1887);
+  C.F. Cross, _Report on Miscellaneous Fibres_, Colonial Indian
+  Exhibition, 1886 (London, 1887); Cross and Bevan, _Cellulose,
+  Researches on Cellulose_, i. and ii. (London, 1895-1905); C.R. Dodge,
+  _A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World_ (Report
+  No. 9, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1897); von Hohmel, _Die
+  Mikroskopie der technisch verwendeten Faserstoffe_ (Leipzig, 1905);
+  J.J. Hummel, _The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics_ (London, 1885); J.M.
+  Matthews, _The Textile Fibres, their Physical, Microscopical and
+  Chemical Properties_ (New York, 1904); H. Muller, _Die Pflanzenfaser_
+  (Braunschweig, 1877); H. Schlichter, "The Examination of Textile
+  Fibres and Fabrics" (_Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind._, 1890, 241); M.
+  Vetillart, _Etudes sur les fibres vegetales textiles_ (Paris, 1876);
+  Sir T.H. Wardle, _Silk and Wild Silks_, original memoirs in connexion
+  with Col. Ind. Ex., 1886, Jubilee Ex. Manchester, 1887; Sir G. Watt,
+  _Dictionary of Economic Products of India_ (London, 1891); Wiesner,
+  _Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs_ (Leipzig, 1873); O.N. Witt,
+  _Chemische Technologie der Gespinnstfasern_ (Braunschweig, 1888); _Kew
+  Bulletin_; _The Journal of the Imperial Institute_; _The Journal of
+  the Society of Arts_; W.I. Hannam, _The Textile Fibres of Commerce_
+  (London, 1902); J. Jackson, _Commercial Botany_; J. Zipser, _Die
+  Textilen Rohmaterialien_ (Wien, 1895); F. Zetzsche, _Die wichtigsten
+  Faserstoffe der europaischen Industrie_ (Leipzig, 1895).
+       (C. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See also ALPACA, FELT, MOHAIR, SHODDY and WOOL.
+
+  [2] Col. Ind. Exhibition, 1886, _Miscellaneous Reports_.
+
+
+
+
+FIBRIN, or FIBRINE, a protein formed by the action of the so-called
+fibrin-ferment on fibrinogen, a constituent of the blood-plasma of all
+vertebrates. This change takes place when blood leaves the arteries, and
+the fibrin thus formed occasions the clotting which ensues (see BLOOD).
+To obtain pure coagulated fibrin it is best to heat blood-plasma
+(preferably that of the horse) to 56 deg. C. The usual method of beating
+a blood-clot with twigs and removing the filamentous fibrin which
+attaches itself to them yields a very impure product containing
+haemoglobin and much globulin; moreover, it is very difficult to purify.
+Fibrin is a very voluminous, tough, strongly elastic, jelly-like
+substance; when denaturalized by heat, alcohol or salts, it behaves as
+any other coagulated albumin.
+
+
+
+
+FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally HARTMANN) VON (1797-1879), German
+philosopher, son of J.G. Fichte, was born at Jena on the 18th of July
+1797. Having held educational posts at Saarbrucken and Dusseldorf, in
+1836 he became extraordinary professor of philosophy at Bonn, and in
+1840 full professor. In 1842 he received a call to Tubingen, retired in
+1867, and died at Stuttgart on the 8th of August 1879. The most
+important of his comprehensive writings are: _System der Ethik_
+(1850-1853), _Anthropologie_ (1856, 3rd ed. 1876), _Psychologie_
+(1864-1873), _Die theistische Weltansicht_ (1873). In 1837 he had
+founded the _Zeitschrift fur Philosophie_ as an organ of his views, more
+especially on the subject of the philosophy of religion, where he was in
+alliance with C.H. Weisse; but, whereas Weisse thought that the Hegelian
+structure was sound in the main, and that its imperfections might be
+mended, Fichte held it to be incurably defective, and spoke of it as a
+"masterpiece of erroneous consistency or consistent error." Fichte's
+general views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he
+advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain
+inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is strengthened
+by his predominantly historical treatment of problems, his desire to
+include divergent systems within his own, and his conciliatory tone. His
+philosophy is an attempt to reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism
+(Herbart) by means of theism (Leibnitz). He attacks Hegelianism for its
+pantheism, its lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition
+of the demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be
+regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose nature it
+is that he should realize himself in finite persons. These persons are
+objects of God's love, and he arranges the world for their good. The
+direct connecting link between God and man is the "genius," a higher
+spiritual individuality existing in man by the side of his lower,
+earthly individuality. Fichte, in short, advocates an ethical theism,
+and his arguments might easily be turned to account by the apologist of
+Christianity. In his conception of finite personality he recurs to
+something like the monadism of Leibnitz. His insistence on moral
+experience is connected with his insistence on personality. One of the
+tests by which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is the
+adequateness with which they interpret moral experience. The same reason
+that made him depreciate Hegel made him praise Krause (panentheism) and
+Schleiermacher, and speak respectfully of English philosophy. It is
+characteristic of Fichte's almost excessive receptiveness that in his
+latest published work, _Der neuere Spiritualismus_ (1878), he supports
+his position by arguments of a somewhat occult or theosophical cast, not
+unlike those adopted by F.W.H. Myers. He also edited the complete works
+and literary correspondence of his father, including his life.
+
+  See R. Eucken, "Zur Erinnerung I. H. F.," in _Zeitschrift fur
+  Philosophie_, ex. (1897); C.C. Scherer, _Die Gotteslehre von I. H. F._
+  (1902); article by Karl Hartmann in _Allegemeine deutsche Biographie_
+  xlviii. (1904). Some of his works were translated by J.D. Morell under
+  the title of _Contributions to Mental Philosophy_ (1860).
+
+
+
+
+FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814), German philosopher, was born at
+Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the 19th of May 1762. His father, a
+ribbon-weaver, was a descendant of a Swedish soldier who (in the service
+of Gustavus Adolphus) was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there.
+The family was distinguished for piety, uprightness, and solidity of
+character. With these qualities Fichte himself combined a certain
+impetuosity and impatience probably derived from his mother, a woman of
+a somewhat querulous and jealous disposition.
+
+At a very early age the boy showed remarkable mental vigour and moral
+independence. A fortunate accident which brought him under the notice of
+a neighbouring nobleman, Freiherr von Miltitz, was the means of
+procuring him a more excellent education than his father's circumstances
+would have allowed. He was placed under the care of Pastor Krebel at
+Niederau. After a short stay at Meissen he was entered at the celebrated
+school at Pforta, near Naumburg. In 1780 he entered the university of
+Jena as a student of theology. He supported himself mainly by private
+teaching, and during the years 1784-1787 acted as tutor in various
+families of Saxony. In 1787, after an unsuccessful application to the
+consistory for pecuniary assistance, he seems to have been driven to
+miscellaneous literary work. A tutorship at Zurich was, however,
+obtained in the spring of 1788, and Fichte spent in Switzerland two of
+the happiest years of his life. He made several valuable acquaintances,
+among others Lavater and his brother-in-law Hartmann Rahn, to whose
+daughter, Johanna Maria, he became engaged.
+
+Settling at Leipzig, still without any fixed means of livelihood, he was
+again reduced to literary drudgery. In the midst of this work occurred
+the most important event of his life, his introduction to the philosophy
+of Kant. At Schulpforta he had read with delight Lessing's _Anti-Goeze_,
+and during his Jena days had studied the relation between philosophy and
+religion. The outcome of his speculations, _Aphorismen uber Religion und
+Deismus_ (unpublished, date 1790; _Werke_, i. 1-8), was a species of
+Spinozistic determinism, regarded, however, as lying altogether outside
+the boundary of religion. It is remarkable that even for a time fatalism
+should have been predominant in his reasoning, for in character he was
+opposed to such a view, and, as he has said, "according to the man, so
+is the system of philosophy he adopts."
+
+Fichte's _Letters_ of this period attest the influence exercised on him
+by the study of Kant. It effected a revolution in his mode of thinking;
+so completely did the Kantian doctrine of the inherent moral worth of
+man harmonize with his own character, that his life becomes one effort
+to perfect a true philosophy, and to make its principles practical
+maxims. At first he seems to have thought that the best method for
+accomplishing his object would be to expound Kantianism in a popular,
+intelligible form. He rightly felt that the reception of Kant's
+doctrines was impeded by their phraseology. An abridgment of the _Kritik
+der Urtheilskraft_ was begun, but was left unfinished.
+
+Fichte's circumstances had not improved. It had been arranged that he
+should return to Zurich and be married to Johanna Rahn, but the plan was
+overthrown by a commercial disaster which affected the fortunes of the
+Rahn family. Fichte accepted a post as private tutor in Warsaw, and
+proceeded on foot to that town. The situation proved unsuitable; the
+lady, as Kuno Fischer says, "required greater submission and better
+French" than Fichte could yield, and after a fortnight's stay Fichte set
+out for Konigsberg to see Kant. His first interview was disappointing;
+the coldness and formality of the aged philosopher checked the
+enthusiasm of the young disciple, though it did not diminish his
+reverence. He resolved to bring himself before Kant's notice by
+submitting to him a work in which the principles of the Kantian
+philosophy should be applied. Such was the origin of the work, written
+in four weeks, the _Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung_ (Essay
+towards a Critique of all Revelation). The problem which Fichte dealt
+with in this essay was one not yet handled by Kant himself, the
+relations of which to the critical philosophy furnished matter for
+surmise. Indirectly, indeed, Kant had indicated a very definite opinion
+on theology: from the _Critique of Pure Reason_ it was clear that for
+him speculative theology must be purely negative, while the _Critique of
+Practical Reason_ as clearly indicated the view that the moral law is
+the absolute content or substance of any religion. A _critical_
+investigation of the conditions under which religious belief was
+possible was still wanting. Fichte sent his essay to Kant, who approved
+it highly, extended to the author a warm reception, and exerted his
+influence to procure a publisher. After some delay, consequent on the
+scruples of the theological censor of Halle, who did not like to see
+miracles rejected, the book appeared (Easter, 1792). By an oversight
+Fichte's name did not appear on the title-page, nor was the preface
+given, in which the author spoke of himself as a beginner in philosophy.
+Outsiders, not unnaturally, ascribed the work to Kant. The _Allgemeine
+Literatur-Zeitung_ went so far as to say that no one who had read a line
+of Kant's writings could fail to recognize the eminent author of this
+new work. Kant himself corrected the mistake, at the same time highly
+commending the work. Fichte's reputation was thus secured at a stroke.
+
+The _Critique of Revelation_ marks the culminating point of Fichte's
+Kantian period. The exposition of the conditions under which revealed
+religion is possible turns upon the absolute requirements of the moral
+law in human nature. Religion itself is the belief in this moral law as
+divine, and such belief is a practical postulate, necessary in order to
+add force to the law. It follows that no revealed religion, so far as
+matter or substance is concerned, can contain anything beyond this law;
+nor can any fact in the world of experience be recognized by us as
+supernatural. The supernatural element in religion can only be the
+divine character of the moral law. Now, the revelation of this divine
+character of morality is possible only to a being in whom the lower
+impulses have been, or are, successful in overcoming reverence for the
+law. In such a case it is conceivable that a revelation might be given
+in order to add strength to the moral law. Religion ultimately then
+rests upon the practical reason, and expresses some demand or want of
+the pure ego. In this conclusion we can trace the prominence assigned by
+Fichte to the practical element, and the tendency to make the
+requirements of the ego the ground for all judgment on reality. It was
+not possible that having reached this point he should not press forward
+and leave the Kantian position.
+
+This success was coincident with an improvement in the fortunes of the
+Rahn family, and the marriage took place at Zurich in October 1793. The
+remainder of the year he spent at Zurich, slowly perfecting his thoughts
+on the fundamental problems left for solution in the Kantian philosophy.
+During this period he published anonymously two remarkable political
+works, _Zuruckforderung der Denkfreiheit von den Fursten Europas_ and
+_Beitrage zur Berichtigung der Urtheile des Publicums uber die
+franzosische Revolution_. Of these the latter is much the more
+important. The French Revolution seemed to many earnest thinkers the one
+great outcry of modern times for the liberty of thought and action which
+is the eternal heritage of every human being. Unfortunately the
+political condition of Germany was unfavourable to the formation of an
+unbiassed opinion on the great movement. The principles involved in it
+were lost sight of under the mass of spurious maxims on social order
+which had slowly grown up and stiffened into system. To direct attention
+to the true nature of revolution, to demonstrate how inextricably the
+right of liberty is interwoven with the very existence of man as an
+intelligent agent, to point out the inherent progressiveness of state
+arrangements, and the consequent necessity of reform or amendment, such
+are the main objects of the _Beitrage_; and although, as is often the
+case with Fichte, the arguments are too formal and the distinctions too
+wire-drawn, yet the general idea is nobly conceived and carried out. As
+in the _Critique of Revelation_ so here the rational nature of man and
+the conditions necessary for its manifestation or realization become the
+standard for critical judgment.
+
+Towards the close of 1793 Fichte received an invitation to succeed K.L.
+Reinhold as extraordinary professor of philosophy at Jena. This chair,
+not in the ordinary faculty, had become, through Reinhold, the most
+important in the university, and great deliberation was exercised in
+selecting his successor. It was desired to secure an exponent of
+Kantianism, and none seemed so highly qualified as the author of the
+_Critique of Revelation_. Fichte, while accepting the call, desired to
+spend a year in preparation; but as this was deemed inexpedient he
+rapidly drew out for his students an introductory outline of his system,
+and began his lectures in May 1794. His success was instantaneous and
+complete. The fame of his predecessor was altogether eclipsed. Much of
+this success was due to Fichte's rare power as a lecturer. In oral
+exposition the vigour of thought and moral intensity of the man were
+most of all apparent, while his practical earnestness completely
+captivated his hearers. He lectured not only to his own class, but on
+general moral subjects to all students of the university. These general
+addresses, published under the title _Bestimmung des Gelehrten_
+(Vocation of the Scholar), were on a subject dear to Fichte's heart, the
+supreme importance of the highest intellectual culture and the duties
+incumbent on those who had received it. Their tone is stimulating and
+lofty.
+
+The years spent at Jena were unusually productive; indeed, the completed
+Fichtean philosophy is contained in the writings of this period. A
+general introduction to the system is given in the tractate _Uber den
+Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre_ (On the Notion of the Theory of
+Science), 1794, and the theoretical portion is worked out in the
+_Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre_ (Foundation of the whole
+Theory of Science, 1794) and _Grundriss des Eigenthumlichen d.
+Wissenschaftslehre_ (Outline of what is peculiar in the Theory of
+Science, 1794). To these were added in 1797 a _First_ and a _Second
+Introduction to the Theory of Science_, and an _Essay towards a new
+Exposition of the Theory of Science_. The _Introductions_ are masterly
+expositions. The practical philosophy was given in the _Grundlage des
+Naturrechts_ (1796) and _System der Sittenlehre_ (1798). The last is
+probably the most important of all Fichte's works; apart from it, his
+theoretical philosophy is unintelligible.
+
+During this period Fichte's academic career had been troubled by various
+storms, the last so violent as to put a close to his professorate at
+Jena. The first of them, a complaint against the delivery of his general
+addresses on Sundays, was easily settled. The second, arising from
+Fichte's strong desire to suppress the _Landsmannschaften_ (students'
+orders), which were productive of much harm, was more serious. Some
+misunderstanding caused an outburst of ignorant ill-feeling on the part
+of the students, who proceeded to such lengths that Fichte was compelled
+to reside out of Jena. The third storm, however, was the most violent.
+In 1798 Fichte, who, with F.I. Niethammer (1766-1848), had edited the
+_Philosophical Journal_ since 1795, received from his friend F.K.
+Forberg (1770-1848) an essay on the "Development of the Idea of
+Religion." With much of the essay he entirely agreed, but he thought the
+exposition in so many ways defective and calculated to create an
+erroneous impression, that he prefaced it with a short paper _On the
+Grounds of our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe_, in which
+God is defined as the moral order of the universe, the eternal law of
+right which is the foundation of all our being. The cry of atheism was
+raised, and the electoral government of Saxony, followed by all the
+German states except Prussia, suppressed the _Journal_ and confiscated
+the copies found in their universities. Pressure was put by the German
+powers on Charles Augustus, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, in whose
+dominions Jena university was situated, to reprove and dismiss the
+offenders. Fichte's defences (_Appellation an das Publicum gegen die
+Anklage des Atheismus_, and _Gerichtliche Verantwortung der Herausgeber
+der phil. Zeitschrift_, 1799), though masterly, did not make it easier
+for the liberal-minded grand-duke to pass the matter over, and an
+unfortunate letter, in which he threatened to resign in case of
+reprimand, turned the scale against him. The grand-duke accepted his
+threat as a request to resign, passed censure, and extended to him
+permission to withdraw from his chair at Jena; nor would he alter his
+decision, even though Fichte himself endeavoured to explain away the
+unfortunate letter.
+
+Berlin was the only town in Germany open to him. His residence there
+from 1799 to 1806 was unbroken save for a course of lectures during the
+summer of 1805 at Erlangen, where he had been named professor.
+Surrounded by friends, including Schlegel and Schleiermacher, he
+continued his literary work, perfecting the _Wissenschaftslehre_. The
+most remarkable of the works from this period are--(1) the _Bestimmung
+des Menschen_ (Vocation of Man, 1800), a book which, for beauty of
+style, richness of content, and elevation of thought, may be ranked with
+the Meditations of Descartes; (2) _Der geschlossene Handelsstaat_, 1800
+(The Exclusive or Isolated Commercial State), a very remarkable
+treatise, intensely socialist in tone, and inculcating organized
+protection; (3) _Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grossere Publicum uber die
+neueste Philosophie_, 1801. In 1801 was also written the _Darstellung
+der Wissenschaftslehre_, which was not published till after his death.
+In 1804 a set of lectures on the _Wissenschaftslehre_ was given at
+Berlin, the notes of which were published in the _Nachgelassene Werke_,
+vol. ii. In 1804 were also delivered the noble lectures entitled
+_Grundzuge des gegenwartigen Zeitalters_ (Characteristics of the Present
+Age, 1804), containing a most admirable analysis of the _Aufklarung_,
+tracing the position of such a movement of thought in the natural
+evolution of the general human consciousness, pointing out its inherent
+defects, and indicating as the ultimate goal of progress the life of
+reason in its highest aspect as a belief in the divine order of the
+universe. The philosophy of history sketched in this work has something
+of value with much that is fantastic. In 1805 and 1806 appeared the
+_Wesen des Gelehrten_ (Nature of the Scholar) and the _Anweisung zum
+seligen Leben oder Religionslehre_ (Way to a Blessed Life), the latter
+the most important work of this Berlin period. In it the union between
+the finite self-consciousness and the infinite ego or God is handled in
+an almost mystical manner. The knowledge and love of God is the end of
+life; by this means only can we attain blessedness (_Seligkeit_), for in
+God alone have we a permanent, enduring object of desire. The infinite
+God is the all; the world of independent objects is the result of
+reflection or self-consciousness, by which the infinite unity is broken
+up. God is thus over and above the distinction of subject and object;
+our knowledge is but a reflex or picture of the infinite essence. Being
+is not thought.
+
+The disasters of Prussia in 1806 drove Fichte from Berlin. He retired
+first to Stargard, then to Konigsberg (where he lectured for a time),
+then to Copenhagen, whence he returned to the capital in August 1807.
+From this time his published writings are practical in character; not
+till after the appearance of the _Nachgelassene Werke_ was it known in
+what shape his final speculations had been thrown out. We may here note
+the order of these posthumous writings as being of importance for
+tracing the development of Fichte's thought. From the year 1806 we have
+the remarkable _Bericht uber die Wissenschaftslehre_ (_Werke_, vol.
+viii.), with its sharp critique of Schelling; from 1810 we have the
+_Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_, published in 1817, of which another
+treatment is given in lectures of 1813 (_Nachgel. Werke_, vol. i.). Of
+the _Wissenschaftslehre_ we have, in 1812-1813, four separate treatments
+contained in the _Nachgel Werke_. As these consist mainly of notes for
+lectures, couched in uncouth phraseology, they cannot be held to throw
+much light on Fichte's views. Perhaps the most interesting are the
+lectures of 1812 on _Transcendental Logic_ (_Nach. Werke_, i. 106-400).
+
+From 1812 we have notes of two courses on practical philosophy,
+_Rechtslehre_ (_Nach. Werke_, vol. ii.) and _Sittenlehre_ (_ib._ vol.
+iii.). A finished work in the same department is the _Staatslehre_,
+published in 1820. This gives the Fichtean utopia organized on
+principles of pure reason; in too many cases the proposals are identical
+with principles of pure despotism.
+
+During these years, however, Fichte was mainly occupied with public
+affairs. In 1807 he drew up an elaborate and minute plan for the
+proposed new university of Berlin. In 1507-1808 he delivered at Berlin,
+amidst danger and discouragement, his noble addresses to the German
+people (_Reden an die deutsche Nation_). Even if we think that in these
+pure reason is sometimes overshadowed by patriotism, we cannot but
+recognize the immense practical value of what he recommended as the only
+true foundation for national prosperity.
+
+In 1810 he was elected rector of the new university founded in the
+previous year. This post he resigned in 1812, mainly on account of the
+difficulties he experienced in his endeavour to reform the student life
+of the university.
+
+In 1813 began the great effort of Germany for national independence.
+Debarred from taking an active part, Fichte made his contribution by way
+of lectures. The addresses on the idea of a true war (_Uber den Begriff
+eines wahrhaften Kriegs_, forming part of the _Staatslehre_) contain a
+very subtle contrast between the positions of France and Germany in the
+war.
+
+In the autumn of 1813 the hospitals of Berlin were filled with sick and
+wounded from the campaign. Among the most devoted in her exertions was
+Fichte's wife, who, in January 1814, was attacked with a virulent
+hospital fever. On the day after she was pronounced out of danger Fichte
+was struck down. He lingered for some days in an almost unconscious
+state, and died on the 27th of January 1814.
+
+  The philosophy of Fichte, worked out in a series of writings, and
+  falling chronologically into two distinct periods, that of Jena and
+  that of Berlin, seemed in the course of its development to undergo a
+  change so fundamental that many critics have sharply separated and
+  opposed to one another an earlier and a later phase. The ground of the
+  modification, further, has been sought and apparently found in quite
+  external influences, principally that of Schelling's
+  _Naturphilosophie_, to some extent that of Schleiermacher. But as a
+  rule most of those who have adopted this view have done so without the
+  full and patient examination which the matter demands; they have been
+  misled by the difference in tone and style between the earlier and
+  later writings, and have concluded that underlying this was a
+  fundamental difference of philosophic conception. One only, Erdmann,
+  in his _Entwicklung d. deut. Spek. seit Kant_, S 29, seems to give
+  full references to justify his opinion, and even he, in his later
+  work, _Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos._ (ed. 3), S 311, admits that
+  the difference is much less than he had at the first imagined. He
+  certainly retains his former opinion, but mainly on the ground, in
+  itself intelligible and legitimate, that, so far as Fichte's
+  philosophical reputation and influence are concerned, attention may be
+  limited to the earlier doctrines of the _Wissenschaftslehre_. This may
+  be so, but it can be admitted neither that Fichte's views underwent
+  radical change, nor that the _Wissenschaftslehre_ was ever regarded as
+  in itself complete, nor that Fichte was unconscious of the apparent
+  difference between his earlier and later utterances. It is
+  demonstrable by various passages in the works and letters that he
+  never looked upon the _Wissenschaftslehre_ as containing the whole
+  system; it is clear from the chronology of his writings that the
+  modifications supposed to be due to other thinkers were from the first
+  implicit in his theory; and if one fairly traces the course of thought
+  in the early writings, one can see how he was inevitably led on to the
+  statement of the later and, at first sight, divergent views. On only
+  one point, the position assigned in the _Wissenschaftslehre_ to the
+  absolute ego, is there any obscurity; but the relative passages are
+  far from decisive, and from the early work, _Neue Darstellung der
+  Wissenchaftslehre_, unquestionably to be included in the Jena period,
+  one can see that from the outset the doctrine of the absolute ego was
+  held in a form differing only in statement from the later theory.
+
+  Fichte's system cannot be compressed with intelligibility. We shall
+  here note only three points:--(a) the origin in Kant; (b) the
+  fundamental principle and method of the _Wissenschaftslehre_; (c) the
+  connexion with the later writings. The most important works for (a)
+  are the "Review of Aenesidemus," and the _Second Introduction to the
+  Wissenschaftslehre_; for (b) the great treatises of the Jena period;
+  for (c) the _Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_ of 1810.
+
+  (a) The Kantian system had for the first time opened up a truly
+  fruitful line of philosophic speculation, the transcendental
+  consideration of knowledge, or the analysis of the conditions under
+  which cognition is possible. To Kant the fundamental condition was
+  given in the synthetical unity of consciousness. The primitive fact
+  under which might be gathered the special conditions of that synthesis
+  which we call cognition was this unity. But by Kant there was no
+  attempt made to show that the said special conditions were necessary
+  from the very nature of consciousness itself. Their necessity was
+  discovered and proved in a manner which might be called empirical.
+  Moreover, while Kant in a quite similar manner pointed out that
+  intuition had special conditions, space and time, he did not show any
+  link of connexion between these and the primitive conditions of pure
+  cognition. Closely connected with this remarkable defect in the
+  Kantian view--lying, indeed, at the foundation of it--was the doctrine
+  that the matter of cognition is altogether _given_, or thrown into the
+  _form_ of cognition from without. So strongly was this doctrine
+  emphasized by Kant, that he seemed to refer the _matter_ of knowledge
+  to the action upon us of a non-ego or _Ding-an-sich_, absolutely
+  beyond consciousness. While these hints towards a completely
+  intelligible account of cognition were given by Kant, they were not
+  reduced to system, and from the way in which the elements of cognition
+  were related, could not be so reduced. Only in the sphere of practical
+  reason, where the intelligible nature prescribed to itself its own
+  laws, was there the possibility of systematic deduction from a single
+  principle.
+
+  The peculiar position in which Kant had left the theory of cognition
+  was assailed from many different sides and by many writers, specially
+  by Schultze (Aenesidemus) and Maimon. To the criticisms of the latter,
+  in particular, Fichte owed much, but his own activity went far beyond
+  what they supplied to him. To complete Kant's work, to demonstrate
+  that all the necessary conditions of knowledge can be deduced from a
+  single principle, and consequently to expound the complete system of
+  reason, that is the business of the _Wissenschaftslehre_. By it the
+  theoretical and practical reason shall be shown to coincide; for while
+  the categories of cognition and the whole system of pure thought can
+  be expounded from one principle, the ground of this principle is
+  scientifically, or to cognition, inexplicable, and is made conceivable
+  only in the practical philosophy. The ultimate basis for the activity
+  of cognition is given by the will. Even in the practical sphere,
+  however, Fichte found that the contradiction, insoluble to cognition,
+  was not completely suppressed, and he was thus driven to the higher
+  view, which is explicitly stated in the later writings though not, it
+  must be confessed, with the precision and scientific clearness of the
+  _Wissenschaftslehre_.
+
+  (b) What, then, is this single principle, and how does it work itself
+  out into system? To answer this one must bear in mind what Fichte
+  intended by designating all philosophy _Wissenschaftslehre_, or theory
+  of science. Philosophy is to him the rethinking of actual cognition,
+  the _theory_ of knowledge, the complete, systematic exposition of the
+  principles which lie at the basis of all reasoned cognition. It
+  traces the necessary acts by which the cognitive consciousness comes
+  to be what it is, both in form and in content. Not that it is a
+  natural history, or even a _phenomenology_ of consciousness; only in
+  the later writings did Fichte adopt even the genetic method of
+  exposition; it is the complete statement of the pure principles of the
+  understanding in their rational or necessary order. But if complete,
+  this _Wissenschaftslehre_ must be able to deduce the whole organism of
+  cognition from certain fundamental axioms, themselves unproved and
+  incapable of proof; only thus can we have a _system_ of reason. From
+  these primary axioms the whole body of necessary thoughts must be
+  developed, and, as Socrates would say, the argument itself will
+  indicate the path of the development.
+
+  Of such primitive principles, the absolutely necessary conditions of
+  possible cognition, only three are thinkable--one perfectly
+  unconditioned both in form and matter; a second, unconditioned in form
+  but not in matter; a third, unconditioned in matter but not in form.
+  Of these, evidently the first must be the fundamental; to some extent
+  it conditions the other two, though these cannot be deduced from it or
+  proved by it. The statement of these principles forms the introduction
+  to _Wissenschaftslehre_.
+
+  The method which Fichte first adopted for stating these axioms is not
+  calculated to throw full light upon them, and tends to exaggerate the
+  apparent airiness and unsubstantiality of his deduction. They may be
+  explained thus. The primitive condition of all intelligence is that
+  the ego shall posit, affirm or be aware of itself. The ego is the ego;
+  such is the first pure act of conscious intelligence, that by which
+  alone consciousness can come to be what it is. It is what Fichte
+  called a Deed-act (_Thathandlung_); we cannot be aware of the
+  process,--the ego _is_ not until it has affirmed itself,--but we are
+  aware of the result, and can see the necessity of the act by which it
+  is brought about. The ego then posits itself, as real. What the ego
+  posits is real. But in consciousness there is equally given a
+  primitive act of op-positing, or contra-positing, formally distinct
+  from the act of position, but materially determined, in so far as what
+  is op-posited must be the negative of that which was posited. The
+  non-ego--not, be it noticed, the world as we know it--is op-posed in
+  consciousness to the ego. The ego is not the non-ego. How this act of
+  op-positing is possible and necessary, only becomes clear in the
+  practical philosophy, and even there the inherent difficulty leads to
+  a higher view. But third, we have now an absolute antithesis to our
+  original thesis. Only the ego is real, but the non-ego is posited in
+  the ego. The contradiction is solved in a higher synthesis, which
+  takes up into itself the two opposites. The ego and non-ego _limit_
+  one another, or determine one another; and, as limitation is negation
+  of part of a divisible quantum, in this third act, the divisible ego
+  is op-posed to a divisible non-ego.
+
+  From this point onwards the course proceeds by the method already made
+  clear. We progress by making explicit the oppositions contained in the
+  fundamental synthesis, by uniting these opposites, analysing the new
+  synthesis, and so on, until we reach an ultimate pair. Now, in the
+  synthesis of the third act two principles may be distinguished:--(1)
+  the non-ego determines the ego; (2) the ego determines the non-ego. As
+  determined the ego is theoretical, as determining it is practical;
+  ultimately the opposed principles must be united by showing how the
+  ego is both determining and determined.
+
+  It is impossible to enter here on the steps by which the theoretical
+  ego is shown to develop into the complete system of cognitive
+  categories, or to trace the deduction of the processes (productive
+  imagination, intuition, sensation, understanding, judgment, reason) by
+  which the quite indefinite non-ego comes to assume the appearance of
+  definite objects in the forms of time and space. All this evolution is
+  the necessary consequence of the determination of the ego by the
+  non-ego. But it is clear that the non-ego cannot really determine the
+  ego. There is no reality beyond the ego itself. The contradiction can
+  only be suppressed if the ego itself opposes to itself the non-ego,
+  places it as an _Anstoss_ or plane on which its own activity breaks
+  and from which it is reflected. Now, this op-positing of the _Anstoss_
+  is the necessary condition of the practical ego, of the will. If the
+  ego be a striving power, then of necessity a limit must be set by
+  which its striving is manifest. But how can the infinitely active ego
+  posit a limit to its own activity? Here we come to the _crux_ of
+  Fichte's system, which is only partly cleared up in the _Rechtslehre_
+  and _Sittenlehre_. If the ego be pure activity, free activity, it can
+  only become aware of itself by positing some limit. We cannot possibly
+  have any cognition of how such an act is possible. But as it is a free
+  act, the ego cannot be determined to it by anything beyond itself; it
+  cannot be aware of its own freedom otherwise than as determined by
+  other free egos. Thus in the _Rechtslehre_ and _Sittenlehre_, the
+  multiplicity of egos is deduced, and with this deduction the first
+  form of the _Wissenschaftslehre_ appeared to end.
+
+  (c) But in fact deeper questions remained. We have spoken of the ego
+  as becoming aware of its own freedom, and have shown how the existence
+  of other egos and of a world in which these egos may act are the
+  necessary conditions of consciousness of freedom. But all this is the
+  work of the ego. All that has been expounded follows if the ego comes
+  to consciousness. We have therefore to consider that the absolute ego,
+  from which spring all the individual egos, is not subject to these
+  conditions, but freely determines itself to them. How is this
+  absolute ego to be conceived? As early as 1797 Fichte had begun to see
+  that the ultimate basis of his system was the absolute ego, in which
+  is no difference of subject and object; in 1800 the _Bestimmung des
+  Menschen_ defined this absolute ego as the infinite moral will of the
+  universe, God, in whom are all the individual egos, from whom they
+  have sprung. It lay in the nature of the thing that more precise
+  utterances should be given on this subject, and these we find in the
+  _Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_ and in all the later lectures. God in
+  them is the absolute Life, the absolute One, who becomes conscious of
+  himself by self-diremption into the individual egos. The individual
+  ego is only possible as opposed to a non-ego, to a world of the
+  senses; thus God, the infinite will, manifests himself in the
+  individual, and the individual has over against him the non-ego or
+  thing. "The individuals do not make part of the being of the one life,
+  but are a pure form of its absolute freedom." "The individual is not
+  conscious of himself, but the Life is conscious of itself in
+  individual form and as an individual." In order that the Life may act,
+  though it is not necessary that it _should act_, individualization is
+  necessary. "Thus," says Fichte, "we reach a final conclusion.
+  Knowledge is not mere knowledge of itself, but of being, and of the
+  one being that truly is, viz. God.... This one possible object of
+  knowledge is never known in its purity, but ever broken into the
+  various forms of knowledge which are and can be shown to be necessary.
+  The demonstration of the necessity of these forms is philosophy or
+  _Wissenschaftslehre_" (_Thats. des Bewuss. Werke_, ii. 685). This
+  ultimate view is expressed throughout the lectures (in the _Nachgel.
+  Werke_) in uncouth and mystical language.
+
+  It will escape no one (1) how the idea and method of the
+  _Wissenschaftslehre_ prepare the way for the later Hegelian dialectic,
+  and (2) how completely the whole philosophy of Schopenhauer is
+  contained in the later writings of Fichte. It is not to the credit of
+  historians that Schopenhauer's debt should have been allowed to pass
+  with so little notice.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fichte's complete works were published by his son J.H.
+  Fichte, _Sammtliche Werke_ (8 vols., Berlin, 1845-1846), with
+  _Nachgelassene Werke_ (3 vols., Bonn, 1834-1835); also _Leben und
+  Briefwechsel_ (2 vols., 1830, ed. 1862). Among translations are those
+  of William Smith, _Popular Writings of Fichte, with Memoir_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1848-1849, 4th ed. 1889); A.E. Kroeger, portions of the
+  _Wissenschaftslehre_ (_Science of Knowledge_, Philadelphia, 1868; ed.
+  London, 1889), the _Naturrecht_ (_Science of Rights_, 1870; ed.
+  London, 1889); of the _Vorlesungen u. d. Bestimmung d. Gelehrten_
+  (_The Vocation of the Scholar_, by W. Smith, 1847); _Destination of
+  Man_, by Mrs P. Sinnett; _Discours a la nation allemande_, French by
+  Leon Philippe (1895), with preface by F. Picavet, and a biographical
+  memoir.
+
+  The number of critical works is very large. Besides the histories of
+  post-Kantian philosophy by Erdmann, Fortlage (whose account is
+  remarkably good), Michelet, Biedermann and others, see Wm. Busse,
+  _Fichte und seine Beziehung zur Gegenwart des deutschen Volkes_
+  (Halle, 1848-1849); J.H. Lowe, _Die Philosophic Fichtes_ (Stuttgart,
+  1862); Kuno Fischer, _Geschichte d. neueren Philosophie_ (1869, 1884,
+  1890); Ludwig Noack, _Fichte nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken_
+  (Leipzig, 1862); R. Adamson, Fichte (1881, in Knight's "Philosophical
+  Classics"); Oscar Benzow, _Zu Fichtes Lekre von Nicht-Ich_ (Bern,
+  1898); E.O. Burmann, _Die Transcendentalphilosophie Fichtes und
+  Schellings_ (Upsala, 1890-1892); M. Carriere, _Fichtes
+  Geistesentwickelung in die Reden uber d. Bestimmung des Gelehrten_
+  (1894); C.C. Everett, _Fichte's Science of Knowledge_ (Chicago, 1884);
+  O. Pfleiderer, J.G. _Fichtes Lebensbild eines deutschen Denkers und
+  Patrioten_ (Stuttgart, 1877); T. Wotschke, _Fichte und Erigena_
+  (1896); W. Kabitz, _Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichtehen
+  Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophie_ (1902); E. Lask,
+  _Fichtes Idealismus und die Geschichte_ (1902); X. Leon, _La Philos.
+  de Fichte_ (1902); M. Wiener, J.G. _Fichtes Lehre vom Wesen und Inhalt
+  der Geschichte_ (1906).
+
+  On Fichte's social philosophy see, e.g., F. Schmidt-Warneck, _Die
+  Sociologie Fichtes_ (Berlin, 1884); W. Windelband, _Fichtes Idee des
+  deutschen Staates_ (1890); M. Weber, _Fichtes Sozialismus und sein
+  Verhaltnis zur Marx'schen Doctrin_ (1900); S.H. Gutman, J.G. _Fichtes
+  Sozialpadogogik_ (1907); H. Lindau, _Johann G. Fichte und der neuere
+  Socialismus_ (1900).     (R. Ad.; X.)
+
+
+
+
+FICHTELGEBIRGE, a mountain group of Bavaria, forming the centre from which
+various mountain ranges proceed,--the Elstergebirge, linking it to the
+Erzgebirge, in a N.E., the Frankenwald in a N.W., and the Bohmerwald in a
+S.E. direction. The streams to which it gives rise flow towards the four
+cardinal points,--e.g. the Eger eastward and the Saale northward, both to
+the Elbe; the Weisser Main westward to the Rhine, and the Naab southward
+to the Danube. The chief points of the mass are the Schneeberg and the
+Ochsenkopf, the former having a height of 3448, and the latter of 3356 ft.
+The whole district is pretty thickly populated, and there is great
+abundance of wood, as well as of iron, vitriol, sulphur, copper, lead and
+many kinds of marble. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the iron
+mines, at forges and blast furnaces, and in charcoal burning and the
+manufacture of blacking from firewood. Although surrounded by railways and
+crossed by the lines Nuremberg-Eger and Regensburg-Oberkotzau, the
+Fichtelgebirge, owing principally to its raw climate and bleakness, is not
+much visited by strangers, the only important points of interest being
+Alexandersbad (a delightfully situated watering-place) and the granite
+labyrinth of Luisenburg.
+
+  See A. Schmidt, _Fuhrer durch das Fichtelgebirge_ (1899); Daniel,
+  _Deutschland_; and Meyer, _Conversations-Lexikon_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+FICINO, MARSILIO (1433-1499), Italian philosopher and writer, was born
+at Figline, in the upper Arno valley, in the year 1433. His father, a
+physician of some eminence, settled in Florence, and attached himself to
+the person of Cosimo de' Medici. Here the young Marsilio received his
+elementary education in grammar and Latin literature at the high school
+or studio pubblico. While still a boy, he showed promise of rare
+literary gifts, and distinguished himself by his facility in the
+acquisition of knowledge. Not only literature, but the physical
+sciences, as then taught, had a charm for him; and he is said to have
+made considerable progress in medicine under the tuition of his father.
+He was of a tranquil temperament, sensitive to music and poetry, and
+debarred by weak health from joining in the more active pleasures of his
+fellow-students. When he had attained the age of eighteen or nineteen
+years, Cosimo received him into his household, and determined to make
+use of his rare disposition for scholarship in the development of a
+long-cherished project. During the session of the council for the union
+of the Greek and Latin churches at Florence in 1439, Cosimo had made
+acquaintance with Gemistos Plethon, the Neo-Platonic sage of Mistra,
+whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated
+the learned society of Florence that they named him the second Plato. It
+had been the dream of this man's whole life to supersede both forms of
+Christianity by a semi-pagan theosophy deduced from the writings of the
+later Pythagoreans and Platonists. When, therefore, he perceived the
+impression he had made upon the first citizen of Florence, Gemistos
+suggested that the capital of modern culture would be a fit place for
+the resuscitation of the once so famous Academy of Athens. Cosimo took
+this hint. The second half of the 15th century was destined to be the
+age of academies in Italy, and the regnant passion for antiquity
+satisfied itself with any imitation, however grotesque, of Greek or
+Roman institutions. In order to found his new academy upon a firm basis
+Cosimo resolved not only to assemble men of letters for the purpose of
+Platonic disputation at certain regular intervals, but also to appoint a
+hierophant and official expositor of Platonic doctrine. He hoped by
+these means to give a certain stability to his projected institution,
+and to avoid the superficiality of mere enthusiasm. The plan was good;
+and with the rare instinct for character which distinguished him, he
+made choice of the right man for his purpose in the young Marsilio.
+
+Before he had begun to learn Greek, Marsilio entered upon the task of
+studying and elucidating Plato. It is known that at this early period of
+his life, while he was yet a novice, he wrote voluminous treatises on
+the great philosopher, which he afterwards, however, gave to the flames.
+In the year 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on the Greek language
+and literature at Florence, and Marsilio became his pupil. He was then
+about twenty-three years of age. Seven years later he felt himself a
+sufficiently ripe Greek scholar to begin the translation of Plato, by
+which his name is famous in the history of scholarship, and which is
+still the best translation of that author Italy can boast. The MSS. on
+which he worked were supplied by this patron Cosimo de' Medici and by
+Amerigo Benci. While the translation was still in progress Ficino from
+time to time submitted its pages to the scholars, Angelo Poliziano,
+Cristoforo Landino, Demetrios Chalchondylas and others; and since these
+men were all members of the Platonic Academy, there can be no doubt that
+the discussions raised upon the text and Latin version greatly served to
+promote the purpose of Cosimo's foundation. At last the book appeared
+in 1482, the expenses of the press being defrayed by the noble
+Florentine, Filippo Valori. About the same time Marsilio completed and
+published his treatise on the Platonic doctrine of immortality
+(_Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animae_), the work by which his
+claims to take rank as a philosopher must be estimated. This was shortly
+followed by the translation of Plotinus into Latin, and by a voluminous
+commentary, the former finished in 1486, the latter in 1491, and both
+published at the cost of Lorenzo de' Medici just one month after his
+death. As a supplement to these labours in the field of Platonic and
+Alexandrian philosophy, Marsilio next devoted his energies to the
+translation of Dionysius the Areopagite, whose work on the celestial
+hierarchy, though recognized as spurious by the Neapolitan humanist,
+Lorenzo Valla, had supreme attraction for the mystic and uncritical
+intellect of Ficino.
+
+It is not easy to value the services of Marsilio Ficino at their proper
+worth. As a philosopher, he can advance no claim to originality, his
+laborious treatise on Platonic theology being little better than a mass
+of ill-digested erudition. As a scholar, he failed to recognize the
+distinctions between different periods of antiquity and various schools
+of thought. As an exponent of Plato he suffered from the fatal error of
+confounding Plato with the later Platonists. It is true that in this
+respect he did not differ widely from the mass of his contemporaries.
+Lorenzo Valla and Angelo Poliziano, almost alone among the scholars of
+that age, showed a true critical perception. For the rest, it was enough
+that an author should be ancient to secure their admiration. The whole
+of antiquity seemed precious in the eyes of its discoverers; and even a
+thinker so acute as Pico di Mirandola dreamed of the possibility of
+extracting the essence of philosophical truth by indiscriminate
+collation of the most divergent doctrines. Ficino was, moreover, a firm
+believer in planetary influences. He could not separate his
+philosophical from his astrological studies, and caught eagerly at any
+fragment of antiquity which seemed to support his cherished delusions.
+It may here be incidentally mentioned that this superstition brought him
+into trouble with the Roman Church. In 1489 he was accused of magic
+before Pope Innocent VIII., and had to secure the good offices of
+Francesco Soderini, Ermolao Barbaro, and the archbishop Rinaldo Orsini,
+in order to purge himself of a most perilous imputation. What Ficino
+achieved of really solid, was his translation. The value of that work
+cannot be denied; the impulse which it gave to Platonic studies in
+Italy, and through them to the formation of the new philosophy in
+Europe, is indisputable. Ficino differed from the majority of his
+contemporaries in this that, while he felt the influence of antiquity no
+less strongly than they did, he never lost his faith in Christianity, or
+contaminated his morals by contact with paganism. For him, as for
+Petrarch, St Augustine was the model of a Christian student. The
+cardinal point of his doctrine was the identity of religion and
+philosophy. He held that philosophy consists in the study of truth and
+wisdom, and that God alone is truth and wisdom,--so that philosophy is
+but religion, and true religion is genuine philosophy. Religion, indeed,
+is common to all men, but its pure form is that revealed through Christ;
+and the teaching of Christ is sufficient to a man in all circumstances
+of life. Yet it cannot be expected that every man should accept the
+faith without reasoning; and here Ficino found a place for Platonism. He
+maintained that the Platonic doctrine was providentially made to
+harmonize with Christianity, in order that by its means speculative
+intellects might be led to Christ. The transition from this point of
+view to an almost superstitious adoration of Plato was natural; and
+Ficino, we know, joined in the hymns and celebrations with which the
+Florentine Academy honoured their great master on the day of his birth
+and death. Those famous festivals in which Lorenzo de' Medici delighted
+had indeed a pagan tone appropriate to the sentiment of the Renaissance;
+nor were all the worshippers of the Athenian sage so true to
+Christianity as his devoted student.
+
+Of Ficino's personal life there is but little to be said. In order that
+he might have leisure for uninterrupted study, Cosimo de' Medici gave
+him a house near S. Maria Nuova in Florence, and a little farm at
+Montevecchio, not far from the villa of Careggi. Ficino, like nearly all
+the scholars of that age in Italy, delighted in country life. At
+Montevecchio he lived contentedly among his books, in the neighbourhood
+of his two friends, Pico at Querceto, and Poliziano at Fiesole, cheering
+his solitude by playing on the lute, and corresponding with the most
+illustrious men of Italy. His letters, extending over the years
+1474-1494, have been published, both separately and in his collected
+works. From these it may be gathered that nearly every living scholar of
+note was included in the list of his friends, and that the subjects
+which interested him were by no means confined to his Platonic studies.
+As instances of his close intimacy with illustrious Florentine families,
+it may be mentioned that he held the young Francesco Guicciardini at the
+font, and that he helped to cast the horoscope of the Casa Strozzi in
+the Via Tornabuoni.
+
+At the age of forty Ficino took orders, and was honoured with a canonry
+of S. Lorenzo. He was henceforth assiduous in the performance of his
+duties, preaching in his cure of Novoli, and also in the cathedral and
+the church of the Angeli at Florence. He used to say that no man was
+better than a good priest, and none worse than a bad one. His life
+corresponded in all points to his principles. It was the life of a
+sincere Christian and a real sage,--of one who found the best fruits of
+philosophy in the practice of the Christian virtues. A more amiable and
+a more harmless man never lived; and this was much in that age of
+discordant passions and lawless licence. In spite of his weak health, he
+was indefatigably industrious. His tastes were of the simplest; and
+while scholars like Filelfo were intent on extracting money from their
+patrons by flattery and threats, he remained so poor that he owed the
+publication of all his many works to private munificence. For his old
+patrons of the house of Medici Ficino always cherished sentiments of the
+liveliest gratitude. Cosimo he called his second father, saying that
+Ficino had given him life, but Cosimo new birth,--the one had devoted
+him to Galen, the other to the divine Plato,--the one was physician of
+the body, the other of the soul. With Lorenzo he lived on terms of
+familiar, affectionate, almost parental intimacy. He had seen the young
+prince grow up in the palace of the Via Larga, and had helped in the
+development of his rare intellect. In later years he did not shrink from
+uttering a word of warning and advice, when he thought that the master
+of the Florentine republic was too much inclined to yield to pleasure. A
+characteristic proof of his attachment to the house of Medici was
+furnished by a yearly custom which he practised at his farm at
+Montevecchio. He used to invite the contadini who had served Cosimo to a
+banquet on the day of Saints Cosimo and Damiano (the patron saints of
+the Medici), and entertained them with music and singing. This affection
+was amply returned. Cosimo employed almost the last hours of his life in
+listening to Ficino's reading of a treatise on the highest good; while
+Lorenzo, in a poem on true happiness, described him as the mirror of the
+world, the nursling of sacred muses, the harmonizer of wisdom and beauty
+in complete accord. Ficino died at Florence in 1499.
+
+Besides the works already noticed, Ficino composed a treatise on the
+Christian religion, which was first given to the world in 1476, a
+translation into Italian of Dante's _De monarchia_, a life of Plato, and
+numerous essays on ethical and semi-philosophical subjects. Vigour of
+reasoning and originality of view were not his characteristics as a
+writer; nor will the student who has raked these dust-heaps of
+miscellaneous learning and old-fashioned mysticism discover more than a
+few sentences of genuine enthusiasm and simple-hearted aspiration to
+repay his trouble and reward his patience. Only in familiar letters,
+prolegomena, and prefaces do we find the man Ficino, and learn to know
+his thoughts and sentiments unclouded by a mist of citations; these
+minor compositions have therefore a certain permanent value, and will
+continually be studied for the light they throw upon the learned circle
+gathered round Lorenzo in the golden age of humanism.
+
+  The student may be referred for further information to the following
+  works:--_Marsilii Ficini opera_ (Basileae, 1576); _Marsilii Ficini
+  vita_, auctore Corsio (ed. Bandini, Pisa, 1771); Roscoe's _Life of
+  Lorenzo de' Medici_; Pasquale Villari, _La Storia di Girolamo
+  Savonarola_ (Firenze, Le Monnier, 1859); Von Reumont, _Lorenzo de'
+  Medici_ (Leipzig, 1874).     (J. A. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FICKSBURG, a town of Orange Free State 110 m. by rail E. by N. of
+Bloemfontein. Pop. (1904) 1954, of whom 1021 were whites. The town is
+situated near the north bank of the Caledon river and is the capital of
+one of the finest agricultural and stock-raising regions of the
+province. It has direct railway communication with Natal and an
+extensive trade. In the neighbourhood are petroleum wells and a diamond
+mine. In the fossilized ooze of the Wonderkop, a table mountain of the
+adjacent Wittebergen, are quantities of petrified fish.
+
+
+
+
+FICTIONS, or legal fictions, in law, the term used for false averments,
+the truth of which is not permitted to be called in question. English
+law as well as Roman law abounds in fictions. Sometimes they are merely
+the condensed expression of a rule of law,--e.g., the fiction of English
+law that husband and wife were one person, and the fiction of Roman law
+that the wife was the daughter of the husband. Sometimes they must be
+regarded as reasons invented in order to justify a rule of law according
+to an implied ethical standard. Of this sort seems to be the fiction or
+presumption that every one knows the law, which reconciles the rule that
+ignorance is no excuse for crime with the moral commonplace that it is
+unfair to punish a man for violating a law of whose existence he was
+unaware. Again, some fictions are deliberate falsehoods, adopted as true
+for the purpose of establishing a remedy not otherwise attainable. Of
+this sort are the numerous fictions of English law by which the
+different courts obtained jurisdiction in private business, removed
+inconvenient restrictions in the law relating to land, &c.
+
+What to the scientific jurist is a stumbling-block is to the older
+writers on English law a beautiful device for reconciling the strict
+letter of the law with common sense and justice. Blackstone, in noticing
+the well-known fiction by which the court of king's bench established
+its jurisdiction in common pleas (viz. that the defendant was in custody
+of the marshal of the court), says, "These fictions of law, though at
+first they may startle the student, he will find upon further
+consideration to be highly beneficial and useful; especially as this
+maxim is ever invariably observed, that no fiction shall extend to work
+an injury; its proper operation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an
+inconvenience that might result from the general rule of law. So true it
+is that _in fictione juris semper subsistit aequitas_." Austin, on the
+other hand, while correctly assigning as the cause of many fictions the
+desire to combine the necessary reform with some show of respect for the
+abrogated law, makes the following harsh criticism as to others:--"Why
+the plain meanings which I have now stated should be obscured by the
+fictions to which I have just adverted I cannot conjecture. A wish on
+the part of the authors of the fictions to render the law as
+_uncognoscible_ as may be is probably the cause which Mr Bentham would
+assign. I judge not, I confess, so uncharitably; I rather impute such
+fictions to the sheer imbecility (or, if you will, to the active and
+sportive fancies) of their grave and venerable authors, than to any
+deliberate design, good or evil." Bentham, of course, saw in fictions
+the instrument by which the great object of his abhorrence, _judiciary
+law_, was produced. It was the means by which judges usurped the
+functions of legislators. "A fiction of law." he says, "may be defined
+as a wilful falsehood, having for its object the stealing legislative
+powers by and for hands which could not or durst not openly claim it,
+and but for the delusion thus produced could not exercise it." A
+partnership, he says, was formed between the kings and the judges
+against the interests of the people. "Monarchs found force, lawyers
+fraud; thus was the capital found" (_Historical Preface to the second
+edition of the Fragment on Government_).[1]
+
+Sir H. Maine (_Ancient Law_) supplies the historical element which is
+always lacking in the explanations of Austin and Bentham. Fictions form
+one of the agencies by which, in progressive societies, positive law is
+brought into harmony with public opinion. The others are equity and
+statutes. Fictions in this sense include, not merely the obvious
+falsities of the English and Roman systems, but any assumption which
+conceals a change of law by retaining the old formula after the change
+has been made. It thus includes both the case law of the English and the
+_Responsa Prudentum_ of the Romans. "At a particular stage of social
+progress they are invaluable expedients for overcoming the rigidity of
+law; and, indeed, without one of them, the fiction of adoption, which
+permits the family tie to be artificially created, it is difficult to
+understand how society would ever have escaped from its swaddling
+clothes, and taken its first steps towards civilization."
+
+The bolder remedial fictions of English law have been to a large extent
+removed by legislation, and one great obstacle to any reconstruction of
+the legal system has thus been partially removed. Where the real remedy
+stood in glaring contrast to the nominal rule, it has been openly
+ratified by statute. In ejectment cases the mysterious sham litigants
+have disappeared. The bond of entail can be broken without having
+recourse to the collusive proceedings of fine and recovery. Fictions
+have been almost entirely banished from the procedure of the courts. The
+action for damages on account of seduction, which is still nominally an
+action by the father for loss of his daughter's services, is perhaps the
+only fictitious action now remaining.
+
+Fictions which appear in the form of principles are not so easily dealt
+with by legislation. To expel them formally from the system would
+require the re-enactment of vast portions of law. A change in legal
+modes of speech and thought would be more effective. The legal mind
+instinctively seizes upon concrete aids to abstract reasoning. Many hard
+and revolting fictions must have begun their career as metaphors. In
+some cases the history of the change may still almost be traced. The
+conception that a man-of-war is a floating island, or that an
+ambassador's house is beyond the territorial limits of the country in
+which he resides, was originally a figure of speech designed to set a
+rule of law in a striking light. It is then gravely accepted as true in
+fact, and other rules of law are deduced from it. Its beginning is to be
+compared with such phrases as "an Englishman's house is his castle,"
+which have had no legal offshoots and still remain mere figures of
+speech.
+
+Constitutional law is of course honeycombed with fictions. Here there is
+hardly ever anything like direct legislative change, and yet real change
+is incessant. The rules defining the sovereign power and fixing the
+authority of its various members are in most points the same as they
+were at the last revolution,--in many points they have been the same
+since the beginning of parliamentary government. But they have long
+ceased to be true in fact; and it would hardly be too much to say that
+the entire series of formal propositions called the constitution is
+merely a series of fictions. The legal attributes of the king, and even
+of the House of Lords, are fictions. If we could suppose that the
+effects of the Reform Acts had been brought about, not by legislation,
+but by the decisions of law courts and the practice of House of Commons
+committees--by such assumptions as that freeholder includes lease-holder
+and that ten means twenty--we should have in the legal constitution of
+the House of Commons the same kind of fictions that we find in the legal
+statement of the attributes of the crown and the House of Lords. Here,
+too, fictions have been largely resorted to for the purpose of
+supporting particular theories,--popular or monarchical,--and such have
+flourished even more vigorously than purely legal fictions.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the same essay Bentham notices the comparative rarity of
+    fictions in Scots law. As to fiction in particular, compared with the
+    work done by it in English law, the use made of it by the Scottish
+    lawyers is next to nothing. No need have they had of any such clumsy
+    instrument. They have two others "of their own making, by which
+    things of the same sort have been done with much less trouble.
+    _Nobile officium_ gives them the creative power of legislation; this
+    and the word desuetude together the annihilative." And he notices
+    aptly enough that, while the English lawyers declared that James II.
+    had abdicated the throne (which everybody knew to be false), the
+    Scottish lawyers boldly said he had forfeited it.
+
+
+
+
+FIDDES, RICHARD (1671-1725), English divine and historian, was born at
+Hunmanby and educated at Oxford. He took orders, and obtained the living
+of Halsham in Holderness in 1696. Owing to ill-health he applied for
+leave to reside at Wickham, and in 1712 he removed to London on the plea
+of poverty, intending to pursue a literary career. In London he met
+Swift, who procured him a chaplaincy at Hull. He also became chaplain to
+the earl of Oxford. After losing the Hull chaplaincy through a change of
+ministry in 1714, he devoted himself to writing. His best book is a
+_Life of Cardinal Wolsey_ (London, 1724), containing documents which are
+still valuable for reference; of his other writings the _Prefatory
+Epistle containing some remarks to be published on Homer's Iliad_
+(London, 1714), was occasioned by Pope's proposed translation of the
+_Iliad_, and his _Theologia speculativa_ (London, 1718), earned him the
+degree of D.D. at Oxford. In his own day he had a considerable
+reputation as an author and man of learning.
+
+
+
+
+FIDDLE (O. Eng. _fithele_, _fidel_, &c., Fr. _viele_, viole, _violon_;
+M. H. Ger. _videle_, mod. Ger. _Fiedel_), a popular term for the violin,
+derived from the names of certain of its ancestors. The word fiddle
+antedates the appearance of the violin by several centuries, and in
+England did not always represent an instrument of the same type. The
+word has first been traced in 1205 in Layamon's _Brut_ (7002), "of
+harpe, of salteriun, of fithele and of coriun." In Chaucer's time the
+fiddle was evidently a well-known instrument:
+
+  "For him was lever have at his beddes hed
+   A twenty bokes, clothed in black or red.
+   Of Aristotle and his Philosophie,
+   Than robes riche or fidel or sautrie."
+
+    (_Prologue_, v. 298.)
+
+The origin of the fiddle is of the greatest interest; it will be found
+inseparable from that of the violin both as regards the instruments and
+the etymology of the words; the remote common ancestor is the _ketharah_
+of the Assyrians, the parent of the Greek cithara. The Romans are
+responsible for the word fiddle, having bestowed upon a kind of
+cithara--probably then in its first transition--the name of _fidiculae_
+(more rarely _fidicula_), a diminutive form of _fides_. In Alain de
+Lille's _De planctu naturae_ against the word _lira_ stands as
+equivalent _vioel_, with the definition "Lira est quoddam genue citharae
+vel fitola alioquin de reot. Hoc instrumentum est multum vulgare." This
+is a marginal note in writing of the 13th century.[1]
+
+Some of the transitions from _fidicula_ to fiddle are made evident in
+the accompanying table:
+
+  Latin               fidiculae
+  Medieval Latin      vitula, fitola.
+  French              viele, vielle, viole.
+  Provencal           viula.
+  Spanish             viguela, vihuela, vigolo.
+  Old High German     fidula.
+  Middle High German  videle.
+  German              fiedel, violine.
+  Italian             viola, violino.
+  Dutch               vedel.
+  Danish              fiddel.
+  Anglo-Saxon         fithele.
+  Old English         fithele, fythal, fithel, fythylle, fidel fidylle,
+                        (south) vithele.
+
+For the descent of the guitar-fiddle, the first bowed ancestor of the
+violin, through many transitions from the cithara, see CITHARA, GUITAR
+and GUITAR-FIDDLE.
+
+In the minnesinger and troubadour fiddles, of which evidences abound
+during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, are to be observed the
+structural characteristics of the violin and its ancestors in the course
+of evolution. The principal of these are first of all the shallow
+sound-chest, composed of belly and back, almost flat, connected by ribs
+(also present in the cithara), with incurvations more or less
+pronounced, an arched bridge, a finger-board and strings (varying in
+number), vibrated by means of a bow. The central rose sound-holes of
+stringed instruments whose strings are plucked by fingers, or plectrum
+have given place to smaller lateral sound-holes placed on each side of
+the strings. It is in Germany,[2] where contemporary drawings of fiddles
+of the 13th and 14th centuries furnish an authoritative clue, and in
+France, that the development may best be followed. The German
+minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders was the prototype of the
+viols, whereas the guitar-fiddle produced the violin through the
+intermediary of the Italian bowed _Lyra_.
+
+[Illustration: From Julius Ruhlmann's _Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_.
+
+Minnesinger Fiddle. Germany, 13th Century, from the Manesse MSS.]
+
+The fiddle of the Carolingian epoch,--such, for instance, as that
+mentioned by Otfrid of Weissenburg[3] in his _Harmony of the Gospels_
+(c. 868),
+
+  "Sih thar ouch al ruarit
+   This organo fuarit
+   Lira joh fidula," &c.,--
+
+was in all probability still an instrument whose strings were plucked by
+the fingers, a cithara in transition.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See C.E.H. de Coussemaker, Memoire sur Hucbald (Paris, 1841).
+
+  [2] See the Manesse MSS. reproduced in part by F.H. von der Hagen,
+    _Heldenbilder_ (Leipzig and Berlin, 1855) and _Bildersaal_. The
+    fiddles are reproduced in J. Ruhlmann's _Geschichte der
+    Bogeninstrumente_ (Brunswick, 1882), plates.
+
+  [3] See Schiller's _Thesaurus antiq. Teut._ vol. i. p. 379.
+
+
+
+
+FIDENAE, an ancient town of Latium, situated about 5 m. N. of Rome on
+the Via Salaria, which ran between it and the Tiber. It was for some
+while the frontier of the Roman territory and was often in the hands of
+Veii. It appears to have fallen under the Roman sway after the capture
+of this town, and is spoken of by classical authors as a place almost
+deserted in their time. It seems, however, to have had some importance
+as a post station. The site of the _arx_ of the ancient town is probably
+to be sought on the hill on which lies the Villa Spada, though no traces
+of early buildings or defences are to be seen: pre-Roman tombs are to be
+found in the cliffs to the north. The later village lay at the foot of
+the hill on the eastern edge of the high-road, and its _curia_, with a
+dedicatory inscription to M. Aurelius by the _Senatus Fidenatium_, was
+excavated in 1889. Remains of other buildings may also be seen.
+
+  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 17.
+
+
+
+
+FIDUCIARY (Lat. _fiduciaries_, one in whom trust, fiducia, is reposed),
+of or belonging to a position of trust, especially of one who stands in
+a particular relationship of confidence to another. Such relationships
+are, in law, those of parent and child, guardian and ward, trustee and
+_cestui que trust_, legal adviser and client, spiritual adviser, doctor
+and patient, &c. In many of these the law has attached special
+obligations in the case of gifts made to the "fiduciary," on whom is
+laid the onus of proving that no "undue influence" has been exercised.
+(See CONTRACT; CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; INFANT; TRUST.)
+
+
+
+
+FIEF, a feudal estate in land, land held from a superior (see
+FEUDALISM). The word is the French form, which is represented in
+Medieval Latin as _feudum_ or _feodum_, and in English as "fee" or "feu"
+(see FEE). The A. Fr. _feoffer_, to invest with a fief or fee, has given
+the English law terms "feoffee" and "feoffment" (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892), American capitalist, projector of the
+first Atlantic cable, was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the
+30th of November 1819. He was a brother of David Dudley Field. At
+fifteen he became a clerk in the store of A.T. Stewart & Co., of New
+York, and stayed there three years; then worked for two years with his
+brother, Matthew Dickinson Field, in a paper-mill at Lee, Massachusetts;
+and in 1840 went into the paper business for himself at Westfield,
+Massachusetts, but almost immediately became a partner in E. Root & Co.,
+wholesale paper dealers in New York City, who failed in the following
+year. Field soon afterwards formed with a brother-in-law the firm of
+Cyrus W. Field & Co., and in 1853 had accumulated $250,000, paid off the
+debts of the Root company and retired from active business, leaving his
+name and $100,000 with the concern. In the same year he travelled with
+Frederick E. Church, the artist, through South America. In 1854 he
+became interested, through his brother Matthew, a civil engineer, in the
+project of Frederick Newton Gisborne (1824-1892) for a telegraph across
+Newfoundland; and he was attracted by the idea of a trans-Atlantic
+telegraphic cable, as to which he consulted S.F.B. Morse and Matthew F.
+Maury, head of the National Observatory at Washington. With Peter
+Cooper, Moses Taylor (1806-1882), Marshall Owen Roberts (1814-1880) and
+Chandler White, he formed the New York, Newfoundland & London Telegraph
+Company, which procured a more favourable charter than Gisborne's, and
+had a capital of $1,500,000. Having secured all the practicable landing
+rights on the American side of the ocean, he and John W. Brett, who was
+now his principal colleague, approached Sir Charles Bright (q.v.) in
+London, and in December 1556 the Atlantic Telegraph Company was
+organized by them in Great Britain, a government grant being secured of
+L14,000 annually for government messages, to be reduced to L10,000
+annually when the cable should pay a 6% yearly dividend; similar grants
+were made by the United States government. Unsuccessful attempts to lay
+the cable were made in August 1857 and in June 1858, but the complete
+cable was laid between the 7th of July and the 5th of August 1858; for a
+time messages were transmitted, but in October the cable became useless,
+owing to the failure of its electrical insulation. Field, however, did
+not abandon the enterprise, and finally in July 1866, after a futile
+attempt in the previous year, a cable was laid and brought successfully
+into use. From the Congress of the United States he received a gold
+medal and a vote of thanks, and he received many other honours both at
+home and abroad. In 1877 he bought a controlling interest in the New
+York Elevated Railroad Company, controlling the Third and Ninth Avenue
+lines, of which he was president in 1877-1880. He worked with Jay Gould
+for the completion of the Wabash railway, and at the time of his
+greatest stock activity bought _The New York Evening Express_ and _The
+Mail_ and combined them as _The Mail and Express_, which he controlled
+for six years. In 1879 Field suffered financially by Samuel J. Tilden's
+heavy sales (during Field's absence in Europe) of "Elevated" stock,
+which forced the price down from 200 to 164; but Field lost much more in
+the great "Manhattan squeeze" of the 24th of June 1887, when Jay Gould
+and Russell Sage, who had been supposed to be his backers in an attempt
+to bring the Elevated stock to 200, forsook him, and the price fell from
+156-1/2 to 114 in half an hour. Field died in New York on the 12th of
+July 1892.
+
+  See the biography by his daughter, Isabella (Field) Judson, _Cyrus W.
+  Field, His Life and Work_ (New York, 1896); H.M. Field, _History of
+  the Atlantic Telegraph_ (New York, 1866); and Charles Bright, _The
+  Story of the Atlantic Cable_ (New York, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (1805-1894), American lawyer and law reformer, was
+born in Haddam, Connecticut, on the 13th of February 1805. He was the
+oldest of the four sons of the Rev. David Dudley Field (1781-1867), a
+well-known American clergyman and author. He graduated at Williams
+College in 1825, and settled in New York City, where he studied law, was
+admitted to the bar in 1828, and rapidly won a high position in his
+profession. Becoming convinced that the common law in America, and
+particularly in New York state, needed radical changes in respect to the
+unification and simplification of its procedure, he visited Europe in
+1836 and thoroughly investigated the courts, procedure and codes of
+England, France and other countries, and then applied himself to the
+task of bringing about in the United States a codification of the common
+law procedure. For more than forty years every moment that he could
+spare from his extensive practice was devoted to this end. He entered
+upon his great work by a systematic publication of pamphlets and
+articles in journals and magazines in behalf of his reform, but for some
+years he met with a discouraging lack of interest. He appeared
+personally before successive legislative committees, and in 1846
+published a pamphlet, "The Reorganization of the Judiciary," which had
+its influence in persuading the New York State Constitutional Convention
+of that year to report in favour of a codification of the laws. Finally
+in 1847 he was appointed as the head of a state commission to revise the
+practice and procedure. The first part of the commission's work,
+consisting of a code of civil procedure, was reported and enacted in
+1848, and by the 1st of January 1850 the complete code of civil and
+criminal procedure was completed, and was subsequently enacted by the
+legislature. The basis of the new system, which was almost entirely
+Field's work, was the abolition of the existing distinction in forms of
+procedure between suits in law and equity requiring separate actions,
+and their unification and simplification in a single action. Eventually
+the civil code with some changes was adopted in twenty-four states, and
+the criminal code in eighteen, and the whole formed a basis of the
+reform in procedure in England and several of her colonies. In 1857
+Field became chairman of a state commission for the reduction into a
+written and systematic code of the whole body of law of the state,
+excepting those portions already reported upon by the Commissioners of
+Practice and Pleadings. In this work he personally prepared almost the
+whole of the political and civil codes. The codification, which was
+completed in February 1865, was adopted only in small part by the state,
+but it has served as a model after which most of the law codes of the
+United States have been constructed. In 1866 he proposed to the British
+National Association for the Promotion of Social Science a revision and
+codification of the laws of all nations. For an international commission
+of lawyers he prepared _Draft Outlines of an International Code_ (1872),
+the submission of which resulted in the organization of the
+international Association for the Reform and Codification of the Laws of
+Nations, of which he became president. In politics Field was originally
+an anti-slavery Democrat, and he supported Van Buren in the Free Soil
+campaign of 1848. He gave his support to the Republican party in 1856
+and to the Lincoln administration throughout the Civil War. After 1876,
+however, he returned to the Democratic party, and from January to March
+1877 served out in Congress the unexpired term of Smith Ely, elected
+mayor of New York City. During his brief Congressional career he
+delivered six speeches, all of which attracted attention, introduced a
+bill in regard to the presidential succession, and appeared before the
+Electoral Commission in Tilden's interest. He died in New York City on
+the 13th of April 1894.
+
+  Part of his numerous pamphlets and addresses were collected in his
+  _Speeches, Arguments and Miscellaneous Papers_ (3 vols., 1884-1890).
+  See also the _Life of David Dudley Field_ (New York, 1898), by Rev.
+  Henry Martyn Field.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895), American poet, was born at St Louis,
+Missouri, on the 2nd of September 1850. He spent his boyhood in Vermont
+and Massachusetts; studied for short periods at Williams and Knox
+Colleges and the University of Missouri, but without taking a degree;
+and worked as a journalist on various papers, finally becoming connected
+with the Chicago _News_. _A Little Book of Profitable Tales_ appeared in
+Chicago in 1889 and in New York the next year; but Field's place in
+later American literature chiefly depends upon his poems of
+Christmas-time and childhood (of which "Little Boy Blue" and "A Dutch
+Lullaby" are most widely known), because of their union of obvious
+sentiment with fluent lyrical form. His principal collections of poems
+are: _A Little Book of Western Verse_ (1889); _A Second Book of Verse_
+(1892); _With Trumpet and Drum_ (1892); and _Love Songs of Childhood_
+(1894). Field died at Chicago on the 4th of November 1895.
+
+  His works were collected in ten volumes (1896), at New York. His prose
+  _Love-affairs of a Bibliomaniac_ (1896) contains a Memoir by his
+  brother Roswell Martin Field (b. 1851). See also Slason Thompson,
+  _Eugene Field: a study in heredity and contradictions_ (2 vols., New
+  York, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, FREDERICK (1801-1885), English divine and biblical scholar, was
+born in London and educated at Christ's hospital and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship in 1824. He took orders in
+1828, and began a close study of patristic theology. Eventually he
+published an emended and annotated text of Chrysostom's _Homiliae in
+Matthaeum_ (Cambridge, 1839), and some years later he contributed to
+Pusey's _Bibliotheca Patrum_ (Oxford, 1838-1870), a similarly treated
+text of Chrysostom's homilies on Paul's epistles. The scholarship
+displayed in both of these critical editions is of a very high order. In
+1839 he had accepted the living of Great Saxham, in Suffolk, and in 1842
+he was presented by his college to the rectory of Reepham in Norfolk. He
+resigned in 1863, and settled at Norwich, in order to devote his whole
+time to study. Twelve years later he completed the _Origenis Hexaplorum
+quae supersunt_ (Oxford, 1867-1875), now well known as _Field's
+Hexapla_, a text reconstructed from the extant fragments of Origen's
+work of that name, together with materials drawn from the
+_Syro-hexaplar_ version and the _Septuagint_ of Holmes and Parsons
+(Oxford, 1798-1827). Field was appointed a member of the Old Testament
+revision company in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907), American author and clergyman, brother
+of Cyrus Field, was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of
+April 1822; he graduated at Williams College in 1838, and was pastor of
+a Presbyterian church in St Louis, Missouri, from 1842 to 1847, and of a
+Congregational church in West Springfield, Massachusetts, from 1850 to
+1854. The interval between his two pastorates he spent in Europe. From
+1854 to 1898 he was editor and for many years he was also sole
+proprietor of _The Evangelist_, a New York periodical devoted to the
+interests of the Presbyterian church. He spent the last years of his
+life in retirement at Stockbridge, Mass., where he died on the 26th of
+January 1907. He was the author of a series of books of travel, which
+achieved unusual popularity. His two volumes descriptive of a trip round
+the world in 1875-1876, entitled _From the Lakes of Killarney to the
+Golden Horn_ (1876) and _From Egypt to Japan_ (1877), are almost classic
+in their way, and have passed through more than twenty editions. Among
+his other publications are _The Irish Confederates and the Rebellion of
+1798_ (1850), _The History of the Atlantic Telegraph_ (1866), _Faith or
+Agnosticism? the Field-Ingersoll Discussion_ (1888), _Old Spain and New
+Spain_ (1888), and _Life of David Dudley Field_ (1898).
+
+He is not to be confused with another HENRY MARTYN FIELD, the
+gynaecologist, who was born in 1837 at Brighton, Mass., and graduated at
+Harvard in 1859 and at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New
+York City in 1862; he was professor of Materia Medica and therapeutics
+at Dartmouth from 1871 to 1887 and of therapeutics from 1887 to 1893.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, JOHN (1782-1837), English musical composer and pianist, was born
+at Dublin in 1782. He came of a musical family, his father being a
+violinist, and his grandfather the organist in one of the churches of
+Dublin. From the latter the boy received his first musical education.
+When a few years later the family settled in London, Field became the
+favourite pupil of the celebrated Clementi, whom he accompanied to
+Paris, and later, in 1802, on his great concert tour through France,
+Germany and Russia. Under the auspices of his master Field appeared in
+public in most of the great European capitals, especially in St
+Petersburg, and in that city he remained when Clementi returned to
+England. During his stay with the great pianist Field had to suffer many
+privations owing to Clementi's all but unexampled parsimony; but when
+the latter left Russia his splendid connexion amongst the highest
+circles of the capital became Field's inheritance. His marriage with a
+French lady of the name of Charpentier was anything but happy, and had
+soon to be dissolved. Field made frequent concert tours to the chief
+cities of Russia, and in 1820 settled permanently in Moscow. In 1831 he
+came to England for a short time, and for the next four years led a
+migratory life in France, Germany and Italy, exciting the admiration of
+amateurs wherever he appeared in public. In Naples he fell seriously
+ill, and lay several months in the hospital, till a Russian family
+discovered him and brought him back to Moscow. There he lingered for
+several years till his death on the 11th of January 1837. Field's
+training and the cast of his genius were not of a kind to enable him to
+excel in the larger forms of instrumental music, and his seven concerti
+for the pianoforte are now forgotten. Neither do his quartets for
+strings and pianoforte hold their own by the side of those of the great
+masters. But his "nocturnes," a form of music highly developed if not
+actually created by him, remain all but unrivalled for their tenderness
+and dreaminess of conception, combined with a continuous flow of
+beautiful melody. They were indeed Chopin's models. Field's execution on
+the pianoforte was nearly allied to the nature of his compositions,
+beauty and poetical charm of touch being one of the chief
+characteristics of his style. Moscheles, who heard Field in 1831, speaks
+of his "enchanting legato, his tenderness and elegance and his beautiful
+touch."
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, MARSHALL (1835-1906), American merchant, was born at Conway,
+Massachusetts, on the 18th of August 1835. Reared on a farm, he obtained
+a common school and academy education, and at the age of seventeen
+became a clerk in a dry goods store at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1856 he
+removed to Chicago, where he became a clerk in the large mercantile
+establishment of Cooley, Wadsworth & Company. In 1860 the firm was
+reorganized as Cooley, Farwell & Company, and he was admitted to a
+junior partnership. In 1865, with Potter Palmer (1826-1902) and Levi Z.
+Leiter (1834-1904), he organized the firm of Field, Palmer & Leiter,
+which subsequently became Field, Leiter & Company, and in 1881 on the
+retirement of Leiter became Marshall Field & Company. Under Field's
+management the annual business of the firm increased from $12,000,000 in
+1871 to more than $40,000,000 in 1895, when it ranked as one of the two
+or three largest mercantile establishments in the world. He died in New
+York city on the 16th of January 1906. He had married, for the second
+time, in the previous year. Field's public benefactions were numerous;
+notable among them being his gift of land valued at $300,000 and of
+$100,000 in cash to the University of Chicago, an endowment fund of
+$1,000,000 to support the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, and a
+bequest of $8,000,000 to this museum.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, NATHAN (1587-1633), English dramatist and actor, was baptized on
+the 17th of October 1587. His father, the rector of Cripplegate, was a
+Puritan divine, author of a _Godly Exhortation_ directed against
+play-acting, and his brother Theophilus became bishop of Hereford. Nat.
+Field early became one of the children of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and
+in that capacity he played leading parts in Ben Jonson's _Cynthia's
+Revels_ (in 1600), in the _Poetaster_ (in 1601), and in _Epicoene_ (in
+1608), and the title role in Chapman's _Bussy d'Ambois_ (in 1606). Ben
+Jonson was his dramatic model, and may have helped his career. The two
+plays of which he was author were probably both written before 1611.
+They are boisterous, but well-constructed comedies of contemporary
+London life; the earlier one, _A Woman is a Weathercock_ (printed 1612),
+dealing with the inconstancy of woman, while the second, _Amends for
+Ladies_ (printed 1618), was written with the intention, as the title
+indicates, of retracting the charge. From Henslowe's papers it appears
+that Field collaborated with Robert Daborne and with Philip Massinger,
+one letter from all three authors being a joint appeal for money to free
+them from prison. In 1614 Field received L10 for playing before the king
+in _Bartholomew Fair_, a play in which Jonson records his reputation as
+an actor in the words "which is your Burbadge now?... Your best actor,
+your Field?" He joined the King's Players some time before 1619, and his
+name comes seventeenth on the list prefixed to the Shakespeare folio of
+1623 of the "principal actors in all these plays." He retired from the
+stage before 1625, and died on the 20th of February 1633. Field was part
+author with Massinger in the _Fatal Dowry_ (printed 1632), and he
+prefixed commendatory verses to Fletcher's _Faithful Shepherdess_.
+
+  His two plays were reprinted in J.P. Collier's _Five Old Plays_
+  (1833), in Hazlitt's edition of _Dodsley's Old Plays_, and in _Nero
+  and other Plays_ (Mermaid series, 1888), with an introduction by Mr
+  A.W. Verity.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899), American jurist, was born at Haddam,
+Connecticut, on the 4th of November 1816. He was the brother of David
+Dudley Field, Cyrus W. Field and Henry M. Field. At the age of thirteen
+he accompanied his sister Emilia and her husband the Rev. Josiah Brewer
+(the parents of the distinguished judge of the Supreme Court, David J.
+Brewer) to Smyrna, Turkey, for the purpose of studying Oriental
+languages, but after three years he returned to the United States, and
+in 1837 graduated at Williams College at the head of his class. He then
+studied law in his elder brother's office, and in 1841 he was admitted
+to the New York bar. He was associated in practice there with his
+brother until 1848, and early in 1849 removed to California, settling
+soon afterward at Marysville, of which place, in 1850, he became the
+first alcalde or mayor. In the same year he was chosen a member of the
+first state legislature of California, in which he drew up and secured
+the enactment of two bodies of law known as the Civil and Criminal
+Practices Acts, based on the similar codes prepared by his brother David
+Dudley for New York. In the former act he embodied a provision
+regulating and giving authority to the peculiar customs, usages, and
+regulations voluntarily adopted by the miners in various districts of
+the state for the adjudication of disputed mining claims. This, as Judge
+Field truly says, "was the foundation of the jurisprudence respecting
+mines in the country," having greatly influenced legislation upon this
+subject in other states and in the Congress of the United States. He was
+elected, in 1857, a justice of the California Supreme Court, of which he
+became chief justice in 1859, on the resignation of Judge David S. Terry
+to fight the duel with the United States senator David C. Broderick
+which ended fatally for the latter. Field held this position until 1863,
+when he was appointed by President Lincoln a justice of the United
+States Supreme Court. In this capacity he was conspicuous for fearless
+independence of thought and action in his opinion in the test oath case,
+and in his dissenting opinions in the legal tender, conscription and
+"slaughter house" cases, which displayed unusual legal learning, and
+gave powerful expression to his strict constructionist theory of the
+implied powers of the Federal constitution. Originally a Democrat, and
+always a believer in states' rights, his strong Union sentiments caused
+him nevertheless to accept Lincoln's doctrine of coercion, and that,
+together with his anti-slavery sympathies, led him to act with the
+Republican party during the period of the Civil War. He was a member of
+the commission which revised the California code in 1873 and of the
+Electoral Commission in 1877, voting in favour of Tilden. In 1880 he
+received sixty-five votes on the first ballot for the presidential
+nomination at the Democratic National Convention at Cincinnati. In
+August 1889, as a result of a ruling in the course of the Sharon-Hill
+litigation, a notorious conspiracy case, he was assaulted in a
+California railway station by Judge David S. Terry, who in turn was shot
+and killed by a United States deputy marshall appointed to defend
+Justice Field against the carrying out of Terry's often-expressed
+threats. He retired from the Supreme Court on the 1st of December 1897
+after a service of thirty-four years and six months, the longest in the
+court's history, and died in Washington on the 9th of April 1899.
+
+  His _Personal Reminiscences of Early Days in California_, originally
+  privately printed in 1878, was republished in 1893 with George C.
+  Gorham's _Story of the Attempted Assassination of Justice Field_.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907), English judge, second
+son of Thomas Flint Field, of Fielden, Bedfordshire, was born on the
+21st of August 1813. He was educated at King's school, Bruton,
+Somersetshire, and entered the legal profession as a solicitor. In 1843,
+however, he ceased to practise as such, and entered at the Inner Temple,
+being called to the bar in 1850, after having practised for some time as
+a special pleader. He joined the Western circuit, but soon exchanged it
+for the Midland. He obtained a large business as a junior, and became a
+queen's counsel and bencher of his inn in 1864. As a Q.C. he had a very
+extensive common law practice, and had for some time been the leader of
+the Midland circuit, when in February 1875, on the retirement of Mr
+Justice Keating, he was raised to the bench as a justice of the queen's
+bench. Mr Justice Field was an excellent puisne judge of the type that
+attracts but little public attention. He was a first-rate lawyer, had a
+good knowledge of commercial matters, great shrewdness and a quick
+intellect, while he was also painstaking and scrupulously fair. When the
+rules of the Supreme Court 1883 came into force in the autumn of that
+year, Mr Justice Field was so well recognized an authority upon all
+questions of practice that the lord chancellor selected him to sit
+continuously at Judges' Chambers, in order that a consistent practice
+under the new rules might as far as possible be established. This he did
+for nearly a year, and his name will always, to a large extent, be
+associated with the settling of the details of the new procedure, which
+finally did away with the former elaborate system of "special pleading."
+In 1890 he retired from the bench and was raised to the peerage as Baron
+Field of Bakeham, becoming at the same time a member of the privy
+council. In the House of Lords he at first took part, not infrequently,
+in the hearing of appeals, and notably delivered a carefully-reasoned
+judgment in the case of the _Bank of England_ v. _Vagliano Brothers_
+(5th of March 1891), in which, with Lord Bramwell, he differed from the
+majority of his brother peers. Before long, however, deafness and
+advancing years rendered his attendances less frequent. Lord Field died
+at Bognor on the 23rd of January 1907, and as he left no issue the
+peerage became extinct.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. _Feld_,
+Dutch _veld_, possibly cognate with O.E. _folde_, the earth, and
+ultimately with root of the Gr. [Greek: platos], broad), open country as
+opposed to woodland or to the town, and particularly land for
+cultivation divided up into separate portions by hedges, banks, stone
+walls, &c.; also used in combination with words denoting the crop grown
+on such a portion of land, such as corn-field, turnip-field, &c. The
+word is similarly applied to a region with particular reference to its
+products, as oil-field, gold-field, &c. For the "open" or "common field"
+system of agriculture in village communities see COMMONS. Generally with
+a reference to their "wild" as opposed to their "domestic" nature
+"field" is applied to many animals, such as the "field-mouse." There are
+many applications of the word; thus from the use of the term for the
+place where a battle is fought, and widely of the whole theatre of war,
+come such phrases as to "take the field" for the opening of a campaign,
+"in the field" of troops that are engaged in the operations of a
+campaign. It is frequently used figuratively in this sense, of the
+subject matter of a controversy, and also appears in military usage, in
+field-fortification, field-day and the like. A "field-officer" is one
+who ranks above a captain and below a general (see OFFICERS); a field
+marshal is the highest rank of general officer in the British and many
+European armies (see MARSHAL). "Field" is used in many games, partly
+with the idea of an enclosed space, partly with the idea of the ground
+of military operations, for the ground in which such games as cricket,
+football, baseball and the like are played. Hence it is applied to those
+players in cricket and baseball who are not "in," and "to field" is to
+perform the functions of such a player--to stop or catch the ball played
+by the "in" side. "The field" is used in hunting, &c., for those taking
+part in the sport, and in racing for all the horses entered for a race,
+and, in such expressions as "to back the field," is confined to all the
+horses with the exception of the "favourite." A common application of
+the word is to a surface, more or less wide, as of the sky or sea, or of
+such physical phenomena as ice or snow, and particularly of the ground,
+of a special "tincture," on which armorial bearings are displayed (see
+HERALDRY); it is thus used also of the "ground" of a flag, thus the
+white ensign of the British navy has a red St George's cross on a white
+"field." In scientific usage the word is also used of the sphere of
+observation or of operations, and has come to be almost equivalent to a
+department of knowledge. In physics, a particular application is that to
+the area which is influenced by some agent, as in the magnetic or
+electric field. The field of observation or view is the area within
+which objects can be seen through any optical instrument at any one
+position. A "field-glass" is the name given to a binocular glass used in
+the field (see BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT); the older form of field-glass was
+a small achromatic telescope with joints. This terms is also applied, in
+an astronomical telescope or compound microscope, to that one of the
+two lenses of the "eye-piece" which is next to the object-glass; the
+other is called the "eye-glass."
+
+
+
+
+FIELDFARE (O.E. _fealo-for_ = fallow-farer), a large species of thrush,
+the _Turdus pilaris_ of Linnaeus--well known as a regular and common
+autumnal visitor throughout the British Islands and a great part of
+Europe, besides western Asia, and even reaching northern Africa. It is
+the _Veldjakker_ and _Veld-lyster_ of the Dutch, the _Wachholderdrossel_
+and _Kramtsvogel_ of Germans, the _Litorne_ of the French, and the
+_Cesena_ of Italians. This bird is of all thrushes the most gregarious
+in. habit, not only migrating in large bands and keeping in flocks
+during the winter, but even commonly breeding in society--200 nests or
+more having been seen within a very small space. The birch-forests of
+Norway, Sweden and Russia are its chief resorts in summer, but it is
+known also to breed sparingly in some districts of Germany. Though its
+nest has been many times reported to have been found in Scotland, there
+is perhaps no record of such an incident that is not open to doubt; and
+unquestionably the missel-thrush (_T. viscivorus_) has been often
+mistaken for the fieldfare by indifferent observers. The head, neck,
+upper part of the back and the rump are grey; the wings, wing-coverts
+and middle of the back are rich hazel-brown; the throat is ochraceous;
+and the breast reddish-brown--both being streaked or spotted with black,
+while the belly and lower wing-coverts are white, and the legs and toes
+very dark-brown. The nest and eggs resemble those of the blackbird (_T.
+merula_), but the former is usually built high up in a tree. The
+fieldfare's call-note is harsh and loud, sounding like _t'chatt'chat_:
+its song is low, twittering and poor. It usually arrives in Britain
+about the middle or end of October, but sometimes earlier, and often
+remains till the middle of May before departing for its northern
+breeding-places. In hard weather it throngs to the berry-bearing bushes
+which then afford it sustenance, but in open winters the flocks spread
+over the fields in search of animal food--worms, slugs and the larvae of
+insects. In very severe seasons it will altogether leave the country,
+and then return for a shorter or longer time as spring approaches. From
+_William of Palerne_ (translated from the French c. 1350) to the writers
+of our own day the fieldfare has occasionally been noticed by British
+poets with varying propriety. Thus Chaucer's association Of its name
+with frost is as happy as true, while Scott was more than unlucky in his
+well-known reference to its "lowly nest" in the Highlands.
+
+Structurally very like the fieldfare, but differing greatly in many
+other respects, is the bird known in North America as the "robin"--its
+ruddy breast and familiar habits reminding the early British settlers in
+the New World of the household favourite of their former homes. This
+bird, the _Turdus migratorius_ of Linnaeus, has a wide geographical
+range, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Greenland to
+Guatemala, and, except at its extreme limits, is almost everywhere a
+very abundant species. As its scientific name imports, it is essentially
+a migrant, and gathers in flocks to pass the winter in the south, though
+a few remain in New England throughout the year. Yet its social
+instincts point rather in the direction of man than of its own kind, and
+it is not known to breed in companies, while it affects the homesteads,
+villages and even the parks and gardens of the large cities, where its
+fine song, its attractive plumage, and its great services as a destroyer
+of noxious insects, combine to make it justly popular.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855), commonly called Copley
+Fielding, English landscape painter (son of a portrait painter), became
+at an early age a pupil of John Varley. He took to water-colour
+painting, and to this he confined himself almost exclusively. In 1810 he
+became an associate exhibitor in the Water-colour Society, in 1813 a
+full member, and in 1831 president of that body. He also engaged largely
+in teaching the art, and made ample profits. His death took place at
+Worthing in March 1855. Copley Fielding was a painter of much elegance,
+taste and accomplishment, and has always been highly popular with
+purchasers, without reaching very high in originality of purpose or of
+style: he painted in vast number all sorts of views (occasionally in
+oil-colour) including marine subjects in large proportion. Specimens of
+his work are to be seen in the water-colour gallery of the Victoria and
+Albert Museum, of dates ranging from 1829 to 1850. Among the engraved
+specimens of his art is the _Annual of British Landscape Scenery_,
+published in 1839.     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754), English novelist and playwright, was born
+at Sharpham Park, near Glastonbury, Somerset, on the 22nd of April 1707.
+His father was Lieutenant Edmund Fielding, third son of John Fielding,
+who was canon of Salisbury and fifth son of the earl of Desmond. The
+earl of Desmond belonged to the younger branch of the Denbigh family,
+who, until lately, were supposed to be connected with the Habsburgs. To
+this claim, now discredited by the researches of Mr J. Horace Round
+(_Studies in Peerage_, 1901, pp. 216-249), is to be attributed the
+famous passage in Gibbon's _Autobiography_ which predicts for _Tom
+Jones_--"that exquisite picture of human manners"--a diuturnity
+exceeding that of the house of Austria. Henry Fielding's mother was
+Sarah Gould, daughter of Sir Henry Gould, a judge of the king's bench.
+It is probable that the marriage was not approved by her father, since,
+though she remained at Sharpham Park for some time after that event, his
+will provided that her husband should have nothing to do with a legacy
+of L3000 left her in 1710. About this date the Fieldings moved to East
+Stour in Dorset. Two girls, Catherine and Ursula, had apparently been
+born at Sharpham Park; and three more, together with a son, Edmund,
+followed at East Stour. Sarah, the third of the daughters, born November
+1710, and afterwards the author of _David Simple_ and other works,
+survived her brother.
+
+Fielding's education up to his mother's death, which took place in April
+1718 at East Stour, seems to have been entrusted to a neighbouring
+clergyman, Mr Oliver of Motcombe, in whom tradition traces the uncouth
+lineaments of "Parson Trulliber" in _Joseph Andrews_. But he must have
+contrived, nevertheless, to prepare his pupil for Eton, to which place
+Fielding went about this date, probably as an oppidan. Little is known
+of his schooldays. There is no record of his name in the college lists;
+but, if we may believe his first biographer, Arthur Murphy, by no means
+an unimpeachable authority, he left "uncommonly versed in the Greek
+authors, and an early master of the Latin classics,"--a statement which
+should perhaps be qualified by his own words to Sir Robert Walpole in
+1730:--
+
+  "Tuscan and French are in my head;
+   Latin I write, and Greek--I read."
+
+But he certainly made friends among his class-fellows--some of whom
+continued friends for life. Winnington and Hanbury-Williams were among
+these. The chief, however, and the most faithful, was George, afterwards
+Sir George, and later Baron Lyttelton of Frankley.
+
+When Fielding left Eton is unknown. But in November 1725 we hear of him
+definitely in what seems like a characteristic escapade. He was staying
+at Lyme (in company with a trusty retainer, ready to "beat, maim or
+kill" in his young master's behalf), and apparently bent on carrying
+off, if necessary by force, a local heiress, Miss Sarah Andrew, whose
+fluttered guardians promptly hurried her away, and married her to some
+one else (_Athenaeum_, 2nd June 1883). Her baffled admirer consoled
+himself by translating part of Juvenal's sixth satire into verse as "all
+the Revenge taken by an injured Lover." After this he must have lived
+the usual life of a young man about town, and probably at this date
+improved the acquaintance of his second cousin, Lady Mary Wortley
+Montagu, to whom he inscribed his first comedy, _Love in Several
+Masques_, produced at Drury Lane in February 1728. The moment was not
+particularly favourable, since it succeeded Cibber's _Provok'd Husband_,
+and was contemporary with Gay's popular _Beggar's Opera_. Almost
+immediately afterwards (March 16th) Fielding entered himself as "Stud.
+Lit." at Leiden University. He was still there in February 1729. But he
+had apparently left before the annual registration of February 1730,
+when his name is absent from the books (_Macmillan's Magazine_, April
+1907); and in January 1730 he brought out a second comedy at the
+newly-opened theatre in Goodman's Fields. Like its predecessor, the
+_Temple Beau_ was an essay in the vein of Congreve and Wycherley,
+though, in a measure, an advance on _Love in Several Masques_.
+
+With the _Temple Beau_ Fielding's dramatic career definitely begins. His
+father had married again; and his Leiden career had been interrupted for
+lack of funds. Nominally, he was entitled to an allowance of L200 a
+year; but this (he was accustomed to say) "any body might pay that
+would." Young, handsome, ardent and fond of pleasure, he began that
+career as a hand-to-mouth playwright around which so much legend has
+gathered--and gathers. Having--in his own words--no choice but to be a
+hackney coachman or a hackney writer, he chose the pen; and his
+inclinations, as well as his opportunities, led him to the stage. From
+1730 to 1736 he rapidly brought out a large number of pieces, most of
+which had merit enough to secure their being acted, but not sufficient
+to earn a lasting reputation for their author. His chief successes, from
+a critical point of view, the _Author's Farce_ (1730) and _Tom Thumb_
+(1730, 1731), were burlesques; and he also was fortunate in two
+translations from Moliere, the _Mock Doctor_ (1732) and the _Miser_
+(1733). Of the rest (with one or two exceptions, to be mentioned
+presently) the names need only be recorded. They are _The Coffee-House
+Politician_, a comedy (1730); _The Letter Writers_, a farce (1731); _The
+Grub-Street Opera_, a burlesque (1731); _The Lottery_, a farce (1732);
+_The Modern Husband_, a comedy (1732); _The Covent Garden Tragedy_, a
+burlesque (1732); _The Old Debauchees_, a comedy (1732); _Deborah; or, a
+Wife for you all_, an after-piece (1733); _The Intriguing Chambermaid_
+(from Regnard), a two-act comedy (1734); and _Don Quixote in England_, a
+comedy, which had been partly sketched at Leiden.
+
+_Don Quixote_ was produced in 1734, and the list of plays may be here
+interrupted by an event of which the date has only recently been
+ascertained, namely, Fielding's first marriage. This took place on the
+28th of November 1734 at St Mary, Charlcornbe, near Bath (_Macmillan's
+Magazine_, April 1907), the lady being a Salisbury beauty, Miss
+Charlotte Cradock, of whom he had been an admirer, if not a suitor, as
+far back as 1730. This is a fact which should be taken into
+consideration in estimating the exact Bohemianism of his London life,
+for there is no doubt that he was devotedly attached to her. After a
+fresh farce entitled _An Old Man taught Wisdom_, and the comparative
+failure of a new comedy, _The Universal Gallant_, both produced early in
+1735, he seems for a time to have retired with his bride, who came into
+L1500, to his old home at East Stour. Around this rural seclusion
+fiction has freely accreted. He is supposed to have lived for three
+years on the footing of a typical 18th-century country gentleman; to
+have kept a pack of hounds; to have put his servants into impossible
+yellow liveries; and generally, by profuse hospitality and reckless
+expenditure, to have made rapid duck and drake of Mrs Fielding's modest
+legacy. Something of this is demonstrably false; much, grossly
+exaggerated. In any case, he was in London as late as February 1735 (the
+date of the "Preface" to _The Universal Gallant_); and early in March
+1736 he was back again managing the Haymarket theatre with a so-called
+"_Great Mogul's_ Company of _English_ Comedians."
+
+Upon this new enterprise fortune, at the outset, seemed to smile. The
+first piece (produced on the 5th of March) was _Pasquin, a Dramatick
+Satire on the Times_ (a piece akin in its plan to Buckingham's
+_Rehearsal_), which contained, in addition to much admirable burlesque,
+a good deal of very direct criticism of the shameless political
+corruption of the Walpole era. Its success was unmistakable; and when,
+after bringing out the remarkable _Fatal Curiosity_ of George Lillo, its
+author followed up _Pasquin_ by the _Historical Register for the Year
+1736_, of which the effrontery was even more daring than that of its
+predecessor, the ministry began to bethink themselves that matters were
+going too far. How they actually effected their object is obscure: but
+grounds were speedily concocted for the Licensing Act of 1737, which
+restricted the number of theatres, rendered the lord chamberlain's
+licence an indispensable preliminary to stage representation, and--in a
+word--effectually put an end to Fielding's career as a dramatist.
+
+Whether, had that career been prolonged to its maturity, the result
+would have enriched the theatrical repertoire with a new species of
+burlesque, or reinforced it with fresh variations on the "wit-traps" of
+Wycherley and Congreve, is one of those inquiries that are more academic
+than, profitable. What may be affirmed is, that Fielding's plays, as we
+have them, exhibit abundant invention and ingenuity; that they are full
+of humour and high spirits; that, though they may have been hastily
+written, they were by no means thoughtlessly constructed; and that, in
+composing them, their author attentively considered either managerial
+hints, or the conditions of the market. Against this, one must set the
+fact that they are often immodest; and that, whatever their intrinsic
+merit, they have failed to rival in permanent popularity the work of
+inferior men. Fielding's own conclusion was, "that he left off writing
+for the stage, when he ought to have begun"--which can only mean that he
+himself regarded his plays as the outcome of imitation rather than
+experience. They probably taught him how to construct _Tom Jones_; but
+whether he could ever have written a comedy at the level of that novel,
+can only be established by a comparison which it is impossible to make,
+namely, a comparison with _Tom Jones_ of a comedy written at the same
+age, and in similar circumstances.
+
+_Tumble-Down Dick; or, Phaeton in the Suds_, _Eurydice_ and _Eurydice
+hissed_ are the names of three occasional pieces which belong to the
+last months of Fielding's career as a Haymarket manager. By this date he
+was thirty, with a wife and daughter. As a means of support, he reverted
+to the profession of his maternal grandfather; and, in November 1737, he
+entered the Middle Temple, being described in the books of the society
+as "of East Stour in Dorset." That he set himself strenuously to master
+his new profession, is admitted; though it is unlikely that he had
+entirely discarded the irregular habits which had grown upon him in his
+irresponsible bachelorhood. He also did a good deal of literary work,
+the best known of which is contained in the _Champion_, a "News-Journal"
+of the _Spectator_ type undertaken with James Ralph, whose poem of
+"Night" is made notorious in the _Dunciad_. That the _Champion_ was not
+without merit is undoubted; but the essay-type was for the moment
+out-worn, and neither Fielding nor his coadjutor could lend it fresh
+vitality. Fielding contributed papers from the 15th of November 1739 to
+the 19th of June 1740. On the 20th of June he was called to the bar, and
+occupied chambers in Pump Court. It is further related that, in the
+diligent pursuit of his calling, he travelled the Western Circuit, and
+attended the Wiltshire sessions.
+
+Although, with the _Champion_, he professed, for the time, to have
+relinquished periodical literature, he still wrote at intervals, a fact
+which, taken in connexion with his past reputation as an effective
+satirist, probably led to his being "unjustly censured" for much that he
+never produced. But he certainly wrote a poem "Of True Greatness"
+(1741); a first book of a burlesque epic, the _Vernoniad_, prompted by
+Vernon's expedition of 1739; a vision called the _Opposition_, and,
+perhaps, a political sermon entitled the _Crisis_ (1741). Another piece,
+now known to have been attributed to him by his contemporaries (_Hist.
+MSS. Comm., Rept._ 12, App. Pt. ix., p. 204), is the pamphlet entitled
+_An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews_, a clever but coarse
+attack upon the prurient side of Richardson's _Pamela_, which had been
+issued in 1740, and was at the height of its popularity. _Shamela_
+followed early in 1741. Richardson, who was well acquainted with
+Fielding's four sisters, at that date his neighbours at Hammersmith,
+confidently attributed it to Fielding (_Corr._ 1804, iv. 286, and
+unpublished letter at South Kensington); and there are suggestive points
+of internal evidence (such as the transformation of _Pamela's_ "MR B."
+into "Mr Booby") which tend to connect it with the future _Joseph
+Andrews_. Fielding, however, never acknowledged it, or referred to it;
+and a great deal has been laid to his charge that he never deserved
+("Preface" to _Miscellanies_, 1743).
+
+But whatever may be decided in regard to the authorship of _Shamela_, it
+is quite possible that it prompted the more memorable _Joseph Andrews_,
+which made its appearance in February 1742, and concerning which there
+is no question. Professing, on his title-page, to imitate Cervantes,
+Fielding set out to cover _Pamela_ with Homeric ridicule by transferring
+the heroine's embarrassments to a hero, supposed to be her brother.
+Allied to this purpose was a collateral attack upon the slipshod
+_Apology_ of the playwright Colley Cibber, with whom, for obscure
+reasons, Fielding had long been at war. But the avowed object of the
+book fell speedily into the background as its author warmed to his
+theme. His secondary speedily became his primary characters, and Lady
+Booby and Joseph Andrews do not interest us now as much as Mrs Slipslop
+and Parson Adams--the latter an invention that ranges in literature with
+Sterne's "Uncle Toby" and Goldsmith's "Vicar." Yet more than these and
+others equally admirable in their round veracity, is the writer's
+penetrating outlook upon the frailties and failures of human nature. By
+the time he had reached his second volume, he had convinced himself that
+he had inaugurated a new fashion of fiction; and in a "Preface" of
+exceptional ability, he announced his discovery. Postulating that the
+epic might be "comic" or "tragic," prose or verse, he claimed to have
+achieved what he termed the "Comic Epos in Prose," of which the action
+was "ludicrous" rather than "sublime," and the personages selected from
+society at large, rather than the restricted ranks of conventional high
+life. His plan, it will be observed, was happily adapted to his gifts of
+humour, satire, and above all, irony. That it was matured when it began
+may perhaps be doubted, but it was certainly matured when it ended.
+Indeed, except for the plot, which, in his picaresque first idea, had
+not preceded the conception, _Joseph Andrews_ has all the
+characteristics of _Tom Jones_, even (in part) to the initial chapters.
+
+_Joseph Andrews_ had considerable success, and the exact sum paid for it
+by Andrew Millar, the publisher, according to the assignment now at
+South Kensington, was L183:11s., one of the witnesses being the author's
+friend, William Young, popularly supposed to be the original of Parson
+Adams. It was with Young that Fielding undertook what, with exception of
+"a very small share" in the farce of _Miss Lucy in Town_ (1742),
+constituted his next work, a translation of the _Plutus_ of
+Aristophanes, which never seems to have justified any similar
+experiments. Another of his minor works was a _Vindication of the
+Dowager Duchess of Marlborough_ (1742), then much before the public by
+reason of the _Account of her Life_ which she had recently put forth.
+Later in the same year, Garrick applied to Fielding for a play; and a
+very early effort, _The Wedding Day_, was hastily patched together, and
+produced at Drury Lane in February 1743 with no great success. It was,
+however, included in Fielding's next important publication, the three
+volumes of _Miscellanies_ issued by subscription in the succeeding
+April. These also comprised some early poems, some essays, a Lucianic
+fragment entitled a _Journey from this World to the Next_, and, last but
+not least, occupying the entire final volume, the remarkable performance
+entitled the _History of the Life of the late Mr Jonathan Wild the
+Great_.
+
+It is probable that, in its composition, _Jonathan Wild_ preceded
+_Joseph Andrews_. At all events it seems unlikely that Fielding would
+have followed up a success in a new line by an effort so entirely
+different in character. Taking for his ostensible hero a well-known
+thief-taker, who had been hanged in 1725, he proceeds to illustrate, by
+a mock-heroic account of his progress to Tyburn, the general proposition
+that greatness without goodness is no better than badness. He will not
+go so far as to say that all "Human Nature is Newgate with the Mask on";
+but he evidently regards the description as fairly applicable to a good
+many so-called great people. Irony (and especially Irony neat) is not a
+popular form of rhetoric; and the remorseless pertinacity with which
+Fielding pursues his demonstration is to many readers discomforting and
+even distasteful. Yet--in spite of Scott--_Jonathan Wild_ has its softer
+pages; and as a purely intellectual conception it is not surpassed by
+any of the author's works.
+
+His actual biography, both before and after _Jonathan Wild_, is
+obscure. There are evidences that he laboured diligently at his
+profession; there are also evidences of sickness and embarrassment. He
+had become early a martyr to the malady of his century--gout, and the
+uncertainties of a precarious livelihood told grievously upon his
+beautiful wife, who eventually died of fever in his arms, leaving him
+for the time so stunned and bewildered by grief that his friends feared
+for his reason. For some years his published productions were
+unimportant. He wrote "Prefaces" to the _David Simple_ of his sister
+Sarah in 1744 and 1747; and, in 1745-1746 and 1747-1748, produced two
+newspapers in the ministerial interest, the _True Patriot_ and the
+_Jacobite's Journal_, both of which are connected with, or derive from,
+the rebellion of 1745, and were doubtless, when they ceased, the pretext
+of a pension from the public service money (_Journal of a Voyage to
+Lisbon_, "Introduction"). In November 1747 he married his wife's maid,
+Mary Daniel, at St Bene't's, Paul's Wharf; and in December 1748, by the
+interest of his old school-fellow, Lyttelton, he was made a principal
+justice of peace for Middlesex and Westminster, an office which put him
+in possession of a house in Bow Street, and L300 per annum "of the
+dirtiest money upon earth" (_ibid._), which might have been more had he
+condescended to become what was known as a "trading" magistrate.
+
+For some time previously, while at Bath, Salisbury, Twickenham and other
+temporary resting-places, he had intermittently occupied himself in
+composing his second great novel, _Tom Jones; or, the History of a
+Foundling_. For this, in June 1748, Millar had paid him L600, to which
+he added L100 more in 1749. In the February of the latter year it was
+published with a dedication to Lyttelton, to whose pecuniary assistance
+to the author during the composition it plainly bears witness. In _Tom
+Jones_ Fielding systematically developed the "new Province of Writing"
+he had discovered incidentally in _Joseph Andrews_. He paid closer
+attention to the construction and evolution of the plot; he elaborated
+the initial essays to each book which he had partly employed before, and
+he compressed into his work the flower and fruit of his forty years'
+experience of life. He has, indeed, no character quite up to the level
+of Parson Adams, but his Westerns and Partridges, his Allworthys and
+Blifils, have the inestimable gift of life. He makes no pretence to
+produce "models of perfection," but pictures of ordinary humanity,
+rather perhaps in the rough than the polished, the natural than the
+artificial, and his desire is to do this with absolute truthfulness,
+neither extenuating nor disguising defects and shortcomings. One of the
+results of this unvarnished naturalism has been to attract more
+attention to certain of the episodes than their inventor ever intended.
+But that, in the manners of his time, he had chapter and verse for
+everything he drew is clear. His sincere purpose was, he declared, "to
+recommend goodness and innocence," and his obvious aversions are vanity
+and hypocrisy. The methods of fiction have grown more sophisticated
+since his day, and other forms of literary egotism have taken the place
+of his once famous introductory essays, but the traces of _Tom Jones_
+are still discernible in most of our manlier modern fiction.
+
+Meanwhile, its author was showing considerable activity in his
+magisterial duties. In May 1749, he was chosen chairman of quarter
+sessions for Westminster; and in June he delivered himself of a weighty
+charge to the grand jury. Besides other pamphlets, he produced a careful
+and still readable _Enquiry into the Causes of the late Increase of
+Robbers_, &c. (1751), which, among its other merits, was not ineffectual
+in helping on the famous Gin Act of that year, a practical result to
+which the "Gin Lane" and "Beer Street" of his friend Hogarth also
+materially contributed. These duties and preoccupations left their mark
+on his next fiction, _Amelia_ (1752), which is rather more taken up with
+social problems and popular grievances than its forerunners. But the
+leading personage, in whom, as in the Sophia Western of _Tom Jones_, he
+reproduced the traits of his first wife, is certainly, as even Johnson
+admitted, "the most pleasing heroine of all the romances." The minor
+characters, too, especially Dr Harrison and Colonel Bath, are equal to
+any in _Tom Jones_. The book nevertheless shows signs, not of failure
+but of fatigue, perhaps of haste--a circumstance heightened by the
+absence of those "prolegomenous" chapters over which the author had
+lingered so lovingly in _Tom Jones_. In 1749 he had been dangerously
+ill, and his health was visibly breaking. The L1000 which Millar is said
+to have given for _Amelia_ must have been painfully earned.
+
+Early in 1752 his still indomitable energy prompted him to start a third
+newspaper, the _Covent Garden Journal_, which ran from the 4th of
+January to the 25th of November. It is an interesting contemporary
+record, and throws a good deal of light on his Bow Street duties. But it
+has no great literary value, and it unhappily involved him in harassing
+and undignified hostilities with Smollett, Dr John Hill, Bonnell
+Thornton and other of his contemporaries. To the following year belong
+pamphlets on "Provision for the Poor," and the case of the strange
+impostor, Elizabeth Canning (1734-1773).[1] By 1754 his own case, as
+regards health, had grown desperate; and he made matters worse by a
+gallant and successful attempt to break up a "gang of villains and
+cut-throats," who had become the terror of the metropolis. This
+accomplished, he resigned his office to his half-brother John
+(afterwards Sir John) Fielding. But it was now too late. After fruitless
+essay both of Dr Ward's specifics and the tar-water of Bishop Berkeley,
+it was felt that his sole chance of prolonging life lay in removal to a
+warmer climate. On the 26th of June 1754 he accordingly left his little
+country house at Fordhook, Ealing, for Lisbon, in the "Queen of
+Portugal," Richard Veal master. The ship, as often, was tediously
+wind-bound, and the protracted discomforts of the sick man and his
+family are narrated at length in the touching posthumous tract entitled
+the _Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon_, which, with a fragment of a comment
+on Bolingbroke's then recently issued essays, was published in February
+1755 "for the Benefit of his [Fielding's] Wife and Children." Reaching
+Lisbon at last in August 1754, he died there two months later (8th
+October), and was buried in the English cemetery, where a monument was
+erected to him in 1830._ Luget Britannia gremio non dari fovere natum_
+is inscribed upon it.
+
+His estate, including the proceeds of a fair library, only covered his
+just debts (_Athenaeum_, 25th Nov. 1905); but his family, a daughter by
+his first, and two boys and a girl by his second wife, were faithfully
+cared for by his brother John, and by his friend Ralph Allen of Prior
+Park, Bath, the Squire Allworthy of _Tom Jones_. His will (undated) was
+printed in the _Athenaeum_ for the 1st of February 1890. There is but
+one absolutely authentic portrait of him, a familiar outline by Hogarth,
+executed from memory for Andrew Millar's edition of his works in 1762.
+It is the likeness of a man broken by ill-health, and affords but faint
+indication of the handsome Harry Fielding who in his salad days "warmed
+both hands before the fire of life." Far too much stress, it is now
+held, has been laid by his first biographers upon the unworshipful side
+of his early career. That he was always profuse, sanguine and more or
+less improvident, is as probable as that he was always manly, generous
+and sympathetic. But it is also plain that, in his later years, he did
+much, as father, friend and magistrate, to redeem the errors, real and
+imputed, of a too-youthful youth.
+
+As a playwright and essayist his rank is not elevated. But as a novelist
+his place is a definite one. If the _Spectator_ is to be credited with
+foreshadowing the characters of the novel, Defoe with its earliest form,
+and Richardson with its first experiments in sentimental analysis, it is
+to Henry Fielding that we owe its first accurate delineation of
+contemporary manners. Neglecting, or practically neglecting, sentiment
+as unmanly, and relying chiefly on humour and ridicule, he set out to
+draw life precisely as he saw it around him, without blanks or dashes.
+He was, it may be, for a judicial moralist, too indulgent to some of its
+frailties, but he was merciless to its meaner vices. For reasons which
+have been already given, his high-water mark is _Tom Jones_, which has
+remained, and remains, a model in its way of the kind he inaugurated.
+
+  An essay on Fielding's life and writings is prefixed to Arthur
+  Murphy's edition of his works (1762), and short biographies have been
+  written by Walter Scott and William Roscoe. There are also lives by
+  Watson (1807), Lawrence (1855), Austin Dobson ("Men of Letters," 1883,
+  1907) and G.M. Godden (1909). An annotated edition of the _Journal of
+  a Voyage to Lisbon_ is included in the "World's Classics" (1907).
+       (A. D.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For a full account of this celebrated case see Howell, _State
+    Trials_ (1813), vol. xix.
+
+
+
+
+FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS (1848-   ), Canadian journalist and statesman,
+was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the 24th of November 1848. From
+1864 to 1884 he was one of the staff of the _Morning Chronicle_, the
+chief Liberal paper of the province, and worked at all departments of
+newspaper life. In 1882 he entered the local legislature as Liberal
+member for Halifax, and from 1884 to 1896 was premier and provincial
+secretary of the province, but in the latter year became finance
+minister in the Dominion administration of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, and was
+elected to the House of Commons for Shelburne and Queen's county. He
+opposed Confederation in 1864-1867, and as late as 1886 won a provincial
+election on the promise to advocate the repeal of the British North
+America Act. His administration as finance minister of Canada was
+important, since in 1897 he introduced a new tariff, granting to the
+manufactures of Great Britain a preference, subsequently increased; and
+later he imposed a special surtax on German imports owing to unfriendly
+tariff legislation by that country. In 1902 he represented Canada at the
+Colonial Conference in London.
+
+
+
+
+FIELD-MOUSE, the popular designation of such mouse-like British rodents
+as are not true or "house" mice. The term thus includes the long-tailed
+field mouse, _Mus (Micromys) sylvaticus_, easily recognized by its white
+belly, and sometimes called the wood-mouse; and the two species of
+short-tailed field-mice, _Microtus agrestis_ and _Evotomys glareolus_,
+together with their representatives in Skomer island and the Orkneys
+(see MOUSE and VOLE).
+
+
+
+
+FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, the French _Camp du drap d'or_, the name
+given to the place between Guines and Ardres where Henry VIII. of
+England met Francis I. of France in June 1520. The most elaborate
+arrangements were made for the accommodation of the two monarchs and
+their large retinues; and on Henry's part especially no efforts were
+spared to make a great impression in Europe by this meeting. Before the
+castle of Guines a temporary palace, covering an area of nearly 12,000
+sq. yds., was erected for the reception of the English king. It was
+decorated in the most sumptuous fashion, and like the chapel, served by
+thirty-five priests, was furnished with a profusion of golden ornaments.
+Some idea of the size of Henry's following may be gathered from the fact
+that in one month 2200 sheep and other viands in a similar proportion
+were consumed. In the fields beyond the castle, tents to the number of
+2800 were erected for less distinguished visitors, and the whole scene
+was one of the greatest animation. Ladies gorgeously clad, and knights,
+showing by their dress and bearing their anxiety to revive the glories
+and the follies of the age of chivalry, jostled mountebanks, mendicants
+and vendors of all kinds.
+
+Journeying from Calais Henry reached his headquarters at Guines on the
+4th of June 1520, and Francis took up his residence at Ardres. After
+Cardinal Wolsey, with a splendid train had visited the French king, the
+two monarchs met at the Val Dore, a spot midway between the two places,
+on the 7th. The following days were taken up with tournaments, in which
+both kings took part, banquets and other entertainments, and after
+Wolsey had said mass the two sovereigns separated on the 24th. This
+meeting made a great impression on contemporaries, but its political
+results were very small.
+
+  The _Ordonnance_ for the _Field_ is printed by J.S. Brewer in the
+  _Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII_. vol. iii. (1867). See also
+  J.S. Brewer, _Reign of Henry VIII_. (1884).
+
+
+
+
+FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881), American publisher and author, was
+born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 31st of December 1817. At the
+age of seventeen he went to Boston as clerk in a bookseller's shop.
+Afterwards he wrote for the newspapers, and in 1835 he read an
+anniversary poem entitled "Commerce" before the Boston Mercantile
+Library Association. In 1839 he became junior partner in the publishing
+and bookselling firm known after 1846 as Ticknor & Fields, and after
+1868 as Fields, Osgood & Company. He was the publisher of the foremost
+contemporary American writers, with whom he was on terms of close
+personal friendship, and he was the American publisher of some of the
+best-known British writers of his time, some of whom, also, he knew
+intimately. The first collected edition of De Quincey's works (20 vols.,
+1850-1855) was published by his firm. As a publisher he was
+characterized by a somewhat rare combination of keen business acumen and
+sound, discriminating literary taste, and as a man he was known for his
+geniality and charm of manner. In 1862-1870, as the successor of James
+Russell Lowell, he edited the _Atlantic Monthly_. In 1871 Fields retired
+from business and from his editorial duties, and devoted himself to
+lecturing and to writing. Of his books the chief were the collection of
+sketches and essays entitled _Underbrush_ (1877) and the chapters of
+reminiscence composing _Yesterdays with Authors_ (1871), in which he
+recorded his personal friendship with Wordsworth, Thackeray, Dickens,
+Hawthorne and others. He died in Boston on the 24th of April 1881.
+
+His second wife, ANNIE ADAMS FIELDS (b. 1834), whom he married in 1854,
+published _Under the Olive_ (1880), a book of verses; _James T. Fields:
+Biographical Notes and Personal Sketches_ (1882); _Authors and Friends_
+(1896); _The Life and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe_ (1897); and
+_Orpheus_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FIENNES, NATHANIEL (c. 1608-1669) English politician, second son of
+William, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, by Elizabeth, daughter of John
+Temple, of Stow in Buckinghamshire, was born in 1607 or 1608, and
+educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where as founder's
+kin he was admitted a perpetual fellow in 1624. After about five years'
+residence he left without taking a degree, travelled abroad, and in
+Switzerland imbibed or strengthened those religious principles and that
+hostility to the Laudian church which were to be the chief motive in his
+future political career. He returned to Scotland in 1639, and
+established communications with the Covenanters and the Opposition in
+England, and as member for Banbury in both the Short and Long
+Parliaments he took a prominent part in the attacks upon the church. He
+spoke against the illegal canons on the 14th of December 1640, and again
+on the 9th of February 1641 on the occasion of the reception of the
+London petition, when he argued against episcopacy as constituting a
+political as well as a religious danger and made a great impression on
+the House, his name being added immediately to the committee appointed
+to deal with church affairs. He took a leading part in the examination
+into the army plot; was one of the commissioners appointed to attend the
+king to Scotland in August 1641; and was nominated one of the committee
+of safety in July 1642. On the outbreak of hostilities he took arms
+immediately, commanded a troop of horse in the army of Lord Essex, was
+present at the relief of Coventry in August, and at the fight at
+Worcester in September, where he distinguished himself, and subsequently
+at Edgehill. Of the last two engagements he wrote accounts, viz. _True
+and Exact Relation of both the Battles fought by ... Earl of Essex ...
+against the Bloudy Cavaliers_ (1642). (See also _A Narrative of the Late
+Battle before Worcester taken by a Gentleman of the Inns of Court from
+the mouth of Master Fiennes_, 1642). In February 1643 Fiennes was sent
+down to Bristol, arrested Colonel Essex the governor, executed the two
+leaders of a plot to deliver up the city, and received a commission
+himself as governor on the 1st of May 1643. On the arrival, however, of
+Prince Rupert on the 22nd of July the place was in no condition to
+resist an attack, and Fiennes capitulated. He addressed to Essex a
+letter in his defence (Thomason Tracts E. 65, 26), drew up for the
+parliament a _Relation concerning the Surrender_ ... (1643), answered by
+Prynne and Clement Walker accusing him of treachery and cowardice, to
+which he opposed _Col. Fiennes his Reply_.... He was tried at St Albans
+by the council of war in December, was pronounced guilty of having
+surrendered the place improperly, and sentenced to death. He was,
+however, pardoned, and the facility with which Bristol subsequently
+capitulated to the parliamentary army induced Cromwell and the generals
+to exonerate him completely. His military career nevertheless now came
+to an end. He went abroad, and it was some time before he reappeared on
+the political scene. In September 1647 he was included in the army
+committee, and on the 3rd of January 1648 he became a member of the
+committee of safety. He was, however, in favour of accepting the king's
+terms at Newport in December, and in consequence was excluded from the
+House by Pride's Purge. An opponent of church government in any form, he
+was no friend to the rigid and tyrannical Presbyterianism of the day,
+and inclined to Independency and Cromwell's party. He was a member of
+the council of state in 1654, and in June 1655 he received the strange
+appointment of commissioner for the custody of the great seal, for which
+he was certainly in no way fitted. In the parliament of 1654 he was
+returned for Oxford county and in that of 1656 for the university, while
+in January 1658 he was included in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was in
+favour of the Protector's assumption of the royal title and urged his
+acceptance of it on several occasions. His public career closes with
+addresses delivered in his capacity as chief commissioner of the great
+seal at the beginning of the sessions of January 20, 1658, and January
+2, 1659, in which the religious basis of Cromwell's government is
+especially insisted upon, the feature to which Fiennes throughout his
+career had attached most value. On the reassembling of the Long
+Parliament he was superseded; he took no part in the Restoration, and
+died at Newton Tony in Wiltshire on the 16th of December 1669. Fiennes
+married (1), Elizabeth, daughter of the famous parliamentarian Sir John
+Eliot, by whom he had one son, afterwards 3rd Viscount Saye and Sele;
+and (2), Frances, daughter of Richard Whitehead of Tuderley, Hants, by
+whom he had three daughters.
+
+  Besides the pamphlets already cited, a number of his speeches and
+  other political tracts were published (see Gen. Catalogue, British
+  Museum). Wood also attributed to him _Monarchy Asserted_ (1666)
+  (reprinted in Somers Tracts, vi. 346 [ed. Scott]), but there seems no
+  reason to ascribe to him with Clement Walker the authorship of
+  Sprigge's _Anglia Rediviva_.
+
+
+
+
+FIERI FACIAS, usually abbreviated _fi. fa._ (Lat. "that you cause to be
+made"), in English law, a writ of execution after judgment obtained in
+action of debt or damages. It is addressed to the sheriff, and commands
+him to make good the amount out of the goods of the person against whom
+judgment has been obtained. (See EXECUTION.)
+
+
+
+
+FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO (1790-1836), the chief conspirator in the
+attempt on the life of Louis Philippe in July 1835, was a native of
+Murato in Corsica. He served under Murat, then returned to Corsica,
+where he was condemned to ten years' imprisonment and perpetual
+surveillance by the police for theft and forgery. After a period of
+vagabondage he eluded the police and obtained a small post in Paris by
+means of forged papers; but losing it on account of his suspicious
+manner of living, he resolved to revenge himself on society. He took
+lodgings on the Boulevard du Temple, and there, with two members of the
+Societe des Droits de l'Homme, Morey and Pepin by name, contrived an
+"infernal machine," constructed with twenty gun barrels, to be fired
+simultaneously. On the 28th of July 1835, as Louis Philippe was passing
+along the boulevard to the Bastille, accompanied by his three sons and a
+numerous staff, the machine was exploded. A ball grazed the king's
+forehead, and his horse, with those of the duke of Nemours and of the
+prince de Joinville, was shot; Marshal Mortier was killed, with
+seventeen other persons, and many were wounded; but the king and the
+princes escaped as if by miracle. Fieschi himself was severely wounded
+by the discharge of his machine, and vainly attempted to escape. The
+attentions of the most skilful physicians were lavished upon him, and
+his life was saved for the stroke of justice. On his trial he named his
+accomplices, displayed much bravado, and expected or pretended to expect
+ultimate pardon. He was condemned to death, and was guillotined on the
+19th of February 1836. Morey and Pepin were also executed, another
+accomplice was sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment and one was
+acquitted. No less than seven plots against the life of Louis Philippe
+had been discovered by the police within the year, and apologists were
+not wanting in the revolutionary press for the crime of Fieschi.
+
+  See _Proces de Fieschi, precede de sa vie privee, sa condamnation par
+  la Cour des Pairs et celles de ses complices_ (2 vols., 1836); also P.
+  Thureau-Dangin, _Hist, de la monarchie de Juillet_ (vol. iv. ch. xii.,
+  1884).
+
+
+
+
+FIESCO (DE' FIESCHI), GIOVANNI LUIGI (c. 1523-1547), count of Lavagna,
+was descended from one of the greatest families of Liguria, first
+mentioned in the 10th century. Among his ancestors were two popes
+(Innocent IV. and Adrian V.), many cardinals, a king of Sicily, three
+saints, and many generals and admirals of Genoa and other states.
+Sinibaldo Fiesco, his father, had been a close friend of Andrea Doria
+(q.v.), and had rendered many important services to the Genoese
+republic. On his death in 1532 Giovanni found himself at the age of nine
+the head of the family and possessor of immense estates. He grew up to
+be a handsome, intelligent youth, of attractive manners and very
+ambitious. He married Eleonora Cibo, marchioness of Massa, in 1540, a
+woman of great beauty and family influence. There were many reasons
+which inspired his hatred of the Doria family; the almost absolute power
+wielded by the aged admiral and the insolence of his nephew and heir
+Giannettino Doria, the commander of the galleys, were galling to him as
+to many other Genoese, and it is said that Giannettino was the lover of
+Fiesco's wife. Moreover, the Fiesco belonged to the French or popular
+party, while the Doria were aristocrats and Imperialists. When Fiesco
+determined to conspire against Doria he found friends in many quarters.
+Pope Paul III. was the first to encourage him, while both Pier Luigi
+Farnese, duke of Parma, and Francis I. of France gave him much
+assistance and promised him many advantages. Among his associates in
+Genoa were his brothers Girolamo and Ottobuono, Verrina and R. Sacco. A
+number of armed men from the Fiesco fiefs were secretly brought to
+Genoa, and it was agreed that on the 2nd of January 1547, during the
+interregnum before the election of the new doge, the galleys in the port
+should be seized and the city gates held. The first part of the
+programme was easily carried out, and Giannettino Doria, aroused by the
+tumult, rushed down to the port and was killed, but Andrea escaped from
+the city in time. The conspirators attempted to gain possession of the
+government, but unfortunately for them Giovanni Luigi, while crossing a
+plank from the quay to one of the galleys, fell into the water and was
+drowned. The news spread consternation among the Fiesco faction, and
+Girolamo Fiesco found few adherents. They came to terms with the senate
+and were granted a general amnesty. Doria returned to Genoa on the 4th
+thirsting for revenge, and in spite of the amnesty he confiscated the
+Fiesco estates; Girolamo had shut himself up, with Verrina and Sacco and
+other conspirators, in his castle of Montobbia, which the Genoese at
+Doria's instigation besieged and captured. Girolamo Fiesco and Verrina
+were tried, tortured and executed; all their estates were seized, some
+of which, including Torriglia, Doria obtained for himself. Ottobuono
+Fiesco, who had escaped, was captured eight years afterwards and put to
+death by Doria's orders.
+
+  There are many accounts of the conspiracy, of which perhaps the best
+  is contained in E. Petit's _Andre Doria_ (Paris, 1887), chs. xi. and
+  xii., where all the chief authorities are quoted; see also Calligari,
+  _La Congiura del Fiesco_ (Venice 1892), and Gavazzo, _Nuovi documenti
+  sulla congiura del conte Fiesco_ (Genoa, 1886); E. Bernabo-Brea, in
+  his _Sulla congiura di Giovanni Luigi Fieschi_, publishes many
+  important documents, while L. Capelloni's _Congiura del Fiesco_,
+  edited by Olivieri, and A. Mascardi's _Congiura del conte Giovanni
+  Luigi de' Fieschi_ (Antwerp, 1629) may be commended among the earlier
+  works. The Fiesco conspiracy has been the subject of many poems and
+  dramas, of which the most famous is that by Schiller. See also under
+  DORIA, ANDREA; FARNESE.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FIESOLE (anc. _Faesulae_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Tuscany,
+Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it is 3 m. N.E. by
+electric tramway. Pop. (1901) town 4951, commune 16,816. It is situated
+on a hill 970 ft. above sea-level, and commands a fine view. The
+cathedral of S. Romolo is an early and simple example of the Tuscan
+Romanesque style; it is a small basilica, begun in 1028 and restored in
+1256. The picturesque battlemented campanile belongs to 1213. The tomb
+of the bishop Leonardo Salutati (d. 1466). with a beautiful portrait
+bust by the sculptor, Mino da Fiesole (1431-1484), is fine. The
+13th-century Palazzo Pretorio contains a small museum of antiquities.
+The Franciscan monastery commands a fine view. The church of S. Maria
+Primerana has some works of art, and S. Alessandro, which is attributed
+to the 6th century, contains fifteen ancient columns of cipollino. The
+inhabitants of Fiesole are largely engaged in straw-plaiting.
+
+Below Fiesole, between it and Florence, lies San Domenico di Fiesole
+(485 ft.); in the Dominican monastery the painter, Fra Giovanni Angelico
+da Fiesole (1387-1455), lived until he went to S. Marco at Florence.
+Here, too, is the Badia di Fiesole, founded in 1028 and re-erected about
+1456-1466 by a follower of Brunelleschi. It is an irregular pile of
+buildings, in fine and simple early Renaissance style; a small part of
+the original facade of 1028 in black and white marble is preserved. The
+interior of the Church is decorated with sculptures by pupils of
+Desiderio da Settignano. The slopes of the hill on which Fiesole stands
+are covered with fine villas. To the S.E. of Fiesole lies Monte Ceceri
+(1453 ft.), with quarries of grey _pietra serena_, largely used in
+Florence for building. To the E. of this lies the 14th-century castle of
+Vincigliata restored and fitted up in the medieval style.
+
+
+
+
+FIFE, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Tay, E.
+by the North Sea, S. by the Firth of Forth, and W. by the shires of
+Perth, Kinross and Clackmannan. The Isle of May, Inchkeith, Inchcolm,
+Inchgarvie and the islet of Oxcar belong to the shire. It has an area of
+322,844, acres or 504 sq. m. Its coast-line measure 108 m. The Lomond
+Hills to the S. and S.W. of Falkland, of which West Lomond is 1713 ft.
+high and East Lomond 1471 ft., Saline Hill (1178 ft.) to the N.W. of
+Dunfermline, and Benarty (1131 ft.) on the confines of Kinross are the
+chief heights. Of the rivers the Eden is the longest; formed on the
+borders of Kinross-shire by the confluence of Beattie Burn and Carmore
+Burn, it pursues a wandering course for 25 m. N.E., partly through the
+Howe, or Hollow of Fife, and empties into the North Sea. There is good
+trout fishing in its upper waters, but weirs prevent salmon from
+ascending it. The Leven drains the loch of that name and enters the
+Forth at the town of Leven after flowing eastward for 15 m. There are
+numerous factories at various points on its banks. The Ore, rising not
+far from Roscobie Hills to the north of Dunfermline, follows a mainly
+north-easterly course for 15 m. till it joins the Leven at Windygates.
+The old loch of Ore which was an expansion of its water was long ago
+reclaimed. Motray Water finds its source in the parish of Kilmany, a few
+miles W. by N. of Cupar, makes a bold sweep towards the north-east, and
+then, taking a southerly turn, enters the head-waters of St Andrews Bay,
+after a course of 12 m. The principal lochs are Loch Fitty, Loch Gelly,
+Loch Glow and Loch Lindores; they are small but afford some sport for
+trout, perch and pike. "Freshwater mussels" occur in Loch Fitty. There
+are no glens, and the only large valley is the fertile Stratheden, which
+supplies part of the title of the combined baronies of Stratheden
+(created 1836) and Campbell (created 1841).
+
+  _Geology._--Between Damhead and Tayport on the northern side of the
+  low-lying Howe of Fife the higher ground is formed of Lower Old Red
+  Sandstone volcanic rocks, consisting of red and purple porphyrites and
+  andesites and some coarse agglomerates, which, in the neighbourhood of
+  Auchtermuchty, are rounded and conglomeratic. These rocks have a
+  gentle dip towards the S.S.E. They are overlaid unconformably by the
+  soft red sandstones of the Upper Old Red series which underlie the
+  Howe of Fife from Loch Leven to the coast. The quarries in these rocks
+  in Dura Den are famous for fossil fishes. Following the Old Red rocks
+  conformably are the Carboniferous formations which occupy the
+  remainder of the county, and are well exposed on the coast and in the
+  numerous quarries. The Carboniferous rocks include, at the base, the
+  Calciferous Sandstone series of dark shales with thin limestones,
+  sandstones and coals. They are best developed around Fife Ness,
+  between St Andrews and Elie, and again around Burntisland between
+  Kirkcaldy and Inverkeithing Bay. In the Carboniferous Limestone
+  series, which comes next in upward succession, are the valuable
+  gas-coals and ironstones worked in the coal-fields of Dunfermline,
+  Saline, Oakley, Torryburn, Kirkcaldy and Markinch. The true Coal
+  Measures lie in the district around Dysart and Leven, East Wemyss and
+  Kinglassie, and they are separated from the coal-bearing
+  Carboniferous Limestone series by the sandstones and conglomerates of
+  the Millstone Grit, Fourteen seams of coal are found in the Dysart
+  Coal Measures, associated with sandstones, shales and clay ironstones.
+  Fife is remarkably rich in evidences of former volcanic activity.
+  Besides the Old Red Sandstone volcanic rocks previously mentioned,
+  there are many beds of contemporaneous basaltic lavas and tuffs in the
+  Carboniferous rocks; Saline Hill and Knock Hill were the sites of
+  vents, which at that time threw out ashes; these interbedded rocks are
+  well exposed on the shore between Burntisland and and Seafield Tower.
+  There were also many intrusive sheets of dolerite and basalt forced
+  into the lower Carboniferous rocks, and these now play an important
+  part in the scenery of the county. They form the summits of the Lomond
+  Hills and Benarty, and they may be followed from Cult Hill by the
+  Cleish Hills to Blairadam; and again near Dunfermline, Burntisland,
+  Torryburn, Auchtertool and St Andrews. Later, in Permian times,
+  eastern Fife was the seat of further volcanic action, and great
+  numbers of "necks" or vents pierce the Carboniferous rocks; Largo Law
+  is a striking example. In one of these necks on the shore at Kincraig
+  Point is a fine example of columnar basalt; the "Rock and Spindle"
+  near St Andrews is another. Last of all in Tertiary times, east and
+  west rifts in the Old Red Sandstone were filled by basalt dikes.
+  Glacial deposits, ridges of gravel and sand, boulder clay, &c.,
+  brought from the N. W., cover much of the older rocks, and traces of
+  old raised beaches are found round the coast and in the Howe cf Fife.
+  In the 25-ft. beach in the East Neuk of Fife is an island sea-cliff
+  with small caves.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--Since the higher hills all lie in the west,
+most of the county is exposed to the full force of the east winds from
+the North Sea, which often, save in the more sheltered areas, check the
+progress of vegetation. At an elevation of 500 or 600 ft. above the sea
+harvests are three or four weeks later than in the valleys and low-lying
+coast-land. The climate, on the whole, is mild, proximity to the sea
+qualifying the heat in summer and the cold in winter. The average annual
+rainfall is 31 in., rather less in the East Neuk district and around St
+Andrews, somewhat more as the hills are approached, late summer and
+autumn being the wet season. The average temperature for January is 38
+deg. F., for July 59.5 deg., and for the year 47.6 deg. Four-fifths of
+the total area is under cultivation, and though the acreage under grain
+is smaller than it was, the yield of each crop is still extraordinarily
+good, oats, barley, wheat being the order of acreage. Of the green crops
+most attention is given to turnips. Potatoes also do well. The acreage
+under permanent pasture and wood is very considerable. Cattle are mainly
+kept for feeding purposes, and dairy farming, though attracting more
+notice, has never been followed more than to supply local markets.
+Sheep-farming, however, is on the increase, and the raising of horses,
+especially farm horses, is an important pursuit. They are strong, active
+and hardy, with a large admixture, or purely, of Clydesdale blood. The
+ponies, hunters and carriage horses so bred are highly esteemed. The
+strain of pigs has been improved by the introduction of Berkshires.
+North of the Eden the soil, though generally thin, is fertile, but the
+sandy waste of Tents Moor is beyond redemption. From St Andrews
+southwards all along the coast the land is very productive. That
+adjacent to the East Neuk consists chiefly of clay and rich loam. From
+Leven to Inverkeithing it varies from a light sand to a rich clayey
+loam. Excepting Stratheden and Strathleven, which are mostly rich,
+fertile loam, the interior is principally cold and stiff clay or thin
+loam with strong clayey subsoil. Part of the Howe of Fife is light and
+shingly and covered with heather. Some small peat mosses still exist,
+and near Lochgelly there is a tract of waste, partly moss and partly
+heath. The character of the farm management may be judged by its
+results. The best methods are pursued, and houses, steadings and
+cottages are all in good order, commodious and comfortable. Rabbits,
+hares, pheasants and partridges are common in certain districts; roe
+deer are occasionally seen; wild geese, ducks and teal haunt the lochs;
+pigeon-houses are fairly numerous; and grouse and blackcock are
+plentiful on the Lomond moors. The shire is well suited for fox-hunting,
+and there are packs in both the eastern and the western division of
+Fife.
+
+_Mining._--Next to Lanarkshire, Fife is the largest coal-producing
+county in Scotland. The coal-field may roughly be divided into the
+Dunfermline basin (including Halbeath, Lochgelly and Kelty), where the
+principal house coals are found, and the Wemyss or Dysart basin
+(including Methil and the hinterland), where gas-coal of the best
+quality is obtained. Coal is also extensively worked at Culross,
+Carnock, Falfield, Donibristle, Ladybank, Kilconquhar and elsewhere.
+Beds of ironstone, limestone, sandstone and shale lie in many places
+contiguous to the coal. Blackband ironstone is worked at Lochgelly and
+Oakley, where there are large smelting furnaces. Oil shale is worked at
+Burntisland and Airdrie near Crail. Among the principal limestone
+quarries are those at Charlestown, Burntisland and Cults. Freestone of
+superior quality is quarried at Strathmiglo, Burntisland and
+Dunfermline. Whinstone of unusual hardness and durability is obtained in
+nearly every district. Lead has been worked in the Lomond Hills and
+copper and zinc have been met with, though not in paying quantities. It
+is of interest to note that in the trap tufa at Elie there have been
+found pyropes (a variety of dark-red garnet), which are regarded as the
+most valuable of Scottish precious stones and are sold under the name of
+Elie rubies.
+
+_Other Industries._--The staple manufacture is linen, ranging from the
+finest damasks to the coarsest ducks and sackings. Its chief seats are
+at Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline, but it is carried on at many of the inland
+towns and villages, especially those situated near the Eden and Leven,
+on the banks of which rivers, as well as at Kirkcaldy, Dunfermline and
+Ceres, are found the bleaching-greens. Kirkcaldy is famous for its
+oil-cloth and linoleum. Most of the leading towns possess breweries and
+tanneries, and the largest distilleries are at Cameron Bridge and
+Burntisland. Woollen cloth is made to a small extent in several towns,
+and fishing-net at Kirkcaldy, Largo and West Wemyss. Paper is
+manufactured at Guardbridge, Markinch and Leslie; earthenware at
+Kirkcaldy; tobacco at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy; engineering works and
+iron foundries are found at Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline; and shipbuilding
+is carried on at Kinghorn, Dysart, Burntisland, Inverkeithing and
+Tayport. From Inverkeithing all the way round the coast to Newburgh
+there are harbours at different points. They are mostly of moderate
+dimensions, the principal port being Kirkcaldy. The largest salmon
+fisheries are conducted at Newburgh and the chief seat of the herring
+fishery is Anstruther, but most of the coast towns take some part in the
+fishing either off the shore, or at stations farther north, or in the
+deep sea.
+
+_Communications._--The North British railway possesses a monopoly in the
+shire. From the Forth Bridge the main line follows the coast as far as
+Dysart and then turns northwards to Ladybank, where it diverges to the
+north-east for Cupar and the Tay Bridge. From Thornton Junction a branch
+runs to Dunfermline and another to Methil, and here begins also the
+coast line for Leven, Crail and St Andrews which touches the main line
+again at Leuchars Junction; at Markinch a branch runs to Leslie; at
+Ladybank there are branches to Mawcarse Junction, and to Newburgh and
+Perth; and at Leuchars Junction a loop line runs to Tayport and Newport,
+joining the main at Wormit. From the Forth Bridge the system also
+connects, via Dunfermline, with Alloa and Stirling in the W. and with
+Kinross and Perth in the N. From Dunfermline there is a branch to
+Charlestown, which on that account is sometimes called the port of
+Dunfermline.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population was 190,365 in 1891, and
+218,840 in 1901, when 844 persons spoke Gaelic and English and 3 Gaelic
+only. The chief towns are the Anstruthers (pop. in 1901, 4233),
+Buckhaven (8828), Burntisland (4846), Cowdenbeath (7908), Cupar (4511),
+Dunfermline (25,250), Dysart (3562), Kelty (3986), Kirkcaldy (34,079),
+Leslie (3587), Leven (5577), Lochgelly (5472), Lumphinnans (2071),
+Newport (2869), St Andrews (7621), Tayport (3325) and Wemyss (2522). For
+parliamentary purposes Fife is divided into an eastern and a western
+division, each returning one member. It also includes the Kirkcaldy
+district of parliamentary burghs (comprising Burntisland, Dysart,
+Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy), and the St Andrews district (the two
+Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, Pittenweem and St Andrews); while
+Culross, Dunfermline and Inverkeithing are grouped with the Stirling
+district. As regards education the county is under school-board
+jurisdiction, and in respect of higher education its equipment is
+effective. St Andrews contains several excellent schools; at Cupar there
+is the Bell-Baxter school; at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy there are high
+schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy.
+
+_History._--In remote times the term Fife was applied to the peninsula
+lying between the estuaries of the Tay and Forth and separated from the
+rest of the mainland by the Ochil Hills. Its earliest inhabitants were
+Picts of the northern branch and their country was long known as
+Pictavia. Doubtless it was owing to the fact that the territory was long
+subject to the rule of an independent king that Fife itself came to be
+called distinctively The Kingdom, a name of which the natives are still
+proud. The Romans effected no settlement in the province, though it is
+probable that they temporarily occupied points here and there. In any
+case the Romans left no impression on the civilization of the natives.
+With the arrival of the missionaries--especially St Serf, St Kenneth, St
+Rule, St Adrian, St Moran and St Fillan--and conversion of the Picts
+went on apace. Interesting memorials of these devout missionaries exist
+in the numerous coast caves between Dysart and St Andrews and in the
+crosses and sculptured stones, some doubtless of pre-Christian origin,
+to be seen at various places. The word Fife, according to Skene, seems
+to be identical with the Jutland _Fibh_ (pronounced _Fife_) meaning
+"forest," and was probably first used by the Frisians to describe the
+country behind the coasts of the Forth and Tay, where Frisian tribes are
+supposed to have settled at the close of the 4th century. The next
+immigration was Danish, which left lasting traces in many place-names
+(such as the frequent use of _law_ for hill). An ancient division of the
+Kingdom into Fife and Fothrif survived for a period for ecclesiastical
+purposes. The line of demarcation ran from Leven to the east of Cults,
+thence to the west of Collessie and thence to the east of Auchtermuchty.
+To the east of this line lay Fife proper. In 1426 the first shire of
+Kinross was formed, consisting of Kinross and Orwell, and was enlarged
+to its present dimensions by the transference from Fife of the parishes
+of Portmoak, Cleish and Tulliebole. Although the county has lain outside
+of the main stream of Scottish history, its records are far from dull or
+unimportant. During the reigns of the earlier Stuarts, Dunfermline,
+Falkland and St Andrews were often the scene of solemn pageantry and
+romantic episodes. Out of the seventy royal burghs in Scotland no fewer
+than eighteen are situated in the shire. However, notwithstanding the
+marked preference of the Stuarts, the Kingdom did not hesitate to play
+the leading part in the momentous dramas of the Reformation and the
+Covenant, and by the 18th century the people had ceased to regard the
+old royal line with any but sentimental interest, and the Jacobite
+risings of 1715 and 1745 evoked only the most lukewarm support.
+
+  See Sir Robert Sibbald, _History of the Sheriffdoms of Fife and
+  Kinross_; Rev. J.W. Taylor, _Historical Antiquities of Fife_ (1875);
+  A.H. Millar, _Fife, Pictorial and Historical_ (Cupar, 1895); Sheriff
+  Aeneas Mackay, sketch of the _History of Fife_ (Edinburgh, 1890);
+  _History of Fife and Kinross_ (Scottish County History series)
+  (Edinburgh, 1896); John Geddie, _The Fringe of Fife_ (Edinburgh,
+  1894).
+
+
+
+
+FIFE (Fr. _fifre_; Med. Ger. _Schweizerpfeiff_, _Feldpfeiff_; Ital.
+_ottavino_), originally the small primitive cylindrical transverse
+flute, now the small B[flat] military flute, usually conoidal in bore,
+used in a drum and fife band. The pitch of the fife lies between that of
+the concert flute and piccolo. The fife, like the flute, is an open
+pipe, for although the upper end is stopped by means of a cork, an
+outlet is provided by the embouchure which is never entirely closed by
+the lips. The six finger-holes of the primitive flute, with the open end
+of the tube for a key-note, gave the diatonic scale of the fundamental
+octave; the second octave was produced by overblowing the notes of the
+fundamental scale an octave higher; part of a third octave was obtained
+by means of the higher harmonics produced by using certain of the
+finger-holes as vent-holes. The modern fife has, in addition to the six
+finger-holes, 4, 5 or 6 keys. Mersenne describes and figures the fife,
+which had in his day the compass of a fifteenth.[1] The fife, which, he
+states, differed from the German flute only in having a louder and more
+brilliant tone and a shorter and narrower bore, was the instrument used
+by the Swiss with the drum. The sackbut, or serpent, was used as its
+bass, for, as Mersenne explains, the bass instrument could not be made
+long enough, nor could the hands reach the holes, although some flutes
+were actually made with keys and had the tube doubled back as in the
+bassoon.[2]
+
+  The words _fife_ and the Fr. _fifre_ were undoubtedly derived from the
+  Ger. _Pfeiff_, the fife being called by Praetorius[3]
+  _Schweizerpfeiff_ and _Feldpfeiff_, while Martin Agricola,[4] writing
+  a century earlier (1529), mentions the transverse flute by the names
+  of _Querchpfeiff_ or _Schweizerpfeiff_, which Sebastian Virdung[5]
+  writes _Zwerchpfeiff_. The Old English spelling was _phife_, _phiphe_
+  or _ffyffe_. The fife was in use in England in the middle of the 16th
+  century, for at a muster of the citizens of London in 1540, _droumes_
+  and ffyffes are mentioned. At the battle of St Quentin (1557) the list
+  of the English army[6] employed states that one trumpet was allowed to
+  each cavalry troop of 100 men, and a drum and fife to each hundred of
+  foot. A drumme and _phife_ were also employed at one shilling per diem
+  for the "Trayne of Artillery."[7] This was the nucleus of the modern
+  military band, and may be regarded as the first step in its formation.
+  In England the adoption of the fife as a military instrument was due
+  to the initiative of Henry VIII., who sent to Vienna for ten good
+  drums and as many fifers.[8] Ralph Smith[9] gives rules for drummers
+  and fifers who, in addition to the duty of giving signals in peace and
+  war to the company, were expected to be brave, secret and ingenious,
+  and masters of several languages, for they were oft sent to parley
+  with the enemy and were entrusted with honourable but dangerous
+  missions. In 1585 the drum and fife formed part of the furniture for
+  war among the companies of the city of London.[10] Queen Elizabeth
+  (according to Michaud, _Biogr. universelle_, tome xiii. p. 60) had a
+  peculiar taste for noisy music, and during meals had a concert of
+  twelve trumpets, two kettledrums, with fifes and drums. The fife
+  became such a favourite military instrument during the 16th and 17th
+  centuries in England that it displaced the bagpipe; it was, however,
+  in turn superseded early in the 18th century by the hautboy (see
+  OBOE), introduced from France. In the middle of the 18th century the
+  fife was reintroduced into the British army band by the duke of
+  Cumberland[11] in the Guards in 1745, commemorated by William
+  Hogarth's picture of the "March of the Guards towards Scotland in
+  1745," in which are seen a drummer and fifer; and by Colonel Bedford
+  into the royal regiment of artillery in 1748, at the end of the war,
+  when a Hanoverian fifer, John Ulrich, was brought over from Flanders
+  as instructor.[12] In 1747 the 19th regiment, known as Green Howards,
+  also had the advantage of a Hanoverian fifer as teacher, a youth
+  presented by his colonel to Lieutenant-Colonel Williams commanding the
+  regiment at Bois-le-Duc. Drum and fife bands in a short time became
+  common in all infantry regiments, while among the cavalry the trumpet
+  prevailed.
+
+  For the acoustics, construction and origin of the fife see FLUTE.
+  Illustrations of the fife may be seen in Cowdray's picture of an
+  encampment at Portsmouth in 1548; in Sandford's "Coronation Procession
+  of James II.," and in C.R. Day's _Descriptive Catalogue_, pl. i. (F)
+  (description No. 42, p. 27).     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), bk. v. prop. 9, pp.
+    241-244.
+
+  [2] For an illustration of one of these bass flutes see article
+    FLUTE, Fig. 2.
+
+  [3] _Syntagma musicum_ (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), pp. 40-41 of Reprint.
+
+  [4] _Musica instrumentalis_ (Wittenberg, 1529).
+
+  [5] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [6] See Sir S.D. Scott, _The British Army_, vol. ii. p. 396.
+
+  [7] See H.G. Farmer, _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ (London,
+    1904).
+
+  [8] _Id._
+
+  [9] _Id._
+
+  [10] Stowe's _Chronicles_, p. 702.
+
+  [11] Grose, _Military Antiquities_ (London, 1801), vol. ii.
+
+  [12] See Colonel P. Forbes Macbean, _Memoirs of the Royal Regiment of
+    Artillery_.
+
+
+
+
+FIFTH MONARCHY MEN, the name of a Puritan sect in England which for a
+time supported the government of Oliver Cromwell in the belief that it
+was a preparation for the "fifth monarchy," that is for the monarchy
+which should succeed the Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman,
+and during which Christ should reign on earth with His saints for a
+thousand years. These sectaries aimed at bringing about the entire
+abolition of the existing laws and institutions, and the substitution of
+a simpler code based upon the law of Moses. Disappointed at the delay in
+the fulfilment of their hopes, they soon began to agitate against the
+government and to vilify Cromwell; but the arrest of their leaders and
+preachers, Christopher Feake, John Rogers and others, cooled their
+ardour, and they were, perforce, content to cherish their hopes in
+secret until after the Restoration. Then, on the 6th of January 1661, a
+band of fifth monarchy men, headed by a cooper named Thomas Venner, who
+was one of their preachers, made an attempt to obtain possession of
+London. Most of them were either killed or taken prisoners, and on the
+19th and 21st of January Venner and ten others were executed for high
+treason. From that time the special doctrines of the sect either died
+out, or became merged in a milder form of millenarianism, similar to
+that which exists at the present day.
+
+  For the proceedings of the sect see S.R. Gardiner, _History of the
+  Commonwealth and Protectorate_, _passim_ (London, 1894-1901); and for
+  an account of the rising of 1661 see Sir John Reresby, _Memoirs_,
+  1634-1689, edited by J.J. Cartwright (London, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+FIG, the popular name given to plants of the genus _Ficus_, an extensive
+group, included in the natural order Moraceae, and characterized by a
+remarkable development of the pear-shaped receptacle, the edge of which
+curves inwards, so as to form a nearly closed cavity, bearing the
+numerous fertile and sterile flowers mingled on its surface. The figs
+vary greatly in habit,--some being low trailing shrubs, others gigantic
+trees, among the most striking forms of those tropical forests to which
+they are chiefly indigenous. They have alternate leaves, and abound in a
+milky juice, usually acrid, though in a few instances sufficiently mild
+to be used for allaying thirst. This juice contains caoutchouc in large
+quantity.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--Fruiting Branch of Fig, _Ficus Carica_; about
+2/7 nat. size.
+
+1. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise; about 1/2 nat. size. 2. Female flower
+taken from 1; enlarged. 3. Ripe fruit cut lengthwise; about -1/2 nat.
+size.]
+
+_Ficus Carica_ (figure 1), which yields the well-known figs of commerce,
+is a bush or small tree--rarely more than 18 or 20 ft. high,--with
+broad, rough, deciduous leaves, very deeply lobed in the cultivated
+varieties, but in the wild plant sometimes nearly entire. The green,
+rough branches bear the solitary, nearly sessile receptacles in the
+axils of the leaves. The male flowers are placed chiefly in the upper
+part of the cavity, and in most varieties are few in number. As it
+ripens, the receptacle enlarges greatly, and the numerous single-seeded
+pericarps or true fruits become imbedded in it. The fruit of the wild
+fig never acquires the succulence of the cultivated kinds. The fig seems
+to be indigenous to Asia Minor and Syria, but now occurs in a wild state
+in most of the countries around the Mediterranean. From the ease with
+which the nutritious fruit can be preserved, it was probably one of the
+earliest objects of cultivation, as may be inferred from the frequent
+allusions to it in the Hebrew Scriptures.[1] From a passage in
+Herodotus the fig would seem to have been unknown to the Persians in the
+days of the first Cyrus; but it must have spread in remote ages over all
+the districts around the Aegean and Levant. The Greeks are said to have
+received it from Caria (hence the specific name); but the fruit so
+improved under Hellenic culture that Attic figs became celebrated
+throughout the East, and special laws were made to regulate their
+exportation. From the contemptuous name given to informers against the
+violation of those enactments, [Greek: sukophantai (sukon, phaino)], our
+word sycophant is usually derived. The fig was one of the principal
+articles of sustenance among the Greeks; the Spartans especially used it
+largely at their public tables. From Hellas, at some prehistoric period,
+it was transplanted to Italy and the adjacent islands. Pliny enumerates
+many varieties, and alludes to those from Ebusus (the modern Iviza) as
+most esteemed by Roman epicures; while he describes those of home growth
+as furnishing a large portion of the food of the slaves, particularly
+those employed in agriculture, by whom great quantities were eaten in
+the fresh state at the periods of fig-harvest. In Latin myths the plant
+plays an important part. Held sacred to Bacchus, it was employed in
+religious ceremonies; and the fig-tree that overshadowed the twin
+founders of Rome in the wolf's cave, as an emblem of the future
+prosperity of the race, testified to the high value set upon the fruit
+by the nations of antiquity. The tree is now cultivated in all the
+Mediterranean countries, but the larger portion of our supply of figs
+comes from Asia Minor, the Spanish Peninsula and the south of France.
+Those of Asiatic Turkey are considered the best. The varieties are
+extremely numerous, and the fruit is of various colours, from deep
+purple to yellow, or nearly white. The trees usually bear two
+crops,--one in the early summer from the buds of the last year, the
+other in the autumn from those on the spring growth; the latter forms
+the chief harvest. Many of the immature receptacles drop off from
+imperfect fertilization, which circumstance has led, from very ancient
+times, to the practice of _caprification_.[2] Branches of the wild fig
+in flower are placed over the cultivated bushes. Certain hymenopterous
+insects, of the genera _Blastophaga_ and _Sycophaga_, which frequent the
+wild fig, enter the minute orifice of the receptacle, apparently to
+deposit their eggs; conveying thus the pollen more completely to the
+stigmas, they ensure the fertilization and consequent ripening of the
+fruit. By some the nature of the process has been questioned, and the
+better maturation of the fruit attributed merely to the stimulus given
+by the puncture of the insect, as in the case of the apple; but the
+arrangement of the unisexual flowers in the fig renders the first theory
+the more probable. In some districts a straw or small twig is thrust
+into the receptacle with a similar object. When ripe the figs are
+picked, and spread out to dry in the sun,--those of better quality being
+much pulled and extended by hand during the process. Thus prepared, the
+fruit is packed closely in barrels, rush baskets, or wooden boxes, for
+commerce. The best kind, known as elemi, are shipped at Smyrna, where
+the pulling and packing of figs form one of the most important
+industries of the people.
+
+This fruit still constitutes a large part of the food of the natives of
+western Asia and southern Europe, both in the fresh and dried state. A
+sort of cake made by mashing up the inferior kinds serves in parts of
+the Archipelago as a substitute for bread. Alcohol is obtained from
+fermented figs in some southern countries; and a kind of wine, still
+made from the ripe fruit, was known to the ancients, and mentioned by
+Pliny under the name of _sycites_. Medicinally the fig is employed as a
+gentle laxative, when eaten abundantly often proving useful in chronic
+constipation; it forms a part of the well-known "confection of senna."
+The milky juice of the stems and leaves is very acrid, and has been used
+in some countries for raising blisters. The wood is porous and of little
+value; though a piece, saturated with oil and spread with emery, is in
+France a common substitute for a hone.
+
+The fig is grown for its fresh fruit (eaten as an article of dessert) in
+all the milder parts of Europe, and in the United States, with
+protection in winter, succeeds as far north as Pennsylvania. The fig was
+introduced into England by Cardinal Pole, from Italy, early in the 16th
+century. It lives to a great age, and along the southern coast of
+England bears fruit abundantly as a standard; but in Scotland and in
+many parts of England a south wall is indispensable for its successful
+cultivation out of doors.
+
+  Fig trees are propagated by cuttings, which should be put into pots,
+  and placed in a gentle hotbed. They may be obtained more speedily from
+  layers, which should consist of two or three years old shoots, and
+  these, when rooted, will form plants ready to bear fruit the first or
+  second year after planting. The best soil for a fig border is a
+  friable loam, not too rich, but well drained; a chalky subsoil is
+  congenial to the tree, and, to correct the tendency to over-luxuriance
+  of growth, the roots should be confined within spaces surrounded by a
+  wall enclosing an area of about a square yard. The sandy soil of
+  Argenteuil, near Paris, suits the fig remarkably well; but the best
+  trees are those which grow in old quarries, where their roots are free
+  from stagnant water, and where they are sheltered from cold, while
+  exposed to a very hot sun, which ripens the fruit perfectly. The fig
+  succeeds well planted in a paved court against a building with a south
+  aspect.
+
+  The fig tree naturally produces two sets of shoots and two crops of
+  fruit in the season. The first shoots generally show young figs in
+  July and August, but these in the climate of England very seldom
+  ripen, and should therefore be rubbed off. The late or midsummer
+  shoots likewise put forth fruit-buds, which, however, do not develop
+  themselves till the following spring; and these form the only crop of
+  figs on which the British gardener can depend.
+
+  The fig tree grown as a standard should get very little pruning, the
+  effect of cutting being to stimulate the buds to push shoots too
+  vigorous for bearing. When grown against a wall, it has been
+  recommended that a single stem should be trained to the height of a
+  foot. Above this a shoot should be trained to the right, and another
+  to the left; from these principals two other subdivisions should be
+  encouraged, and trained 15 in. apart; and along these branches, at
+  distances of about 8 in., shoots for bearing, as nearly as possible of
+  equal vigour, should be encouraged. The bearing shoots produced along
+  the leading branches should be trained in at full length, and in
+  autumn every alternate one should be cut back to one eye. In the
+  following summer the trained shoots should bear and ripen fruit, and
+  then be cut back in autumn to one eye, while shoots from the bases of
+  those cut back the previous autumn should be trained for succession.
+  In this way every leading branch will be furnished alternately with
+  bearing and successional shoots.
+
+  When protection is necessary, as it may be in severe winters, though
+  it is too often provided in excess, spruce branches have been found to
+  answer the purpose exceedingly well, owing to the fact that their
+  leaves drop off gradually when the weather becomes milder in spring,
+  and when the trees require less protection and more light and air. The
+  principal part requiring protection is the main stem, which is more
+  tender than the young wood.
+
+  In forcing, the fig requires more heat than the vine to bring it into
+  leaf. It may be subjected to a temperature of 50 deg. at night, and
+  from 60 deg. to 65 deg. C in the day, and this should afterwards be
+  increased to 60 deg. and 65 deg. by night, and 70 deg. to 75 deg. by
+  day, or even higher by sun heat, giving plenty of air at the same
+  time. In this temperature the evaporation from the leaves is very
+  great, and this must be replaced and the wants of the swelling fruit
+  supplied by daily watering, by syringing the foliage, and by
+  moistening the floor, this atmospheric moisture being also necessary
+  to keep down the red spider. When the crop begins to ripen, a
+  moderately dry atmosphere should be maintained, with abundant
+  ventilation when the weather permits.
+
+  The fig tree is easily cultivated in pots, and by introducing the
+  plants into heat in succession the fruiting season may be
+  considerably extended. The plants should be potted in turfy loam mixed
+  with charcoal and old mortar rubbish, and in summer top-dressings of
+  rotten manure, with manure water two or three times a week, will be
+  beneficial. While the fruit is swelling, the pots should be plunged in
+  a bed of fermenting leaves.
+
+  The following are a few of the best figs; those marked F, are good
+  forcing sorts, and those marked W. suitable for walls:--
+
+  Agen: brownish-green, turbinate.
+
+  Brown Ischia, F.: chestnut-coloured, roundish-turbinate.
+
+  Brown Turkey (Lee's Perpetual), F., W.: purplish-brown, turbinate.
+
+  Brunswick, W.: brownish-green, pyriform.
+
+  Col di Signora Bianca, F.: greenish-yellow, pyriform.
+
+  Col di Signora Nero: dark chocolate, pyriform.
+
+  Early Violet, F.: brownish-purple, roundish.
+
+  Grizzly Bourjassotte: chocolate, round.
+
+  Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari: pale chestnut, turbinate.
+
+  Negro Largo, F.: black, long pyriform.
+
+  White Ischia, F.: greenish-yellow, roundish-obovate.
+
+  White Marseilles, F., W.: pale green, roundish-obovate.
+
+The sycamore fig, _Ficus Sycomorus_, is a tree of large size, with
+heart-shaped leaves, which, from their fancied resemblance to those of
+the mulberry, gave origin to the name [Greek: Sukomoros]. From the deep
+shade cast by its spreading branches, it is a favourite tree in Egypt
+and Syria, being often planted along roads and near houses. It bears a
+sweet edible fruit, somewhat like that of the common fig, but produced
+in racemes on the older boughs. The apex of the fruit is sometimes
+removed, or an incision made in it, to induce earlier ripening. The
+ancients, after soaking it in water, preserved it like the common fig.
+The porous wood is only fit for fuel.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--India-rubber Tree, _Ficus elastica_, showing
+spreading woody roots.]
+
+The sacred fig, peepul, or bo, _Ficus religiosa_, a large tree with
+heart-shaped, long-pointed leaves on slender footstalks, is much grown
+in southern Asia. The leaves are used for tanning, and afford lac, and a
+gum resembling caoutchouc is obtained from the juice; but in India it is
+chiefly planted with a religious object, being regarded as sacred by
+both Brahmans and Buddhists. The former believe that the last avatar of
+Vishnu took place beneath its shade. A gigantic bo, described by Sir J.
+Emerson Tennent as growing near Anarajapoora, in Ceylon, is, if
+tradition may be trusted, one of the oldest trees in the world. It is
+said to have been a branch of the tree under which Gautama Buddha became
+endued with his divine powers, and has always been held in the greatest
+veneration. The figs, however, hold as important a place in the
+religious fables of the East as the ash in the myths of Scandinavia.
+
+_Ficus elastica_, the India-rubber tree (figure 2), the large, oblong,
+glossy leaves, and pink buds of which are so familiar in our
+greenhouses, furnishes most of the caoutchouc obtained from the East
+Indies. It grows to a large size, and is remarkable for the snake-like
+roots that extend in contorted masses around the base of the trunk. The
+small fruit is unfit for food.
+
+_Ficus bengalensis_, or the Banyan, wild in parts of northern India, but
+generally planted throughout the country, has a woody stem, branching to
+a height of 70 to 100 ft. and of vast extent with heart-shaped entire
+leaves terminating in acute points. Every branch from the main body
+throws out its own roots, at first in small tender fibres, several yards
+from the ground; but these continually grow thicker until they reach the
+surface, when they strike in, increase to large trunks, and become
+parent trees, shooting out new branches from the top, which again in
+time suspend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks, produce other
+branches, the growth continuing as long as the earth contributes her
+sustenance. On the bank's of the Nerbudda stood a celebrated tree of
+this kind, which is supposed to be that described by Nearchus, the
+admiral of Alexander the Great. This tree once covered an area so
+immense, that it was known to shelter no fewer than 7000 men, and though
+much reduced in size by the destructive power of the floods, the
+remainder was described by James Forbes (1749-1819), in his _Oriental
+Memoirs_ (1813-1815) as nearly 2000 ft. in circumference, while the
+trunks large and small exceeded 3000 in number. The tree usually grows
+from seeds dropped by birds on other trees. The leaf-axil of a palm
+forms a frequent receptacle for their growth, the palm becoming
+ultimately strangled by the growth of the fig, which by this time has
+developed numerous daughter stems which continue to expand and cover
+ultimately a large area. The famous tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens,
+Calcutta, began its growth at the end of the 18th century on a sacred
+date-palm. In 1907 it had nearly 250 aerial roots, the parent trunk was
+42 ft. in girth, and its leafy crown had a circumference of 857 ft.; and
+it was still growing vigorously. Both this tree and _F. religiosa_ cause
+destruction to buildings, especially in Bengal, from seeds dropped by
+birds germinating on the walls. The tree yields an inferior rubber, and
+a coarse rope is prepared from the bark and from the aerial roots.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Of these the case of the Barren Fig-tree (Mark. xi. 12-14, 20-21:
+    compare Matt. xxi. 18-20), which Jesus cursed and which then withered
+    away, has been much discussed among theologians. The difficulty is in
+    Mark xi. 13: "And seeing a fig-tree afar off having leaves, he came,
+    if haply he might find anything thereon; and when he came to it he
+    found nothing but leaves, for the time of figs was not yet." These
+    last words obviously raise the question whether the expectation of
+    Jesus of finding figs, and his cursing of the tree on finding none,
+    were not unreasonable. Many ingenious solutions have been propounded,
+    by suggested emendations of the text and otherwise, for which consult
+    M'Clintock and Strong's _Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature_ (_sub_
+    "Fig") and the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ ("Fig-tree"); the former
+    demurs to the unreasonableness, and contends that the appearance of
+    the leaves at this season (March) indicated a pretentious precocity
+    in this particular fig-tree, so that Jesus was entitled to expect
+    that it would also have fruit, even though the season had not
+    arrived; the _Ency. Biblica_, on the other hand, supposes that some
+    "early Christian," confounding parable with history, has
+    misunderstood the parable in Luke xiii. 6-9, and, forgetting that the
+    season was not one for figs, has transformed it here into the
+    narrative of an act of Jesus. The probability seems to be that the
+    words "for the time of figs was not yet" are an unintelligent gloss
+    by an early reader, which has made its way into the text. For
+    authorities see the works mentioned above.
+
+  [2] From Lat. _caprificus_, a wild fig; O. Eng. _caprifig_.
+
+
+
+
+FIGARO, a famous dramatic character first introduced on the stage by
+Beaumarchais in the _Barbier de Seville_, the _Mariage de Figaro_, and
+the _Folle Journee_. The name is said to be an old Spanish and Italian
+word for a wigmaker, connected with the verb _cigarrar_, to roll in
+paper. Many of the traits of the character are to be found in earlier
+comic types of the Roman and Italian stage, but as a whole the
+conception was marked by great originality; and Figaro soon, seized the
+popular imagination, and became the recognized representative of daring,
+clever and nonchalant roguery and intrigue. Almost immediately after its
+appearance, Mozart chose the _Marriage of Figaro_ as the subject of an
+opera, and the _Barber of Seville_ was treated first by Paisiello, and
+afterwards in 1816 by Rossini. In 1826 the name of the witty rogue was
+taken by a journal which continued till 1833 to be one of the principal
+Parisian periodicals, numbering among its contributors such men as Jules
+Janin, Paul Lacroix, Leon Gozlan, Alphonse Karr, Dr Veron, Jules Sandeau
+and George Sand. Various abortive attempts were made to restore the
+_Figaro_ during the next twenty years; and in 1854 the efforts of M. de
+Villemessant were crowned with success (see NEWSPAPERS: _France_).
+
+  See Marc Monnier, _Les Aieux de Figaro_ (1868); H. de Villemessant,
+  _Memoires d'un journaliste_ (1867).
+
+
+
+
+FIGEAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Lot, 47 m. E.N.E. of Cahors on the Orleans railway.
+Pop. (1906) 4330. It is enclosed by an amphitheatre of wooded and
+vine-clad hills, on the right bank of the Cele, which is here crossed by
+an old bridge. It is ill-built and the streets are narrow and dirty; on
+the outskirts shady boulevards have taken the place of the ramparts by
+which it was surrounded. The town is very rich in old houses of the 13th
+and 14th centuries; among them may be mentioned the Hotel de Balene, of
+the 14th century, used as a prison. Another house, dating from the 15th
+century, was the birthplace of the Egyptologist J.F. Champollion, in
+memory of whom the town has erected an obelisk. The principal church is
+that of St Sauveur, which once belonged to the abbey of Figeac. It was
+built at the beginning of the 12th century, but restored later; the
+facade in particular is modern. Notre-Dame du Puy, in the highest part
+of the town, belongs to the 12th and 13th centuries. It has no transept
+and its aisles extend completely round the interior. The altar-screen is
+a fine example of carved woodwork of the end of the 17th century. Of the
+four obelisks which used to mark the limits of the authority of the
+abbots of Figeac, those to the south and the west of the town remain.
+Figeac is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance,
+and a communal college. Brewing, tanning, printing, cloth-weaving and
+the manufacture of agricultural implements are among the industries.
+Trade is in cattle, leather, wool, plums, walnuts and grain, and there
+are zinc mines in the neighbourhood.
+
+Figeac grew up round an abbey founded by Pippin the Short in the 8th
+century, and throughout the middle ages it was the property of the
+monks. At the end of the 16th century the lordship was acquired by King
+Henry IV.'s minister, the duke of Sully, who sold it to Louis XIII. in
+1622.
+
+
+
+
+FIGUEIRA DA FOZ, or FIGUEIRA, a seaport of central Portugal, in the
+district of Coimbra, formerly included in the province of Beira; on the
+north bank of the river Mondego, at its mouth, and at the terminus of
+the Lisbon-Figueira and Guarda-Figueira railways. Pop. (1900) 6221.
+Figueira da Foz is an important fishing-station, and one of the
+headquarters of the coasting trade in grain, fruit, wine, olive oil,
+cork and coal; but owing to the bar at the mouth of the Mondego large
+ships cannot enter. Glass is manufactured, and the city attracts many
+visitors by its excellent climate and sea-bathing. A residential suburb,
+the Bairro Novo, exists chiefly for their accommodation, to the
+north-west of the old town. Figueira is connected by a tramway running 4
+m. N. W. with Buarcos (pop. 5033) and with the coal-mines of Cape
+Mondego. Lavos (pop. 7939), on the south bank of the Mondego, was the
+principal landing-place of the British troops which came, in 1808, to
+take part in the Peninsular War. Figueira da Foz received the title and
+privileges of city by a decree dated the 20th of September 1882.
+
+
+
+
+FIGUERAS, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Gerona, 14
+m. S. of the French frontier, on the Barcelona-Perpignan railway. Pop.
+(1900) 10,714. Figueras is built at the foot of the Pyrenees, and on the
+northern edge of El Ampurdan, a fertile and well-irrigated plain, which
+produces wine, olives and rice, and derives its name from the seaport of
+Ampurias, the ancient Emporiae. The castle of San Fernando, 1 m. N.W.,
+is an irregular pentagonal structure, built by order of Ferdinand VI.
+(1746-1759), on the site of a Capuchin convent. Owing to its situation,
+and the rocky nature of the ground over which a besieger must advance,
+it is still serviceable as the key to the frontier. It affords
+accommodation for 16,000 men and is well provided with bomb-proof cover.
+In 1794 Figueras was surrendered to the French, but it was regained in
+1795. During the Peninsular War it was taken by the French in 1808,
+recaptured by the Spaniards in 1811, and retaken by the French in the
+same year. In 1823, after a long defence, it was once more captured by
+the French. An annual pilgrimage from Figueras to the chapel of Nuestra
+Senora de Requesens, 15 m. N., commemorates the deliverance of the town
+from a severe epidemic of fever in 1612.
+
+
+
+
+FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS (c. 98-45 B.C.), Roman savant, next to Varro
+the most learned Roman of the age. He was a friend of Cicero, to whom he
+gave his support at the time of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Plutarch,
+_Cicero_, 20; Cicero, _Pro Sulla_, xiv. 42). In 58 he was praetor, sided
+with Pompey in the Civil War, and after his defeat was banished by
+Caesar, and died in exile. According to Cicero (_Timaeus_, 1), Figulus
+endeavoured with some success to revive the doctrines of Pythagoreanism.
+With this was included mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and even
+the magic arts. According to Suetonius (_Augustus_, 94) he foretold the
+greatness of the future emperor on the day of his birth, and Apuleius
+(_Apologia_, 42) records that, by the employment of "magic boys"
+(_magici pueri_), he helped to find a sum of money that had been lost.
+Jerome (the authority for the date of his death) calls him _Pythagoricus
+et magus_. The abstruse nature of his studies, the mystical character of
+his writings, and the general indifference of the Romans to such
+subjects, caused his works to be soon forgotten. Amongst his scientific,
+theological and grammatical works mention may be made of _De diis_,
+containing an examination of various cults and ceremonials; treatises on
+divination and the interpretation of dreams; on the sphere, the winds
+and animals. His _Commentarii grammatici_ in at least 29 books was an
+ill-arranged collection of linguistic, grammatical and antiquarian
+notes. In these he expressed the opinion that the meaning of words was
+natural, not fixed by man. He paid especial attention to orthography,
+and sought to differentiate the meanings of cases of like ending by
+distinctive marks (the apex to indicate a long vowel is attributed to
+him). In etymology he endeavoured to find a Roman explanation of words
+where possible (according to him _frater_ was = _fere alter_).
+Quintilian (_Instit. orat._ xi, 3. 143) speaks of a rhetorical treatise
+_De gestu_ by him.
+
+  See Cicero, _Ad Fam._ iv. 13; scholiast on Lucan i. 639; several
+  references in Aulus Gellius; Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Literature_,
+  170; M. Hertz, De N.F. _studiis atque operibus_ (1845); _Quaestiones
+  Nigidianae_ (1890), and edition of the fragments (1889) by A. Swoboda.
+
+
+
+
+FIGURATE NUMBERS, in mathematics. If we take the sum of n terms of the
+series 1 + 1 + 1 + ..., i.e. n, as the nth term of a new series, we
+obtain the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ..., the sum of n terms of which is 1/2
+n(n + 1). Taking this sum as the nth term, we obtain the series 1 + 3 +
+6 + 10 + ..., which has for the sum of n terms n(n + 1)(n + 2)/3![1]
+This sum is taken as the nth term of the next series, and proceeding in
+this way we obtain series having the following nth terms:--1, n, n(n +
+1)/2!, n(n + 1) (n + 2)/3!, ... n(n + 1) ... (n + r - 2)/(r - 1)!. The
+numbers obtained by giving n any value in these expressions are of the
+first, second, third, ... or rth order of figurate numbers.
+
+  1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1
+  /  | /  | /  | /  | /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 2 /| 3 /| 4 /| 5 /| 6 /| 7  |
+  /  | /  | /  | /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 3 /| 6 /| 10/| 15/| 21 |
+  /  | /  | /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 4 /| 10/| 20/| 35 |
+  /  | /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 5 /| 15/| 35 |
+  /  | /  | /  |
+  1 /| 6 /| 21 |
+  /  | /  |
+  1 /| 7  |
+  /  |
+  1  |
+
+Pascal treated these numbers in his _Traite du triangle arithmetique_
+(1665), using them to develop a theory of combinations and to solve
+problems in probability. His table is here shown in its simplest form.
+It is to be noticed that each number is the sum of the numbers
+immediately above and to the left of it; and that the numbers along a
+line, termed a _base_, which cuts off an equal number of units along the
+top row and column are the coefficients in the binomial expansion of
+(1 + x)^(r - 1), where r represents the number of units cut off.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The notation n! denotes the product 1 . 2 . 3.... n, and is
+    termed "factorial n."
+
+
+
+
+FIJI (_Viti_), a British colony consisting of an archipelago in the
+Pacific Ocean, the most important in Polynesia, between 15 deg. and 20
+deg. S., and on and about the meridian of 180 deg. The islands number
+about 250, of which some 80 are inhabited. The total land area is 7435
+sq. m. (thus roughly equalling that of Wales), and the population is
+about 121,000. The principal island is Viti Levu, 98 m. in length (E. to
+W.) and 67 in extreme breadth, with an area of 4112 sq. m. Forty miles
+N.E. lies Vanua Levu, measuring 117 m. by 30, with an area of 2432 sq.
+m. Close off the south-eastern shore of Vanua Levu is Taviuni, 26 m. in
+length by 10 in breadth; Kandavu or Kadavu, 36 m. long and very narrow,
+is 41 m. S. of Viti Levu, and the three other main islands, lying east
+of Viti Levu in the Koro Sea, are Koro, Ngau or Gau, and Ovalau.
+South-east from Vanua Levu a loop of islets extends nearly to 20 deg.
+S., enclosing the Koro Sea. North-west of Viti Levu lies another chain,
+the Yasawa or western group; and, finally, the colony includes the
+island of Rotumah (q.v.), 300 m. N.W. by N. of Vanua Levu.
+
+The formation of the larger islands is volcanic, their surface rugged,
+their vegetation luxuriant, and their appearance very beautiful; their
+hills rise often above 3000, and, in the case of a few summits, above
+4000 ft., and they contrast strongly with the low coral formation of the
+smaller members of the group. There is not much level country, except in
+the coral islets, and certain rich tracts along the coasts of the two
+large islands, especially near the mouths of the rivers. The large
+islands have a considerable extent of undulating country, dry and open
+on their lee sides. Streams and rivers are abundant, the latter very
+large in proportion to the size of the islands, affording a waterway to
+the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive mud flats
+and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, by which their fertility
+is increased, though at a heavy cost to the cultivator. The Rewa,
+debouching through a wide delta at the south-east of Viti Levu, is
+navigable for small vessels for 40 m. There are also in this island the
+Navua and Sigatoka (flowing S.), the Nandi (W.), and the Ba (N.W.). The
+Dreketi, flowing W., is the chief stream of Vanua Levu. It breaches the
+mountains in a fine valley; for this island consists practically of one
+long range, whereas the main valleys and ranges separating them in Viti
+Levu radiate for the most part from a common centre. With few exceptions
+the islands are surrounded by barriers of coral, broken by openings
+opposite the mouths of streams. Viti Levu is the most important island
+not only from its size, but from its fertility, variety of surface, and
+population, which is over one-third of that of the whole group. The town
+of Suva lies on an excellent harbour at the south-east of the island,
+and has been the capital of the colony since 1882, containing the
+government buildings and other offices. Vanua Levu is less fertile than
+Viti Levu; it has good anchorages along its entire southern coast. Of
+the other islands, Taviuni, remarkable for a lake (presumably a
+crater-lake) at the top of its lofty central ridge, is fertile, but
+exceptionally devoid of harbours; whereas the well-timbered island of
+Kandavu has an excellent one. On the eastern shore of Ovalau, an island
+which contains in a small area a remarkable series of gorge-like valleys
+between commanding hills, is the town of Levuka, the capital until 1882.
+It stands partly upon the narrow shore, and partly climbs the rocky
+slope behind. The chief islands on the west of the chain enclosing the
+Koro Sea are Koro, Ngau, Moala and Totoya, all productive, affording
+good anchorage, elevated and picturesque. The eastern islands of the
+chain are smaller and more numerous, Vanua Batevu (one of the Exploring
+Group) being a centre of trade. Among others, Mago is remarkable for a
+subterranean outlet of the waters of the fertile valley in its midst.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Fiji.]
+
+The land is of recent geological formation, the principal ranges being
+composed of igneous rock, and showing traces of much volcanic
+disturbance. There are boiling springs in Vanua Levu and Ngau, and
+slight shocks of earthquake are occasionally felt. The tops of many of
+the mountains, from Kandavu in the S.W., through Nairai and Koro, to the
+Ringgold group in the N.E., have distinct craters, but their activity
+has long ceased. The various decomposing volcanic rocks--tufas,
+conglomerates and basalts--mingled with decayed vegetable matter, and
+abundantly watered, form a very fertile soil. Most of the high peaks on
+the larger islands are basaltic, and the rocks generally are igneous,
+with occasional upheaved coral found sometimes over 1000 ft. above the
+sea; but certain sedimentary rocks observed on Viti Levu seem to imply a
+nucleus of land of considerable age. Volcanic activity in the
+neighbourhood is further shown by the quantities of pumice-stone drifted
+on to the south coasts of Kandavu and Viti Levu; malachite, antimony and
+graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron-sand occur.
+
+_Climate._--The colony is beyond the limits of the perpetual S.E.
+trades, while not within the range of the N.W. monsoons. From April to
+November the winds are steady between S.E. and E.N.E., and the climate
+is cool and dry, after which the weather becomes uncertain and the winds
+often northerly, this being the wet warm season. In February and March
+heavy gales are frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur, causing
+scarcity by destroying the crops. The rainfall is much greater on the
+windward than on the lee sides of the islands (about 110 in. at Suva),
+but the mean temperature is much the same, viz., about 80 deg. F. In the
+hills the temperature sometimes falls below 50 deg. The climate,
+especially from November to April, is somewhat enervating to the
+Englishman, but not unhealthy. Fevers are hardly known. Dysentery, which
+is common, and the most serious disease in the islands, is said to have
+been unknown before the advent of Europeans.
+
+  _Fauna._--Besides the dog and the pig, which (with the domestic fowl)
+  must have been introduced in early times, the only land mammals are
+  certain species of rats and bats. Insects are numerous, but the
+  species few. Bees have been introduced. The avifauna is not
+  remarkable. Birds of prey are few; the parrot and pigeon tribes are
+  better represented. Fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are numerous and
+  varied; Mollusca, especially marine, and Crustaceae are also very
+  numerous. These three form an important element in the food supply.
+
+  _Flora._--The vegetation is mostly of a tropical Indo-Malayan
+  character--thick jungle with great trees covered with creepers and
+  epiphytes. The lee sides of the larger islands, however, have grassy
+  plains suitable for grazing, with scattered trees, chiefly _Pandanus_,
+  and ferns. The flora has also some Australian and New Zealand
+  affinities (resembling in this respect the New Caledonia and New
+  Hebrides groups), shown especially in these western districts by the
+  _Pandanus_, by certain acacias and others. At an elevation of about
+  2000 ft. the vegetation assumes a more mountainous type. Among the
+  many valuable timber trees are the vesi (_Afzelia bijuga_); the dilo
+  (_Calophyllum Inophyllum_), the oil from its seeds being much used in
+  the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheumatism; the dakua
+  (_Dammara Vitiensis_), allied to the New Zealand kauri, and others.
+  The dakua or Fiji pine, however, has become scarce. Most of the fruit
+  trees are also valuable as timber. The native cloth (_masi_) is beaten
+  out from the bark of the paper mulberry cultivated for the purpose. Of
+  the palms the cocoanut is by far the most important. The yasi or
+  sandal-wood was formerly a valuable product, but is now rarely found.
+  There are various useful drugs, spices and perfumes; and many plants
+  are cultivated for their beauty, to which the natives are keenly
+  alive. Among the plants used as pot-herbs are several ferns, and two
+  or three Solanums, one of which, _S. anthropophagorum_, was one of
+  certain plants always cooked with human flesh, which was said to be
+  otherwise difficult of digestion. The use of the kava root, here
+  called yanggona, from which the well-known national beverage is made,
+  is said to have been introduced from Tonga. Of fruit trees, besides
+  the cocoanut, there may be mentioned the many varieties of the
+  bread-fruit, of bananas and plantains, of sugar-cane and of lemon; the
+  wi (_Spondias dulcis_), the kavika (_Eugenia malaccensis_), the ivi or
+  Tahitian chestnut (_Inocarpus edulis_), the pine-apple and others
+  introduced in modern times. Edible roots are especially abundant. The
+  chief staple of life is the yam, the names of several months in the
+  calendar having reference to its cultivation and ripening. The natives
+  use no grain or pulse, but make a kind of bread (_mandrai_) from this,
+  the taro, and other roots, as well as from the banana (which is the
+  best), the bread-fruit, the ivi, the kavika, the arrowroot, and in
+  times of scarcity the mangrove. This bread is made by burying the
+  materials for months, till the mass is thoroughly fermented and
+  homogeneous, when it is dug up and cooked by baking or steaming. This
+  simple process, applicable to such a variety of substances, is a
+  valuable security against famine.
+
+_People._--The Fijians are a people of Melanesian (Papuan) stock much
+crossed with Polynesians (Tongans and Samoans). They occupy the extreme
+east limits of Papuan territory and are usually classified as
+Melanesians; but they are physically superior to the pure examples of
+that race, combining their dark colour, harsh hirsute skin, crisp hair,
+which is bleached with lime and worn in an elaborately trained mop, and
+muscular limbs, with the handsome features and well proportioned bodies
+of the Polynesians. They are tall and well built. The features are
+strongly marked, but not unpleasant, the eyes deep set, the beard thick
+and bushy. The chiefs are fairer, much better-looking, and of a less
+negroid type of face than the people. This negroid type is especially
+marked on the west coasts, and still more in the interior of Viti Levu.
+The Fijians have other characteristics of both Pacific races, e.g. the
+quick intellect of the fairer, and the savagery and suspicion of the
+dark. They wear a minimum of covering, but, unlike the Melanesians, are
+strictly decent, while they are more moral than the Polynesians. They
+are cleanly and particular about their personal appearance, though,
+unlike other Melanesians, they care little for ornament, and only the
+women are tattooed. A partial circumcision is practised, which is
+exceptional with the Melanesians, nor have these usually an elaborate
+political and social system like that of Fiji. The status of the women
+is also somewhat better, those of the upper class having considerable
+freedom and influence. If less readily amenable to civilizing influences
+than their neighbours to the eastward, the Fijians show greater force of
+character and ingenuity. Possessing the arts of both races they practise
+them with greater skill than either. They understand the principle of
+division of labour and production, and thus of commerce. They are
+skilful cultivators and good boat-builders, the carpenters being an
+hereditary caste; there are also tribes of fishermen and sailors; their
+mats, baskets, nets, cordage and other fabrics are substantial and
+tasteful; their pottery, made, like many of the above articles, by
+women, is far superior to any other in the South Seas; but many native
+manufactures have been supplanted by European goods.
+
+The Fijians were formerly notorious for cannibalism, which may have had
+its origin in religion, but long before the first contact with Europeans
+had degenerated into gluttony. The Fijian's chief table luxury was human
+flesh, euphemistically called by him "long pig," and to satisfy his
+appetite he would sacrifice even friends and relatives. The Fijians
+combined with this greediness a savage and merciless nature. Human
+sacrifices were of daily occurrence. On a chief's death wives and slaves
+were buried alive with him. When building a chief's house a slave was
+buried alive in the hole dug for each foundation post. At the launching
+of a war-canoe living men were tied hand and foot between two plantain
+stems making a human ladder over which the vessel was pushed down into
+the water. The people acquiesced in these brutal customs, and willingly
+met their deaths. Affection and a firm belief in a future state, in
+which the exact condition of the dying is continued, are the Fijians'
+own explanations of the custom, once universal, of killing sick or aged
+relatives. Yet in spite of this savagery the Fijians have always been
+remarkable for their hospitality, open-handedness and courtesy. They are
+a sensitive, proud, if vindictive, and boastful people, with good
+conversational and reasoning powers, much sense of humour, tact and
+perception of character. Their code of social etiquette is minute and
+elaborate, and the graduations of rank well marked. These are (1)
+chiefs, greater and lesser; (2) priests; (3) _Mata ni Vanua_ (lit., eyes
+of the land), employes, messengers or counsellors; (4) distinguished
+warriors of low birth; (5) common people; (6) slaves.
+
+The family is the unit of political society. The families are grouped in
+townships or otherwise (_qali_) under the lesser chiefs, who again owe
+allegiance to the supreme chief of the _matanitu_ or tribe. The chiefs
+are a real aristocracy, excelling the people in physique, skill,
+intellect and acquirements of all sorts; and the reverence felt for
+them, now gradually diminishing, was very great, and had something of a
+religious character. All that a man had belonged to his chief. On the
+other hand, the chief's property practically belonged to his people,
+and they were as ready to give as to take. In a time of famine, a chief
+would declare the contents of the plantations to be common property. A
+system of feudal service-tenures (_lala_) is the institution on which
+their social and political fabric mainly depended. It allowed the chief
+to call for the labour of any district, and to employ it in planting,
+house or canoe-building, supplying food on the occasion of another
+chief's visit, &c. This power was often used with much discernment; thus
+an unpopular chief would redeem his character by calling for some
+customary service and rewarding it liberally, or a district would be
+called on to supply labour or produce as a punishment. The privilege
+might, of course, be abused by needy or unscrupulous chiefs, though they
+generally deferred somewhat to public opinion; it has now, with similar
+customary exactions of cloth, mats, salt, pottery, &c. been reduced
+within definite limits. An allied custom, _solevu_, enabled a district
+in want of any particular article to call on its neighbours to supply
+it, giving labour or something else in exchange. Although, then, the
+chief is lord of the soil, the inferior chiefs and individual families
+have equally distinct rights in it, subject to payment of certain dues;
+and the idea of permanent alienation of land by purchase was never
+perhaps clearly realized. Another curious custom was that of _vasu_
+(lit. nephew). The son of a chief by a woman of rank had almost
+unlimited rights over the property of his mother's family, or of her
+people. In time of war the chief claimed absolute control over life and
+property. Warfare was carried on with many courteous formalities, and
+considerable skill was shown in the fortifications. There were
+well-defined degrees of dependence among the different tribes or
+districts: the first of these, _bati_, is an alliance between two nearly
+equal tribes, but implying a sort of inferiority on one side,
+acknowledged by military service; the second, _qali_, implies greater
+subjection, and payment of tribute. Thus A, being bati to B, might hold
+C in qali, in which case C was also reckoned subject to B, or might be
+protected by B for political purposes.
+
+The former religion of the Fijians was a sort of ancestor-worship, had
+much in common with the creeds of Polynesia, and included a belief in a
+future existence. There were two classes of gods--the first immortal, of
+whom Ndengei is the greatest, said to exist eternally in the form of a
+serpent, but troubling himself little with human or other affairs, and
+the others had usually only a local recognition. The second rank (who,
+though far above mortals, are subject to their passions, and even to
+death) comprised the spirits of chiefs, heroes and other ancestors. The
+gods entered and spoke through their priests, who thus pronounced on the
+issue of every enterprise, but they were not represented by idols;
+certain groves and trees were held sacred, and stones which suggest
+phallic associations. The priesthood usually was hereditary, and their
+influence great, and they had generally a good understanding with the
+chief. The institution of Taboo existed in full force. The _mbure_ or
+temple was also the council chamber and place of assemblage for various
+purposes.
+
+The weapons of the Fijians are spears, slings, throwing clubs and bows
+and arrows. Their houses, of which the framework is timber and the rest
+lattice and thatch, are ingeniously constructed, with great taste in
+ornamentation, and are well furnished with mats, mosquito-curtains,
+baskets, fans, nets and cooking and other utensils. Their canoes,
+sometimes more than 100 ft. long, are well built. Ever excellent
+agriculturists, their implements were formerly digging sticks and hoes
+of turtlebone or flat oyster-shells. In irrigation they showed skill,
+draining their fields with built watercourses and bamboo pipes. Tobacco,
+maize, sweet potatoes, yams, kava, taro, beans and pumpkins, are the
+principal crops.
+
+Fijians are fond of amusements. They have various games, and dancing,
+story-telling and songs are especially popular. Their poetry has
+well-defined metres, and a sort of rhyme. Their music is rude, and is
+said to be always in the major key. They are clever cooks, and for their
+feasts preparations are sometimes made months in advance, and enormous
+waste results from them. Mourning is expressed by fasting, by shaving
+the head and face, or by cutting off the little finger. This last is
+sometimes done at the death of a rich man in the hope that his family
+will reward the compliment; sometimes it is done vicariously, as when
+one chief cuts off the little finger of his dependent in regret or in
+atonement for the death of another.
+
+A steady, if not a very rapid, decrease in the native population set in
+after 1875. A terrible epidemic of measles in that year swept away
+40,000, or about one-third of the Fijians. Subsequent epidemics have not
+been attended by anything like this mortality, but there has, however,
+been a steady decrease, principally among young children, owing to
+whooping-cough, tuberculosis and croup. Every Fijian child seems to
+contract yaws at some time in its life, a mistaken notion existing on
+the part of the parents that it strengthens the child's physique.
+Elephantiasis, influenza; rheumatism, and a skin disease, _thoko_, also
+occur. One per cent of the natives are lepers. A commission appointed in
+1891 to inquire into the causes of the native decrease collected much
+interesting anthropological information regarding native customs, and
+provincial inspectors and medical officers were specially appointed to
+compel the natives to carry out the sanitary reforms recommended by the
+commission. A considerable sum was also spent in laying on good water to
+the native villages. The Fijians show no disposition to intermarry with
+the Indian coolies. The European half-castes are not prolific _inter
+se_, and they are subject to a scrofulous taint. The most robust cross
+in the islands is the offspring of the African negro and the Fijian.
+Miscegenation with the Micronesians, the only race in the Pacific which
+is rapidly increasing, is regarded as the most hopeful manner of
+preserving the native Fijian population. There is a large Indian
+immigrant population.
+
+_Trade, Administration, &c._--The principal industries are the
+cultivation of sugar and fruits and the manufacture of sugar and copra,
+and these three are the chief articles of export trade, which is carried
+on almost entirely with Australia and New Zealand. The fruits chiefly
+exported are bananas and pineapples. There are also exported maize,
+vanilla and a variety of fruits in small quantities; pearl and other
+shells and beche-de-mer. There is a manufacture of soap from coconut
+oil; a fair quantity of tobacco is grown, and among other industries may
+be included boat-building and saw-milling. Regular steamship
+communications are maintained with Sydney, Auckland and Vancouver. Good
+bridle-tracks exist in all the larger islands, and there are some
+macadamized roads, principally in Viti Levu. There is an overland mail
+service by native runners. The export trade is valued at nearly L600,000
+annually, and the imports at L500,000. The annual revenue of the colony
+is about L140,000 and the expenditure about L125,000. The currency and
+weights and measures are British. Besides the customs and stamp duties,
+some L18,000 of the annual revenue is raised from native taxation. The
+seventeen provinces of the colony (at the head of which is either a
+European or a _roko tui_ or native official) are assessed annually by
+the legislative council for a fixed tax in kind. The tax on each
+province is distributed among districts under officials called _bulis_,
+and further among villages within these districts. Any surplus of
+produce over the assessment is sold to contractors, and the money
+received is returned to the natives.
+
+Under a reconstruction made in 1904 there is an executive council
+consisting of the governor and four official members. The legislative
+council consists of the governor, ten official, six elected and two
+native members. The native chiefs and provincial representatives meet
+annually under the presidency of the governor, and their recommendations
+are submitted for sanction to the legislative council. Suva and Levuka
+have each a municipal government, and there are native district and
+village councils. There is an armed native constabulary; and a volunteer
+and cadet corps in Suva and Levuka.
+
+The majority of the natives are Wesleyan Methodists. The Roman Catholic
+missionaries have about 3000 adherents; the Church of England is
+confined to the Europeans and _kanakas_ in the towns; the Indian coolies
+are divided between Mahommedans and Hindus. There are public schools for
+Europeans and half-castes in the towns, but there is no provision for
+the education of the children of settlers in the out-districts. By an
+ordinance of 1890 provision was made for the constitution of school
+boards, and the principle was first applied in Suva and Levuka. The
+missions have established schools in every native village, and most
+natives are able to read and write their own language. The government
+has established a native technical school for the teaching of useful
+handicrafts. The natives show themselves very slow in adopting European
+habits in food, clothing and house-building.
+
+_History._--A few islands in the north-east of the group were first seen
+by Abel Tasman in 1643. The southernmost of the group, Turtle Island,
+was discovered by Cook in 1773. Lieutenant Bligh, approaching them in
+the launch of the "Bounty," 1789, had a hostile encounter with natives.
+In 1827 Dumont d'Urville in the "Astrolabe" surveyed them much more
+accurately, but the first thorough survey was that of the United States
+exploring expedition in 1840. Up to this time, owing to the evil
+reputation of the islanders, European intercourse was very limited. The
+labours of the Wesleyan missionaries, however, must always have a
+prominent place in any history of Fiji. They came from Tonga in 1835 and
+naturally settled first in the eastern islands, where the Tongan
+element, already familiar to them, preponderated. They perhaps
+identified themselves too closely with their Tongan friends, whose
+dissolute, lawless, tyrannical conduct led to much mischief; but it
+should not be forgotten that their position was difficult, and it was
+mainly through their efforts that many terrible heathen practices were
+stamped out.
+
+About 1804 some escaped convicts from Australia and runaway sailors
+established themselves around the east part of Viti Levu, and by lending
+their services to the neighbouring chiefs probably led to their
+preponderance over the rest of the group. Na Ulivau, chief of the small
+island of Mbau, established before his death in 1829 a sort of
+supremacy, which was extended by his brother Tanoa, and by Tanoa's son
+Thakombau, a ruler of considerable capacity. In his time, however,
+difficulties thickened. The Tongans, who had long frequented Fiji
+(especially for canoe-building, their own islands being deficient in
+timber), now came in larger numbers, led by an able and ambitious chief,
+Maafu, who, by adroitly taking part in Fijian quarrels, made himself
+chief in the Windward group, threatening Thakombau's supremacy. He was
+harassed, too, by an arbitrary demand for L9000 from the American
+government, for alleged injuries to their consul. Several chiefs who
+disputed his authority were crushed by the aid of King George of Tonga,
+who (1855) had opportunely arrived on a visit; but he afterwards, taking
+some offence, demanded L12,000 for his services. At last Thakombau,
+disappointed in the hope that his acceptance of Christianity (1854)
+would improve his position, offered the sovereignty to Great Britain
+(1859) with the fee simple of 100,000 acres, on condition of her paying
+the American claims. Colonel Smythe, R.A., was sent out to report on the
+question, and decided against annexation, but advised that the British
+consul should be invested with full magisterial powers over his
+countrymen, a step which would have averted much subsequent difficulty.
+
+Meanwhile Dr B. Seemann's favourable report on the capabilities of the
+islands, followed by a time of depression in Australia and New Zealand,
+led to a rapid increase of settlers--from 200 in 1860 to 1800 in 1869.
+This produced fresh complications, and an increasing desire among the
+respectable settlers for a competent civil and criminal jurisdiction.
+Attempts were made at self-government, and the sovereignty was again
+offered, conditionally, to England, and to the United States. Finally,
+in 1871, a "constitutional government" was formed by certain Englishmen
+under King Thakombau; but this, after incurring heavy debt, and
+promoting the welfare of neither whites nor natives, came after three
+years to a deadlock, and the British government felt obliged, in the
+interest of all parties, to accept the unconditional cession now offered
+(1874). It had besides long been thought desirable to possess a station
+on the route between Australia and Panama; it was also felt that the
+Polynesian labour traffic, the abuses in which had caused much
+indignation, could only be effectually regulated from a point contiguous
+to the recruiting field, and the locality where that labour was
+extensively employed. To this end the governor of Fiji was also created
+"high commissioner for the western Pacific." Rotumah (q.v.) was annexed
+in 1881.
+
+At the time of the British annexation the islands were suffering from
+commercial depression, following a fall in the price of cotton after the
+American Civil War. Coffee, tea, cinchona and sugar were tried in turn,
+with limited success. The coffee was attacked by the leaf disease; the
+tea could not compete with that grown by the cheap labour of the East;
+the sugar machinery was too antiquated to withstand the fall in prices
+consequent on the European sugar bounties. In 1878 the first coolies
+were imported from India and the cultivation of sugar began to pass into
+the hands of large companies working with modern machinery. With the
+introduction of coolies the Fijians began to fall behind in the
+development of their country. Many of the coolies chose to remain in the
+colony after the termination of their indentures, and began to displace
+the European country traders. With a regular and plentiful supply of
+Indian coolies, the recruiting of _kanaka_ labourers practically ceased.
+The settlement of European land claims, and the measures taken for the
+protection of native institutions, caused lively dissatisfaction among
+the colonists, who laid the blame of the commercial depression at the
+door of the government; but with returning prosperity this feeling began
+to disappear. In 1900 the government of New Zealand made overtures to
+absorb Fiji. The Aborigines Society protested to the colonial office,
+and the imperial government refused to sanction the proposal.
+
+  See Smyth, _Ten Months in the Fiji Islands_ (London, 1864); B.
+  Seemann, _Flora Vitiensis_ (London, 1865); and _Viti: Account of a
+  Government Mission in the Vitian or Fijian Islands_ (1860-1861); W.T.
+  Pritchard, _Polynesian Reminiscences_ (London, 1866); H. Forbes, _Two
+  Years in Fiji_ (London, 1875); Commodore Goodenough, _Journal_
+  (London, 1876); H.N. Moseley, _Notes of a Naturalist in the
+  "Challenger"_ (London, 1879); Sir A.H. Gordon, _Story of a Little War_
+  (Edinburgh, privately printed, 1879); J.W. Anderson, _Fiji and New
+  Caledonia_ (London, 1880); C.F. Gordon-Cumming, _At Home in Fiji_
+  (Edinburgh, 1881); John Horne, _A Year in Fiji_ (London, 1881); H.S.
+  Cooper, _Our New Colony, Fiji_ (London, 1882); S.E. Scholes, _Fiji and
+  the Friendly Islands_ (London, 1882); Princes Albert Victor and George
+  of Wales, _Cruise of H. M. S. "Bacchante"_ (London, 1886); A. Agassiz,
+  _The Islands and Coral Reefs of Fiji_ (Cambridge, Mass., U.S., 1899);
+  H.B. Guppy, _Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific_ (1896-1899),
+  vol. i.; _Vanua Levu, Fiji_ (Phys. Geog. and Geology) (London, 1903);
+  Lorimer Fison, _Tales from Old Fiji_ (folk-lore, &c.) (London, 1904);
+  B. Thomson, _The Fijians_ (London, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+FILANDER, the name by which the Aru Island wallaby (_Macropus brunii_)
+was first described. It occurs in a translation of C. de Bruyn's
+_Travels_ (ii. 101) published in 1737.
+
+
+
+
+FILANGIERI, CARLO (1784-1867), prince of Satriano, Neapolitan soldier
+and statesman, was the son of Gaetano Filangieri (1752-1788), a
+celebrated philosopher and jurist. At the age of fifteen he decided on a
+military career, and having obtained an introduction to Napoleon
+Bonaparte, then first consul, was admitted to the Military Academy at
+Paris. In 1803 he received a commission in an infantry regiment, and
+took part in the campaign of 1805 under General Davoust, first in the
+Low Countries, and later at Ulm, Maria Zell and Austerlitz, where he
+fought with distinction, was wounded several times and promoted. He
+returned to Naples as captain on Massena's staff to fight the Bourbons
+and the Austrians in 1806, and subsequently went to Spain, where he
+followed Jerome Bonaparte in his retreat from Madrid. In consequence of
+a fatal duel he was sent back to Naples; there he served under Joachim
+Murat with the rank of general, and fought against the Anglo-Sicilian
+forces in Calabria and at Messina. On the fall of Napoleon he took part
+in Murat's campaign against Eugene Beauharnais, and later in that
+against Austria, and was severely wounded at the battle of the Panaro
+(1815). On the restoration of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (I.),
+Filangieri retained his rank and command, but found the army utterly
+disorganized and impregnated with Carbonarism. In the disturbances of
+1820 he adhered to the Constitutionalist party, and fought under General
+Pepe (q.v.) against the Austrians. On the reestablishment of the
+autocracy he was dismissed from the service, and retired to Calabria
+where he had inherited the princely title and estates of Satriano. In
+1831 he was recalled by Ferdinand II. and entrusted with various
+military reforms. On the outbreak of the troubles of 1848 Filangieri
+advised the king to grant the constitution, which he did in February
+1848, but when the Sicilians formally seceded from the Neapolitan
+kingdom Filangieri was given the command of an armed force with which to
+reduce the island to obedience. On the 3rd of September he landed near
+Messina, and after very severe fighting captured the city. He then
+advanced southwards, besieged and took Catania, where his troops
+committed many atrocities, and by May 1849 he had conquered the whole of
+Sicily, though not without much bloodshed. He remained in Sicily as
+governor until 1855, when he retired into private life, as he could not
+carry out the reforms he desired owing to the hostility of Giovanni
+Cassisi, the minister for Sicily. On the death of Ferdinand II. (22nd of
+May 1859) the new king Francis II. appointed Filangieri premier and
+minister of war. He promoted good relations with France, then fighting
+with Piedmont against the Austrians in Lombardy, and strongly urged on
+the king the necessity of an alliance with Piedmont and a constitution
+as the only means whereby the dynasty might be saved. These proposals
+being rejected, Filangieri resigned office. In May 1860, Francis at last
+promulgated the constitution, but it was too late, for Garibaldi was in
+Sicily and Naples was seething with rebellion. On the advice of Liborio
+Romano, the new prefect of police, Filangieri was ordered to leave
+Naples. He went to Marseilles with his wife and subsequently to
+Florence, where at the instance of General La Marmora he undertook to
+write an account of the Italian army. Although he adhered to the new
+government he refused to accept any dignity at its hands, and died at
+his villa of San Giorgio a Cremano near Naples on the 9th of October
+1867.
+
+Filangieri was a very distinguished soldier, and a man of great ability;
+although he changed sides several times he became really attached to the
+Bourbon dynasty, which he hoped to save by freeing it from its
+reactionary tendencies and infusing a new spirit into it. His conduct in
+Sicily was severe and harsh, but he was not without feelings of
+humanity, and he was an honest man and a good administrator.
+
+  His biography has been written by his daughter Teresa Filangieri
+  Fieschi-Ravaschieri, _Il Generale Carlo Filangieri_ (Milan, 1902), an
+  interesting, although somewhat too laudatory volume based on the
+  general's own unpublished memoirs; for the Sicilian expedition see V.
+  Finocchiaro, _La Rivoluzione siciliana del 1848-49_ (Catania, 1906,
+  with bibliography), in which Filangieri is bitterly attacked; see also
+  under NAPLES; FERDINAND IV.; FRANCIS I.; FERDINAND II.; FRANCIS II.
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FILANGIERI, GAETANO (1752-1788), Italian publicist, was born at Naples
+on the 18th of August 1752. His father, Caesar, prince of Arianiello,
+intended him for a military career, which he commenced at the early age
+of seven, but soon abandoned for the study of the law. At the bar his
+knowledge and eloquence early secured his success, while his defence of
+a royal decree reforming abuses in the administration of justice gained
+him the favour of the king, Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain,
+and led to several honourable appointments at court. The first two books
+of his great work, _La Scienza della legislazione_, appeared in 1780.
+The first book contained an exposition of the rules on which legislation
+in general ought to proceed, while the second was devoted to economic
+questions. These two books showed him an ardent reformer, and vehement
+in denouncing the abuses of his time. He insisted on unlimited free
+trade, and the abolition of the medieval institutions which impeded
+production and national well-being. Its success was great and immediate
+not only in Italy, but throughout Europe at large. In 1783 he married,
+resigned his appointments at court, and retiring to Cava, devoted
+himself steadily to the completion of his work. In the same year
+appeared the third book, relating entirely to the principles of criminal
+jurisprudence. The suggestion which he made in it as to the need for
+reform in the Roman Catholic church brought upon him the censure of the
+ecclesiastical authorities, and it was condemned by the congregation of
+the Index in 1784. In 1785 he published three additional volumes,
+making the fourth book of the projected work, and dealing with education
+and morals. In 1787 he was appointed a member of the supreme treasury
+council by Ferdinand IV., but his health, impaired by close study and
+over-work in his new office, compelled his withdrawal to the country at
+Vico Equense. He died somewhat suddenly on the 21st of July 1788, having
+just completed the first part of the fifth book of his _Scienza_. He
+left an outline of the remainder of the work, which was to have been
+completed in six books.
+
+  _La Scienza della legislazione_ has gone through many editions, and
+  has been translated into most of the languages of Europe. The best
+  Italian edition is in 5 vols. 8vo. (1807). The Milan edition (1822)
+  contains the _Opusculi scelti_ and a life by Donato Tommasi. A French
+  translation appeared in Paris in 7 vols. 8vo. (1786-1798); it was
+  republished in 1822-1824, with the addition of the _Opuscles_ and
+  notes by Benjamin Constant. _The Science of Legislation_ was
+  translated into English by Sir R. Clayton (London, 1806).
+
+
+
+
+FILARIASIS, the name of a disease due to the nematode _Filaria sanguinis
+hominis_. A milky appearance of the urine, due to the presence of a
+substance like chyle, which forms a clot, had been observed from time to
+time, especially in tropical and subtropical countries; and it was
+proved by Dr Wucherer of Bahia, and by Dr Timothy Lewis, that this
+peculiar condition is uniformly associated with the presence in the
+blood of minute eel-like worms, visible only under the microscope, being
+the embryo forms of a _Filaria_ (see NEMATODA). Sometimes the discharge
+of lymph takes place at one or more points of the surface of the body,
+and there is in other cases a condition of naevoid elephantiasis of the
+scrotum, or lymph-scrotum. More or less of blood may occur along with
+the chylous fluid in the urine. Both the chyluria and the presence of
+filariae in the blood are curiously intermittent; it may happen that not
+a single filaria is to be seen during the daytime, while they swarm in
+the blood at night, and it has been ingeniously shown by Dr S. Mackenzie
+that they may be made to disappear if the patient sits up all night,
+reappearing while he sleeps through the day.
+
+Sir P. Manson proved that mosquitoes imbibe the embryo filariae from the
+blood of man; and that many of these reach full development within the
+mosquito, acquiring their freedom when the latter resorts to water,
+where it dies after depositing its eggs. Mosquitoes would thus be the
+intermediate host of the filariae, and their introduction into the human
+body would be through the medium of water (see PARASITIC DISEASES).
+
+
+
+
+FILDES, SIR LUKE (1844-   ), English painter, was born at Liverpool, and
+trained in the South Kensington and Royal Academy schools. At first a
+highly successful illustrator, he took rank later among the ablest
+English painters, with "The Casual Ward" (1874), "The Widower" (1876),
+"The Village Wedding" (1883), "An Al-fresco Toilette" (1889); and "The
+Doctor" (1891), now in the National Gallery of British Art. He also
+painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many notable
+portraits, among them the coronation portraits of King Edward VII. and
+Queen Alexandra. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in
+1879, and academician in 1887; and was knighted in 1906.
+
+  See David Croal Thomson, _The Life and Work of Luke Fildes, R.A._
+  (1895).
+
+
+
+
+FILE. 1. A bar of steel having sharp teeth on its surface, and used for
+abrading or smoothing hard surfaces. (The O. Eng. word is _feol_, and
+cognate forms appear in Dutch _vijl_, Ger. _Feile_, &c.; the ultimate
+source is usually taken to be an Indo-European root meaning to mark or
+scratch, and seen in the Lat. _pingere_, to paint.) Some uncivilized
+tribes polish their weapons with such things as rough stones, pieces of
+shark skin or fishes' teeth. The operation of filing is recorded in 1
+Sam. xiii. 21; and, among other facts, the similarity of the name for
+the filing instrument among various European peoples points to an early
+practice of the art. A file differs from a _rasp_ (which is chiefly used
+for working wood, horn and the like) in having its teeth cut with a
+chisel whose straight edge extends across its surface, while the teeth
+of the rasp are formed by solitary indentations of a pointed chisel.
+According to the form of their teeth, files may be _single-cut_ or
+_double-cut_; the former have only one set of parallel ridges (either
+at right angles or at some other angle with the length); the latter (and
+more common) have a second set cut at an angle with the first. The
+double-cut file presents sharp angles to the filed surface, and is
+better suited for hard metals. Files are classed according to the
+fineness of their teeth (see TOOL), and their shapes present almost
+endless varieties. Common forms are--the _flat_ file, of parallelogram
+section, with uniform breadth and thickness, or tapering, or "bellied";
+the _four-square_ file, of square section, sometimes with one side
+"safe," or left smooth; and the so-called _three-square_ file, having
+its cross section an equilateral triangle, the _half-round_ file, a
+segment of a circle, the _round_ or _rat-tail_ file, a circle, which are
+generally tapered. The _float_ file is like the _flat_, but single-cut.
+There are many others. Files vary in length from three-quarters of an
+inch (watchmakers') to 2 or 3 ft. and upwards (engineers'). The length
+is reckoned exclusively of the spike or tang which enters the handle.
+Most files are tapered; the _blunt_ are nearly parallel, with larger
+section near the middle; a few are parallel. The _rifflers_ of sculptors
+and a few other files are curvilinear in their central line.
+
+In manufacturing files, steel blanks are forged from bars which have
+been sheared or rolled as nearly as possible to the sections required,
+and after being carefully annealed are straightened, if necessary, and
+then rendered clean and accurate by grinding or filing. The process of
+cutting them used to be largely performed by hand, but machines are now
+widely employed. The hand-cutter, holding in his left hand a short
+chisel (the edge of which is wider than the width of the file), places
+it on the blank with an inclination from the perpendicular of 12 deg. or
+14 deg., and beginning near the farther end (the blank is placed with
+the tang or handle end towards him) strikes it sharply with a hammer. An
+indentation is thus made, and the steel, slightly thrown up on the side
+next the tang, forms a ridge. The chisel is then transferred to the
+uncut surface and slid away from the operator till it encounters the
+ridge just made; the position of the next cut being thus determined, the
+chisel is again struck, and so on. The workman seeks to strike the blows
+as uniformly as possible, and he will make 60 or 80 cuts a minute. If
+the file is to be single-cut, it is now ready to be hardened, but if it
+is to be double-cut he proceeds to make the second series or course of
+cuts, which are generally somewhat finer than the first. Thus the
+surface is covered with teeth inclined towards the point of the file. If
+the file is flat and is to be cut on the other side, it is turned over,
+and a thin plate of pewter placed below it to protect the teeth.
+Triangular and other files are supported in grooves in lead. In cutting
+round and half-round files, a straight chisel is applied as tangent to
+the curve. The round face of a half-round file requires eight, ten or
+more courses to complete it. Numerous attempts were made, even so far
+back as the 18th century, to invent machinery for cutting files, but
+little success was attained till the latter part of the 19th century. In
+most of the machines the idea was to arrange a metal arm and hand to
+hold the chisel with a hammer to strike the blow, and so to imitate the
+manual process as closely as possible. The general principle on which
+the successful forms are constructed is that the blanks, laid on a
+moving table, are slowly traversed forward under a rapidly reciprocating
+chisel or knife.
+
+The filing of a flat surface perfectly true is the test of a good filer;
+and this is no easy matter to the beginner. The piece to be operated
+upon is generally fixed about the level of the elbow, the operator
+standing, and, except in the case of small files, grasping the file with
+both hands, the handle with the right, the farther end with the left.
+The great point is to be able to move the file forward with pressure in
+horizontal straight lines; from the tendency of the hands to move in
+arcs of circles, the heel and point of the file are apt to be
+alternately raised. This is partially compensated by the bellied form
+given to many files (which also counteracts the frequent warping effect
+of the hardening process, by which one side of a flat file may be
+rendered concave and useless). In bringing back the file for the next
+thrust it is nearly lifted off the work. Further, much delicacy and
+skill are required in adapting the pressure and velocity, ascertaining
+if foreign matters or filings remain interposed between the file and
+the work, &c. Files can be cleaned with a piece of the so-called
+_cotton-card_ (used in combing cotton wool) nailed to a piece of wood.
+In _draw-filing_, which is sometimes resorted to to give a neat finish,
+the file is drawn sideways to and fro over the work. New files are
+generally used for a time on brass or cast-iron, and when partially worn
+they are still available for filing wrought iron and steel.
+
+2. A string or thread (through the Fr. _fil_ and _file_, from Lat.
+_filum_, a thread); hence used of a device, originally a cord, wire or
+spike on which letters, receipts, papers, &c., may be strung for
+convenient reference. The term has been extended to embrace various
+methods for the preservation of papers in a particular order, such as
+expanding books, cabinets, and ingenious improvements on the simple wire
+file which enable any single document to be readily found and withdrawn
+without removing the whole series. From the devices used for filing the
+word is transferred to the documents filed, and thus is used of a
+catalogue, list, or collection of papers, &c. File is also employed to
+denote a row of persons or objects arranged one behind the other. In
+military usage a "file" is the opposite of a "rank," that is, it is
+composed of a (variable) number of men aligned from front to rear one
+behind the other, while a rank contains a number of men aligned from
+right to left abreast. Thus a British infantry company, in line two
+deep, one hundred strong, has two ranks of fifty men each, and fifty
+"files" of two men each. Up to about 1600 infantry companies or
+battalions were often sixteen deep, one front rank man and the fifteen
+"coverers" forming a file. The number of ranks and, therefore, of men in
+the file diminished first to ten (1600), then to six (1630), then to
+three (1700), and finally to two (about 1808 in the British army, 1888
+in the German). Denser formations when employed have been formed, not by
+altering the order of men within the unit, but by placing several units,
+one closely behind the other ("doubling" and "trebling" the line of
+battle, as it used to be called). In the 17th century a file formed a
+small command under the "file leader," the whole of the front rank
+consisting therefore of old soldiers or non-commissioned officers. This
+use of the word to express a unit of command gave rise to the
+old-fashioned term "file firing," to imply a species of fire (equivalent
+to the modern "independent") in which each man in the file fired in
+succession after the file leader, and to-day a corporal or sergeant is
+still ordered to take one or more files under his charge for independent
+work. In the above it is to be understood that the men are facing to the
+front or rear. If they are turned to the right or left so that the
+company now stands two men broad and fifty deep, it is spoken of as
+being "in file." From this come such phrases as "single file" or "Indian
+file" (one man leading and the rest following singly behind him).[1] The
+use of verbs "to file" and "to defile," implying the passage from
+fighting to marching formation, is to be derived from this rather than
+from the resemblance of a marching column to a long flexible thread, for
+in the days when the word was first used the infantry company whether in
+battle or on the march was a solid rectangle of men, a file often
+containing even more men than a rank.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This may also be understood as meaning simply "a single file,"
+    but the explanation given above is more probable, as it is
+    essentially a marching and not a fighting formation that is expressed
+    by the phrase.
+
+
+
+
+FILE-FISH, or TRIGGER-FISH, the names given to fishes of the genus
+_Balistes_ (and _Monacanthus_) inhabiting all tropical and subtropical
+seas. Their body is compressed and not covered with ordinary scales, but
+with small juxtaposed scutes. Their other principal characteristics
+consist in the structure of their first dorsal fin (which consists of
+three spines) and in their peculiar dentition. The first of the three
+dorsal spines is very strong, roughened in front like a file, and
+hollowed out behind to receive the second much smaller spine, which,
+besides, has a projection in front, at its base, fitting into a notch of
+the first. Thus these two spines can only be raised or depressed
+simultaneously, in such a manner that the first cannot be forced down
+unless the second has been previously depressed. The latter has been
+compared to a trigger, hence the name of Trigger-fish. Also the generic
+name _Balistes_ and the Italian name of "Pesce balistra" refer to this
+structure. Both jaws are armed with eight strong incisor-like and
+sometimes pointed teeth, by which these fishes are enabled, not only to
+break off pieces of madrepores and other corals on which they feed, but
+also to chisel a hole into the hard shells of Mollusca, in order to
+extract the soft parts. In this way they destroy an immense number of
+molluscs, and become most injurious to the pearl-fisheries. The gradual
+failure of those fisheries in Ceylon has been ascribed to this cause,
+although evidently other agencies must have been at work at the same
+time. The _Monacanthi_ are distinguished from the _Balistes_ in having
+only one dorsal spine and a velvety covering of the skin. Some 30
+different species are known of _Balistes_ and about 50 of _Monacanthus_.
+Two species (_B. maculatus_ and _capriscus_), common in the Atlantic,
+sometimes wander to the British coasts.
+
+[Illustration: _Balistes vidua_]
+
+
+
+
+FILELFO, FRANCESCO (1398-1481), Italian humanist, was born in 1398 at
+Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. When he appeared upon the scene of
+human life, Petrarch and the students of Florence had already brought
+the first act in the recovery of classic culture to conclusion. They had
+created an eager appetite for the antique, had disinterred many
+important Roman authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent
+from the barbarism of the middle ages. Filelfo was destined to carry on
+their work in the field of Latin literature, and to be an important
+agent in the still unaccomplished recovery of Greek culture. His
+earliest studies in grammar, rhetoric and the Latin language were
+conducted at Padua, where he acquired so great a reputation for learning
+that in 1417 he was invited to teach eloquence and moral philosophy at
+Venice. According to the custom of that age in Italy, it now became his
+duty to explain the language, and to illustrate the beauties of the
+principal Latin authors, Cicero and Virgil being considered the chief
+masters of moral science and of elegant diction. Filelfo made his mark
+at once in Venice. He was admitted to the society of the first scholars
+and the most eminent nobles of that city; and in 1419 he received an
+appointment from the state, which enabled him to reside as secretary to
+the consul-general (_baylo_) of the Venetians in Constantinople. This
+appointment was not only honourable to Filelfo as a man of trust and
+general ability, but it also gave him the opportunity of acquiring the
+most coveted of all possessions at that moment for a scholar--a
+knowledge of the Greek language. Immediately after his arrival in
+Constantinople, Filelfo placed himself under the tuition of John
+Chrysoloras, whose name was already well known in Italy as relative of
+Manuel, the first Greek to profess the literature of his ancestors in
+Florence. At the recommendation of Chrysoloras he was employed in
+several diplomatic missions by the emperor John Palaeologus. Before very
+long the friendship between Filelfo and his tutor was cemented by the
+marriage of the former to Theodora, the daughter of John Chrysoloras. He
+had now acquired a thorough knowledge of the Greek language, and had
+formed a large collection of Greek manuscripts. There was no reason why
+he should not return to his native country. Accordingly, in 1427 he
+accepted an invitation from the republic of Venice, and set sail for
+Italy, intending to resume his professorial career. From this time
+forward until the date of his death, Filelfo's history consists of a
+record of the various towns in which he lectured, the masters whom he
+served, the books he wrote, the authors he illustrated, the friendships
+he contracted, and the wars he waged with rival scholars. He was a man
+of vast physical energy, of inexhaustible mental activity, of quick
+passions and violent appetites; vain, restless, greedy of gold and
+pleasure and fame; unable to stay quiet in one place, and perpetually
+engaged in quarrels with his compeers.
+
+When Filelfo arrived at Venice with his family in 1427, he found that
+the city had almost been emptied by the plague, and that his scholars
+would be few. He therefore removed to Bologna; but here also he was met
+with drawbacks. The city was too much disturbed with political
+dissensions to attend to him; so Filelfo crossed the Apennines and
+settled in Florence. At Florence began one of the most brilliant and
+eventful periods of his life. During the week he lectured to large
+audiences of young and old on the principal Greek and Latin authors, and
+on Sundays he explained Dante to the people in the Duomo. In addition to
+these labours of the chair, he found time to translate portions of
+Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias from the Greek. Nor was he dead
+to the claims of society. At first he seems to have lived with the
+Florentine scholars on tolerably good terms; but his temper was so
+arrogant that Cosimo de' Medici's friends were not long able to put up
+with him. Filelfo hereupon broke out into open and violent animosity;
+and when Cosimo was exiled by the Albizzi party in 1433, he urged the
+signoria of Florence to pronounce upon him the sentence of death. On the
+return of Cosimo to Florence, Filelfo's position in that city was no
+longer tenable. His life, he asserted, had been already once attempted
+by a cut-throat in the pay of the Medici; and now he readily accepted an
+invitation from the state of Siena. In Siena, however, he was not
+destined to remain more than four years. His fame as a professor had
+grown great in Italy, and he daily received tempting offers from princes
+and republics. The most alluring of these, made him by the duke of
+Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, he decided on accepting; and in 1440 he
+was received with honour by his new master in the capital of Lombardy.
+
+Filelfo's life at Milan curiously illustrates the multifarious
+importance of the scholars of that age in Italy. It was his duty to
+celebrate his princely patrons in panegyrics and epics, to abuse their
+enemies in libels and invectives, to salute them with encomiastic odes
+on their birthdays, and to compose poems on their favourite themes. For
+their courtiers he wrote epithalamial and funeral orations; ambassadors
+and visitors from foreign states he greeted with the rhetorical
+lucubrations then so much in vogue. The students of the university he
+taught in daily lectures, passing in review the weightiest and lightest
+authors of antiquity, and pouring forth a flood of miscellaneous
+erudition. Not satisfied with these outlets for his mental energy,
+Filelfo went on translating from the Greek, and prosecuted a paper
+warfare with his enemies in Florence. He wrote, moreover, political
+pamphlets on the great events of Italian history; and when
+Constantinople was taken by the Turks, he procured the liberation of his
+wife's mother by a message addressed in his own name to the sultan. In
+addition to a fixed stipend of some 700 golden florins yearly, he was
+continually in receipt of special payments for the orations and poems he
+produced; so that, had he been a man of frugal habits or of moderate
+economy, he might have amassed a considerable fortune. As it was, he
+spent his money as fast as he received it, living in a style of
+splendour ill befitting a simple scholar, and indulging his taste for
+pleasure in more than questionable amusements. In consequence of this
+prodigality, he was always poor. His letters and his poems abound in
+impudent demands for money from patrons, some of them couched in
+language of the lowest adulation, and others savouring of literary
+brigandage.
+
+During the second year of his Milanese residence Filelfo lost his first
+wife, Theodora. He soon married again; and this time he chose for his
+bride a young lady of good Lombard family, called Orsina Osnaga. When
+she died he took in wedlock for the third time a woman of Lombard
+birth, Laura Magiolini. To all his three wives, in spite of numerous
+infidelities, he seems to have been warmly attached; and this is perhaps
+the best trait in a character otherwise more remarkable for arrogance
+and heat than for any amiable qualities.
+
+On the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Filelfo, after a short
+hesitation, transferred his allegiance to Francesco Sforza, the new duke
+of Milan; and in order to curry favour with this parvenu, he began his
+ponderous epic, the _Sforziad_, of which 12,800 lines were written, but
+which was never published. When Francesco Sforza died, Filelfo turned
+his thoughts towards Rome. He was now an old man of seventy-seven years,
+honoured with the friendship of princes, recognized as the most
+distinguished of Italian humanists, courted by pontiffs, and decorated
+with the laurel wreath and the order of knighthood by kings. Crossing
+the Apennines and passing through Florence, he reached Rome in the
+second week of 1475. The terrible Sixtus IV. now ruled in the Vatican;
+and from this pope Filelfo had received an invitation to occupy the
+chair of rhetoric with good emoluments. At first he was vastly pleased
+with the city and court of Rome; but his satisfaction ere long turned to
+discontent, and he gave vent to his ill-humour in a venomous satire on
+the pope's treasurer, Milliardo Cicala. Sixtus himself soon fell under
+the ban of his displeasure; and when a year had passed he left Rome
+never to return. Filelfo reached Milan to find that his wife had died of
+the plague in his absence, and was already buried. His own death
+followed speedily. For some time past he had been desirous of displaying
+his abilities and adding to his fame in Florence. Years had healed the
+breach between him and the Medicean family; and on the occasion of the
+Pazzi conspiracy against the life of Lorenzo de' Medici, he had sent
+violent letters of abuse to his papal patron Sixtus, denouncing his
+participation in a plot so dangerous to the security of Italy. Lorenzo
+now invited him to profess Greek at Florence, and thither Filelfo
+journeyed in 1481. But two weeks after his arrival he succumbed to
+dysentery, and was buried at the age of eighty-three in the church of
+the Annunziata.
+
+Filelfo deserves commemoration among the greatest humanists of the
+Italian Renaissance, not for the beauty of his style, not for the
+elevation of his genius, not for the accuracy of his learning, but for
+his energy, and for his complete adaptation to the times in which he
+lived. His erudition was large but ill-digested; his knowledge of the
+ancient authors, if extensive, was superficial; his style was vulgar; he
+had no brilliancy of imagination, no pungency of epigram, no grandeur of
+rhetoric. Therefore he has left nothing to posterity which the world
+would not very willingly let die. But in his own days he did excellent
+service to learning by his untiring activity, and by the facility with
+which he used his stores of knowledge. It was an age of accumulation and
+preparation, when the world was still amassing and cataloguing the
+fragments rescued from the wrecks of Greece and Rome. Men had to receive
+the very rudiments of culture before they could appreciate its niceties.
+And in this work of collection and instruction Filelfo excelled, passing
+rapidly from place to place, stirring up the zeal for learning by the
+passion of his own enthusiastic temperament, and acting as a pioneer for
+men like Poliziano and Erasmus.
+
+All that is worth knowing about Filelfo is contained in Carlo de'
+Rosmini's admirable _Vita di Filelfo_ (Milan, 1808); see also W.
+Roscoe's _Life of Lorenzo de' Medici_, Vespasiano's _Vite di uomini
+illustri_, and J.A. Symonds's _Renaissance in Italy_ (1877). (J. A. S.)
+
+  A complete edition of Filelfo's Greek letters (based on the Codex
+  Trevulzianus) was published for the first time, with French
+  translation, notes and commentaries, by E. Legrand in 1892 at Paris
+  (C. xii. of _Publications de l'ecole des lang. orient._). For further
+  references, especially to monographs, &c., on Filelfo's life and work,
+  see Ulysse Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources hist.,
+  bio-bibliographie_ (Paris, 1905), s.v. _Philelphe, Francois_.
+
+
+
+
+FILEY, a seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary division of the
+East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 9-1/2 m. S.E. of Scarborough by a
+branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3003.
+It stands upon the slope and summit of the cliffs above Filey Bay, which
+is fringed by a fine sandy beach. The northern horn of the bay is
+formed by Filey Brigg, a narrow and abrupt promontory, continued seaward
+by dangerous reefs. The coast-line sweeps hence south-eastward to the
+finer promontory of Flamborough Head, beyond which is the watering-place
+of Bridlington. The church of St Oswald at Filey is a fine cruciform
+building with central tower, Transitional Norman and Early English in
+date. There are pleasant promenades and good golf links, also a small
+spa which has fallen into disuse. Filey is in favour with visitors who
+desire a quiet resort without the accompaniment of entertainment common
+to the larger watering-places. Roman remains have been discovered on the
+cliff north of the town; the site was probably important, but nothing is
+certainly known about it.
+
+
+
+
+FILIBUSTER, a name originally given to the buccaneers (q.v.). The term
+is derived most probably from the Dutch _vry buiter_, Ger. _Freibeuter_,
+Eng. _freebooter_, the word changing first into _fribustier_, and then
+into Fr. _flibustier_, Span. _filibustero_. _Flibustier_ has passed into
+the French language, and _filibustero_ into the Spanish language, as a
+general name for a pirate. The term "filibuster" was revived in America
+to designate those adventurers who, after the termination of the war
+between Mexico and the United States, organized expeditions within the
+United States to take part in West Indian and Central American
+revolutions. From this has sprung the modern use of the word to imply
+one who engages in private, unauthorized and irregular warfare against
+any state. In the United States it is colloquially applied to
+legislators who practise obstruction.
+
+
+
+
+FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA (1642-1707), Italian poet, sprung from an ancient
+and noble family of Florence, was born in that city on the 30th of
+December 1642. From an incidental notice in one of his letters, stating
+the amount of house rent paid during his childhood, his parents must
+have been in easy circumstances, and the supposition is confirmed by the
+fact that he enjoyed all the advantages of a liberal education, first
+under the Jesuits of Florence, and then in the university of Pisa.
+
+At Pisa his mind became stored, not only with the results of patient
+study in various branches of letters, but with the great historical
+associations linked with the former glory of the Pisan republic, and
+with one remarkable institution of which Pisa was the seat. To the
+tourist who now visits Pisa the banners and emblems of the order of St
+Stephen are mere matter of curiosity, but they had a serious
+significance two hundred years ago to the young Tuscan, who knew that
+these naval crusaders formed the main defence of his country and
+commerce against the Turkish, Algerine and Tunisian corsairs. After a
+five years' residence in Pisa he returned to Florence, where he married
+Anna, daughter of the senator and marquis Scipione Capponi, and withdrew
+to a small villa at Figline, not far from the city. Abjuring the thought
+of writing amatory poetry in consequence of the premature death of a
+young lady to whom he had been attached, he occupied himself chiefly
+with literary pursuits, above all the composition of Italian and Latin
+poetry. His own literary eminence, the opportunities enjoyed by him as a
+member of the celebrated Academy Della Crusca for making known his
+critical taste and classical knowledge, and the social relations within
+the reach of a noble Florentine so closely allied with the great house
+of Capponi, sufficiently explain the intimate terms on which he stood
+with such eminent men of letters as Magalotti, Menzini, Gori and Redi.
+The last-named, the author of _Bacchus in Tuscany_, was not only one of
+the most brilliant poets of his time, and a safe literary adviser; he
+was the court physician, and his court influence was employed with zeal
+and effect in his friend's favour. Filicaja's rural seclusion was owing
+even more to his straitened means than to his rural tastes. If he ceased
+at length to pine in obscurity, the change was owing not merely to the
+fact that his poetical genius, fired by the deliverance of Vienna from
+the Turks in 1683, poured forth the right strains at the right time, but
+also to the influence of Redi, who not only laid Filicaja's verses
+before his own sovereign, but had them transmitted with the least
+possible delay to the foreign princes whose noble deeds they sung. The
+first recompense came, however, not from those princes, but from
+Christina, the ex-queen of Sweden, who, from her circle of savants and
+courtiers at Rome, spontaneously and generously announced to Filicaja
+her wish to bear the expense of educating his two sons, enhancing her
+kindness by the delicate request that it should remain a secret.
+
+The tide of Filicaja's fortunes now turned. The grand-duke of Tuscany,
+Cosmo III., conferred on him an important office, the commissionership
+of official balloting. He was named governor of Volterra in 1696, where
+he strenuously exerted himself to raise the tone of public morality.
+Both there and at Pisa, where he was subsequently governor in 1700, his
+popularity was so great that on his removal the inhabitants of both
+cities petitioned for his recall. He passed the close of his life at
+Florence; the grand-duke raised him to the rank of senator, and he died
+in that city on the 24th of September 1707. He was buried in the family
+vault in the church of St Peter, and a monument was erected to his
+memory by his sole surviving son Scipione Filicaja. In the six
+celebrated odes inspired by the great victory of Sobieski, Filicaja took
+a lyrical flight which has placed him at moments on a level with the
+greatest Italian poets. They are, however, unequal, like all his poetry,
+reflecting in some passages the native vigour of his genius and purest
+inspirations of his tastes, whilst in others they are deformed by the
+affectations of the _Seicentisti_. When thoroughly natural and
+spontaneous--as in the two sonnets "Italia, Italia, o tu cui feo la
+sorte" and "Dov' e, Italia, il tuo braccio? e a che ti serve;" in the
+verses "Alla beata Vergine," "Al divino amore;" in the sonnet "Sulla
+fede nelle disgrazie"--the truth and beauty of thought and language
+recall the verse of Petrarch.
+
+  Besides the poems published in the complete Venice edition of 1762,
+  several other pieces appeared for the first time in the small Florence
+  edition brought out by Barbera in 1864.
+
+
+
+
+FILIGREE (formerly written _filigrain_ or _filigrane_; the Ital.
+_filigrana_, Fr. _filigrane_, Span, _filigrana_, Ger. _Drahtgeflecht_),
+jewel work of a delicate kind made with twisted threads usually of gold
+and silver. The word, which is usually derived from the Lat. _filum_,
+thread, and _granum_, grain, is not found in Ducange, and is indeed of
+modern origin. According to Prof. Skeat it is derived from the Span.
+_filigrana_, from "_filar_, to spin, and _grano_, the grain or principal
+fibre of the material." Though filigree has become a special branch of
+jewel work in modern times it was anciently part of the ordinary work of
+the jeweller. Signor A. Castellani states, in his _Memoir on the
+Jewellery of the Ancients_ (1861), that all the jewelry of the Etruscans
+and Greeks (other than that intended for the grave, and therefore of an
+unsubstantial character) was made by soldering together and so building
+up the gold rather than by chiselling or engraving the material.
+
+The art may be said to consist in curling, twisting and plaiting fine
+pliable threads of metal, and uniting them at their points of contact
+with each other, and with the ground, by means of gold or silver solder
+and borax, by the help of the blowpipe. Small grains or beads of the
+same metals are often set in the eyes of volutes, on the junctions, or
+at intervals at which they will set off the wire-work effectively. The
+more delicate work is generally protected by framework of stouter wire.
+Brooches, crosses, earrings and other personal ornaments of modern
+filigree are generally surrounded and subdivided by bands of square or
+flat metal, giving consistency to the filling up, which would not
+otherwise keep its proper shape. Some writers of repute have laid equal
+stress on the _filum_ and the _granum_, and have extended the use of the
+term filigree to include the granulated work of the ancients, even where
+the twisted wire-work is entirely wanting. Such a wide application of
+the term is not approved by current usage, according to which the
+presence of the twisted threads is the predominant fact.
+
+The Egyptian jewellers employed wire, both to lay down on a background
+and to plait or otherwise arrange _a jour_. But, with the exception of
+chains, it cannot be said that filigree work was much practised by them.
+Their strength lay rather in their cloisonne work and their moulded
+ornaments. Many examples, however, remain of round plaited gold chains
+of fine wire, such as are still made by the filigree workers of India,
+and known as Trichinopoly chains. From some of these are hung smaller
+chains of finer wire with minute fishes and other pendants fastened to
+them. In ornaments derived from Phoenician sites, such as Cyprus and
+Sardinia, patterns of gold wire are laid down with great delicacy on a
+gold ground, but the art was advanced to its highest perfection in the
+Greek and Etruscan filigree of the 6th to the 3rd centuries B.C. A
+number of earrings and other personal ornaments found in central Italy
+are preserved in the Louvre and in the British Museum. Almost all of
+them are made of filigree work. Some earrings are in the form of flowers
+of geometric design, bordered by one or more rims each made up of minute
+volutes of gold wire, and this kind of ornament is varied by slight
+differences in the way of disposing the number or arrangement of the
+volutes. But the feathers and petals of modern Italian filigree are not
+seen in these ancient designs. Instances occur, but only rarely, in
+which filigree devices in wire are self-supporting and not applied to
+metal plates. The museum of the Hermitage at St Petersburg contains an
+amazingly rich collection of jewelry from the tombs of the Crimea. Many
+bracelets and necklaces in that collection are made of twisted wire,
+some in as many as seven rows of plaiting, with clasps in the shape of
+heads of animals of beaten work. Others are strings of large beads of
+gold, decorated with volutes, knots and other patterns of wire soldered
+over the surfaces. (See the _Antiquites du Bosphore Cimmerien_, by
+Gille, 1854; reissued by S. Reinach, 1892, in which will be found
+careful engravings of these objects.) In the British Museum a sceptre,
+probably that of a Greek priestess, is covered with plaited and netted
+gold wire, finished with a sort of Corinthian capital and a boss of
+green glass.
+
+It is probable that in India and various parts of central Asia filigree
+has been worked from the most remote period without any change in the
+designs. Whether the Asiatic jewellers were influenced by the Greeks
+settled on that continent, or merely trained under traditions held in
+common with them, it is certain that the Indian filigree workers retain
+the same patterns as those of the ancient Greeks, and work them in the
+same way, down to the present day. Wandering workmen are given so much
+gold, coined or rough, which is weighed, heated in a pan of charcoal,
+beaten into wire, and then worked in the courtyard or verandah of the
+employer's house according to the designs of the artist, who weighs the
+complete work on restoring it and is paid at a specified rate for his
+labour. Very fine grains or beads and spines of gold, scarcely thicker
+than coarse hair, projecting from plates of gold are methods of
+ornamentation still used.
+
+Passing to later times we may notice in many collections of medieval
+jewel work (such as that in the South Kensington Museum) reliquaries,
+covers for the gospels, &c., made either in Constantinople from the 6th
+to the 12th centuries, or in monasteries in Europe, in which Byzantine
+goldsmiths' work was studied and imitated. These objects, besides being
+enriched with precious stones, polished, but not cut into facets, and
+with enamel, are often decorated with filigree. Large surfaces of gold
+are sometimes covered with scrolls of filigree soldered on; and corner
+pieces of the borders of book covers, or the panels of reliquaries, are
+not unfrequently made up of complicated pieces of plaited work
+alternating with spaces encrusted with enamel. Byzantine filigree work
+occasionally has small stones set amongst the curves or knots. Examples
+of such decoration can be seen in the South Kensington and British
+Museums.
+
+In the north of Europe the Saxons, Britons and Celts were from an early
+period skilful in several kinds of goldsmiths' work. Admirable examples
+of filigree patterns laid down in wire on gold, from Anglo-Saxon tombs,
+may be seen in the British Museum--notably a brooch from Dover, and a
+sword-hilt from Cumberland.
+
+The Irish filigree work is more thoughtful in design and more varied in
+pattern than that of any period or country that could be named. Its
+highest perfection must be placed in the 10th and 11th centuries. The
+Royal Irish Academy in Dublin contains a number of reliquaries and
+personal jewels, of which filigree is the general and most remarkable
+ornament. The "Tara" brooch has been copied and imitated, and the shape
+and decoration of it are well known. Instead of fine curls or volutes
+of gold thread, the Irish filigree is varied by numerous designs in
+which one thread can be traced through curious knots and complications,
+which, disposed over large surfaces, balance one another, but always
+with special varieties and arrangements difficult to trace with the eye.
+The long thread appears and disappears without breach of continuity, the
+two ends generally worked into the head and the tail of a serpent or a
+monster. The reliquary containing the "Bell of St Patrick" is covered
+with knotted work in many varieties. A two-handled chalice, called the
+"Ardagh cup," found near Limerick in 1868, is ornamented with work of
+this kind of extraordinary fineness. Twelve plaques on a band round the
+body of the vase, plaques on each handle and round the foot of the vase
+have a series of different designs of characteristic patterns, in fine
+filigree wire work wrought on the front of the repousse ground. (See a
+paper by the 3rd earl of Dunraven in _Transactions of Royal Irish
+Academy_, xxiv. pt. iii. 1873.)
+
+Much of the medieval jewel work all over Europe down to the 15th
+century, on reliquaries, crosses, croziers and other ecclesiastical
+goldsmiths' work, is set off with bosses and borders of filigree.
+Filigree work in silver was practised by the Moors of Spain during the
+middle ages with great skill, and was introduced by them and established
+all over the Peninsula, whence it was carried to the Spanish colonies in
+America. The Spanish filigree work of the 17th and 18th centuries is of
+extraordinary complexity (examples in the Victoria and Albert Museum),
+and silver filigree jewelry of delicate and artistic design is still
+made in considerable quantities throughout the country. The manufacture
+spread over the Balearic Islands, and among the populations that border
+the Mediterranean. It is still made all over Italy, and in Malta,
+Albania, the Ionian Islands and many other parts of Greece. That of the
+Greeks is sometimes on a large scale, with several thicknesses of wires
+alternating with larger and smaller bosses and beads, sometimes set with
+turquoises, &c., and mounted on convex plates, making rich ornamental
+headpieces, belts and breast ornaments. Filigree silver buttons of
+wire-work and small bosses are worn by the peasants in most of the
+countries that produce this kind of jewelry. Silver filigree brooches
+and buttons are also made in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Little chains
+and pendants are added to much of this northern work.
+
+Some very curious filigree work was brought from Abyssinia after the
+capture of Magdala--arm-guards, slippers, cups, &c., some of which are
+now in the South Kensington Museum. They are made of thin plates of
+silver, over which the wire-work is soldered. The filigree is subdivided
+by narrow borders of simple pattern, and the intervening spaces are made
+up of many patterns, some with grains set at intervals.
+
+A few words must be added as to the granulated work which, as stated
+above, some writers have classed under the term of filigree, although
+the twisted wires may be altogether wanting. Such decoration consists of
+minute globules of gold, soldered to form patterns on a metal surface.
+Its use is rare in Egypt. (See J. de Morgan, _Fouilles a Dahchour_,
+1894-1895, pl. xii.) It occurs in Cyprus at an early period, as for
+instance on a gold pendant in the British Museum from Enkomi in Cyprus
+(10th century B.C.). The pendant is in the form of a pomegranate, and
+has upon it a pattern of triangles, formed by more than 3000 minute
+globules separately soldered on. It also occurs on ornaments of the 7th
+century B.C. from Camirus in Rhodes. But these globules are large,
+compared with those which are found on Etruscan jewelry. Signor
+Castellani, who had made the antique jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks
+his special study, with the intention of reproducing the ancient models,
+found it for a long time impossible to revive this particular process of
+delicate soldering. He overcame the difficulty at last, by the discovery
+of a traditional school of craftsmen at St Angelo in Vado, by whose help
+his well-known reproductions were executed.
+
+  For examples of antique work the student should examine the gold
+  ornament rooms of the British Museum, the Louvre and the collection
+  in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The last contains a large and very
+  varied assortment of modern Italian, Spanish, Greek and other jewelry
+  made for the peasants of various countries. It also possesses
+  interesting examples of the modern work in granulated gold by
+  Castellani and Giuliano. The Celtic work is well represented in the
+  Royal Irish Academy in Dublin.
+
+
+
+
+FILLAN, SAINT, or FAELAN, the name of the two Scottish saints, of Irish
+origin, whose lives are of a purely legendary character. The St Fillan
+whose feast is kept on the 20th of June had churches dedicated to his
+honour at Ballyheyland, Queen's county, Ireland, and at Loch Earn,
+Perthshire. The other, who is commemorated on the 9th of January, was
+specially venerated at Cluain Mavscua, Co. Westmeath, Ireland, and so
+early as the 8th or 9th century at Strathfillan, Perthshire, Scotland,
+where there was an ancient monastery dedicated to him, which, like most
+of the religious houses of early times, was afterwards secularized. The
+lay-abbot, who was its superior in the reign of William the Lion, held
+high rank in the Scottish kingdom. This monastery was restored in the
+reign of Robert Bruce, and became a cell of the abbey of canons regular
+at Inchaffray. The new foundation received a grant from King Robert, in
+gratitude for the aid which he was supposed to have obtained from a
+relic of the saint on the eve of the great victory of Bannockburn.
+Another relic was the saint's staff or crozier, which became known as
+the coygerach or quigrich, and was long in the possession of a family of
+the name of Jore or Dewar, who were its hereditary guardians. They
+certainly had it in their custody in the year 1428, and their right was
+formally recognized by King James III. in 1487. The head of the crozier,
+which is of silver-gilt with a smaller crozier of bronze inclosed within
+it, is now deposited in the National Museum of the Society of
+Antiquaries of Scotland.
+
+  The legend of the second of these saints is given in the Bollandist
+  _Acta SS._ (1643), 9th of January, i. 594-595; A.P. Forbes, _Kalendars
+  of Scottish Saints_ (Edinburgh, 1872), pp. 341-346; D. O'Hanlon's
+  _Lives of Irish Saints_ (Dublin), n.d. pp. 134-144. See also
+  _Historical Notices of St Fillan's Crozier_, by Dr John Stuart
+  (Aberdeen, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+FILLET (through Fr. _filet_, from the med. Lat. _filettum_, diminutive
+of _filum_, a thread), a band or ribbon used for tying the hair, the
+Lat. _vitta_, which was used as a sacrificial emblem, and also worn by
+vestal virgins, brides and poets. The word is thus applied to anything
+in the shape of a band or strip, as, in coining, to the metal ribbon
+from which the blanks are punched. In architecture, a "fillet" is a
+narrow flat band, sometimes called a "listel," which is used to separate
+mouldings one from the other, or to terminate a suite of mouldings as at
+the top of a cornice. In the fluted column of the Ionic and Corinthian
+Orders the fillet is employed between the flutes. It is a very important
+feature in Gothic work, being frequently worked on large mouldings; when
+placed on the front and sides of the moulding of a rib it has been
+termed the "keel and wings" of the rib.
+
+In cooking, "fillet" is used of the "undercut" of a sirloin of beef, or
+of a thick slice of fish or meat; more particularly of a boned and
+rolled piece of veal or other meat, tied by a "fillet" or string.
+
+
+
+
+FILLMORE, MILLARD (1800-1874), thirteenth president of the United States
+of America, came of a family of English stock, which had early settled
+in New England. His father, Nathaniel, in 1795, made a clearing within
+the limits of what is now the town of Summerhill, Cayuga county, New
+York, and there Millard Fillmore was born, on the 7th of January 1800.
+Until he was fifteen he could have acquired only the simplest rudiments
+of education, and those chiefly from his parents. At that age he was
+apprenticed to a fuller and clothier, to card wool, and to dye and dress
+the cloth. Two years before the close of his term, with a promissory
+note for thirty dollars, he bought the remainder of his time from his
+master, and at the age of nineteen began to study law. In 1820 he made
+his way to Buffalo, then only a village, and supported himself by
+teaching school and aiding the postmaster while continuing his studies.
+
+In 1823 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice at Aurora, New
+York, to which place his father had removed. Hard study, temperance and
+integrity gave him a good reputation and moderate success, and in 1827
+he was made an attorney and, in 1829, counsellor of the supreme court
+of the state. Returning to Buffalo in 1830 he formed, in 1832, a
+partnership with Nathan K. Hall (1810-1874), later a member of Congress
+and postmaster-general in his cabinet. Solomon G. Haven (1810-1861),
+member of Congress from 1851 to 1857, joined them in 1836. The firm met
+with great success. From 1829 to 1832 Fillmore served in the state
+assembly, and, in the single term of 1833-1835, the national House of
+Representatives, coming in as anti-Jackson, or in opposition to the
+administration. From 1837 to 1843, when he declined further service, he
+again represented his district in the House, this time as a member of
+the Whig party. In Congress he opposed the annexation of Texas as slave
+territory, was an advocate of internal improvements and a protective
+tariff, supported J.Q. Adams in maintaining the right of offering
+anti-slavery petitions, advocated the prohibition by Congress of the
+slave trade between the states, and favoured the exclusion of slavery
+from the District of Columbia. His speech and tone, however, were
+moderate on these exciting subjects, and he claimed the right to stand
+free of pledges, and to adjust his opinions and his course by the
+development of circumstances. The Whigs having the ascendancy in the
+Twenty-Seventh Congress, he was made chairman of the House Committee of
+Ways and Means. Against a strong opposition he carried an appropriation
+of $30,000 to Morse's telegraph, and reported from his committee the
+Tariff Bill of 1842. In 1844 he was the Whig candidate for the
+governorship of New York, but was defeated. In November 1847 he was
+elected comptroller of the state of New York, and in 1848 he was elected
+vice-president of the United States on the ticket with Zachary Taylor as
+president. Fillmore presided over the senate during the exciting debates
+on the "Compromise Measures of 1850."
+
+President Taylor died on the 9th of July 1850, and on the next day
+Fillmore took the oath of office as his successor. The cabinet which he
+called around him contained Daniel Webster, Thomas Corwin and John J.
+Crittenden. On the death of Webster in 1852, Edward Everett became
+secretary of state. Unlike Taylor, Fillmore favoured the "Compromise
+Measures," and his signing one of them, the Fugitive Slave Law, in spite
+of the vigorous protests of anti-slavery men, lost him much of his
+popularity in the North. Few of his opponents, however, questioned his
+own full persuasion that the Compromise Measures were vitally necessary
+to pacify the nation. In 1851 he interposed promptly but ineffectively
+in thwarting the projects of the "filibusters," under Narciso Lopez for
+the invasion of Cuba. Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry's expedition,
+which opened up diplomatic relations with Japan, and the exploration of
+the valley of the Amazon by Lieutenants William L. Herndon (1813-1857)
+and Lardner Gibbon also occurred during his term. In the autumn of 1852
+he was an unsuccessful candidate for nomination for the presidency by
+the Whig National Convention, and he went out of office on the 4th of
+March 1853. In February 1856, while he was travelling abroad, he was
+nominated for the presidency by the American or Know Nothing party, and
+later this nomination was also accepted by the Whigs; but in the ensuing
+presidential election, the last in which the Know Nothings and the Whigs
+as such took any part, he received the electoral votes of only one
+state, Maryland. Thereafter he took no public share in political
+affairs. Fillmore was twice married: in 1826 to Abigail Powers (who died
+in 1853, leaving him with a son and daughter), and in 1858 to Mrs.
+Caroline C. Mclntosh. He died at Buffalo on the 8th of March 1874.
+
+  In 1907 the Buffalo Historical Society, of which Fillmore was one of
+  the founders and the first president, published the _Millard Fillmore
+  Papers_ (2 vols., vol. x. and xi. of the Society's publications;
+  edited by F.H. Severance), containing miscellaneous writings and
+  speeches, and official and private correspondence. Most of his
+  correspondence, however, was destroyed in pursuance of a direction in
+  his son's will.
+
+
+
+
+FILMER, SIR RORERT (d. 1653), English political writer, was the son of
+Sir Edward Filmer of East Sutton in Kent. He studied at Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1604. Knighted by Charles I. at the
+beginning of his reign, he was an ardent supporter of the king's cause,
+and his house is said to have been plundered by the parliamentarians ten
+times. He died on the 26th of May 1653.
+
+Filmer was already a middle-aged man when the great controversy between
+the king and the Commons roused him into literary activity. His writings
+afford an exceedingly curious example of the doctrines held by the most
+extreme section of the Divine Right party. Filmer's theory is founded
+upon the statement that the government of a family by the father is the
+true original and model of all government. In the beginning of the world
+God gave authority to Adam, who had complete control over his
+descendants, even as to life and death. From Adam this authority was
+inherited by Noah; and Filmer quotes as not unlikely the tradition that
+Noah sailed up the Mediterranean and allotted the three continents of
+the Old World to the rule of his three sons. From Shem, Ham and Japheth
+the patriarchs inherited the absolute power which they exercised over
+their families and servants; and from the patriarchs all kings and
+governors (whether a single monarch or a governing assembly) derive
+their authority, which is therefore absolute, and founded upon divine
+right. The difficulty that a man "by the secret will of God may
+unjustly" attain to power which he has not inherited appeared to Filmer
+in no way to alter the nature of the power so obtained, for "there is,
+and always shall be continued to the end of the world, a natural right
+of a supreme father over every multitude." The king is perfectly free
+from all human control. He cannot be bound by the acts of his
+predecessors, for which he is not responsible; nor by his own, for
+"impossible it is in nature that a man should give a law unto
+himself"--a law must be imposed by another than the person bound by it.
+With regard to the English constitution, he asserted, in his
+_Freeholder's Grand Inquest touching our Sovereign Lord the King and his
+Parliament_ (1648), that the Lords only give counsel to the king, the
+Commons only "perform and consent to the ordinances of parliament," and
+the king alone is the maker of laws, which proceed purely from his will.
+It is monstrous that the people should judge or depose their king, for
+they would then be judges in their own cause.
+
+The most complete expression of Filmer's opinions is given in the
+_Patriarcha_, which was published in 1680, many years after his death.
+His position, however, was sufficiently indicated by the works which he
+published during his lifetime: the _Anarchy of a Limited and Mixed
+Monarchy_ (1648), an attack upon a treatise on monarchy by Philip Hunton
+(1604?-1682), who maintained that the king's prerogative is not superior
+to the authority of the houses of parliament; the pamphlet entitled _The
+Power of Kings, and in particular of the King of England_ (1648), first
+published in 1680; and his _Observations upon Mr Hobbes's Leviathan, Mr
+Milton against Salmasius, and H. Grotius De jure belli et pacis,
+concerning the Originall of Government_ (1652). Filmer's theory, owing
+to the circumstances of the time, obtained a recognition which it is now
+difficult to understand. Nine years after the publication of the
+_Patriarcha_, at the time of the Revolution which banished the Stuarts
+from the throne, Locke singled out Filmer as the most remarkable of the
+advocates of Divine Right, and thought it worth while to attack him
+expressly in the first part of the _Treatise on Government_, going into
+all his arguments _seriatim_, and especially pointing out that even if
+the first steps of his argument be granted, the rights of the eldest
+born have been so often set aside that modern kings can claim no such
+inheritance of authority as he asserted.
+
+
+
+
+FILMY FERNS, a general name for a group of ferns with delicate
+much-divided leaves and often moss-like growth, belonging to the genera
+_Hymenophyllum_, _Todea_ and _Trichomanes_. They require to be kept in
+close cases in a cool fernery, and the stones and moss amongst which
+they are grown must be kept continually moist so that the evaporated
+water condenses on the very numerous divisions of the leaves.
+
+
+
+
+FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN (1841-   ), French man of letters, son of
+the historian Charles Auguste Desire Filon (1800-1875), was born in
+Paris in 1841. His father became professor of history at Douai, and
+eventually "_inspecteur d'academie_" in Paris; his principal works were
+_Histoire comparee de France et de l'Angleterre_ (1832), _Histoire de
+l'Europe au XVI^e siecle_ (1838), _La Diplomatie francaise sous Louis
+XV_ (1843), _Histoire de l'Italie meridionale_ (1849), _Histoire du
+senat romain_ (1850), _Histoire de la democratie athenienne_ (1854).
+Educated at the Ecole normale, Augustin Filon was appointed tutor to the
+prince imperial and accompanied him to England, where he remained for
+some years. He is the author of _Guy Patin, sa vie, sa correspondance_
+(1862); _Nos grands-peres_ (1887); _Prosper Merimee_ (1894); _Sous la
+tyrannie_ (1900). On English subjects he has written chiefly under the
+pseudonym of Pierre Sandrie, _Les Mariages de Londres_ (1875); _Histoire
+de la litterature anglaise_ (1883); _Le Theatre anglais_ (1896), and _La
+Caricature en Angleterre_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FILOSA (A. Lang), one of the two divisions of Rhizopoda, characterized
+by protoplasm granular at the surface, and fine pseudopodia branching
+and usually acutely pointed at the tips.
+
+
+
+
+FILTER (a word common in various forms to most European languages,
+adapted from the medieval Lat. _filtrum_, felt, a material used as a
+filtering agent), an arrangement for separating solid matter from
+liquids. In some cases the operation of filtration is performed for the
+sake of removing impurities from the filtrate or liquid filtered, as in
+the purification of water for drinking purposes; in others the aim is to
+recover and collect the solid matter, as when the chemist filters off a
+precipitate from the liquid in which it is suspended.
+
+In regard to the purification of water, filtration was long looked upon
+as merely a mechanical process of straining out the solid particles,
+whereby a turbid water could be rendered clear. In the course of time it
+was noticed that certain materials, such as charcoal, had the power to
+some extent also of softening hard water and of removing organic matter,
+and at the beginning of the 19th century charcoal, both animal and
+vegetable, came into use for filtering purposes. Porous carbon blocks,
+made by strongly heating a mixture of powdered charcoal with oil, resin,
+&c., were introduced about a generation later, and subsequently various
+preparations of iron (spongy iron, magnetic oxide) found favour.
+Innumerable forms of filters made with these and other materials were
+put on the market, and were extolled as removing impurities of every
+kind from water, and as affording complete protection against the
+communication of disease. But whatever merits they had as clarifiers of
+turbid water, the advent of bacteriology, and the recognition of the
+fact that the bacteria of certain diseases may be water-borne,
+introduced a new criterion of effectiveness, and it was perceived that
+the removal of solid particles, or even of organic impurities (which
+were realized to be important not so much because they are dangerous to
+health _per se_ as because their presence affords grounds for suspecting
+that the water in which they occur has been exposed to circumstances
+permitting contamination with infective disease), was not sufficient;
+the filter must also prevent the passage of pathogenic organisms, and so
+render the water sterile bacteriologically. Examined from this point of
+view the majority of domestic filters were found to be gravely
+defective, and even to be worse than useless, since unless they were
+frequently and thoroughly cleansed, they were liable to become
+favourable breeding-places for microbes. The first filter which was more
+or less completely impermeable to bacteria was the Pasteur-Chamberland,
+which was devised in Pasteur's laboratory, and is made of dense biscuit
+porcelain. The filtering medium in this, as in other filters of the same
+kind, takes the form of a hollow cylinder or "candle," through the walls
+of which the water has to pass from the outside to the inside, the
+candles often being arranged so that they may be directly attached to a
+tap, whereby the rate of flow, which is apt to be slow, is accelerated
+by the pressure of the main. But even filters of this type, if they are
+to be fully relied upon, must be frequently cleaned and sterilized, and
+great care must be taken that the joints and connexions are watertight,
+and that the candles are without cracks or flaws. In cases where the
+water supply is known to be infected, or even where it is merely
+doubtful, it is wise to have recourse to sterilization by boiling,
+rather than trust to any filter. Various machines have been constructed
+to perform this operation, some of them specially designed for the use
+of troops in the field; those in which economy of fuel is studied have
+an exchange-heater, by means of which the incoming cold water receives
+heat from the outgoing hot water, which thus arrives at the point of
+outflow at a temperature nearly as low as that of the supply. Chemical
+methods of sterilization have also been suggested, depending on the use
+of iodine, chlorine, bromine, ozone, potassium permanganate, copper
+sulphate or chloride and other substances. For the sand-filtration of
+water on a large scale, in which the presence of a surface film
+containing zooglaea of bacteria is an essential feature, see WATER
+SUPPLY.
+
+Filtration in the chemical laboratory is commonly effected by the aid of
+a special kind of unsized paper, which in the more expensive varieties
+is practically pure cellulose, impurities like ferric oxide, alumina,
+lime, magnesia and silica having been removed by treatment with
+hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. A circular piece of this paper is
+folded twice upon itself so as to form a quadrant, one of the folds is
+pulled out, and the cone thus obtained is supported in a glass or
+porcelain funnel having an apical angle of 60 deg. The liquid to be
+filtered is poured into the cone, preferably down a glass rod upon the
+sides of the funnel to prevent splashing and to preserve the apex of the
+filter-paper, and passes through the paper, upon which the solid matter
+is retained. In the case of liquids containing strong acids or alkalis,
+which the paper cannot withstand, a plug of carefully purified asbestos
+or glass-wool (spun glass) is often employed, contained in a bulb blown
+as an enlargement on a narrow "filter-tube." To accelerate the rate of
+filtration various devices are resorted to, such as lengthening the tube
+below the filtering material, increasing the pressure on the liquid
+being filtered, or decreasing it in the receiver of the filtrate. R.W.
+Bunsen may be regarded as the originator of the second method, and it
+was he who devised the small cone of platinum foil, sometimes replaced
+by a cone of parchment perforated with pinholes, arranged at the apex of
+the funnel to serve as a support for the paper, which is apt to burst
+under the pressure differences. In the so-called "Buchner funnel," the
+filtering vessel is cylindrical, and the paper receives support by being
+laid upon its flat perforated bottom. In filtering into a vacuum the
+flask receiving the filtrate should be connected to the exhaust through
+a second flask. The suction may be derived from any form of air-pump; a
+form often employed where water at fair pressure is available is the
+jet-pump, which in consequence is known as a filter-pump. Another method
+of filtering into a vacuum is to immerse a porous jar ("Pukall cell") in
+the liquid to be filtered, and attach a suction-pipe to its interior. A
+filtering arrangement devised by F.C. Gooch, which has come into common
+use in quantitative analysis where the solid matter has to be submitted
+to heating or ignition, consists of a crucible having a perforated
+bottom. By means of a piece of stretched rubber tubing, this crucible is
+supported in the mouth of an ordinary funnel which is connected with an
+exhausting apparatus; and water holding in suspension fine scrapings of
+asbestos, purified by boiling with strong hydrochloric acid and washing
+with water, is run through it, so that the perforated bottom is covered
+with a layer of felted asbestos. The crucible is then removed from the
+rubber support, weighed and replaced; the liquid is filtered through in
+the ordinary way; and the crucible with its contents is again removed,
+dried, ignited and weighed. A perforated cone, similarly coated with
+asbestos and fitted into a conical funnel, is sometimes employed.
+
+In many processes of chemical technology filtration plays an important
+part. A crude method consists of straining the liquid through cotton or
+other cloth, either stretched on wooden frames or formed into long
+narrow bags ("bag-filters"). Occasionally filtration into a vacuum is
+practised, but more often, as in filter-presses, the liquid is forced
+under pressure, either hydrostatic or obtained from a force-pump or
+compressed air, into a series of chambers partitioned off by cloth,
+which arrests the solids, but permits the passage of the liquid
+portions. For separating liquids from solids of a fibrous or crystalline
+character "hydro-extractors" or "centrifugals" are frequently employed.
+The material is placed in a perforated cage or "basket," which is
+enclosed in an outer casing, and when the cage is rapidly rotated by
+suitable gearing, the liquid portions are forced out into the external
+casing.
+
+
+
+
+FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS (d. 84 B.C.), Roman soldier and a violent
+partisan of Marius. He was sent to Asia in 86 B.C. as legate to L.
+Valerius Flaccus, but quarrelled with him and was dismissed. Taking
+advantage of the absence of Flaccus at Chalcedon and the discontent
+aroused by his avarice and severity, Fimbria stirred up a revolt and
+slew Flaccus at Nicomedia. He then assumed the command of the army and
+obtained several successes against Mithradates, whom he shut up in
+Pitane on the coast of Aeolis, and would undoubtedly have captured him
+had Lucullus co-operated with the fleet. Fimbria treated most cruelly
+all the people of Asia who had revolted from Rome or sided with Sulla.
+Having gained admission to Ilium by declaring that, as a Roman, he was
+friendly, he massacred the inhabitants and burnt the place to the
+ground. But in 84 Sulla crossed over from Greece to Asia, made peace
+with Mithradates, and turned his arms against Fimbria, who, seeing that
+there was no chance of escape, committed suicide. His troops were made
+to serve in Asia till the end of the third Mithradatic War.
+
+  See ROME: HISTORY; and arts, on SULLA and MARIUS.
+
+
+
+
+FIMBRIATE (from Lat. _fimbriae_, fringe), a zoological and botanical
+term, meaning fringed. In heraldry, "fimbriate" or "fimbriated" refers
+to a narrow edge or border running round a bearing.
+
+
+
+
+FINALE (Ital. for "end"), a term in music for the concluding movement in
+an instrumental composition, whether symphony, concerto or sonata, and,
+in dramatic music, the concerted piece which ends each act. Of
+instrumental finales, the great choral finale to Beethoven's 9th
+symphony, and of operatic finales, that of Mozart's _Nozze di Figaro_,
+to the second act, and to the last act of Verdi's _Falstaff_ may be
+mentioned. In the Wagnerian opera the finale has no place.
+
+
+
+
+FINANCE. The term "finance," which comes into English through French, in
+its original meaning denoted a payment (_finatio_). In the later middle
+ages, especially in Germany, it acquired the sense of usurious or
+oppressive dealing with money and capital. The specialized use of the
+word as equivalent to the management of the public expenditure and
+receipts first became prominent in France during the 16th century and
+quickly spread to other countries. The plural form (_Les Finances_) was
+particularly reserved for this application, while the singular came to
+denote business activity in respect to monetary dealings (as in the
+expression _la haute finance_). For the Germans the phrase "science of
+finance" (_Finanzwissenschaft_) refers exclusively to the economy of the
+state. English and American writers are less definite in their
+employment of the term, which varies with the convenience of the author.
+
+A work on "finance" may deal with the Money Market or the Stock
+Exchange; it may treat of banking and credit organization, or it may be
+devoted to state revenue and expenditure, which is on the whole the
+prevailing sense. The expressions "science of finance" and "public
+finance" have been suggested as suitable to delimit the last mentioned
+application. At all events, the broad sense is quite intelligible.
+"Financial" means what is concerned with business, and the idea of a
+balance between effort and return is also prominent. In the present
+article attention will be directed to "public finance"; for the other
+aspects of the subject reference may be made (_inter alia_) to the
+following:--BANKS AND BANKING; COMPANY; EXCHANGE; MARKET; STOCK
+EXCHANGE. See also ENGLISH FINANCE, and the sections on finance under
+headings of countries.
+
+Finance, regarded as state house-keeping, or "political economy" (see
+ECONOMICS) in the older sense of the term, deals with (1) the
+expenditure of the state; (2) state revenues; (3) the balance between
+expenditure and receipts; (4) the organization which collects and
+applies the public funds. Each of these large divisions presents a
+series of problems of which the practical treatment is illustrated in
+the financial history of the great nations of the world. Thus the amount
+and character of public expenditure necessarily depends on the
+functions that the state undertakes to perform--national defence, the
+maintenance of internal order, and the efficient equipment of the state
+organization; such are the tasks that all governments have to discharge,
+and for their cost due provision has to be made. The widening sphere of
+state activity, so marked a characteristic of modern civilization,
+involves outlay for what may be best described as "developmental"
+services. Education, relief of distress, regulation of labour and trade,
+are duties now in great part performed by public agencies, and their
+increasing prominence involves augmented expense. The first problem on
+this side of expenditure is the due balancing of outlay by income. The
+financier has to "cover" his outlay. There is, further, the duty of
+establishing a proper proportion between the several forms of
+expenditure. Not only has there to be a strict control over the total
+national expense; supervision has to be carried into each department of
+the state. No one branch of public activity is entitled to make
+unlimited calls on the state's revenue. The claims of the "expert"
+require to be carefully scrutinized. The great financiers have made
+their reputation quite as much by rigorous control over extravagance in
+expenditure as by dexterity in devising new forms of revenue.
+Unfortunately they have not been able to reduce their methods to rule.
+As yet no more definite principle has been discovered than the somewhat
+obvious one of measuring the proposed items of outlay (1) against each
+other, (2) against the sacrifice that additional taxation involves. Of
+almost equal importance is the rule that the utmost return is to be
+obtained for the given outlay. The canon of _economy_ is as fundamental
+in regard to public expenditure as it will appear, later, to be in
+respect to revenue. Just application of the outlay of the state, so that
+no class receives undue advantage, and the use of public funds for
+"reproductive," in preference to "unproductive" objects, are evident
+general principles whose difficulty lies in their application to the
+circumstances of each particular case.
+
+Far greater progress has been made in the formulation of general canons
+as to the nature, growth and treatment of the public revenues.
+Historically, there is, first, the tendency towards increase in state
+income to balance the advance in outlay. A second general feature is the
+relative decline of the receipts from state property and industries in
+contrast to the expansion of taxation. Regarded as an organized system,
+the body of receipts has to be made conformable to certain general
+conditions. Thus there should be revenue sufficient to meet the public
+requirements. Otherwise the financial organization has failed in one of
+its essential purposes. In order continuously to attain this end, the
+revenue must be flexible, or, as is often said, elastic enough to vary
+in response to pressure. Frequently recurring deficits are, in
+themselves, a condemnation of the methods under which they are found.
+Again, the rule of "economy" in raising revenue, or, in other words,
+taking as little as possible from the contributors over and above what
+the state receives, holds good for the whole and for each part of public
+revenue. In like manner the principle of formal justice has the same
+claim in respect to revenue as to expenditure. No class of person should
+bear more than his or its proper share. In fact the special maxims
+usually placed under the head of taxation have really a wider scope as
+governing the whole financial system. The recognition of even the most
+elementary rules has been a very slow process, as the course of
+financial history abundantly proves. Until the 18th century no
+scientific treatment of financial problems was attained, though there
+had been great advances on the administrative side.
+
+A brief description of the historical evolution of the earlier financial
+forms will be the most effective illustration of this statement. The
+theory of well-organized public finance is also discussed under TAXATION
+and NATIONAL DEBT.
+
+The earliest forms of public revenue are those obtained from the
+property of the chief or ruler. Land, cattle and slaves are the
+principal kinds of wealth, and they are all constituents of the king's
+revenue; enforced work contributed by members of the community, and the
+furnishing commodities on requisition, further aid in the maintenance
+of the primitive state. Financial organization makes its earliest
+appearance in the great Eastern monarchies, in which tribute was
+regularly collected and the oldest and most general form of
+taxation--that levied on the produce of land--was established. In its
+normal shape this impost consisted in a given proportion of the yield,
+or of certain portions of the yield, of the soil; one-fourth as in
+India, one-fifth as in Egypt, or two separate levies of a tenth as in
+Palestine, are examples of what may from the last instance be called the
+"tithe" system. Dues of various kinds were gradually added to the land
+revenue, until, as in the later Egyptian monarchy, the forms of revenue
+reached a bewildering complexity. But no Eastern state advanced beyond
+the condition generally characterized as the "patrimonial," i.e. an
+organization on the model of the household. The part played by money
+economy was small, and it is noticeable that the revenues were collected
+by the monarch's servants, the farming out of taxes being completely
+unknown. Tribute, however, was paid by subject communities as a whole,
+and was collected by them for transmission to the conquerors.
+
+
+  Ancient Greek.
+
+A much higher stage was reached in the financial methods of the Greek
+states, or more correctly speaking of Athens, the best-known specimen of
+the class. Instead of the comparatively simple expedients of the
+barbarian monarchies, as indicated above, the Athenian city state by
+degrees developed a rather complex revenue system. Some of the older
+forms are retained. The city owned public land which was let on lease
+and the rents were farmed out by auction. A specially valuable property
+of Athens was the possession of the silver mines at Laurium, which were
+worked on lease by slave labour. The produce, at first distributed
+amongst the citizens, was later a part of the state income, and forms
+the subject of some of the suggestions respecting the revenue in the
+treatise formerly ascribed to Xenophon. The reverence that attached to
+the precious metals caused undue exaltation of the services rendered by
+this property.
+
+One of the characteristics of the ancient state was its extensive
+control over the persons and property of its citizens. In respect to
+finance this authority was strikingly manifested in the burdens imposed
+on wealthy citizens by the requirements of the "liturgies" ([Greek:
+leitourgiai]), which consisted in the provision of a chorus for
+theatrical performances, or defraying the expenses of the public games,
+or, finally, the equipment of a ship, "the trierarchy," which was
+economically and politically the most important. Athenian statesmanship
+in the time of Demosthenes was gravely exercised to make this form of
+contribution more effective. The grouping into classes and the privilege
+of exchanging property, granted to the contributor against any one whom
+he believed entitled to take his place, are marks of the defective
+economic and financial organization of the age.
+
+Amongst taxes strictly so called were the market dues or tolls, which in
+some cases approximated to excise duties, though in their actual mode of
+levy they were closely similar to the _octrois_ of modern times. Of
+greater importance were the customs duties on imports and exports. These
+at the great period of Athenian history were only 2%. The prohibition of
+export of corn was an economic rather than a financial provision. In the
+treatment of her subject allies Athens was more rigorous, general import
+and export duties of 5% being imposed on their trade. The high cost of
+carriage, and the need of encouraging commerce in a community relying on
+external sources for its food supply, help to explain the comparatively
+low rates adopted. Neither as financial nor as protective expedients
+were the custom duties of classical societies of much importance.
+
+Direct taxation received much greater expansion. A special levy on the
+class of resident aliens ([Greek: metoikton]), probably paralleled by a
+duty on slaves, was in force. A far more important source of revenue was
+the general tax on property ([Greek: eisphora]), which according to one
+view existed as early as the time of Solon, who made it a part of his
+constitutional system. Modern inquiry, however, tends towards the
+conclusion that it was under the stress of the Peloponnesian War that
+this impost was introduced (428 B.C.). At first it was only levied at
+irregular intervals; afterwards, in 378 B.C., it became a permanent tax
+based on elaborate valuation under which the richer members paid on a
+larger quota of their capital; in the case of the wealthiest class the
+taxable quota was taken as one-fifth, smaller fractions being adopted
+for those belonging to the other divisions. The assessment ([Greek:
+timema]) included all the property of the contributor, whose accuracy in
+making full returns was safeguarded by the right given to other citizens
+to proceed against him for fraudulent under-valuation. A further support
+was provided in the reform of 378 B.C. by the establishment of the
+symmories, or groups of tax-paying citizens; the wealthier members of
+each group being responsible for the tax payments of all the members.
+
+The scanty and obscure references to finance, and to economic matters
+generally, in classical literature do not elucidate all the details of
+the system; but the analogies of other countries, e.g. the mode of
+levying the _taille_ in 18th century France and the "tenth and
+fifteenth" in medieval England, make it tolerably plain that in the 4th
+century B.C. the Athenian state had developed a mode of taxation on
+property which raised those questions of just distribution and effective
+valuation that present themselves in the latest tax systems of the
+modern world. Taken together with the liturgies, the "eisphora" placed a
+very heavy burden on the wealthier citizens, and this financial pressure
+accounts in great part for the hostility of the rich towards the
+democratic constitution that facilitated the imposition of graduated
+taxation and super-taxes--to use modern terms--on the larger incomes.
+The normal yield of the property tax is reported as 60 talents
+(L14,400); but on special occasions it reached 200 talents (L48,000), or
+about one-sixth of the total receipts.
+
+On the administrative side also remarkable advances were made by the
+entrusting of military expenditure to the "generals," and in the 4th
+century B.C. by the appointment of an administrator whose duty it was to
+distribute the revenue of the state under the directions of the
+assembly. The absence of settled public law and the influence of direct
+democracy made a complete ministry of finance impossible.
+
+The Athenian "hegemony" in its earlier and later phases had an important
+financial side. The confederacy of Delos made provision for the
+collection of a revenue ([Greek: phoros]) from the members of the
+league, which was employed at first for defence against Persian
+aggression, but afterwards was at the disposal of Athens as the ruling
+state. The annual collection of 460 talents (L110,400) shows
+sufficiently the magnitude of the league.
+
+Too little is known of the financial methods of the other Greek states
+and of the Macedonian kingdoms to allow of any definite account of their
+position. In the latter, particularly in Egypt, the methods of the
+earlier rulers probably survived. Their finance, like their social life
+generally, exhibited a blending of Hellenic and barbarian elements. The
+older land-taxes were probably accompanied by import dues and taxes on
+property.
+
+
+  Roman.
+
+In the infancy of the Roman republic its revenues were of the kind usual
+in such communities. The public land yielded receipts which may
+indifferently be regarded as rents or taxes; the citizens contributed
+their services or commodities, and dues were raised on certain articles
+coming to market. With the progress of the Roman dominion the financial
+organization grew in extent. In order to meet the cost of the early wars
+a special contribution from property (_tributum ex censu_) was levied at
+times of emergency, though it was in some cases regarded as an advance
+to be repaid when the occasion of expense was over. Owing to the great
+military successes, and the consequent increase of the other sources of
+revenue, it became feasible to suspend the _tributum_ in 167 B.C., and
+it was not again levied till after the death of Julius Caesar. From this
+date the expenses of the Roman state "were undisguisedly supported by
+the taxation of the provinces." Neither the state monopolies nor the
+public land in Italy afforded any appreciable revenue. The other charges
+that affected Italy were the 5% duty on manumissions, and customs dues
+on seaborne imports. But with the acquisition of the important provinces
+of Sicily, Spain and Africa, the formation of a tax system based on the
+tributes of the dependencies became possible. To a great extent the
+pre-existing forms of revenue were retained, but were gradually
+systematized. In legal theory the land of conquered communities passed
+into the ownership of the Roman state; in practice a revenue was
+obtained through land taxes in the form of either tithes (_decumae_) or
+money payments (_stipendia_). To the latter were adjoined capitation and
+trade taxes (the _tributum capitis_). For pasture land a special rent
+was paid. In some provinces (e.g. Sicily) payment in produce was
+preferred, as affording the supply needed for the free distribution of
+corn at Rome.
+
+The great form of indirect taxation consisted in the customs dues
+(_portoria_), which were collected at the provincial boundaries and
+varied in amount, though the maximum did not exceed 5%. Under the same
+head were included the town dues (or _octrois_). Further, the local
+administration was charged on the district concerned, and requisitions
+for the public service were frequently made on the provincial
+communities. Supplies of grain, ships and timber for military use were
+often demanded.
+
+The methods of levy may be regarded as an additional tax. "Vexation," as
+Adam Smith remarks, "though not strictly speaking expense, is certainly
+equivalent to the expense at which every man would be willing to redeem
+himself from it"; and the Roman system was extraordinarily vexatious.
+From an early date the collection of the taxes had been farmed out to
+companies of contractors (_societates vectigales_), who became a by-word
+for rapacity. Being bound to pay a stated sum to the public authorities
+these _publicani_ naturally aimed at extracting the largest possible
+amount from the unfortunate provincials, and, as they belonged to the
+Roman capitalist class, they were able to influence the provincial
+governors. Undue claims on the part of the tax collectors were
+aggravated by the extortion of the public officials. The defects of the
+financial organization were a serious influence in the complex of causes
+that brought about the fall of the Republic.
+
+One of the reasons that induced the subject populations to accept with
+pleasure the establishment of the Empire was the improvement in
+financial treatment that it secured. The corrupt and uneconomical method
+of farming out the collection of the revenue was, to a great extent,
+replaced by collection through the officials of the imperial household.
+The earlier Roman treasury (_aerarium_) was formally retained for the
+receipt of revenue from the senatorial provinces, but the officials were
+appointed by the Princeps and became gradually mere municipal officers.
+The real centre of finance was the _fiscus_ or imperial treasury, which
+was under the exclusive control of the ruler ("res fiscales," says
+Ulpian, "quasi propriae et privatae principis sunt"), and was
+administered by officials of his household. Under the Republic the
+Senate had been the financial authority, with the Censors as finance
+ministers and the Quaestors as secretaries of the treasury. Never very
+precise, this system in the 1st century B.C. fell into extreme decay. By
+means of his freedmen the emperor introduced the more rigorous economy
+of the Roman household into public finance. The census as a method of
+valuation was revived; the important and productive land taxes were
+placed on a more definite footing; while, above all, the substitution of
+direct collection by state officials for the letting out by auction of
+the tax-collection to the companies of _publicani_ was made general.
+Thus some of the most valuable lessons as to the normal evolution of a
+system of finance are to be learned in this connexion. Of equal, or even
+greater moment is the failure of the administrative reforms of the
+Empire to secure lasting improvement, a result due to the absence of
+constitutional guarantees. The close relation between finance and
+general policy is most impressively illustrated in this failure of
+benevolent autocracy.
+
+Viewed broadly, the financial resources of the earlier Empire were
+obtained from (1) the public land alike of the state and the Princeps;
+(2) the monopolies, principally of minerals; (3) the land tax; (4) the
+customs; (5) the taxes on inheritances, on sales and on the purchase of
+slaves (_vectigalia_). One result of the establishment of the Principate
+was the consolidation of the public domain. The old "public land" in
+Italy had nearly disappeared; but the royal possessions in the conquered
+provinces and the private properties of the emperor became ultimately a
+part of the property of the Fiscus. Such land was let either on
+five-year leases or in perpetuity to coloni. Mines were also taken over
+for public use and worked by slaves or, in later times, by convict
+labour. The tendency towards state monopoly became more marked in the
+closing days of the Empire, the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. Perhaps the
+most comprehensive of the fiscal reforms of the Empire was the
+reconstruction of the land tax, based on a census or (to use the French
+term) _cadastre_, in which the area, the modes of cultivation and the
+estimated productiveness of each holding were stated, the average of ten
+preceding years being taken as the standard. After the reconstruction
+under Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century A.D., fifteen years (the
+_indictio_)--though probably used as early as the time of Hadrian--was
+recognized as the period for revaluation. With the growing needs of the
+state this taxation became more rigorous and was one of the great
+grievances of the population, especially of the sections that were
+declining in status and passing into the condition of villenage. The
+_portoria_, or customs, received a better organization, though the
+varying rates for different provinces continued. By degrees the older
+maximum of 5% was exceeded, until in the 4th century 12-1/2% was in some
+cases levied. Even at this higher rate the facilities for trade were
+greater than in medieval or (until the revolution in transport) modern
+times. In spite of certain prejudices against the import of luxuries and
+the export of gold, there is little indication of the influence of
+mercantilist or protectionist ideas. The nearest approach to excise was
+the duty of 1% on all sales, a tax that in Gibbon's words "has ever been
+the occasion of clamour and discontent." The higher charge of 4% on the
+purchase of slaves, and the still heavier 5% on successions after death,
+were likewise established at the beginning of the Empire and specially
+applied to the full citizens. Escheats and lapsed legacies (_caduca_)
+were further miscellaneous sources of gain to the state.
+
+Taken as a whole, the financial system of Imperial Rome shows a very
+high elaboration in _form_. The _patrimonium_, the _tributa_ and the
+_vectigalia_ are divisions parallel to the _domaine_, the _contributions
+directes_ and the _contributions indirectes_ of modern French
+administration; or the English "non-tax" revenue, inland revenue and
+"customs and excise." The careful regulations given in the Codes and the
+Digest show the observance of technical conditions as to assessment and
+accounting. In substance and spirit, however, Roman finance was
+essentially backward. Without altogether accepting Merivale's judgment
+that "their principles of finance were to the last rude and
+unphilosophical," it may be granted that Roman statesmen never seriously
+faced the questions of just distribution and maximum productiveness in
+the tax system. Still less did they perceive the connexion between these
+two aspects of finance. Mechanical uniformity and minute regulation are
+inadequate substitutes for observance of the canons of equality,
+certainty and economy in the operation of the tax system. Whether (as
+has been suggested) an Adam Smith in power could have saved the Empire
+is doubtful; but he would certainly have remodelled its finance. The
+most glaring fault was plainly the undue and increasing pressure on the
+productive classes. Each century saw heavier burdens imposed on the
+actual workers and on their employers, while expenditure was chiefly
+devoted to unproductive purposes. The distribution was also unfair as
+between the different territorial divisions. The capital and certain
+provincial towns were favoured at the expense of the provinces and the
+country districts. Again, the cost of collection, though less than under
+the farming-out system, was far too great. Some alleviation was indeed
+obtained by the apportionment of contributions amongst the districts
+liable, leaving to the community to decide as it thought best between
+its members. The allotment of the land-tax to units (_juga_) of equal
+value whatever might be the area, was a contrivance similar in
+character.
+
+The gradual way in which the several provinces were brought under the
+general tax system, and the equally gradual extension of Roman
+citizenship, account further for the irregularity and increased weight
+of the taxes; as the absence of publicity and the growth of autocracy
+explain the sense of oppression and the hopelessness of resistance so
+vividly indicated in the literature of the later Empire. Exemptions at
+first granted to the citizens were removed, while the cost of local
+government which continually increased was placed on the middle-class of
+the towns as represented by the _decuriones_, or members of the
+municipalities.
+
+The fact that no ingenuity of modern research has been able to construct
+a real budget of expenditure and receipt for any part of the long
+centuries of the Empire is significant as to the secrecy that surrounded
+the finances, especially in the later period. For at the beginning of
+the principate Augustus seems to have aimed at a complete estimate of
+the financial situation, though this may be regarded as due to the
+influence of the freer republican traditions which the reverence that
+soon attached to the emperor's dignity completely extinguished.
+
+In addition to its value as illustrating the difficulties and defects
+that beset the development of a complex financial organization from the
+simpler forms of the city and the province, Roman finance is of special
+importance in consequence of its place as supplying a model or rather a
+guide for the administration of the states that arose on its ruins. The
+barbarian invaders, though they were accustomed to contributions to
+their chiefs and to the payment of commodities as tributes or as
+penalties, had no acquaintance with the working of a regular system of
+taxation. The more astute rulers utilized the machinery that they
+inherited from the Roman government. Under the Franks the land tax and
+the provincial customs continued as forms of revenue, while beside them
+the gifts and court fees of Teutonic origin took their place. Similar
+conditions appear in Theodoric's administration of Italy. The
+maintenance of Roman forms and terms is prominent in fiscal
+administration. But institutions that have lost their life and animating
+spirit can hardly be preserved for any length of time. All over western
+Europe the elaborate devices of the _census_ and the stations for the
+collection of customs crumbled away; taxation as such disappeared,
+through the hostility of the clergy and the exemptions accorded to
+powerful subjects. This process of disintegration spread out over
+centuries. The efforts made from time to time by vigorous rulers to
+enforce the charges that remained legally due, proved quite ineffectual
+to restore the older fiscal system. The final result was a complete
+transformation of the ingredients of revenue. The character of the
+change may be best indicated as a substitution of private claims for
+public rights. Thus, the land-tax disappears in the 7th century and only
+comes into notice in the 9th century in the shape of private customary
+dues. The customs duties become the tolls and transit charges levied by
+local potentates on the diminishing trade of the earlier middle ages.
+This revolution is in accordance with--indeed it is one side of--the
+movement towards feudalism which was the great feature of this period.
+Finance is essentially a part of _public_ law and administration. It
+could, therefore, hold no prominent place in a condition of society
+which hardly recognized the state, as distinct from the members of the
+community, united by feudal ties. The same conception may be expressed
+in another way, viz. by the statement that the kingdoms which succeeded
+the Roman Empire were organized on the patrimonial basis (i.e. the
+revenues passed into the hands of the king or, rather, his domestic
+officials), and thus in fact returned to the condition of pre-classical
+times. Notwithstanding the differing features in the several countries,
+retrogression is the common characteristic of European history from the
+5th to the 10th century, and it was from the ruder state that this
+decline created that the rebuilding of social and political organization
+had to be accomplished. On the financial side the work, as already
+suggested, was aided by the ideas and institutions inherited from the
+Roman Empire. This influence was common to all the continental states
+and indirectly was felt even in England. Each of the great realms has,
+however, worked out its financial system on lines suitable to its own
+particular conditions, which are best considered in connexion with the
+separate national histories.
+
+Running through the different national systems there are some common
+elements the result not of inheritance merely but still more of
+necessity, or at the lowest of similarity in environment. Over and above
+the details of financial development there is a thread of connexion
+which requires treatment under Finance taken as a whole. As the great
+aim of this side of public activity is to secure funds for the
+maintenance of the state's life and working, the administration which
+operates for this end is the true nucleus of all national finance. The
+first sign of revival from the catastrophe of the invasions is the
+reorganization of the Imperial household under Charlemagne with the
+intention of establishing a more exact collection of revenue. The later
+German empire of Otto and the Frederics; the French Capetian monarchy
+and, in a somewhat different sphere, the medieval Italian and German
+cities show the same movement. The treasury is the centre towards which
+the special receipts of the ruler or rulers should be brought, and from
+it the public wants should be supplied. Feudalism, as the antithesis of
+this orderly treatment, had to be overthrown before national finance
+could become established. The development can be traced in the financial
+history of England, France and the German states; but the advance in the
+French financial organization of the 15th and 16th centuries affords the
+best illustration. The gradual unification operates on all the branches
+of finance,--expenditure, revenue, debt and methods of control. In
+respect to the first head there is a well-marked "integration" of the
+modes for meeting the cost of the public services. What were
+semi-private duties become public tasks, which, with the growing
+importance of "money-economy," have to be defrayed by state payments.
+Thus, the creation of the standing army in France by Charles VII. marks
+a financial change of the first order. The English navy, though more
+gradually developed, is an equally good illustration of the movement.
+All outlay by the state is brought into due co-ordination, and it
+becomes possible for constitutional government to supervise and direct
+it. This improvement, due to English initiative, has been adopted
+amongst the essential forms of financial administration on the
+continent. The immense importance of this view of public expenditure as
+representing the consumption of the state in its unified condition is
+obvious; it has affected, for the most part unconsciously, the
+conception of all modern peoples as to the functions of the state and
+the right of the people to direct them.
+
+On the side of receipts a similar unifying process has been
+accomplished. The almost universal separation between "ordinary" and
+"extraordinary" receipts, taxation being put under the latter head, has
+completely ceased. It was, however, the fundamental division for the
+early French writers on finance, and it survives for England as late as
+Blackstone's _Commentaries_. The idea that the ruler possessed a normal
+income in certain rents and dues of a quasi-private character, which on
+emergency he might supplement by calls on the revenues of his subjects,
+was a bequest of feudalism which gave way before the increasing power of
+the state. In order to meet the unified public wants, an equally unified
+public fund was requisite. The great economic changes which depreciated
+the value of the king's domain contributed towards the result. Only by
+well-adjusted taxation was it possible to meet the public necessities.
+In respect to taxation also there has been a like course of
+readjustment. Separate charges, assigned for distinct purposes, have
+been taken into the national exchequer and come to form a part of the
+general revenue. There has been--taking long periods--a steady
+absorption of special taxes into more general categories. The
+replacement of the four direct taxes by the income tax in France, as
+proposed in 1909, is a very recent example. Equally important is the
+growth of "direct" taxation. As tax contributions have taken the places
+of the revenue from land and fees, so, it would seem, are the taxes on
+commodities likely to be replaced or at least exceeded by the imposts
+levied on income as such, in the shape either of income taxes proper or
+of charges on accumulated wealth. The recent history of the several
+financial systems of the world is decisive on this point. A clearer
+perception of the conditions under which the effective attainment of
+revenue is possible is another outcome of financial development.
+Security, and in particular the absence of arbitrary impositions,
+combined with convenient modes of collection, have come to be recognized
+as indispensable auxiliaries in financial administration which further
+aims at the selection of really productive forms of charge.
+Unproductiveness is, according to modern standard, the cardinal fault of
+any particular tax. How great has been the progress in these aspects is
+best illustrated in the case of English finance, but both French and
+German fiscal history can supply many instructive examples.
+
+In a third direction the co-ordination of finance has been just as
+remarkable. Financial adjustment implies the conception of a balance,
+and this should be found in the relation of outlay and income. Under the
+pressure of war and other emergencies it has been found impossible to
+maintain this desirable equilibrium. But the use of the system of
+credit, and the general establishment of constitutional government, have
+enabled the difficulty to be surmounted by the creation on a vast scale
+of national debts. Apart from the special problems that this system of
+borrowing raises, there is the general one of its aid in making national
+finance continuous and orderly. Deficits can be transferred to the
+capital account, and the country's resources employed most usefully by
+repaying liabilities contracted in times of extreme need. The growth of
+this department, parallel with the general progress of finance, is
+significant of its function.
+
+Finally, in all countries though with diversities due to national
+peculiarities, the modes of account and control have been brought into a
+more effective condition. Previous legislative sanction for both
+expenditure and receipts in all their particular forms is absolutely
+necessary; so is thorough scrutiny of the actual application of the
+funds provided. Either by administrative survey or by judicial
+examination care is taken to see that there has been no improper
+diversion from the designed purposes. It is only when the varied systems
+of financial organization are studied in their general bearing, and with
+regard to what may be called their frame-work, that their essential
+resemblance is thoroughly realized. Such a real underlying unity is the
+reason and justification for regarding "public finance" as a distinct
+subject of study and as an independent division of political science.
+
+_Local Finance._--One of the most remarkable features of modern
+financial development has been the growth of the complementary system of
+local finance, which in extent and complication bids to rival that of
+the central authority. Under the constraining power of the Roman Empire
+the older city states were reduced to the position of municipalities,
+and their financial administration became dependent on the control of
+the Emperor--as is abundantly illustrated in the correspondence of Pliny
+and Trajan. After the fall of the Western Empire, a partial revival of
+city life, particularly in Italy and Germany, gave some scope for a
+return to the type of finance presented by the Athenian state. Florence
+affords an instructive specimen; but the passage from feudalism to the
+national state under the authority of monarchy made the cities and
+country districts parts of a larger whole. It is in this condition of
+subordination that the finance of localities has been framed and
+effectively organized. Though each great state has adopted its own
+methods, influenced by historical circumstances and by ideas of policy,
+there are general resemblances that furnish material for scientific
+treatment and allow of important generalizations being made.
+
+Amongst these the first to be noticed is the essential _subordination_
+of local finance. Alike in expenditure, in forms of receipt, and in
+methods of administration the central government has the right of
+directing and supervising the work of municipal and provincial
+agencies. The modes employed are various, but they all rest on the
+sovereignty of the state, whether exercised by the central officials or
+by the courts. A second characteristic is the predominance of the
+_economic_ element in the several tasks that local administrations have
+to perform, and the consequent tendency to treat the charges of local
+finance as payments for services rendered, or, in the usual phrase, to
+apply the "benefits" principle, in contrast to that of "ability," which
+rightly prevails in national finance. Over a great part of municipal
+administration--particularly that engaged in supplying the needs of the
+individual citizens--the finance may be assimilated to that of the
+joint-stock company, with of course the necessary differences, viz.
+that the association is compulsory; and that dividends are paid, not in
+money, but in social advantage. The great expansion in recent years of
+what is known as _Municipal Trading_ has brought this aspect of local
+finance into prominence. Water supply, transport and lighting have
+become public services, requiring careful financial management, and
+still retaining traces of their earlier private character.
+
+Corresponding to the mainly economic nature of local expenditure there
+is the further limitation imposed on the side of revenue. Unlike the
+state in this, localities are limited in respect to the amount and form
+of their taxation. Several distinct influences combine to produce this
+result. The needs of the central government lead to its retention of the
+more profitable modes of procuring revenue. No modern country can
+surrender the chief direct and indirect taxes to the local
+administrations. Another limiting condition is found in the practical
+impossibility of levying by local agencies such imposts as the customs
+and the income-tax in their modern forms. The elaborate machinery that
+is requisite for covering the national area and securing the revenue
+against loss can only be provided by an authority that can deal with the
+whole territory. Hence the very general limitation of local revenues to
+certain typical forms. Though in some cases municipal taxation is
+imposed on commodities in the form of _octrois_ or entry duties--as is
+notably the case in France--yet the prevailing tendency is towards the
+levy of direct charges on immovable property, which cannot escape by
+removal outside the tax jurisdiction. In addition to these "land" and
+"house" taxes, the employment of licence duties on trades, particularly
+those that are in special need of supervision, is a favourite method.
+Closely akin are the payments demanded for privileges to industrial
+undertakings given as "franchises," very often in connexion with
+monopolies, e.g. gas-works and tramways. Over and above the peculiar
+revenues of local bodies there is the further resource--which emphasizes
+the subordinate position of local finance--of obtaining supplemental
+revenue from the central treasury, either by taxes additional to the
+charges of the state, and collected at the same time; or by donations
+from its funds, in the shape of grants for special services, or
+assignments of certain parts of the state's receipts. Great Britain,
+France and Prussia furnish good examples of these different modes of
+preserving local administration from financial collapse.
+
+The broad resemblance between the two parts of the entire system of
+public finance is seen in another direction. To national debts there has
+been added a great mass of municipal and local indebtedness, which seems
+likely to equal, or even exceed in magnitude the liabilities of the
+central governments. But here also the essential limitations of the
+newer form are easily perceptible. The sovereignty of the state enables
+it to deal as it thinks best with the public creditor. In its methods of
+borrowing, in its plans for repayment, or, in extremity, in its power of
+repudiation it is independent of external control. Local debt on the
+other hand can only be contracted under the sanction of the appropriate
+administrative organ of the state. The creditor has the right of
+claiming the aid of the law against the defaulting municipality; and the
+amounts, the terms, and the time of duration of local debt are
+supervised in order to prevent injustice to particular persons or
+improvidence with regard to the revenue and property of the local units.
+The chief reason for contracting local debt being the establishment of
+works that are, directly or indirectly, reproductive, the governing
+conditions are evidently to be found in the character and probable yield
+of those businesses. The principles of company investments are fully
+applicable: the creation of sinking-funds, the fixing the term of each
+loan to the time at which the return from its employment ceases, and the
+avoidance of the formation of fictitious capital, become guiding rules
+from this part of finance, and indicate the connexion with what the
+commercial world calls "financial operations."
+
+Finally, there is the same set of problems in respect to accounting and
+control in local as in central finance. Though the materials are
+simpler, the need for a well-prepared budget is existent in the case of
+the city, county or department, if there is to be clear and accurate
+financial management. Perhaps the greatest weakness of local finance
+lies in this direction. The public opinion that affects the national
+budget is unfortunately too often lacking in the most important towns,
+not excluding those in which political life is highly developed.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The English literature on finance is rather
+  unsatisfactory; for public finance the available text-books are:
+  Adams, _Science of Finance_ (New York, 1898); Bastable, _Public
+  Finance_ (London, 1892; 3rd ed., 1903); Daniels, _Public Finance_ (New
+  York, 1899), and Plehn, _Public Finance_ (3rd ed., New York, 1909). In
+  French, Leroy-Beaulieu, _Traite de la science des finances_ (1877; 3rd
+  ed., 1908), is the standard work. The German literature is abundant.
+  Roscher, 5th ed. (edited by Gerlach), 1901; Wagner (4 vols.),
+  incomplete; Cohn (1889) and Eheberg (9th ed., 1908) have published
+  works entitled _Finanzwissenschaft_, dealing with all the aspects of
+  state finance. For Greek financial history Boekh, _Staalshaushaltung
+  der Athenen_ (ed. Frankel, 1887), is still a standard work. For Rome,
+  Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, vol. ii., and Humbert, _Les
+  Finances et la comptabilite publique chez les Romains_, are valuable.
+  Clamageran, _Histoire de l'impot en France_ (1876), gives the earlier
+  development of French finance. R.H. Patterson, _Science of Finance_
+  (London, 1868), C.S. Meade, _Trust Finance_ (1903), and E. Carroll,
+  _Principles and Practice of Finance_, deal with finance in the wider
+  sense of business transactions.     (C. F. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FINCH, FINCH-HATTON. This old English family has had many notable
+members, and has contributed in no small degree to the peerage. Sir
+Thomas Finch (d. 1563), who was knighted for his share in suppressing
+Sir T. Wyatt's insurrection against Queen Mary, was a soldier of note,
+and was the son and heir of Sir William Finch, who was knighted in 1513.
+He was the father of Sir Moyle Finch (d. 1614), who was created a
+baronet in 1611, and whose widow Elizabeth (daughter of Sir Thomas
+Heneage) was created a peeress as countess of Maidstone in 1623 and
+countess of Winchilsea in 1628; and also of Sir Henry Finch (1558-1625),
+whose son John, Baron Finch of Fordwich (1584-1660), is separately
+noticed. Thomas, eldest son of Sir Moyle, succeeded his mother as first
+earl of Winchilsea; and Sir Heneage, the fourth son (d. 1631), was the
+speaker of the House of Commons, whose son Heneage (1621-1682), lord
+chancellor, was created earl of Nottingham in 1675. The latter's second
+son Heneage (1649-1719) was created earl of Aylesford in 1714. The
+earldoms of Winchilsea and Nottingham became united in 1729, when the
+fifth earl of Winchilsea died, leaving no son, and the title passed to
+his cousin the second earl of Nottingham, the earldom of Nottingham
+having since then been held by the earl of Winchilsea. In 1826, on the
+death of the ninth earl of Winchilsea and fifth of Nottingham, his
+cousin George William Finch-Hatton succeeded to the titles, the
+additional surname of Hatton (since held in this line) having been
+assumed in 1764 by his father under the will of an aunt, a daughter of
+Christopher, Viscount Hatton (1632-1706), whose father was related to
+the famous Sir Christopher Hatton.
+
+
+
+
+FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH, BARON (1584-1660), generally known as Sir
+John Finch, English judge, a member of the old family of Finch, was born
+on the 17th of September 1584, and was called to the bar in 1611. He was
+returned to parliament for Canterbury in 1614, and became recorder of
+the same place in 1617. Having attracted the notice of Charles I., who
+visited Canterbury in 1625, and was received with an address by Finch in
+his capacity as recorder, he was the following year appointed king's
+counsel and attorney-general to the queen and was knighted. In 1628 he
+was elected speaker of the House of Commons, a post which he retained
+till its dissolution in 1629. He was the speaker who was held down in
+his chair by Holles and others on the occasion of Sir John Eliot's
+resolution on tonnage and poundage. In 1634 he was appointed chief
+justice of the court of common pleas, and distinguished himself by the
+active zeal with which he upheld the king's prerogative. Notable also
+was the brutality which characterized his conduct as chief justice,
+particularly in the cases of William Prynne and John Langton. He
+presided over the trial of John Hampden, who resisted the payment of
+ship-money, and he was chiefly responsible for the decision of the
+judges that ship-money was constitutional. As a reward for his services
+he was, in 1640, appointed lord keeper, and was also created Baron Finch
+of Fordwich. He had, however, become so unpopular that one of the first
+acts of the Long Parliament, which met in the same year was his
+impeachment. He took refuge in Holland, but had to suffer the
+sequestration of his estates. When he was allowed to return to England
+is uncertain, but in 1660 he was one of the commissioners for the trial
+of the regicides, though he does not appear to have taken much part in
+the proceedings. He died on the 27th of November 1660 and was buried in
+St Martin's church near Canterbury, his peerage becoming extinct.
+
+  See Foss, _Lives of the Judges_; Campbell, _Lives of the Chief
+  Justices_.
+
+
+
+
+FINCH (Ger. _Fink_, Lat. _Fringilla_), a name applied (but almost always
+in composition--as bullfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch, hawfinch, &c.) to a
+great many small birds of the order _Passeres_, and now pretty generally
+accepted as that of a group or family--the _Fringillidae_ of most
+ornithologists. Yet it is one the extent of which must be regarded as
+being uncertain. Many writers have included in it the buntings
+(_Emberizidae_), though these seem to be quite distinct, as well as the
+larks (_Alaudidae_), the tanagers (_Tanagridae_), and the weaver-birds
+(_Ploceidae_). Others have separated from it the crossbills, under the
+title of _Loxiidae_, but without due cause. The difficulty which at this
+time presents itself in regard to the limits of the _Fringillidae_
+arises from our ignorance of the anatomical features, especially those
+of the head, possessed by many exotic forms.
+
+Taken as a whole, the finches, concerning which no reasonable doubt can
+exist, are not only little birds with a hard bill, adapted in most cases
+for shelling and eating the various seeds that form the chief portion of
+their diet when adult, but they appear to be mainly forms which
+predominate in and are highly characteristic of the Palaearctic Region;
+moreover, though some are found elsewhere on the globe, the existence of
+but very few in the Notogaean hemisphere can as yet be regarded as
+certain.
+
+But even with this limitation, the separation of the undoubted
+_Fringillidae_[1] into groups is a difficult task. Were we merely to
+consider the superficial character of the form of the bill, the genus
+_Loxia_ (in its modern sense) would be easily divided not only from the
+other finches, but from all other birds. The birds of this genus--the
+crossbills--when their other characters are taken into account, prove to
+be intimately allied on the one hand to the grosbeaks (_Pinicola_) and
+on the other through the redpolls (_Aegiothus_) to the linnets
+(_Linota_)--if indeed these two can be properly separated. The linnets,
+through the genus _Leucosticte_, lead to the mountain-finches
+(_Montifringilla_), and the redpolls through the siskins
+(_Chrysomitris_) to the goldfinches (_Carduelis_); and these last again
+to the hawfinches, one group of which (_Coccothraustes_) is apparently
+not far distant from the chaffinches (_Fringilla_ proper), and the other
+(_Hesperiphona_) seems to be allied to the greenfinches (_Ligurinus_).
+Then there is the group of serins (_Serinus_), to which the canary
+belongs, that one is in doubt whether to refer to the vicinity of the
+greenfinches or that of the redpolls. The mountain-finches may be
+regarded as pointing first to the rock-sparrows (_Petronia_) and then to
+the true sparrows (_Passer_); while the grosbeaks pass into many varied
+forms and throw out a very well marked form--the bullfinches
+(_Pyrrhula_). Some of the modifications of the family are very gradual,
+and therefore conclusions founded on them are likely to be correct;
+others are further apart, and the links which connect them, if not
+altogether missing, can but be surmised. To avoid as much as possible
+prejudicing the case, we shall therefore take the different groups of
+_Fringillidae_ which it is convenient to consider in this article in an
+alphabetical arrangement.
+
+Of the Bullfinches the best known is the familiar bird (_Pyrrhula_
+_europaea_). The varied plumage of the cock--his bright red breast and
+his grey back, set off by his coal-black head and quills--is naturally
+attractive; while the facility with which he is tamed, with his engaging
+disposition in confinement, makes him a popular cage-bird,--to say
+nothing of the fact (which in the opinion of so many adds to his charms)
+of his readily learning to "pipe" a tune, or some bars of one. By
+gardeners the bullfinch has long been regarded as a deadly enemy, from
+its undoubted destruction of the buds of fruit-trees in spring-time,
+though whether the destruction is really so much of a detriment is by no
+means so undoubted. Northern and eastern Europe is inhabited by a larger
+form (_P. major_), which differs in nothing but size and more vivid
+tints from that which is common in the British Isles and western Europe.
+A very distinct species (_P. murina_), remarkable for its dull
+coloration, is peculiar to the Azores, and several others are found in
+Asia from the Himalayas to Japan. A bullfinch (_P. cassini_) has been
+discovered in Alaska, being the first recognition of this genus in the
+New World.
+
+The Canary (_Serinus canarius_) is indigenous to the islands whence it
+takes its name, as well, apparently, as to the neighbouring groups of
+the Madeiras and Azores, in all of which it abounds. It seems to have
+been imported into Europe at least as early as the first half of the
+16th century,[2] and has since become the commonest of cage-birds. The
+wild stock is of an olive-green, mottled with dark brown above, and
+greenish-yellow beneath. All the bright-hued examples we now see in
+captivity have been induced by carefully breeding from any chance
+varieties that have shown themselves; and not only the colour, but the
+build and stature of the bird have in this manner been greatly modified.
+The ingenuity of "the fancy," which might seem to have exhausted itself
+in the production of topknots, feathered feet, and so forth, has brought
+about a still further change from the original type. It has been found
+that by a particular treatment, in which the mixing of large quantities
+of vegetable colouring agents with the food plays an important part, the
+ordinary "canary yellow" may be intensified so as to verge upon a more
+or less brilliant flame colour.[3]
+
+Very nearly resembling the canary, but smaller in size, is the Serin
+(_Serinus hortulanus_), a species which not long since was very local in
+Europe, and chiefly known to inhabit the countries bordering on the
+Mediterranean. It has pushed its way towards the north, and has even
+been several times taken in England (Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, ed. 4, ii.
+pp. 111-116). A closely allied species (_S. canonicus_) is peculiar to
+Palestine.
+
+The Chaffinches are regarded as the type-form of _Fringillidae_. The
+handsome and sprightly _Fringilla coelebs_[4] is common throughout the
+whole of Europe. Conspicuous by his variegated plumage, his peculiar
+call note[5] and his glad song, the cock is almost everywhere a
+favourite. In Algeria the British chaffinch is replaced by a
+closely-allied species (_F. spodogenia_), while in the Atlantic Islands
+it is represented by two others (_F. tintillon_ and _F. teydea_)--all of
+which, while possessing the general appearance of the European bird, are
+clothed in soberer tints.[6] Another species of true _Fringilla_ is the
+brambling (_F. montifringilla_), which has its home in the birch forests
+of northern Europe and Asia, whence it yearly proceeds, often in flocks
+of thousands, to pass the winter in more southern countries. This bird
+is still more beautifully coloured than the chaffinch--especially in
+summer, when, the brown edges of the feathers being shed, it presents a
+rich combination of black, white and orange. Even in winter, however,
+its diversified plumage is sufficiently striking.
+
+With the exception of the single species of bullfinch already noticed as
+occurring in Alaska, all the above forms of finches are peculiar to the
+Palaearctic Region.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] About 200 species of these have been described, and perhaps 150
+    may really exist.
+
+  [2] The earliest published description seems to be that of Gesner in
+    1555 (_Orn._ p. 234), but he had not seen the bird, an account of
+    which was communicated to him by Raphael Seiler of Augsburg, under
+    the name of _Suckeruogele_.
+
+  [3] See also _The Canary Book_, by Robert L. Wallace; _Canaries and
+    Cage Birds_, by W.A. Blackston; and Darwin's _Animals and Plants
+    under Domestication_, vol. i. p. 295. An excellent monograph on the
+    wild bird is that by Dr Carl Bolle (_Journ. fur Orn._, 1858, pp.
+    125-151).
+
+  [4] This fanciful trivial name was given by Linnaeus on the
+    supposition (which later observations do not entirely confirm) that
+    in Sweden the hens of the species migrated southward in autumn,
+    leaving the cocks to lead a celibate life till spring. It is certain,
+    however, that in some localities the sexes live apart during the
+    winter.
+
+  [5] This call-note, which to many ears sounds like "pink" or "spink,"
+    not only gives the bird a name in many parts of Britain, but is also
+    obviously the origin of the German _Fink_ and the English _Finch_.
+    The similar Celtic form _Pinc_ is said to have given rise to the Low
+    Latin _Pincio_, and thence come the Italian _Pincione_, the Spanish
+    _Pinzon_, and the French _Pinson_.
+
+  [6] This is especially the ease with _F. teydea_ of the Canary
+    Islands, which from its dark colouring and large size forms a kind of
+    parallel to the Azorean _Pyrrhula murina_.
+
+
+
+
+FINCHLEY, an urban district in the Hornsey parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, 7 m. N.W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on a
+branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 16,647; (1901) 22,126.
+A part, adjoining Highgate on the north, lies at an elevation between
+300 and 400 ft., while a portion in the Church End district lies lower,
+in the valley of the Dollis Brook. The pleasant, healthy situation has
+caused Finchley to become a populous residential district. Finchley
+Common was formerly one of the most notorious resorts of highwaymen near
+London; the Great North Road crossed it, and it was a haunt of Dick
+Turpin and Jack Sheppard, and was still dangerous to cross at night at
+the close of the 18th century. Sheppard was captured in this
+neighbourhood in 1724. The Common has not been preserved from the
+builder. In 1660 George Monk, marching on London immediately before the
+Restoration, made his camp on the Common, and in 1745 a regular and
+volunteer force encamped here, prepared to resist the Pretender, who was
+at Derby. The gathering of this force inspired Hogarth's famous picture,
+the "March of the Guards to Finchley."
+
+
+
+
+FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON (1718-1766), Prussian soldier, was born at
+Strelitz in 1718. He first saw active service in 1734 on the Rhine, as a
+member of the suite of Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. Soon
+after this he transferred to the Austrian service, and thence went to
+Russia, where he served until the fall of his patron Marshal Munnich put
+an end to his prospects of advancement. In 1742 he went to Berlin, and
+Frederick the Great made him his aide-de-camp, with the rank of major.
+Good service brought him rapid promotion in the Seven Years' War. After
+the battle of Kolin (June 18th, 1757) he was made colonel, and at the
+end of 1757 major-general. At the beginning of 1759 Finck became
+lieutenant-general, and in this rank commanded a corps at the disastrous
+battle of Kunersdorf, where he did good service both on the field of
+battle and (Frederick having in despair handed over to him the command)
+in the rallying of the beaten Prussians. Later in the year he fought in
+concert with General Wunsch a widespread combat, called the action of
+Korbitz (Sept. 21st) in which the Austrians and the contingents of the
+minor states of the Empire were sharply defeated. For this action
+Frederick gave Finck the Black Eagle (Seyfarth, _Beilagen_, ii.
+621-630). But the subsequent catastrophe of Maxen (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR)
+abruptly put an end to Finck's active career. Dangerously exposed, and
+with inadequate forces, Finck received the king's positive order to
+march upon Maxen (a village in the Pirna region of Saxony).
+Unfortunately for himself the general dared not disobey his master, and,
+cut off by greatly superior numbers, was forced to surrender with some
+11,000 men (21st Nov. 1759). After the peace, Frederick sent him before
+a court-martial, which sentenced him to be cashiered and to suffer a
+term of imprisonment in a fortress. At the expiry of this term Finck
+entered the Danish service as general of infantry. He died at Copenhagen
+in 1766.
+
+  He left a work called _Gedanken uber militarische Gegenstande_
+  (Berlin, 1788). See _Denkwurdigkeiten der militarischen Gesellschaft_,
+  vol. ii. (Berlin, 1802-1805), and the report of the Finck
+  court-martial in _Zeitschrift fur Kunst, Wissenschaft und Geschichte
+  des Krieges_, pt. 81 (Berlin, 1851). There is a life of Finck in MS.
+  in the library of the Great General Staff.
+
+
+
+
+FINCK, HEINRICH (d. c. 1519), German musical composer, was probably born
+at Bamberg, but nothing is certainly known either of the place or date
+of his birth. Between 1492 and 1506 he was a musician in, and later
+possibly conductor of the court orchestra of successive kings of Poland
+at Warsaw. He held the post of conductor at Stuttgart from 1510 till
+about 1519, in which year he probably died. His works, mostly part songs
+and other vocal compositions, show great musical knowledge, and amongst
+the early masters of the German school he holds a high position. They
+are found scattered amongst ancient and modern collections of songs and
+other musical pieces (see R. Eitner, _Bibl. der Musiksammelwerke des 16.
+und 17. Jahrh._, Berlin, 1877). The library of Zwickau possesses a work
+containing a collection of fifty-five songs by Finck, printed about the
+middle of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+FINCK, HERMANN (1527-1558), German composer, the great-nephew of
+Heinrich Finck, was born on the 21st of March 1527 in Pirna, and died at
+Wittenberg on the 28th of December 1558. After 1553 he lived at
+Wittenberg, where he was organist, and there, in 1555, was published his
+collection of "wedding songs." Few details of his life have been
+preserved. His theoretical writing was good, particularly his
+observations on the art of singing and of making ornamentations in song.
+His most celebrated work is entitled _Practica musica, exempla variorum
+signorum, proportionum, et canonum, judicium de tonis ac quaedam de arte
+suaviter et artificiose cantandi continens_ (Wittenberg, 1556). It is of
+great historic value, but very rare.
+
+
+
+
+FINDEN, WILLIAM (1787-1852), English line engraver, was born in 1787. He
+served his apprenticeship to one James Mitan, but appears to have owed
+far more to the influence of James Heath, whose works he privately and
+earnestly studied. His first employment on his own account was engraving
+illustrations for books, and among the most noteworthy of these early
+plates were Smirke's illustrations to Don Quixote. His neat style and
+smooth finish made his pictures very attractive and popular, and
+although he executed several large plates, his chief work throughout his
+life was book illustration. His younger brother, Edward Finden, worked
+in conjunction with him, and so much demand arose for their productions
+that ultimately a company of assistants was engaged, and plates were
+produced in increasing numbers, their quality as works of art declining
+as their quantity rose. The largest plate executed by William Finden was
+the portrait of King George IV. seated on a sofa, after the painting by
+Sir Thomas Lawrence. For this work he received two thousand guineas, a
+sum larger than had ever before been paid for an engraved portrait.
+Finden's next and happiest works on a large scale were the "Highlander's
+Return" and the "Village Festival," after Wilkie. Later in life he
+undertook, in co-operation with his brother, aided by their numerous
+staff, the publication as well as the production of various galleries of
+engravings. The first of these, a series of landscape and portrait
+illustrations to the life and works of Byron, appeared in 1833 and
+following years, and was very successful. But by his _Gallery of British
+Art_ (in fifteen parts, 1838-1840), the most costly and best of these
+ventures, he lost the fruits of all his former success. Finden's last
+undertaking was an engraving on a large scale of Hilton's "Crucifixion."
+The plate was bought by the Art Union for L1470. He died in London on
+the 20th of September 1852.
+
+
+
+
+FINDLATER, ANDREW (1810-1885), Scottish editor, was born in 1810 near
+Aberdour, Aberdeenshire, the son of a small farmer. By hard study in the
+evening, after his day's work on the farm was finished, he qualified
+himself for entrance at Aberdeen University, and after graduating as
+M.A. he attended the Divinity classes with the idea of entering the
+ministry. In 1853 he began that connexion with the firm of W. & R.
+Chambers which gave direction to his subsequent activity. His first
+engagement was the editing of a revised edition of their _Information
+for the People_ (1857). In this capacity he gave evidence of qualities
+and acquirements that marked him as a suitable editor for _Chambers's
+Encyclopaedia_, then projected, and his was the directing mind that gave
+it its character. Many of the more important articles were written by
+him. This work occupied him till 1868, and he afterwards edited a
+revised edition (1874). He also had charge of other publications for the
+same firm, and wrote regularly for the _Scotsman_. In 1864 he was made
+LL.D. of Aberdeen University. In 1877 he gave up active work for
+Chambers, but his services were retained as consulting editor. He died
+in Edinburgh on the 1st of January 1885.
+
+
+
+
+FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE (1829-1893), English railway manager, was of pure
+Scottish descent, and was born at Rainhill, in Lancashire, on the 18th
+of May 1829. For some time he attended Halifax grammar school, but left
+at the age of fourteen, and began to learn practical masonry on the
+Halifax railway, upon which his father was then employed. Two years
+later he obtained a situation on the Trent Valley railway works, and
+when that line was finished in 1847 went up to London. There he was for
+a short time among the men employed in building locomotive sheds for the
+London & North-Western railway at Camden Town, and years afterwards,
+when he had become general manager of that railway, he was able to point
+out stones which he had dressed with his own hands. For the next two or
+three years he was engaged in a higher capacity as supervisor of the
+mining and brickwork of the Harecastle tunnel on the North Staffordshire
+line, and of the Walton tunnel on the Birkenhead, Lancashire & Cheshire
+Junction railway. In 1850 the charge of the construction of a section of
+the Shrewsbury & Hereford line was entrusted to him, and when the line
+was opened for traffic T. Brassey, the contractor, having determined to
+work it himself, installed him as manager. In the course of his duties
+he was brought for the first time into official relations with the
+London & North-Western railway, which had undertaken to work the
+Newport, Abergavenny & Hereford line, and he ultimately passed into the
+service of that company, when in 1862, jointly with the Great Western,
+it leased the railway of which he was manager. In 1864 he was moved to
+Euston as general goods manager, in 1872 he became chief traffic
+manager, and in 1880 he was appointed full general manager; this last
+post he retained until his death, which occurred on the 26th of March
+1893 at Edgware, Middlesex. He was knighted in 1892. Sir George Findlay
+was the author of a book on the _Working and Management of an English
+Railway_ (London, 1889), which contains a great deal of information,
+some of it not easily accessible to the general public, as to English
+railway practice about the year 1890.
+
+
+
+
+FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE (1824-1898), Scottish newspaper owner and
+philanthropist, was born at Arbroath on the 21st of October 1824, and
+was educated at Edinburgh University. He entered first the publishing
+office and then the editorial department of the _Scotsman_, became a
+partner in the paper in 1868, and in 1870 inherited the greater part of
+the property from his great uncle, John Ritchie, the founder. The large
+increase in the influence and circulation of the paper was in a great
+measure due to his activity and direction, and it brought him a fortune,
+which he spent during his lifetime in public benefaction. He presented
+to the nation the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, opened in
+Edinburgh in 1889, and costing over L70,000; and he contributed largely
+to the collections of the Scottish National Gallery. He held numerous
+offices in antiquarian, educational and charitable societies, showing
+his keen interest in these matters, but he avoided political office and
+refused the offer of a baronetcy. The freedom of Edinburgh was given him
+in 1896. He died at Aberlour, Banffshire, on the 16th of October 1898.
+
+
+
+
+FINDLAY, a city and the county-seat of Hancock county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+Blanchard's Fork of the Auglaize river, about 42 m. S. by W. of Toledo.
+Pop. (1890) 18,553; (1900) 17,613, (1051 foreign-born); (1910) 14,858.
+It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the
+Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Ohio
+Central railways, and by three interurban electric railways. Findlay
+lies about 780 ft. above sea-level on gently rolling ground. The city is
+the seat of Findlay College (co-educational), an institution of the
+Church of God, chartered in 1882 and opened in 1886; it has collegiate,
+preparatory, normal, commercial and theological departments, a school of
+expression, and a conservatory of music, and in 1907 had 588 students,
+the majority of whom were in the conservatory of music. Findlay is the
+centre of the Ohio natural gas and oil region, and lime and building
+stone abound in the vicinity. Among manufactures are refined petroleum,
+flour and grist-mill products, glass, boilers, bricks, tile, pottery,
+bridges, ditching machines, carriages and furniture. The total value of
+the factory product in 1905 was $2,925,309, an increase of 73.6% since
+1900. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Findlay was
+laid out as a town in 1821, was incorporated as a village in 1838, and
+was chartered as a city in 1890. The city was named in honour of Colonel
+James Findlay (c. 1775-1835), who built a fort here during the war of
+1812; he served in this war under General William Hull, and from 1825 to
+1833 was a Democratic representative in Congress.
+
+
+
+
+FINE, a word which in all its senses goes back to the Lat. _finire_, to
+bring to an end (_finis_). Thus in the common adjectival meanings of
+elegant, thin, subtle, excellent, reduced in size, &c., it is in origin
+equivalent to "finished." In the various substantival meanings in law,
+with which this article deals, the common idea underlying them is an end
+or final settlement of a matter.
+
+A fine, in the ordinary sense, is a pecuniary penalty inflicted for the
+less serious offences. Fines are necessarily discretionary as to amount;
+but a maximum is generally fixed when the penalty is imposed by statute.
+And it is an old constitutional maxim that fines must not be
+unreasonable. In Magna Carta, c. 111, it is ordained "_Liber homo non
+amercietur pro parvo delicto nisi secundum modum ipsius delicti, et pro
+magno delicto secundum magnitudinem delicti._"
+
+The term is also applied to payments made to the lord of a manor on the
+alienation of land held according to the custom of the manor, to
+payments made by a lessee on a renewal of a lease, and to other similar
+payments.
+
+Fine also denotes a fictitious suit at law, which played the part of a
+conveyance of landed property. "A fine," says Blackstone, "may be
+described to be an amicable composition or agreement of a suit, either
+actual or fictitious, by leave of the king or his justices, whereby the
+lands in question become or are acknowledged to be the right of one of
+the parties. In its original it was founded on an actual suit commenced
+at law for the recovery of the possession of land or other
+hereditaments; and the possession thus gained by such composition was
+found to be so sure and effectual that fictitious actions were and
+continue to be every day commenced for the sake of obtaining the same
+security." Freehold estates could thus be transferred from one person to
+another without the formal delivery of possession which was generally
+necessary to a feoffment. This is one of the oldest devices of the law.
+A statute of 18 Edward I. describes it as the most solemn and
+satisfactory of securities, and gives a reason for its name--"Qui quidem
+finis sic vocatur, eo quod finis et consummatio omnium placitorum esse
+debet, et hac de causa providebatur." The action was supposed to be
+founded on a breach of covenant: the defendant, owning himself in the
+wrong,[1] makes overtures of compromise, which are authorized by the
+_licentia concordandi_; then followed the concord, or the compromise
+itself. These, then were the essential parts of the performance, which
+became efficient as soon as they were complete; the formal parts were
+the _notes_, or abstract of the proceedings, and the _foot_ of the fine,
+which recited the final agreement. Fines were said to be of four kinds,
+according to the purpose they had in view, as, for instance, to convey
+lands in pursuance of a covenant, to grant revisionary interest only,
+&c. In addition to the formal record of the proceedings, various
+statutes required other solemnities to be observed, the great object of
+which was to give publicity to the transaction. Thus by statutes of
+Richard III. and Henry VII. the fine had to be openly read and
+proclaimed in court no less than sixteen times. A statute of Elizabeth
+required a list of fines to be exposed in the court of common pleas and
+at assizes. The reason for these formalities was the high and important
+nature of the conveyance, which, according to the act of Edward I. above
+mentioned, "precludes not only those which are parties and privies to
+the fine and their heirs, but all other persons in the world who are of
+full age, out of prison, of sound memory, and within the four seas, the
+day of the fine levied, unless they put in their claim on the foot of
+the fine within a year and a day." This barring by _non-claim_ was
+abolished in the reign of Edward III., but restored with an extension of
+the time to five years in the reign of Henry VII. The effect of this
+statute, intentional according to Blackstone, unintended and brought
+about by judicial construction according to others, was that a
+tenant-in-tail could bar his issue by a fine. A statute of Henry VIII.
+expressly declares this to be the law. Fines, along with the kindred
+fiction of recoveries, were abolished by the Fines and Recoveries Act
+1833, which substituted a deed enrolled in the court of chancery.
+
+Fines are so generally associated in legal phraseology with recoveries
+that it may not be inconvenient to describe the latter in the present
+place. A recovery was employed as a means for evading the strict law of
+entail. The purchaser or alienee brought an action against the
+tenant-in-tail, alleging that he had no legal title to the land. The
+tenant-in-tail brought a third person into court, declaring that he had
+warranted his title, and praying that he might be ordered to defend the
+action. This person was called the _vouchee_, and he, after having
+appeared to defend the action, takes himself out of the way. Judgment
+for the lands is given in favour of the plaintiff; and judgment to
+recover lands of equal value from the vouchee was given to the
+defendant, the tenant-in-tail. In real action, such lands when recovered
+would have fallen under the settlement of entail; but in the fictitious
+recovery the vouchee was a man of straw, and nothing was really
+recovered from him, while the lands of the tenant-in-tail were
+effectually conveyed to the successful plaintiff. A recovery differed
+from a fine, as to _form_, in being an action carried through to the
+end, while a fine was settled by compromise, and as to effect, by
+barring all reversions and remainders in estates tail, while a fine
+barred the issue only of the tenant. (See also EJECTMENT; PROCLAMATION.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Hence called _cognizor_; the other party, the purchaser, is the
+    _cognizee_.
+
+
+
+
+FINE ARTS, the name given to a whole group of human activities, which
+have for their result what is collectively known as Fine Art. The arts
+which constitute the group are the five greater arts of architecture,
+sculpture, painting, music and poetry, with a number of minor or
+subsidiary arts, of which dancing and the drama are among the most
+ancient and universal. In antiquity the fine arts were not explicitly
+named, nor even distinctly recognized, as a separate class. In other
+modern languages besides English they are called by the equivalent name
+of the beautiful arts (_belle arti_, _beaux arts_, _schone Kunste_). The
+fine or beautiful arts then, it is usually said, are those among the
+arts of man which minister, not primarily to his material necessities or
+conveniences, but to his love of beauty; and if any art fulfils both
+these purposes at once, still as fulfilling the latter only is it called
+a fine art. Thus architecture, in so far as it provides shelter and
+accommodation, is one of the useful or mechanical arts, and one of the
+fine arts only in so far as its structures impress or give pleasure by
+the aspect of strength, fitness, harmony and proportion of parts, by
+disposition and contrast of light and shade, by colour and enrichment,
+by variety and relation of contours, surfaces and intervals. But this,
+the commonly accepted account of the matter, does not really cover the
+ground. The idea conveyed by the words "love of beauty," even stretched
+to its widest, can hardly be made to include the love of caricature and
+the grotesque; and these are admittedly modes of fine art. Even the
+terrible, the painful, the squalid, the degraded, in a word every
+variety of the significant, can be so handled and interpreted as to be
+brought within the province of fine art. A juster and more inclusive,
+although clumsier, account of the matter might put it that the fine arts
+are those among the arts of man which spring from his impulse to do or
+make certain things in certain ways for the sake, first, of a special
+kind of pleasure, independent of direct utility, which it gives him so
+to do or make them, and next for the sake of the kindred pleasure which
+he derives from witnessing or contemplating them when they are so done
+or made by others.
+
+The nature of this impulse, and the several grounds of these pleasures,
+are subjects which have given rise to a formidable body of speculation
+and discussion, the chief phases of which will be found summarized under
+the heading AESTHETICS. In the present article we have only to attend to
+the concrete processes and results of the artistic activities of man; in
+other words, we shall submit (1) a definition of fine art in general,
+(2) a definition and classification of the principal fine arts
+severally, (3) some observations on their historical development.
+
+
+I. _Of Fine Art in General._
+
+  Premeditation essential to art.
+
+According to the popular and established distinction between art and
+nature, the idea of Art (q.v.) only includes phenomena of which man is
+deliberately the cause; while the idea of Nature includes all phenomena,
+both in man and in the world outside him, which take place without
+forethought or studied initiative of his own. Art, accordingly, means
+every regulated operation or dexterity whereby we pursue ends which we
+know beforehand; and it means nothing but such operations and
+dexterities. What is true of art generally is of course also true of the
+special group of the fine arts. One of the essential qualities of all
+art is premeditation; and when Shelley talks of the skylark's profuse
+strains of "unpremeditated art," he in effect lays emphasis on the fact
+that it is only by a metaphor that he uses the word art in this case at
+all; he calls attention to that which (if the songs of birds are as
+instinctive as we suppose) precisely makes the difference between the
+skylark's outpourings and his own. We are slow to allow the title of
+fine art to natural eloquence, to charm or dignity of manner, to
+delicacy and tact in social intercourse, and other such graces of life
+and conduct, since, although in any given case they may have been
+deliberately cultivated in early life, or even through ancestral
+generations, they do not produce their full effect until they are so
+ingrained as to have become unreflecting and spontaneous. When the
+exigencies of a philosophic scheme lead some writers on aesthetics to
+include such acts or traits of beautiful and expressive behaviour among
+the deliberate artistic activities of mankind, we feel that an essential
+distinction is being sacrificed to the exigencies of a system. That
+distinction common parlance very justly observes, with its opposition of
+"art" to "nature" and its phrase of "second nature" for those graces
+which have become so habitual as to seem instinctive, whether originally
+the result of discipline or not. When we see a person in all whose
+ordinary movements there are freedom and beauty, we put down the charm
+of these with good reason to inherited and inbred aptitudes of which the
+person has never thought or long since ceased to think, and could not
+still be thinking without spoiling the charm by self-consciousness; and
+we call the result a gift of nature. But when we go on to notice that
+the same person is beautifully and appropriately dressed, since we know
+that it is impossible to dress without thinking of it, we put down the
+charm of this to judicious forethought and calculation and call the
+result a work of art.
+
+
+  The active and the passive pleasures of fine art.
+
+The processes then of fine art, like those of all arts properly so
+called, are premeditated, and the property of every fine art is to give
+to the person exercising it a special kind of active pleasure, and a
+special kind of passive or receptive pleasure to the person witnessing
+the results of such exercise. This latter statement seems to imply that
+there exist in human societies a separate class producing works of fine
+art and another class enjoying them. Such an implication, in regard to
+advanced societies, is near enough the truth to be theoretically
+admitted (like the analogous assumption in political economy that there
+exist separate classes of producers and consumers). In developed
+communities the gifts and calling of the artist constitute in fact a
+separate profession of the creators or purveyors of fine art, while the
+rest of the community are its enjoyers or recipients. In the most
+primitive societies, apparently, this cannot have been so, and we can go
+back to an original or rudimentary stage of almost every fine art at
+which the separation between a class of producers or performers and a
+class of recipients hardly exists. Such an original or rudimentary stage
+of the dramatic art is presented by children, who will occupy themselves
+for ever with mimicry and make-believe for their own satisfaction, with
+small regard or none to the presence or absence of witnesses. The
+original or rudimentary type of the profession of imitative sculptors or
+painters is the cave-dweller of prehistoric ages, who, when he rested
+from his day's hunting, first took up the bone handle of his weapon, and
+with a flint either carved it into the shape, or on its surface
+scratched the outlines, of the animals of the chase. The original or
+rudimentary type of the architect, considered not as a mere builder but
+as an artist, is the savage who, when his tribe had taken to live in
+tents or huts instead of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of
+his tent or hut in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in
+some other way which was as good for shelter. The original type of the
+artificer or adorner of implements, considered in the same light, was
+the other savage who first took it into his head to fashion his club or
+spear in one way rather than another for the pleasure of the eye only
+and not for any practical reason, and to ornament it with tufts or
+markings. In none of these cases, it would seem, can the primitive
+artist have had much reason for pleasing anybody but himself. Again, the
+original or rudimentary type of lyric song and dancing arose when the
+first reveller clapped hands and stamped or shouted in time, in honour
+of his god, in commemoration of a victory, or in mere obedience to the
+blind stirring of a rhythmic impulse within him. To some very remote and
+solitary ancestral savage the presence or absence of witnesses at such a
+display may in like manner have been indifferent; but very early in the
+history of the race the primitive dancer and singer joined hands and
+voices with others of his tribe, while others again sat apart and looked
+on at the performance, and the rite thus became both choral and social.
+A primitive type of the instrumental musician is the shepherd who first
+notched a reed and drew sounds from it while his sheep were cropping.
+The father of all artists in dress and personal adornment was the first
+wild man who tattooed himself or bedecked himself with shells and
+plumes. In both of these latter instances, it may be taken as certain,
+the primitive artist had the motive of pleasing not himself only, but
+his mate, or the female whom he desired to be his mate, and in the last
+instance of all the further motive of impressing his fellow-tribesmen
+and striking awe or envy into his enemies. The tendency of recent
+speculation and research concerning the origins of art has been to
+ascribe the primitive artistic activities of man less and less to
+individual and solitary impulse, and more and more to social impulse and
+the desire of sharing and communicating pleasure. (The writer who has
+gone furthest in developing this view, and on grounds of the most
+careful study of evidence, has been Dr Yrjo Hirn of Helsingfors.)
+Whatever relative parts the individual and the social impulses may have
+in fact played at the outset, it is clear that what any one can enjoy or
+admire by himself, whether in the way of mimicry, of rhythmical
+movements or utterances, of imitative or ornamental carving and drawing,
+of the disposition and adornment of dwelling-places and utensils--the
+same things, it is clear, others are able also to enjoy or admire with
+him. And so, with the growth of societies, it came about that one class
+of persons separated themselves and became the ministers or producers of
+this kind of pleasures, while the rest became the persons ministered to,
+the participators in or recipients of the pleasures. Artists are those
+members of a society who are so constituted as to feel more acutely than
+the rest certain classes of pleasures which all can feel in their
+degree. By this fact of their constitution they are impelled to devote
+their active powers to the production of such pleasures, to the making
+or doing of some of those things which they enjoy so keenly when they
+are made and done by others. At the same time the artist does not, by
+assuming these ministering or creative functions, surrender his enjoying
+or receptive functions. He continues to participate in the pleasures of
+which he is himself the cause, and remains a conscious member of his own
+public. The architect, sculptor, painter, are able respectively to
+stand off from and appreciate the results of their own labours; the
+singer enjoys the sound of his own voice, and the musician of his own
+instrument; the poet, according to his temperament, furnishes the most
+enthusiastic or the most fastidious reader for his own stanzas. Neither,
+on the other hand, does the person who is a habitual recipient from
+others of the pleasures of fine art forfeit the privilege of producing
+them according to his capabilities, and of becoming, if he has the
+power, an _amateur_ or occasional artist.
+
+
+  Pleasures of fine art disinterested.
+
+Most of the common properties which have been recognized by consent as
+peculiar to the group of fine arts will be found on examination to be
+implied in, or deducible from, the one fundamental character generally
+claimed for them, namely, that they exist independently of direct
+practical necessity or utility. Let us take, first, a point relating to
+the frame of mind of the recipient, as distinguished from the producer,
+of the pleasures of fine art. It is an observation as old as Aristotle
+that such pleasures differ from most other pleasures of experience in
+that they are disinterested, in the sense that they are not such as
+nourish a man's body nor add to his riches; they are not such as can
+gratify him, when he receives them, by the sense of advantage or
+superiority over his fellow-creatures; they are not such as one human
+being can in any sense receive exclusively from the object which bestows
+them. Thus it is evidently characteristic of a beautiful building that
+its beauty cannot be monopolized, but can be seen and admired by the
+inhabitants of a whole city and by all visitors for all generations. The
+same thing is true of a picture or a statue, except in so far as an
+individual possessor may choose to keep such a possession to himself, in
+which case his pride in exclusive ownership is a sentiment wholly
+independent of his pleasure in artistic contemplation. Similarly, music
+is composed to be sung or played for the enjoyment of many at a time, and
+for such enjoyment a hundred years hence as much as to-day. Poetry is
+written to be read by all readers for ever who care for the ideas and
+feelings of the poet, and can apprehend the meaning and melody of his
+language. Hence, though we can speak of a class of the producers of fine
+art, we cannot speak of a class of its consumers, only of its recipients
+or enjoyers. If we consider other pleasures which might seem to be
+analogous to those of fine art, but to which common consent yet declines
+to allow that character, we shall see that one reason is that such
+pleasures are not in their nature thus disinterested. Thus the sense of
+smell and taste have pleasures of their own like the senses of sight and
+hearing, and pleasures neither less poignant nor very much less capable
+of fine graduation and discrimination than those. Why, then, is the title
+of fine art not claimed for any skill in arranging and combining them?
+Why are there no recognized arts of savours and scents corresponding in
+rank to the arts of forms, colours and sounds--or at least none among
+Western nations, for in Japan, it seems, there is a recognized and finely
+regulated social art of the combination and succession of perfumes? An
+answer commonly given is that sight and hearing are intellectual and
+therefore higher senses, that through them we have our avenues to all
+knowledge and all ideas of things outside us; while taste and smell are
+unintellectual and therefore lower senses, through which few such
+impressions find their way to us as help to build up our knowledge and
+our ideas. Perhaps a more satisfactory reason why there are no fine arts
+of taste and smell--or let us in deference to Japanese modes leave out
+smell, and say of taste only--is this, that savours yield only private
+pleasures, which it is not possible to build up into separate and durable
+schemes such that every one may have the benefit of them, and such as
+cannot be monopolized or used up. If against this it is contended that
+what the programme of a performance is in the musical art, the same is a
+_menu_ in the culinary, and that practically it is no less possible to
+serve up a thousand times and to a thousand different companies the same
+dinner than the same symphony, we must fall back upon that still more
+fundamental form of the distinction between the aesthetic and
+non-aesthetic bodily senses, upon which the physiological psychologists
+of the English school lay stress. We must say that the pleasures of
+taste cannot be pleasures of fine art, because their enjoyment is too
+closely associated with the most indispensable and the most strictly
+personal of utilities, eating and drinking. To pass from these lower
+pleasures to the highest; consider the nature of the delight derived from
+the contemplation, by the person who is their object, of the signs and
+manifestations of love. That at least is a beautiful experience; why is
+the pleasure which it affords not an artistic pleasure either? Why, in
+order to receive an artistic pleasure from human signs and manifestations
+of this kind, are we compelled to go to the theatre and see them
+exhibited in favour of a third person who is not really their object any
+more than ourselves? This is so, for one reason, evidently, because of
+the difference between art and nature. Not to art, but to nature and
+life, belongs love where it is really felt, with its attendant train of
+vivid hopes, fears, passions and contingencies. To art belongs love
+displayed where it is not really felt; and in this sphere, along with
+reality and spontaneousness of the display, and along with its momentous
+bearings, there disappear all those elements of pleasure in its
+contemplation which are not disinterested--the elements of personal
+exultation and self-congratulation, the pride of exclusive possession or
+acceptance, all these emotions, in short, which are summed up in the
+lover's triumphant monosyllable, "Mine." Thus, from the lowest point of
+the scale to the highest, we may observe that the element of personal
+advantage or monopoly in human gratifications seems to exclude, them from
+the kingdom of fine art. The pleasures of fine art, so far as concerns
+their passive or receptive part, seem to define themselves as pleasures
+of gratified contemplation, but of such contemplation only when it is
+disinterested--which is simply another way of saying, when it is
+unconcerned with ideas of utility.
+
+
+  An objection and its answer.
+
+Modern speculation has tended in some degree to modify and obscure this
+old and established view of the pleasures of fine art by urging that the
+hearer or spectator is not after all so free from self-interest as he
+seems; that in the act of artistic contemplation he experiences an
+enhancement or expansion of his being which is in truth a gain of the
+egoistic kind; that in witnessing a play, for instance, a large part of
+his enjoyment consists in sympathetically identifying himself with the
+successful lover or the virtuous hero. All this may be true, but does
+not really affect the argument, since at the same time he is well aware
+that every other spectator or auditor present may be similarly engaged
+with himself. At most the objection only requires us to define a little
+more closely, and to say that the satisfactions of the ego excluded from
+among the pleasures of fine art are not these ideal, sympathetic,
+indirect satisfactions, which every one can share together, but only
+those which arise from direct, private and incommunicable advantage to
+the individual.
+
+
+  Fine arts cannot be practised by rule and precept.
+
+Next, let us consider another generally accepted observation concerning
+the nature of the fine arts, and one, this time, relating to the
+disposition and state of mind of the practising artist himself. While
+for success in other arts it is only necessary to learn their rules and
+to apply them until practice gives facility, in the fine arts, it is
+commonly and justly said, rules and their application will carry but a
+little way towards success. All that can depend on rules, on knowledge,
+and on the application of knowledge by practice, the artist must indeed
+acquire, and the acquisition is often very complicated and laborious.
+But outside of and beyond such acquisitions he must trust to what is
+called genius or imagination, that is, to the spontaneous working
+together of an incalculably complex group of faculties, reminiscences,
+preferences, emotions, instincts in his constitution. This
+characteristic of the activities of the artist is a direct consequence
+or corollary of the fundamental fact that the art he practices is
+independent of utility. A utilitarian end is necessarily a determinate
+and prescribed end, and to every end which is determinate and prescribed
+there must be one road which is the best. Skill in any useful art means
+knowing practically, by rules and the application of rules, the best
+road to the particular ends of that art. Thus the farmer, the engineer,
+the carpenter, the builder so far as he is not concerned with the look
+of his buildings, the weaver so far as he is not concerned with the
+designing of the patterns which he weaves, possesses each his peculiar
+skill, but a skill to which fixed problems are set, and which, if it
+indulges in new inventions and combinations at all, can indulge them
+only for the sake of an improved solution of those particular problems.
+The solution once found, the invention once made, its rules can be
+written down, or at any rate its practice can be imparted to others who
+will apply it in their turn. Whereas no man can write down, in a way
+that others can act upon, how Beethoven conquered unknown kingdoms in
+the world of harmony, or how Rembrandt turned the aspects of gloom,
+squalor and affliction into pictures as worthy of contemplation as those
+into which the Italians before him had turned the aspects of spiritual
+exaltation and shadowless day. The reason why the operations of the
+artist thus differ from the operations of the ordinary craftsman or
+artificer is that his ends, being ends other than useful, are not
+determinate nor fixed as theirs are. He has large liberty to choose his
+own problems, and may solve each of them in a thousand different ways
+according to the prompting of his own ordering or creating instincts.
+The musical composer has the largest liberty of all. Having learned what
+is learnable in his art, having mastered the complicated and laborious
+rules of musical form, having next determined the particular class of
+the work which he is about to compose, he has then before him the whole
+inexhaustible world of appropriate successions and combinations of
+emotional sound. He is merely directed and not fettered, in the case of
+song, cantata, oratorio or opera, by the sense of the words which he has
+to set. The value of the result depends absolutely on his possessing or
+failing to possess powers which can neither be trained in nor
+communicated to any man. And this double freedom, alike from practical
+service and from the representation of definite objects, is what makes
+music in a certain sense the typical fine art, or art of arts.
+Architecture shares one-half of this freedom. It has not to copy or
+represent natural objects; for this service it calls in sculpture to its
+aid; but architecture is without the other half of freedom altogether.
+The architect has a sphere of liberty in the disposition of his masses,
+lines, colours, alternations of light and shadow, of plain and
+ornamented surface, and the rest; but upon this sphere he can only enter
+on condition that he at the same time fulfils the strict practical task
+of supplying the required accommodation, and obeys the strict mechanical
+necessities imposed by the laws of weight, thrust, support, resistance
+and other properties of solid matter. The sculptor again, the painter,
+the poet, has each in like manner his sphere of necessary facts, rules
+and conditions corresponding to the nature of his task. The sculptor
+must be intimately versed both in the surface aspects and the inner
+mechanism of the human frame alike in rest and motion, and in the rules
+and conditions for its representation in solid form; the painter in a
+much more extended range of natural facts and appearances, and the rules
+and conditions for representing them on a plane surface; the poet's art
+of words has its own not inconsiderable basis of positive and
+disciplined acquisition. So far as rules, precepts, formulas and other
+communicable laws or secrets can carry the artist, so far also the
+spectator can account for, analyse, and, so to speak, tabulate the
+effects of his art. But the essential character of the artist's
+operation, its very bloom and virtue, lies in those parts of it which
+fall outside this range of regulation on the one hand and analysis on
+the other. His merit varies according to the felicity with which he is
+able, in that region, to exercise his free choice and frame his
+individual ideal, and according to the tenacity with which he strives to
+grasp and realize his choice, or to attain perfection according to that
+ideal.
+
+
+  Fine arts and machinery: "art manufactures."
+
+In this connexion the question naturally arises, In what way do the
+progress and expansion of mechanical art affect the power and province
+of fine art? The great practical movement of the world in our age is a
+movement for the development of mechanical inventions and multiplication
+of mechanical products. So far as these inventions are applied to
+purposes purely useful, and so far as their products to not profess to
+offer anything delightful to contemplation, this movement in no way
+concerns our argument. But there is a vast multitude of products which
+do profess qualities of pleasantness, and upon which the ornaments
+intended to make them pleasurable are bestowed by machinery; and in
+speaking of these we are accustomed to the phrases art-industry,
+industrial art, art manufactures and the like. In these cases the
+industry or ingenuity which directs the machine is not fine art at all,
+since the object of the machine is simply to multiply as easily and as
+perfectly as possible a definite and prescribed impress or pattern. This
+is equally true whether the machine is a simple one, like the engraver's
+press, for producing and multiplying impressions from an engraved plate,
+or a highly complex one, like the loom, in which elaborate patterns of
+carpet or curtain are set for weaving. In both cases there exists behind
+the mechanical industry an industry which is one of fine art in its
+degree. In the case of the engraver's press, there exists behind the
+industry of the printer the art of the engraver, which, if the engraver
+is also the free inventor of the design, is then a fine art, or, if he
+is but the interpreter of the invention of another, is then in its turn
+a semi-mechanical skill applied in aid of the fine art of the first
+inventor. In the case of the weaver's loom there is, behind the
+mechanical industry which directs the loom at its given task, the fine
+art, or what ought to be the fine art, of the designer who has contrived
+the pattern. In the case of the engraving, the mechanical industry of
+printing only exists for the sake of bringing out and disseminating
+abroad the fine art employed upon the design. In the case of the carpet
+or curtain, the fine art is often only called in to make the product of
+the useful or mechanical industry of the loom acceptable, since the eye
+of man is so constituted as to receive pleasure or the reverse of
+pleasure from whatever it rests upon, and it is to the interest of the
+manufacturer to have his product so made as to give pleasure if it can.
+Whether the machine is thus a humble servant to the artist, or the
+artist a kind of humble purveyor to the machine, the fine art in the
+result is due to the former alone; and in any case it reaches the
+recipient at second-hand, having been put in circulation by a medium not
+artistic but mechanical.
+
+
+  Perfected machines: are they works of fine art?
+
+Again, with reference not to the application of mechanical contrivances
+but to their invention; is not, it may be inquired, the title of artist
+due to the inventor of some of the astonishingly complex and
+astonishingly efficient machines of modern-times? Does he not spend as
+much thought, labour, genius as any sculptor or musician in perfecting
+his construction according to his ideal, and is not the construction
+when it is done--so finished, so responsive in all its parts, so almost
+human--is not that worthy to be called a work of fine art? The answer is
+that the inventor has a definite and practical end before him; his ideal
+is not _free_; he deserves all credit as the perfector of a particular
+instrument for a prescribed function, but an artist, a free follower of
+the fine arts, he is not; although we may perhaps have to concede him a
+narrow sphere for the play of something like an artistic sense when he
+contrives the proportion, arrangement, form or finish of the several
+parts of his machine in one way rather than another, not because they
+work better so but simply because their look pleases him better.
+
+
+  Fine arts called a kind of play.
+
+Returning from this digression, let us consider one common observation
+more on the nature of the fine arts. They are activities, it is said,
+which were put forth not because they need but because they like. They
+have the activity to spare, and to put it forth in this way pleases
+them. Fine art is to mankind what play is to the individual, a free and
+arbitrary vent for energy which is not needed to be spent upon tasks
+concerned with the conservation, perpetuation or protection of life. To
+insist on the superfluous or optional character of the fine arts, to
+call them the play or pastime of the human race as distinguished from
+its inevitable and sterner tasks, is obviously only to reiterate our
+fundamental distinction between the fine arts and the useful or
+necessary. But the distinction, as expressed in this particular form,
+has been interpreted in a great variety of ways and followed out to an
+infinity of conclusions, conclusions regarding both the nature of the
+activities themselves and the character and value of their results.
+
+
+  The play idea as worked out by the English associationists.
+
+For instance, starting from this saying that the aesthetic activities
+are a kind of play, the English psychology of association goes back to
+the spontaneous cries and movements of children, in which their
+superfluous energies find a vent. It then enumerates pleasures of which
+the human constitution is capable apart from direct advantage or
+utility. Such are the primitive or organic pleasures of sight and
+hearing, and the secondary or derivative pleasures of association or
+unconscious reminiscence and inference that soon become mixed up with
+these. Such are also the pleasures derived from following any kind of
+mimicry, or representation of things real or like reality. The
+association psychology describes the grouping within the mind of
+predilections based upon these pleasures; it shows how the growing
+organism learns to govern its play, or direct its superfluous energies,
+in obedience to such predilections, till in mature individuals, and
+still more in mature societies, a highly regulated and accomplished
+group of leisure activities are habitually employed in supplying to a
+not less highly cultivated group of disinterested sensibilities their
+appropriate artistic pleasures. It is by Herbert Spencer that this view
+has been most fully and systematically worked out.
+
+
+  By Plato.
+
+Again, in the views of an ancient philosopher, Plato, and a modern poet,
+Schiller, the consideration that the artistic activities are in the
+nature of play, and the manifestations in which they result independent
+of realities and utilities, has led to judgments so differing as the
+following. Plato held that the daily realities of things in experience
+are not realities, indeed, but only far-off shows or reflections of the
+true realities, that is, of certain ideal or essential forms which can
+be apprehended as existing by the mind. Holding this, Plato saw in the
+works of fine art but the reflections of reflections, the shows of
+shows, and depreciated them according to their degree of remoteness from
+the ideal, typical or sense-transcending existences. He sets the arts of
+medicine, agriculture, shoemaking and the rest above the fine arts,
+inasmuch as they produce something serious or useful ([Greek:
+spoudaionti]). Fine art, he says, produces nothing useful, and makes
+only semblances ([Greek: eidolopiike]), whereas what mechanical art
+produces are utilities, and even in the ordinary sense realities
+([Greek: autopoietike]).
+
+
+  By Schiller.
+
+In another age, and thinking according to another system, Schiller, so
+far from holding thus cheap the kingdom of play and show, regarded his
+sovereignty over that kingdom as the noblest prerogative of man.
+Schiller wrote his famous _Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man_ in
+order to throw into popular currency, and at the same time to modify and
+follow up in a particular direction, certain metaphysical doctrines
+which had lately been launched upon the schools by Kant. The spirit of
+man, said Schiller after Kant, is placed between two worlds, the
+physical world or world of sense, and the moral world or world of will.
+Both of these are worlds of constraint or necessity. In the sensible
+world, the spirit of man submits to constraint from without; in the
+moral world, it imposes constraint from within. So far as man yields to
+the importunities of sense, in so far he is bound and passive, the
+subject of outward shocks and victim of irrational forces. So far as he
+asserts himself by the exercise of will, imposing upon sense and outward
+things the dominion of the moral law within him, in so far he is free
+and active, the rational lord of nature and not her slave. Corresponding
+to these two worlds, he has within him two conflicting impulses or
+impulsions of his nature, the one driving him towards one way of living,
+the other towards another. The one, or sense-impulsion (_Stofftrieb_),
+Schiller thinks of as that which enslaves the spirit of man as the
+victim of matter, the other or moral impulsion (_Formtrieb_) as that
+which enthrones it as the dictator of form. Between the two the
+conflict at first seems inveterate. The kingdom of brute nature and
+sense, the sphere of man's subjection and passivity, wages war against
+the kingdom of will and moral law, the sphere of his activity and
+control, and every conquest of the one is an encroachment upon the
+other. Is there, then, no hope of truce between the two kingdoms, no
+ground where the two contending impulses can be reconciled? Nay, the
+answer comes, there is such a hope; such a neutral territory there
+exists. Between the passive kingdom of matter and sense, where man is
+compelled blindly to feel and be, and the active kingdom of law and
+reason, where he is compelled sternly to will and act, there is a
+kingdom where both sense and will may have their way, and where man may
+give the rein to all his powers. But this middle kingdom does not lie in
+the sphere of practical life and conduct. It lies in the sphere of those
+activities which neither subserve any necessity of nature nor fulfil any
+moral duty. Towards activities of this kind we are driven by a third
+impulsion of our nature not less essential to it than the other two, the
+impulsion, as Schiller calls it, of Play (_Spieltrieb_). Relatively to
+real life and conduct, play is a kind of harmless show; it is that which
+we are free to do or leave undone as we please, and which lies alike
+outside the sphere of needs and duties. In play we may do as we like,
+and no mischief will come of it. In this sphere man may put forth all
+his powers without risk of conflict, and may invent activities which
+will give a complete ideal satisfaction to the contending faculties of
+sense and will at once, to the impulses which bid him feel and enjoy the
+shocks of physical and outward things, and the impulse which bids him
+master such things, control and regulate them. In play you may impose
+upon Matter what Form you choose, and the two will not interfere with
+one another or clash. The kingdom of Matter and the kingdom of Form thus
+harmonized, thus reconciled by the activities of play and show, will in
+other words be the kingdom of the Beautiful. Follow the impulsion of
+play, and to the beautiful you will find your road; the activities you
+will find yourself putting forth will be the activities of aesthetic
+creation--you will have discovered or invented the fine arts.
+"Midway"--these are Schiller's own words--"midway between the formidable
+kingdom of natural forces and the hallowed kingdom of moral laws, the
+impulse of aesthetic creation builds up a third kingdom unperceived, the
+gladsome kingdom of play and show, wherein it emancipates man from all
+compulsion alike of physical and of moral forces." Schiller, the poet
+and enthusiast, thus making his own application of the Kantian
+metaphysics, goes on to set forth how the fine arts, or activities of
+play and show, are for him the typical, the ideal activities of the
+race, since in them alone is it possible for man to put forth his whole,
+that is his ideal self. "Only when he plays is man really and truly
+man." "Man ought only to play with the beautiful, and he ought to play
+with the beautiful only." "Education in taste and beauty has for its
+object to train up in the utmost attainable harmony the whole sum of the
+powers both of sense and spirit." And the rest of Schiller's argument is
+addressed to show how the activities of artistic creation, once
+invented, react upon other departments of human life, how the exercise
+of the play impulse prepares men for an existence in which the
+inevitable collision of the two other impulses shall be softened or
+averted more and more. That harmony of the powers which clash so
+violently in man's primitive nature, having first been found possible in
+the sphere of the fine arts, reflects itself, in his judgment, upon the
+whole composition of man, and attunes him, as an aesthetic being, into
+new capabilities for the conduct of his social existence.
+
+
+  The strong points of Schiller's theory.
+
+Our reasons for dwelling on this wide and enthusiastic formula of
+Schiller's are both its importance in the history of reflection--it
+remained, indeed, for nearly a century a formula almost classical--and
+the measure of positive value which it still retains. The notion of a
+sphere of voluntary activity for the human spirit, in which, under no
+compulsion of necessity or conscience, we order matters as we like them
+apart from any practical end, seems coextensive with the widest
+conception of fine art and the fine arts as they exist in civilized and
+developed communities. It insists on and brings into the light the free
+or optional character of these activities, as distinguished from others
+to which we are compelled by necessity or duty, as well as the fact that
+these activities, superfluous as they may be from the points of view of
+necessity and of duty, spring nevertheless from an imperious and a
+saving instinct of our nature. It does justice to the part which is, or
+at any rate may be, filled in the world by pleasures which are apart
+from profit, and by delights for the enjoyment of which men cannot
+quarrel. It claims the dignity they deserve for those shows and pastimes
+in which we have found a way to make permanent all the transitory
+delights of life and nature, to turn even our griefs and yearnings, by
+their artistic utterance, into sources of appeasing joy, to make amends
+to ourselves for the confusion and imperfection of reality by conceiving
+and imaging forth the semblances of things clearer and more complete,
+since in contriving them we incorporate with the experiences we have had
+the better experiences we have dreamed of and longed for.
+
+
+  Its weak points.
+
+One manifestly weak point of Schiller's theory is that though it asserts
+that man ought only to play with the beautiful, and that he is his best
+or ideal self only when he does so, yet it does not sufficiently
+indicate what kinds of play are beautiful nor why we are moved to adopt
+them. It does not show how the delights of the eye and spirit in
+contemplating forms, colours and movements, of the ear and spirit in
+apprehending musical and verbal sounds, or of the whole mind at once in
+following the comprehensive current of images called up by poetry--it
+does not clearly show how delights like these differ from those yielded
+by other kinds of play or pastime, which are by common consent excluded
+from the sphere of fine art.
+
+
+  Kinds of play which are not fine art.
+
+The chase, for instance, is a play or pastime which gives scope for any
+amount of premeditated skill; it has pleasures, for those who take part
+in it, which are in some degree analogous to the pleasures of the
+artist; we all know the claims made on behalf of the noble art of
+venerie (following true medieval precedent) by the knights and woodmen
+of Sir Walter Scott's romances. It is an obvious reply to say that
+though the chase is play to us, who in civilized communities follow it
+on no plea of necessity, yet to a not remote ancestry it was earnest; in
+primitive societies hunting does not belong to the class of optional
+activities at all, but is among the most pressing of utilitarian needs.
+But this reply loses much of its force since we have learnt how many of
+the fine arts, however emancipated from direct utility now, have as a
+matter of history been evolved out of activities primarily utilitarian.
+It would be more to the point to remark that the pleasures of the
+sportsman are the only pleasures arising from the chase; his exertions
+afford pain to the victim, and no satisfaction to any class of
+recipients but himself; or at least the sympathetic pleasures of the
+lookers-on at a hunt or at a battle are hardly to be counted as
+pleasures of artistic contemplation. The issue which they witness is a
+real issue; the skilled endeavours with which they sympathize are put
+forth for a definite practical result, and a result disastrous to one of
+the parties concerned.
+
+What then, it may be asked, about athletic games and sports, which hurt
+nobody, have no connexion with the chase, and give pleasure to thousands
+of spectators? Here the difference is, that the event which excites the
+spectator's interest and pleasure at a race or match or athletic contest
+is not a wholly unreal or simulated event; it is less real than life,
+but it is more real than art. The contest has no momentous practical
+consequences, but it is a contest, an [Greek: athlos], all the same, in
+which competitors put forth real strength, and one really wins and
+others are defeated. Such a struggle, in which the exertions are real
+and the issue uncertain, we follow with an excitement and a suspense
+different in kind from the feelings with which we contemplate a
+fictitious representation. For example, let the reader recall the
+feelings with which he may have watched a real fencing bout, and compare
+them with those with which he watches the simulated fencing bout in
+Shakespeare's _Hamlet_. The instance is a crucial one, because in the
+fictitious case the excitement is heightened by the introduction of the
+poisoned foil, and by the tremendous consequences which we are aware
+will turn, in the representation, on the issue. Yet because the fencing
+scene in _Hamlet_ is a representation, and not real, we find ourselves
+watching it in a mood quite different from that in which we watch the
+most ordinary real fencing-match with vizors and blunt foils; a mood
+more exalted, if the representation is good, but amid the aesthetic
+emotions of which the fluctuations of strained, if trivial, suspense and
+the eagerness of sympathetic participation find no place. "The delight
+of tragedy," says Johnson, "proceeds from our consciousness of fiction;
+if we thought murders and treasons real, they would please no more." So
+does the peculiar quality of our pleasure in watching the fencing-match
+in _Hamlet_, or the wrestling-match in _As You Like It_, depend on our
+consciousness of fiction: if we thought the matches real they might
+please us still, but please us in a different way. Again, of athletics
+in general, they are pursuits to a considerable degree definitely
+utilitarian, having for their specific end the training and
+strengthening of individual human bodies. Nevertheless, in some systems
+the title of fine arts has been consistently claimed, if not for
+athletics technically so called, and involving the idea of competition
+and defeat, at any rate for gymnastics, regarded simply as a display of
+the physical frame of man cultivated by exercise--as, for instance, it
+was cultivated by the ancient Greeks--to an ideal perfection of beauty
+and strength.
+
+
+  The play theory in the light of anthropological research.
+
+But apart from criticisms like these on the theory of Schiller, the
+Kantian doctrine of a metaphysical opposition between the senses and the
+reason has for most minds of to-day lost its validity, and with it falls
+away Schiller's derivative theory of a _Stofftrieb_ and a _Formtrieb_
+contending like enemies for dominion over the human spirit, with a
+neutral or reconciling _Spieltrieb_ standing between them. Even taking
+the existence of the _Spieltrieb_, or play-impulse, by itself as a plain
+and indubitable fact in human nature, the theory that this impulse is
+the general or universal source of the artistic activities of the race,
+which seemed adequate to thinkers so far apart as Schiller and Herbert
+Spencer, is found no longer to hold water. The tendency of recent
+thought and study on these subjects has been to abandon the abstract or
+dialectical method in favour of the methods of historical and
+anthropological inquiry. In the light of these methods it is claimed
+that the artistic activities of the race spring in point of fact from no
+single source but from a number of different sources. It is admitted
+that the play-impulse is one of these, and the allied and overlapping,
+but not identical, impulse of mimicry or imitation another. But it is
+urged at the same time that these twin impulses, rooted as they both are
+among the primordial faculties both of men and animals, are far from
+existing merely to provide a vent whereby the superfluous energies of
+sentient beings may discharge themselves at pleasure, but are
+indispensable utilitarian instincts, by which the young are led to
+practise and rehearse in sport those activities the exercise of which in
+earnest will be necessary to their preservation in the adult state. (The
+researches of Professor Karl Groos in this field seem to be conclusive.)
+A third impulse innate in man, though scarcely so primordial as the
+other two, and one which the animals cannot share with him, is the
+impulse of record or commemoration. Man instinctively desires, alike for
+safety, use and pleasure, to perpetuate and hand on the memory of his
+deeds and experiences whether by words or by works of his hands
+contrived for permanence. This impulse of record is the most stimulating
+ally of the impulse of mimicry or imitation, and perhaps a large part of
+the arts usually put down as springing from the love of imitation ought
+rather to be put down as springing from the commemorative or recording
+impulse, using imitation as its necessary means. Granting the existence
+in primitive man of these three allied impulses of play, of mimicry, and
+of record, it is urged that they are so many distinct though contiguous
+sources from which whole groups of the fine arts have sprung, and that
+all three in their origin served ends primarily or in great part
+utilitarian. Examining any of the rudimentary artistic activities of
+primitive man already mentioned: the decoration of the person with
+tattooings or strings of shells or teeth or feathers had primarily the
+object of attracting or impressing the opposite sex, or terrifying an
+enemy, or indicating the tribal relations of the person so adorned; some
+of the same purposes were served by the scratches and tufts and markings
+on weapons or utensils; the _graffiti_ or outline drawings of animals
+incised by cave-dwellers on bones are surmised to have sprung in like
+manner from the desire of conveying information, combined, probably,
+sometimes with that of obtaining magic power over the things
+represented; the erection of memorial shrines and images of all kinds,
+from the rudest upwards, had among other purposes the highly practical
+one of propitiating the spirits of the departed; and so on through the
+whole range of kindred activities. It is contended, next, that such
+activities only take on the character of rudimentary fine arts at a
+certain stage of their evolution. Before they can assume that character,
+they must come under the influence and control of yet another rooted and
+imperious impulse in mankind. That is the impulse of emotional
+self-expression, the instinct which compels us to seek relief under the
+stimulus of pent-up feeling; an instinct, it is added, second only in
+power to those which drive us to seek food, shelter, protection from
+enemies, and satisfaction for-sexual desires. According to a law of our
+constitution, the argument goes on, this need for emotional
+self-expression finds itself fully satisfied only by certain modes of
+activity; those, namely, which either have in themselves, or impress on
+their products, the property of rhythm, that is, of regular interval and
+recurrence, flow, order and proportion. Leaping, shouting, and clapping
+hands is the human animal's most primitive way of seeking relief under
+the pressure of emotion; so soon as one such animal found out that he
+both expressed and relieved his emotions best, and communicated them
+best to his fellows, when he moved in regular rhythm and shouted in
+regular time and with regular changes of pitch, he ceased to be a mere
+excited savage and became a primitive dancer, singer, musician--in a
+word, artist. So soon as another found himself taking pleasure in
+certain qualities of regular interval, pattern and arrangement of lines,
+shapes, and colours, apart from all questions of purpose or utility, in
+his tattooings and self-adornments, his decoration of tools or weapons
+or structures for shelter or commemoration, he in like manner became a
+primitive artist in ornamental and imitative design.
+
+The special qualities of pleasure felt and communicated by doing things
+in one way rather than another, independently of direct utility, which
+we indicated at the outset as characteristic of the whole range of the
+fine arts, appear on this showing to be dependent primarily on the
+response of our organic sensibilities of nerve and muscle, eye, ear and
+brain to the stimulus of rhythm, (using the word in its widest sense)
+imparted either to our own actions and utterances or to the works of our
+hands. Such pleasures would seem to have been first experienced by man
+directly, in the endeavour to find relief with limbs and voice from
+states of emotional tension, and then incidentally, as a kind of
+by-product arising and affording similar relief in the development of a
+wide range of utilitarian activities. Into the nature of those organic
+sensibilities, and the grounds of the relief they afford us when
+gratified, it is the province of physiological and psychological
+aesthetics to inquire: our business here is only with the activities
+directed towards their satisfaction and the results of those activities
+in the works of fine art. On the whole the account of the matter yielded
+by the method of anthropological research, and here very briefly
+summarized, may be accepted as answering more closely to the complex
+nature of the facts than any of the accounts hitherto current; and so we
+may expand our first tentative suggestion of a definition into one more
+complete, which from the nature of the case cannot be very brief or
+simple and must run somehow thus: _Fine art is everything which man does
+or makes in one way rather than another, freely and with premeditation,
+in order to express and arouse emotion, in obedience to laws of
+rhythmic movement or utterance or regulated design, and with results
+independent of direct utility and capable of affording to many permanent
+and disinterested delight._
+
+
+II. _Of the Fine Arts severally._
+
+  Modes in which the five greater arts have been classified.
+
+_Architecture_, _sculpture_, _painting_, _music_ and _poetry_ are by
+common consent, as has been said at the outset, the five principal or
+greater fine arts practised among developed communities of men. It is
+possible in thought to group these five arts in as many different orders
+as there are among them different kinds of relation or affinity. One
+thinker fixes his attention upon one kind of relations as the most
+important, and arranges his group accordingly; another upon another; and
+each, when he has done so, is very prone to claim for his arrangement
+the virtue of being the sole essentially and fundamentally true. For
+example, we may ascertain one kind of relations between the arts by
+inquiring which is the simplest or most limited in its effects, which
+next simplest, which another degree less simple, which least simple or
+most complex of them all. This, the relation of progressive complexity
+or comprehensiveness between the fine arts, is the relation upon which
+Auguste Comte fixed his attention, and it yields in his judgment the
+following order:--Architecture lowest in complexity, because both of the
+kinds of effects which it produces and of the material conditions and
+limitations under which it works; sculpture next; painting third; then
+music; and poetry highest, as the most complex or comprehensive art of
+all, both in its own special effects and in its resources for ideally
+calling up the effects of all the other arts as well as all the
+phenomena of nature and experiences of life. A somewhat similar grouping
+was adopted, though from the consideration of a wholly different set of
+relations, by Hegel. Hegel fixed his attention on the varying relations
+borne by the idea, or spiritual element, to the embodiment of the idea,
+or material element, in each art. Leaving aside that part of his
+doctrine which concerns, not the phenomena of the arts themselves, but
+their place in the dialectical world-plan or scheme of the universe,
+Hegel said in effect something like this. In certain ages and among
+certain races, as in Egypt and Assyria, and again in the Gothic age of
+Europe, mankind has only dim ideas for art to express, ideas
+insufficiently disengaged and realized, of which the expression cannot
+be complete or lucid, but only adumbrated and imperfect; the
+characteristic art of those ages is a symbolic art, with its material
+element predominating over and keeping down its spiritual; and such a
+symbolic art is architecture. In other ages, as in the Greek age, the
+ideas of men have come to be definite, disengaged, and clear; the
+characteristic art of such an age will be one in which the spiritual and
+material elements are in equilibrium, and neither predominates over nor
+keeps down the other, but a thoroughly realized idea is expressed in a
+thoroughly adequate and lucid form; this is the mode of expression
+called classic, and the classic art is sculpture. In other ages, again,
+and such are the modern ages of Europe, the idea grows in power and
+becomes importunate; the spiritual and material elements are no longer
+in equilibrium, but the spiritual element predominates; the
+characteristic arts of such an age will be those in which thought,
+passion, sentiment, aspiration, emotion, emerge in freedom, dealing with
+material form as masters or declining its shackles altogether; this is
+the romantic mode of expression, and the romantic arts are painting,
+music and poetry. A later systematizer, Lotze, fixed his attention on
+the relative degrees of freedom or independence which the several arts
+enjoy--their freedom, that is, from the necessity of either imitating
+given facts of nature or ministering, as part of their task, to given
+practical uses. In his grouping, instead of the order architecture,
+sculpture, painting, music, poetry, music comes first, because it has
+neither to imitate any natural facts nor to serve any practical end;
+architecture next, because, though it is tied to useful ends and
+material conditions, yet it is free from the task of imitation, and
+pleases the eye in its degree, by pure form, light and shade, and the
+rest, as music pleases the ear by pure sound; then, as arts all tied to
+the task of imitation, sculpture, painting and poetry, taken in
+progressive order according to the progressing comprehensiveness of
+their several resources.
+
+
+  Place of the minor or subordinate fine arts.
+
+The thinker on these subjects has, moreover, to consider the enumeration
+and classification of the lesser or subordinate fine arts. Whole
+clusters or families of these occur to the mind at once; such as
+_dancing_, an art subordinate to music, but quite different in kind;
+_acting_, an art auxiliary to _poetry_, from which in kind it differs no
+less; _eloquence_ in all kinds, so far as it is studied and not merely
+spontaneous; and among the arts which fashion or dispose material
+objects, _embroidery_ and the weaving of patterns, _pottery_,
+_glassmaking_, _goldsmith's work_ and _jewelry_, _joiner's work_,
+_gardening_ (according to the claim of some), and a score of other
+dexterities and industries which are more than mere dexterities and
+industries because they add elements of beauty and pleasure to elements
+of serviceableness and use. To decide whether any given one of these has
+a right to the title of fine art, and, if so, to which of the greater
+fine arts it should be thought of as appended and subordinate, or
+between which two of them intermediate, is often no easy task.
+
+
+  No one classification final or sufficient.
+
+The weak point of all classifications of the kind of which we have above
+given examples is that each is intended to be final, and to serve
+instead of any other. The truth is, that the relations between the
+several fine arts are much too complex for any single classification to
+bear this character. Every classification of the fine arts must
+necessarily be provisional, according to the particular class of
+relations which it keeps in view. And for practical purposes it is
+requisite to bear in mind not one classification but several. Fixing our
+attention, not upon complicated or problematical relations between the
+various arts, but only upon their simple and undisputed relations, and
+giving the first place in our consideration to the five greater arts of
+architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry, we shall find at
+least three principal modes in which every fine art either resembles or
+differs from the rest.
+
+
+    First classification: the shaping and the speaking arts.
+
+  1. _The Shaping and the Speaking Arts_ (_or Arts of Form and Arts of
+  Utterance, or Arts of Space and Arts of Time)_.--Each of the greater
+  arts either makes something or not which can be seen and handled. The
+  arts which make something which can be seen and handled are
+  architecture, sculpture and painting. In the products or results of
+  all these arts external matter is in some way or another manually put
+  together, fashioned or disposed. But music and poetry do not produce
+  any results of this kind. What music produces is something that can be
+  heard, and what poetry produces is something that can be either heard
+  or read--which last is a kind of ideal hearing, having for its avenue
+  the eye instead of the ear, and for its material, written signs for
+  words instead of the spoken words themselves. Now what the eye sees
+  from any one point of view, it sees all at once; in other words, the
+  parts of anything we see fill or occupy not time but space, and reach
+  us from various points in space at a single simultaneous perception.
+  If we are at the proper distance we see at one glance a house from the
+  ground to the chimneys, a statue from head to foot, and in a picture
+  at once the foreground and background, and everything that is within
+  the four corners of the frame. There is, indeed, this distinction to
+  be drawn, that in walking round or through a temple, church, house or
+  any other building, new parts and proportions of the building unfold
+  themselves to view; and the same thing happens in walking round a
+  statue or turning it on a turntable: so that the spectator, by his own
+  motions and the time it takes to effect them, can impart to
+  architecture and sculpture something of the character of time arts.
+  But their products, as contemplated from any one point of view, are in
+  themselves solid, stationary and permanent in space. Whereas the parts
+  of anything we hear, or, reading, can imagine that we hear, fill or
+  occupy not space at all but time, and can only reach us from various
+  points in time through a continuous series of perceptions, or, in the
+  case of reading, of images raised by words in the mind. We have to
+  wait, in music, while one note follows another in a theme, and one
+  theme another in a movement; and in poetry, while one line with its
+  images follows another in a stanza, and one stanza another in a canto,
+  and so on. It is a convenient form of expressing both aspects of this
+  difference between the two groups of arts, to say that architecture,
+  sculpture and painting are arts which give shape to things in space,
+  or, more briefly, shaping arts; and music and poetry arts which give
+  utterance to things in time, or, more briefly, speaking arts. These
+  simple terms of the _shaping_ and the _speaking_ arts (the equivalent
+  of the Ger. _bildende und redende Kunste_) are not usual in English;
+  but they seem appropriate and clear; the simplest alternatives for
+  their use is to speak of the _manual_ and the _vocal_ arts, or the
+  arts of _space_ and the arts of _time_. This is practically, if not
+  logically, the most substantial and vital distinction upon which a
+  classification of the fine arts can be based. The arts which surround
+  us in space with stationary effects for the eye, as the house we live
+  in, the pictures on the walls, the marble figure in the vestibule, are
+  stationary, hold a different kind of place in our experience--not a
+  greater or a higher place, but essentially a different place--from the
+  arts which provide us with transitory effects in time, effects capable
+  of being awakened for the ear or mind at any moment, as a symphony is
+  awakened by playing and an ode by reading, but lying in abeyance until
+  we bid that moment come, and passing away when the performance or the
+  reading is over. Such, indeed, is the practical force of the
+  distinction that in modern usage the expression fine art, or even art,
+  is often used by itself in a sense which tacitly excludes music and
+  poetry, and signifies the group of manual or shaping arts alone.
+
+
+    Intermediate class of arts of motion.
+
+  As between three of the five greater arts and the other two, the
+  distinction on which we are now dwelling is complete. Buildings,
+  statues, pictures, belong strictly to sight and space; to time and to
+  hearing, real through the ear, or ideal through the mind in reading,
+  belong music and poetry. Among the lesser or subordinate arts,
+  however, there are several in which this distinction finds no place,
+  and which produce, in space and time at once, effects midway between
+  the stationary or stable, and the transitory or fleeting. Such is the
+  _dramatic_ art, in which the actor makes with his actions and
+  gestures, or several actors make with the combination of their
+  different actions and gestures, a kind of shifting picture, which
+  appeals to the eyes of the witnesses while the sung or spoken words of
+  the drama appeal to their ears; thus making of them spectators and
+  auditors at once, and associating with the pure time art of words the
+  mixed time-and-space art of bodily movements. As all movement
+  whatsoever is necessarily movement through space, and takes time to
+  happen, so every other fine art which is wholly or in part an act of
+  movement partakes in like manner of this double character. Along with
+  acting thus comes _dancing_. Dancing, when it is of the mimic
+  character, may itself be a kind of acting; historically, indeed, the
+  dancer's art was the parent of the actor's; whether apart from or in
+  conjunction with the mimic element, dancing is an art in which bodily
+  movements obey, accompany, and, as it were, express or accentuate in
+  space the time effects of music. _Eloquence_ or oratory in like
+  manner, so far as its power depends on studied and premeditated
+  gesture, is also an art which to some extent enforces its primary
+  appeal through the ear in time by a secondary appeal through the eye
+  in space. So much for the first distinction, that between the shaping
+  or space arts and the speaking or time arts, with the intermediate and
+  subordinate class of arts which, like acting, dancing, oratory, add to
+  the pure time element a mixed time-and-space element. These last can
+  hardly be called shaping arts, because it is his own person, and not
+  anything outside himself, which the actor, the dancer, the orator
+  disposes or adjusts; they may perhaps best be called arts of motion,
+  or moving arts.
+
+
+    Second classification: the imitative and non-imitative arts.
+
+  2. _The Imitative and the Non-Imitative Arts._--Each art either does
+  or does not represent or imitate something which exists already in
+  nature. Of the five greater fine arts, those which thus represent
+  objects existing in nature are sculpture, painting and poetry. Those
+  which do not represent anything so existing are music and
+  architecture. On this principle we get a new grouping. Two shaping or
+  space arts and one speaking or time art now form the imitative group
+  of sculpture, painting and poetry; while one space art and one time
+  art form the non-imitative group of music and architecture. The mixed
+  space-and-time arts of the actor, and of the dancer, so far as he or
+  she is also a mimic, belong, of course, by their very name and nature,
+  to the imitative class.
+
+
+    The imitative functions of art according to Aristotle.
+
+  It was the imitative character of the fine arts which chiefly occupied
+  the attention of Aristotle. But in order to understand the art
+  theories of Aristotle it is necessary to bear in mind the very
+  different meanings which the idea of imitation bore to his mind and
+  bears to ours. For Aristotle the idea of imitation or representation
+  (_mimesis_) was extended so as to denote the expressing, evoking or
+  making manifest of anything whatever, whether material objects or
+  ideas or feelings. Music and dancing, by which utterance or expression
+  is given to emotions that may be quite detached from all definite
+  ideas or images, are thus for him varieties of imitation. He says,
+  indeed, _most_ music and dancing, as if he was aware that there were
+  exceptions, but he does not indicate what the exceptions are; and
+  under the head of imitative music, he distinctly reckons some kinds of
+  instrumental music without words. But in our own more restricted
+  usage, to imitate means to copy, mimic or represent some existing
+  phenomenon, some definite reality of experience; and we can only call
+  those imitative arts which bring before us such things, either
+  directly by showing us their actual likeness, as sculpture does in
+  solid form, and as painting does by means of lines and colours on a
+  plane surface, or else indirectly, by calling up ideas or images of
+  them in the mind, as poetry and literature do by means of words. It is
+  by a stretch of ordinary usage that we apply the word imitation even
+  to this last way of representing things; since words are no true
+  likeness of, but only customary signs for, the thing they represent.
+  And those arts we cannot call imitative at all, which by combinations
+  of abstract sound or form express and arouse emotions unattended by
+  the recognizable likeness, idea or image of any definite thing.
+
+
+    Non-imitative character of music.
+
+  Now the emotions of music when music goes along with words, whether in
+  the shape of actual song or even of the instrumental accompaniment of
+  song, are no doubt in a certain sense attended with definite ideas;
+  those, namely, which are expressed by the words themselves. But the
+  same ideas would be conveyed to the mind equally well by the same
+  words if they were simply spoken. What the music contributes is a
+  special element of its own, an element of pure emotion, aroused
+  through the sense of hearing, which heightens the effect of the words
+  upon the feelings without helping to elucidate them for the
+  understanding. Nay, it is well known that a song well sung produces
+  its intended effect upon the feelings almost as fully though we fail
+  to catch the words or are ignorant of the language to which they
+  belong. Thus the view of Aristotle cannot be defended on the ground
+  that he was familiar with music only in an elementary form, and
+  principally as the direct accompaniment of words, and that in his day
+  the modern development of the art, as an art for building up
+  constructions of independent sound, vast and intricate fabrics of
+  melody and harmony detached from words, was a thing not yet imagined.
+  That is perfectly true; the immense technical and intellectual
+  development of music, both in its resources and its capacities, is an
+  achievement of the modern world; but the essential character of
+  musical sound is the same in its most elementary as in its most
+  complicated stage. Its privilege is to give delight, not by
+  communicating definite ideas, or calling up particular images, but by
+  appealing to certain organic sensibilities in our nerves of hearing,
+  and through such appeal expressing on the one part and arousing on the
+  other a unique kind of emotion. The emotion caused by music may be
+  altogether independent of any ideas conveyable by words. Or it may
+  serve to intensify and enforce other emotions arising at the same time
+  in connexion with the ideas conveyed by words; and it was one of the
+  contentions of Richard Wagner that in the former phase the art is now
+  exhausted, and that only in the latter are new conquests in store for
+  it. But in either case the music is the music, and _is like nothing
+  else_; it is no representation or similitude of anything whatsoever.
+
+
+    An objection and its answer.
+
+  But does not instrumental music, it will be said, sometimes really
+  imitate the sounds of nature, as the piping of birds, the whispering
+  of woods, the moaning of storms or explosion of thunder; or does it
+  not, at any rate, suggest these things by resemblances so close that
+  they almost amount in the strict sense to imitation? Occasionally, it
+  is true, music does allow itself these playful excursions into a
+  region of quasi-imitation or mimicry. It modifies the character of its
+  abstract sounds into something, so to speak, more concrete, and,
+  instead of sensations which are like nothing else, affords us
+  sensations which recognizably resemble those we receive from some of
+  the sounds of nature. But such excursions are hazardous, and to make
+  them often is the surest proof of vulgarity in a musician. Neither are
+  the successful effects of the great composers in evoking ideas of
+  particular natural phenomena generally in the nature of real
+  imitations or representations; although passages such as the notes of
+  the dove and nightingale in Haydn's _Creation_, and of the cuckoo in
+  Beethoven's _Pastoral Symphony_, the bleating of the sheep in the _Don
+  Quixote_ symphony of Richard Strauss, must be acknowledged to be
+  exceptions. Again, it is a recognized fact concerning the effect of
+  instrumental music on those of its hearers who try to translate such
+  effect into words, that they will all find themselves in tolerable
+  agreement as to the meaning of any passage so long as they only
+  attempt to describe it in terms of vague emotion, and to say such and
+  such a passage expresses, as the case may be, dejection or triumph,
+  effort or the relaxation of effort, eagerness or languor, suspense or
+  fruition, anguish or glee. But their agreement comes to an end the
+  moment they begin to associate, in their interpretation, definite
+  ideas with these vague emotions; then we find that what suggests in
+  idea to one hearer the vicissitudes of war will suggest to another, or
+  to the same at another time, the vicissitudes of love, to another
+  those of spiritual yearning and aspiration, to another, it may be,
+  those of changeful travel by forest, field and ocean, to another those
+  of life's practical struggle and ambition. The infinite variety of
+  ideas which may thus be called up in different minds by the same
+  strain of music is proof enough that the music is not _like_ any
+  particular thing. The torrent of varied and entrancing emotion which
+  it pours along the heart, emotion latent and undivined until the spell
+  of sound begins, that is music's achievement and its secret. It is
+  this effect, whether coupled or not with a trained intellectual
+  recognition of the highly abstract and elaborate nature of the laws of
+  the relation, succession and combinations of sounds on which the
+  effect depends, that has caused some thinkers, with Schopenhauer at
+  their head, to find in music the nearest approach we have to a voice
+  from behind the veil, a universal voice expressing the central purpose
+  and deepest essence of things, unconfused by fleeting actualities or
+  by the distracting duty of calling up images of particular and
+  perishable phenomena. "Music," in Schopenhauer's own words, "reveals
+  the innermost essential being of the world, and expresses the highest
+  wisdom in a language the reason does not understand."
+
+
+    Definition of music.
+
+  Aristotle endeavoured to frame a classification of the arts, in their
+  several applications and developments, on two grounds--the nature of
+  the objects imitated by each, and the means or instruments employed in
+  the imitation. But in the case of music, as it exists in the modern
+  world, the first part of this endeavour falls to the ground, because
+  the object imitated has, in the sense in which we now use the word
+  imitation, no existence. The means employed by music are successions
+  and combinations of vocal or instrumental sounds regulated according
+  to the three conditions of time and pitch (which together make up
+  melody) and harmony, or the relations of different strains of time and
+  tone cooperant but not parallel. With these means, music either
+  creates her independent constructions, or else accompanies, adorns,
+  enforces the imitative art of speech--but herself imitates not; and
+  may be best defined simply as _a speaking or time art, of which the
+  business is to express and arouse emotion by successions and
+  combinations of regulated sound_.
+
+
+    Non-imitative character of architecture.
+
+  That which music is thus among the speaking or time-arts, architecture
+  is among the shaping or space-arts. As music appeals to our faculties
+  for taking pleasure in non-imitative combinations of transitory sound,
+  so architecture appeals to our faculties for taking pleasure in
+  non-imitative combinations of stationary mass. Corresponding to the
+  system of ear-effects or combinations of time, tone and harmony with
+  which music works, architecture works with a system of eye-effects or
+  combinations of mass, contour, light and shade; colour, proportion,
+  interval, alternation of plain and decorated parts, regularity and
+  variety in regularity, apparent stability, vastness, appropriateness
+  and the rest. Only the materials of architecture are not volatile and
+  intangible like sound, but solid timber, brick, stone, metal and
+  mortar, and the laws of weight and force according to which these
+  materials have to be combined are much more severe and cramping than
+  the laws of melody and harmony which regulate the combinations of
+  music. The architect is further subject, unlike the musician, to the
+  dictates and precise prescriptions of utility. Even in structures
+  raised for purposes not of everyday use and necessity, but of
+  commemoration or worship, the rules for such commemoration and such
+  worship have prescribed a more or less fixed arrangement and
+  proportion of the parts or members, whether in the Egyptian temple or
+  temple-tomb, the Greek temple or heroon, or in the churches of the
+  middle ages and Renaissance in the West.
+
+
+    Analogies of architecture and music.
+
+  Hence the effects of architecture are necessarily less full of
+  various, rapturous and unforeseen enchantment than the effects of
+  music. Yet for those who possess sensibility to the pleasures of the
+  eye and the perfections of shaping art, the architecture of the great
+  ages has yielded combinations which, so far as comparison is
+  permissible between things unlike in their materials, fall little
+  short of the achievements of music in those kinds of excellence which
+  are common to them both. In the virtues of lucidity, of just
+  proportion and organic interdependence of the several parts or
+  members, in the mathematic subtlety of their mutual relations, and of
+  the transitions from one part or member to another, in purity and
+  finish of individual forms, in the character of one thing growing
+  naturally out of another and everything serving to complete the
+  whole--in these qualities, no musical combination can well surpass a
+  typical Doric temple such as the Parthenon at Athens. None, again, can
+  well surpass some of the great cathedrals of the middle ages in the
+  qualities of sublimity, of complexity, in the power both of expressing
+  and suggesting spiritual aspiration, in the invention of intricate
+  developments and ramifications about a central plan, in the union of
+  majesty in the main conception with fertility of adornment in detail.
+  In fancifulness, in the unexpected, in capricious and far-sought
+  opulence, in filling the mind with mingled enchantments of east and
+  west and south and north, music can hardly do more than a building
+  like St Mark's at Venice does with its blending of Byzantine elements,
+  Italian elements, Gothic elements, each carried to the utmost pitch of
+  elaboration and each enriched with a hundred caprices of ornament, but
+  all working together, all in obedience to a law, and "all beginning
+  and ending with the Cross."
+
+
+    Exceptional and limited admission of imitative forms in architecture.
+
+  In the case of architecture, however, as in the case of music, the
+  non-imitative character must not be stated quite without exception or
+  reserve. There have been styles of architecture in which forms
+  suggesting or imitating natural or other phenomena have held a place
+  among the abstract forms proper to the art. Often the mode of such
+  suggestions is rather symbolical to the mind than really imitative to
+  the eye; as when the number and relations of the heavenly planets were
+  imaged by that race of astronomers, the Babylonians, in the seven
+  concentric walls of their great temple, and in many other
+  architectural constructions; or as when the shape of the cross was
+  adopted, with innumerable slight varieties and modifications, for the
+  ground plan of the churches of Christendom. Passing to examples of
+  imitation more properly so called, it may be true, and was, at any
+  rate, long believed, that the aisles of Gothic churches, when once the
+  use of the pointed arch had been evolved as a principle of
+  construction, were partly designed to evoke the idea of the natural
+  aisles of the forest, and that the upsoaring forest trunks and
+  meeting branches were more or less consciously imaged in their piers
+  and vaultings. In the temple-palaces of Egypt, one of the regular
+  architectural members, the sustaining pier, is often systematically
+  wrought in the actual likeness of a conventionalized cluster of lotus
+  stems, with lotus flowers for the capital. When we come to the
+  fashion, not rare in Greek architecture, of carving this same
+  sustaining member, the column, in complete human likeness, and
+  employing caryatids, canephori, atlases or the like, to support the
+  entablature of a building, it then becomes difficult to say whether we
+  have to do with a work of architecture or of sculpture. The case, at
+  any rate, is different from that in which the sculptor is called in to
+  supply surface decoration to the various members of a building, or to
+  fill with the products of his own art spaces in the building specially
+  contrived and left vacant for that purpose. When the imitative feature
+  is in itself an indispensable member of the architectural
+  construction, to architecture rather than sculpture we shall probably
+  do best to assign it.
+
+
+    Definition of architecture.
+
+  Defining architecture, then (apart from its utility, which for the
+  present we leave out of consideration), as _a shaping art, of which
+  the function is to express and arouse emotion by combinations of
+  ordered and decorated mass_, we pass from the characteristics of the
+  non-imitative to those of the imitative group of arts, namely
+  sculpture, painting and poetry.
+
+
+    The imitative arts are arts of record using imitation as their means.
+
+  If we keep in mind the source and origin of these arts, we must
+  remember what has already been observed, that they spring by no means
+  from man's love of imitation alone, but from his desire to record and
+  commemorate experience, using the faculty of imitation as his means.
+  Mnemosyne (Memory) was in Greek tradition the mother of the Muses;
+  imitation, in the sense above defined, is but their instrument. Hence
+  we might think "arts of record" a better name for this group than arts
+  of imitation. The answer is--but a large part of pure architecture is
+  also commemorative; from the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt down there
+  are many monuments in which the impulse of men to perpetuate their own
+  or others' memories has worked without any aid of imitation. Hence as
+  the definition of a class of arts contrasted with architecture and
+  music the name "arts of record" would fail; and we have to fall back
+  on the current and established name of the "imitative arts." In
+  considering them we cannot do better than follow that Aristotelian
+  division which describes each art according, first, to the objects
+  which it imitates, and, secondly, to the means it employs.
+
+
+    Sculpture as an imitative art.
+
+  Taking sculpture first, as imitating a smaller range of objects than
+  the other two, and imitating them more completely: sculpture may have
+  for the objects of its imitation the shapes of whatever things possess
+  length, breadth and magnitude. For its means or instruments it has
+  solid form, which the sculptor either carves out of a hard substance,
+  as in the case of wood and stone, or models in a yielding substance,
+  as in the case of clay and wax, or casts in a dissolved or molten
+  substance, as in the case of plaster and of metal in certain uses, or
+  beats, draws or chases in a malleable and ductile substance, as in the
+  case of metal in other uses, or stamps from dies or moulds, a method
+  sometimes used in all soft or fusible materials. Thus a statue or
+  statuette may either be carved straight out of a block of stone or
+  wood, or first modelled in clay or wax, then moulded in plaster or
+  some equivalent material, and then carved in stone or cast in bronze.
+  A gem is wrought in stone by cutting and grinding. Figures in
+  jeweller's work are wrought by beating and chasing; a medallion by
+  beating and chasing or else by stamping from a die; a coin by stamping
+  from a die; and so forth. The process of modelling (Gr. [Greek:
+  plattein]) in a soft substance being regarded as the typical process
+  of the sculptor, the name _plastic art_ has been given to his
+  operations in general.
+
+
+    Sculpture in the round and in relief.
+
+  In general terms, the task of sculpture is to imitate solid form with
+  solid form. But sculptured form may be either completely or
+  incompletely solid. Sculpture in completely solid form exactly
+  reproduces, whether on the original or on a different scale, the
+  relations or proportions of the object imitated in the three
+  dimensions of length, breadth and depth or thickness. Sculpture in
+  incompletely solid form reproduces the proportions of the objects with
+  exactness only so far as concerns two of its dimensions, namely, those
+  of length and breadth; while the third dimension, that of depth or
+  thickness, it reproduces in a diminished proportion, leaving it to the
+  eye to infer, from the partial degree of projection given to the work,
+  the full projection of the object imitated. The former, or completely
+  solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture in the round; its works
+  stand free, and can be walked round and seen from all points. The
+  latter, or incompletely solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture
+  in relief; its works do not stand free, but are engaged in or attached
+  to a background, and can only be seen from in front. According, in the
+  latter kind of sculpture, to its degree of projection from the
+  background, a work is said to be in high or in low relief. Sculpture
+  in the round and sculpture in relief are alike in this, that the
+  properties of objects which they imitate are their external forms as
+  defined by their outlines--that is, by the boundaries and
+  circumscriptions of their masses--and their light and shade--the
+  lights and shadows, that is, which diversify the curved surfaces of
+  the masses in consequence of their alternations and gradations of
+  projection and recession. But the two kinds of sculpture differ in
+  this. A work of sculpture in the round imitates the whole of the
+  outlines by which the object imitated is circumscribed in the three
+  dimensions of space, and presents to the eye, as the object itself
+  would do, a new outline succeeding the last every moment as you walk
+  round it. Whereas a work of sculpture in relief imitates only one
+  outline of any object; it takes, so to speak, a section of the object
+  as seen from a particular point, and traces on the background the
+  boundary-line of that particular section, merely suggesting, by
+  modelling the surface within such boundary according to a regular, but
+  a diminished, ratio of projection, the other outlines which the object
+  would present if seen from all sides successively.
+
+
+    Subjects proper for sculpture in the round.
+
+  As sculpture in the round reproduces the real relations of a solid
+  object in space, it follows that the only kind of object which it can
+  reproduce with pleasurable effect according to the laws of regulated
+  or rhythmical design must be one not too vast or complicated, one that
+  can afford to be detached and isolated from its surroundings, and of
+  which all the parts can easily be perceived and apprehended in their
+  organic relations. Further, it will need to be an object interesting
+  enough to mankind in general to make them take delight in seeing it
+  reproduced with all its parts in complete imitation. And again, it
+  must be such that some considerable part of the interest lies in those
+  particular properties of outline, play of surface, and light and shade
+  which it is the special function of sculpture to reproduce. Thus a
+  sculptured representation in the round, say, of a mountain with cities
+  on it, would hardly be a sculpture at all; it could only be a model,
+  and as a model might have value; but value as a work of fine art it
+  could not have, because the object imitated would lack organic
+  definiteness and completeness; it would lack universality of interest,
+  and of the interest which it did possess, a very inconsiderable part
+  would depend upon its properties of outline, surface, and light and
+  shade. Obviously there is no kind of object in the world that so well
+  unites the required conditions for pleasurable imitation in sculpture
+  as the human body. It is at once the most complete of organisms, and
+  the shape of all others the most subtle as well as the most
+  intelligible in its outlines; the most habitually detached in active
+  or stationary freedom; the most interesting to mankind, because its
+  own; the richest in those particular effects, contours and
+  modulations, contrasts, harmonies and transitions of modelled surface
+  and circumscribing line, which it is the prerogative of sculpture to
+  imitate. Accordingly the object of imitation for this art is
+  pre-eminently the body of man or woman. That it has not been for the
+  sake of representing men and women as such, but for the sake of
+  representing gods in the likeness of men and women, that the human
+  form has been most enthusiastically studied, does not affect this fact
+  in the theory of the art, though it is a consideration of great
+  importance in its history. Besides the human form, sculpture may
+  imitate the forms of those of the lower animals whose physical
+  endowments have something of a kindred perfection, with other natural
+  or artificial objects as may be needed merely by way of accessory or
+  symbol. The body must for the purposes of this art be divested of
+  covering, or covered only with such tissues as reveal, translate or
+  play about without concealing it. Chiefly in lands and ages where
+  climate and social use have given the sculptor the opportunity of
+  studying human forms so draped or undraped has this art attained
+  perfection, and become exemplary and enviable to that of other races.
+
+
+    Subjects proper for sculpture in relief.
+
+  Relief sculpture is more closely connected with architecture than the
+  other kind, and indeed is commonly used in subordination to it. But if
+  its task is thus somewhat different from that of sculpture in the
+  round, its principal objects of imitation are the same. The human body
+  remains the principal theme of the sculptor in relief; but the nature
+  of his art allows, and sometimes compels, him to include other objects
+  in the range of his imitation. As he has not to represent the real
+  depth or projection of things, but only to suggest them according to a
+  ratio which he may fix himself, so he can introduce into the third or
+  depth dimension, thus arbitrarily reduced, a multitude of objects for
+  which the sculptor in the round, having to observe the real ratio of
+  the three dimensions, has no room. He cam place one figure in slightly
+  raised outline emerging from behind the more fully raised outline of
+  another, and by the same system can add to his representation rocks,
+  trees, nay mountains and cities and birds on the wing. But the more he
+  uses this liberty the less will he be truly a sculptor. Solid
+  modelling, and real light and shade, are the special means or
+  instrument of effect which the sculptor alone among imitative artists
+  enjoys. Single outlines and contours, the choice of one particular
+  section and the tracing of its circumscription, are means which the
+  sculptor enjoys in common with the painter or draughtsman. And indeed,
+  when we consider works executed wholly or in part in very low relief,
+  whether Assyrian battle-pieces and hunting-pieces in alabaster or
+  bronze, or the backgrounds carved in bronze, marble or wood by the
+  Italian sculptors who followed the example set by Ghiberti at the
+  Renaissance, we shall see that the principle of such work is not the
+  principle of sculpture at all. Its effect depends little on qualities
+  of surface-light and shadow, and mainly on qualities of contour, as
+  traced by a slight line of shadow on the side away from the light, and
+  a slight line of light on the side next to it. And we may fairly
+  hesitate whether we shall rank the artist who works on this principle,
+  which is properly a graphic rather than a plastic principle, among
+  sculptors or among draughtsmen. The above are cases in which the
+  relief sculptor exercises his liberty in the introduction of other
+  objects besides human figures into his sculptured compositions. But
+  there is another kind of relief sculpture in which the artist has less
+  choice. That is, the kind in which the sculptor is called in to
+  decorate with carved work parts of an architectural construction which
+  are not adapted for the introduction of figure subjects, or for their
+  introduction only as features in a scheme of ornament that comprises
+  many other elements. To this head belongs most of the carving of
+  capitals, mouldings, friezes (except the friezes of Greek temples),
+  bands, cornices, and, in the Gothic style, of doorway arches, niches,
+  canopies, pinnacles, brackets, spandrels and the thousand members and
+  parts of members which that style so exquisitely adorned with true or
+  conventionalized imitations of natural forms. This is no doubt a
+  subordinate function of the art; and it is impossible, as we have seen
+  already, to find a precise line of demarcation between carving, in
+  this decorative use, which is properly sculpture, and that which
+  belongs properly to architecture.
+
+
+    Definition of sculpture.
+
+  Leaving such discussions, we may content ourselves with the definition
+  of sculpture as _a shaping art, of which the business is to express
+  and arouse emotion by the imitation of natural objects, and
+  principally the human body, in solid form, reproducing either their
+  true proportions in three dimensions, or their proportions in the two
+  dimensions of length and breadth only, with a diminished proportion in
+  the third dimension of depth or thickness._
+
+
+    Painting as an imitative art.
+
+  In considering bas-relief as a form of sculpture, we have found
+  ourselves approaching the confines of the second of the shaping
+  imitative arts, the graphic art or art of painting. Painting, as to
+  its means or instruments of imitation, dispenses with the third
+  dimension altogether. It imitates natural objects by representing them
+  as they are represented on the retina of the eye itself, simply as an
+  assemblage of variously shaped and variously shaded patches of colour
+  on a flat surface. Painting does not reproduce the third dimension of
+  reality by any third dimension of its own whatever; but leaves the eye
+  to infer the solidity of objects, their recession and projection,
+  their nearness and remoteness, by the same perspective signs by which
+  it also infers those facts in nature, namely, by the direction of
+  their several boundary lines, the incidence and distribution of their
+  lights and shadows, the strength or faintness of their tones of
+  colour.
+
+
+    Range of objects imitable by painting.
+
+  Hence this art has an infinitely greater range and freedom than any
+  form of sculpture. Near and far is all the same to it, and whatever
+  comes into the field of vision can come also into the field of a
+  picture; trees as well as persons, and clouds as well as trees, and
+  stars as well as clouds; the remotest mountain snows, as well as the
+  violet of the foreground, and far-off multitudes of people as well as
+  one or two near the eye. Whatever any man has seen, or can imagine
+  himself as seeing, that he can also fix by painting, subject only to
+  one great limitation,--that of the range of brightness which he is
+  able to attain in imitating natural colour illuminated by light. In
+  this particular his art can but correspond according to a greatly
+  diminished ratio with the effects of nature. But excepting this it can
+  do for the eye almost all that nature herself does; or at least all
+  that nature would do if man had only one eye since the three
+  dimensions of space produce upon our binocular machinery of vision a
+  particular stereoscopic effect of which a picture, with its two
+  dimensions only, is incapable. The range of the art being thus almost
+  unbounded, its selections have naturally been dictated by the varying
+  interest felt in this or that subject of representation by the
+  societies among whom the art has at various times been practised. As
+  in sculpture, so in painting, the human form has always held the first
+  place. For the painter, the intervention of costume between man and
+  his environment is not a misfortune in the same degree as it is for
+  the sculptor. For him, clothes of whatever fashion or amplitude have
+  their own charm; they serve to diversify the aspect of the world, and
+  to express the characters and stations, if not the physical frames, of
+  his personages; and he is as happy or happier among the brocades of
+  Venice as among the bare limbs of the Spartan palaestra. Along with
+  man, there come into painting all animals and vegetation, all man's
+  furniture and belongings, his dwelling-places, fields and landscape;
+  and in modern times also landscape and nature for their own sakes,
+  skies, seas, mountains and wildernesses apart from man.
+
+
+    The chief forms or modes of painting: line, light-and-shade and
+      colour.
+
+  Besides the two questions about any art, what objects does it imitate,
+  and by the use of what means or instruments, Aristotle proposes (in
+  the case of poetry) the further question, which of several possible
+  forms does the imitation in any given case assume? We may transfer
+  very nearly the same inquiry to painting, and may ask, concerning any
+  painter, according to which of three possible systems he works. The
+  three possible systems are (1) that which attends principally to the
+  configuration and relations of natural objects as indicated by the
+  direction of their boundaries, for defining which there is a
+  convention in universal use, the convention, that is, of line; this
+  may be called for short the system of _line_; (2) that which attends
+  chiefly to their configuration and relations as indicated by the
+  incidence and distribution of their lights and shadows--this is the
+  system of _light-and-shade_ or _chiaroscuro_; and (3) that which
+  attends chiefly, not to their configuration at all, but to the
+  distribution, qualities and relations of local colours upon their
+  surface--this is the system of _colour_. It is not possible for a
+  painter to imitate natural objects to the eye at all without either
+  defining their boundaries by outlines, or suggesting the shape of
+  their masses by juxtapositions of light and dark or of local colours.
+  In the complete art of painting, of course, all three methods are
+  employed at once. But in what is known as outline drawing and outline
+  engraving, one of the three methods only is employed, line; in
+  monochrome pictures, and in shaded drawings and engravings, two only,
+  line with light-and-shade; and in the various shadeless forms of
+  decorative painting and colour-printing, two only, line with colour.
+  Even in the most accomplished examples of the complete art of
+  painting, as was pointed out by Ruskin, we find that there almost
+  always prevails a predilection for some one of these three parts of
+  painting over the other two. Thus among the mature Italians of the
+  Renaissance, Titian is above all things a painter in colour,
+  Michelangelo in line, Leonardo in light-and-shade. Many academic
+  painters in their day tried to combine the three methods in equal
+  balance; to the impetuous spirit of the great Venetian, Tintoretto, it
+  was alone given to make the attempt with a great measure of success. A
+  great part of the effort of modern painting has been to get rid of the
+  linear convention altogether, to banish line and develop the resources
+  of the oil medium in imitating on canvas, more strictly than the early
+  masters attempted, the actual appearance of things on the retina as an
+  assemblage of coloured streaks and patches modified and toned in the
+  play of light-and-shade and atmosphere.
+
+
+    Technical varieties of the painter's craft.
+
+  It remains to consider, for the purpose of our classification, what
+  are the technical varieties of the painter's craft. Since we gave the
+  generic name of painting to all imitation of natural objects by the
+  assemblage of lines, colours and lights and darks on a single plane,
+  we must logically include as varieties of painting not only the
+  ordinary crafts of spreading or laying pictures on an opaque surface
+  in fresco, oil, distemper or water-colour, but also the craft of
+  arranging a picture to be seen by the transmission of light through a
+  transparent substance, in glass painting; the craft of fitting
+  together a multitude of solid cubes or cylinders so that their united
+  surface forms a picture to the eye, as in mosaic; the craft of
+  spreading vitreous colours in a state of fusion so that they form a
+  picture when hardened, as in enamel; and even, it would seem, the
+  crafts of weaving, tapestry, and embroidery, since these also yield to
+  the eye a plane surface figured in imitation of nature. As drawing we
+  must also count incised or engraved work of all kinds representing
+  merely the outlines of objects and not their modellings, as for
+  instance the _graffiti_ on Greek and Etruscan mirror-backs and
+  dressing-cases; while raised work in low relief, in which outlines are
+  plainly marked and modellings neglected, furnishes, as we have seen, a
+  doubtful class between sculpture and painting. In all figures that are
+  first modelled in the solid and then variously coloured, sculpture and
+  painting bear a common share; and by far the greater part both of
+  ancient and medieval statuary was in fact tinted so as to imitate or
+  at least suggest the colours of life. But as the special
+  characteristic of sculpture, solidity in the third dimension, is in
+  these cases present, it is to that art and not to painting that we
+  shall still ascribe the resulting work.
+
+
+    Definition of painting.
+
+  With these indications we may leave the art of painting defined in
+  general terms as a _shaping or space art, of which the business is to
+  express and arouse emotion by the imitation of all kinds of natural
+  objects, reproducing on a plane surface the relations of their
+  boundary lines, lights and shadows, or colours, or all three of these
+  appearances together_.
+
+
+    Poetry as an imitative art.
+
+  The next and last of the imitative arts is the speaking art of poetry.
+  The transition from sculpture and painting to poetry is, from the
+  point of view not of our present but of our first division among the
+  fine arts, abrupt and absolute. It is a transition from space into
+  time, from the sphere of material forms to the sphere of immaterial
+  images. Following Aristotle's method, we may define the objects of
+  poetry's imitation or evocation, as everything of which the idea or
+  image can be called up by words, that is, every force and phenomenon
+  of nature, every operation and result of art, every fact of life and
+  history, or every imagination of such a fact, every thought and
+  feeling of the human spirit, for which mankind in the course of its
+  long evolution has been able to create in speech an explicit and
+  appropriate sign. The means or instruments of poetry's imitation are
+  these verbal signs or words, arranged in lines, strophes or stanzas,
+  so that their sounds have some of the regulated qualities and direct
+  emotional effect of music.
+
+
+    The chief forms or modes of poetry.
+
+  The three chief modes or forms of the imitation may still be defined
+  as they were defined by Aristotle himself. First comes the _epic_ or
+  narrative form, in which the poet speaks alternately for himself and
+  his characters, now describing their situations and feelings in his
+  own words, and anon making each of them speak in the first person for
+  himself. Second comes the _lyric_ form, in which the poet speaks in
+  his own name exclusively, and gives expression to sentiments which are
+  purely personal. Third comes the _dramatic_ form, in which the poet
+  does not speak for himself at all, but only puts into the mouths of
+  each of his personages successively such discourse as he thinks
+  appropriate to the part. The last of these three forms of poetry, the
+  dramatic, calls, if it is merely read, on the imagination of the
+  reader to fill up those circumstances of situation, action and the
+  rest, which in the first or epic form are supplied by the narrative
+  between the speeches, and for which in the lyric or personal form
+  there is no occasion. To avoid making this call upon the imagination,
+  to bring home its effects with full vividness, dramatic poetry has to
+  call in the aid of several subordinate arts, the shaping or space art
+  of the scene-painter, the mixed time and space arts of the actor and
+  the dancer. Occasionally also, or in the case of opera throughout,
+  dramatic poetry heightens the emotional effect of its words with
+  music. A play or drama is thus, as performed upon the theatre, not a
+  poem merely, but a poem accompanied, interpreted, completed and
+  brought several degrees nearer to reality by a combination of
+  auxiliary effects of the other arts. Besides the narrative, the lyric
+  and dramatic forms of poetry, the _didactic_, that is the teaching or
+  expository form, has usually been recognized as a fourth. Aristotle
+  refused so to recognize it, regarding a didactic poem in the light not
+  so much of a poem as of a useful treatise. But from the _Works and
+  Days_ down to the _Loves of the Plants_ there has been too much
+  literature produced in this form for us to follow Aristotle here. We
+  shall do better to regard didactic poetry as a variety corresponding,
+  among the speaking arts, to architecture and the other manual arts of
+  which the first purpose is use, but which are capable of accompanying
+  and adorning use by a pleasurable appeal to the emotions.
+
+
+    Definition of poetry.
+
+  We shall hardly make our definition of poetry, considered as an
+  imitative art, too extended if we say that it is _a speaking or time
+  art, of which the business is to express and arouse emotion by
+  imitating or evoking all or any of the phenomena of life and nature by
+  means of words arranged with musical regularity_.
+
+
+    Relation of poetry as an Imitative art to painting and sculpture.
+
+  Neither the varieties of poetical form, however, nor the modes in
+  which the several forms have been mixed up and interchanged--as such
+  mixture and interchange are implied, for instance, by the very title
+  of a group of Robert Browning's poems, the _Dramatic Lyrics_,--the
+  observation of neither of these things concerns us here so much as the
+  observation of the relations of poetry in general, as an art of
+  representation or imitation, to the other arts of imitation, painting
+  and sculpture. Verbal signs have been invented for innumerable things
+  which cannot be imitated or represented at all either in solid form or
+  upon a coloured surface. You cannot carve or paint a sigh, or the
+  feeling which finds utterance in a sigh; you can only suggest the idea
+  of the feeling, and that in a somewhat imperfect and uncertain way, by
+  representing the physical aspect of a person in the act of breathing
+  the sigh. Similarly you cannot carve or paint any movement, but only
+  figures or groups in which the movement is represented as arrested in
+  some particular point of time; nor any abstract idea, but only figures
+  or groups in which the abstract idea, as for example release,
+  captivity, mercy, is symbolized in the concrete shape of allegorical
+  or illustrative figures. The whole field of thought, of propositions,
+  arguments, injunctions and exhortations is open to poetry but closed
+  to sculpture and painting. Poetry, by its command over the regions of
+  the understanding, of abstraction, of the movement and succession of
+  things in time, by its power of instantaneously associating one image
+  with another from the remotest regions of the mind, by its names for
+  every shade of feeling and experience, exercises a sovereignty a
+  hundred times more extended than that of either of the two arts of
+  manual imitation. But, on the other hand, words do not as a rule bear
+  any sensible resemblance to the things of which they are the signs.
+  There are few things that words do not stand for or cannot call up;
+  but they stand for things symbolically and at second hand, and call
+  them up only in idea, and not in actual presentment to the senses. In
+  strictness, the business of poetry should not be called imitation at
+  all, but rather evocation. The strength of painting and sculpture lies
+  in this, that though there are countless phenomena which they cannot
+  represent at all, and countless more which they can only represent by
+  symbolism and suggestion more or less ambiguous, yet there are a few
+  which each can represent more fully and directly than poetry can
+  represent any thing at all. These are, for sculpture, the forms or
+  configurations of things, which that art represents directly to the
+  senses both of sight and touch; and for painting the forms and colours
+  of things and their relations to each other in space, air and light,
+  which the art represents to the sense of sight, directly so far as
+  regards surface appearance, and indirectly so far as regards solidity.
+  For many delicate qualities and differences in these visible relations
+  of things there are no words at all--the vocabulary of colours, for
+  instance, is in all languages surprisingly scanty and primitive. And
+  those visible qualities, for which words exist, the words still call
+  up indistinctly and at second hand. Poetry is almost as powerless to
+  bring before the mind's eye with precision a particular shade of red
+  or blue, a particular linear arrangement or harmony of colour-tones,
+  as sculpture is to relate a continuous experience, or painting to
+  enforce an exhortation or embellish an abstract proposition. The wise
+  poet, as has been justly remarked, when he wants to produce a vivid
+  impression of a visible thing, does not attempt to catalogue or
+  describe its stationary beauties. Shakespeare, when he wants to make
+  us realize the perfections of Perdita, puts into the mouth of
+  Florizel, not, as a bad poet would have done, a description of her
+  lilies and carnations, and the other charms which a painter could
+  make us realize better, but the praises of her ways and movements; and
+  with the final touch,
+
+            "When you do dance, I wish you
+    A wave o' the sea, that you might ever do
+    Nothing but that,"
+
+  he evokes a twofold image of beauty in motion, of which one half might
+  be the despair of those painters who designed the dancing maidens of
+  the walls of Herculaneum, and the other half the despair of all
+  artists who in modern times have tried to fix upon their canvas the
+  buoyancy and grace of dancing waves. In representing the perfections
+  of form in a bride's slender foot, the speaking art, poetry, would
+  find itself distanced by either of the shaping arts, painting or
+  sculpture. Suckling calls up the charm of such a foot by describing it
+  not at rest but in motion, and in the feet which
+
+            "Beneath the petticoat,
+    Like little mice, went in and out,"
+
+  leaves us an image which baffles the power of the other arts. Keats,
+  when he tells of Madeline unclasping her jewels on St Agnes's Eve,
+  does not attempt to conjure up their lustre to the eye, as a painter
+  would have done, and a less poetical poet might have tried to do, but
+  in the words "her warmed jewels" evoked instead a quality, breathing
+  of the very life of the wearer, which painting could not even have
+  remotely suggested.
+
+
+    General law of the relative means and capacities of the several
+      imitative arts: sculpture.
+
+  The differences between the means and capacities of representation
+  proper to the shaping arts of sculpture and painting and those proper
+  to the speaking art of poetry were for a long while overlooked or
+  misunderstood. The maxim of Simonides, that poetry is a kind of
+  articulate painting, and painting a kind of mute poetry, was vaguely
+  accepted until the days of Lessing, and first overthrown by the famous
+  treatise of that writer on the Laocoon. Following in the main the
+  lines laid down by Lessing, other writers have worked out the
+  conditions of representation or imitation proper not only to sculpture
+  and painting as distinguished from poetry, but to sculpture as
+  distinguished from painting. The chief points established may really
+  all be condensed under one simple law, _that the more direct and
+  complete the imitation effected by any art, the less is the range and
+  number of phenomena which that art can imitate_. Thus sculpture in the
+  round imitates its objects much more completely and directly than any
+  other single art, reproducing one whole set of their relations which
+  no other art attempts to reproduce at all, namely, their solid
+  relations in space. Precisely for this reason, such sculpture is
+  limited to a narrow class of objects. As we have seen, it must
+  represent human or animal figures; nothing else has enough either of
+  universal interest or of organic beauty and perfection. Sculpture in
+  the round must represent such figures standing free in full clearness
+  and detachment, in combinations and with accessories comparatively
+  simple, on pain of teasing the eye with a complexity and entanglement
+  of masses and lights and shadows; and in attitudes comparatively
+  quiet, on pain of violating, or appearing to violate, the conditions
+  of mechanical stability. Being a stationary or space-art, it can only
+  represent a single action, which it fixes and perpetuates for ever;
+  and it must therefore choose for that action one as significant and
+  full of interest as is consistent with due observation of the above
+  laws of simplicity and stability. Such actions, and the facial
+  expressions accompanying them, should not be those of sharp crisis or
+  transition, because sudden movement or flitting expression, thus
+  arrested and perpetuated in full and solid imitation by bronze or
+  marble, would be displeasing and not pleasing to the spectator. They
+  must be actions and expressions in some degree settled, collected and
+  capable of continuance, and in their collectedness must at the same
+  time suggest to the spectator as much as possible of the circumstances
+  which have led up to them and those which will next ensue. These
+  conditions evidently bring within a very narrow range the phenomena
+  with which this art can deal, and explain why, as a matter of fact,
+  the greater number of statues represent simply a single figure in
+  repose, with the addition of one or two symbolic or customary
+  attributes. Paint a statue (as the greater part both of Greek and
+  Gothic statuary was in fact painted), and you bring it to a still
+  further point of imitative completeness to the eye; but you do not
+  thereby lighten the restrictions laid upon the art by its material, so
+  long as it undertakes to reproduce in full the third or solid
+  dimension of bodies. You only begin to lighten its restrictions when
+  you begin to relieve it of that duty. We have traced how sculpture in
+  relief, which is satisfied with only a partial reproduction of the
+  third dimension, is free to introduce a larger range of objects,
+  bringing forward secondary figures and accessories, indicating distant
+  planes, indulging even in considerable violence and complexity of
+  motion, since limbs attached to a background do not alarm the
+  spectator by any idea of danger of fragility. But sculpture in the
+  round has not this licence. It is true that the art has at various
+  periods made efforts to escape from its natural limitations. Several
+  of the later schools of antiquity, especially that of Pergamus in the
+  3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., strove hard both for violence of
+  expression and complexity of design, not only in relief-sculptures,
+  like the great altar-friezes now at Berlin, but in detached groups,
+  such as (_pace_ Lessing) the Laocoon itself. Many modern _virtuosi_ of
+  sculpture since Bernini have misspent their skill in trying to fix in
+  marble both the restlessness of momentary actions and the flimsiness
+  of fluttering tissues. In latter days Auguste Rodin, an innovating
+  master with a real genius for his art, has attacked many problems of
+  complicated grouping, more or less in the nature of the Greek
+  _symplegmata_, but keeps these interlocked or contorted actions
+  circumscribed within strict limiting lines, so that they do not by
+  jutting or straggling suggest a kind of acrobatic challenge to the
+  laws of gravity. The same artist and others inspired by him have
+  further sought to emancipate sculpture from the necessity of rendering
+  form in clear and complete definition, and to enrich it with a new
+  power of mysterious suggestion, by leaving his figures wrought in part
+  to the highest finish and vitality of surface, while other parts
+  (according to a precedent set in some unfinished works of
+  Michelangelo) remain scarcely emergent from the rough-hewn or unhewn
+  block. But it may be doubted whether such experiments and expedients
+  can permanently do much to enlarge the scope of the art.
+
+
+    Means and capacities of painting.
+
+  Next we arrive at painting, in which the third dimension is dismissed
+  altogether, and nothing is actually reproduced, in full or partially,
+  except the effect made by the appearance of natural objects upon the
+  retina of the eye. The consequence is that this art can range over
+  distance and multitude, can represent complicated relations between
+  its various figures and groups of figures, extensive backgrounds, and
+  all those infinite subtleties of appearance in natural things which
+  depend upon local colours and their modification in the play of light
+  and shade and enveloping atmosphere. These last phenomena of natural
+  things are in our experience subject to change in a sense in which the
+  substantial or solid properties of things are not so subject. Colours,
+  shadows and atmospheric effects are naturally associated with ideas of
+  transition, mystery and evanescence. Hence painting is able to extend
+  its range to another kind of facts over which sculpture has no power.
+  It can suggest and perpetuate in its imitation, without breach of its
+  true laws, many classes of facts which are themselves fugitive and
+  transitory, as a smile, the glance of an eye, a gesture of horror or
+  of passion, the waving of hair in the wind, the rush of horses, the
+  strife of mobs, the whole drama of the clouds, the toss and gathering
+  of ocean waves, even the flashing of lightning across the sky. Still,
+  any long or continuous series of changes, actions or movements is
+  quite beyond the means of this art to represent. Painting remains, in
+  spite of its comparative width of range, tied down to the inevitable
+  conditions of a space-art: that is to say, it has to delight the mind
+  by a harmonious variety in its effects, but by a variety apprehended
+  not through various points of time successively, but from various
+  points in space at the same moment. The old convention which allowed
+  painters to indicate sequence in time by means of distribution in
+  space, dispersing the successive episodes of a story about the
+  different parts of a single picture, has been abandoned since the
+  early Renaissance; and Wordsworth sums up our modern view of the
+  matter when he says that it is the business of painting
+
+                          "to give
+    To one blest moment snatched from fleeting time
+    The appropriate calm of blest eternity."
+
+
+    Means and capacities of poetry.
+
+  Lastly, a really unfettered range is only attained by the art which
+  does not give a full and complete reproduction of any natural fact at
+  all, but evokes or brings natural facts before the mind merely by the
+  images which words convey. The whole world of movement, of continuity,
+  of cause and effect, of the successions, alternations and interaction
+  of events, characters and passions of everything that takes time to
+  happen and time to declare, is open to poetry as it is open to no
+  other art. As an imitative or, more properly speaking, an evocative
+  art, then, poetry is subject to no limitations except those which
+  spring from the poverty of human language, and from the fact that its
+  means of imitation are indirect. Poetry's account of the visible
+  properties of things is from these causes much less full, accurate and
+  efficient than the reproduction or delineation of the same properties
+  by sculpture and painting. And this is the sum of the conditions
+  concerning the respective functions of the three arts of imitation
+  which had been overlooked, in theory at least, until the time of
+  Lessing.
+
+
+    The acted drama no real exception to the general law.
+
+  To the above law, in the form in which we have expressed it, it may
+  perhaps be objected that the acted drama is at once the most full and
+  complete reproduction of nature which we owe to the fine arts, and
+  that at the same time the number of facts over which its imitation
+  ranges is the greatest. The answer is that our law applies to the
+  several arts only in that which we may call their pure or unmixed
+  state. Dramatic poetry is in that state only when it is read or spoken
+  like any other kind of verse. When it is witnessed on the stage, it is
+  in a mixed or impure state; the art of the actor has been called in to
+  give actual reproduction to the gestures and utterances of the
+  personages, that of the costumier to their appearances and attire,
+  that of the stage-decorator to their furniture and surroundings, that
+  of the scene-painter to imitate to the eye the dwelling-places and
+  landscapes among which they move; and only by the combination of all
+  these subordinate arts does the drama gain its character of imitative
+  completeness or reality.
+
+
+    Things unknown shadowed forth by imitation of things known.
+
+  Throughout the above account of the imitative and non-imitative groups
+  of fine arts, we have so far followed Aristotle as to allow the name
+  of imitation to all recognizable representation or evocation of
+  realities,--using the word "realities" in no metaphysical sense, but
+  to signify the myriad phenomena of life and experience, whether as
+  they actually and literally exist to-day, or as they may have existed
+  in the past, or may be conceived to exist in some other world not too
+  unlike our own for us to conceive and realize in thought. When we find
+  among the ruins of a Greek temple the statue of a beautiful young man
+  at rest, or above the altar of a Christian church the painting of one
+  transfixed with arrows, we know that the statue is intended to bring
+  to our minds no mortal youth, but the god Hermes or Apollo, the
+  transfixed victim no simple captive, but Sebastian the holy saint. At
+  the same time we none the less know that the figures in either case
+  have been studied by the artist from living models before his eyes. In
+  like manner, in all the representations alike of sculpture, painting
+  and poetry the things and persons represented may bear symbolic
+  meanings and imaginary names and characters; they may be set in a land
+  of dreams, and grouped in relations and circumstances upon which the
+  sun of this world never shone; in point of fact, through many ages of
+  history they have been chiefly used to embody human ideas of
+  supernatural powers; but it is from real things and persons that their
+  lineaments and characters have been taken in the first instance, in
+  order to be attributed by the imagination to another and more exalted
+  order of existences.
+
+
+    Imitation by art necessarily an idealized imitation.
+
+  The law which we have last laid down is a law defining the relations
+  of sculpture, painting and poetry, considered simply as arts having
+  their foundations at any rate in reality, and drawing from the
+  imitation of reality their indispensable elements and materials. It is
+  a law defining the range and character of those elements or materials
+  in nature which each art is best fitted, by its special means and
+  resources, to imitate. But we must remember that, even in this
+  fundamental part of its operations, none of these arts proceeds by
+  imitation or evocation pure and simple. None of them contents itself
+  with seeking to represent realities, however literally taken, exactly
+  as those realities are. A portrait in sculpture or painting, a
+  landscape in painting, a passage of local description in poetry, may
+  be representations of known things taken literally or for their own
+  sakes, and not for the sake of carrying out thoughts to the unknown;
+  but none of them ought to be, or indeed can possibly be, a
+  representation of all the observed parts and details of such a reality
+  on equal terms and without omissions. Such a representation, were it
+  possible, would be a mechanical inventory and not a work of fine art.
+
+
+    Completeness not the test of value in a pictorial imitation.
+
+  Hence the value of a pictorial imitation is by no means necessarily in
+  proportion to the number of facts which it records. Many accomplished
+  pictures, in which all the resources of line, colour and
+  light-and-shade have been used to the utmost of the artist's power for
+  the imitation of all that he could see in nature, are dead and
+  worthless in comparison with a few faintly touched outlines or lightly
+  laid shadows or tints of another artist who could see nature more
+  vitally and better. Unless the painter knows how to choose and combine
+  the elements of his finished work so that it shall contain in every
+  part suggestions and delights over and above the mere imitation, it
+  will fall short, in that which is the essential charm of fine art, not
+  only of any scrap of a great master's handiwork, such as an outline
+  sketch of a child by Raphael or a colour sketch of a boat or a
+  mackerel by Turner, but even of any scrap of the merest journeyman's
+  handiwork produced by an artistic race, such as the first Japanese
+  drawing in which a water-flag and kingfisher, or a spray of peach or
+  almond blossom across the sky, is dashed in with a mere hint of
+  colour, but a hint that tells a whole tale to the imagination. That
+  only, we know, is fine art which affords keen and permanent delight to
+  contemplation. Such delight the artist can never communicate by the
+  display of a callous and pedantic impartiality in presence of the
+  facts of life and nature. His representation of realities will only
+  strike or impress others in so far as it concentrates their attention
+  on things by which he has been struck and impressed himself. To arouse
+  emotion, he must have felt emotion; and emotion is impossible without
+  partiality. The artist is one who instinctively tends to modify and
+  work upon every reality before him in conformity with some poignant
+  and sensitive principle of preference or selection in his mind. He
+  instinctively adds something to nature in one direction and takes away
+  something in another, overlooking this kind of fact and insisting on
+  that, suppressing many particulars which he holds irrelevant in order
+  to insist on and bring into prominence others by which he is attracted
+  and arrested.
+
+
+    Nature of the idealizing process.
+
+  The instinct by which an artist thus prefers, selects and brings into
+  light one order of facts or aspects in the thing before him rather
+  than the rest, is part of what is called the _idealizing_ or _ideal_
+  faculty. Interminable discussion has been spent on the
+  questions,--What is the ideal, and how do we idealize? The answer has
+  been given in one form by those thinkers (e.g. Vischer and Lotze) who
+  have pointed out that the process of aesthetic idealization carried on
+  by the artist is only the higher development of a process carried on
+  in an elementary fashion by all men, from the very nature of their
+  constitution. The physical organs of sense themselves do not retain or
+  put on record all the impressions made upon them. When the nerves of
+  the eye receive a multitude of different stimulations at once from
+  different points in space, the sense of eyesight, instead of being
+  aware of all these stimulations singly, only abstracts and retains a
+  total impression of them together. In like manner we are not made
+  aware by the sense of hearing of all the several waves of sound that
+  strike in a momentary succession upon the nerves of the ear; that
+  sense only abstracts and retains a total impression from the combined
+  effect of a number of such waves. And the office which each sense thus
+  performs singly for its own impressions, the mind performs in a higher
+  degree for the impressions of all the senses equally, and for all the
+  other parts of our experience. We are always dismissing or neglecting
+  a great part of our impressions, and abstracting and combining among
+  those which we retain. The ordinary human consciousness works like an
+  artist up to this point; and when we speak of the ordinary or
+  inartistic man as being impartial in the retention or registry of his
+  daily impressions, we mean, of course, in the retention or registry of
+  his impressions as already thus far abstracted and assorted in
+  consciousness. The artistic man, whose impressions affect him much
+  more strongly, has the faculty of carrying much farther these same
+  processes of abstraction, combination and selection among his
+  impressions.
+
+
+    Subjective and objective ideals.
+
+  The possession of this faculty is the artist's most essential gift. To
+  attempt to carry farther the psychological analysis of the gift is
+  outside our present object; but it is worth while to consider somewhat
+  closely its modes of practical operation. One mode is this: the artist
+  grows up with certain innate or acquired predilections which become a
+  part of his constitution whether he will or no,--predilections, say,
+  if he is a dramatic poet, for certain types of plot, character and
+  situation; if he is a sculptor, for certain proportions and a certain
+  habitual carriage and disposition of the limbs; if he is a figure
+  painter, for certain schemes of composition and moulds of figure and
+  airs and expressions of countenance; if a landscape painter, for a
+  certain class of local character, sentiment and pictorial effect in
+  natural scenery. To such predilections he cannot choose but make his
+  representations of reality in large measure conform. This is one part
+  of the transmuting process which the data of life and experience have
+  to undergo at the hands of artists, and may be called the subjective
+  or purely personal mode of idealization. But there is another part of
+  that work which springs from an impulse in the artistic constitution
+  not less imperious than the last named, and in a certain sense
+  contrary to it. As an imitator or evoker of the facts of life and
+  nature, the artist must recognize and accept the character of those
+  facts with which he has in any given case to deal. All facts cannot be
+  of the cast he prefers, and in so far as he undertakes to deal with
+  those of an opposite cast he must submit to them; he must study them
+  as they actually are, must apprehend, enforce and bring into
+  prominence their own dominant tendencies. If he cannot find in them
+  what is most pleasing to himself, he will still be led by the
+  abstracting and discriminating powers of his observation to discern
+  what is most expressive and significant in _them_, he will emphasize
+  and put on record this, idealizing the facts before him not in his
+  direction but in their own. This is the second or objective half of
+  the artist's task of idealization. It is this half upon which Taine
+  dwelt almost exclusively, and on the whole with a just insight into
+  the principles of the operation, in his well-known treatise _On the
+  Ideal in Art_. Both these modes of idealization are legitimate; that
+  which springs from inborn and overmastering personal preference in the
+  artist for particular aspects of life and nature, and that which
+  springs from his insight into the dominant and significant character
+  of the phenomena actually before him, and his desire to emphasize and
+  disengage them. But there is a third mode of idealizing which is less
+  vital and genuine than either of these, and therefore less legitimate,
+  though unfortunately far more common. This mode consists in making
+  things conform to a borrowed and conventional standard of beauty and
+  taste, which corresponds neither to any strong inward predilection of
+  the artist nor to any vital characteristic in the objects of his
+  representation. Since the rediscovery of Greek and Roman sculpture in
+  the Renaissance, a great part of the efforts of artists have been
+  spent in falsifying their natural instincts and misrepresenting the
+  facts of nature in pursuit of a conventional ideal of abstract and
+  generalized beauty framed on a false conception and a shallow
+  knowledge of the antique. School after school from the 16th century
+  downwards has been confirmed in this practice by academic criticism
+  and theory, with resulting insipidities and insincerities of
+  performance which have commonly been acclaimed in their day, but from
+  which later generations have sooner or later turned away with a
+  wholesome reaction of distaste.
+
+
+    Examples of the two modes and of their reconciliation.
+
+  The two genuine modes of idealization, the subjective and the
+  objective, are not always easy to be reconciled. The greatest artist
+  is no doubt he who can combine the strongest personal instincts of
+  preference with the keenest power of observing characteristics as they
+  are, yet in fact we find few in whom both these elements of the ideal
+  faculty have been equally developed. To take an example among
+  Florentine painters, Sandro Botticelli is usually thought of as one
+  who could never escape from the dictation of his own personal ideals,
+  in obedience to which he is supposed to have invested all the
+  creations of his art with nearly the same conformation of brows, lips,
+  cheeks and chin, nearly the same looks of wistful yearning and
+  dejection. There is some truth in this impression, though it is
+  largely based on the works not of the master himself, but of pupils
+  who exaggerated his mannerisms. Leonardo da Vinci was strong in both
+  directions; haunted in much of his work by a particular human ideal of
+  intellectual sweetness and alluring mystery, he has yet left us a vast
+  number of exercises which show him as an indefatigable student of
+  objective characteristics and psychological expressions of an order
+  the most opposed to this. And in this case again followers have
+  over-emphasized the master's predilections, Luini, Sodoma and the rest
+  borrowing and repeating the mysterious smile of Leonardo till it
+  becomes in their work an affectation cloying however lovely. Among
+  latter-day painters, Burne-Jones will occur to every reader as the
+  type of an artist always haunted and dominated by ideals of an
+  intensely personal cast partly engendered in his imagination by
+  sympathy with the early Florentines. If we seek for examples of the
+  opposite principle, of that idealism which idealizes above all things
+  objectively, and seeks to disengage the very inmost and individual
+  characters of the thing or person before it, we think naturally of
+  certain great masters of the northern schools, as Durer, Holbein and
+  Rembrandt. Durer's endeavour to express such characters by the most
+  searching intensity of linear definition was, however, hampered and
+  conditioned by his inherited national and Gothic predilection for the
+  strained in gesture and the knotted and the gnarled in structure,
+  against which his deliberate scholarly ambition to establish a canon
+  of ideal proportion contended for the most part in vain. And
+  Rembrandt's profound spiritual insight into human character and
+  personality did not prevent him from plunging his subjects, ever
+  deeper and deeper as his life advanced, into a mysterious shadow-world
+  of his own imagination, where all local colours were broken up and
+  crumbled, and where amid the struggle of gloom and gleam he could make
+  his intensely individualized men and women breathe more livingly than
+  in plain human daylight.
+
+
+    Caricature and the grotesque as modes of the ideal.
+
+  It is by the second mode of operation chiefly, that is by
+  imaginatively discerning, disengaging and forcing into prominence
+  their inherent significance, that the idealizing faculty brings into
+  the sphere of fine art deformities and degeneracies to which the name
+  beautiful or sublime can by no stretch of usage be applied. Hence
+  arise creations like the Stryge of Notre-Dame and a thousand other
+  grotesques of Gothic architectural carving. Hence, although on a lower
+  plane and interpreted with a less transmuting intensity of insight and
+  emphasis, the snarling or jovial grossness of the peasants of Adrian
+  Brauwer and the best of his Dutch compeers. Hence Shakespeare's
+  Caliban and figures like those of Quilp and Quasimodo in the romances
+  of Dickens and Hugo; hence the cynic grimness of Goya's Caprices and
+  the profound and bitter impressiveness of Daumier's caricatures of
+  Parisian bourgeois life; or again, in an angrier and more insulting
+  and therefore less understanding temper, the brutal energy of the
+  political drawings of Gilray.
+
+
+    Unidealized imitation not fine art.
+
+  Sculpture, painting and poetry, then, are among the greater fine arts
+  those which express and arouse emotion by imitating or evoking real
+  and known things, either for their own sakes literally, or for the
+  sake of shadowing forth things not known but imagined. In either case
+  they represent their originals, not indiscriminately as they are, but
+  sifted, simplified, enforced and enhanced to our apprehensions partly
+  by the artist's power of making things conform to his own instincts
+  and preferences, partly by his other power of interpreting and
+  emphasizing the significant characters of the facts before him. Any
+  imitation that does not do one or other or both of these things in
+  full measure fails in the quality of emotional expression and
+  emotional appeal, and in so failing falls short, taken merely as
+  imitation, of the standard of fine art.
+
+
+    The appeal of the imitative arts depends partly on non-imitative
+      elements.
+
+  But we must remember that idealized imitation, as such, is not the
+  whole task of these arts nor their only means of appeal. There is
+  another part of their task, logically though not practically
+  independent of the relations borne by their imitations to the original
+  phenomena of nature, and dependent on the appeal made through the eye
+  and ear to our primal organic sensibilities by the properties of
+  rhythm, pattern and regulated design in the arrangement of sounds,
+  lines, masses, colours and light-and-shade. That appeal we noted as
+  lying at the root of the art impulse in its most elementary stage. In
+  its most developed stage every fine art is bound still to play upon
+  the same sensibilities. In a work of sculpture the contours and
+  interchanges of light and shadow are bound to be such as would please
+  the eye, whether the statue or relief represented the figure of
+  anything real in the world or not. The flow and balance of line, and
+  the distribution of colours and light-and-shade, in a picture are
+  bound to be such as would make an agreeable pattern although they bore
+  no resemblance to natural fact (as, indeed, many subordinate
+  applications of this art, in decorative painting and geometrical and
+  other ornaments, do, we know, give pleasure though they represent
+  nothing). The sound of a line or verse in poetry is bound to be such
+  as would thrill the physical ear in hearing, or the mental ear in
+  reading, with a delightful excitement even though the meaning went for
+  nothing. If the imitative arts are to touch and elevate the emotions,
+  if they are to afford permanent delight of the due pitch and volume,
+  it is not a more essential law that their imitation, merely as such,
+  should be of the order which we have defined as ideal, than that they
+  should at the same time exhibit these independent effects which they
+  share with the non-imitative group.
+
+
+    Necessity of due balance between conception and technique: the
+      non-imitative arts and their technique.
+
+  So far we have assumed, without asserting, the necessity that the
+  artist in whatever kind should possess a power of execution, or
+  technique as it is called in modern phrase, adequate to the task of
+  embodying and giving shape to his ideals. In thought it is possible to
+  separate the conception of a work of art from its execution; in
+  practice it is not possible, and half the errors in criticism and
+  speculation about the fine arts spring from failing to realize that an
+  artistic conception can only be brought home to us through and by its
+  appropriate embodiment. Whatever the artist's cast of imagination or
+  degree of sensibility may be in presence of the materials of life, it
+  is essential that he should be able to express himself appropriately
+  in the material of his particular art. To quote the writer (R.A.M.
+  Stevenson) who has enforced this point most clearly and vividly,
+  perhaps with some pardonable measure of over-statement: "It is a
+  sensitiveness to the special qualities of some visible or audible
+  medium of art which distinguishes the species artist from the genus
+  man." And again: "There are as many separate faculties of imagination
+  as there are separate mediums in which to conceive an image--clay,
+  words, paint, notes of music." ... "Technique differs as the material
+  of each art differs--differs as marble, pigments, musical notes and
+  words differ." The artist who does not enjoy and has not with
+  delighted labour mastered the effects of his own chosen medium will
+  never be a master; the hearer, reader or spectator who cannot
+  appreciate the qualities of skill, vitality and charm in the handling
+  of the given material, or who fails to feel their absence when they
+  are lacking, or who looks in one material primarily for the qualities
+  appropriate to another, will never make a critic. The technique of the
+  space-arts differs radically from that of the time-arts. So again do
+  those of the imitative and the non-imitative arts differ among
+  themselves. The non-imitative arts of music and architecture are in a
+  certain degree alike in this, that the artist is in neither case his
+  own executant (this at least is true of music so far as concerns its
+  modern concerted and orchestral developments); the musical composer
+  and the architect each imagines and composes a design in the medium of
+  his own art which it is left for others to carry out under his
+  direction. The technique in each case consists not in mastery of an
+  instrument (though the musical composer may be, and often is, a master
+  of some one of the instruments whose effects he in his mind's ear
+  co-ordinates and combines); it lies in the power of knowing and
+  conjuring up all the emotional resources and effects of the various
+  materials at his command, and of conceiving and designing to their
+  last detail vast and ordered structures, to be raised by subordinate
+  executants from those materials, which shall adequately express his
+  temperament and embody his ideals.
+
+
+    The imitative arts and their technique: painting and sculpture.
+
+  In the imitative arts, on the other hand, the sculptor, unless he is a
+  fraud, must be wholly his own executant in the original task of
+  modelling his design in the soft material of clay or wax, though he
+  must accept the aid of assistants whether in the casting of his work
+  in bronze or in first roughing it out from the block in marble. Too
+  many sculptors have been inclined further to trust to trained
+  mechanical help in finishing their work with the chisel; with the
+  result that the surface loses the touch which is the expression of
+  personal temperament and personal feeling for the relations of his
+  material to nature. The artist in love with the vital qualities of
+  form, or those of his own handiwork in expressing such qualities in
+  modelling-clay, will never stop until he learns how to translate them
+  for himself in marble. Proceeding to that imitative art which leaves
+  out the third dimension of nature, and by so doing enormously
+  increases the range of objects and effects which come within its
+  power--proceeding to the art of painting, the painter is in theory
+  exclusively his own executant, and in practice mainly so, though in
+  certain schools and periods the great artists have been accustomed to
+  surround themselves with pupils to whom they have imparted their
+  methods and who have helped them in the subordinate and preparatory
+  parts of their work. But the painter fit to teach and lead can by no
+  means escape the necessity of being himself a master of his material,
+  and his handling of it must needs bear the immediate impress of his
+  temperament. His emotional preferences among the visible facts of
+  nature, his feeling for the relative importance and charm of line,
+  colour, light and shade, used whether for the interpretation and
+  heightening of natural fact or for producing a pattern in itself
+  harmonious and suggestive to the eye, his sense of the special modes
+  of handling most effective for communicating the impression he
+  desires, all these together inevitably appear in, and constitute, his
+  style and technique. If he is careless or inexpert or conventional, or
+  cold or without delight, in technique, though he may be animated by
+  the noblest purposes and the loftiest ideas, he is a failure as a
+  painter. At certain periods in the history of painting, as in the 13th
+  and 14th centuries in Italy, the technique seems indeed to modern eyes
+  wholly immature; but that was because there were many aspects of
+  visible things which the art had not yet attempted or desired to
+  portray, not because it did not put forth with delight its best
+  traditional or newly acquired skill in portraying the special aspects
+  with which it had so far attempted to grapple. At certain other
+  periods, as in the later 16th and 17th centuries in the same country,
+  the elements of inherited technical facility and academic pride of
+  skill outweigh the sincerity and freshness of interest taken in the
+  aspects of things to be portrayed, and the true balance is lost. At
+  other times, as in much of the work of the 19th century, especially in
+  England, painters have been diverted from their true task, and lost
+  hold of intelligent and living technique altogether, in trying to
+  please a public blind to the special qualities of their art, and prone
+  to seek in it the effects, frivolous or serious, which are appropriate
+  not to paint and canvas but to literature.
+
+
+    Technique in poetry: the magic of words.
+
+  Lastly, the poet and literary artist must obviously be the exclusive
+  master of his own technique. No one can help him: all depends on the
+  keenness of his double sensibility to the thrill of life and to that
+  of words, and to his power of maintaining a just balance between the
+  two. If he is truly and organically sensitive to words alone, and has
+  learnt life only through their medium and not through the energies of
+  his own imagination, nor through personal sensibility to the impact of
+  things and thoughts and passions and experience, then his work may be
+  a miracle of accomplished verbal music, and may entrance the ear for
+  the moment, but will never live to illuminate and sustain and console.
+  If, on the other hand, he has imagination and sensibility in full
+  measure, and lacks the inborn love of and gift for words and their
+  magic, he will be but a dumb or stammering poet all his days. There is
+  no better witness on this point than Wordsworth. His own prolonged
+  lapses from verbal felicity, and continual habit of solemn meditation
+  on themes not always inspiring, might make us hesitate to choose him
+  as an example of that particular love and gift. But Wordsworth could
+  never have risen to his best and greatest self had he not truly
+  possessed the sensibilities which he attributes to himself in the
+  Prelude:
+
+                          "Twice five years
+    Or less I might have seen, when first my mind
+    With conscious pleasure opened to the charm
+    Of words in tuneful order, found them sweet
+    For their own sakes, a passion, and a power;
+    And phrases pleased me chosen for delight,
+    For pomp, or love."
+
+  And again, expressing better than any one else the relation which
+  words in true poetry hold to things, he writes:
+
+                                "Visionary power
+    Attends the motions of the viewless winds,
+    Embodied in the mystery of words;
+    There darkness makes abode, and all the host
+    Of shadowy things work endless changes,--there,
+    As in a mansion like their proper home,
+    Even forms and substances are circumfused
+    By that transparent veil with light divine,
+    And, through the turnings intricate of verse,
+    Present themselves as objects recognized,
+    In flashes, and with glory not their own."
+
+
+    Third classification: the serviceable and the non-serviceable arts.
+
+  3. _The Serviceable and the Non-Serviceable Arts._--It has been
+  established from the outset that, though the essential distinction of
+  fine art as such is to minister not to material necessity or practical
+  use, but to delight, yet there are some among the arts of men which do
+  both these things at once and are arts of direct use and of beauty or
+  emotional appeal together. Under this classification a survey of the
+  field of art at different periods of history would yield different
+  results. In ruder times, we have seen, the utilitarian aim was still
+  the predominant aim of art, and most of what we now call fine arts
+  served in the beginning to fulfil the practical needs of individual
+  and social life; and this not only among primitive or savage races. In
+  ancient Egypt and Assyria the primary purpose of the relief-sculptures
+  on palace and temple walls was the practical one of historical record
+  and commemoration. Even as late as the middle ages and early
+  Renaissance the primary business of the painter was to give
+  instruction to the unlearned in Bible history and in the lives of the
+  saints, and to rouse him to moods of religious and ethical exaltation.
+  The pleasures of fine art proper among the manual-imitative group--the
+  pleasures, namely, of producing and contemplating certain arrangements
+  rather than others of design, proportion, pattern, colour and light
+  and shade, and of putting forth and appreciating certain qualities of
+  skill, truth and significance in idealized imitation,--these were,
+  historically speaking, by-products that arose gradually in the course
+  of practice and development. As time went on, the conscious aim of
+  ministering to such pleasures displaced and threw into the background
+  the utilitarian ends for which the arts had originally been practised,
+  and the pleasures became ends in themselves.
+
+
+    Among the greater arts, architecture alone exist primarily for
+      service.
+
+  But even in advanced societies the double qualities of use and beauty
+  still remain inseparable, among the five greater arts, in
+  architecture. We build in the first instance for the sake of necessary
+  shelter and accommodation, or for the commemoration, propitiation or
+  worship of spiritual powers on whom we believe our welfare to depend.
+  By and by we find out that the aspect of our constructions is
+  pleasurable or the reverse. Architecture is the art of building at
+  once as we need and as we like, and a practical treatise on
+  architecture must treat the beauty and the utility of buildings as
+  bound up together. But for our present purpose it has been proper to
+  take into account one half only of the vocation of architecture, the
+  half by which it impresses, gives delight and belongs to that which is
+  the subject of our study, to fine art; and to neglect the other half
+  of its vocation, by which it belongs to what is not the subject of our
+  study, to useful or mechanical art. It is plain, however, that the
+  presence or absence of this foreign element, the element of practical
+  utility, constitutes a fair ground for a new and separate
+  classification of the fine arts. If we took the five greater arts as
+  they exist in modern times by themselves, architecture would on this
+  ground stand alone in one division, as the directly useful or
+  serviceable fine art; with sculpture, painting, music and poetry
+  together in the other division, as fine arts unassociated with such
+  use or service. Not that the divisions would, even thus, be quite
+  sharply and absolutely separated. Didactic poetry, we have already
+  acknowledged, is a branch of the poetic art which aims at practice and
+  utility. Again, the hortatory and patriotic kinds of lyric poetry,
+  from the strains of Tyrtaeus to those of Arndt or Rouget de Lisle or
+  Wordsworth's sonnets written in war-time, may fairly be said to belong
+  to a phase of fine art which aims directly at one of the highest
+  utilities, the stimulation of patriotic feeling and self-devotion. So
+  may the strains of music which accompany such poetry. The same
+  practical character, as stimulating and attuning the mind to definite
+  ends and actions, might indeed have been claimed for the greater part
+  of the whole art of music as that art was practised in antiquity, when
+  each of several prescribed and highly elaborated moods, or modes, of
+  melody was supposed to have a known effect upon the courage and moral
+  temper of the hearer. Compare Milton, when he tells of the Dorian mood
+  of flutes and soft recorders which assuaged the sufferings and renewed
+  the courage of Satan and his legions as they marched through hell. In
+  modern music, of which the elements, much more complex in themselves
+  than those of ancient music, have the effect of stirring our fibres to
+  moods of rapturous contemplation rather than of action, military
+  strains in march time are in truth the only purely instrumental
+  variety of the art which may still be said to retain this character.
+
+
+    Other and minor arts of service subordinate to architecture.
+
+  To reinforce, however, the serviceable or useful division of fine arts
+  in our present classification, it is not among the greater arts that
+  we must look. We must look among the lesser or auxiliary arts of the
+  manual or shaping group. The weaver, the joiner, the potter, the
+  smith, the goldsmith, the glass-maker, these and a hundred artificers
+  who produce wares primarily for use, produce them in a form or with
+  embellishments that have the secondary virtue of giving pleasure both
+  to the producer and the user. Much ingenuity has been spent to little
+  purpose in attempting to group and classify these lesser shaping arts
+  under one or other of the greater shaping arts, according to the
+  nature of the means employed in each. Thus the potter's art has been
+  classed under sculpture, because he moulds in solid form the shapes of
+  his cups, plates and ewers; the art of the joiner under that of the
+  architect, because his tables, seats and cupboards are fitted and
+  framed together, like the houses they furnish, out of solid materials
+  previously prepared and cut; and the weaver and embroiderer, from the
+  point of view of the effects produced by their art, among painters.
+  But the truth is, that each one of these auxiliary handicrafts has its
+  own materials and technical procedure, which cannot, without forcing
+  and confusion, be described by the name proper to the materials and
+  technical procedure of any of the greater arts. The only satisfactory
+  classification of these handicrafts is that now before us, according
+  to which we think of them all together in the same group with
+  architecture, not because any one or more of them may be technically
+  allied to that art, but because, like it, they all yield products
+  capable of being practically useful and beautiful at the same time.
+  Architecture is the art which fits and frames together, of stone,
+  brick, mortar, timber or iron, the abiding and assembling places of
+  man, all his houses, palaces, temples, monuments, museums, workshops,
+  roofed places of meeting and exchange, theatres for spectacle,
+  fortresses of defence, bridges, aqueducts, and ships for seafaring.
+  The wise architect having fashioned any one of these great
+  constructions at once for service and beauty in the highest degree,
+  the lesser or auxiliary manual arts (commonly called "industrial" or
+  "applied" arts) come in to fill, furnish and adorn it with things of
+  service and beauty in a lower degree, each according to its own
+  technical laws and capabilities; some, like pottery, delighting the
+  user at once by beauty of form, delicacy of substance, and
+  pleasantness of imitative or non-imitative ornament; some, like
+  embroidery, by richness of tissue, and by the same twofold
+  pleasantness of ornament; some, like goldsmith's work, by
+  exquisiteness of fancy and workmanship proportionate to the
+  exquisiteness of the material. To this vast group of workmen, whose
+  work is at the same time useful and fine in its degree, the ancient
+  Greek gave the place which is most just and convenient for thought,
+  when he classed them all together under the name of [Greek: tektones],
+  or artificers, and called the builder by the name of [Greek:
+  architekton], arch-artificer or artificer-in-chief. Modern usage has
+  adopted the phrase "arts and crafts" as a convenient general name for
+  their pursuits.
+
+
+III. _Of the History of the Fine Arts._
+
+  Current generalizations on the history of fine art: Hegel.
+
+Students of human culture have concentrated a great deal of attentive
+thought upon the history of fine art, and have put forth various
+comprehensive generalizations intended at once to sum up and to account
+for the phases and vicissitudes of that history. The most famous
+formulae are those of Hegel, who regarded particular arts as being
+characteristic of and appropriate to particular forms of civilization
+and particular ages of history. For him, architecture was the symbolic
+art appropriate to ages of obscure and struggling ideas, and
+characteristic of the Egyptian and the Asiatic races of old and of the
+medieval age in Europe. Sculpture was the classical art appropriate to
+ages of lucid and self-possessed ideas, and characteristic of the Greek
+and Roman period. Painting, music and poetry were the romantic arts,
+appropriate to the ages of complicated and overmastering ideas, and
+characteristic of modern humanity in general. In the working out of
+these generalizations Hegel brought together a mass of judicious and
+striking observations; and that they contain on the whole a
+preponderance of truth may be admitted. It has been objected against
+them, from the philosophical point of view, that they too much mix up
+the definition of what the several arts theoretically are with
+considerations of what in various historical circumstances they have
+practically been. From the historical point of view there can be taken
+what seems a more valid objection, that these formulae of Hegel tend too
+much to fix the attention of the student upon the one dominant art
+chosen as characteristic of any period, and to give him false ideas of
+the proportions and relations of the several arts at the same period--of
+the proportions and relations which poetry, say, really bore to
+sculpture among the Greeks and Romans, or sculpture to architecture
+among the Christian nations of the middle age. The truth is, that the
+historic survey gained over any field of human activity from the height
+of generalizations so vast in scope as these are must needs, in the
+complexity of earthly affairs, be a survey too distant to give much
+guidance until its omissions are filled up by a great deal of nearer
+study; and such nearer study is apt to compel the student in the long
+run to qualify the theories with which he has started until they are in
+danger of disappearing altogether.
+
+
+  Herbert Spencer and the evolution theory.
+
+Another systematic exponent of the universe, whose system is very
+different from that of Hegel, Herbert Spencer, brought the doctrine of
+evolution to bear, not without interesting results, upon the history of
+the fine arts and their development. Herbert Spencer set forth how the
+manual group of fine arts, architecture, sculpture and painting, were in
+their first rudiments bound up together, and how each of them in the
+course of history has liberated itself from the rest by a gradual
+process of separation. These arts did not at first exist in the distinct
+and developed forms in which we have above described them. There were no
+statues in the round, and no painted panels or canvases hung upon the
+wall. Only the rudiments of sculpture and painting existed, and that
+only as ornaments applied to architecture, in the shape of tiers of
+tinted reliefs, representing in a kind of picture-writing the exploits
+of kings upon the walls of their temple-palaces. Gradually sculpture
+took greater salience and roundness, and tended to disengage itself from
+the wall, while painting found out how to represent solidity by means of
+its own, and dispensed with the raised surface upon which it was first
+applied. But the old mixture and union of the three arts, with an
+undeveloped art of painting and an undeveloped art of sculpture still
+engaged in or applied to the works of architecture, continued on the
+whole to prevail through the long cycles of Egyptian and Assyrian
+history. In the Egyptian palace-temple we find a monument at once
+political and religious, upon the production of which were concentrated
+all the energies and faculties of all the artificers of the race. With
+its incised and pictured walls, its half-detached colossi, its open and
+its colonnaded chambers, the forms of the columns and their capitals
+recalling the stems and blossoms of the lotus and papyrus, with its
+architecture everywhere taking on the characters and covering itself
+with the adornments of immature sculpture and painting--this structure
+exhibits within its single fabric the origins of the whole subsequent
+group of shaping arts. From hence it is a long way to the innumerable
+artistic surroundings of later Greek and Roman life, the many temples
+with their detached and their engaged statues, the theatres, the
+porticoes, the baths, the training-schools, the stadiums, with free and
+separate statues both of gods and men adorning every building and public
+place, the frescoes upon the walls, the panel pictures hung in temples
+and public and private galleries. In the terms of the Spencerian theory
+of evolution, the advance from the early Egyptian to the later Greek
+stage is an advance from the one to the manifold, from the simple to the
+complex, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, and affords a
+striking instance of that vast and ceaseless process of differentiation
+and integration which it is the law of all things to undergo. In the
+Christian monuments of the early middle age, again, the arts, owing to
+the political and social cataclysm in which Roman civilization went
+down, have gone back to the rudimentary stage, and are once more
+attached to and combined with each other. The single monument, the one
+great birth of art, in that age, is the Gothic church. In this we find
+the art of applied sculpture exercised in fashions infinitely rich and
+various, but entirely in the service and for the adornment of the
+architecture; we find painting exercised in fashions more rudimentary
+still, principally in the forms of translucent imagery in the chancel
+windows and tinted decorations on the walls and vaultings. From this
+stage again the process of the differentiation of the arts is repeated.
+It is by a new evolution or unfolding, and by one carried to much
+further and more complicated stages than the last had reached, that the
+arts since the middle age have come to the point where we find them
+to-day; when architecture is applied to a hundred secular and civil uses
+with not less magnificence, or at least not less desire of magnificence,
+than that with which it fulfilled its two only uses in the middle age,
+the uses of worship and of defence; when detached sculptures adorn, or
+are intended to adorn, all our streets and commemorate all our
+likenesses; when the subjects of painting have been extended from
+religion to all life and nature, until this one art has been divided
+into the dozen branches of history, landscape, still life, genre,
+anecdote and the rest. Such being in brief the successive stages, and
+such the reiterated processes, of evolution among the shaping or space
+arts, the action of the same law can be traced, it is urged, in the
+growth of the speaking or time arts also. Originally poetry and music,
+the two great speaking arts, were not separated from each other and from
+the art of bodily motion, dancing. The father of song, music and
+dancing, all three, was that primitive man of whom so much has already
+been said, he who first clapped hands and leapt and shouted in time at
+some festival of his tribe. From the clapping, or rudimentary rhythmical
+noise, has been evolved the whole art of instrumental music, down to the
+entrancing complexity of the modern symphony. From the shout, or
+rudimentary emotional utterance, has proceeded by a kindred evolution
+the whole art of vocal music down to the modern opera or oratorio. From
+the leap, or rudimentary expression of emotion by rhythmical movements
+of the body, has descended every variety of dancing, from the stately
+figures of the tragic chorus of the Greeks to the _kordax_ of their
+comedy or the complexities of the modern ballet.
+
+
+  Weak and strong points of Spencer's generalization.
+
+That the theory of evolution serves usefully to group and to interpret
+many facts in the history of art we shall not deny, though it would be
+easy to show that Herbert Spencer's instances and applications are not
+sufficient to sustain all the conclusions that he seems to draw from
+them. Thus, it is perfectly true that the Egyptian or Assyrian palace
+wall is an instance of rudimentary painting and rudimentary sculpture in
+subservience to architecture. But it is not less true that races who had
+no architecture at all, but lived in caverns of the earth, exhibit, as
+we have already had occasion to notice, excellent rudiments of the other
+two shaping arts in a different form, in the carved or incised handles
+of their weapons. And it is almost certain that, among the nations of
+oriental antiquity themselves, the art of decorating solid walls so as
+to please the eye with patterns and presentations of natural objects was
+borrowed from the precedent of an older art which works in easier
+materials, namely, the art of the weaver. It would be in the perished
+textile fabrics of the earliest dwellers in the valleys of the Euphrates
+and the Nile that we should find, if anywhere, the origins of the
+systems of surface design, whether conventional or imitative, which
+those races afterwards applied to the decoration of their solid
+constructions. Not, therefore, in any one exclusive type of primitive
+artistic activity, but in a score of such types equally, varying
+according to race, region and circumstances, shall we find so many germs
+or nuclei from which whole families of fine arts have in the course of
+the world's history differentiated and unfolded themselves. And more
+than once during that history, a cataclysm of political and social
+forces has not only checked the process of the evolution of the fine
+arts, but from an advanced stage of development has thrown them back
+again to a primitive stage. Recent research has shown how the Minoan and
+Mycenaean civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, with their developed
+fine arts, must have perished and been effaced before the second growth
+of art from new rudiments took place in Greece. The great instance of
+the downfall of the Roman civilization need not be requoted. By
+Spencer's application of the theory of evolution, not less than by
+Hegel's theory of the historic periods, attention is called to the fact
+that Christian Europe, during several centuries of the middle age,
+presents to our study a civilization analogous to the civilization of
+the old oriental empires in this respect, that its ruling and
+characteristic manual art is architecture, to which sculpture and
+painting are, as in the oriental empires, once more subjugated and
+attached. It does not of course follow that such periods of fusion or
+mutual dependence among the arts are periods of bad art. On the
+contrary, each stage of the evolution of any art has its own
+characteristic excellence. The arts can be employed in combination, and
+yet be all severally excellent. When music, dancing, acting and singing
+were combined in the performance of the Greek chorus, the combination no
+doubt presented a relative perfection of each of the four elements
+analogous to the combined perfection, in the contemporary Doric temple,
+of pure architectural form, sculptured enrichment of spaces specially
+contrived for sculpture in the pediments and frieze, and coloured
+decoration over all. The extreme differentiation of any art from every
+other art, and of the several branches of one art among themselves, does
+not by any means tend to the perfection of that art. The process of
+evolution among the fine arts may go, and indeed in the course of
+history has gone, much too far for the health of the arts severally.
+Thus an artist of our own day is usually either a painter only or a
+sculptor only; but yet it is acknowledged that the painter who can model
+a statue, or the sculptor who can paint a picture, is likely to be the
+more efficient master of both arts; and in the best days of Florentine
+art the greatest men were generally painters, sculptors, architects and
+goldsmiths all at once. In like manner a landscape painter who paints
+landscape only is apt not to paint it so well as one who paints the
+figure too; and in recent times the craft of engraving had almost ceased
+to be an art from the habit of allotting one part of the work, as skies,
+to one hand, another part, as figures, to a second, and another part, as
+landscape, to a third. This kind of continually progressing subdivision
+of labour, which seems to be the necessary law of industrial processes,
+is fatal to any skill which demands, as skill in the fine arts, we have
+seen, demands, the free exercise and direction of a highly complex
+cluster both of faculties and sensibilities.
+
+
+  Reaction against over-evolution amongst the fine arts.
+
+In the second half of the 19th century a reaction set in against such
+over-differentiation of the several manual arts and crafts. This
+reaction is chiefly identified in England with the name of William
+Morris, who insisted by precept and example that one form of artistic
+activity was as worthy as another, and himself both practised and
+trained others in the practice of glass-painting, weaving, embroidery,
+furniture and wall-paper designing, and book decoration alike. His
+example has been to some extent followed in most European countries, and
+efforts have been made to reunite the functions of artist and craftsman,
+and to set a limit to the process of differentiation among the various
+manual arts. In the vocal or time arts also, a reformer of high genius
+and force of character, Richard Wagner, rose to contend that in music
+the process of evolution and differentiation had gone much too far.
+Music, he urged, as separated from words and actions, independent
+orchestral and instrumental music, had reached its utmost development,
+and its further advance could only be an advance into the inane; while
+operatic music had broken itself up into a number of set and separate
+forms, as aria, scena, recitative, which corresponded to no real
+varieties of instinctive emotional utterance, and in the aimless
+production of which the art was in danger of paralysing and stultifying
+itself. This process, he declared, must be checked; music and words must
+be brought back again into close connexion and mutual dependence; the
+artificial opera forms must be abolished, and a new and homogeneous
+music-drama be created, of which the author must combine in himself the
+functions of poet, composer, inventor, and director of scenery and stage
+appliances, so that the entire creation should bear the impress of a
+single mind; to the creation of such a music-drama he accordingly
+devoted all the energies of his being.
+
+
+  Taine's philosophy or natural history of the fine arts.
+
+It is thus evident that the evolution theory, though it furnishes us
+with some instructive points of view for the history of the fine arts as
+for other things, is far from being the whole key to that history.
+Another key, employed with results perhaps less really luminous than
+they are certainly showy and attractive, is that supplied by Taine.
+Taine's philosophy, which might perhaps be better called a natural
+history, of fine art consists in regarding the fine arts as the
+necessary result of the general conditions under which they are at any
+time produced--conditions of race and climate, of religion, civilization
+and manners. Acquaint yourself with these conditions as they existed in
+any given people at any given period, and you will be able to account
+for the characters assumed by the arts of that people at that period,
+and to reason from one to the other, as a botanist can account for the
+flora of any given locality, and can reason from its soil, exposure and
+temperature, to the orders of vegetation which it will produce. This
+method of treating the history of the fine arts, again, is one which can
+be pursued with profit in so far as it makes the student realize the
+connexion of fine arts with human culture in general, and teaches him
+how the arts of any age and country are not an independent or arbitrary
+phenomenon, but are essentially an outcome, or efflorescence, to use a
+phrase of Ruskin's, of deep-seated elements in the civilization which
+produces them. But it is a method which, rashly used, is very apt to
+lead to a hasty and one-sided handling both of history and of art. It is
+easy to fasten on certain obvious relations of fine art to general
+civilization when you know a few of the facts of both, and to say, the
+cloudy skies and mongrel industrial population of Protestant Amsterdam
+at such and such a date had their inevitable reflection in the art of
+Rembrandt; the wealth and pomp of the full-fleshed burghers and
+burgesses of Catholic Antwerp had theirs in the art of Rubens. But to do
+this in the precise and conclusive manner of Taine's treatises on the
+philosophy of art always means to ignore a large range of conditions or
+causes for which no corresponding effect is on the surface apparent, and
+generally also a large number of effects for which appropriate causes
+cannot easily be discovered at all.
+
+
+  Criticisms and counter-criticisms on Taine's methods.
+
+These considerations have resulted in a reaction against Taine's
+theories which goes probably too far. It is no complete confutation of
+his philosophy of art-history to contend, as has been done somewhat
+contemptuously by Professor Ernst Grosse and others, that the great
+artist, so far from representing the general tendencies of his time and
+environment, is commonly a solitary innovator and revolutionist, and has
+to educate and create his own public, often through years of obloquy or
+neglect. This is sometimes true when the traditions and ideals of art
+are undergoing revolution or swift experimental change, but hardly ever
+true in times of stable tradition and accepted ideals; and when true it
+only shows that the tendencies the innovating genius represents are
+tendencies which have till his time been working underground, and which
+he is born to bring into light and evidence. A new and revolutionary
+impulse in art, as in thought or politics, is like a yeast or ferment
+working at first secretly, affecting for a while only a few spirits, as
+a new epidemic may for a while only affect a few constitutions, and then
+gradually ripening and strengthening till it communicates itself to
+thousands. In its inception such a ferment is not, indeed, one of the
+obvious phenomena of the society in which it takes root, but it is none
+the less one of the most vital and significant phenomena. The truth is,
+that this particular efflorescence of human culture depends for its
+character at any given time upon combinations of causes which are by no
+means simple, but generally highly complex, obscure and nicely balanced.
+For instance, the student who should try to reason back from the holy
+and beatified character which prevails in much of the devotional
+painting of the Italian schools down to the Renaissance would be much
+mistaken were he to conclude, "like art, like life, thoughts and
+manners." He would not understand the relation of the art to the general
+civilization of those days unless he were to remember that one of the
+chief functions of the imagination is to make up for the shortcomings of
+reality, and to supply to contemplation images of that which is most
+lacking in actual life; so that the visions at once peaceful and ardent
+embodied by the religious schools of art in the Italian cities are to be
+explained, not by the peace, but rather in great part by the dispeace,
+of contemporary existence, and by the longing of the human spirit to
+escape into happier and more calm conditions.
+
+
+  Difficulty of combining the study of the manual with that of the vocal
+    group of fine arts.
+
+Any one of the three modes of generalization to which we have referred
+might no doubt yield, however, supposing in the student the due gifts of
+patience and of caution, a working clue to guide him through that
+immense region of research, the history of the fine arts. But it is
+hardly possible to pursue to any purpose the history of the two great
+groups, the shaping group and the speaking group, together. At some
+stages of the world's history the manual and the monumental arts have
+flourished, as in Egypt and Assyria, when there was no fine art of words
+at all, and the only literature was that of records cut in hieroglyph or
+cuneiform on palace walls and temples, and on tablets, seals and
+cylinders. At other times and in other communities there has existed a
+great tradition and inheritance of poetry and song when the manual arts
+were only beginning to emerge again from the wreck of an old
+civilization, as in the Homeric age of Greece, or where they had never
+flourished at all except by imitation and importation, as in Palestine.
+In historic Greece all three divisions of the art of poetry, the epic,
+lyric and the dramatic, had been perfected, and two of them had again
+declined, before sculpture had reached maturity or painting had passed
+beyond the stage of its early severity. The European poetry of the
+middle ages, abundant and rich as it was alike in France and Provence,
+in Germany and Scandinavia, can yet not take rank, among the creations
+of human genius, beside the great masterpieces of Romanesque and Gothic
+architecture; it was in Italy only that Dante, before the end of that
+age, carried poetry to a place of equality if not of primacy among the
+arts. Taking the England of the Elizabethan age, we find the great
+outburst of our national genius in poetry contemporary with nothing more
+interesting in the manual arts than the gradual and only
+half-intelligent transformation of late Gothic architecture by the
+adoption of Italian Renaissance forms imported principally by way of
+Flanders or France, together with a fine native skill shown in the art
+of miniature portrait-painting, and none at all worth mentioning in
+other branches of painting or in sculpture. If the course of poetry and
+that of the manual arts have thus run independently throughout almost
+the whole field of history, those of music and the manual arts have been
+more widely separated still. In ancient Greece music and poetry were, we
+know, most intimately connected, but of the true nature of Greek music
+we know but little, of that of the earlier middle ages less still, and
+throughout the later middle ages and the earlier Renaissance the art
+remained undeveloped, whether in the service of the church or in secular
+and popular use, and in both cases in strict subservience to words. The
+growth of independent music is entirely the work of the modern world,
+and will probably rank in the esteem of posterity as its highest
+spiritual achievement and claim to gratitude, when the mechanical
+inventions and applications of applied science, which now occupy so
+disproportionate a part of the attention of humanity, have become a
+normal and unregarded part of its existence.
+
+Moments in history there have no doubt been when literature and the
+manual arts, and even music, have been swept simultaneously along a
+single stream of ideas and feelings. Such a moment was experienced in
+France in 1830 and the following years, when (to choose only a few of
+the greatest names) Hugo in poetry, Delacroix in painting, and Berlioz
+in music were roused to a high pitch of consentaneous inspiration by the
+new ideas and feelings of romanticism. But such moments are rare and
+exceptional. On the other hand, it is very possible to take the whole of
+the shaping or manual group of fine arts together and to pursue their
+history connectedly throughout the course of civilization. By the
+history of art what is usually meant is indeed the history of these
+three arts with that of some of their subordinate and connected crafts.
+Leaving aside the arts of the races of the farther East, which,
+profoundly interesting as they are, have but gradually and late become
+known to us, and the relations of which with the arts of the nearer East
+and the Mediterranean are still quite obscure--leaving these aside, the
+history of the manual arts of architecture, painting and sculpture falls
+naturally into several great periods or divisions to some extent
+overlapping each other but in the main consecutive.
+
+
+  Main divisions of the history of art.
+
+These periods are roughly as follows:--
+
+1. The period of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile,
+beginning approximately about 5000 B.C. and ending, roughly speaking
+(but some of them much earlier), with the spread of Greek power and
+Greek ideas under Alexander. On the main characteristics of the art of
+these empires we have already had occasion to touch.
+
+2. The Minoan and Mycenaean period, partly contemporary with the above
+and dating probably from about 2500 to about 1000 B.C.; our knowledge of
+this is due entirely to quite recent researches, confined at present to
+certain points in Greece and Asia Minor, in Crete and other islands in
+the Mediterranean basin; enough has already been revealed to prove the
+existence of an original and highly developed palace-architecture and of
+forms of relief-painting and of all the minor and decorative arts more
+free and animated than anything known to Egypt or Assyria. (See CRETE
+and AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.)
+
+3. The Greek and Roman period, from about 700 B.C. to the final triumph
+of Christianity, say A.D. 400. During the first two or three centuries
+of this period the Hellenic race, beginning again after the cataclysm
+which had swallowed up the earlier Mediterranean civilizations, carried
+to perfection its most characteristic art, that of sculpture, in the
+endeavour to embody worthily its ideas of the supernatural powers
+governing the world. Putting aside the monstrous gods of Egypt and the
+East, it found its ideals in varieties of the human form as presented by
+the most harmoniously developed specimens of the race under conditions
+of the greatest health, activity and grace. In the figures of Greek
+sculpture, both decorative and independent, and no doubt in Greek
+painting also (but of that we can only judge from such specimens of the
+minor handicrafts, chiefly vase-paintings, as have come down to us)--in
+these were set for the whole Western world the types and standards of
+human beauty, and in their grouping and arrangement the types and
+standards of rhythmical composition and design. Gradually human
+portraiture and themes of everyday life took their place beside
+representations of the gods and heroes. New schools struck out new
+tendencies within certain limits. But in the general standards of form
+and design there was in the imitative arts relatively little change,
+though towards the end there was much failure of skill, throughout the
+whole period. The one great change was in architecture. Greece had been
+content with the constructive system of columns and horizontal
+entablature, and under that system had invented and perfected her three
+successive modes or orders of architecture--the Doric, Ionic and
+Corinthian. The genius of Rome invented the round arch, and by help of
+that system erected throughout her subject world a thousand vast
+constructions--temple, palace, bath, amphitheatre, forum, aqueduct,
+triumphal gate and the rest--on a scale of monumental grandeur such as
+Greece had never known.
+
+4. The Christian period, from about 400 to about 1400. The decay or
+petrifaction of the imitative arts which had set in during the latter
+days of Rome continued during all the earlier centuries of the Christian
+period, while the Western world was in process of remaking. Free
+painting and free sculpture practically ceased to exist. Roman
+architecture underwent modifications under the influence of the church
+and of the new conditions of life; the Byzantine form, touched at
+certain times and places with oriental influences, developed itself
+wherever the Eastern Empire still stood erect in decay; the Romanesque
+form, as it is called, in the barbarian-conquered regions of the west
+and north. Sculpture existed for centuries only in rudimentary and
+subordinate forms as applied to architecture; painting only in forms of
+rigid though sometimes impressive hieratic imagery, whether as mosaic in
+the apses and vaults of churches, as rude illumination in MSS. and
+service-books, or as still ruder altar-painting carried on according to
+a frozen mechanical tradition. As time went on and medieval institutions
+developed themselves, a gradual vitality dawned in all these arts. In
+architecture the introduction of the pointed or Gothic arch at the
+beginning of the 13th century led to almost as great a revolution as
+that brought about by the use of the round or vaulted arch among the
+Romans. The same vital impulse that informed the new Gothic architecture
+breathed into the still quite subordinate arts of sculpture and painting
+(the latter now including the craft of glass-painting for church
+windows) a new spirit whether of devotional intensity or sweetness, or
+of human pathos or rugged humour, with a new technical skill for its
+embodiment. We have not set down, as is usually done, a specifically
+Gothic period in art, for this reason. The characteristic of the whole
+Christian period is that its dominant art is architecture, chiefly
+employed in the service of the church, with painting and sculpture only
+subordinately introduced for its enrichment. It makes no essential
+difference that from the 5th to the 12th century the forms of this art
+were derived with various modifications from the round-arched
+architecture of the Empire, and that by the 13th century new forms both
+of construction and decoration, in which the round arch was replaced by
+the pointed, had been invented in France, and from thence spread abroad
+to Germany and Scandinavia, Great Britain, Spain, and last and most
+superficially to Italy. The essential difference only begins when the
+imitative arts, sculpture and painting, begin to emancipate and detach
+themselves, to exist and strive after perfection on their own account.
+This happened first and very partially in Italy with the artificers of
+the 13th and 14th centuries--with the sculptors Nicola, Giovanni, and
+Andrea Pisano; the Sienese group of painters, Duccio, Simone Martini,
+and the Lorenzetti; and the Florentine group, Cimabue (if Cimabue is not
+a myth), Giotto and the Giotteschi. The development of the rapid and
+flowing craft of fresco in place of the laborious and piecemeal craft of
+mosaic (henceforth for several centuries almost lost) was a great aid to
+this movement. After a period of something like stagnation, the movement
+received a vigorous fresh impulse soon after 1400, at about which date
+in Italy (not till near a century later in northern Europe) the
+beginning of the Renaissance is usually fixed.
+
+5. The Renaissance period, from about 1400 to about 1600. The passion
+for classic literature, stimulated by the influence of Greek scholars
+into Italy after the fall of Constantinople; the enthusiastic revival of
+classic forms of architecture by architects like Brunelleschi and
+Alberti; the achievements in sculpture and painting of masters like
+Donatello and Masaccio, based on a new and impassioned study of nature
+and the antique together; these are the outstanding and universally
+known symptoms of the Italian Renaissance in the second and third
+quarters of the 15th century. Promptly and contemptuously in Italy, much
+more gradually and incompletely in the north, Gothic principles of
+construction and decoration were cast aside for classical principles, as
+reformulated by eager spirits from a combined study of Roman remains and
+of the text of Vitruvius. To the ideal types of devout and prayer-worn,
+ascetic and spiritualized humanity (tempered in certain subjects with
+elements of the homely and the grotesque), which the spirit of the
+middle ages had dictated to the sculptor and the painter, succeeded
+ideals of physical power, beauty and grace rivalling the Hellenic. The
+personages of the Christian faith and story were brought into visible
+kindred with those of ancient paganism. In the hands of certain artists
+a fortunate blending of the two ideals yielded results of a poignant and
+unique charm, which for us, who are the heirs both of antiquity and the
+middle ages, is far from being yet exhausted. At the same time, the love
+alike of republics, great princes, churchmen, nobles and merchants for
+works of art gave employment to sculptors and painters on themes other
+than ecclesiastical. The taste for civic or personal commemoration, for
+portraiture, for illustrations of allegory, romance and classic fable,
+covered with pictures the walls of council halls, of public and private
+palaces, and of villas. The invention of the oil medium by the painters
+of Flanders, and its gradual adoption by the Venetians and other schools
+of Italy for all purposes except the external decorations of buildings,
+added enormously to the resources of the art in rivalry with nature, and
+to the splendour of its results as objects of pride and luxury. The
+glories of matured Italian art reacted, not always favourably, on the
+north. The great days of Flemish painting had been from about 1430 to
+1500, before any appreciable influence of the Renaissance had touched
+the schools of Brussels, of Bruges or of Antwerp. By about 1520 the
+artists of those schools had begun, except in portraiture, to lose their
+native vigour and originality by contact with the alien south. Among the
+great artists of Germany in the first half of the 16th century the work
+of one or two, like Burgkmair and Holbein, shows Italian influence
+reconciled not unsuccessfully with native instinct; but Durer, the
+greatest of them, remained in all essentials Gothic and German to the
+end. During the last half of the century, the Netherlands and Germany
+alike yielded little but work of mongrel Teutonized Italian or
+Italianized Teutonic type, until towards its close Rubens accomplished,
+in the fire of his prodigious temperament, a true fusion of Flemish and
+Venetian qualities, at the same time closing gloriously the Renaissance
+period properly so called, and handing on an example which irresistibly
+affected a great part of modern painting.
+
+6. Modern period, from about 1600 to the present time. During this
+period architecture remained in all European countries, until the 19th
+century, more or less completely under the influence of the Italian
+Renaissance. The principles of the classical revival had during a
+century or more of transition been gradually absorbed, first by France,
+then by Germany, the Low Countries, and Spain, and last by England, each
+country modifying the style according to its degree of knowledge or
+ignorance, its needs, instincts and traditions. Sculpture, which in the
+hands of the great masters of the earlier and later Renaissance in
+Italy had almost equalled its ancient glories, nay, in those of
+Michelangelo had actually surpassed them in the qualities at least of
+superhuman energy and intellectual expression--sculpture lost the sense
+of its true limitations, and entered, with the work of Bernini and even
+earlier, into an extravagant or "baroque" period of relaxed and bulging
+line, of exaggerated and ostentatious virtuosity. In this it followed
+the lead given by Italian architecture, by Jesuit church architecture
+especially, at and after the height of the Catholic reaction. From the
+monumental and memorial purposes which sculpture principally serves, it
+remained still, except in purely iconic uses, attached to or dependent
+on architecture. Not so painting, which asserted its independence more
+and more. In Protestant countries the old ecclesiastical patronage of
+the art had quite died out; in those that remained Catholic it
+continued, and even received a new stimulus from the anti-Protestant
+reaction. The demand for religious art was supplied with abundance of
+traditional facility, of technical accomplishment and devotional
+display, but with a loss of the old sincerity and inspiration. Almost
+all painting, even for the most extensive and monumental phases of
+decoration in church or palace or civic hall, was on canvas stretched
+over or fitted into its allotted space in the architecture, and the art
+of fresco, even in Venice, its last stronghold, was for a time neglected
+or forgotten. Portable paintings for princely or private galleries and
+cabinets became the chief and most characteristic products of the art.
+The subjects of painting multiplied themselves. All manner of new
+aspects of life and nature were brought within the technical compass of
+the painter. Besides devotional and classical subjects and portraiture,
+daily life in all its phases, down to the homeliest and grossest, the
+life of the parlour and the tavern, of field and shore and sea, with
+landscape in all its varieties, took their place as material for the
+painter. The truths of indoor and outdoor atmosphere were translated on
+canvas for the first time. The Dutchmen from about 1620 to 1670 were the
+most active innovators and path-breakers of modern art along all these
+lines. The greatest of them, Rembrandt, dealt, as has been said, like a
+master and a magician with the problems of human individuality as
+revealed in a mysterious colour and shadow world of his own invention.
+At the same time a painter of no less power in Spain, Velazquez, viewing
+the world in the natural light of every day, showed for the first time
+how vitally and subtly paint could render the relief and mutual values
+of figures and objects in space, the essential truth of their visible
+relations and reactions in the enveloping atmosphere. The achievement of
+these two victorious innovators has only come to be fully understood in
+our own day. The simultaneous conquest of Claude le Lorrain, on the
+other hand, over the atmospheric glow of summer and sunset on the Roman
+Campagna and the adjacent hills and coasts, found acceptance instantly,
+less perhaps for its own sake than because of the classical associations
+of the scenery which he depicted. The vast widening of the field of the
+painter's art and multiplication of its subjects, which thus took place
+at the dawn of the modern period, were gains attended by one drawback,
+the loss, namely, of the sense of high seriousness and universal appeal
+which belonged to the art while its themes had been those of religion
+and classic story almost exclusively.
+
+
+  Classical and romantic revivals.
+
+During the three hundred or so years of the modern period, academical
+schools attempting, more or less unsuccessfully, to carry on the great
+Italian and classical traditions of the Renaissance have not ceased to
+exist side by side with those which have striven to express new ways of
+seeing and feeling. Sometimes, as in France first under Louis XIV., and
+again for forty years from the beginning of the Revolution to the dawn
+of romanticism, such schools have succeeded in crushing out and
+discrediting all efforts in other directions. Between these two epochs,
+say from 1710 to 1780, French 18th-century ideals of social elegance and
+brilliant frivolity expressed themselves in forms of great
+accomplishment and vivacity both in poetry and sculpture, from the days
+of Watteau to those of Fragonard and Clodion. At the same time England
+produced one of the finest and at the same time most national and
+downright masters of the brush in Hogarth; two of the greatest
+aristocratic portrait-painters of the world in Reynolds and
+Gainsborough, each of whom modified according to his own instincts the
+tradition imported in the previous century by Van Dyck, the greatest
+pupil of Rubens (Reynolds fusing with this influence those of Rembrandt
+and the Venetians in almost equal shares). Pastoral landscape in the
+hands of Gainsborough, classical, following Claude, in those of
+Wilson--these together with the humble but wholesome discipline of
+topographical illustration led on to the ambitious, wide-ranging and
+often inspired experiments of Turner, and to the narrower but more
+secure achievements of Constable in the same field, and made this
+country the acknowledged pioneer of modern landscape art. In the
+meantime the wave of classical enthusiasm which passed over Europe in
+the later years of the 18th century had produced in architecture
+generally a return to severer principles and purer lines, in reaction
+from the baroque and the rococo Renaissance styles of the preceding
+century and a half. In Italian sculpture, the same movement inspired
+during the Napoleonic period the over-honeyed accomplishment of Canova
+and his school; in northern sculpture, the more truly antique but almost
+wholly imitative work of Thorwaldsen, and the pure and rhythmic grace of
+the English Flaxman, a true master of design though scarcely of
+sculpture strictly so called. The same movement again was partly
+responsible in English painting and illustration from about 1770 to 1820
+for much pastoral and idyllic work of agreeable but shallow elegance. In
+French painting the classic movement struck deeper. Along with much
+would-be Roman attitudinizing there was much real, if rigid, power in
+the work of David, much accomplished purity and sweetness in that of
+Prud'hon. The last and truest classic of France, and at the same time in
+portraiture the greatest realist, Ingres, held high the standard of his
+cause even through and past the great romantic revival which began with
+Gericault and culminated in Delacroix and the school of landscape
+painters who had received their inspiration from Constable. The main
+instincts embodied in the Romantic movement were the awakening of the
+human spirit to an eager retrospective love of the past, and especially
+of the medieval past, and simultaneously to a new passion for the
+beauties of nature, and especially of wild nature. Germany and England
+preceded France in this double awakening; in both countries the movement
+inspired a fine literature, but in neither did it express itself so
+fully and self-consciously through literature and the other arts
+together as it did in France when the hour struck. The revival of
+medieval sentiment in Germany had inspired comparatively early in the
+century the learned but somewhat aridly ascetic and essentially
+unpainterlike work of the group of artists who styled themselves
+_Nazarener_. In England the same revival expressed itself during a great
+part of the Victorian age in an enthusiastic return to the early Gothic
+ecclesiastical styles of architecture, a return unsuccessful upon the
+whole, because in pursuit of archaeological and grammatical detail the
+root qualities of right proportion and organic design were too often
+neglected.
+
+
+  The pre-Raphaelites.
+
+Allied with this Gothic revival, and stimulated like it by the
+persuasive conviction and brilliant resource of Ruskin in criticism was
+the pre-Raphaelite movement in painting. Among the artists identified
+with this movement there was little really in common except in
+impatience of the prevailing modes of empty academic convention or
+anecdotic frivolity. The name covered for a while the essentially
+divergent aims of a vigorous unintellectual craftsman like Millais,
+fired for a few years in youth by contact with more imaginative
+temperaments, of a strenuous imitator of unharmonized local colours and
+unsubordinated natural facts like Holman Hunt, and of born poets and
+impassioned medievalists like Rossetti and after him Burne-Jones.
+Meantime in France, putting aside the work of the great Delacroix, the
+impulse of 1830 expressed itself best and most lastingly in the
+monumental work of Daumier both in caricature and romance, the
+impressive and significant treatment of peasant life and labour by J.F.
+Millet, the vitally truthful pastoral and landscape work of Troyon,
+Corot, Daubigny and the rest.
+
+
+  Contemporary tendencies.
+
+Since the exhaustion of the Romantic movement, the other movements that
+have been taking place in European art have been too numerous and too
+rapid to be touched on here to any purpose. Both in sculpture and
+painting France has taken and held the lead. Mention has already been
+made of the special tendency in recent sculpture identified with the
+name and influence of Rodin. In painting there has been the fertilizing
+and transforming influence of Japan on the decorative ideals of the
+West; there have been successively the Realist movement, the movements
+of the Impressionists, the Luminists, the Neo-impressionists, the
+Independents, movements initiated almost always in Paris, and in other
+countries eagerly adopted and absorbed, or angrily controverted and
+denounced, or simply neglected and ignored according to the predilection
+of this or that group of artists and critics; there has been a vast
+amount of heterogeneous, hurried, confident and clamant innovating
+activity in this direction and in that, much of it perhaps doomed to
+futility in the eyes of posterity, but at any rate there has not been
+stagnation.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--To attempt in this place anything like a full
+  bibliography covering so vast a field would be idle. Many of the books
+  necessary to a first-hand study of the subject are cited in the
+  article AESTHETICS. The following are some of the most important
+  writings actually referred to in the text, English translations being
+  mentioned where they exist: Aristotle, _Poetics_, edited with critical
+  notes and a translation by S.H. Butcher (1898); S.H. Butcher,
+  _Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art_, with a critical text and
+  a translation of the _Poetics_ (1902); Plato, _Republic_, bk. x. 596
+  ff., 600 ff. (Grote, iii. 117 ff.; Jowett, iii. 489 ff.); B.
+  Bosanquet, _Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art_
+  (_Asthetik_), translation with notes and prefatory essay (1896); _The
+  Philosophy of Art, an Introduction to the Science of Aesthetics_, by
+  Hegel and C.L. Michelet, trans. Hastie (1886); Schiller, _Briefe uber
+  die asthetische Erziehung des Menschen_ (trans, by G.J. Weiss, with
+  preface by J. Chapman, 1845; also in Bohn's Standard Library, 1846);
+  Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, ch. xxii.; Gottfried Semper, _Der
+  Stil_ (1860-1863); Hippolyte Taine, _De l'ideal dans l'art_ (1867),
+  _Philosophie de l'art en Grece_ (1869), _Philosophie de l'art en
+  Italie_, _Philosophic de l'art dans les Pays-Bas_ (translations in 5
+  vols. by J. Durand, New York, 1889); Karl Groos, _Die Spiele der
+  Menschen_ (1899; trans, by E.L. Baldwin, 1901), and _Die Spiele der
+  Tiere_ (2nd ed., 1907; trans, by E.L. Baldwin, 1898); Ernst Grosse,
+  _Die Anfange der Kunst_ (1894; trans, in the Anthropological Series,
+  1894); Yrjo Hirn, _The Origins of Art_ (1900); G. Baldwin Brown, _The
+  Fine Arts_ (2nd ed., 1902); Felix Clay, _The Origins of the Sense of
+  Beauty_ (1908). For a general history of the manual or shaping group
+  of arts, C.J.F. Schnasse, _Geschichte der bildenden Kunste_ (2nd ed.,
+  1866-1879), though in parts obsolete, is still unsuperseded. A very
+  summary general view is given in Salomon Reinach, _The Story of Art
+  through the Ages_ (trans. by Florence Simmonds, 1904); a general
+  history of the same group was undertaken by Giulio Carotti (English
+  translation by Alice Todd, 1909).     (S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FINGER, one of the five members with which the hand is terminated, a
+digit; sometimes the word is restricted to the four digits other than
+the thumb. The word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _vinger_
+and Ger. _Finger_; probably the ultimate origin is to be found in the
+root of the words appearing in Greek [Greek: pente], Lat. quinque,
+_five_. (See SKELETON: _Appendicular_.)
+
+
+
+
+FINGER-AND-TOE, CLUB ROOT or ANBURY, a destructive plant-disease known
+botanically as _Plasmodiophora Brassicae_, which attacks cabbages,
+turnips, radishes and other cultivated and wild members of the order
+Cruciferae. It is one of the so-called Slime-fungi or Myxogastres. The
+presence of the disease is indicated by nodules or warty outgrowths on
+the root, which sometimes becomes much swollen and ultimately rots,
+emitting an unpleasant smell. The disease is contracted from spores
+present in the soil, which enter the root. The parasite develops within
+the living cells of the plant, forming a glairy mass of protoplasm known
+as the plasmodium, the form of which alters from time to time. The cells
+which have been attacked increase enormously in size and the disease
+spreads from cell to cell. Ultimately the _plasmodium_ becomes resolved
+into numerous minute round spores which, on the decay of the root, are
+set free in the soil. A preventive is quicklime, the application of
+which destroys the spores in the soil. It is important that diseased
+plants should be burned, also that cruciferous weeds, such as shepherd's
+purse, charlock, &c., should not be allowed to grow in places where
+plants of the same order are in cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: Finger-and-Toe (_Plasmodiophora Brassicae_).
+
+  1, Turnip attacked by the disease, reduced.
+  2, A cell of the tissue containing the plasmodium; the smaller cells
+    at the sides are unaffected.
+  3, Infected cell, showing spore formation. 2, 3, highly magnified.]
+
+
+
+
+FINGER-PRINTS. The use of finger-prints as a system of identification
+(q.v.) is of very ancient origin, and was known from the earliest days
+in the East when the impression of his thumb was the monarch's
+sign-manual. A relic of this practice is still preserved in the formal
+confirmation of a legal document by "delivering" it as one's "act and
+deed." The permanent character of the finger-print was first put forward
+scientifically in 1823 by J.E. Purkinje, an eminent professor of
+physiology, who read a paper before the university of Breslau, adducing
+nine standard types of impressions and advocating a system of
+classification which attracted no great attention. Bewick, the English
+draughtsman, struck with the delicate qualities of the lineation, made
+engravings of the impression of two of his finger-tips and used them as
+signatures for his work. Sir Francis Galton, who laboured to introduce
+finger-prints, points out that they were proposed for the identification
+of Chinese immigrants when registering their arrival in the United
+States. In India, Sir William Herschel desired to use finger-prints in
+the courts of the Hugli district to prevent false personation and fix
+the identity upon the executants of documents. The Bengal police under
+the wise administration of Sir E.R. Henry, afterwards chief commissioner
+of the London metropolitan police, usefully adopted finger-prints for
+the detection of crime, an example followed in many public departments
+in India. A transfer of property is attested by the thumb-mark, so are
+documents when registered, and advances made to opium-growers or to
+labourers on account of wages, or to contracts signed under the
+emigration law, or medical certificates to vouch for the persons
+examined, all tending to check the frauds and impostures constantly
+attempted.
+
+The prints depend upon a peculiarity seen in the human hand and to some
+extent in the human foot. The skin is traversed in all directions by
+creases and ridges, which are ineradicable and show no change from
+childhood to extreme old age. The persistence of the markings of the
+finger-tips has been proved beyond all question, and this universally
+accepted quality has been the basis of the present system of
+identification. The impressions, when examined, show that the ridges
+appear in certain fixed patterns, from which an alphabet of signs or a
+system of notation has been arrived at for convenience of record. As
+the result of much experiment a fourfold scheme of classification has
+been evolved, and the various types employed are styled "arches,"
+"loops," "whorls" and "composites." There are seven subclasses, and all
+are perfectly distinguishable by an expert, who can describe each by its
+particular symbol in the code arranged, so that the whole "print" can be
+read as a distinct and separate expression. Very few, and the simplest,
+appliances are required for taking the print--a sheet of white paper, a
+tin slab, and some printer's ink. Scars or malformations do not
+interfere with the result.
+
+The unchanging character of the finger-prints has repeatedly helped in
+the detection of crime. We may quote the case of the thief who broke
+into a residence and among other things helped himself to a glass of
+wine, leaving two finger-prints upon the tumbler which were subsequently
+found to be identical with those of a notorious criminal who was
+arrested, pleaded guilty and was convicted. Another burglar effected
+entrance by removing a pane of glass from a basement window, but,
+unhappily for him, left his imprints, which were referred to the
+registry and found to agree exactly with those of a convict at large;
+his address was known, and when visited some of the stolen property was
+found in his possession. In India a murderer was identified by the brown
+mark of a blood-stained thumb he had left when rummaging amongst the
+papers of the deceased. This man was convicted of theft but not of the
+murder.
+
+The keystone to the whole system is the central office where the
+register or index of all criminals is kept for ready reference. The
+operators need no special gifts or lengthy training; method and accuracy
+suffice, and abundant checks exist to obviate incorrect classification
+and reduce the liability to error.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. Galton, _Finger Prints_ (1892), _Fingerprint
+  Directories_ (1895); E.R. Henry, _Classification and Uses of Finger
+  Prints_; A. Yvert, _L'Identification par les empreintes digitales
+  palmaires_ (1905); K. Windt, R.S. Kodicek, _Daktyloskopie. Verwertung
+  von Fingerabdrucken zu Identifizierungszwecken_ (Vienna, 1904); E.
+  Loeard, _La Dactyloscopie. Identification des recidivistes par les
+  empreintes digitales_ (1904); H. Faulds, _Guide to Finger-Print
+  Identification_ (1905); H. Gross, _Criminal Investigation_ (trans. J.
+  and J.C. Adam, 1907).     (A. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FINGO, or FENGU (_Ama-Fengu_, "wanderers"), a Bantu-Negro people, allied
+to the Zulu family, who have given their name to the district of
+Fingoland, the S.W. portion of the Transkei division of the Cape
+province. The Fingo tribes were formed from the nations broken up by
+Chaka and his Zulu; after some years of oppression by the Xosa they
+appealed to the Cape government in 1835, and were permitted by Sir
+Benjamin D'Urban to settle on the banks of the Great Fish river. They
+have been always loyal to the British, and have steadily advanced in
+social respects. They have largely adapted themselves to western
+culture, wearing European clothes, supporting their schools by voluntary
+contributions, editing newspapers, translating English poetry, and
+setting their national songs to correct music. The majority call
+themselves Christians and many of them have intermarried with Europeans.
+(See KAFFIRS.)
+
+
+
+
+FINIAL (a variant of "final"; Lat. _finis_, end), an architectural term
+for the termination of a pinnacle, gable end, buttress, or canopy,
+consisting of a bunch of foliage, which bears a close affinity to the
+crockets (q.v.) running up the gables, turrets or spires, and in some
+cases may be formed by uniting four or more crockets together. Sometimes
+the term is incorrectly applied to a small pinnacle of which it is only
+the termination (see EPI).
+
+
+
+
+FINIGUERRA, MASO [i.e. TOMMASO] (1426-1464), Florentine goldsmith,
+draughtsman, and engraver, whose name is distinguished in the history of
+art and craftsmanship for reasons which are partly mythical. Vasari
+represents him as having been the first inventor of the art of engraving
+(using that word in its popular sense of taking impressions on paper
+from designs engraved on metal plates), and Vasari's account was
+universally accepted and repeated until recent research proved it
+erroneous. What we actually know from contemporary documents of
+Finiguerra, his origin, his life, and his work, is as follows. He was
+the son of Antonio, and grandson of Tommaso Finiguerra or Finiguerri,
+both goldsmiths of Florence, and was born in Sta Lucia d'Ognissanti in
+1426. He was brought up to the hereditary profession of goldsmith and
+was early distinguished for his work in niello. In his twenty-third year
+(1449) we find note of a sulphur cast from a niello of his workmanship
+being handed over by the painter Alessio Baldovinetti to a customer in
+payment or exchange for a dagger received. In 1452 Maso delivered and
+was paid for a niellated silver pax commissioned for the baptistery of
+St John by the consuls of the gild of merchants or Calimara. By this
+time he seems to have left his father's workshop: and we know that he
+was in partnership with Piero di Bartolommeo di Sali and the great
+Antonio Pollaiuolo in 1457, when the firm had an order for a pair of
+fine silver candlesticks for the church of San Jacopo at Pistoia. In
+1459 we find Finiguerra noted in the house-book of Giovanni Rucellai as
+one of several distinguished artists with whose works the Casa Rucellai
+was adorned. In 1462 he is recorded as having supplied another wealthy
+Florentine, Cino di Filippo Rinuccini, with waist-buckles, and in the
+years next following with forks and spoons for christening presents. In
+1463 he drew cartoons, the heads of which were coloured by Alessio
+Baldovinetti, for five or more figures for the sacristy of the duomo,
+which was being decorated in wood inlay by a group of artists with
+Giuliano da Maiano at their head. On the 14th of December 1464 Maso
+Finiguerra made his will, and died shortly afterwards.
+
+These documentary facts are supplemented by several writers of the next
+generation with statements more or less authoritative. Thus Baccio
+Bandinelli says that Maso was among the young artists who worked under
+Ghiberti on the famous gates of the baptistery; Benvenuto Cellini that
+he was the finest master of his day in the art of niello engraving, and
+that his masterpiece was a pax of the Crucifixion in the baptistery of
+St John; that being no great draughtsman, he in most cases, including
+that of the above-mentioned pax, worked from drawings by Antonio
+Pollaiuolo. Vasari, on the other hand, allowing that Maso was a much
+inferior draughtsman to Pollaiuolo, mentions nevertheless a number of
+original drawings by him as existing in his own collection, "with
+figures both draped and nude, and histories drawn in water-colour."
+Vasari's account was confirmed and amplified in the next century by
+Baldinucci, who says that he has seen many drawings by Finiguerra much
+in the manner of Masaccio; adding that Maso was beaten by Pollaiuolo in
+competition for the reliefs of the great silver altar-table commission
+by the merchants' gild for the baptistery of St John (this famous work
+is now preserved in the Opera del Duomo). But the paragraph of Vasari
+which has chiefly held the attention of posterity is that in which he
+gives this craftsman the credit of having been the first to print off
+impressions from niello plates on sulphur casts and afterwards on sheets
+of paper, and of having followed up this invention by engraving
+copper-plates for the express purpose of printing impressions from them,
+and thus became the inventor and father of the art of engraving in
+general. Finiguerra, adds Vasari, was succeeded in the practice of
+engraving at Florence by a goldsmith called Baccio Baldini, who, not
+having much invention of his own, borrowed his designs from other
+artists and especially from Botticelli. In the last years of the 18th
+century Vasari's account of Finiguerra's invention was held to have
+received a decisive and startling confirmation under the following
+circumstances. There was in the baptistery at Florence (now in the
+Bargello) a beautiful 15th-century niello pax of the Coronation of the
+Virgin. The Abate Gori, a savant and connoisseur of the mid-century, had
+claimed this conjecturally for the work of Finiguerra; a later and still
+more enthusiastic virtuoso, the Abate Zani, discovered first, in the
+collection of Count Seratti at Leghorn, a sulphur cast from the very
+same niello (this cast is now in the British Museum), and then, in the
+National library at Paris, a paper impression corresponding to both.
+Here, then, he proclaimed, was the actual material first-fruit of
+Finiguerra's invention and proof positive of Vasari's accuracy.
+
+Zani's famous discovery, though still accepted in popular art histories
+and museum guides, is now discredited among serious students. For one
+thing, it has been proved that the art of printing from engraved
+copper-plates had been known in Germany, and probably in Italy also, for
+years before the date of Finiguerra's alleged invention. For another,
+Maso's pax for the baptistery, if Cellini is to be trusted, represented
+not a Coronation of the Virgin but a Crucifixion. In the next place, its
+recorded weight does not at all agree with that of the pax claimed by
+Gori and Zani to be his. Again, and perhaps this is the strongest
+argument of any, all authentic records agree in representing Finiguerra
+as a close associate in art and business of Antonio Pollaiuolo. Now
+nothing is more marked than the special style of Pollaiuolo and his
+group; and nothing is more unlike it than the style of the Coronation
+pax, the designer of which must obviously have been trained in quite a
+different school, namely that of Filippo Lippi. So this seductive
+identification has to be abandoned, and we have to look elsewhere for
+traces of the real work of Finiguerra. The only fully authenticated
+specimens which exist are the above-mentioned tarsia figures, over half
+life-size, executed from his cartoons for the sacristy of the duomo. But
+his hand has lately been conjecturally recognized in a number of other
+things: first in a set of drawings of the school of Pollaiuolo at the
+Uffizi, some of which are actually inscribed "Maso Finiguerra" in a
+17th-century writing, probably that of Baldinucci himself; and secondly
+in a very curious and important book of nearly a hundred drawings by the
+same hand, acquired in 1888 for the British Museum. The Florence series
+depicts for the most part figures of the studio and the street, to all
+appearance members of the artist's own family and workshop, drawn direct
+from life. The museum volume, on the other hand, is a picture-chronicle,
+drawn from imagination, and representing parallel figures of sacred and
+profane history, in a chronological series from the Creation to Julius
+Caesar, dressed and accoutred with inordinate richness according to the
+quaint pictures which Tuscan popular fancy in the mid-15th century
+conjured up to itself of the ancient world. Except for the differences
+naturally resulting from the difference of subject, and that the one
+series are done from life and the other from imagination, the technical
+style and handling of the two are identical and betray unmistakably a
+common origin. Both can be dated with certainty, from their style,
+costumes, &c., within a few years of 1460. Both agree strictly with the
+accounts of Finiguerra's drawings left us by Vasari and Baldinucci, and
+disagree in no respect with the character of the inlaid figures of the
+sacristy. That the draughtsman was a goldsmith is proved on every page of
+the picture-chronicle by his skill and extravagant delight in the
+ornamental parts of design--chased and jewelled cups, helmets, shields,
+breastplates, scabbards and the like,--as well as by the symmetrical
+metallic forms into which he instinctively conventionalizes plants and
+flowers. That he was probably also an engraver in niello appears from the
+fact that figures from the Uffizi series of drawings are repeated among
+the rare anonymous Florentine niello prints of the time (the chief
+collection of which, formerly belonging to the marquis of Salamanca, is
+now in the cabinet of M. Edmond de Rothschild in Paris). That he was
+furthermore an engraver on copper seems certain from the fact that the
+general style and many particular figures and features of the British
+Museum chronicle drawings are exactly repeated in some of those primitive
+15th-century Florentine prints which used to be catalogued loosely under
+the names of Baldini or Botticelli, but have of late years been classed
+more cautiously as anonymous prints in the "fine manner" (in
+contradistinction to another contemporary group of prints in the "broad
+manner"). The fine-manner group of primitive Florentine engravings itself
+falls into two divisions, one more archaic, more vigorous and original
+than the other, and consisting for the most part of larger and more
+important prints. It is this division which the drawings of the Chronicle
+series most closely resemble; so closely as almost to compel the
+conclusion that drawings and engravings are by the same hand. The later
+division of fine-manner prints represent a certain degree of technical
+advance from the earlier, and are softer in style, with elements of more
+classic grace and playfulness; their motives moreover are seldom
+original, but are borrowed from various sources, some from German
+engravings, some from Botticelli or a designer closely akin to him, some
+from the pages of the British Museum Chronicle-book itself, with a
+certain softening and attenuating of their rugged spirit; as though the
+book, after the death of the original draughtsman-engraver, had remained
+in his workshop and continued to be used by his successors. We thus find
+ourselves in presence of a draughtsman of the school of Pollaiuolo, some
+of whose drawings bear an ancient attribution to Finiguerra, while all
+agree with what is otherwise known of him, and one or two are exactly
+repeated in extant works of niello, the craft which was peculiarly his
+own; others being intimately related to the earliest or all but the
+earliest works of Florentine engraving, the kindred craft which tradition
+avers him to have practised, and which Vasari erroneously believed him to
+have invented. Surely, it has been confidently argued, this draughtsman
+must be no other than the true Finiguerra himself. The argument has not
+yet been universally accepted, but neither has any competent criticism
+appeared to shake it; so that it may be regarded for the present as
+holding the field.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Bandinelli in Bottari, _Raccolta di lettere_
+  (1754), i. p. 75; Vasari (ed. Milanesi), i. p. 209, iii. p. 206;
+  Benvenuto Cellini, _I Trattati dell' orificeria_, &c. (ed. Lemonnier),
+  pp. 7, 12, 13, 14; Baldinucci, _Notizie dei professori di disegno_
+  (1845), i. pp. 518, 519, 533; Zani, _Materiali per servire_, &c.
+  (1802); Duchesne, _Essai sur les nielles_ (1824); Dutuit, _Manuel de
+  l'amateur d'estampes_, vol. i. pref. and vol. ii.; and for a full
+  discussion of the whole question, with quotations from earlier
+  authorities and reproductions of the works discussed, Sidney Colvin,
+  _A Florentine Picture Chronicle_ (1898).     (S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FINISHING. The term _finishing_, as specially applied in the textile
+industries, embraces the process or processes to which bleached, dyed or
+printed fabrics of any description are subjected, with the object of
+imparting a characteristic appearance to the surface of the fabric, or
+of influencing its handle or feel. Strictly speaking, certain operations
+might be classed under this heading which are conducted previous to
+bleaching, dyeing, &c; e.g. mercerizing (q.v.), stretching and crabbing,
+singeing (see BLEACHING); but as these are not undertaken by the
+finisher, only those will be dealt with here which are not mentioned
+under other headings. By the various treatments to which the fabric is
+subjected in finishing, it is often so altered in appearance that it is
+impossible to recognize in it the same material that came from the loom
+or from the bleacher or dyer. On the other hand, one and the same
+fabric, subjected to different processes of finishing, may be made to
+represent totally different classes of material. In other cases,
+however, the appearance of the finished article differs but slightly
+from that of the piece on leaving the loom.
+
+All processes of finishing are purely mechanical in character, and the
+most important of them depend upon the fact that in their ordinary
+condition (i.e. containing their normal amount of moisture), or better
+still in a damp state, the textile fibres are plastic, and consequently
+yield to pressure or tension, ultimately assuming the shape imparted to
+them. The old-fashioned box press, formerly largely used for household
+linen, owed its efficacy to this principle. At elevated temperatures the
+damp fibres become very much more plastic than at the ordinary
+temperature, the simplest form of finishing appliance based on this fact
+being the ordinary flat iron. Indeed it may safely be stated that most
+of the modern finishing processes have been evolved from the household
+operations of washing (milling), brushing, starching, mangling, ironing
+and pressing.
+
+_Cotton Pieces._--In the ordinary process of bleaching, cotton goods are
+subjected during the various operations to more or less continual
+longitudinal tension, and while becoming elongated, shrink more or less
+considerably in width. In order to bring them back to their original
+width, they are stretched or "stentered" by means of specially
+constructed machines. The most effective of these is the so-called
+stentering frame, which consists essentially of two slightly diverging
+endless chains carrying clips or pins which hold the piece in position
+as it traverses the machine. The length of a frame may vary from 20 to
+30 yds. On the upper part of the frame the chains run in slots, and by
+means of set screws the distance between the two chains can be set
+within the required limits. The pieces are fed on to one end of the
+machine in the damp state by hand and are then naturally slack. But
+before they have travelled many yards they become taut, the stretching
+increasing as they travel along. Simultaneously with the stretching, the
+pieces are dried by a current of hot air which is blown through from
+below, so that on arriving at the end of the machine they are not only
+stretched to the required degree but are also dry. The machine used for
+stentering is more fully described under MERCERIZING (q.v.). In case the
+goods come straight from the loom to be finished, stentering is not
+necessary.
+
+Pieces intended to receive a "pure" finish pass on without further
+treatment to the ordinary finishing processes such as calendering, hot
+pressing, raising, &c. But in the majority of cases they are previously
+impregnated, according to the finish desired, with stiffening or
+softening agents, weighting materials, &c. Usually, starch constitutes
+the main stiffening agent, with additions of china clay, barium
+compounds, &c., for weighting purposes, and Turkey red oil, with or
+without the addition of some vegetable oil or fat, as the softening
+agent. Magnesium sulphate is also largely used in order to give "body"
+to the cloth, which it does by virtue of its property of crystallizing
+in fine felted needle-shaped crystals throughout the mass of the fabric.
+When starch is used in filling, it is advisable to add some anti-septic,
+such as zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, phenol or salicylic acid,
+in order to prevent or retard subsequent development of mildew. The
+impregnation of the pieces with the filling is effected in two ways,
+viz. either throughout the thickness of the cloth or on one surface only
+(back starching). When the whole piece is to be impregnated the
+operation is conducted in a starching mangle, which is similar in
+construction to an ordinary household mangle, though naturally larger
+and more elaborate in construction. The pieces run at full width through
+a trough situated immediately below the bowls and containing the filling
+(starch paste, &c.), then between the bowls, the pressure ("nip") of
+which regulates the amount of filling taken up, and thence over a range
+of steam-heated drying cylinders (see BLEACHING). In case one side only
+of the goods is to be stiffened--and this is usually necessary in the
+case of printed goods,--a so-called back-starching mangle is employed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Principle of Back-Starching Machine.]
+
+  The construction of the machine varies, but the simplest form consists
+  essentially of a wooden bowl a (Fig. 1) which runs in the starch paste
+  contained in trough t. The pieces pass from the batch-roller B,
+  through scrimp rails S and over the bowl under tension, touching the
+  surface from which they gather the starch paste. By means of the fixed
+  "doctor" blade d, which extends across the piece, the paste is
+  levelled on the surface of the fabric and excess scraped off, falling
+  back into the trough. The goods are then dried with the face side to
+  the cylinders.
+
+Some goods come into the market with no further treatment after
+starching other than running through a mangle with a little softening
+and then drying, but in the great majority of cases they are subjected
+to further operations.
+
+_Damping._--When deprived of their natural moisture by drying on the
+cylinder drying machine, cotton goods are not in a fit condition to
+undergo the subsequent operations of calendering, beetling, &c., since
+the fibres in the dry state have lost their plasticity. The pieces are
+consequently damped to the desired degree, and this is usually effected
+in a damping machine in passing through which they meet with a fine
+spray of water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Principle of Damping Machine.]
+
+  A simple and effective device for this purpose is shown in section in
+  Fig. 2. It consists essentially of a brass roller r running in water
+  contained in a trough or box t. Touching the brass roller is a brush
+  roller b which revolves at a high speed, thus spraying the water,
+  which it takes up continuously from the wet revolving brass roller in
+  all directions, and consequently also against the piece which passes
+  in a stretched condition over the top of the box, being drawn from the
+  batch roller B, over scrimp rails S, and batched again on the other
+  side on roller R. The level of the water in the trough is kept
+  constant.
+
+_Calendering._--The calender may be regarded as an elaboration of the
+ordinary mangle, from which, however, it differs essentially inasmuch as
+one or more of the rollers or bowls are made of steel or iron and can be
+treated either by gas or steam; the other bowls are made of compressed
+cotton or paper. Three distinct forms of calender are in use, viz. the
+ordinary calender, the friction calender and the embossing calender.
+
+The number of bowls in an ordinary calender varies between two and six
+according to the character of the finish for which it is intended. In a
+modern five-bowl calender the bottom bowl is made of cast iron, the
+second of compressed cotton or paper, the third of iron being hollow and
+fitted with steam heating apparatus. The fourth bowl is made of
+compressed cotton, and the fifth of cast iron. The pieces are simply
+passed through for "swissing," i.e. for the production of an ordinary
+plain finish. The same calender may also be used for "chasing," in which
+two pieces are passed through, face to face, in order to produce an
+imitation linen finish. Moire or "watered" effects are produced in a
+similar way, but these effects are frequently imitated in the embossing
+calender.
+
+The friction calender, the object of which is to produce a high gloss on
+the fabric, differs from the ordinary calender inasmuch as one of the
+bowls is caused to revolve at a greater speed than the others. In an
+ordinary three-bowl friction calender the bottom bowl is made of cast
+iron, the middle one of compressed cotton or paper, and the top one (the
+friction bowl) of highly polished chilled iron. The last-named bowl,
+which has a greater peripheral speed than the others, is hollow and can
+be heated either by steam or gas.
+
+The embossing calender is usually constructed of two bowls, one of which
+is of steel and the other of compressed cotton or paper. The steel
+roller, which is hollow and can be heated either by steam or gas, is
+engraved with the pattern which it is desired to impart to the piece. If
+the pattern is deep, as is the case in the production of book cloths, it
+is necessary to run the machine empty under pressure until the pattern
+of the steel bowl has impressed itself into the cotton or paper bowls,
+but if the effect desired only consists of very fine lines, this is not
+necessary; for instance, in the production of the Schreiner finish,
+which is intended to give the pieces (especially after mercerizing) the
+appearance of silk, the steel roller is engraved with fine diagonal
+lines which are so close together (about 250 to the in.) as to be
+undistinguishable by the naked eye.
+
+_Beetling_ is a process by which a peculiar linen-like appearance and a
+leathery feel or handle are imparted to cotton fabrics, the process
+being also employed for improving the appearance of linen goods. For the
+best class of beetle finish, the pieces are first impregnated with sago
+starch and the other necessary ingredients (softening, &c.) and are
+dried on cylinders. They are then damped on a water mangle, and beamed
+on to the heavy iron bowl of the beetling machine.
+
+  A beetling machine of the kind, with four sets of "fallers," is shown
+  in Fig. 3. The fallers are made of beech wood, are about 8 ft. long,
+  5-1/2 in. deep and 4 in. wide, and are kept in their vertical position
+  by two pairs of guide rails. Each faller is provided with a tappet or
+  wooden peg driven in at one side, which engages with the teeth or
+  "wipers" of the revolving shaft in the front of the machine. The
+  effect of this mechanism is to lift the faller a distance of about 13
+  in. and then let it drop on to the cloth wound on the beam. This
+  lifting and dropping of the fallers on to the beam takes place in
+  rhythmical and rapid succession. To ensure even treatment the beam
+  turns slowly round and also has a to-and-fro movement imparted to it.
+  The treatment may last, according to the finish which it is desired to
+  obtain, from one to sixty hours.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Beetling Machine (Edmeston & Sons).]
+
+Beetling was originally used for linen goods, but to-day is almost
+entirely applied to cotton for the production of so-called _linenettes_.
+
+_Hot-pressing_ is used to a limited extent in order to obtain a soft
+finish on cotton goods, but as this operation is more used for wool, it
+will be described below.
+
+_Raising._--This operation, which was formerly only used for woollen
+goods (teasing), has come largely into use for cotton pieces, partly in
+consequence of the introduction of the direct cotton colours by which
+the cotton is dyed evenly throughout (see DYEING), and partly in
+consequence of new and improved machinery having been devised for the
+purpose. Starting with a plain bleached, dyed or printed fabric, the
+process consists in principle in raising or drawing out the ends of
+individual fibres from the body of the cloth, so as to produce a nap or
+soft woolly surface on the face.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Raising.]
+
+  This is effected by passing the fabric slowly round a large drum D,
+  which is surrounded, as shown in the diagram, (Fig. 4), by a number of
+  small cylinders or rollers, r, covered with steel wire brushes or
+  "carding," such as is used in carding engines (see COTTON-SPINNING
+  MACHINERY).
+
+  The rollers r, which are all driven by one and the same belt (not
+  shown in the figure), revolve at a high rate of speed, and can be made
+  to do so either in the same direction as that followed by the piece as
+  it travels through the machine or in the opposite one. In addition to
+  their revolving round their own axes, the raising rollers may be
+  either kept stationary or may be moved round the drum D in either
+  direction.
+
+  In the more modern machines there are two sets of raising rollers, of
+  which each alternate one is caused to revolve in the direction
+  followed by the piece, while the other is made to revolve in the
+  opposite direction. By passing through an arrangement of this kind
+  several times, or through several such machines in succession, the
+  ends of the fibres are gradually drawn out to the desired extent.
+
+After raising, the pieces are sheared (for better class work) in order
+to produce greater regularity in the length of the nap. The raised style
+of finishing is used chiefly for the production of uniformly white or
+coloured flannelettes but is also used for such as are dyed in the yarn,
+and to a limited extent for printed fabrics.
+
+_Woollen and Worsted Pieces._--Although both of these classes of
+material are made from wool, their treatment in finishing differs so
+materially that it is necessary to deal with them separately. _Unions_
+or fabrics consisting of a cotton warp with a worsted weft are in
+general treated like worsteds.
+
+In the finishing of woollen pieces the most important operation is that
+of _milling_, which consists in subjecting the pieces to mechanical
+friction, usually in an alkaline medium (soap or soap and soda) but
+sometimes in an acid (sulphuric acid) medium, in order to bring about
+felting and consequent "fulling" of the fabric. This felting of the wool
+is due to the peculiar structure of the fibre, the scales of which all
+protrude in one direction, so that the individual fibres can slip past
+each other in one direction more readily than in the opposite one and
+thus become more and more interlocked as the milling proceeds. If the
+pieces contain _burrs_ these are usually removed by a process known as
+"carbonizing," which generally, but not necessarily, precedes the
+milling. Their removal depends upon the fact that the burrs, which
+consist in the main of cellulose, are disintegrated at elevated
+temperatures by dilute mineral acids. The pieces are run through
+sulphuric acid of from 4 deg. to 6 deg. Tw., squeezed or
+hydro-extracted, and dried over cylinders and then in stoves. The acid
+is thus concentrated and attacks the burrs, which fall to dust, while
+leaving the wool intact. For the removal of the acid the fabric is first
+washed in water and then in weak soda. Carbonizing is also sometimes
+used for worsteds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Milling Stocks.]
+
+Milling was formerly all done in milling or fulling stocks (see Fig. 5),
+in which the cloth saturated with a strong solution of soap (with or
+without other additions such as stale urine, potash, fuller's earth,
+&c.) is subjected to the action of heavy wooden hammers, which are
+raised by the cams attached to the wheel (E) on the revolving shaft, and
+fall with their own weight on to the bundles of cloth. The shape of the
+hammer-head causes the cloth to turn slowly in the cavity in which the
+milling takes place. Occasionally, the cloth is taken out, straightened,
+washed if necessary, and then returned to the stocks to undergo further
+treatment, the process being continued until the material is uniformly
+shrunk or milled to the desired degree.
+
+In the more modern forms of milling machines the principle adopted is to
+draw the pieces in rope form, saturated with soap solution and sewn
+together end to end so as to form an endless band, between two or more
+rollers, on leaving which they are forced down a closed trough ending in
+an aperture the size of which can be varied, but which in any case is
+sufficiently small to cause a certain amount of force to be necessary to
+push the pieces through. A machine of this kind is shown in Fig. 6. It
+is evident that for coloured goods which have to be milled only such
+colouring matters must be chosen for dyeing that are absolutely fast to
+soap.
+
+[Illustration: From Ganswindt, _Technologie der Appretur_.
+
+FIG. 6.--Roller Milling Machine.]
+
+After the pieces have been milled down to the desired degree, they
+present an uneven and, undesirable appearance on the surface, the ends
+of many of the fibres which previously projected having been turned and
+thus become embedded in the body of the cloth. In order to bring these
+hairs to the surface again, the fabric is subjected to _teasing_ or
+_raising_, an operation identical in principle with one which has
+already been noticed under the finishing of cotton. In place of the
+steel wire brushes it is the usual practice to employ teasels for the
+treatment of woollen goods.
+
+  The teasel (see Fig. 7) is the dried head (fruit) of a kind of thistle
+  (_Dipsacus fullorum_), the horny sharp spikes of which turn downwards
+  at their extremity, and, while possessing the necessary sharpness and
+  strength for raising the fibres, are not sufficiently rigid to cause
+  any material damage to the cloth. For raising, the teasels are fixed
+  in rows on a large revolving drum, and the piece to be treated is
+  drawn lengthways underneath the drum, being guided by rollers or rods
+  so as to just touch the teasels as they sweep past. In the raising of
+  woollen goods it is necessary that the pieces should be damp or moist
+  while undergoing this treatment.
+
+After teasing, the pieces are stretched and dried. At this stage they
+still have an irregular appearance, for although the raising has brought
+all the loose ends of the fibres to the surface, these vary considerably
+in length and thus give rise to an uneven nap.
+
+[Illustration: From Ganswindt, _Technologie der Appretur_.
+
+FIG. 7.--Teasel used for Raising.]
+
+By the next operation of _shearing_ or _cropping_, the long hairs are
+cut off arid a uniform surface is thus obtained. Shearing was in former
+times done by hand, by means of shears, but is to-day universally
+effected by means of a cutting device which works on the same principle
+as an ordinary lawn-mower, in which a number of spiral blades set on the
+surface of a rapidly revolving roller pass continuously over a straight
+fixed blade underneath, the roller being set so that the spiral blades
+just touch the fixed blade. Before the piece comes to the shearing
+device the nap is raised by means of a rotary brush. Shearing may be
+effected either transversely, in which case the fixed blade is parallel
+to the warp, or longitudinally with the fixed blade parallel to the
+weft. In the first case, the piece being stretched on a table, over
+which the cutter, carried on rails, travels from selvedge to selvedge.
+The length of the piece that can be shorn in one operation will
+naturally depend upon the length of the blade, but in any case the
+process is necessarily intermittent, many operations being required
+before the whole piece is shorn. In the longitudinal shearing machines
+the process is continuous, the pieces passing from the beam in the
+stretched condition over the rotary brush, under the fixed blade, and
+then being again brushed before being beamed on the other side of the
+machine. Shearing once is generally insufficient, and for this reason
+many of the modern machines are constructed with duplicate arrangements
+so as to effect the shearing twice in the same operation. In the
+finishing of certain woollen goods the pieces, after having been milled,
+raised and sheared, go through these operations again in the same
+sequence.
+
+After these operations the goods are pressed either in the hydraulic
+press or in the continuous press, and according to the character of the
+material and the finish desired may or may not be steamed under
+pressure, all of which operations are described below.
+
+New cloth, as it comes into the hands of the tailor, frequently shows an
+undesirable gloss or sheen, which is removed before making up by a
+process known as shrinking, in which the material is simply damped or
+steamed.
+
+_Worsteds and Unions._--The pieces are first singed by gas or hot plate
+(see BLEACHING), and are then usually subjected to a process known as
+"crabbing," the object of which is to "set" the wool fibres. If this
+operation is omitted, especially in the case of unions, the fabric will
+"cockle," or assume an uneven surface on being wetted. In crabbing the
+pieces are drawn at full breadth and under as much tension as they will
+stand through boiling water, and are wound or beamed on to a roller
+under the pressure of a superposed heavy iron roller, the operation
+being conducted two or three times as required. From the crabbing
+machine the pieces are wound on to a perforated shell or steel cylinder
+which is closed at one end. The open end is then attached to a steam
+pipe, and steam, at a pressure of 30 to 45 lb., is allowed to enter
+until it makes its way through all the layers of cloth to the outside,
+when the steam is turned off and the whole allowed to cool. Since those
+layers of the cloth which are nearest the shell are acted upon for a
+longer period than those at the outside, it is necessary to re-wind and
+repeat the operation, the outside portions coming this time nearest to
+the shell. The principle of the process depends upon the fact that at
+elevated temperatures moist wool becomes plastic, and then easily
+assumes the shape imparted to it by the great tension under which the
+pieces are wound. On cooling the shape is retained, and since the
+temperature at which the pieces were steamed under tension exceeds any
+to which they are submitted in the subsequent processes, the "setting"
+of the fibres is permanent. After crabbing, the pieces are washed or
+"scoured" in soap either on the winch or at full width. In some cases
+the crabbing precedes the scouring. The goods are then dyed and
+finished.
+
+The nature of the finishing process will vary considerably according to
+the special character of the goods under treatment. Thus, for certain
+classes of goods cold pressing is sufficient, while in other cases the
+pieces are steamed under pressure in a manner analogous to the treatment
+after crabbing ("decatizing"). The treatment in most common use for
+worsteds and unions is hot pressing, which may be effected either in the
+hydraulic press or in the continuous press, but in most cases in the
+former.
+
+In pressing in the hydraulic press the pieces are folded down by hand on
+a table, a piece of press paper (thin hand-made cardboard with a glossed
+and extremely hard surface) being inserted between each lap. After a
+certain number of laps, a steel or iron press plate is inserted, and the
+folding proceeds in this way until the pile is sufficiently high, when
+it is placed in the press. The press being filled, the hydraulic ram is
+set in motion until the reading on the gauge shows that the desired
+amount of pressure has been obtained. The heating of the press plates
+was formerly done in ovens, previous to their insertion in the piece,
+but although this practice is still in vogue in rare instances, the
+heating is now effected either by means of steam which is caused to
+circulate through the hollow steel plates, or in the more modern forms
+of presses by means of an electric current. After the pieces have thus
+been subjected to the combined effects of heat and pressure for the
+desired length of time, they are allowed to cool in the press. It is
+evident that portions of the pieces, viz. the folds, thus escape the
+finishing process, and for this reason it is necessary to repeat the
+process, the folds now being made to lie in the middle of the press
+papers.
+
+[Illustration: From Ganswindt,' _Technologie der Appretur_.
+
+FIG. 8.--Continuous Press.]
+
+  The continuous press, which is used for certain classes of worsteds,
+  but more especially for woollen goods, consists in principle of a
+  polished steam-heated steel cylinder against which either one or two
+  steam-heated chilled iron cheeks are set by means of levers and
+  adjusting screws. The pieces to be pressed are drawn slowly between
+  the cheeks and the bowl. A machine of the kind is shown in section in
+  Fig. 8. In working, the cheeks C, C_1 are pressed against the bowl B.
+  The course followed by the cloth to be finished is shown by the dotted
+  line, the finished material being mechanically folded down on the
+  left-hand side of the machine. The pieces thus acquire a certain
+  amount of finish which is, however, not comparable with that produced
+  in the hydraulic press.
+
+_Pile Fabrics_, such as velvets, velveteens, corduroys, plushes,
+sealskins, &c., require a special treatment in finishing, and great care
+must be taken in all operations to prevent the pile being crushed or
+otherwise damaged. Velveteens and corduroys are singed before boiling or
+bleaching. Velveteens dyed in black or in dark shades are brushed with
+an oil colour (e.g. Prussian blue for blacks), and dried over-night in a
+hot stove in order to give them a characteristic bloom. Regularity in
+the pile and gloss are obtained by shearing and brushing. Corduroys are
+stiffened at the back by the application of "bone-size" (practically an
+impure form of glue) in a machine similar to that used for
+back-starching. The face of the fabric is waxed with beeswax by passing
+the piece under a revolving drum, on the surface of which bars of this
+material are fixed parallel to the axis. The bars just touch the surface
+of the fabric as it passes through the machine. The gloss is then
+obtained by brushing with circular brushes which run partly in the
+direction of the piece and partly diagonally. In the finishing of
+velvets, shearing and brushing are the most important operations. The
+same applies to sealskins and other long pile fabrics, but with these an
+additional operation, viz. that of "batting," is employed after dyeing
+and before shearing and brushing, which consists in beating the back of
+the stretched fabric with sticks in order to shake out the pile and
+cause it to stand erect.
+
+For the finishing of silk pieces the operations and machinery employed
+are similar in character to some of those used for cotton and worsteds.
+Most high-class silks require no further treatment other than simple
+damping and pressing after they leave the loom. Inferior qualities are
+frequently filled or back-filled with glue, sugar, gum tragacanth,
+dextrin, &c., after which they are dried, damped and given a light
+calender finish. Moire or watered effects are produced by running two
+pieces face to face through a calender or by means of an embossing
+calender. In the latter case the pattern repeats itself. For the
+production of silk crape the dyed (generally black) piece is impregnated
+with a solution of shellac in methylated spirit and dried. It is then
+"goffered," an operation which is practically identical with embossing
+(see above), and may either be done on an embossing calender or by means
+of heated brass plates in which the design is engraved to the desired
+depth and pattern.
+
+The measuring, wrapping, doubling, folding, &c., of piece goods previous
+to making up are done in the works by specially constructed machinery.
+
+_Finishing of Yarn._--The finishing of yarn is not nearly so important
+as the finishing of textiles in the piece, and it will suffice to draw
+attention to the main operations. Cotton yarns are frequently "gassed,"
+i.e. drawn through a gas flame, in order to burn or singe off the
+projecting fibres and thus to produce a clean thread which is required
+for the manufacture of certain classes of fabrics. The most important
+finishing process for cotton yarn is "mercerizing" (q.v.), by means of
+which a permanent silk-like gloss is obtained. The "polishing" of cotton
+yarn, by means of which a highly glazed product, similar in appearance
+to horsehair, is obtained, is effected by impregnating the yarn with a
+paste consisting essentially of starch, beeswax or paraffin wax and
+soap, and then subjecting the damp material to the action of revolving
+brushes until dry. Woollen yarn is not subjected to any treatment, but
+worsted yarns (especially twofold) have to be "set" before scouring and
+dyeing in order to prevent curling. This is effected by stretching the
+yarn tight on a frame, which is immersed in boiling water and then
+allowing it to cool in this condition.
+
+A peculiar silk-like gloss and feel is sometimes imparted to yarns made
+from lustre wool by a treatment with a weak solution of chlorine
+(bleaching powder and hydrochloric acid) followed by a treatment with
+soap.
+
+Worsted and mohair yarns intended for the manufacture of braids are
+singed by gas, a process technically known as "Genapping."
+
+Silk yarn is subjected to various mechanical processes before weaving.
+The most important of these are stretching, shaking, lustreing and
+glossing. Stretching and shaking are simple operations the nature of
+which is sufficiently indicated by their names, and by these means the
+hanks are stretched to their original length and straightened out by
+hand or on a specially devised machine. In _lustreing_, the yarn is
+stretched slightly beyond its original length between two polished
+revolving cylinders (one of which is steam heated) contained in a box or
+chest into which steam is admitted. In _glossing_, the yarn is twisted
+tight, first in one direction and then in the other, on a machine, this
+alternating action being continued until the maximum gloss is obtained.
+
+The so-called "scrooping" process, which gives to silk a peculiar feel
+and causes it to crackle or crunch when compressed by the hand, is a
+very simple operation, and consists in treating the yarn after dyeing in
+a bath of dilute acid (acetic, tartaric or sulphuric) and then drying
+without washing. Heavily weighted black silks are passed after dyeing
+through an emulsion of olive oil in soap and dried without washing, in
+order to give additional lustre to the material or rather to restore
+some of the lustre which has been lost in weighting.     (E. K.)
+
+
+
+
+FINISTERE, or FINISTERRE, the most western department of France, formed
+from part of the old province of Brittany. Pop. (1906) 795,103. Area,
+2713 sq. m. It is bounded W. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean, E. by the
+departments of Cotes-du-Nord and Morbihan, and N. by the English
+Channel. Two converging chains of hills run from the west towards the
+east of the department and divide it into three zones conveying the
+waters in three different directions. North of the Arree, or more
+northern of the two chains, the waters of the Douron, Penze and Fleche
+flow northward to the sea. The Elorn, however, after a short northerly
+course, turns westward and empties into the Brest roads. South of the
+Montagnes Noires, the Odet, Aven, Isole and Elle flow southward; while
+the waters of the Aulne, flowing through a region enclosed by the two
+chains with a westward declination, discharge into the Brest roads. The
+rivers are all small, and none of the hills attain a height of 1300 ft.
+The coast is generally steep and rocky and at some points dangerous,
+notably off Cape Raz and the Ile de Sein; it is indented with numerous
+bays and inlets, the chief of which--the roadstead of Brest and the Bays
+of Douarnenez and Audierne--are on the west. The principal harbours are
+those of Brest, Concarneau, Morlaix, Landerneau, Quimper and Douarnenez.
+Off the coast lie a number of islands and rocks, the principal of which
+are Ushant (q.v.) N.W. of Cape St Mathieu, and Batz off Roscoff. The
+climate is temperate and equable, but humid; the prevailing winds are
+the W., S.W. and N.W. Though more than a third of the department is
+covered by heath, waste land and forest, it produces oats, wheat,
+buckwheat, rye and barley in quantities more than sufficient for its
+population. In the extreme north the neighbourhood of Roscoff, and
+farther south the borders of the Brest roadstead, are extremely fertile
+and yield large quantities of asparagus, artichokes and onions, besides
+melons and other fruits. The cider apple is abundant and furnishes the
+chief drink of the inhabitants. Hemp and flax are also grown. The farm
+and dairy produce is plentiful, and great attention is paid to the
+breeding and feeding of cattle and horses. The production of honey and
+wax is considerable. The fisheries of the coast, particularly the
+pilchard fishery, employ a great many hands and render this department
+an excellent nursery of seamen for the French navy. Coal, though found
+in Finistere, is not mined; there are quarries of granite, slate,
+potter's clay, &c. The lead mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoat, which for
+several centuries yielded a considerable quantity of silver, are no
+longer worked. The preparation of sardines is carried on on a large
+scale at several of the coast-towns. The manufactures include linens,
+woollens, sail-cloth, ropes, agricultural implements, paper, leather,
+earthenware, soda, soap, candles, and fertilizers and chemicals derived
+from seaweed. Brest has important foundries and engineering works; and
+shipbuilding is carried on there and at other seaports. Brest and
+Morlaix are the most important commercial ports. Trade is in fish,
+vegetables and fruit. Coal is the chief import. The department is served
+by the Orleans and Western railways. The canal from Nantes to Brest has
+51 m. of its length in the department. The Aulne is navigable for 17 m.,
+and many of the smaller rivers for short distances.
+
+Finistere is divided into the arrondissements of Quimperle, Brest,
+Chateaulin, Morlaix and Quimper (43 cantons, 294 communes), the town of
+Quimper being the capital of the department and the seat of a bishopric.
+The department belongs to the region of the XI. army corps and to the
+archiepiscopal province and academie (educational division) of Rennes,
+where its court of appeal is also situated.
+
+The more important places are Quimper, Brest, Morlaix, Quimperle, St
+Pol-de-Leon, Douarnenez, Concarneau, Roscoff, Penmarc'h and Pont-l'Abbe.
+Finistere abounds in menhirs and other megalithic monuments, of which
+those of Penmarc'h, Plouarzal and Crozon are noted. The two religious
+structures characteristic of Brittany--calvaries and charnel-houses--are
+frequently met with. The calvaries of Plougastel-Daoulas, Pleyben, St
+Thegonnec, Lampaul-Guimiliau, which date from the 17th century, and that
+of Guimiliau (16th century), and the charnel-houses of Sizun and St
+Thegonnec (16th century) and of Guimiliau (17th century) may be
+instanced as the most remarkable. Daoulas has the remains of a fine
+church and cloister in the Romanesque style. The chapel of St Herbot
+(16th century) near Loqueffret, the churches of St Jean-du-Doigt and
+Locronan, which belong to the 15th and 16th centuries, those of Ploare,
+Roscoff, Penmarc'h and Pleyben of the 16th century, that of Le Folgoet
+(14th and 16th centuries), and the huge chateau of Kerjean (16th
+century) are of architectural interest. Religious festivals, and
+processions known as "pardons," are held in many places, notably at
+Locronan, St Jean-du-Doigt, St Herbot and Le Faou.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various
+
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